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Two American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medals are awarded each year by the academy for distinguished achievement. The two awards are taken in rotation from these categories: *Belles Lettres and Criticism, and Painting; *Biography and Music; *Fiction and Sculpture; *History and Architecture, including Landscape Architecture; *Poetry and Music; *Drama and Graphic Art. The Academy voted in 1915 to establish an additional Gold Medal for "special distinction" to be given for the entire work of the recipient who is not a member of the academy. "Mr. Howells and Dr. Eliot," New York Times. November 21, 1915. The first of these occasional lifetime achievement gold medals was awarded in the next year to former Harvard President, Charles Eliot."Gold Medal for Dr. Eliot; President Emeritus of Harvard Honored by American Academy of Arts," New York Times. November 21, 1915; "Gold Medal for Dr. Eliot; American Academy Honors Educator's Work for Literature," New York Times. January 28, 1916. Awards in individual categories are listed below (in alphabetical order) followed by a list of all prizes in reverse chronological order:Source:American Academy of Arts and Letters. . Retrieved October 5, 2013. ==Architecture== Source: American Academy of Arts and Letters *1912 – William Rutherford Mead "National Institute Honors W.R. Mead; Its Gold Medal Awarded to Noted Architect at the Annual Dinner," New York Times. December 13, 1912. *1921 – Cass Gilbert *1930 – Charles Adams Platt *1940 – William Adams Delano *1949 – Frederick Law Olmsted *1953 – Frank Lloyd Wright *1958 – Henry R. Shepley *1963 – Ludwig Mies van der Rohe *1968 – R. Buckminster Fuller *1973 – Louis I. Kahn *1979 – I. M. Pei *1984 – Gordon Bunshaft *1990 – Kevin Roche *1996 – Philip Johnson *2002 – Frank O. Gehry *2008 – Richard Meiervan Gelder, Lawrence. "Arts, Briefly: American Academy Picks Caro and Trillin," New York Times. April 17, 2008. *2014 – Henry N. Cobb *2020 – Peter Eisenman ==Belles lettres, criticism, essays== Source: American Academy of Arts and Letters *1916 – John Burroughs *1925 – William Crary Brownell *1935 – Agnes Repplier *1946 – Van Wyck Brooks *1950 – H. L. Mencken *1955 – Edmund Wilson *1960 – E. B. White *1965 – Walter Lippmann *1970 – Lewis Mumford *1975 – Kenneth Burke *1981 – Malcolm Cowley *1987 – Jacques Barzun *1993 – Elizabeth Hardwick *1999 – Harold Bloom *2005 – Joan Didionvan Gelder, Lawrence. "Arts, Briefly: American Academy Honors," New York Times. May 19, 2005. *2011 – Eric Bentley *2017 – Janet Malcolm ==Biography== Source: American Academy of Arts and Letters *1976 – Leon Edel *1982 – Francis Steegmuller *1988 – James Thomas Flexner *1994 – Walter Jackson Bate *2000 – R. W. B. Lewis *2006 – Robert Caro *2012 – David McCullough *2018 – Ron Chernow ==Drama== Source: American Academy of Arts and Letters *1913 – Augustus Thomas "Thomas Visits Mother; Playwright Shows Her the Medal Presented to Him by Academy," New York Times. November 17, 1913. *1922 – Eugene O'Neill *1931 – William Gillette *1941 – Robert E. Sherwood *1954 – Maxwell Anderson *1959 – Arthur Miller *1964 – Lillian Hellman *1969 – Tennessee Williams *1980 – Edward Albee *1986 – Sidney Kingsley *1992 – Sam Shepard *1998 – Horton Foote *2004 – John Guare *2010 – Romulus Linney *2016 – Wallace Shawn *2022 – Adrienne Kennedy ==Fiction, novel, short story== Source: American Academy of Arts and Letters *1915 – Charles William Eliot *1915 – William Dean Howells "National Institute Honors Howells; His Letter, Thanking It for Gold Medal, Says Fashion in Novels Has Changed," New York Times. November 20, 1915. *1929 – Edith Wharton *1933 – Booth Tarkington *1944 – Willa Cather *1952 – Thornton Wilder *1957 – John Dos Passos *1962 – William Faulkner *1967 – Katherine Anne Porter *1972 – Eudora Welty *1977 – Saul Bellow *1978 – Peter Taylor *1983 – Bernard Malamud *1989 – Isaac Bashevis Singer *1995 – William Maxwell *2001 – Philip Roth *2007 – John Updikevan Gelder, Lawrence. "Arts, Briefly: American Academy Honors," New York Times. May 17, 2007. *2013 – E. L. Doctorow *2019 – Toni Morrison ==Graphic art== Source: American Academy of Arts and Letters *1954 – Reginald Marsh *1959 – George Grosz *1964 – Ben Shahn *1969 – Leonard Baskin *1974 – Saul Steinberg *1980 – Peggy Bacon *1986 – Jasper Johns *1992 – David Levine *1998 – Frank Stella *2004 – Chuck Close *2010 – Ed Ruscha *2016 – Vija Celmins *2022 – Kara Walker ==History== Source: American Academy of Arts and Letters *1910 – James Ford Rhodes *1918 – William Roscoe Thayer *1927 – William M. Sloane *1937 – Charles M. Andrews *1948 – Charles Austin Beard *1952 – Carl Sandburg *1957 – Allan Nevins *1962 – Samuel Eliot Morison *1967 – Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. *1972 – Henry Steele Commager *1978 – Barbara W. Tuchman *1984 – George F. Kennan *1990 – C. Vann Woodward *1996 – Peter Gay *2002 – John Hope Franklin *2008 – Edmund S. Morgan *2014 – Natalie Zemon Davis *2020 – David W. Blight ==Music== *1919 – Charles Martin Loeffler *1928 – George W. Chadwick *1938 – Walter Damrosch *1947 – John Alden Carpenter *1951 – Igor Stravinsky *1956 – Aaron Copland *1961 – Roger Sessions *1966 – Virgil Thomson *1971 – Elliott Carter *1976 – Samuel Barber *1982 – William Schuman *1985 – Leonard Bernstein *1988 – Milton Babbitt *1991 – David Diamond *1994 – Hugo Weisgall *1997 – Gunther Schuller *2000 – Lukas Foss *2003 – Ned Roremvan Gelder, Lawrence. "Arts Briefing: American Academy Honors," New York Times. May 19, 2003. *2006 – Stephen Sondheim *2009 – Leon Kirchner *2015 – George Crumb2015 Gold Medals in Music *2018 – John Adams *2021 – Yehudi Wyner ==Painting== *1914 – John Singer Sargent *1923 – Edwin Howland Blashfield *1932 – Gari Melchers *1942 – Cecilia Beaux *1950 – John Sloan *1955 – Edward Hopper *1960 – Charles E. Burchfield *1965 – Andrew Wyeth *1970 – Georgia O'Keeffe *1975 – Willem de Kooning *1981 – Raphael Soyer *1987 – Isabel Bishop *1993 – Richard Diebenkorn *1999 – Robert Rauschenberg *2005 – Jane Freilicher *2011 – Cy Twombly *2017 – Wayne Thiebaud ==Poetry== *1911 – James Whitcomb Riley *1929 – Edwin Arlington Robinson *1939 – Robert Frost *1953 – Marianne Moore *1958 – Conrad Aiken *1963 – William Carlos Williams *1968 – W. H. Auden *1973 – John Crowe Ransom *1979 – Archibald MacLeish *1985 – Robert Penn Warren *1991 – Richard Wilbur *1997 – John Ashbery *2003 – W. S. Merwin *2009 – Mark Strand *2015 – Louise Gluck *2021 – Rita Dove ==Sculpture== *1909 – Augustus Saint-Gaudens "Men of Letters Honor St. Gaudens; First Gold Medal of Their Institute Is a Tribute to Memory of the Dead Sculptor. Given to Mrs. St. Gaudens; Notable Men at Ceremonial Where Dr. Van Dyke Makes Principal Address – Letter from President," New York Times. November 21, 1909. *1917 – Daniel Chester French *1926 – Herbert Adams *1930 – Anna Hyatt Huntington *1936 – George Grey Barnard *1945 – Paul Manship *1951 – James Earle Fraser *1956 – Ivan Meštrović *1961 – William Zorach *1966 – Jacques Lipchitz *1971 – Alexander Calder *1977 – Isamu Noguchi *1983 – Louise Nevelson *1989 – Louise Bourgeois *1995 – George Rickey *2001 – Richard Serra *2007 – Martin Puryear *2013 – Mark di Suvero *2019 – Lee Bontecou ==All winners== Source: American Academy of Arts and Letters List of Awards *1909 – Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Sculpture *1910 – James Ford Rhodes, History *1911 – James Whitcomb Riley, Poetry *1912 – William Rutherford Mead, Architecture *1913 – Augustus Thomas, Drama *1914 – John Singer Sargent, Painting *1915 – William Dean Howells, Fiction *1916 – Charles William Eliot, Fiction *1916 – John Burroughs, Belles Lettres *1917 – Daniel Chester French, Sculpture *1918 – William Roscoe Thayer, History *1919 – Charles Martin Loeffler, Music *1921 – Cass Gilbert, Architecture *1922 – Eugene O'Neill, Drama *1923 – Edwin Howland Blashfield, Painting *1924 – Edith Wharton, Fiction *1925 – William Crary Brownell, Belles Lettres *1926 – Herbert Adams, Sculpture *1927 – William M. Sloane, History *1928 – George W. Chadwick, Music *1929 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, Poetry *1930 – Anna Hyatt Huntington, Sculpture *1930 – Charles Adams Platt, Architecture *1931 – William Gillette, Drama *1932 – Gari Melchers, Painting *1933 – Booth Tarkington, Fiction *1935 – Agnes Repplier, Belles Lettres *1936 – George Grey Barnard, Sculpture *1937 – Charles M. Andrews, History *1938 – Walter Damrosch, Music *1939 – Robert Frost, Poetry *1940 – William Adams Delano, Architecture *1941 – Robert E. Sherwood, Drama *1942 – Cecilia Beaux, Painting *1943 – Stephen Vincent Benét, Literature *1944 – Willa Cather, Fiction *1945 – Paul Manship, Sculpture *1946 – Van Wyck Brooks, Essays *1947 – John Alden Carpenter, Music *1948 – Charles Austin Beard, History *1949 – Frederick Law Olmsted, Architecture *1950 – H. L. Mencken, Essays *1950 – John Sloan, Painting *1951 – Igor Stravinsky, Music *1951 – James Earle Fraser, Sculpture *1952 – Carl Sandburg, History *1952 – Thornton Wilder, Fiction *1953 – Frank Lloyd Wright, Architecture *1953 – Marianne Moore, Poetry *1954 – Maxwell Anderson, Drama *1954 – Reginald Marsh, Graphic Art *1955 – Edmund Wilson, Essays *1955 – Edward Hopper, Painting *1956 – Aaron Copland, Music *1956 – Ivan Meštrović, Sculpture *1957 – Allan Nevins, History *1957 – John Dos Passos, Fiction *1958 – Conrad Aiken, Poetry *1958 – Henry R. Shepley, Architecture *1959 – Arthur Miller, Drama *1959 – George Grosz, Graphic Art *1960 – Charles E. Burchfield, Painting *1960 – E. B. White, Essays *1961 – Roger H. Sessions, Music *1961 – William Zorach, Sculpture *1962 – Samuel Eliot Morison, History *1962 – William Faulkner, Fiction *1963 – Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Architecture *1963 – William Carlos Williams, Poetry *1964 – Ben Shahn, Graphic Art *1964 – Lillian Hellman, Drama *1965 – Walter Lippmann, Essays *1965 – Wyeth, Painting *1966 – Jacques Lipchitz, Sculpture *1966 – Virgil Thomson, Music *1967 – Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., History *1967 – Katherine Anne Porter, Fiction *1968 – R. Buckminster Fuller, Architecture *1968 – W. H. Auden, Poetry *1969 – Leonard Baskin, Graphic Art *1969 – Tennessee Williams, Drama *1970 – Georgia O'Keeffe, Painting *1970 – Lewis Mumford, Belles Lettres *1971 – Alexander Calder, Sculpture *1971 – Elliott Carter, Music *1972 – Eudora Welty, Novel *1972 – Henry Steele Commager, History *1973 – John Crowe Ransom, Poetry *1973 – Louis I. Kahn, Architecture *1974 – Saul Steinberg, Graphic Art *1975 – Kenneth Burke, Belles Lettres *1975 – Willem de Kooning, Painting *1976 – Leon Edel, Biography *1976 – Samuel Barber, Music *1977 – Isamu Noguchi, Sculpture *1977 – Saul Bellow, Novel *1978 – Barbara W. Tuchman, History *1978 – Peter Taylor, Short Story *1979 – Archibald MacLeish, Poetry *1979 – I. M. Pei, Architecture *1980 – Edward Albee, Drama *1980 – Peggy Bacon, Graphic Art *1981 – Malcolm Cowley, Belles Lettres *1981 – Raphael Soyer, Painting *1982 – Francis Steegmuller, Biography *1982 – William Schuman, Music *1983 – Bernard Malamud, Fiction *1983 – Louise Nevelson, Sculpture *1984 – George F. Kennan, History *1984 – Gordon Bunshaft, Architecture *1985 – Leonard Bernstein, Music *1985 – Robert Penn Warren, Poetry *1986 – Jasper Johns, Graphic Art *1986 – Sidney Kingsley, Drama *1987 – Isabel Bishop, Painting *1987 – Jacques Barzun, Belles Lettres *1988 – James Thomas Flexner, Biography *1988 – Milton Babbitt, Music *1989 – Isaac Bashevis Singer, Fiction *1989 – Louise Bourgeois, Sculpture *1990 – C. Vann Woodward, History *1991 – David Diamond, Music *1991 – Richard Wilbur, Poetry *1992 – David Levine, Graphic Art *1992 – Sam Shepard, Drama *1993 – Elizabeth Hardwick, Belles Lettres/Criticism *1993 – Richard Diebenkorn, Painting *1994 – Hugo Weisgall, Music *1994 – Walter Jackson Bate, Biography *1995 – George Rickey, Sculpture *1995 – William Maxwell, Fiction *1996 – Peter Gay, History *1996 – Philip Johnson, Architecture *1997 – Gunther Schuller, Music *1997 – John Ashbery, Poetry *1998 – Frank Stella, Graphic Art *1998 – Horton Foote, Drama *1999 – Harold Bloom, Belles Lettres *1999 – Kevin Roche, Architecture *1999 – Robert Rauschenberg, Painting *2000 – Lukas Foss, Music *2000 – R. W. B. Lewis, Biography *2001 – Richard Meier, Graphic Art *2001 – Philip Roth, Fiction *2001 – Richard Serra, Sculpture *2002 – Frank O. Gehry, Architecture *2002 – John Hope Franklin, History *2003 – Ned Rorem, Music *2003 – W. S. Merwin, Poetry *2004 – Chuck Close, Graphic Art *2004 – John Guare, Drama *2005 – Jane Freilicher, Painting *2005 – Joan Didion, Belles Lettres and Criticism *2006 – Robert Caro, Biography *2006 – Stephen Sondheim, Music *2007 – John Updike, Fiction *2007 – Martin Puryear, Sculpture *2008 – Edmund S. Morgan, History *2008 – Richard Meier, Architecture *2009 – Leon Kirchner, Music *2009 – Mark Strand, Poetry *2010 – Ed Ruscha, Graphic Art *2010 – Romulus Linney, Drama *2010 – Toni Morrison, Belles Lettres and Criticism *2011 – Cy Twombly, Painting *2011 – Eric Bentley, Belles Lettres and Criticism *2013 – E. L. Doctorow, Fiction *2013 – Mark di Suvero, Sculpture *2014 – Henry N. Cobb, Architecture *2014 – Natalie Zemon Davis, History *2015 – George Crumb, Music *2015 – Louise Gluck, Poetry *2016 – Vija Celmins, Graphic Art *2016 – Wallace Shawn, Drama *2017 – Janet Malcolm, Belles Lettres and Criticism *2017 – Wayne Thiebaud, Painting *2018 – Ron Chernow, Biography *2018 – John Adams, Music *2019 – Lee Bontecou, Sculpture *2019 – Toni Morrison, Literature *2020 – David W. Blight, Literature *2020 – Peter Eisenman, Architecture *2021 – Rita Dove, Poetry *2021 – Yehudi Wyner, Music *2022 – Adrienne Kennedy, Drama *2022 – Kara Walker, Graphic art ==See also== *List of American literary awards *List of poetry awards *List of art awards *American literature *American poetry *List of years in poetry *List of years in literature *List of years in art ==Notes== ==External links== * American Academy of Arts & Letters official website Category:American poetry awards Category:Awards of the American Academy of Arts and Letters |
Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium, often referred to as Fulton County Stadium and originally named Atlanta Stadium, was a multi-purpose stadium in the southeastern United States, located in Atlanta. The stadium was home of the Atlanta Braves of the Major League Baseball and the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League. It was built to attract an MLB team and in 1966 succeeded when the Milwaukee Braves relocated from Wisconsin. The Braves and expansion Falcons shared the venue for 26 years, until the Falcons moved into the newly completed Georgia Dome in 1992. The Braves continued to play at the stadium for another five years, then moved into Turner Field in 1997, the converted Centennial Olympic Stadium built for the previous year's Summer Olympics, which hosted baseball events. Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium was demolished on August 2, 1997. ==History== thumb|left|Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium in July 1985. During his 1961 campaign for mayor of Atlanta, Ivan Allen Jr. promised to build a sports facility to attract a Major League Baseball team. After winning office, Allen chose a plot in the Washington–Rawson neighborhood for the building site, citing its proximity to the state capitol, downtown businesses, and major highways. Allen and The Atlanta Journal sports editor Furman Bisher attempted to persuade Charlie Finley, owner of the Kansas City Athletics, to move his team to Atlanta. Finley was receptive and began discussing stadium design plans with Allen. However, the deal ended in July 1963 when the American League did not approve the move. In 1964, Mayor Allen announced that an unidentified team had given him a verbal commitment to move to Atlanta, provided a stadium was in place by 1966. Soon afterward, the prospective team was revealed to be the Milwaukee Braves, who announced in October that they intended to move to Atlanta for the 1965 season. However, court battles kept the Braves in Milwaukee for one last season. The new stadium was built on the site of the cleared Washington–Rawson neighborhood, which a half-century before had been a wealthy neighborhood home to Georgia's governor, among others, but which by the 1960s had fallen on hard times. Forty-seven dignitaries took part in a groundbreaking ceremony on April 15, 1964, and that November, the Braves signed a 25-year agreement to play there, beginning in 1966. Construction was completed on April 9, 1965, for $18 million, and that night the Milwaukee Braves and Detroit Tigers played an exhibition game in the stadium. During that year the International League's Atlanta Crackers, whose previous home had been Ponce de Leon Park, played their final season in Atlanta Stadium. In 1966, both the National League's transplanted Braves and the National Football League's Atlanta Falcons, an expansion team, began to use the facilities. In 1967, the Atlanta Chiefs of the National Professional Soccer League (re-formed as the North American Soccer League in 1968) began the first of five seasons played at the stadium.Atlanta Chiefs The venue hosted the second match of the NASL Final 1968 and two matches of the NASL Final 1971. On February 11, 1975, the stadium's name was changed to the compound Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium after the county threatened to withdraw its financial support. However, the official website of the Atlanta Braves maintains that the name change occurred after Ted Turner purchased the team in 1976. The Falcons moved to the Georgia Dome in 1992, while the Braves remained until Centennial Olympic Stadium from the 1996 Summer Olympics was converted into Turner Field, which was completed just prior to the start of the 1997 season. The stadium sat 60,606 for football and 52,007 for baseball. The baseball competition for the 1996 Summer Olympics was held at Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium while the Braves were on a three-week road trip. ===Demolition=== thumb|Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium being demolished after implosion circa 1997. Following the Olympics and the 1996 World Series, Fulton County commissioner, Marvin S. Arrington Sr., wanted to preserve the stadium as the home of a future Major League Soccer franchise and share the parking facilities between it and Turner Field but he was unable to push it through. Between late 1996 and summer 1997, the inside of the stadium was demolished. The stadium was imploded on August 2, 1997; the remains were later removed and demolished. A parking lot, built for Turner Field now stands on the site, with an outline of the old stadium built in. The monument that marked the landing point of Hank Aaron's historic 715th home run stands in the same place it did when the stadium was on the site. ===Redevelopment=== Upon the Atlanta Braves' move to Truist Park in suburban Cobb County after the 2016 season, the stadium site and the adjacent Turner Field were purchased by Georgia State University in 2016, with final approval from the Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia on November 9 of that year. Turner Field was renovated into Center Parc Stadium for the Panthers football team, while new baseball and softball parks are planned for the former Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium site. ==Notable events== ===Baseball=== * On April 12, 1966, Joe Torre hit the first major league home run in the history of Atlanta Stadium. * On July 25, 1972, the stadium hosted the Major League Baseball All-Star Game. Hank Aaron hit a home run during the game, and the National League won it, 4–3, in 10 innings. * On April 8, 1974, Hank Aaron became baseball's all-time career home run leader by hitting his 715th home run off the Los Angeles Dodgers' Al Downing. * During a series between the Braves and the San Diego Padres, one game spawned several brawls between the two teams. On August 12, 1984, Braves pitcher Pascual Pérez hit the Padres' Alan Wiggins with a pitch; Wiggins did not charge the mound, but the Padres vowed revenge on Pérez for his actions (several Padres were ejected in their subsequent attempts to hit Pérez). When Pérez was finally hit, by a pitch thrown by the Padres' Craig Lefferts, the first of many bench-clearing brawls began. By the time the game was over, both teams' lineups had been nearly emptied (due to all the ejections on both sides). * The stadium hosted the World Series for the first time in 1991 when the Braves played the Minnesota Twins in what ESPN judged to be the best World Series ever played. The Braves won all three games played in Atlanta, two in their final at-bat, but lost the series in seven games. * The 1992 World Series saw the Braves play the Toronto Blue Jays with the Blue Jays defeating the Braves four games to two, including two of three in Atlanta. * On July 20, 1993, a fire occurred in the stadium press box during batting practice for that evening's game against the St. Louis Cardinals. This fire occurred on the same day Fred McGriff joined the Braves. * On October 10, 1995, the Braves clinched the 1995 NLDS the 1st team to win a Division Series since the NLDS format in the playoff system began that same year. They defeated the Colorado Rockies 3 games to 1, with the decisive win at home. * On October 28, 1995, the Braves clinched the 1995 World Series by defeating the Cleveland Indians, 1–0, on a one-hit, 8-inning performance by pitcher Tom Glavine. The title was the Braves' first World Series championship in Atlanta, making one title in each of the three cities in which they have resided (also Boston and Milwaukee). * September 23, 1996, marked the stadium's final regular season game as the Braves played host to the Montreal Expos. Atlanta won the game 3–1 and clinched the NL Eastern Division title in the process. * The stadium's final event was Game 5 of the 1996 World Series, when the Braves played host to the New York Yankees. The final score was 1–0 in favor of the Yankees, with the ballpark's final run scored by Charlie Hayes. The final ceremonial first pitch was thrown to Eddie Perez by former President Jimmy Carter, who had done the honors at Braves home openers while still Governor of Georgia. The winning pitcher was New York's Andy Pettitte, defeating the Braves' John Smoltz. The final hit was recorded by Atlanta's Chipper Jones, who doubled off Pettitte in the bottom of the ninth inning. Pinch-hitter Luis Polonia was the final out in Fulton County Stadium's history, hitting a deep fly ball to right-center field caught by Yankees right fielder Paul O'Neill, which gave the stadium's final save to John Wetteland. (Since no home runs were hit in that game the final home run in the stadium's history belongs to Jim Leyritz, who hit a 3-run home run in Game 4. Leyritz was also Pettitte's batterymate for Game 5.) ===Football=== * The Pittsburgh Steelers and Minnesota Vikings played the first NFL preseason game on August 14, . * On September 11, 1966, the Atlanta Falcons played their first game in the stadium and lost to the Los Angeles Rams 19–14. * The Falcons' last game played at the stadium was on December 15, 1991, where they defeated the Seattle Seahawks 26–13, clinching a NFC wild-card spot for the team's first playoff berth since 1982; among some of the attendees included Wayne Newton and MC Hammer. ===Concerts=== Date Artist Opening act(s) Tour / Concert name Attendance Revenue Notes August 18, 1965 The Beatles King Curtis Cannibal and the Headhunters Brenda Holloway Sounds Incorporated 1965 US Tour — — This is the band's only concert in Atlanta. May 4, 1973 Led Zeppelin — 1973 North American Tour 49,233 — It was estimated that of the 49,233 people in attendance, about 16,000 of them sat on the field making it the largest single musical performance in the history of the state. September 22, 1973 Elton John Sutherland Brothers & Quiver Goodbye Yellow Brick Road Tour — — June 5, 1976 ZZ Top Marshall Tucker Band Elvin Bishop Worldwide Texas Tour 45,000 / 65,000 $425,000 August 29, 1976 Kiss Bob Seger & the Silver Bullet Band Johnny & Edgar Winter Blue Öyster Cult 38 Special Destroyer Tour — — October 26 & 27, 1984 The Jacksons Victory Tour 61,000 $1,960,000 October 20, 1988 George Michael The Bangles Faith World Tour — — ===Other events=== * In February 1966 Vietnam War supporters held a prayer rally that featured Dean Rusk as its keynote speaker. * The stadium hosted a round of the AMA Supercross Championship 1977–1986 and 1989–1992. * In 1994, the UniverSoul Circus conducted its first performance at the stadium. ==Layout== The stadium was relatively nondescript, one of the many multi- purpose stadiums built during the 1960s and 1970s, similar to Veterans Stadium, RFK Stadium, the Astrodome, Three Rivers Stadium, Busch Memorial Stadium, Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum and Riverfront Stadium. As was the case for every stadium that used this design concept, the fundamentally different sizes and shapes of baseball and football fields made it inadequate for both sports. In the baseball configuration, 70% of the seats were in foul territory. In the football configuration, seats on the 50-yard-line—normally prime seats for football—were more than away from the sidelines.Reilly, Rick. Peach State Lemons. Sports Illustrated, October 3, 1988. One unusual feature of this stadium is the fact that, unlike most multi-purpose stadiums – where the football field was laid either parallel to one of the foul lines or running from home plate to center field – the football field here was laid along a line running between first and third base. Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum has a similar configuration. Thus, a seat behind home plate for baseball would also be on the 50-yard line for football. The stadium was refurbished for the 1996 season prior to hosting the Olympic baseball competition.1996 Summer Olympics official report. Volume 1. p. 539.1996 Summer Olympics official report. Volume 3. p. 450. Unlike similarly designed outdoor stadiums—such as Riverfront Stadium and Busch Memorial Stadium—Fulton County Stadium always had a natural grass surface. However, for many years it was notorious for its poor field conditions. Until 1989, it didn't have full-time groundskeepers. Instead, it was tended to by a municipal street-maintenance crew.Stadium profile at Ballparks.com Due to the elevation of the Atlanta area (situated at the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains), the stadium boasted the highest elevation in baseball when it opened, at above sea level. It retained this distinction for 27 seasons, until the expansion Colorado Rockies entered the National League in 1993. The high elevation and the Southern summer heat made it favorable to home run hitters, resulting in the nickname "The Launching Pad." Until the Florida Marlins arrived (also in 1993), the stadium was the hottest in the majors. Fulton County Stadium was designed by a joint-venture team of FABRAP (Finch Alexander Barnes Rothschild & Paschal) and Heery, Inc. ==Seating capacity== Baseball Years Capacity 1965 51,500 1966–1967 50,893 1968–1971 51,383 1972–1973 52,744 1974–1975 52,870 1976–1978 51,556 1979–1981 52,194 1982 52,785 1983–1984 52,934 1985 53,046 1986 52,006 1987–1989 52,003 1990–1991 52,007 1992–1994 52,013 1995 52,710 1996 52,769 Football Years Capacity 1965–1966 56,891 1967–1976 58,850 1977 60,489 1978–1984 60,763 1985–1986 59,709 1987–1991 59,643 ==References== ==External links== * Two vintage postcards showing the stadium from the air. Both cards were published around 1965 or 1966 * TerraServer photo of old stadium outline in parking lot, and Turner Field Category:1965 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Venues of the 1996 Summer Olympics Category:Sports venues demolished in 1997 Category:Demolished sports venues in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:American football venues in Atlanta Category:Atlanta Braves stadiums Category:Atlanta Falcons stadiums a Category:Buildings and structures demolished by controlled implosion Category:Defunct American football venues in the United States Category:Defunct baseball venues in the United States Category:Defunct multi-purpose stadiums in the United States Category:Defunct Major League Baseball venues Category:Defunct National Football League venues Category:Defunct soccer venues in the United States Category:Defunct NCAA bowl game venues Category:Demolished buildings and structures in Atlanta Category:American football venues in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Baseball venues in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Multi-purpose stadiums in the United States Category:Olympic baseball venues Category:Cecil Alexander buildings Category:North American Soccer League (1968–1984) stadiums Category:1997 disestablishments in Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Sports venues completed in 1965 Category:Soccer venues in Georgia (U.S. state) |
{{Infobox settlement | name = Manhattan Beach, California | settlement_type = City | official_name = | image_skyline = Manhattan Pier.jpg | image_caption = The Manhattan Beach Pier on a typical fall afternoon | image_seal = Seal of Manhattan Beach, California.png | image_flag = Flag of Manhattan Beach, California.png | motto = "Sun, Sand, Sea" | image_map = LA County Incorporated Areas Manhattan Beach highlighted.svg | mapsize = 250x200px | map_caption = Location of Manhattan Beach in Los Angeles County, California | pushpin_map = USA | pushpin_map_caption = Location in the United States | pushpin_relief = 1 | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = United States | subdivision_type1 = State | subdivision_name1 = California | subdivision_type2 = County | subdivision_name2 = Los Angeles | named_for = Manhattan | government_type = Council-Manager | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Richard Montgomery | leader_title1 = Mayor Pro Tem | leader_name1 = Joe Franklin | leader_title2 = City council | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = City Manager | leader_name3 = Bruce Moe | leader_title4 = City treasurer | leader_name4 = Tim Lilligren | established_title3 = Incorporated | established_date3 = December 12, 1912 | unit_pref = Imperial | area_footnotes = | area_total_sq_mi = 3.94 | area_land_sq_mi = 3.93 | area_water_sq_mi = 0.00 | area_total_km2 = 10.20 | area_land_km2 = 10.19 | area_water_km2 = 0.01 | area_water_percent = 0.1 | area_metro_km2 = | area_metro_sq_mi = | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_ft = 66 | elevation_m = 20 | population_as_of = 2010 | population_footnotes = | population_total = 35135 | pop_est_as_of = 2019 | pop_est_footnotes = | population_est = 35183 | population_density_sq_mi = 8943.31 | population_metro = | population_density_metro_km2 = | population_density_metro_sq_mi = | timezone = Pacific | utc_offset = -8 | timezone_DST = PDT | utc_offset_DST = -7 | coordinates = | postal_code_type = ZIP codes | postal_code = 90266, 90267 | area_code_type = Area codes | area_code = 310/424 | blank_name = FIPS code | blank_info = | blank1_name = GNIS feature IDs | blank1_info = , | website = | population_density_km2 = 3452.87 }} Manhattan Beach is a city in southwestern Los Angeles County, California, United States, on the Pacific coast south of El Segundo, west of Hawthorne and Redondo Beach, and north of Hermosa Beach. As of the 2010 census, the population was 35,135. Manhattan Beach is one of the three Beach Cities, along with Hermosa Beach and Redondo Beach within the South Bay region of Los Angeles County. The community is known for a long beach stretching approximately and roughly wide. The climate is unusually moderate because of Manhattan Beach's proximity to the Pacific Ocean, with an average year-round high temperature of and an average year-round low of . ==History== The sandy coastal area was likely inhabited by the Tongva tribe of Native Americans. Archeological work in the nearby Chowigna excavation show evidence of inhabitants as far back as 7,100 years ago. The Tongva Village of Ongovanga was located near neighbouring Redondo Beach. It has been mentioned at the Historical Society that the location of a portion of current day Manhattan Beach may have been used as a Native American burial grounds. In the mid-18th century, the Portolá expedition was the first European land exploration of present-day California. It traveled north from San Diego to the San Gabriel Valley, Los Angeles Basin, San Fernando Valley, Monterey Bay, and San Francisco Bay. In 1784, the Spanish Crown deeded Rancho San Pedro, a tract of over , to soldier Juan José Domínguez. It included what is today the entire Port of Los Angeles; San Pedro, Los Angeles; Harbor City, Los Angeles; Wilmington, Los Angeles; Carson; Compton; the Dominguez Hills; Lomita; the Palos Verdes Peninsula; Redondo Beach; Hermosa Beach; Manhattan Beach; and Torrance. In 1863, a Scottish immigrant, Sir Robert Burnett, purchased Rancho Sausal Redondo and Rancho Aguaje de la Centinela from Avila's heirs for $33,000. Ten years later in 1873, Burnett leased the ranch to a Canadian, Daniel Freeman (not the American of the same name, who was the first to file a claim under the Homestead Act of 1862). Burnett returned to Scotland. Freeman moved his wife and three children onto the ranch and started growing various crops. On May 4, 1885, Freeman bought the ranch from Burnett for $140,000. At some point after this the location was informally called "Shore Acres." Shortly thereafter, in 1888 the area's first freight and passenger railroad tracks were built by the Santa Fe Railroad company. The tracks ran through Manhattan Beach and spanned all the way to Redondo Beach with a substation constructed in later years at Center Street, which today is Manhattan Beach Boulevard. George H. Peck owned the land that became part of the north section of Manhattan Beach. A coin flip decided the town's name. Around 1902, the beach suburb was named "Manhattan" after developer Stewart Merrill's home, the New York City borough of Manhattan. "Beach" was appended to the city's name, in 1927, at the behest of the postmaster. Upon the city's incorporation in 1912, Peck divided out a 2 block area for minority residents on the beachfront. The Bruce family bought some of the area and developed it into the first beach resort for Black Americans in southern California, Bruce’s Beach. In the 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan began violently harassing the resort’s visitors, the Bruce family, and four other Black families that bought lots. In 1924, the city used eminent domain to seize the land from the Black property owners under the pretense of building a park. In 2021 California Governor Gavin Newsom, ordered by law to begin procedures for immediate restitution of property to descendants of the family. The land in Manhattan Beach was formerly sand dunes. During the 1920s and 1930s, Kuhn Brothers Construction Company leveled uneven sandy sites and some excess sand was sold and shipped to Waikiki, Hawaii, to convert their reef and rock beach into a sandy beach. The sand was also used to build the Los Angeles Coliseum and portions of the Pacific Coast Highway. The McMartin preschool trials, allegedly an example of day care sex abuse hysteria, started with investigations of a Manhattan Beach preschool in 1983. The trials ran from 1987 to 1990 and resulted in no convictions. HBO dramatized this case in the Emmy-winning Indictment: The McMartin Trial, which was partially filmed in Manhattan Beach. The Manhattan Beach Historical Society is now in charge of preserving the history of the city. ==Geography== ===Climate=== Manhattan Beach benefits from ocean breezes that provide clean air and summer temperatures that are cooler than the inland regions of Southern California. The city has a total area of . Manhattan Beach features of ocean frontage. ===Beach and sand dunes=== Manhattan Beach is a prominent area for beach volleyball and surfing. A majority of the land in Manhattan Beach was once exposed sand dunes, which now lie beneath the city's buildings and streets. The underlying dunes afford residents ocean views throughout western portions of the city. The tallest hill is 244 feet high, and it is located in the city's southwest region. The only remaining exposed sand dune is at Sand Dune Park, where sand resembling the original landscape can also be found. In the late 1920s, excess sand from Manhattan Beach was purchased by Hawaiian developers, who negotiated a deal with the Kuhn Brothers Construction Company to ship the sand across the Pacific Ocean from Manhattan Beach via Los Angeles Harbor to Waikiki Beach over a ten-year period. The beach is approximately 2.1 miles long and 400 feet wide. In the early part of the last century, the beach was narrow (approximately 150 feet) and sloping. From 1938 to 1989, it more than doubled in width when large quantities of sand were placed on beaches to the north during construction of the Hyperion Treatment Plant, Marina del Rey, and Scattergood Power Plant. The sand was carried southward by the ocean's natural littoral flow and widened Manhattan Beach.Reppucci, George M. "Manhattan Beach California: Width determination from a century of images"; Shore and Beach, Vol 80, No.4, Fall 2012. Every August, the city hosts the Manhattan Beach Open Volleyball Tournament and the International Surf Festival. ===Neighborhoods=== thumb|right|Glass home on the "Strand" thumb|right|A view of the ocean in Manhattan Beach The city has several distinct neighborhoods, including the "Strand", "Sand Section", "Hill Section", "Tree Section", "Gas Lamp Section", "Manhattan Village", "Manhattan Heights", "East Manhattan Beach" (Manhattan Village, Manhattan Heights, Liberty Village), The Poet's Section" (Shelley, Tennyson, Longfellow, Keats), and "El Porto" (North Manhattan Beach). The Roth Tract, between Herrin and Peck, is sometimes referred to as the "Bird Section." The "Hill Section" is known for its high-priced homes; many of the residences are remodeled or newly constructed. The steep hills allow panoramic ocean and city views. The "Sand Section" has quiet walk-street neighborhoods adjacent to the ocean. Oceanfront homes stretch along the bike path and walking lane of "The Strand". "The Strand" section of Manhattan Beach includes some of the most expensive real estate per square foot in the United States. Since 2010, new property developments in Manhattan Beach cannot exceed two lot parcels. Size and appearance restrictions were enacted by the Manhattan Beach City Council to preserve the appearance of the beachfront community after three lots were joined to create a oceanside home in 2008. ====Downtown==== "Downtown" Manhattan Beach is considered the heart of the city. The area runs along Manhattan Beach Boulevard and the streets perpendicular to the Manhattan Beach Pier and Valley Drive. There are Zagat-rated casual fine-dining restaurants, specialty boutiques and retailers that create a pedestrian-friendly, mixed-use downtown center. The Metlox site, where the pottery factory once stood for decades, was closed in the early 1990s and redeveloped into a mixed-use center. The Metlox site includes a luxury boutique hotel, spa, restaurants, shops and underground parking. ====North Manhattan Beach District==== North Manhattan Beach business district is located near the intersection of Rosecrans and Highland and has restaurants and shops. The district is defined as covering "32nd Street to 45th Street and consist[s] of over 80 businesses". ====Rosecrans Corridor==== The Rosecrans corridor is located on the south side of Rosecrans Avenue, east of Sepulveda, and west of Aviation. The Manhattan Beach Country Club, the westdrift Manhattan Beach Hotel and Golf Course, retail stores, restaurants, supermarkets, multi-story office buildings, and shopping centers border the Rosecrans corridor between Sepulveda and Aviation Boulevards. The Rosecrans corridor is adjacent to The PointThe Point Retrieved December 27, 2017. and Plaza El SegundoPlaza El Segundo Retrieved December 27, 2017. off Sepulveda Blvd, which features additional retailers, including Whole Foods Market. ====Sepulveda Corridor==== The Sepulveda Corridor occupies the commercial zone, and is the city's main north–south highway. The area includes the Manhattan Village Mall, which is located east of Sepulveda Boulevard between Marine and Rosecrans Avenues. The mall, built in the early 1980s, was remodeled in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The mall is anchored by Macy's on both ends and tenants include Pottery Barn, Pottery Barn Kids, Williams Sonoma, and the Apple Store. Many restaurants such as Islands, Chili's, Olive Garden, and the Tin Roof are co-located with the mall. The Manhattan Village Mall is executing a multimillion-dollar redevelopment which adds both outdoor and enclosed retail and restaurant space. There are several medium-size hotels, large automobile dealerships, automotive repair shops, restaurants, multi-story office buildings, medical buildings, pharmacies, banks, small shopping centers and a Target store along this corridor. Kaiser Permanente's medical offices include a laboratory and pharmacy. ====Aviation Corridor==== The Aviation Corridor is located along Aviation Boulevard (the city's eastern boundary), south of Rosecrans Avenue, and north of Marine Avenue. Aviation High School was located at the intersection of Manhattan Beach Blvd. and Aviation until it closed in the early 1980s. The zone includes several major entertainment and aerospace complexes, including Manhattan Beach Studios and the Northrop Grumman Space Park Complex. Manhattan Beach Media Campus has production for movies and entertainment including the Marvel motion pictures Thor and Iron Man 2 and both sequels to James Cameron's Avatar movie. The studio complex has large photovoltaic solar panel rooftop installations in the area which generates approximately 1 megawatt of power. ==Demographics== The 2010 United States Census reported that Manhattan Beach had a population of 35,135. The population density was . The racial makeup of Manhattan Beach was 29,686 (84.5%) White (79.3% Non-Hispanic White), 290 (0.8%) Black or African American (U.S. Census), 59 (0.2%) Native American, 3,023 (8.6%) Asian, 49 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 409 (1.2%) from other races, and 1,619 (4.6%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2,440 persons (6.9%). The Census reported that 35,107 people (99.9% of the population) lived in households, 28 (0.1%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized. There were 14,038 households, out of which 4,735 (33.7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 7,583 (54.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 892 (6.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 438 (3.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 695 (5.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 85 (0.6%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,627 households (25.8%) were made up of individuals, and 1,078 (7.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50. There were 8,913 families (63.5% of all households); the average family size was 3.10. The population was spread out, with 8,725 people (24.8%) under the age of 18, 1,740 people (5.0%) aged 18 to 24, 9,532 people (27.1%) aged 25 to 44, 10,681 people (30.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 4,457 people (12.7%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.2 males. There were 14,929 housing units at an average density of , of which 9,420 (67.1%) were owner-occupied, and 4,618 (32.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 0.8%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.3%. 25,587 people (72.8% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 9,520 people (27.1%) lived in rental housing units. According to the 2010 United States Census, Manhattan Beach had a median household income of $139,259, with 3.4% of the population living below the federal poverty line. Many high-profile individuals in the sports and entertainment industry live in Manhattan Beach due to its oceanfront desirability, top performing school district, and commuting distance to Los Angeles. ==Economy== According to the City's 2010 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,City of Manhattan Beach Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 2010 . Retrieved September 26, 2010. the top employers in the city are: # Employer # of Employees 1 Target 405 2 Skechers 362 3 Macy's 271 4 Fry's Electronics 251 5 Marriott 208 6 Ralphs 146 7 Olive Garden 143 8 24 Hour Fitness 133 9 Bristol Farms 130 10 Shade Hotel 113 11 Manhattan Beach Toyota 99 12 Houston's Restaurants 97 13 California Pizza Kitchen 85 14 Chili's 81 15 Belamar Hotel 79 16 Islands 75 17 REI 62 Residential prices in Manhattan Beach are among the highest in the state of California. In 2013, the Dataquick study reported that more homes exceeding $1 million were sold in Manhattan Beach than any other city in California. Pacific Palisades, Beverly Hills, La Jolla, Malibu, Bel- Air, Orinda, Atherton, Montecito, and other high end cities in California ranked behind Manhattan Beach. The Higley 100 Census survey found that The Hill Section of Manhattan Beach is the second highest mean household income neighborhood in Los Angeles County, with Beverly Park ranking first and Beverly Hills (the 90210 section) ranking third, respectively. The current median residential home price is $2.2 million according to a November 23, 2014, Los Angeles Times article, and land values in Manhattan Beach rank among the highest per square foot in the nation. Land values on the Manhattan Beach "Strand" are routinely around $10 million for a piece of land. ==Parks and recreation== The wide sandy beaches attract over 3.8 million visitors annually.Estimating the potential economic impacts of climate change on Southern California beaches; Climatic Change (2011) 109 (Suppl 1):S277–S298 DOI 10.1007/s10584-011-0309-0 Beach volleyball, swimming, body boarding and surfing are popular activities among residents and visitors. Popular surf spots include the pier and El Porto, the northern end of the beach. Lifeguard stations are located along the entire length of the beach and the beach is cleaned and groomed daily by crews from LA County Beaches and Harbors Department. Along the Strand at the eastern edge of the beach, a concrete bike path is reserved for bicycles. The bikeway extends north to Santa Monica and south to Torrance. A separate walkway, reserved for pedestrians, runs alongside the bike path. Restrooms and shower facilities are provided adjacent to the Strand paths. An area known Veteran's Parkway is a pedestrian walkway that runs adjacent to Valley Drive and Ardmore Avenue near downtown Manhattan Beach. Nearly and long and extending into Hermosa Beach, the wood-chip walkway is a popular trail for runners and dog-walkers. There are several public parks in the city. The largest and most popular is Polliwog Park located on Manhattan Beach Boulevard, two blocks west of Aviation Boulevard. Polliwog Park includes the Manhattan Beach Botanical Garden, as well as a small lake, open-air concert amphitheater, playground equipment, picnic tables, restrooms, and a fenced dog exercise area. It is also the site of the Manhattan Beach Historical Society Red Cottage, which is home to the city's collection of historical artifacts. Marine Avenue Park, west of Aviation Boulevard on Marine, has several lighted ball fields, basketball courts, and an indoor racket ball facility. A small skate park was added to Marine Avenue Park in 2017 after a 16-year battle over its location. Live Oak Park in the downtown area has ball fields, batting cages, playground equipment, basketball courts, tennis courts, and picnic tables. Additionally, Begg pool offers comprehensive swimming programs year around for both adults and children including instruction, recreational swimming, water aerobics, and even a youth swim team and adult swim club. Bruce's Beach (formerly Culiacan Park) is north of downtown. For over 50 years, the city of Manhattan Beach hosts an annual Hometown Fair at Live Oak Park in downtown Manhattan Beach. Popular among community residents, the fair features food and drink, live music, games and booths to raise funds for local causes. ==Government== ===Local government=== The city of Manhattan Beach is governed by a five-member City Council. City Council members are elected every four years. The office of the Mayor of Manhattan Beach rotates every nine months among the members of the City Council, so that each City Council member serves one term as Mayor. A City Manager is appointed by the City Council. An elected City Treasurer serves a four-year term. The Beach Cities Health District,Beach Cities Health District Retrieved December 27, 2017. provides health and wellness services to the residents of Hermosa Beach, Manhattan Beach, and Redondo Beach. It is funded partially by over $3 million annually from property taxes. The voters of the three beach cities elect the 5-member Board of Directors to 4-year terms. One of 78 California Health Districts,List of California Health Districts it was created in 1955 as South Bay Hospital which no longer exists and took on its current name in 1993. Beach Cities Health District is now focused on real estate development and opened AdventurePlex,AdventurePlex Retrieved December 27, 2017. a Manhattan Beach fitness center for kids and their families, in 2002. Filled with mazes, tunnels, outdoor rock climbing walls, complex ropes courses, and an indoor gym, AdventurePlex challenges children physically and intellectually in health-focused recreational activities. ===County government=== Manhattan Beach is in the Second Supervisorial District of Los Angeles County. Holly Mitchell is the District Supervisor. The county collects taxes on properties in Manhattan Beach and maintains property assessment rolls. Los Angeles County maintains the beach and provides daily cleaning and grooming. The county also maintains the bike path at the eastern edge of the beach. The Manhattan Beach County Library is located downtown on Highland Avenue two blocks north of Manhattan Beach Boulevard. The library is part of the County of Los Angeles Public Library system, and includes Internet- accessible computers, WiFi, and access to the six million items in the county library collection. The new $19 million, 20,000 square foot, two-story facility featuring a glass exterior was completed in 2015. ===State legislators=== In the California State Legislature, Manhattan Beach is in , and in . ===Federal government=== In the United States House of Representatives, Manhattan Beach is in . ==Education== According to US Census data, Manhattan Beach holds the ranking as the second most educated city in Los Angeles County and the fifth most educated city in the state of California. ===Primary and secondary schools=== School 2010 API Score Grandview Elementary 957 Meadows Elementary 946 Pacific Elementary 960 Pennekamp Elementary 948 Robinson Elementary 962 Manhattan Beach Middle 945 Mira Costa High School 911 Public education in Manhattan Beach is provided by the Manhattan Beach Unified School District, which oversees five elementary schools (Grand View, Meadows, Pacific, Pennekamp, Robinson), one middle school (Manhattan Beach Middle School), and one high school (Mira Costa High School). The Manhattan Beach Unified School district is ranked as the third-best- performing school district in the state of California. The district received a score of 926 on the 2010 California Academic Performance Index. Each individual school also ranks at the top of its respective category.Local Educational Agency (LEA) List of Schools, api.cde.ca.gov Retrieved December 27, 2017. Manhattan Beach is currently ranked as one of the best suburbs in Los Angeles Country for its high-earning and well educated residents. Manhattan Beach's top performing school district is currently ranked as the third best in the state of California, behind only Palo Alto and South Pasadena. and Forbes Magazine ranked the city's school district, MBUSD, as the sixth best school district in the United States. Private schools located in Manhattan Beach include American Martyrs Catholic School (of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles), Manhattan Academy, Montessori School of Manhattan Beach and Journey of Faith Christian School. Residents of Manhattan Beach were in the Wiseburn School District until 1913, when the Manhattan Beach elementary school district formed. Residents attended Redondo Union High School until 1950, when Mira Costa High School opened. Residents were within, in addition to the elementary district, the South Bay Union High School District until 1993, when the latter dissolved. MBUSD formed in 1993. ==Media== Manhattan Beach is served by Easy Reader-Manhattan Beach, Beach Magazine, the Daily Breeze, the Los Angeles Times, and the Beach Reporter. ==In popular culture== Filming locations *1408 (2007) John Cusack's character surfs in El Porto waves. *2012 (2009) Cracks appear down the middle of 45th Street. *The 1983 Taylor Hackford film Against All Odds was filmed along The Strand and on the beach. *George Jung of Blow (2001) film. *The CBS series CSI: Miami, at Manhattan Beach Studios and one episode was taken at Pollywog Park. *The TV show Hannah Montana used Mira Costa High School as the image of the school portrayed in the TV show, and the Manhattan Beach Pier was also commonly shown in the intro of the show. *Indictment: The McMartin Trial (1995) Closing scene filmed on Manhattan Beach Pier. *Jerry Maguire (1996) In the movie, Dorothy's (Renée Zellweger) house is in the Gas Lamp Section on 23rd Street. *The Fox Network series The O.C. *The scenes set inside Governor Swan's mansion in Pirates of the Caribbean: Curse of the Black Pearl were shot here. *Point Break (1991) In the movie, Keanu Reeves buys his surfboard from a shop located on the Manhattan Beach pier. *Starsky and Hutch (2004) In the movie, Starsky (Ben Stiller), can be seen stretching under the pier. *Tequila Sunrise (1988) Mel Gibson's character lives on the beach near the pier. *The CW Television Network series Veronica Mars. *The TV show Weeds. *The movie Airborne. *The video for the song "White Walls" by Macklemore. *The movie Mac & Devin Go to High School and scenes from the music video "Young, Wild & Free" by Snoop Dogg and Wiz Khalifa. Other *Manhattan Beach is mentioned in the song "Surfin' U.S.A." by the Beach Boys. Group members were from the adjacent city of Hawthorne. *The Manhattan Beach Open volleyball tournament in Manhattan Beach is known as "The Championships, Wimbledon of Beach Volleyball." The names of the tournament champions are inscribed in plaques along Manhattan Beach Pier. This event usually takes place in August and airs on national TV. ==Notable people== See: List of people from Manhattan Beach, California ==Public transportation== Manhattan Beach is served by Beach Cities Transit. The Douglas and Redondo Beach C Line stations are nearby, though outside the city. Historically, Manhattan Beach was served by the Pacific Electric streetcar system. ==See also== ==References== ==External links== * *Manhattan Beach Historical Society *Leadership Manhattan Beach *Manhattan Beach Chamber of Commerce Category:1912 establishments in California Category:Cities in Los Angeles County, California Category:Incorporated cities and towns in California Category:Populated coastal places in California Category:Populated places established in 1912 Category:South Bay, Los Angeles |
thumb|upright=1.5|The order of the natural numbers shown on the number line In elementary mathematics, a number line is a picture of a graduated straight line that serves as visual representation of the real numbers. Every point of a number line is assumed to correspond to a real number, and every real number to a point. The integers are often shown as specially-marked points evenly spaced on the line. Although the image only shows the integers from –3 to 3, the line includes all real numbers, continuing forever in each direction, and also numbers that are between the integers. It is often used as an aid in teaching simple addition and subtraction, especially involving negative numbers. In advanced mathematics, the number line can be called the real line or real number line, formally defined as the set of all real numbers. It is viewed as a geometric space, namely the real coordinate space of dimension one, or the Euclidean space of dimension one – the Euclidean line. It can also be thought of as a vector space (or affine space), a metric space, a topological space, a measure space, or a linear continuum. Just like the set of real numbers, the real line is usually denoted by the symbol (or alternatively, \mathbb{R} , the letter “R” in blackboard bold). However, it is sometimes denoted or in order to emphasize its role as the first real space or first Euclidean space. ==History== The first mention of the number line used for operation purposes is found in John Wallis's Treatise of algebra.Wallis, John (1685). Treatise of algebra. http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/math/id/11231 pp. 265 In his treatise, Wallis describes addition and subtraction on a number line in terms of moving forward and backward, under the metaphor of a person walking. An earlier depiction without mention to operations, though, is found in John Napier's A description of the admirable table of logarithmes, which shows values 1 through 12 lined up from left to right.Napier, John (1616). A description of the admirable table of logarithmes https://www.math.ru.nl/werkgroepen/gmfw/bronnen/napier1.html Contrary to popular belief, Rene Descartes's original La Géométrie does not feature a number line, defined as we use it today, though it does use a coordinate system. In particular, Descartes's work does not contain specific numbers mapped onto lines, only abstract quantities.Núñez, Rafael (2017). How Much Mathematics Is "Hardwired", If Any at All Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology: Culture and Developmental Systems, Volume 38. http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~nunez/COGS152_Readings/Nunez_ch3_MN.pdf pp. 98 ==Drawing the number line== A number line is usually represented as being horizontal, but in a Cartesian coordinate plane the vertical axis (y-axis) is also a number line.Introduction to the x,y-plane "Purplemath" Retrieved 2015-11-13 According to one convention, positive numbers always lie on the right side of zero, negative numbers always lie on the left side of zero, and arrowheads on both ends of the line are meant to suggest that the line continues indefinitely in the positive and negative directions. Another convention uses only one arrowhead which indicates the direction in which numbers grow. The line continues indefinitely in the positive and negative directions according to the rules of geometry which define a line without endpoints as an infinite line, a line with one endpoint as a ray, and a line with two endpoints as a line segment. ==Comparing numbers== If a particular number is farther to the right on the number line than is another number, then the first number is greater than the second (equivalently, the second is less than the first). The distance between them is the magnitude of their difference--that is, it measures the first number minus the second one, or equivalently the absolute value of the second number minus the first one. Taking this difference is the process of subtraction. Thus, for example, the length of a line segment between 0 and some other number represents the magnitude of the latter number. Two numbers can be added by "picking up" the length from 0 to one of the numbers, and putting it down again with the end that was 0 placed on top of the other number. Two numbers can be multiplied as in this example: To multiply 5 × 3, note that this is the same as 5 + 5 + 5, so pick up the length from 0 to 5 and place it to the right of 5, and then pick up that length again and place it to the right of the previous result. This gives a result that is 3 combined lengths of 5 each; since the process ends at 15, we find that 5 × 3 = 15. Division can be performed as in the following example: To divide 6 by 2--that is, to find out how many times 2 goes into 6--note that the length from 0 to 2 lies at the beginning of the length from 0 to 6; pick up the former length and put it down again to the right of its original position, with the end formerly at 0 now placed at 2, and then move the length to the right of its latest position again. This puts the right end of the length 2 at the right end of the length from 0 to 6. Since three lengths of 2 filled the length 6, 2 goes into 6 three times (that is, 6 ÷ 2 = 3). File:Number line with x smaller than y.svg|The ordering on the number line: Greater elements are in direction of the arrow. File:Number line with addition of -2 and 3.svg|The difference 3-2=3+(-2) on the real number line. File:Number line with addition of 1 and 2.svg|The addition 1+2 on the real number line File:Absolute difference.svg|The absolute difference. File:Number line multiplication 2 with 1,5.svg|The multiplication 2 times 1.5 File:Number line division 3 with 2.svg|The division 3÷2 on the real number line ==Portions of the number line== thumb|The closed interval . The section of the number line between two numbers is called an interval. If the section includes both numbers it is said to be a closed interval, while if it excludes both numbers it is called an open interval. If it includes one of the numbers but not the other one, it is called a half-open interval. All the points extending forever in one direction from a particular point are together known as a ray. If the ray includes the particular point, it is a closed ray; otherwise it is an open ray. ==Extensions of the concept== ===Logarithmic scale=== thumb|A log-log plot of y = x (blue), y = x2 (green), and y = x3 (red). Note the logarithmic scale markings on each of the axes, and that the log x and log y axes (where the logarithms are 0) are where x and y themselves are 1. On the number line, the distance between two points is the unit length if and only if the difference of the represented numbers equals 1. Other choices are possible. One of the most common choices is the logarithmic scale, which is a representation of the positive numbers on a line, such that the distance of two points is the unit length, if the ratio of the represented numbers has a fixed value, typically 10. In such a logarithmic scale, the origin represents 1; one inch to the right, one has 10, one inch to the right of 10 one has , then , then , etc. Similarly, one inch to the left of 1, one has , then , etc. This approach is useful, when one wants to represent, on the same figure, values with very different order of magnitude. For example, one requires a logarithmic scale for representing simultaneously the size of the different bodies that exist in the Universe, typically, a photon, an electron, an atom, a molecule, a human, the Earth, the Solar System, a galaxy, and the visible Universe. Logarithmic scales are used in slide rules for multiplying or dividing numbers by adding or subtracting lengths on logarithmic scales. frame|center|The two logarithmic scales of a slide rule ===Combining number lines=== A line drawn through the origin at right angles to the real number line can be used to represent the imaginary numbers. This line, called imaginary line, extends the number line to a complex number plane, with points representing complex numbers. Alternatively, one real number line can be drawn horizontally to denote possible values of one real number, commonly called x, and another real number line can be drawn vertically to denote possible values of another real number, commonly called y. Together these lines form what is known as a Cartesian coordinate system, and any point in the plane represents the value of a pair of real numbers. Further, the Cartesian coordinate system can itself be extended by visualizing a third number line "coming out of the screen (or page)", measuring a third variable called z. Positive numbers are closer to the viewer's eyes than the screen is, while negative numbers are "behind the screen"; larger numbers are farther from the screen. Then any point in the three-dimensional space that we live in represents the values of a trio of real numbers. ==Advanced concepts== ===As a linear continuum=== thumb|300px|Each set on the real number line has a supremum. The real line is a linear continuum under the standard ordering. Specifically, the real line is linearly ordered by , and this ordering is dense and has the least-upper-bound property. In addition to the above properties, the real line has no maximum or minimum element. It also has a countable dense subset, namely the set of rational numbers. It is a theorem that any linear continuum with a countable dense subset and no maximum or minimum element is order-isomorphic to the real line. The real line also satisfies the countable chain condition: every collection of mutually disjoint, nonempty open intervals in is countable. In order theory, the famous Suslin problem asks whether every linear continuum satisfying the countable chain condition that has no maximum or minimum element is necessarily order-isomorphic to . This statement has been shown to be independent of the standard axiomatic system of set theory known as ZFC. ===As a metric space=== The real line forms a metric space, with the distance function given by absolute difference: : d(x, y) = |x - y|. The metric tensor is clearly the 1-dimensional Euclidean metric. Since the -dimensional Euclidean metric can be represented in matrix form as the -by- identity matrix, the metric on the real line is simply the 1-by-1 identity matrix, i.e. 1. If and , then the -ball in centered at is simply the open interval . This real line has several important properties as a metric space: * The real line is a complete metric space, in the sense that any Cauchy sequence of points converges. * The real line is path-connected and is one of the simplest examples of a geodesic metric space. * The Hausdorff dimension of the real line is equal to one. ===As a topological space=== The real line carries a standard topology, which can be introduced in two different, equivalent ways. First, since the real numbers are totally ordered, they carry an order topology. Second, the real numbers inherit a metric topology from the metric defined above. The order topology and metric topology on are the same. As a topological space, the real line is homeomorphic to the open interval . The real line is trivially a topological manifold of dimension . Up to homeomorphism, it is one of only two different connected 1-manifolds without boundary, the other being the circle. It also has a standard differentiable structure on it, making it a differentiable manifold. (Up to diffeomorphism, there is only one differentiable structure that the topological space supports.) The real line is a locally compact space and a paracompact space, as well as second-countable and normal. It is also path-connected, and is therefore connected as well, though it can be disconnected by removing any one point. The real line is also contractible, and as such all of its homotopy groups and reduced homology groups are zero. As a locally compact space, the real line can be compactified in several different ways. The one-point compactification of is a circle (namely, the real projective line), and the extra point can be thought of as an unsigned infinity. Alternatively, the real line has two ends, and the resulting end compactification is the extended real line . There is also the Stone–Čech compactification of the real line, which involves adding an infinite number of additional points. In some contexts, it is helpful to place other topologies on the set of real numbers, such as the lower limit topology or the Zariski topology. For the real numbers, the latter is the same as the finite complement topology. ===As a vector space=== thumb|300px|The bijection between points on the real line and vectors The real line is a vector space over the field of real numbers (that is, over itself) of dimension . It has the usual multiplication as an inner product, making it a Euclidean vector space. The norm defined by this inner product is simply the absolute value. ===As a measure space=== The real line carries a canonical measure, namely the Lebesgue measure. This measure can be defined as the completion of a Borel measure defined on , where the measure of any interval is the length of the interval. Lebesgue measure on the real line is one of the simplest examples of a Haar measure on a locally compact group. ==In real algebras== When A is a unital real algebra, the products of real numbers with 1 is a real line within the algebra. For example, in the complex plane z = x + iy, the subspace {z : y = 0} is a real line. Similarly, the algebra of quaternions :q = w + x i + y j + z k has a real line in the subspace {q : x = y = z = 0 }. When the real algebra is a direct sum A = R \oplus V, then a conjugation on A is introduced by the mapping v \to -v of subspace V. In this way the real line consists of the fixed points of the conjugation. For a dimension n, the square matrices form a ring that has a real line in the form of real products with the identity matrix in the ring. ==See also== * Cantor–Dedekind axiom * Imaginary line (mathematics) * Line (geometry) * Projectively extended real line * Real projective line *Chronology *Complex plane *Cuisenaire rods *Extended real number line *Hyperreal number line *Number form (neurological phenomenon) ==References== ==Further reading== * * * Category:Elementary mathematics Category:Mathematical manipulatives Category:One-dimensional coordinate systems Category:Real numbers Category:Topological spaces Category:Line (geometry) |
Kyle Reese is a fictional character in the Terminator franchise, who serves as the protagonist of the first film and a supporting role in other works. The character is portrayed by Michael Biehn in The Terminator (1984) and Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), Jonathan Jackson in Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles (2008–2009), Anton Yelchin in Terminator Salvation (2009), and Jai Courtney in Terminator Genisys (2015). ==Terminator film series== Reese is a soldier in the human resistance from the post-apocalyptic future of The Terminator (1984), where most of humanity has already been wiped out in a deadly nuclear war on August 29, 1997 that was sparked off by an artificial intelligence known as Skynet. The survivors fight extinction against the sentient computer system's genocidal war on humanity. The resistance is led by John Connor, under whom Reese serves. In The Terminator and Terminator Genisys (2015), Skynet sends one of its most feared machines, a Model 101/T-800 Terminator, back to pre-apocalypse Los Angeles, California on May 12, 1984, to assassinate John Connor's mother, Sarah Connor, and prevent his birth. Reese volunteers to travel back to 1984 and intercept the Terminator. ===Backstory=== According to Terminator Genisys, Kyle Reese was born in 2004. He eventually becomes a sergeant (dog tag number DN38416), working in the Tech-Com facility of the Resistance. He served with the 132nd under Perry, from 2021 to 2027. He is one of the personal soldiers to John Connor, and is often selected for personal infiltrator missions by John. Reese learned to make explosives as a child. He also assisted in stealing and reverse- engineering most of the Skynet technology, conducting raids on armories and stealing most of the laser-rifle equipment with his troops for the Resistance, along with the time-travelling technology that Skynet had developed. ===The Terminator (1984)=== In 2029, Skynet has been defeated by human resistance, but manages to send one of its infiltrators back in time to assassinate Sarah Connor before she can give birth to John; the resistance decides to send a soldier back to defeat the Terminator and protect Sarah's life. Reese personally volunteers for a one-way mission back to pre-apocalypse Los Angeles to save her. Once he had been sent back, he was told that the time displacement equipment would be destroyed, stranding him and the Terminator in 1984. Arriving naked and unarmed, and not knowing what the Terminator looks like in its human disguise, Reese steals clothes and a police-issue shotgun. He locates and follows Sarah (Linda Hamilton), shadowing her until the Model 101 (Arnold Schwarzenegger) attempts to carry out its mission. Reese rescues her from the Terminator's attacks in a nightclub and in a police station, warning her of the impending doom of the human race and of the future significance carried by her and her unborn son. Though initially hostile towards Reese, Sarah grows to trust him as he becomes the only thing between her and the Terminator. The two grow closer as they continue to run from the Terminator and Kyle eventually reveals that he volunteered for the mission. Though battle-hardened and world-weary, Reese had fallen deeply in love with Sarah, a woman he had only known through a photo given to him by John, and travelled back in time to meet her. After Reese tells Sarah of this history, the two consummate their relationship and ultimately conceive John. The Terminator tracks them down and chases them through Los Angeles; Reese is wounded by gunfire but manages to blow up a fuel truck driven by the Terminator before it can run over Sarah. However, its now-bare metal endoskeleton emerges from the fire and pursues them into an automated factory. Reese attempts to fight the Terminator but is overpowered, though he manages to wedge the last of his homemade pipe bombs into its chassis and set it off; the explosion kills Reese and blows the Terminator apart. The machine's upper body continues to crawl after Sarah, who crushes it with a hydraulic press to stop it once and for all. ===Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)=== Though gone, Sarah continues to love Reese and mourn his death. During one of her constant nightmares about the nuclear war, Reese appears in a dream state version of her cell in Pescadero State Hospital and reminds her of the coming danger, and the need to protect their son (Edward Furlong) in a deleted scene. However, as Reese begins to walk out of the cell, Sarah desperately follows him only to be led to a playground of kids playing before Skynet's nuclear weapons hit Los Angeles, which leaves Sarah waking up in shock still in her cell. Though this scene was cut from the theatrical version, it was later restored for home video releases. Reese is later mentioned by John himself, who admits to the Terminator protecting him from the T-1000 that despite Sarah's tough exterior, she still loves Reese and he often sees her crying for him. John expresses his own regret for never having the chance to meet Reese in person. The Terminator assures John that one day he will. ===Terminator Salvation (2009)=== Kyle Reese is portrayed as a teenager by Anton Yelchin in Terminator Salvation. The film takes place in 2018, and it revolves around his first meeting with his future son John (Christian Bale). As a teenager, Kyle was the leader of the Los Angeles Resistance cell, even though it only consisted of two people. Because of this, he aspires to join the formal Resistance regulars, who mark themselves with a red stripe on their left sleeve, once he has "earned it". It is clear that Kyle is immediately drawn to the charismatic figure of John Connor because he leaves his Los Angeles base after hearing the latter's Resistance broadcast. Inspired by Connor's example, he frequently quotes segments of the broadcasts and adapts strategies that Connor suggests for taking down Terminators. He similarly shares a unique bond with Marcus Wright (Sam Worthington), who helps hone Kyle's strategies in close-quarters combat, whereas Kyle's lectures on what humans are fighting for reminds Marcus of his humanity. In the film, Kyle's father had initially survived Judgment Day but died prior to the events of the movie. Due to the original Terminator failing to kill Sarah and the T-1000 and the T-X failing to kill John in the past, Kyle has become Skynet's primary target in order to stop him from travelling back in time to protect Sarah in the first place, as well as using him to lure John into a trap. In the film, Kyle is already working with and protecting a child named Star (Jadagrace Berry) when the two later save Marcus from a T-600 attack in the ruins of Los Angeles. After Skynet captures him outside of Los Angeles, Reese, upon escaping, later works with John and Marcus building a bomb to destroy Skynet's San Francisco command. The two also fight the first T-800 model, though John tricks him into leaving the facility without him. Marcus eventually defeats the T-800 by tearing its head off and escapes the base with John and Reese before they detonate the bombs, destroying the facility and taking thousands of unfinished T-800s with it, changing the future for the better. At the end of the film, Reese is promoted to resistance soldier and becomes part of John's inner circle consisting primarily of Kate Brewster, Blair Williams and Barnes. ===Terminator Genisys (2015)=== Reese is portrayed by Jai Courtney in Terminator Genisys, and by Bryant Prince as Reese's 12-year-old self. His history is similar to James Cameron's established canon and is John Connor's (Jason Clarke) lieutenant. In the film, it is revealed that Reese is of Irish descent on his mother's side, and as the film serves as a reboot of the series instead of a sequel to Salvation, Reese is depicted as having been found as a child by Connor himself, and his interactions with Star and Marcus Wright are absent. In 2029, Connor sends Reese back through time to protect Sarah Connor (Emilia Clarke), then the latter witnesses Connor being attacked by Skynet (in its physical form) and a temporal paradox occurs afterwards before Kyle reaching his destination. He discovers that Sarah has been raised and trained by a reprogrammed T-800 (Schwarzenegger), creating an alternate timeline and thus making Kyle a remnant of the previous. In the changed timeline Skynet has turned Connor into a T-3000 tasked with ensuring Genisys - this timeline's precursor to Skynet - becomes active. At the same time, Reese continues to exist, as his parents still met, though under different circumstances, and it is his knowledge of Genisys through his new memories before the timeline's change that enables them to travel forward to 2017 instead of 1997. The reprogrammed T-800, Sarah and Reese defeat Genisys and Connor/T-3000, and Reese meets his 12 year old equivalent in the active timeline, instructing him to repeat a warning mantra each morning, deliberately creates a temporal causal loop to ensure he already knows his task in the future. ===Terminator: Dark Fate (2019)=== Director Tim Miller stated that Kyle Reese does not exist in the new modern-day alternate timeline that is depicted in the 2019 film Terminator: Dark Fate, because unlike the Genisys timeline, where Reese's parents still met and conceived him despite Judgment Day not yet occurring, in the Dark Fate timeline, his parents did not cross paths. ==Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles (2008–2009)== In the parallel universe television show, Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles, it is revealed that Reese has an older brother named Derek, who becomes one of the show's main characters. He is also a Resistance soldier from the future. ===Characterization=== In this series, Kyle Reese is played by Jonathan Jackson in the episode "Dungeons & Dragons" which details how he and his brother are separated during a recon mission before he made his trip through time to protect Sarah Connor; further details are in the episode "Goodbye to All That" of the second season, during Derek's recollection of the future war. An eight-year-old version of Kyle Reese, portrayed by Skyler Gisondo, briefly appears in the episode "What He Beheld" when Derek Reese takes John Connor out for ice cream on his 16th birthday. They find a younger Kyle and Derek playing baseball at the park, with Derek admits his knowledge of John's relation to Kyle; John then sees his uncle as a surrogate father since. In the episode "Goodbye to All That," during one of Derek's recollections of the future war, Kyle (when he was a Corporal) and a small group of his unit attempted to save forty prisoners, including General John Connor, from Skynet's forces. However, he became trapped and one of the Resistance's senior officers, Martin Bedell, sacrifices his life to save him and free Skynet's prisoners. In the episode "The Demon Hand", it is hinted at by Sarah to Derek Reese that Kyle's ashes were scattered "in the grass"; a later episode shows that he was in fact buried in a grave marked only by the year of his death, and in the next-to-last episode of the series, Derek's own ashes are buried next to his brother, or at least in the same cemetery where his brother rests. A mental image of Kyle Reese appeared to a wounded Sarah in the episode "The Good Wound". Throughout the episode, her image of Kyle guides her in finding medical treatment for herself along with getting help from Derek Reese, Kyle's brother. In the season two finale "Born to Run", John is led by Catherine Weaver to an alternate post-Judgment Day timeline where John Connor has never led the Resistance due to the displacement from his present. There, he encounters his father for the first time. ==Video games== ===The Terminator: Dawn of Fate (2002)=== Kyle Reese appears in the video game, The Terminator: Dawn of Fate, developed by Paradigm Entertainment, set before the events of the first film. He was voiced by Julio Cesar Cedillo. ===Terminator Genisys: Future War (2016)=== Kyle Reese appears in the mobile MMO strategy video game, Terminator Genisys: Future War, created by Plarium. The events of the game take place in the alternate, post-apocalyptic future timeline of Terminator Genisys, where an older Kyle becomes the leader of the resistance movement against Skynet instead of John Connor. ===Terminator: Resistance – Annihilation Line (2019)=== Kyle Reese appears in the mobile first-person shooter video game, Terminator: Resistance, created by Teyon. The events of the game take place in the original future war depicted in the films The Terminator and Terminator 2: Judgment Day, featuring multiple possible endings. In the downloadable content (DLC) "Annihilation Line", released in December 2021, and set during the middle of the main game's campaign mode, as Jacob Rivers, the player teams up with Kyle Reese to rescue a group of people captured by Skynet. ==Production background== It was originally scripted that Reese and another soldier, named "Sumner", were sent to protect Sarah from the Terminator, but Sumner died upon arriving after the time portal fused him into a fire escape (the first two sequels show the time displacement field melting through whatever object is in the way; e.g. Terminator 2: Judgment Day shows the field melt a hole in a chain link fence when the T-1000 arrives, and obliterate part of a semi truck when the T-800 arrives). In the original script, Reese says to Dr. Silberman, "The Terminator had already gone through. Connor sent two of us to intercept it, then zeroed the whole place, but Sumner didn't make it." Sumner would later appear in a Sarah Connor Chronicles episode and make it alive through the time portal with Kyle's brother and two other Resistance time-traveling agents. Arnold Schwarzenegger was the original choice to play Reese, but director James Cameron ultimately decided to cast him as the Terminator instead. According to Schwarzenegger, O. J. Simpson was one of the first choices to play the Terminator opposite Schwarzenegger's Reese, but Cameron decided against it on the basis that Simpson, would not be believable to audiences as a killer. Michael Biehn almost did not get the role of Reese because, at his audition, he spoke in a Southern accent after having just auditioned for a role in a stage production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof earlier that day and could not shake the accent. The producers did not want Reese to have an accent. After Biehn's agent explained the situation to the producers, he got a second audition and won the part. The original scriptment gave Reese's age as 21, while a later draft gave his age as 22. In real life, Biehn was 27 years old at the time that he was cast as Reese. In Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Michael Biehn reprises the role of Kyle Reese; Sarah Connor, under heavy sedation, imagines him visiting her in a mental institution. Largely unchanged from his appearance in the first film, he embraces her and implores her to go to their son's aid, reminding her that "the future is not set." This scene was removed for the original theatrical release, but restored to the extended editions. ==Reception== Michael Biehn's performance was met positively with critics, highlighting his ability to develop Reese's wounded core and longing despite the fast-paced nature of James Cameron's first film and for playing the heroic role "unusually sensitive". Anton Yelchin's performance in Salvation was also praised, described as "spirited" and being the film's "secret weapon". Jai Courtney, however, was universally considered miscast, described as a "dull-witted meathead" compared to Biehn's "skinny, bright-eyed, and very sweet" Kyle. Criticism was also made of Courtney's acting, total lack of charisma and over strong physique for an actor playing a character supposed to have grown up in a nuclear wasteland. ==Family tree== ==References== Category:Action film characters Category:Characters created by James Cameron Category:Fictional characters displaced in time Category:Fictional characters from Los Angeles Category:Fictional aviators Category:Fictional Irish American people Category:Fictional military sergeants Category:Fictional people from the 21st-century Category:Fictional revolutionaries Category:Fictional soldiers Category:Fictional war veterans Category:Film characters introduced in 1984 Category:Orphan characters in film Category:Science fiction film characters Category:Terminator (franchise) characters Category:Time travelers |
"Gone for Goode" is the first episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide: Life on the Street. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 31, 1993, immediately following Super Bowl XXVII. The episode was written by series creator Paul Attanasio and directed by executive producer Barry Levinson. "Gone for Goode" introduced regular cast members Daniel Baldwin, Ned Beatty, Richard Belzer, Andre Braugher, Wendy Hughes, Clark Johnson, Yaphet Kotto, Melissa Leo, Jon Polito and Kyle Secor. The episode connects several subplots involving the detectives of a Baltimore Police Department homicide unit and establishes story arcs that continued through the first season. Among them are an investigation by Meldrick Lewis (Johnson) and Steve Crosetti (Polito) into a widow killing husbands for insurance money, as well as rookie Tim Bayliss (Secor) being assigned the murder of an 11-year-old girl for his first case. Both of those subplots were taken directly from Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets, the 1991 David Simon non-fiction book from which the series was adapted. "Gone for Goode" was seen by 18.24 million viewers, the largest viewership of the first season, although NBC was initially disappointed with the ratings. The episode received generally positive reviews upon its original broadcast. Barry Levinson won an Emmy Award for his direction in "Gone for Goode", and was nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award. Paul Attanasio received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for the episode's script. ==Plot summary== The episode opens with Lewis (Clark Johnson) and Crosetti (Jon Polito) looking for a projectile a few yards away from the body of a man shot to death. The man's girlfriend (Oni Faida Lampley), who was shot in the head during the incident but survived, tells police during questioning that her aunt Calpurnia Church hired a hitman to kill her for insurance money. The detectives learn Church previously collected life insurance from five deceased husbands. Suspecting Church of murdering her husbands, Lewis and Crosetti have the body of her most recent husband exhumed for an autopsy, but reach a dead- end when it turns out to be the wrong body in his grave. Felton (Daniel Baldwin) hesitates to take a new murder case because he fears it will be too difficult to solve, so it is taken on by his partner Howard (Melissa Leo), who has recently experienced a perfect streak of solving 11 consecutive cases. They investigate the body of a man dead in a basement, and much to Felton's bewilderment, Howard solves the case easily. The owner of the house, Jerry Jempson (Jim Grollman), literally calls her at the house while she is investigating and agrees to a police interview, during which he acts extremely nervous and is eventually charged with the murder. Munch (Richard Belzer) is reluctant to follow up on the case of murdered drug addict Jenny Goode, who was run over by a car. The case has been cold for three months, but he is made to feel guilty by his partner Bolander (Ned Beatty) into reexamining it. Munch makes no progress after speaking with the family and reexamining notes. Based on witness accounts of a man with long blond hair and a black car, Munch spends all night looking through suspect photos until he finds a man with a black car with front end damage and long black hair, but blond eyebrows. Munch and Bolander question him, believing the suspect (Joe Hansard) to have dyed his hair to change his appearance after killing the woman. He quickly confesses to having hit her accidentally while driving drunk. Gee (Yaphet Kotto) tells Pembleton (Andre Braugher), an excellent detective but a lone wolf, that he must work with a partner. Pembleton ends up investigating the death of a 65-year-old man with rookie detective Bayliss (Kyle Secor). Bayliss initially believes the death to be a heart attack, but Pembleton correctly determines it is a murder because the man's car is missing. Police later arrest a man named Johnny (Alexander Chaplin) who is found driving the dead man's car. During an interrogation, Pembleton fools Johnny into waiving his Miranda Rights, then sneakily persuades him into confessing to the murder. Bayliss, although convinced of Johnny's guilt, nevertheless questions the ethics of Pembleton's approach, prompting Pembleton to yell angrily at him in front of the other officers. The episode ends with Bayliss responding to his first homicide as the primary detective: the brutal murder of an 11-year-old girl named Adena Watson. ==Production== ===Development and writing=== "Gone for Goode" was written by series creator Paul Attanasio and directed by executive producer Barry Levinson. Levinson was seeking to create a television series based on Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets, a 1991 non-fiction book by David Simon based on one year he spent with Baltimore Police Department homicide detectives. Levinson and fellow executive producer Tom Fontana hired Attanasio to adapt elements of the book into the teleplay for the first episode. It was first television script Attanasio ever wrote. The episode was shot by director of photography Wayne Ewing. Stan Warnow started out working as editor, but departed before the process was done due to creative differences with Levinson. Tony Black finished the editing for "Gone for Goode",Kalat, p. 107 but did not return for the rest of the season, and Jay Rabinowitz worked as editor for the remaining episodes. The costumes for the episode were designed by Van Smith, but he also did not return to work on subsequent episodes.Kalat, p. 110 Although it was first episode of Homicide: Life on the Street, it was not technically a television pilot because the network had already ordered a full season of episodes before "Gone for Goode" was produced. The first episode was noted at the time for weaving four separate storylines into a single episode, the first in a trend of multiple subplots in each Homicide show. NBC executives indicated to Attanasio and Levinson they would have preferred the script to focus on a single homicide case rather than four, but ultimately allowed the script to be filmed with all subplots included. Additionally, despite intense advance promotion of the Homicide premiere, Attanasio deliberately sought to introduce the show with little fanfare, avoiding sensational gimmicks in favor of character-driven plot, quirky dialogue and morbid dark humor.Kalat, p. 111 "Gone for Goode" included several storylines, and even exact bits of dialogue, adapted straight from Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets. Among them were the investigation into Calpurnia Smith, an elderly woman suspected of murdering five husbands in order to collect their life insurance policies. This was based on the real-life case of Geraldine Parrish, who was also accused of killing five husbands for insurance money, and was eventually convicted for three of their deaths. A scene involving a funeral director accidentally exhuming the wrong body while investigating the Church case mirrored a similar situation described in Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets from the Parrish case. The Adena Watson murder case, which is assigned to Bayliss in the final scene of "Gone for Goode", was adapted from the unsolved 1988 slaying of Latonya Kim Wallace, which made up a major part of the book. The Watson case became an important story arc throughout the first season which ended without the case being solved. The hit-and-run murder of Jenny Goode was also based on Simon's book, and the murder of the elderly man was inspired by a case featured in the book in which a young homosexual man killed his elderly lover and stole his car. Attanasio also based the characters in Homicide on the detectives featured in Simon's book. The difficulties Bayliss experienced with the case, as well as the extremely personal approach he took in attempting to solve it, were inspired by the real-life Baltimore detective Tom Pellegrini, who was the primary detective in the Wallace case. Most of the detectives featured in the Homicide book said they were happy with their on- screen counterparts, although Detective Harry Edgerton, the inspiration for Frank Pembleton, objected to a scene in "Gone for Goode" in which the character drinks milk in a bar, something Edgerton said he never does. The episode opens with Crosetti and Lewis looking for clues in a dark alley. Levinson and Attanasio specifically wanted a dialogue-driven prologue scene that did not immediately clarify the fact that the two men were detectives or what they were looking for. The dialogue and staging of the scene were imitated in the final scene of the last Homicide episode, "Forgive Us Our Trespasses", which aired on May 21, 1999. In that final scene, Detective Rene Sheppard (played by Michael Michele) says to Lewis, "Life is a mystery, just accept it", a line spoken by Crosetti in the first episode. Lewis also said, "That's what's wrong with this job. It ain't got nothin' to do do with life", a line also spoken by Crosetti in the first episode. Early scenes in "Gone for Goode" also involved Giardello introducing rookie detective Bayliss to the homicide unit. Attanasio sought to use Bayliss' orientation as a way of introducing exposition and background about the show to the viewer as well. In writing the script, Attanasio, Levinson and Fontana wanted the dialogue to reflect the kinds of things detectives would talk about when not discussing murders or cases, which led to the inclusion of several scenes in which detectives talk casually among themselves during lunch or around the office. Fontana, who compared the scenes to Levinson's 1982 film Diner, said, "That really made the show different from other shows, because we had the room to have conversations that seemingly didn't (storywise) connect anything, but they did reveal a lot about the characters." Levinson specifically asked that the body by Howard and Felton be badly decomposing and attracting flies because he felt other police dramas did not portray corpses in a realistic way. ===Photography style=== Levinson and Fontana sought to establish many of the stylistic elements in the episode which would define the series for its entire run. Among them were near-constant movement with hand-held Super 16 cameras to give the episode a naturalistic documentary look and an editing style involving jump cuts that was unusual for television at the time. Levinson said this camera and editing style was partially inspired by Breathless, the 1960 Jean-Luc Godard film. The scenes were shot on-location in Baltimore, as would be the case throughout the duration of the series. The use of hand-held cameras allowed the film to be shot more easily in the city, rather than on a sound-stage in Los Angeles or New York City, where most shows are typically shot. Levinson said being on location at all times allowed Baltimore "to be a character in the show". While filming the episode, Levinson said he would simply allow the actors to perform while he switched back and forth between them with the hand-held camera instead of filming carefully planned shots and individual scenes from multiple angles. This camera style largely persisted through the end of the series in 1999. Some individual scenes involved a number of jump cuts repeated several times in fast succession. Another unusual stylistic element used in the episode involved sudden changes in jump-screen direction; a shot with an actor looking from left to right might immediately jump to another shot of the same actor looking from right to left. This process was born during the editing sessions for "Gone for Goode", where Levinson insisted that the footage be edited to include the actor's best performances. During editing, Tony Black cut together two shots that did not match and began looking for a cutaway shot he could use to disguise the edit. Levinson, however, liked the technique that came from cutting the two conflicting shots together and insisted it stay in. In addition to stylistic touches, the episode established several narrative motifs that stayed with Homicide: Life on the Street throughout the duration of the series. Among them was the white board where detectives kept the names of their open cases in red and their closed cases in black. The names of NBC employees and friends of the Homicide crew were used on the white board. The episode was noted for its deliberate lack of gunplay and car chases in favor of dialogue and story. Levinson and Fontana also allowed humor to be incorporated into the show, particularly through the interactions between the detectives; Levinson said of the first episode, "We have to inform the audience, but at the same time you want to do it with a sense of humor so you don't seem too pretentious, in a way." Several long-standing character traits were established in "Gone for Goode", including Kay Howard's extraordinary streak of solved cases and the antagonism between Felton and Pembleton, which is demonstrated when the two argue loudly after being assigned to a case together. The animosity between Felton and Pembleton is based on the real-life Detective Donald Kincaid, who was the inspiration behind Felton, and the strong dislike Kincaid had for Harry Edgerton, as chronicled in Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets.Kalat, pp. 30–31 Howard's perfect streak is based on a similar (although shorter) lucky streak experienced by the real-life Detective Rich Garvey, who is also featured in David Simon's book.Kalat, p. 66 ===Filming=== The episode was filmed over the course of seven days in Baltimore. The scene in which Pembleton and Felton try to find the correct police car in a large garage was filmed in a rundown early 20th-century ballroom. The scene features dozens of white unmarked Cavaliers. Shortly before "Gone for Goode" was filmed, the Baltimore Police Department stopped using Cavaliers as their regular brand of police car, and agreed to sell their collection of leftover Cavaliers to the Homicide show for $1. Although the cars were used as props in the episode, only two of the cars were actually drivable. The scenes set in the medical examiner's office were filmed in the actual Office of the Chief Medical Examiner in Baltimore. The actors, particularly Jon Polito, hated performing in the morgue because they found the atmosphere unsettling.Kalat, p. 106 Ned Beatty said of filming there, "The one thing you can't get on camera is, oh boy, it smells." The identification pictures of suspects that Munch looks through were all pictures of photos of members of the Homicide crew. One of the final scenes in the episode, featuring Polito, Johnson and Belzer speaking in an alley at night, was conceived, written and shot in one night simply because it was raining outside, and the Homicide crew wanted to take advantage of the location during a rainy night. Levinson said he considered the interrogation scene in "Gone for Goode" between Braugher, Secor and Chaplin, to be the "defining scene" for Frank Pembleton's character because it defined the character's intelligence, quirkiness, sharp instincts and sneaky interrogation style. While filming that scene, Levinson commented to Tom Fontana that the acting was so effective, an entire episode could be filmed revolving strictly around an interrogation. The comments partially inspired Fontana to write the first-season episode, "Three Men and Adena", which became one of the most critically acclaimed Homicide episodes. The final scene of the episode features Bayliss responding to the murder scene of Adena Watson in a rainy alleyway. The body was wrapped in a red raincoat, and Levinson worked with colorists to bleed out all the colors except that red to give the film a stark look.Kalat, p. 77 "Gone for Goode" originally included a scene with Gee and Bayliss discussing detective work at the police station. The scene, which was cut from the final episode, featured Gee comparing the work to challenges faced by literary character Sherlock Holmes, as well as Gee mistakenly referring to Holmes' antagonist Moriarty as "Murray". "Gone for Goode" marks the first performance of Richard Belzer as Detective John Munch, a character the actor has played in more than 300 television episodes in a number of shows, including Homicide and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Levinson said Belzer was a "lousy actor" during his first audition with the "Gone for Goode" script. Levinson asked Belzer to take some time to reread and practice the material, then come back and read it again. During his second reading, Levinson said Belzer was "still terrible", but that the actor eventually found confidence in his performance. "Gone for Goode" included guest appearances by actors who later become much more widely known. Steve Harris, who later achieved fame playing Eugene Young on the ABC legal drama The Practice, played an uncooperative suspect who repeatedly lies to Munch during questioning. Alexander Chaplin, who later played speechwriter James Hobert on the ABC sitcom Spin City, portrayed the alleged murderer Johnny in "Gone for Goode". The comedic confession scenes involving Jim Grollman as accused murderer Jerry Jempson were almost entirely improvised. The editing process for "Gone for Goode" proved difficult due to audio problems that forced producers to re-shoot several scenes. However, the cast and crew also found the atmosphere fun during editing, so much so that Barry Levinson's mother brought in home-baked snacks and the crew had to be asked to stop visiting because they were slowing down the edit sessions. When the cast finally watched the last cut of "Gone for Goode", they hugged each other in celebration. ==Cultural references== Throughout the episode, Crosetti discusses with Lewis various conspiracy theories about the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States. Crosetti disputes the accepted theory that actor John Wilkes Booth killed Lincoln and instead theorizes that Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederate States of America, organized the murder. Crosetti's assassination theories about Lincoln would be a recurring theme throughout the rest of the first season. Crosetti's fascination with the Lincoln assassination was based on Tom Fontana's real- life obsession with it.Kalat, p. 75 During an early scene in which a suspect tries lying to Munch, the detective berates the suspect for treating him as if he were Montel Williams instead of Larry King. King is a long-time television journalist and host of CNN's Larry King Live, whereas Williams is a more tabloid-style television show host. Williams is also a Baltimore native, which becomes a point of discussion between Munch and Bolander. Munch tells a lying suspect that his false story has an "Elmore Leonard quality", a reference to an American novelist and screenwriter. When Munch wonders how Romans become Italians, he asks when "Friends, Romans, countrymen; lend me your ears" turned into "Hey, yo!" The former line is from the William Shakespeare play Julius Caesar. Munch says, "Great, let's arrest Axl Rose", a Guns N' Roses musician, when he is told the suspect in a murder is blond. During one scene, the detectives eat steamed crabs. This was deliberately included in the episode to reflect the culinary culture of Baltimore, where eating crabs is extremely popular. During a discussion about Pembleton, Crosetti compares him to the lone wolf character played by actor Gary Cooper in the 1952 western film High Noon; when trying to recall the title of the film, Crosetti said the character had a New York City type of attitude, prompting Lewis to believe he is referring to the 1942 baseball film The Pride of the Yankees, also starring Cooper. ==Reception== ===Original broadcast and ratings=== "Gone for Goode" was scheduled to premiere on January 31, 1993, in the time slot immediately following Super Bowl XXVII. Having consistently placed third in the Nielsen ratings during prime time since September 1992, NBC hoped a large football audience coupled with an extensive advertising campaign would allow Homicide: Life on the Street to give the network a large ratings boost. The network ran numerous television commercials advertising the premiere episode, some of which focused on the involvement of Barry Levinson with the hope of capitalizing on the feature film director's household name. "Gone for Goode" was seen by 18.24 million viewers. It earned an 18 rating, which represents the percentage of television-equipped homes, and a 31 share, which represents percentage of sets in use.Kalat, p. 112 This marked the best ratings performance of a preview or premiere following a Super Bowl since The Wonder Years in 1988. It was also the largest viewership of the first season, in large part due to its 10:25 p.m. time-slot immediately following the Super Bowl. Nevertheless, NBC considered it a disappointing performance, based on the amount of advertising and press coverage the episode received. The episode received less than half the audience that the Super Bowl itself did. Levinson later said the Super Bowl crowd might not have been perfectly suited to Homicide: Life on the Street. In particular, regarding the episode's complex story lines and distinctive visual style, he said, "I imagine anyone who has been drinking a lot at a Super Bowl party might have trouble following the show." ===Reviews=== The debut episode received generally positive reviews. Kinney Littlefield of the Orange County Register said, "One word about 'Gone for Goode' - wow." Littlefield praised the episode for dropping the viewer into the middle of an episode with complex characters and storylines without getting too confusing. People magazine reviewer David Hiltbrand called the episode "extraordinary" and gave it an A grade. He complimented the realism, the hand-held camera work and the cast, particularly Belzer. Lon Grahnke of the Chicago Sun-Times complimented the cast and praised the show for not depending on car chases or action sequences. Grahnke also said the show "has the spice, dry wit and ethnic diversity of the Hill Street Blues crew, with even more eccentricities and a heightened sense of realism". John Goff of Daily Variety said the episode was well filmed and edited, and included a strong cast with performances "above normal level of series work". Entertainment Weekly writer Bruce Fretts particularly praised Andre Braugher's performance: "It's not often you actually witness a TV star being born... The moment the galvanic actor steps onto the screen, though, he owns it." The New York Times television critic John J. O'Connor praised the performance of Jon Polito, and said the role could be "the kind of career break Joe Pesci found in the Lethal Weapon movies".Kalat, p. 74 Mike Boone of The Gazette praised Belzer's performance and the hand-held camera style of photography, adding, "But if your picture tube blew Sunday night, you could still listen to an hour of the hippest, funniest dialogue on TV." Not all reviews were positive. Some critics considered the photography style of jump cuts and hand-held camera movement too jarring; some said it made them feel seasick. James Endrst, television columnist for The Hartford Courant, felt the episode was over-hyped and said "seen it, done it, been there before" of the filming techniques otherwise being praised as cutting edge. Endrst, however, praised the performances of Braugher, Belzer, Polito and Secor in particular. Time reviewer Richard Zoglin said the episode had a strong cast and that he appreciated the lack of two-dimensional violence, but said, "the characters are too pat, their conflicts too predictable", particularly the rookie character Bayliss. "Gone for Goode" was identified by The Baltimore Sun as one of the ten best episodes of the series. Sun writer David Zurawik wrote: "'Gone for Goode' is not just a well-crafted pilot, it is one of the best in the history of the medium. It introduced a sprawling cast of complicated characters and made us want to come back and visit this world again." "Gone for Goode" was also among a 1999 Court TV marathon of the top 15 Homicide episodes, as voted on by 20,000 visitors to the channel's website. ===Awards and nominations=== Barry Levinson won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for his direction in "Gone for Goode". It was one of two Emmys Homicide: Life on the Streets received during the 45th Primetime Emmy Awards season, with Tom Fontana also winning an Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the episode "Three Men and Adena". Levinson was also nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Direction in a Drama Series for the episode, but lost to Gregory Hoblit for his direction of the pilot episode of the police drama NYPD Blue. Paul Attanasio was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for his "Gone for Goode" script. It competed in that same category with Fontana's Homicide script "Night of the Dead Living", which eventually won the award. ==Home media== "Gone for Goode" and the rest of the first and second-season episodes were included in the four-DVD box-set "Homicide: Life on the Street: The Complete Seasons 1 & 2", which was released by A&E; Home Video on May 27, 2003, for $69.95. The set included an audio commentary by Barry Levinson and Tom Fontana for the "Gone for Goode" episode, as well as a collection of the commercials that advertised the episode during the Super Bowl. ==References== ==External links== * Category:1993 American television episodes Category:Homicide: Life on the Street (season 1) episodes Category:American television series premieres Category:Super Bowl lead-out shows |
Contentment is a relatively positive emotional state of satisfaction and inner peace. Colloquially speaking, contentment could be a state of having accepted one's situation and is a milder and more tentative form of happiness. Contentment and the pursuit thereof have been a central theme across a diverse range of cultures, religions and philosophies throughout human history: * Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, once said "Health is the most precious gain and contentment, the greatest wealth". * John Stuart Mill, centuries later, would write "I have learned to seek my happiness by limiting my desires, rather than in attempting to satisfy them." * Marcus Aurelius wrote "Live with the gods. And he who does so constantly shows them that his soul is satisfied with what is assigned to them." * Hebrews 13:5 reads "Keep your lives free from the love of money and be content with what you have, because God has said, 'Never will I leave you; never will I forsake you.'" * Chinese philosopher Zhuang Zhou once wrote in the 3rd century BCE, "A gentleman who profoundly penetrates all things and is in harmony with their transformations will be contented with whatever time may bring. He follows the course of nature in whatever situation he may be." The literature above all states that contentment is a state which is ideally reached through being happy with what a person has, as opposed to achieving one's larger ambitions. Socrates described this by saying, "He who is not contented with what he has, would not be contented with what he would like to have." There are a number of elements of achievement that make finding a state of personal contentment easier, such as a strong family unit, a strong local community, and satisfaction of life's basic needs as expressed in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. In general, the more needs in Maslow's hierarchy are achieved, the more easily one might achieve contentment. ==General== Many religions have some form of eternal bliss or heaven as their goal, often contrasted with eternal torment or dissatisfaction. The source of all dissatisfaction appears to stem from the ability to compare experiences and then infer that one's state is not ideal. In the Bible, there is an account that man's fall from his paradisal state was caused by man eating the forbidden fruit from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. Man's eyes were opened to know the distinction between good and evil (Genesis 3). In other words, when man becomes intellectually developed to distinguish between good and evil, he realizes there is a gap between what he considers good or ideal and what he is experiencing. The perception of this disparity is what creates psychological and physiological tension. In the Tao Te Ching, this development of man from his primal state of consciousness called Tao is similarly expounded in this manner: "When the Tao is lost, there is goodness. When goodness is lost, there is morality ...". Morality is the intellectual discernment between good and evil. There is a belief that one can achieve contentment by living "in the moment," which represents a way to stop the judgmental process of discriminating between good and bad. However, attempting to live in the moment is difficult because a person's attention is not only distracted by sensory stimuli but also psychological processes that conspire to make them think subconsciously or consciously. This thinking process is involved with memories; hence, the attempt to stay in the present is a ponderous one given that there is a subconscious struggle to break away from memories, especially unhappy ones. For this reason, specializations in this pursuit to live in the moment are found in various religious and mystical schools, manifested in forms of meditation and prayer. Various studies have shown prayer to promote well-being in religious people. Practicing contentment as an attitude is another way for a person to obtain it in their lives. Practicing gratitude is another way to understand what contentment as an attitude is about. Seen in this light, contentment is not an achievement but an attitude that one can adopt at any time. The American philosopher Robert Bruce Raup wrote a book Complacency: The Foundation of Human Behavior (1925) in which he claimed that the human need for complacency (i.e. inner tranquility) was the hidden spring of human behavior.Robert Bruce Raup, Complacency: The Foundation of Human Behavior (1925). Raup made this the basis of his pedagogical theory, which he later used in his criticisms of the American education system of the 1930s. In the context of present-day society, the multidimensional leisure culture evinces the desire of man to return to his core state of contentment by letting go of his hectic outer activities. ===Contentment and positive psychology=== In many ways, contentment can be closely associated with the concept of happiness and satisfaction. In positive psychology, social scientists study what might contribute to living a good life, or what would lead to people having increased positive mood and overall satisfaction with their life. Happiness, in positive psychology, is defined in a twofold manner, which in totality is referred to as subjective well-being. How much positive emotion (positive affect) as opposed to negative emotion (negative affect) a person has, and how one views one's life overall (global satisfaction) are the questions asked in positive psychology to determine happiness. Contentment is closely related to a person's level of satisfaction with his or her life (global satisfaction). left|thumb|"Contentment", by J. Ellsworth Gross, 1908 In the 2014 book Lucky Go Happy : Make Happiness Happen!, Paul van der Merwe uses a chart to illustrate how being content for long periods of time, can yield more happiness than being ecstatic during a short period. Positive psychology finds it very important to study what contributes to people being happy and to people flourishing, and finds it just as important to focus on the constructive ways in which people function and adapt, as opposed to the general field of psychology which focuses more on what goes wrong or is pathological with human beings. The role of positive psychology can have a great impact on the many aspects of one's life. Human beings have a great ability to adapt, we can adapt to both the good and the bad that may happen in life. Usually in life, circumstances do not hold a long lasting effect on one's mood. ===Variables that contribute to happiness in research=== ====Satisficer vs. maximizer==== These are two concepts that define the ways in which people make choices. A satisficer is a person who will make a decision once his/her criteria are met, and a maximizer, on the other hand, won't make a decision until every possible option is explored. ====Genes==== There is evidence suggesting that there is a relationship between contentment and genes. In a study done by Weiss et al. (2008) they found that genetics can be a factor in a person’s overall well-being. More specifically, genes seem to be within the layer of factors that contribute to well-being and happiness. The study suggested that genes have a positive relationship between personality traits and happiness traits, similar to the relationship of comorbidity in psychopathy. In a more recent study by Matsunaga et al. (2018), certain gene receptors have been found to play a role in the perception of one’s happiness as they directly impact emotional processing and other physiological processes such as appetite regulation, evaluation of self and others, and memory. ====Personality==== Through factor analysis, personality can be narrowed down according to the five factor model, which holds that there are five aspects of heritable personality traits: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Research has shown that personality is 50% heritable, but not always. One's level or perception of happiness, or one's subjective well- being, has shown to be related to personality traits. There are two aspects of personality which are related to happiness. There is a strong relationship between extraversion and happiness, in that the more extraverted a person is (or behaves) the more happy he/she will likely be. The other aspect of personality which has a strong relationship to happiness is the genetic predisposition to neuroticism. The more neurotic (emotionally unstable) a person is, the more likely he/she is to be unhappy. In a study concerning the development of the positive emotion assessment, also known as PEACE, on contentment it was found that higher levels of contentment were correlated with low levels of need for materialism and greed. ====Goal pursuits==== Reaching goals that are important to oneself and that are in alignment with one's personality can contribute to feelings of confidence and mastery. It is important to establish goals that are neither too easy or too hard, but that are optimally challenging. It is also important to note that investing energy in avoiding goals will contribute to diminishing happiness as well as deter one from reaching one's goals, which can be quite intuitive to understand. ====Money==== Many people strongly associate money with happiness, and they believe that being rich will contribute greatly to making them happier, and the American society reflects this growing materialism. Although wealth is associated with some positive outcomes, i.e. lighter prison sentences for the same crime, better health, and lower infant mortality, and can act as a buffer in certain instances, as mentioned previously, the overall relationship between money and happiness is marginal. However, beyond a low threshold where the basic needs are met, money has a very small impact on happiness. There is also the concept of the diminishing marginal utility of income (DMUI), which is that money has no effect on happiness once a certain income level has been reached, and which represents wealth and happiness as having a curvilinear relationship. Indeed, when one has met his basic needs and have more to spare, it is time to spend or give some to experience happiness. This is because happiness is really a state of in-and-out flow of one's energy. Using or giving money is an expression of out-flowing of one's life-state. Attempt to just hoard more and more in the belief that it brings more happiness can lead to the opposite result if only because the means – that is the pursuit of money for happiness – has unwittingly become the ends. ====Leisure (also Leisure satisfaction)==== The concept of work-life balance is now well- accepted. The 'life' aspect of this 'work-life' concept includes activities devoted to one's personal life which sometimes calls for the kind of commitment and effort no less than that demanded from one's work-life. In some societies, this 'life' aspect might include looking after the elderly and infirm, sending children to and from schools, preparing the meals, cleaning the house and doing the laundry. They are as much work as the work life, and in the midst of all these, the need for leisure activities is simply an alien concept. Leisure as a culture is not a universal societal value although the younger generation in developed or near-developed societies seems more inclined toward it. Overseas trips, lounging in a cafe with friends, attending concerts, relaxing in a spa, karaoke-ing and similar activities after office hours are now prevalent among that generation. In fact, over the last 15 years, the market has seen a tremendous surge in demand for such leisure services. In his book "In the Era of Human Capital", Richard Crawford charted the exponential growth of the Business & Leisure sector in the post-industrial society. This trend might look like an offshoot of a more affluent society; however, the need for leisure is intrinsic in humans and only through the demands of modern economic life – run as it were by the clock, timetables, deadlines and schedules – did this need fade into the background. thumb|right|350px|Human Contentments (20th century), a painting by Edgard Farasyn Humans' need for leisure is intrinsic because that is the state they were born with, or rather, that is the state of life in the natural world. Leisure implies that one is not pressured by others or oneself to deliver a certain result but that life is lived to enjoy the simple pleasures of exploring the world that one is born into. This happy state of life is that generally experienced by the pre-school child and is gradually lost when duties and responsibilities of school life and subsequently the adult work- life enter into the picture. Not all societies have embraced the leisure culture whether through certain public policies like having a universal welfare system, and psychological and financial preparedness on the part of individuals for retirement wherein leisure is the salient feature. This even applies to developed nations. For example, the US has a "retirement crisis" in which a large percentage of Americans do not have sufficient savings for retirement. Economic productivity being often if not always equated with work, the culture of leisure is seldom recognized as a major contributor to a growing business sector. For this reason, many societies do not have in place an infrastructure that strongly supports the leisure culture – such as represented by a universal social welfare system, a wealth of products, services and amenities for retirees. Such societies even if they were to become more affluent may continue to find happiness elusive even for retirees. Leisure is intrinsically sought after as a way to release the tensions of work-life. It is often used to indulge in activities meant to reduce stress, such as surfing the Internet, watching movies or playing games. Leisure also allows people – without the need of any modern gadgets – to re-connect with family and friends and experience the happiness arising from interactions such as chatting over a drink or meal. ====Health==== Historically, major Eastern mystical teachings on human development, like those from India and China, do not make a separation between the spiritual and physical. Happiness or contentment was never viewed as an isolated state from physical health. Physical health-enhancing practices such as Hatha yoga and qigong – and their respective herbalism known as Ayurveda and TCM (traditional Chinese medicine) – were consonant with and fully integrated into those mystical teachings in the implicit belief that the attainment of the ideal state of consciousness requires a healthy body as a launchpad or basis even. Personal development and health in these systems are understood more as a holistic development of the various aspects of the multidimensional human being. The concept of body and mind interplay (including relationship factor) now known as psychosomatic medicine has always been present in these "mystical teachings", particularly in TCM. An unhappy, angry patient may be told by a TCM physician that there is a lot of trapped heat in their internal organs and then treated accordingly with herbs or acupuncture. At times, if the TCM physician is a qigong practitioner, they may even recommend some qigong exercises for the patient to practise. However given that adepts in such complex holistic analysis and treatment are hard to come by, Eastern health maintenance practices may not necessarily be always adequate, reliable or even safe. Mainstream Western medicine and a good personal knowledge into the common health issues and how to treat them safely at home should also be included in the total package to ensure good health so that the human body can be fit vehicle for optimal and positive performance – the foundation of happiness. Outer success and material possession are secondary when health is compromised. One cannot be happy or contented when the body is broken, although there are rare, exceptional individuals who are able to rise above their physical predicament. However, for the vast majority having a good knowledge and an effective protocol for personal health is critical to happiness not just to oneself but also to one's family and friends. ====Laughter==== Laughter is synonymous with happiness. A proposal is made here that when a line of thought (e.g. joke) or sensation (e.g. tickling) is not expected by one's psychological or physiological order respectively, it triggers a certain chaos and temporary breakdown of that order. The innate Contentment intrinsic to the person then breaks through this temporal breach to express itself in happy laughter. Laughter has been used as a health therapy for many years such as in some hospitals through the showing of TV comedies for patients. Laughter clubs have also been formed in India and some Asian countries to promote laughter as a form of health-enhancement through regular meet-ups. Recent findings show that there is truth in the popular saying, "Laughter is the best medicine,". ====Universal social welfare==== Contentment has also been studied as a cultural or political phenomenon. The Nordic nations, which have repeatedly appeared near the top in Happiness Index surveys like World Happiness Report – and most likely correlated economic performance as well – contend that higher rates of happiness are rooted in their welfare system, the "Nordic model", which not only fulfills the healthcare, social and other essential needs of their people but also is proposed to provide a high sense of security. Other research indicates a substantial portion of Scandinavians exaggerate their sense of happiness or contentment when asked informally or in surveys, due to social prohibitions against expressing negativity or unhappiness.Michael Booth. The Almost Nearly Perfect People: Behind the Myth of Scandinavian Utopia. Picador, 2016 The region's rates of alcohol abuse, among the highest in Europe, have also been cited as an indication that the positive social effects attributed to the Nordic model are exaggerated.Booth, 2016 == Judaism == Some of the earliest references to the state of contentment are found in the reference to the midah (personal attribute) of Samayach B'Chelko (in Hebrew שמח בחלקו). The expression comes from the word samayach (root Sin-Mem-Chet in Hebrew - ש.מ.ח) meaning "happiness, joy or contentment", and chelko (root Chet-Lamed-Kuf in Hebrew - ח.ל.ק) meaning "portion, lot, or piece", and combined mean contentment with one's lot in life. The attribute is referred to in the Mishnahic source which says, "Ben Zoma said: Who is rich? Those who are happy with their portion." The origins of contentment in Jewish culture reflect an even older thinking reflected in the Book of Proverbs which says: "A joyful heart makes a cheerful face; A sad heart makes a despondent mood. All the days of a poor person are wretched, but contentment is a feast without end."Proverbs 15:13 and 15, Rabbi Meir Leibush (Malbim) The issue of contentment remained in Jewish thinking during the Middle Ages as evident for example in the writings of Solomon Ibn Gabirol, an eleventh-century Spanish poet-philosopher who taught: Who seeks more than he needs, hinders himself from enjoying what he has. Seek what you need and give up what you need not. For in giving up what you don't need, you'll learn what you really do need.Mivhar Hapeninim 155,161 as found in The Jewish Moral Virtues, Borowitz and Schwartz, p.164 == Christianity == During his ministry, Christ himself gives an inventory of these "satisfactions", called beatitudes: "Blessed are the poor in spirit, for the Kingdom of Heaven is theirs", "Blessed are the hungry and thirsty for righteousness, for they will be satisfied ”,“ happy the pure in heart, for they will see God ”. Many other people in the Bible also spoke about contentment: Jesus Christ defended love as the fundamental element for achieving harmony on all levels, including the level of individual happiness. True gratitude comes from accepting Christ and believing that in Him you will have everything you need. Be content (Luke 10:7). The 70 disciples were told not to seek better accommodations; they were to stay in the home that first received them. The vision of Christianity considers that in life it is essential to be happy and satisfied. ==Islam== In Islam, true contentment is achieved through establishing a relationship with Allah, always keeping Him in mind. The Quran states: This verse reveals that the more the people gain the trivial goods of this life, the greater becomes the hunger and the consequent burning of their hearts. Moreover, there is no end for worldly desires and greed. But as for those who seek God, the more they turn to Him, the greater is their peace of mind. This means that a search for the divine or a supreme Deity is inherent within human nature and the innermost yearning of a human being. The real and ultimate goal of a person's life. In a well known Hadith (saying of the prophet Muhammad) the prophet said: ==Eastern religions== In Yoga (Yoga Sutras of Patanjali), movement or positions, breathing practices, and concentration, as well as the yamas and niyamas, can contribute to a physical state of contentment (santosha). ===Buddhism=== Contentment which known as santutthi in Pāli is the freedom from anxiety, wanting, or craving. It is an important virtue that was mentioned in many important Buddhist scriptures like Metta Sutta, Mangala Sutta etc. In the verse 204 of Dhammapada, contentment is mentioned as the greatest wealth. In the "Discourse on the Traditions of the Noble Ones" from Anguttara Nikāya, Lord Buddha mentioned that the Noble Ones are contented with old robes, old almsfood and old lodging. "Having cast away all deeds, Who could obstruct him? Like an ornament of finest gold, Who is fit to find fault with him?"The Traditions of the Noble Ones : Ariya-vaṁsa Sutta (AN 4:28) ===Sikhism=== Contentment (or Sabar or Santokh) is an important aspect in Sikh life and is known as attainment of First Treasure. Sikhism categorizes Contentment into two forms: Contentment (Santokh) and True Contentment (Satt Santokh/Sabar). Contentment can be broken, turning souls greedy for the temporal world, but True Contentment is never broken and such a soul is eligible for the Supreme State.ਸਤ ਸੰਤੋਖਿ ਸਬਦਿ ਅਤਿ ਸੀਤਲੁ ਸਹਜ ਭਾਇ ਲਿਵ ਲਾਇਆ ॥੩॥ You are true and content; the Word of Your Shabad is cool and soothing. Through it, we are lovingly, intuitively attuned to You. ||3||, Page 1038, Adi Granth The soul having contentment is called SaabariPage 1384, Adi Granth; ਸਬਰ ਅੰਦਰਿ ਸਾਬਰੀ ਤਨੁ ਏਵੈ ਜਾਲੇਨ੍ਹ੍ਹਿ ॥ Sabar anḏar sābrī ṯan evai jāleniĥ. Those who are patient abide in patience; in this way, they burn their bodies. or Santokhi. ==See also== *Comfort *Deferred gratification *Gratification *Pleasure *Happiness ==Footnotes== 5 Ways To Feel Content With Your Life Right NowWith Your Life Right Now]==References== * Borowitz, Eugene B. & Weinman Schwartz, Frances, The Jewish Moral Virtues, Jewish Publication Society, 1999 * Meir Leibush (Malbim), Rabbi, translated by Charles Wengrov and Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg, Malbim on Mishley: The Book of Proverbs in Hebrew & English, Feldheim, 2001 * Fohrman, David & Kasnett, Nesanel, Rabbis, editors, Babylonian Talmud Volume 3, Shabbat 32a, Volume I, ArtScroll / Mesorah, 1999 * Category:Positive mental attitude Category: Happiness Category:Emotions Category:Virtue |
Martin Kay (1935 – 8 August 2021) was a computer scientist, known especially for his work in computational linguistics. Born and raised in the United Kingdom, he received his M.A. from Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1961. In 1958 he started to work at the Cambridge Language Research Unit, one of the earliest centres for research in what is now known as Computational Linguistics. In 1961, he moved to the Rand Corporation in Santa Monica, California, US, where he eventually became head of research in linguistics and machine translation. He left Rand in 1972 to become Chair of the Department of Computer Science at the University of California, Irvine. In 1974, he moved to the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center as a Research Fellow. In 1985, while retaining his position at Xerox PARC, he joined the faculty of Stanford University half-time. He was most recently Professor of Linguistics at Stanford University and Honorary Professor of Computational Linguistics at Saarland University. ==Life== He was born in Edgware (Middlesex, Great Britain) in 1935 and he studied linguistics and computational linguistics at Trinity College in Cambridge. His main interests were translation, both by people and machines, and computational linguistic algorithms, especially in the fields of morphology and syntax. ==Work== Kay began his career at the Cambridge language Research Unit in Cambridge, England under Margaret Masterman. In 1961 David G. Hays hired him to work for the RAND Corporation; he subsequently worked for the University of California, Irvine and Xerox PARC. Kay is one of the pioneers of computational linguistics and machine translation. He was responsible for introducing the notion of chart parsing in computational linguistics, and the notion of unification in linguistics generally. With Ron Kaplan, he pioneered research and application development in finite-state morphology. He has been a longtime contributor to, and critic of, work on machine translation. In his seminal paper "The Proper Place of Men and Machines in Language Translation,"Kay, Martin. "The proper place of men and machines in language translation." machine translation 12.1-2 (1997): 3-23. Kay argued for MT systems that were tightly integrated in the human translation process. He was reviewer and critic of EUROTRA, Verbmobil, and many other MT projects. Kay was a former Chair of the Association of Computational Linguistics and President of the International Committee on Computational Linguistics. He was a Research Fellow at Xerox PARC until 2002. He held an honorary doctorate of Gothenburg University. Kay received the lifetime Achievement Award of the Association for Computational Linguistics for his sustained role as an intellectual leader of NLP research in 2005. ==Achievements and honours== * His achievements included the development of chart parsing and functional unification grammar and major contributions to the application of finite state automata in computational phonology and morphology. He was also regarded as a leading authority on machine translation. * His honours included an honorary Doctor of Philosophy from Gothenburg University and the 2005 Association for Computational Linguistics' Lifetime Achievement Award. He was the permanent chairman of the International Committee on Computational Linguistics. ==Contributions== 1\. Martin Kay's "proper" paper [1] After the ALPAC report in 1966, the conclusion was made as "There is no immediate or predictable prospect of useful MT producing useful translation of general scientific texts." [2] And because of this result, the field of machine translation entered into a dark period. From 1966 to 1976, almost ten years, few researches were done. However, in 1980s, the Renaissance period was coming. [3] "The Proper Place of Men and Machines in Language Translation" attracted more attention on the machine translation. In this paper, new thoughts were achieved about the relationship between machine translation and human translation. At that time, with the application of cheaper computers and broad usage of domains in machine translation, high quality outputs were badly needed. And the theory of Fully Automatic High Quality Translation was just the ideal level for machine translation after the criticisms by Bar-Hillel in his 1960s review of MT progress: "The goal of MT should not be the fully automatic high quality translation (FAHQT) that can replace human translators. Instead, MT should adopt less ambitious goals, e.g. more cost-effective human-machine interaction and aim at enhancement of human translation productivity." [4] The useful of human translation was promoted to a new higher level. According to this thought, Martin Kay proposed a more practical idea about the relationship between human and machine in the process of machine translation, called "translator's amanuensis". 1.1 Two arguments against the useful of machine translation Because this idea includes the human and machine at the same time, so both computer scientists and linguists have responsibilities to the MT. But "they should never be asked to provide an engineering solution to a problem that they only dimly understand." They just need to achieve "by doing only what can be done with absolute surety and reliability …can be virtually guaranteed to all concerned." As the main parts of the translation, there are two related arguments against the plausibility of machine translation as an industrial enterprise from the point of view of linguistics and computer science. Two arguments are commonly made for ad hoc solutions to the problems of machine translation. In the former argument, "Ad hoc solutions tend to be based on case-by-case analyses of what linguists call surface phenomena, essentially strings of words, and on real or imagined statistical properties of particular styles of writing and domains of discourse." It is a simple statistical claim that can be dismissed. In the second argument, ad hoc solutions is only alluded to the understanding of the second language by reading text, and was called sorcerer's apprentice, because "this kind of argument is to the effect that the kind of incomplete theory that linguists and computer scientists have been able to provide is often a worse base on which to build practical devices than no theory at all because the theory does not know when to stop." "The main problem with the sorcerer's-apprentice argument is that the decision that a sentence could be translated without analysis can only be made after the fact. Example sentence shows that there is more than one interpretation of a sentence at some level and further analysis shows that there is a single translation that is compatible with each of them. In short, the algorithm required to decide when analysis is required would have to use the results of the very analysis it is designed to avoid." 1.2 The Translator's Amanuensis and translation memory This is the main part of the paper, for illustrate what is translator's amanuensis, the author showed three aspects: text editing, translation aids, and machine translation. "Suppose that the translators are provided with a terminal consisting of a keyboard, a screen, and some way of pointing at individual words and letters. The display on the screen is divided into two windows. The text to be translated appears in the upper window and the translation will be composed in the bottom one." It is the form of the translator's amanuensis which is not a real device and never will. "Both windows behave in the same way. Using the pointing device, the translator can select a letter, word, sentence, line, or paragraph and, by pressing the appropriate key, cause some operation to be visited upon it." These two figures show the translation process from the initial display to selection. This device is not simple as these two figures, more special service can be made to translator by it. In the translation aids, the author showed the third figure: "A relatively trivial addition would be a dictionary. The translator selects a word or sequence of words and gives a command to cause them to be looked up…This new window gives the effect of overlaying some portion of the windows already present. In this case, the new window contains a deceptively simple dictionary entry for the selected word." What's more, the device has many other features. For example, the simplicity of the dictionary entry, words Syntax and Semantics will be included when pointing to symbols, modifiable dictionary entries and the temporary amendments make this device more practical. Then, machine translation be explained. "One of the options that should be offered to a user of the hypothetical system I have been describing, at a fairly early stage, be a command that will direct the program to translate the currently selected unit. What will happen when this command is given will be different at different stages of the system's development. But a user of the system will always be empowered to intervene in the translation process to the extent that he himself specifies. If he elects not to intervene at all, a piece of text purporting to translate the current unit will be displayed in the lower window of his screen. He will be able to edit this in any way he likes, just as post-editors have done in the past. Alternatively, he may ask to be consulted whenever the program is confronted with a decision of a specified type, when certain kinds of ambiguities are detected, or whatever. On these occasions, the system will put a question to the human translator. He may, for example, ask to be consulted on questions of pronominal reference." In this part, idea of translation memory was shown as a dictionary operation. "Suppose, for example, that a word is put in the local store – that part of the dictionary that persists only as long as this document is being worked on – if it occurs in the text significantly more frequently than statistics stored in the main dictionary indicate. A phrase will be noted if it occurs two or three times but is not recognized as an idiom or set phrase by the dictionary. By examining the contents of this store before embarking on the translation, a user may hope to get a preview of the difficulties ahead and to make some decisions in advance about how to treat them. These decisions, of course, will be recorded in the store itself. In the course of doing this or, indeed, for any reason whatever, the translator can call for a display of all the units in the text that contain a certain word, phrase, string of characters, or whatever. After all, the most important reference to have when translating a text is the text itself. If the piece of text to be translated next is anything but entirely straightforward, the translator might start by issuing a command causing the system to display anything in the store that might be relevant to it. This will bring to his attention decisions he made before the actual translation started, statistically significant words and phrases, and a record of anything that had attracted attention when it occurred before. Before going on, he can examine past and future fragments of text that contain similar material." 1.3 Expectation of the better performance of the translator's amanuensis At the end of the paper, Kay mentioned some reasons to expect better performance of this device. First, the system is in a position to draw its human collaborator's attention to the matters most likely to need it, second, the decisions that have to be made in the course of translating a passage are rarely independent, third, one of the most important facilities in the system is the one that keeps track of words and phrases that are used in some special way in the current text. * «A Life in Language». A speech given in acknowledgement of the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 27 June 2005. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/LifeOfLanguage.pdf * String Alignment Using Suffix Trees. A paper about the possible use of suffix trees for aligning texts and their translations. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/CYCLING.pdf * Some unfinished musings on the nature of translation. Here are some unfinished musings on the nature of translation. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/CurrentState.pdf * Some half-baked thoughts on language models in statistical NLP on which I need some help. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/language_models.pdf * His 1994 paper on "Regular Models of Phonological Rule Systems". Computational Linguistics 20(3):331–378" with Ronald Kaplan. http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Kaplan%26Kay.pdf ==Books== * Linguistics and Information Science (with Karen Spärck Jones), Academic Press, 1973. * Natural Language in Information Science (edited with D. E. Walker and Hans Karlgren), Skriptor, Stockholm, 1977 * Verbmobil: A Translation System for Face-to-Face Dialog (with Jean Mark Gawron and Peter Norvig), CSLI, Stanford, California, 1994. * An Introduction to Machine Translation. W. John Hutchins and Harold L. Somers. London: Academic Press, 1992. * Handbook of Computational Linguistics. Ruslan Mitkov (ed.). Oxford University Press, 2003. (Introduction.) ==Selected papers== * "Rules of Interpretation—An Approach to the Problem of Computation in the Semantics of Natural Language", in Proceedings of the Second International Congress of the International Federation for Information Processing, 1962. * "A Parsing Procedure" Proceedings of the Second International Congress of the International Federation for Information Processing, 1962. * "A General Procedure for Rewriting Strings", paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Machine Translation and Computational Linguistics, Bloomington, Indiana, 1964. * The Logic of Cognate Recognition in Historical Linguistics, RM-4224-PR, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, July 1964. * A Parsing Program for Categorial Grammars, RM-4283-PR, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, August 1964. * The Tabular Parser: A Parsing Program for Phrase-Structure and Dependency, RM-4933-PR, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, July 1966. * The Computer System to Aid the Linguistic Field Worker, P-4095, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, May 1969. * The MIND System: The Morphological Analysis Program, RM-6265/2-PR, Santa Monica, The RAND Corporation, April 1970. (with Gary R. Martins). * "Automatic Translation of Natural Languages" in Language as a Human Problem: Daedalus, 1973. * "Functional Unification Grammar: A Formalism for Machine Translation" in Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 84), The Association for Computational Linguistics, 1984. * "Parsing in Free Word Order Languages" (with Lauri Karttunen), in Dowty, David R., Lauri Karttunen, and Arnold M. Zwicky, Natural Language Parsing, Cambridge University Press, 1985. * "Unification in Grammar", in Dahl, V., and P. Saint-Dizier, Natural Language Understanding and Logic Programming, North Holland, 1985. * "Theoretical Issues in the Design of a Translator's Work Station", Proceedings of the IBM workshop on Computers and Translation, Copenhagen. * "Regular Models of Phonological Rule Systems" (with R. M. Kaplan), Computational Linguistics 20:3 (September 1994. With R. M. Kaplan). * "Substring Alignment Using Suffix Trees". Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing, Springer, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2004. ==Course readings== * Disjunctive Unification http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/DisjunctiveUnification.pdf * Functional Uncertainty http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/FunctionalUncertainty.pdf * HPSG1 http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/pollard-foundations.pdf * HPSG2 http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/levine03.pdf * HPSG Generation http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Shieber.pdf * CCG http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Steedman%26Baldridge.pdf * Typed Features http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/Copestake.pdf * Dependency http://www.stanford.edu/~mjkay/covington.pdf ==Awards== * He has an honorary professorship at the University of the Saarland and honorary doctorates from the universities of Gothenburg and Geneva. * He also won the 2005 ACL Lifetime Achievement Award. His acceptance speech was entitled "A Life of Language". ==References== ==External links== *Stanford home page *University of Saarland home page *ACL Lifetime Achievement Award citation *"A Life of Language" — ACL Lifetime Award Acceptance Speech – Martin Kay outlining his work in Computational Linguistics (13 pages) *Lecture announcement with biographical note *An interview (video and audio) with Martin Kay at the Oxford Internet Institute, June 18, 2009 Category:Living people Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Category:British computer scientists Category:Computational linguistics researchers Category:University of California, Irvine faculty Category:Stanford University Department of Linguistics faculty Category:Computer science writers Category:British emigrants to the United States Category:Scientists at PARC (company) Category:1935 births Category:Presidents of the Association for Computational Linguistics |
The Left SR uprising, or Left SR revolt, was an uprising against the Bolsheviks by the Left Socialist Revolutionary Party. The uprising started on 6 July 1918 and was claimed to be intended to restart the war against Germany.Boniece, Sally A. - link "Don Quixotes of the Revolution"? The Left SRs as a Mass Political Movement. Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 5.1 (2004) 185–194 It was one of a number of left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks that took place during the Russian Civil War. == Background == The revolt was led by the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries in Moscow. Previously, the Socialist Revolutionary Party had supported the continuation of the war by the Provisional Government after the February Revolution of 1917. The Bolshevik Party came to power in November 1917 through the simultaneous election in the soviets and an organized uprising supported by military mutiny. Several of the main reasons the population supported the Bolsheviks were to end the war and have a social revolution, exemplified by the slogan "Peace, Land, Bread". The Bolsheviks invited left SRs and Martov's Menshevik Internationalists to join the government. Left SRs split from the main SR party and joined the Bolshevik coalition government, supporting the Bolsheviks immediate enactment of the Socialist Revolutionary Party's land redistribution program. The Left SRs were given four Commissar positions and held high posts within the Cheka. The Left SRs still diverged with the Bolsheviks on the issue of the war and were dismayed that the Treaty of Brest- Litovsk gave up large amounts of territory in Eastern Europe to the Central Powers. With the treaty, the Left SRs considered that the opportunity to spread the revolution throughout Europe had been lost. They left the Council of People's Commissars in protest in March 1918 and at the 4th Congress of Soviets they voted against the treaty. Although they continued to work in the Cheka, which played a decisive role in rebellion. Left Social Revolutionaries remained on the boards of the People's Commissars, the military department, various committees, commissions, and councils. In Finland, where the soviet government had pledged by the treaty not to intervene, the landing of German troops significantly helped the "white" (counter-revolutionary) forces to crush the Finnish Revolution. In Ukraine, a puppet government, the Hetmanate, had been established with German backing. The forces of the Central Powers advanced through Ukraine towards Rostov-on-Don while Ottoman units made it into the Caucasus. In March, Allied troops landed in Murmansk and reached the Russian Far East the next month. In late May, clashes between the Russians and the Czechoslovak Legion began, and in June rival anti-Bolshevik governments were formed in Samara (the Komuch) and Omsk (the Provisional Siberian Government). The Left SRs strongly objected to the invasion and opposed Trotsky's insistence that nobody was allowed to attack German troops in Ukraine.Carr, E.H. - The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923. W. W. Norton & Company 1985. (162–167) Sergey Mstislavsky coined the slogan “It's not a war, it's an uprising!”, calling on the “masses” to “rebel” against the German- Austrian occupation forces, accusing the Bolsheviks of creating a “state that obstructs the working class", moving away from the position of revolutionary socialism onto the path of opportunistic service to the state." A new surge of tension was associated with an increase in the activity of the Bolsheviks in rural villages, when the Bolshevik-controlled government announced, by decree, the enforcement of a state bread monopoly and the organization of "food detachments" for the compulsory collection of bread. On 14 June 1918, representatives of the Socialist-Revolutionary parties (both Left and Right) and the Mensheviks were expelled from the All-Russian Central Executive Committee by a Bolshevik decree. By this same decree, all Soviets of workers, soldiers, peasants, and Cossack deputies were also invited to remove representatives of these parties from their midst. Vladimir Karelin, a member of the Central Committee of the Left SRs, called this decree illegal, since only the All-Russian Congress of Soviets could change the composition of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. In early July, the Third Congress of the Left Socialist Revolutionary Party was held, in its resolution to the present moment sharply condemned the policy of the Bolsheviks: According to Richard Pipes, ==Fifth Congress of Soviets== thumb|Boris Kamkov, one the main leaders of the Left SRs In this situation of internal tension, on 4 July, the 5th All-Russian Congress of Soviets began to decide the country's policy. The confrontation between the SRs and Bolsheviks was harsh. Left SR speakers fiercely attacked the policy of the Bolsheviks, from the requisitioning of grain and suppression of opposition parties, to the institution of the death penalty. They argued especially against the Bolshevik peace with imperialist Germany and the lack of defense of the revolution in Ukraine and Finland. Boris Kamkov promised to "sweep food detachments from the villages." Maria Spiridonova characterized the Bolsheviks as "traitors to the revolution" and "successors to the policy of the Kerensky government." The Left SRs also called for proportional representation in the elections of the Soviets, due to the sharp vote disparity between rural and city-dwelling workers.Text of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 in Wikisource However, the Bolsheviks had sent a large number of delegates who were suspected of not being legitimately elected, simply to achieve a large majority in Congress. The Left Socialist- Revolutionaries had 352 delegates compared to 745 Bolsheviks out of 1132 total. The vast Bolshevik majority thwarted the socialist-revolutionary plans to change government policy in Congress, which was now firmly in the hands of Lenin's party. This disillusionment felt by the Left SRs, the sense of danger in the face of the Bolshevik threats —embodied in Trotsky's resolution that allowed the execution of those who opposed the German occupation of Ukraine— and the conviction that a terrorist action could force the start of new hostilities with Germany led the socialist-revolutionary leadership to plot the murder of the German ambassador in Moscow. The SR's objective was not to challenge the Bolsheviks, but to force the Sovnarkom to confront the Germans; the left SRs preferred to achieve this through motions of congress, but, once this route was exhausted, the SRs resumed the decision to carry out the Assassinations. Knowledge of the plans was confined to only a few members of the central committee: neither the delegates of the Soviet congress, nor those of the party congress, nor the Cheka's lieutenant himself, Vyacheslav Aleksandrovich, received any communication about the resolution of the central committee. == Assassination of Mirbach == On 25 June 1918, Count Mirbach informed his boss, State Secretary of the German Foreign Ministry Richard von Kühlmann about the deep political crisis of the Bolshevik government: “Today, after more than 2 months of careful observation, I don’t think I can make a more favorable diagnosis of Bolshevism: we, no doubt, are at the bedside of a seriously ill patient; and although moments of apparent improvement are possible, ultimately it is doomed." In May, he sent a telegraph to Berlin saying “the Entente allegedly spends huge sums to bring the right wing of the Socialist Revolutionary Party to power and resume the war... Sailors on ships... are probably bribed, like the former Preobrazhensky regiment. Weapons stocks... from weapons factories in the hands of the Socialist Revolutionaries." German diplomat Carl von Botmer also testified that the German embassy, beginning in mid-June 1918, repeatedly received threats that the Bolshevik security service had investigated, but to no avail. Yakov Blumkin, a Left SR in charge of the Cheka counter-espionage section dedicated to monitoring the activity of the Germans, and Nikolai Andreyev, a photographer the same section, received an order from Maria Spiridonova on 4 July, to carry out the assassination of the German ambassador in two days time. The day of the uprising was chosen, among other reasons, because it was the Latvian national holiday Ivanov Day (Jāņi), which was supposed to neutralize the Latvian units most loyal to the Bolsheviks. The Leadership of the Left SRs believed this assassination would lead to a widespread popular uprising in support of their aims. They claimed to be leading a revolt against the peace with Germany and not necessarily against the Bolsheviks and soviet power. On 6 July 1918, at about 1:00 PM, a member of the Left SR central committee, probably Maria Spiridonova, handed over weapons and instructions to the assassins. Blumkin and Andreyev hid the pistols and grenades in briefcases and drove in a Cheka car to the German embassy, where they arrived at 2:15 PM. They showed a letter of introduction, supposedly signed by the head of Cheka Felix Dzerzhinsky and asked to see German envoy. Mirbach believed that the Chekists were coming to inform him of a plan to assassinate him, a plan he'd been warned about earlier. During their conversation - at about 2:50 PM, Blumkin drew up a revolver and shot at Count Mirbach, Dr. Riezler, and the interpreter, Lt. Mueller, but failed to injure any of them. Riezler and Mueller took shelter under a large table, whereas Mirbach, who tried to escape, was then shot by Andreev. The assassins jumped out of a window while throwing grenades to create confusion; Blumkin fractured a leg in the jump and was injured by one of the embassy sentinels. The pair fled and disappeared in a car that was waiting for them in front of the embassy, heading straight for a Cheka HQ (under the command of Dmitry Popov) where the Left SR central committee was waiting. They made many mistakes during the assassination: they left a briefcase at the scene containing certificates in the name of Blumkin and Andreev, witnesses to the murders of Riezler and Mueller also survived. In the turmoil, they even left their caps at the embassy. That same afternoon, Lenin had sent some of the few remaining forces in the city to the northeast, to try to quell the Yaroslavl uprising, which had just broken out. Only a few Latvian marksmen units, Cheka forces and some Red Guard and Army units (still in training), remained in Moscow. Lenin received the news shortly after, not knowing who had perpetrated the attack, and immediately went to the embassy to apologize for the murder and try to calm the Germans. Later that night, when going to give condolences to the embassy, Dzerzhinski indicated that the authors were socialist-revolutionary members of the Cheka. At the same time, the Foreign Commissioner, Georgy Chicherin, communicated to him the German demand to station troops in Moscow. A few weeks later, on 30 July, the commander of German occupation forces Hermann von Eichhorn was assassinated in Kiev, by the Left SR Boris Donskoy. == First skirmishes == Dzerzhinsky personally appeared at the headquarters of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Cheka detachment and demanded the extradition of Mirbach's killers. Accompanied by three Chekists, Dzerzhinsky began to search the premises, breaking several doors. At this point, the Central Committee of the Left SRs left the Congress of Soviets, which was taking place at that time, and began a meeting at the headquarters of the Popov detachment, where Dzerzhinsky discovered it. Dzerzhinsky threatened to shoot almost the entire Left SR Central Committee, announced the arrest of the Left Socialist-Revolutionary Commissars Proshyan and Karelin and demanded Popov immediately extradite Blumkin, threatening to shoot him on the spot in case of refusal. However, Dzerzhinsky himself was arrested and taken hostage by the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, to ensure the SR delegates to the Soviet congress. The main armed force that the Socialist-Revolutionaries could make use of was the Cheka detachment under the command of Popov. This detachment consisted mostly of Finns and sailors, numbering about 800 people, and was armed with several guns and armored cars.Cheka detachment under the command of PopovTrotsky, L. THE REVOLT: Report to the Fifth All-Russia Congress of Soviets of Workers’, Peasants’, Cossacks’ and Red Army Men’s Deputies, on 9 July 1918, the day following the suppression of the revolt by the Left SRs which took place on 6–8 July 1918 However, Popov's detachment did not take action, and the defense of the occupied positions was reduced to sitting out in two buildings of Trekhsvyatitelsky Lane. Subsequently, in 1921, during interrogation at the Cheka, Popov claimed that: “I didn’t take part in the preparation of the alleged uprising against the state, the armed clash in Trekhsvyatitelny Lane was an act of self-defense.”Archive of the Cheka: Compilation of documents. M.: Kuchkovo field, 2007. p. 699. In total, during the mutiny, the Left Socialist Revolutionaries took 27 Bolshevik functionaries hostage, including the deputy chairman of the Cheka Martin Latsis and the chairman of the Moscow City Council Pyotr Smidovich. In addition, they captured several cars, and a congress delegate Nikolai Abelman was killed. They also captured the General Post Office and began to send out anti-Bolshevik appeals. One of these appeals, declaring the Bolshevik government deposed and ordering "not to execute orders of Lenin and Sverdlov", according to the command of the Kremlin Bolshevik Pavel Dmitrievich Malkova, fell into the hands of Lenin. Another appeal stated that "... the executioner Mirbach was killed ... German spies and armed provocateurs have invaded Moscow, demanding the death of the left- wing socialist revolutionaries. Frightened by possible consequences, as before, the ruling party of the Bolsheviks are following the orders of the German executioners ... Forward, workers, workers and Red Army soldiers, to defend the working people, against all executioners, against all spies and provocative imperialism. ” By this time, the leader of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, Maria Spiridonova, who had come to the Congress of Soviets, had already been arrested by the Bolsheviks herself and also taken hostage. Lenin thought that the whole Cheka had rebelled. According to the testimony of Vladimir Bonch-Bruyevich, Lenin “did not even turn pale, but turned white” when he heard the news. Of all the units of the Moscow garrison, the Bolsheviks were able to rely only on the Latvian Riflemen — all the other units either sided with the rebels or declared their neutrality. Trotsky's order to units of the Moscow garrison to speak out against the rebels was carried out only by the Commandant Regiment and the School of Military Cadets, and the Commandant Regiment soon fled. In the midst of events, Lenin doubted the loyalty of the commander of the Latvian Riflemen, Jukums Vācietis, and expressed his readiness to “accept his services” only by assigning four commissioners to him. During the uprising Trotsky investigated four times whether Vācietis had joined the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. At night, Lenin ordered him to gather forces to launch a counterattack. By the early morning of 7 July, the Bolsheviks had gathered enough forces, mainly Vācietis's Latvian Riflemen, to start their counterattack. At about 10:00 a.m., they set up their artillery only two hundred yards in front of the building where Popov's unit was located. After an unsuccessful negotiation attempt, the Latvians opened fire. The very first salvos hit the Left SR headquarters, after which the Left SR Central Committee left the building at once. Lenin decided to demonstrate to the Germans that the Bolsheviks could control the Socialist Revolutionaries, despite having lost control of the local Cheka. Lenin accused the SRs of trying to overthrow the Soviet Government and charged Trotsky with crushing the rebellion who, in turn, put Ivar Smilga in command of the forces faithful to the Bolsheviks. For a while, Lenin, Sverdlov and Trotsky declared the Cheka dismissed, ousted Dzerzhinsky and put Latsis in his place, who was ordered to recruit new people to the Cheka. Trotsky ordered Latsis to arrest all the Left Socialist Revolutionaries serving in the Cheka, and declare them hostages. However, soon the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries themselves occupied the Cheka's building, arresting Latsis and freeing the Left Socialist Revolutionary Emelyanov, whom had been arrested. Also unsuccessful was Trotsky's attempt to prevent the rebels from seizing the central telegraph; the two companies of Latvian riflemen sent to them there were disarmed by the group of Left Socialist Revolutionaries led by Prosh Proshian. For a short time the Left SRs controlled the telephone exchange and telegraph office. They sent out several manifestos, bulletins, and telegrams in the name of the Left S.R. Central Committee declaring that the Left S.R.s had taken over power and that their action had been welcomed by the whole nation. A telegram from the Left SR Central Committee stating that the Left SRs had seized power in Moscow, was sent to Mikhail Artemyevich Muravyov, a Left SR and Commander of the Eastern Front. On the pretext of attacking the Germans, he seized Simbirsk and tried to march his forces on Moscow in support of the left socialist revolutionaries. However, Muravyov could not convince his troops to oppose the Bolsheviks and was killed when arrested. The leader of the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries Maria Spiridonova then went to the Fifth Congress of Soviets, where she announced that "the Russian people are free from Mirbach," and, jumping onto a table, started shouting "Hey, you, listen, Earth, hey, you, listen, earth! ”. However, the Left Socialist Revolutionaries made no attempt to arrest the Bolshevik government, although they even had passes allowing them to enter the Kremlin without hindrance. In addition, the rebels did not arrest the Bolshevik delegates of the Fifth Congress of Soviets. Without attempting to seize power, they declared the Bolsheviks “agents of German imperialism” who established the regime of “commissar rule” and smeared all other socialists as “counterrevolutionaries”. Researcher Valery Evgenievich Shambarov draws attention to the passivity of military units that sided with the rebels: “The regiment of the Cheka, under the command of Popov, rebelled quite strangely. On 1 March, their forces were armed with 1,800 bayonets, 80 sabers, 4 armored cars and 8 artillery guns. The Bolsheviks in Moscow had 720 bayonets, 4 armored cars and 12 artillery guns. But instead of attacking and winning, taking advantage of surprise and an almost three-fold advantage, the regiment passively "rebelled" in the barracks ". On the same topic American historian Alexander Rabinowitch argues as follows. == Clashes == === Fighting in Moscow === Shortly after the assassination, Lenin ordered Yakov Peters to put under guard the whole Left SR faction of the Fifth Congress of Soviets (approximately 450 people). The Bolshoi Theatre, where the session of Congress took place, was surrounded by chekists and Latvian riflemen. Bolshevik delegates of Congress were allowed to leave the theater, while Left SRs were arrested inside the theater. Despite sympathy on the part of the Moscow garrison for the SRs, the Bolsheviks mustered enough forces on the morning of 7 July to storm their positions, thanks especially to the support of the Latvian Riflemen, who remained loyal to the Bolsheviks. In the Bolshoi, Maria Spiridonova and Andrei Kolegayev severely reproached Trotsky for their confinement and for the measures taken against their comrades. Trotsky responded by accusing the Socialist Revolutionaries of having risen to take power. After a vain attempt to stop the clash, pro-Bolshevik units attacked the SRs. The first assault, scheduled for 2:00 a.m., was a failure. Being a Sunday and a public holiday – St. John the Baptist's day - the troops assigned to the assault did not show up and forced it to be carried out the next day, instead of taking advantage of the night, as originally planned. The attack finally started at noon with the use of artillery against the Cheka headquarters, which was badly damaged by the explosions. Around 2:00 p. m., the revolt had been put down and the SR leaders had fled, abandoning Dzerzhinski in the building. Of the defenders, the assailants ended up capturing about four hundred. Aleksandrovich, captured shortly thereafter at a nearby railway station, was executed the same day. Popov and eleven other Chekists who had participated in the uprising were also subjected to execution without trial. === Actions in Petrograd === In Petrograd, 7 July dawned warm and sunny, the streets were filled with people. The press only picked up two lines about the murder of the German ambassador in Moscow, sent before communications with the capital were cut off. The night before, the few Bolshevik leaders who had remained in the city and had not attended the Fifth Soviet Congress in Moscow received the order to prepare for an uprising of the Left SRs and they immediately formed a revolutionary military committee. They decided to disarm the main Left SR armed detachment in the city, close down their main newspaper and try to arrest the local Left SR committee. They also ordered the formation of Bolshevik troikas in the different districts of the city, these were to neutralize and disarm the socialist revolutionaries of the respective districts. The Bolshevik authorities in Petrograd knew about the murder of the German ambassador before even the local socialist revolutionaries. Moisei Uritsky arrived in Petrograd around 15:00 on 7 July and immediately took over the leadership of the revolutionary military committee. He relieved Prosh Proshian from the regional Commissariat of Interior and accelerated the release of the Administration's socialist- revolutionary positions. Forces loyal to the Bolsheviks surrounded the offices of the socialist-revolutionaries in Smolny and closed them at 14:00, while the Socialist Revolutionary delegation of the Petrograd Soviet was arrested. Then the city's Social Revolutionary Committee, alerted to the likelihood of government actions to disarm and arrest his forces, alerted them and went underground. Ignorant of the Moscow events, local organizations were stunned by the instructions. Confused by the unexpected events, pro-socialist forces offered no resistance to disarmament and the only victims of the disarmament process were by accident, when a grenade exploded causing four deaths and fourteen injuries. The only confrontation in the city took place at the School of Pages, where the scarce garrison, just 350-380 mercenary soldiers, most of them teenagers and without sympathy for the Left SRs, attracted to the building's guard by the better conditions than the front, defended the place. At 17:00, communications to the building were counted and they began to surround themselves, while government patrols began to walk the main avenues of the city The military committee tried unsuccessfully to achieve the surrender of the besieged. After a first unsuccessful assault, the talks between the two sides resumed, without ceasing the fighting. They attracted a crowd, curious to see what was happening in the area. At 19:00, new troops surrounded the building and brought machine guns; the main assault occurred about an hour later, using artillery and machine guns against the besieged. The shelling accelerated the defectors' defection. The fighting ended around 21:00 when the few remaining defenders hoisted a white towel from one of the windows of the building. After a surrender agreement guaranteeing the safety of the defenders, about 150 of them surrendered to the troops, who entered the building a little later. == Repression of the SRs == thumb|right|Maria Spiridonova The Bolsheviks immediately executed thirteen SRs that were in the Cheka, without trial, while keeping the SR Congressional delegation in prison and expelling its members from the executive committee. Little by little they released the bulk of the delegates. Those who opposed the uprising were immediately released, after their weapons had been seized. Thirteen of the four hundred and fifty delegates - including Spiridonova - were transferred on the morning of 8 July from the theater to the Kremlin dungeons; ten of them were released the next day. The Communists tried to divide the party and alienate the militants from the leadership, by having some form two separate new parties. Most of the radical leaders who had advocated accepting peace with the Central Empire ended up repudiating the uprising. Those who, instead of criticizing the actions of the party, endorsed them, were persecuted by the authorities. Despite the flight of most of the leaders, some four hundred Party members were arrested and some of them executed. Spiridonova remained in prison in the Kremlin until the end of November. She received a one-year sentence, which was commuted by her admission to a sanitarium, from which she soon escaped. The Bolsheviks began to expel SRs from the institutions and took their offices in Petrograd on the morning of 7 July after a brief fight, despite the fact that there had been no incidents in the city. The party's two main newspapers, Znamia trudá and Golos trudovogo krestianstva , were closed and did not receive permission to resume publication. On 9 July, the Soviets Congress continued its sessions, without the Left SR delegates. It condemned the uprising as an attempt by the Left SRs to take power, approved the government's actions to crush the revolt and expelled left-wing Socialist Revolutionaries who did not condemn the actions of their central committee from the Soviets. Grigory Petrovsky, Commissioner of the Interior, nevertheless ordered the expulsion of the Social Revolutionaries from all local soviets, independent mind whether or not they condemned the actions approved by the PSRI central committee. In Petrograd, Left SR representatives were expelled from the leadership of the Petrograd Soviet and from then on their influence over the organisation was null. Mirbach's assassination was attempted, in vain, to force the Bolsheviks to resume the fight against Germany, once the impossibility of having a majority in Congress that allowed them to change the government's policy in a peaceful way was clear. Despite the government's accusation of the Left SR's attempted overthrow of the Soviet government, the Cheka's own investigation in Petrograd ended without any evidence being found and with the release of those arrested. Much the same conclusions have also been reached by British historian Orlando Figes, who generally holds up to ridicule the Left SRs' naive tendency 'to play at revolution'. == Consequences == The assassination of the ambassador led to a serious but short-lived crisis between the Lenin government and the German Empire. As the Bolshevik leaders feared, on 14 July the acting ambassador demanded the sending of troops to Moscow on the pretext of protecting the embassy, which would have placed the Sovnarkom under the control of the German high command. The rejection of the German demands, however, seemed to lead to a resumption of hostilities. The start of the Second Battle of the Marne turned German attention to the Western Front and allowed the government to finally reject the German claims in exchange for assigning a thousand Red Guards to protect the embassy, who would share the task with three hundred unarmed and plainclothes German soldiers. For his part, the Latvian colonel Jukums Vācietis, who had led the assault on the Cheka headquarters in the capital under the command of the main forces loyal to the Bolsheviks, was appointed commander of the Volga front and, later, commander-in-chief of the whole Red Army. According to Orlando Figes he was also rewarded with 10,000 roubles. Left SR members did not immediately disappear from the institutions due to a lack of cadres, which prevented the Bolsheviks from replacing them with their own supporters. However, they became part of the persecuted opposition, even groups that distanced themselves or broke relations with their central committee did not retain their previous power in the institutions. The increasing measures of repression against the SRs culminated in the trial of the party that began on 27. Of the fourteen defendants, only two were present, the rest went underground. All were sentenced to short sentences, but the party was removed from power. The uprising, which ended the alliance between Bolsheviks and left-wing social revolutionaries, was a milestone in the process of forming a one-party state. The murder of the ambassador, contrary to what the socialist-revolutionary leaders expected, frustrated their plans: neither did it bring about the resumption of the conflict with Germany, nor did it cause the expected uprising of the population against it, nor did it serve to bring the left-communists closer together; furthermore, the party was not prepared for the consequences of the attack. It served primarily to facilitate Lenin's removal of political power from the rival party. Despite its strong support in the countryside, the Left SRs never recovered from the repression suffered after the Mirbach murder and disappeared as a notable political option. The "Party of the Populists- Communists" and "Party of Revolutionary Communism" split from Left SRs and supported the Bolsheviks. The Left SRs collapsed as a party by 1922 and only existed as small cells through 1925. Mirbach's assassins, Blumkin and Andreev, managed to evade capture. In early 1919, Blumkin was pardoned by the Bolsheviks and rejoined the Cheka. During the Moscow Trials in 1937, it was claimed that Trotsky, Kamenev, and Zinoviev were involved in this plot.Spitzer, Alan B. - John Dewey, the "Trial" of Leon Trotsky and the Search for Historical Truth. History and Theory, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Feb., 1990), pp. 16–37 Yuri Felshtinsky claimed the revolt was staged by the Bolsheviks as a pretext to discredit the Left SRs. However, this was disputed by L. M. Ovrutskii and Anatolii Izrailevich Razgon. == See also == * 1st Congress of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine * Black Guards * Green Armies * Left communism * Left Opposition * Permanent Revolution * World revolution * War communism == References == ==External links== *Lutz Hafner. The Assassination of Count Mirbach and the "July Uprising" of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries in Moscow, 1918. Russian Review, Vol. 50, No. 3 (Jul., 1991), pp. 324–344 *Nadezhda Krupskaya, "Ilyich Moves to Moscow, His First Months of Work in Moscow" *V. I. Lenin, "Interview Granted To An Izvestia Correspondent In Connection With The Left Socialist-Revolutionary Revolt" *"Poole to Lansing on assassination of Count Mirbach" *Leon Trotsky, "Revolt of the Left SRs" Category:Rebellions in Russia Category:1918 in Russia Category:Anti-Bolshevik uprisings Category:Conflicts in 1918 Category:Socialist Revolutionary Party |
Typhoon Saomai, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Juan, was considered the most powerful typhoon on record to strike the east coast of the People's Republic of China. It was the eighth tropical storm, fifth typhoon, and third super typhoon of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season recognized by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center. According to the Japan Meteorological Agency, Saomai was the seventh tropical storm and fifth typhoon of the season. The name "Saomai" was submitted by Vietnam, and is from the Vietnamese word for "morning star" (sao Mai), a reference to the planet Venus. The typhoon brought heavy rain and wind to areas of the Mariana Islands, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the east coast of China. It was responsible for 456 deaths and $2.5 billion (2006 USD) in damage. Saomai affected many of the same areas affected by Tropical Storm Bilis a month earlier, and the China Meteorological Administration reported that Saomai was the strongest typhoon that ever occurred over China's offshore region as well as the most powerful typhoon ever to make landfall over Mainland China. ==Meteorological history== A tropical disturbance formed east of Chuuk on July 31 and gradually increased in organization over the next several days as it moved northwestward. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the system on August 4 and it was designated a tropical depression by both the JTWC and the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) later that day. The depression strengthened into a tropical storm on August 5, and the JMA designated it Tropical Storm Saomai. Saomai continued moving toward the northwest and passed over the Mariana Islands on August 6 while continuing to strengthen, and was upgraded to a severe tropical storm by the JMA later that day. The storm then began organizing and intensifying more rapidly, becoming a typhoon early on August 7. Saomai moved into the area of responsibility of PAGASA on August 8, and was designated Typhoon Juan. Due to Saomai's proximity to Tropical Storm Bopha, located near Taiwan, the two underwent a Fujiwhara interaction. This interaction served to shift Saomai's track slightly to the south and provided the system with in influx of moisture via southwesterly monsoonal flow on the backside of Bopha. Late on August 9, Saomai reached its peak intensity as it moved just north of Miyakojima. The JMA estimated it to have attained winds of and a central pressure of 925 mbar (hPa; ). The JTWC estimated Saomai to have been a much more powerful system, ranking it as a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon with one-minute winds of and a pressure of 898 mbar (hPa; ). Further, though less significant, discrepancies on the peak intensity of Saomai exist between the local warning centers for China. Both the China Meteorological Administration (CMA) and Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) estimated the typhoon to have been slightly stronger, stating peak ten-minute sustained winds of , respectively. Similarly the agencies reported lower pressures: 915 mbar (hPa; ) by the CMA and 920 mbar (hPa; 27.17 inHG) by the HKO. After passing to the south of Okinawa, Saomai turned westward and brushed the northern coast of Taiwan Island early on August 10. The typhoon maintained its minimum pressure until it approached within of the eastern China coast. On August 10, Typhoon Saomai made landfall at Cangnan County in southern Zhejiang, still maintaining a small and clear eye. According to the CMA, the typhoon moved ashore with maximum sustained winds of , and a central pressure of . By winds, Saomai tied Typhoon Marge in 1973 for the strongest typhoon to strike mainland China; because Saomai had a lower landfall pressure than Marge, the CMA considered it the strongest typhoon on record to strike the nation, as well as a 1 in 100 year typhoon. Saomai was therefore the strongest typhoon to strike Zhejiang, surpassing the previous record held by typhoons Rananim in 2004 and Typhoon Khanun in 2005. However, wind estimates for typhoons could be inaccurate for early typhoons. Gradual weakening ensued as Saomai moved further inland, and it weakened into a tropical depression on August 11, dissipating later that day. ==Preparations== thumb|right|Tropical Storm Bopha (left) and Typhoon Saomai (right) on August 9 The United States National Weather Service issued a tropical storm warning for Guam as Tropical Storm Saomai approached the island on August 6. Military bases in northern Guam entered Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness 1, meaning that winds of 50 knots or higher were expected within 12 hours. The rest of the island was placed under Condition of Readiness 2, meaning that such winds were possible within 24 hours. Several bases were temporarily closed. The Central Weather Bureau of the Republic of China issued land and marine typhoon warnings for areas of northern Taiwan in anticipation of Saomai's outer bands. The warnings had been upgraded from lesser warnings issued for Tropical Storm Bopha, which made landfall in southern Taiwan the day before. Five flights in and around Taiwan were canceled, as was ferry service. Hundreds of flights from Okinawa to the rest of Japan were also canceled. In China, 1,001,000 people in Zhejiang and 710,000 people in Fujian were evacuated to shelters prior to Saomai's landfall. Over 20,000 soldiers and police were mobilized to aid in cleanup and rescue efforts. Officials ordered 10,286 ships with 35,282 fishermen to return to port in Fujian, while another 5,638 ships returned to port in Zhejiang. Also in Fujian, all 26,800 schools were closed. The Wenzhou city government ordered all businesses to close and prepare for the storm. Airlines canceled 25 flights from Fuzhou Changle International Airport and another 17 from Hong Kong, while ferry service was also disrupted. During the storm, the Wenzhou Longwan International Airport closed, stranding hundreds of travelers. ==Impact== left|thumb|Typhoon Saomai at peak intensity on August 9 During the overnight hours of August 5–6, Tropical Storm Saomai moved through the southern Mariana Islands with its center passing halfway between Guam and Rota. Owing to the storm's relatively quick pace, its effects were limited in duration. Rota received the strongest winds, with gusts peaking at at the International Airport while sustained values reached . Lesser winds occurred on Guam, with a peak gust of measured at Andersen Air Force Base. Enhanced winds extended northward to Tinian and Saipan. Light to moderate rains accompanied the storm and accumulations were generally less than ; however, monsoonal flow along the south side of Saomai enhanced totals over Guam where fell. Only minor damage resulted from the storm's passage, limited to downed trees and power lines on Guam. Brief electrical outages occurred in Barrigada and Chalan Pago. Overall, damage in the region was estimated at $5,000. Later, as with Tropical Storm Bilis a month earlier, Saomai's outer rainbands affected areas of the Philippines. Over 400 homes were destroyed by storm surge, and two people were killed. At least seven people were reported missing. The core of the typhoon passed to the north of Taiwan, but the island still experienced heavy rain and wind that disrupted traffic and cancelled flights to and from Taipei. No serious damage or casualties were reported. While in the vicinity of Okinawa, Saomai brushed the southern Ryukyu Islands. Miyakojima reported the heaviest rainfall in Japan, totaling . Wind gusts in the region peaked at at Shimoji-shima. Waves of in height were reported at Miyakojima, which caused ¥980,000 (JPY, $8,500 USD) in road damage. ===Mainland China=== Saomai was the third in a series of deadly storms that struck China in the summer of 2006, after Tropical Storm Bilis in July killed over 600 people and Typhoon Prapiroon killed around 80 people in early August. It was also the sixth tropical cyclone of the year to strike the country. While moving ashore in Zhejiang province, Saomai produced high waves, gusty winds, and heavy rainfall. Cangnan County in Wenzhou reported of precipitation in only one hour, and over 12 hours. Rainfall reached in the inland province of Jiangxi, with recorded in one hour in Linchuan District. The storm broke several wind records in eastern China. A station in Cangnan County reported peak winds of , and a station in Fuding reported winds of , which were the strongest winds on record in Zhejiang and Fujian, respectively. The latter value was slightly less than the wind report in Hong Kong during Typhoon Wanda in 1962. Fuding city reported gusts of over for about three hours, and widespread areas in Zhejiang and Fujian reported typhoon force winds, with a diameter of winds. Along its path, Saomai destroyed about 54,000 buildings while causing widespread power outages. There were 61,277 destroyed rooms and another 371,147 that were damaged, mostly in Fujian. Most of the damaged houses along the path were generally masonry built, while newer towers fared better due to higher building standards. The typhoon also damaged of farmlands, mostly in Jiangxi. Saomai struck a less developed area of China, which limited insured damage to around ¥400-500 million (RMB, $50.5-63 million USD). This was estimated to have been between 4-9% of the overall damage. Damage was estimated at ¥11.66 billion (RMB, $1.5 billion). Overall, Saomai killed at least 441 people, although unofficial sources suggest a death toll of around 1,000. The storm left nearly all of Zhejiang without power and cut half of all communication links. The heavy damage prompted officials to declare a state of emergency. In Wenzhou alone, over 18,000 homes were destroyed, and 3,850 factories were forced to shut down. Also in Wenzhou, Saomai left over 213,000 people without clean water. 193 people died in the city. In Cangnan County, the typhoon damaged 450 schools, totaling ¥25 million (RMB, US$3.1 million). Rainfall across the state flooded 56 provincial roads and highways. Six people died in Lishui after being crushed by a landslide. Throughout Zhejiang, economic losses totaled ¥4.9 billion (RMB, $610 million), of which ¥4.5 billion (RMB, $560 million) was in Wenzhou. In Fujian, high waves in Fuding wrecked about 1,000 ships, killing hundreds of fishermen. Most of the lost ships were in the village of Shacheng, where about half of the residents were left homeless. Some entire villages in Fujian were entirely swept away by the winds and rains. High winds and rainfall destroyed 32,700 houses, including 10,000 in Fuding alone; there were also 80,000 damaged houses in the city. Economic losses reached ¥3.1 billion (RMB, US$388 million), and about 200 people died in Fuding. Also in the city, Saomai destroyed the roof tiles and the gate house of the 1,146 year old Ziguo temple, a local historical site. The monks in the temple had evacuated, and damage to the structure was estimated ¥5 million (RMB, US$625,000), rendering it largely destroyed. Damage in Fuzhou, also in Fujian, totaled ¥200 million (RMB, US$25 million). Province-wide, 234 factories or mines were forced to shut down due to the typhoon. Economic losses in Fujian totaled ¥6.4 billion (RMB, US$795 million). About a month after Typhoon Kaemi affected the region, Saomai caused additional flooding in the inland province of Jiangxi. There, the storm wrecked six reservoirs, resulting in ¥348 million (RMB, US$45 million) in damage. About 35,000 people were forced to evacuate in Jiangxi due to the storm. One person was washed away in floodwaters while inspecting damage, while another person was killed when a damaged building collapsed. In neighboring Anhui province, flooding forced residents to evacuate homes. 87 deaths were reported in Zhejiang, mostly in Wenzhou. Major highways in the province were flooded out. Most of these deaths were caused by storm surge flooding in coastal fishing communities, such as Fuding. Eight of the deaths were caused by the collapse of a damaged evacuation shelter. Strong winds and flooding destroyed 37,000 houses and flooded 380 km2 (94,000 acres) of farmland, and economic damage amounted to 6.3 billion yuan. ==Aftermath== Immediately after Saomai made landfall in China, local Red Cross chapters provided residents left homeless with emergency supplies, such as blankets, clothing, medicine, and disinfectant. After the storm moved ashore, the Wenzhou government blocked street access to the areas with the heaviest damage. Officials ordered stores to cease selling items that were unrelated to storm recovery. By 11 days after landfall, 80% of the factories in Wenzhou had reopened. The city of Fuding provided ¥104.9 million (RMB, US$13.2 million) toward reconstructing, as well as ¥5,000 (RMB, US$625) for each family. The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies made an appeal for almost 6 million Swiss francs ($4.8 million, 2006 USD) to assist stricken families in the PRC. As of August 11, 2006, about 1.8 million Chinese yuan ($220,000) worth of relief items and financial assistance had been given to the victims. The PRC government also allocated 120 million yuan ($15.2 million) for disaster relief in areas affected by Saomai and earlier storms. The funds were used to provide food and water for displaced victims and pay for the rebuilding effort in Zhejiang and Fujian. ===Retirement=== After the season ended, members of the 39th meeting of the Typhoon Committee of the World Meteorological Organization met in Manila in December 2006. They discussed retiring the name "Saomai", along with four other names from the season. During the 40th meeting in November 2007, the Typhoon Committee approved the retirement, announcing that the name "Son-Tinh" would replace Saomai on the basin name lists beginning in 2008 and was first used in the 2012 season. ==See also== *Typhoon Rananim *Typhoon Chan-hom (2015) *Typhoon Abe (1990) ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== *RSMC Tokyo – Typhoon Center **Best Track Data of Typhoon Saomai (0608) **Best Track Data (Graphics) of Typhoon Saomai (0608) **Best Track Data (Text) *JTWC Best Track Data of Super Typhoon 08W (Saomai) Category:Retired Pacific typhoons Category:2006 Pacific typhoon season Category:Typhoons in China Typhoon Saomai Category:Typhoons Category:Tropical cyclones in 2006 |
Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the generation of electricity through wind farms in bodies of water, usually at sea. There are higher wind speeds offshore than on land, so offshore farms generate more electricity per amount of capacity installed.Madsen & Krogsgaard. Offshore Wind Power 2010 BTM Consult, 22 November 2010. Retrieved: 22 November 2010. Offshore wind farms are also less controversial than those on land, as they have less impact on people and the landscape. Unlike the typical use of the term "offshore" in the marine industry, offshore wind power includes inshore water areas such as lakes, fjords and sheltered coastal areas as well as deeper-water areas. Most offshore wind farms employ fixed-foundation wind turbines in relatively shallow water. Floating wind turbines for deeper waters are in an earlier phase of development and deployment. As of 2022, the total worldwide offshore wind power nameplate capacity was 64.3 gigawatt (GW). China (49%), the United Kingdom (22%), and Germany (13%) account for more than 75% of the global installed capacity. The 1.2 GW Hornsea Project One in the United Kingdom was the world's largest offshore wind farm. Other projects in the planning stage include Dogger Bank in the United Kingdom at 4.8 GW, and Greater Changhua in Taiwan at 2.4 GW. The cost of offshore has historically been higher than that of onshore, but costs decreased to $78/MWh in 2019. Offshore wind power in Europe became price-competitive with conventional power sources in 2017. Offshore wind generation grew at over 30 percent per year in the 2010s. As of 2020, offshore wind power had become a significant part of northern Europe power generation, though it remained less than 1 percent of overall world electricity generation. A big advantage of offshore wind power compared to onshore wind power is the higher capacity factor meaning that an installation of given nameplate capacity will produce more electricity at a site with more consistent and stronger wind which is usually found offshore and only at very few specific points onshore. ==History== === Capacity === thumb|An illustration of a hypothetical offshore wind farm in 1977 Europe is the world leader in offshore wind power, with the first offshore wind farm (Vindeby) being installed in Denmark in 1991. In 2009, the average nameplate capacity of an offshore wind turbine in Europe was about 3 MW, and the capacity of future turbines was expected to increase to 5 MW. A 2013 review of the engineering aspects of turbines like the sizes used onshore, including the electrical connections and converters, considered that the industry had in general been overoptimistic about the benefits-to-costs ratio and concluded that the "offshore wind market doesn’t look as if it is going to be big". In 2013, offshore wind power contributed to 1,567 MW of the total 11,159 MW of wind power capacity constructed that year."Wind in power 2013 European statistics" The European Wind Energy Association, 2014 By January 2014, 69 offshore wind farms had been constructed in Europe with an average annual rated capacity of 482 MW.The European offshore wind industry - key trends and statistics 2013 ,The European Wind Energy Association, 2014 The total installed capacity of offshore wind farms in European waters reached 6,562 MW. The United Kingdom had by far the largest capacity with 3,681 MW. Denmark was second with 1,271 MW installed and Belgium was third with 571 MW. Germany came fourth with 520 MW, followed by the Netherlands (247 MW), Sweden (212 MW), Finland (26 MW), Ireland (25 MW), Spain (5 MW), Norway (2 MW) and Portugal (2 MW). At the end of 2015, 3,230 turbines at 84 offshore wind farms across 11 European countries had been installed and grid-connected, making a total capacity of 11,027 MW. The history of the development of wind farms in the North Sea, as regards the United Kingdom, indicates three phases: coastal, off-coastal and deep offshore in the period 2004 through to 2021.Moss, Joanne “Critical perspectives: North Sea offshore wind farms.: Oral histories, aesthetics and selected legal frameworks relating to the North Sea.” (2021, Master’s Thesis, Uppsala University, Sweden) https://uu.diva- portal.org/smash/resultList.jsf?dswid=4151&language;=en&searchType;=SIMPLE&query;=joanne+moss=%5B%5D&aq;=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aq2;=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aqe;=%5B%5D&noOfRows;=50&sortOrder;=author_sort_asc&sortOrder2;=title_sort_asc&onlyFullText;=false&sf;=undergraduate Outside of Europe, the Chinese government had set ambitious targets of 5 GW of installed offshore wind capacity by 2015 and 30 GW by 2020 that would eclipse capacity in other countries. However, in May 2014 the capacity of offshore wind power in China was only 565 MW. Offshore capacity in China increased by 832 MW in 2016, of which 636 MW were made in China. The offshore wind construction market remains quite concentrated. By the end of 2015, Siemens Wind Power had installed 63% of the world's 11 GW offshore wind power capacity; Vestas had 19%, Senvion came third with 8% and Adwen 6%. About 12 GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe, with 3,755 MW of that coming online during 2015. As of 2020 90% of the offshore global market was represented by European companies. By 2017, the installed offshore wind power capacity worldwide was 20 GW. In 2018, offshore wind provided just 0.3% of the global electricity supply. Nevertheless, just in 2018 an additional amount of 4.3 GW of offshore wind capacity was employed on a worldwide scale. In Denmark, 50% of the electricity was supplied by wind energy in 2018 out of which 15% was offshore. The average size of turbines installed was 6.8 MW in 2018, 7.2 MW in 2019 and 8.2 MW in 2020. === Costs === In 2010, the US Energy Information Agency said "offshore wind power is the most expensive energy generating technology being considered for large scale deployment".Levelized Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2011. Released 16 December 2010. Report of the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The 2010 state of offshore wind power presented economic challenges significantly greater than onshore systems, with prices in the range of 2.5-3.0 million Euro/MW. That year, Siemens and Vestas were turbine suppliers for 90% of offshore wind power, while Ørsted A/S (then named DONG Energy), Vattenfall and E.on were the leading offshore operators. In 2011, Ørsted estimated that while offshore wind turbines were not yet competitive with fossil fuels, they would be in 15 years. Until then, state funding and pension funds would be needed.Nymark, Jens. Seaturbines competitive in 15 years Børsen, 15 November 2011. Accessed: 10 December 2011. At the end of 2011, there were 53 European offshore wind farms in waters off Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, with an operating capacity of 3,813 MW,Justin Wilkes et al. The European offshore wind industry key 2011 trends and statistics European Wind Energy Association, January 2012. Accessed: 26 March 2012. while 5,603 MW was under construction.17 EU countries planning massive offshore wind power ROV world, 30 November 2011. Accessed: 10 December 2011. Offshore wind farms worth €8.5 billion ($11.4 billion) were under construction in European waters in 2011. In 2012, Bloomberg estimated that energy from offshore wind turbines cost () per MWh. Costs of offshore wind power are decreasing much faster than expected. By 2016, four contracts (Borssele and Kriegers) were already below the lowest of the predicted 2050 prices. ==Future development== The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) predicted in 2016 that offshore wind power will grow to 8% of ocean economy by 2030, and that its industry will employ 435,000 people, adding $230 billion of value.The Ocean Economy in 2030, pp.205-212. OECD iLibrary, 27 April 2016. . Web read The European Commission expects that offshore wind energy will be of increasing importance in the future, as offshore wind is part of its Green Deal. The development of the full potential of Europe's offshore wind energy is one of the key actions in the Clean Energy section of the Green Deal. By 2050, the expectation is that the installed offshore wind power capacity will reach 1550 GW on a worldwide scale. Compared to the capacity of 2017 that corresponds to an 80-fold increase. One of the advancements that characterises the current development within the offshore industry are technologies that allow for offshore wind projects further off the shore where wind availability is higher. In particular, the adoption of floating foundation technologies has proved to be a promising technology for unlocking the wind potential on deeper waters. ==Economics== The advantage of locating wind turbines offshore is that the wind is much stronger off the coasts, and unlike wind over land, offshore breezes can be strong in the afternoon, matching the time when people are using the most electricity. Offshore turbines can also be located close to the load centers along the coasts, such as large cities, eliminating the need for new long-distance transmission lines. However, there are several disadvantages of offshore installations, related to more expensive installation, difficulty of access, and harsher conditions for the units. Locating wind turbines offshore exposes the units to high humidity, salt water and salt water spray which negatively affect service life, cause corrosion and oxidation, increase maintenance and repair costs and in general make every aspect of installation and operation much more difficult, time-consuming, more dangerous and far more expensive than sites on land. The humidity and temperature is controlled by air conditioning the sealed nacelle. Sustained high-speed operation and generation also increases wear, maintenance and repair requirements proportionally. The cost of the turbine represents just one third to one halfLindvig, Kaj. The installation and servicing of offshore wind farms p6 A2SEA, 16 September 2010. Accessed: 9 October 2011. of total costs in offshore projects today, the rest comes from infrastructure, maintenance, and oversight. Costs for foundations, installation, electrical connections and operation and maintenance (O&M;) are a large share of the total for offshore installations compared to onshore wind farms. The cost of installation and electrical connection also increases rapidly with distance from shore and water depth. Other limitations of offshore wind power are related to the still limited number of installations. The offshore wind industry is not yet fully industrialized, as supply bottlenecks still exist as of 2017. ===Investment costs=== Offshore wind farms tend to have larger turbines when compared to onshore installations, and the trend is towards a continued increase in size. Economics of offshore wind farms tend to favor larger turbines, as installation and grid connection costs decrease per unit energy produced. Moreover, offshore wind farms do not have the same restriction in size of onshore wind turbines, such as availability of land or transportation requirements. ===Operating costs=== Operational expenditures for wind farms are split between Maintenance (38%), Port Activities (31%), Operation (15%), License Fees (12%), and Miscellaneous Costs (4%).Röckmann C., Lagerveld S., Stavenuiter J. (2017) Operation and Maintenance Costs of Offshore Wind Farms and Potential Multi-use Platforms in the Dutch North Sea. In: Buck B., Langan R. (eds) Aquaculture Perspective of Multi-Use Sites in the Open Ocean. Springer, Cham Operation and maintenance costs typically represent 53% of operational expenditures, and 25% - 30% of the total lifecycle costs for offshore wind farms. O&Ms; are considered one of the major barriers for further development of this resource. Maintenance of offshore wind farms is much more expensive than for onshore installations. For example, a single technician in a pickup truck can quickly, easily and safely access turbines on land in almost any weather conditions, exit his or her vehicle and simply walk over to and into the turbine tower to gain access to the entire unit within minutes of arriving onsite. Similar access to offshore turbines involves driving to a dock or pier, loading necessary tools and supplies into boat, a voyage to the wind turbine(s), securing the boat to the turbine structure, transferring tools and supplies to and from boat to turbine and turbine to boat and performing the rest of the steps in reverse order. In addition to standard safety gear such as a hardhat, gloves and safety glasses, an offshore turbine technician may be required to wear a life vest, waterproof or water-resistant clothing and perhaps even a survival suit if working, sea and atmospheric conditions make rapid rescue in case of a fall into the water unlikely or impossible. Typically at least two technicians skilled and trained in operating and handling large power boats at sea are required for tasks that one technician with a driver's license can perform on land in a fraction of the time at a fraction of the cost. ===Cost of energy=== Cost for installed offshore turbines fell 30% to $78/MWh in 2019, a more rapid drop than other types of renewable energy. It has been suggested that innovation at scale could deliver 25% cost reduction in offshore wind by 2020. Offshore wind power market plays an important role in achieving the renewable target in most of the countries around the world. Auctions in 2016 for future projects have reached costs of €54.5 per megawatt hour (MWh) at the 700 MW Borssele 3&4 due to government tender and size, and €49.90 per MWh (without transmission) at the 600 MW Kriegers Flak. In September 2017 contracts were awarded in the United Kingdom for a strike price of £57.50 per MWh making the price cheaper than nuclear and competitive with gas. In September 2018 contracts were awarded for Vineyard Wind, Massachusetts, USA at a cost of between $65-$74 per MWh. ==Offshore wind resources== Offshore wind resources are by their nature both huge in scale and highly dispersed, considering the ratio of the planet's surface area that is covered by oceans and seas compared to land mass. Wind speeds offshore are known to be considerably higher than for the equivalent location onshore due to the absence of land mass obstacles and the lower surface roughness of water compared to land features such as forests and savannah, a fact that is illustrated by global wind speed maps that cover both onshore and offshore areas using the same input data and methodology. For the North Sea, wind turbine energy is around 30 kWh/m2 of sea area, per year, delivered to grid. The energy per sea area is roughly independent of turbine size.Stiesdal, Henrik. "Pi and turbines - a useful context" Original, in Danish Ingeniøren, 13 March 2015. Accessed: 13 March 2015. The technical exploitable resource potential for offshore wind is a factor of the average wind speed and water depth, as it is only possible to generate electricity from offshore wind resources where turbines can be anchored. Currently, fixed foundation offshore wind turbines can be installed up to around of sea depth. Beyond that, floating foundation turbines would be required, potentially allowing installation at depths of up to based on currently proposed technologies.ESMAP. 2019. "Global: Expanding Offshore Wind to Emerging Markets". Washington, DC: World Bank. Accessed: 30 April 2020 Based on an analysis of viable water depths and wind speeds over , it has been estimated that there is over 17 terawatt (TW) of offshore wind technical potential in just the 50 countries studied, not including most OECD countries such as Australia, Japan, the United States or Western Europe. Well-endowed countries such as Argentina and China have almost 2 TW and 3 TW of potential respectively, illustrating the vast potential of offshore wind in such locations.ESMAP. 2020. "Offshore Wind Technical Potential by Country": Maps and Tabular Data. Accessed: 30 April 2020. ==Planning and permitting== It is necessary to obtain several types of information in order to plan the commissioning of an offshore wind farm. These include: *Offshore wind characteristics *Water depth, currents, seabed, migration, and wave action, all of which drive mechanical and structural loading on potential turbine configurations. *Marine growth, salinity, icing, and the geotechnical characteristics of the sea or lake bed. Existing hardware for measurements includes Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), Sonic Detection and Ranging (SODAR), radar, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), and remote satellite sensing, although these technologies should be assessed and refined, according to a report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future. Because of the many factors involved, one of the biggest difficulties with offshore wind farms is the ability to predict loads. Analysis must account for the dynamic coupling between translational (surge, sway, and heave) and rotational (roll, pitch, and yaw) platform motions and turbine motions, as well as the dynamic characterization of mooring lines for floating systems. Foundations and substructures make up a large fraction of offshore wind systems, and must take into account every single one of these factors. Load transfer in the grout between tower and foundation may stress the grout, and elastomeric bearings are used in several British sea turbines. Corrosion is also a serious problem and requires detailed design considerations. The prospect of remote monitoring of corrosion looks very promising, using expertise utilised by the offshore oil/gas industry and other large industrial plants. Moreover, as power generation efficiency of wind farms downwind of offshore wind farms was found to decrease, strategic decision-making may need to consider – cross- national – limits and potentials for optimization. Some of the guidelines for designing offshore wind farms are set out in IEC 61400-3,"Wind turbines Part 3: Design requirements for offshore wind turbines" Austrian Standards International. Retrieved: 16 August 2012.International Standard IEC 61400-3 International Electrotechnical Commission, August 2005. Accessed: 12 March 2011.Quarton, D.C. "An international design standard for offshore wind turbines: IEC 61400-3" Garrad Hassan, 2005. Accessed: 12 March 2011. but in the US several other standards are necessary.Musial, W. D.; Sheppard, R. E.; Dolan, D.; Naughton, B. "Development of Offshore Wind Recommended Practice for U.S. Waters" National Renewable Energy Laboratory, April 2013. Accessed: 20 November 2013. OSTI ID: 1078076 In the European Union (EU), different national standards are to be streamlined into more cohesive guidelines to lower costs. The standards require that a loads analysis is based on site-specific external conditions such as wind, wave and currents.Jonkman, J.M. "Dynamics Modeling and Loads Analysis of an Offshore Floating Wind Turbine" Technical Report NREL/TP-500-41958 page 75, NREL November 2007. Retrieved: 25 June 2012. The planning and permitting phase can cost more than $10 million, take 5–7 years and have an uncertain outcome. The industry is putting pressure on governments to improve the processes. In Denmark, many of these phases have been deliberately streamlined by authorities in order to minimize hurdles,Streamline Renewable Energy Policy and make Australia a World Leader Energy Matters, 11 August 2010. Retrieved: 6 November 2010. and this policy has been extended for coastal wind farms with a concept called ’one-stop- shop’."Nearshore wind turbines in Denmark" (in Danish). Danish Energy Agency, June 2012. Retrieved: 26 June 2012. The United States introduced a similar model called "Smart from the Start" in 2012."Smart from the Start" Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. Accessed: 20 November 2013. In the EU, the revised Renewable Energy Directive of 2018 has simplified the permitting process to help initiate wind projects. == Legal framework == The installation and operation of offshore wind turbines are regulated in both national and international law. The relevant international legal framework is UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) which regulates the rights and responsibilities of the States in regard to the use of the oceans. The maritime zone in which the offshore wind turbines are located determines which regulatory rules apply. In the territorial waters (up to 12 nautical miles from the baseline of the coast) the coastal State has full sovereignty and therefore, the regulation of offshore wind turbines are fully under national jurisdiction. The exclusive economic zone (up to 200 nautical miles off the baseline) is not part of the State's territory but is subject to the coastal State's exclusive jurisdiction and control for selected purposes, one of which is the production of energy from winds. This means that within this zone, the coastal State has the right to install and operate offshore wind farms and to establish safety zones around them that must be respected by all ships, as long as due notice of the installation has been given. Also, neither installations nor safety zones can interfere with sea lanes that are considered essential for international navigation. Beyond the exclusive economic zones are the high seas, or the international waters. Within this zone the purpose of producing energy is not explicitly mentioned as a high seas freedom, and the legal status of offshore wind facilities is therefore unclear. In academia, it has been argued that the uncertainty of the legal status of offshore wind facilities on the high seas could become an object of interstate disputes over the rights of use. As a solution, it has been suggested that offshore wind facilities could be incorporated as a high seas freedom by being considered as ships or artificial islands, installations and structures. As of 2020, energy production from winds on the high seas is not yet technically feasible due to the difficulties that follow from deeper water. However, the advancing technology of floating wind turbines is a step towards the realization of deepwater wind projects. ==Types== upright=1.5|thumb|Progression of expected wind turbine evolution to deeper water upright=1.3|thumb|Estimated technical potential for fixed and floating offshore wind in Vietnam in terms of installed power capacity in megawatts (MW) within 200 kilometers of the shoreline As a general rule, fixed foundation offshore wind turbines are considered technically viable in areas with water depth less than and average wind speeds over . Floating offshore wind turbines are considered technically viable with water depths from . The displayed map of Vietnam provides an estimate of technical potential for that country for both fixed foundation and floating offshore wind turbines according to the water depth. ===Fixed foundation=== thumb|Most common types of fixed offshore wind foundations Almost all currently operating offshore wind farms employ fixed foundation turbines, with the exception of a few pilot projects. Fixed foundation offshore wind turbines have fixed foundations underwater, and are installed in relatively shallow waters of up to . Types of underwater structures include monopile, tripod, and jacketed, with various foundations at the sea floor including monopile or multiple piles, gravity base, and caissons. Offshore turbines require different types of bases for stability, according to the depth of water. To date a number of different solutions exist: *Most foundations are monopile (single column) base, in diameter, is used in waters up to deep. *Conventional steel jacket structures, as used in the oil and gas industry, in water deep. *Gravity base structures, for use at exposed sites in water 20–80 m deep. *Tripod piled structures, in water 20–80 m deep. *Tripod suction caisson structures, in water 20–80 m deep. Monopiles up to diameter at 2,000 tonnes can be made, but the largest so far are 1,300 tons which is below the 1,500 tonnes limit of some crane vessels. The other turbine components are much smaller. The tripod pile substructure system is a more recent concept developed to reach deeper waters than monopile systems, with depths up to 60 m possible. This technology consists of three monopiles linked together through a joint piece at the top. The main advantage of this solution is the simplicity of the installation, which is done by installing the three monopiles and then adding the upper joint. The larger base also decreases the risk of getting overturned. A steel jacket structure comes from an adaptation to the offshore wind industry of concepts that have been in use in the oil and gas industry for decades. Their main advantage lies in the possibility of reaching higher depths (up to 80m). Their main limitations are due to the high construction and installation costs. ===Floating=== thumb|Blue H Technologies - World's First Floating Wind Turbine For locations with depths over about 60–80 m, fixed foundations are uneconomical or technically unfeasible, and floating wind turbines anchored to the ocean floor are needed."Classification and Certification of Floating Offshore Wind Turbines" Bureau Veritas, November 2010. Retrieved: 16 August 2012.Elaine Kurtenbach. "Japan starts up offshore wind farm near Fukushima" The Sydney Morning Herald, 12 November 2013. Accessed: 11 November 2013."Japan: Experimental Offshore Floating Wind Farm Project" OffshoreWind, 11 October 2013. Accessed: 12 October 2013. Blue H Technologies, which was ultimately acquired by Seawind Ocean Technology, installed the world's first floating wind turbine in 2007. Hywind is the world's first full-scale floating wind turbine, installed in the North Sea off Norway in 2009. Hywind Scotland, commissioned in October 2017, is the first operational floating wind farm, with a capacity of 30 MW. Other kinds of floating turbines have been deployed, and more projects are planned. ===Vertical-axis=== Although the great majority of onshore and all large-scale offshore wind turbines currently installed are horizontal-axis, vertical-axis wind turbines have been proposed for use in offshore installations. Thanks to the installation offshore and their lower center of gravity, these turbines can in principle be built bigger than horizontal axis turbines, with proposed designs of up to 20 MW capacity per turbine. This could improve the economy of scale of offshore wind farms. However, no large-scale demonstrations of this technology have been installed. == Turbine construction materials considerations == Since offshore wind turbines are located in oceans and large lakes, the materials used for the turbines have to be modified from the materials used for land based wind turbines and optimized for corrosion resistance to salt water and the new loading forces experienced by the tower being partially submerged in water. With one of the main reasons for interest in offshore wind power being the higher wind speeds, some of the loading differences will come from higher shearing forces between the top and bottom of the wind turbine due to differences in wind speeds. There should also be considerations for the buffeting loads that will be experienced by the waves around the base of the tower, which converges on the use of steel tubular towers for offshore wind applications. Since offshore wind turbines are constantly exposed to salt and water, the steel used for the monopile and turbine tower must be treated for corrosion resistance, especially at the base of the tower in the “splash zone” for waves breaking against the tower and in the monopile. Two techniques that can be used include cathodic protection and the use of coatings to reduce corrosion pitting, which is a common source for hydrogen induced stress cracking. For cathodic protection, galvanized anodes are attached to the monopile and have enough of a potential difference with the steel to be preferentially corroded over the steel used in the monopile. Some coatings that have been applied to offshore wind turbines include hot dip zinc coatings and 2-3 epoxy coatings with a polyurethane topcoat. ==Installation== thumb|Several foundation structures for offshore wind turbines in the port of Bremerhaven Specialized jackup rigs (wind turbine installation vessels) are used to install foundation and turbine. the next generation of vessels are being built, capable of lifting 3–5,000 tons to . The large components can be difficult to install, and gyroscopes can improve handling precision. Dynamic positioning has also been used to keep the vibrating pile driver steady when installing foundations. A large number of monopile foundations have been used in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water locations.Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations , 2009-09-09, accessed 12 April 2010.Constructing a turbine foundation Horns Rev project, Elsam monopile foundation construction process, accessed 12 April 2010] Each uses a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to support all the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure. Other types are tripods (steel) and gravity base foundations (concrete). The typical construction process for a wind turbine sub-sea monopile foundation in sand includes using a pile driver to drive a large hollow steel pile deep into the seabed, through a layer of larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion around the pile. These piles can be in diameter with approximately thick walls. A transition piece (complete with pre-installed features such as boat- landing arrangement, cathodic protection, cable ducts for sub-marine cables, turbine tower flange, etc.) is attached to the now deeply driven pile, the sand and water are removed from the centre of the pile and replaced with concrete. An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter, is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection. For the ease of installing the towers and connecting them to the seabed, they are installed in two parts, the portion below the water surface and the portion above the water. The two portions of the tower are joined by a transition piece which is filled with a grouted connection. The grouted connection helps transfer the loads experienced by the turbine tower to the more stable monopile foundation of the turbine. One technique for strengthening the grout used in the connections is to include weld beads known as shear keys along the length of the grout connection to prevent any sliding between the monopile and the tower. Offshore wind turbine components are large. Transporting of components between manufacturing and assembling facilities before the installation is to be minimized. As a result, offshore wind port facilities have been specifically built in the regions with high concentration of offshore wind developments. For large offshore wind farm projects, offshore wind ports become strategic hubs of the supply chain for the installations. ===Installation capacity=== Beyond 2022 there is expected to be a shortage of offshore wind turbine installation vessels (WTIVs), especially those capable of installing 10 MW+ turbines, with demand for vessels capable of installing offshore wind turbines projected to outpace supply by 2024. “Offshore wind energy developers are starting to respond to the lack of WTIVs [wind turbine installation vessels] capable of installing offshore wind turbines of 12 MW and greater, but there is still uncertainty regarding the ability of the global fleet to handle planned installations of offshore wind capacity by the mid-2020s (Hartkopf-Mikkelsen 2020; Rystad Energy 2020). A Tufts University analysis of global supply chain impacts on the emerging U.S. offshore wind energy market indicates that the current global WTIV fleet is unprepared to install wind turbines of 12 MW and larger (Bocklet et al. 2021).” ==Connection== === Grid connection === There are several different types of technologies that are being explored as viable options for integrating offshore wind power into the onshore grid. The most conventional method is through high-voltage alternating current (HVAC) transmission lines. HVAC transmission lines are currently the most commonly used form of grid connections for offshore wind turbines. However, there are significant limitations that prevent HVAC from being practical, especially as the distance to offshore turbines increases. First, HVAC is limited by cable charging currents, which are a result of capacitance in the cables. Undersea AC cables have a much higher capacitance than overhead AC cables, so losses due to capacitance become much more significant, and the voltage magnitude at the receiving end of the transmission line can be significantly different from the magnitude at the generating end. In order to compensate for these losses, either more cables or reactive compensation must be added to the system. Both of these add costs to the system. Additionally, because HVAC cables have both real and reactive power flowing through them, there can be additional losses. Because of these losses, underground HVAC lines are limited in how far they can extend. The maximum appropriate distance for HVAC transmission for offshore wind power is considered to be around . Using high-voltage direct current (HVDC) cables has been a proposed alternative to using HVAC cables. HVDC transmission cables are not affected by the cable charging currents and experience less power loss because HVDC does not transmit reactive power. With less losses, undersea HVDC lines can extend much farther than HVAC. This makes HVDC preferable for siting wind turbines very far offshore. However, HVDC requires power converters in order to connect to the AC grid. Both line commutated converters (LCCs) and voltage source converters (VSCs) have been considered for this. Although LCCs are a much more widespread technology and cheaper, VSCs have many more benefits, including independent active power and reactive power control. New research has been put into developing hybrid HVDC technologies that have a LCC connected to a VSC through a DC cable. In order to transport the energy from offshore wind turbines to onshore energy plants, cabling has to be placed along the ocean floor. The cabling has to be able to transfer large amounts of current efficiently which requires optimization of the materials used for the cabling as well as determining cable paths for the use of a minimal amount of cable materials. One way to reduce the cost of the cables used in these applications is to convert the copper conductors to aluminum conductors, however the suggested replacement brings up an issue of increased cable motion and potential damage since aluminum is less dense than copper. ===Marine vessel connection=== An offshore electricity recharging system named Stillstrom, to be launched by Danish shipping firm Maersk Supply Service, will give ships access to renewable energy while at sea. Connecting ships to electricity generated by offshore wind farms, the system is designed to cut emissions from idling ships. ==Maintenance== Turbines are much less accessible when offshore (requiring the use of a service vessel or helicopter for routine access, and a jackup rig for heavy service such as gearbox replacement), and thus reliability is more important than for an onshore turbine. Some wind farms located far from possible onshore bases have service teams living on site in offshore accommodation units._platform.aspx Accommodation Platform DONG Energy, February 2010. Retrieved: 22 November 2010. To limit the effects of corrosion on the blades of a wind turbine, a protective tape of elastomeric materials is applied, though the droplet erosion protection coatings provide better protection from the elements. Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) is used to protect wind turbine monopiles and floating wind turbine platforms. ICCP systems are increasingly popular as a solution against corrosion, as they do not require on-site monitoring, and are more eco-friendly and cost-effective than traditional galvanic systems. While traditional galvanic anode cathodic protection (GACP) systems operate on the natural driving force between two metals, ICCP systems use a continuous external power source. A maintenance organization performs maintenance and repairs of the components, spending almost all its resources on the turbines. The conventional way of inspecting the blades is for workers to rappel down the blade, taking a day per turbine. Some farms inspect the blades of three turbines per day by photographing them from the monopile through a 600mm telephoto lens, avoiding to go up. Others use camera drones. Because of their remote nature, prognosis and health-monitoring systems on offshore wind turbines will become much more necessary. They would enable better planning just-in-time maintenance, thereby reducing the operations and maintenance costs. According to a report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government (supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future), making field data from these turbines available would be invaluable in validating complex analysis codes used for turbine design. Reducing this barrier would contribute to the education of engineers specializing in wind energy. ==Decommissioning== As the first offshore wind farms reach their end of life, a demolition industry develops to recycle them at a cost of DKK 2-4 million ($300,000-600,000 USD) roughly per MW, to be guaranteed by the owner. The first offshore wind farm to be decommissioned was Yttre Stengrund in Sweden in November 2015, followed by Vindeby in 2017 and Blyth in 2019. ==Environmental impact== Offshore wind farms have very low global warming potential per unit of electricity generated, comparable to that of onshore wind farms. Offshore installations also have the advantage of limited impact of noise and on the landscape compared to land-based projects. === Environmental considerations === As private offshore wind developers have become increasingly aware of the environmental side-effects, a turn to more sustainable methods of construction have occurred. This can be seen through partnerships with charities and local communities. In 2022, it was announced that Ørsted - a specialist provider in offshore wind and the environmentalist charity World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) had developed a global partnership which aims to promote an increase in offshore wind infrastructure projects whilst also ensuring that beneficial impacts for biodiversity must be promoted and prioritised. Offshore wind provider Vattenfall declared a fifteen million pound investment package into the local area of Norfolk in order to support climate change based projects. As the offshore wind industry has evolved and expanded on a rapid scale, a number of European Directives have been created concerning the necessary environmental considerations that must be taken into account by developers. In 2008, the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive was formed with its core element involving an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) which mitigates against any adverse effects towards the marine environment by offshore wind infrastructures. The EIA was implemented as a means of preventing further disturbance towards aspects including marine organisms, the seabed and the ecosystem as a whole that are generated from critical infrastructure such as offshore wind installations. If the development of an offshore wind infrastructure fails to comply with the measures associated with an EIA, the operator is obliged to compensate the environment in another aspect in order to nullify the damage it may create. In November 2020, the European Commission announced the European Union Strategy on Offshore Renewable Energy to aid the target of climate change neutrality by 2050. The core part of the strategy is to expand Europe's offshore wind industry by using its role to incentivise collaboration between member states, publish guidance surrounding the role of wind development in light of EU law as well as to support various private-public projects. === Environmental concerns === While the offshore wind industry has grown dramatically over the last several decades, there is still a great deal of uncertainty associated with how the construction and operation of these wind farms affect marine animals and the marine environment. However, as the capacity of offshore wind has increased, a developing domain of academic research has continuously looked into a range of environmental side effects during the turbine life cycle phases of construction, operations and decommissioning. The various environmental consequences impact a range of marine species including seabirds, fish, seals, and whales. The installation and deinstallation as well as the required maintenance of offshore wind structures have the potential to produce substantially negative environmental impacts towards the marine environment. The timing of such processes is key since it has been found that the presence of these activities during periods of migration and reproduction can have disruptive impacts towards marine wildlife such as seabirds and fish. In addition, the installation of offshore wind infrastructure has been claimed to be a key impactor in the displacement of marine wildlife such as seabirds, however the lack of available published work on this matter is limited. A significant positive environmental impact of offshore wind installations is the potential for the creation of artificial reefs. Such reefs can indirectly facilitate the diversification of marine organisms, thus a variety of species can thrive. However, offshore wind farms have the ability to harm marine habitats due to an interference with the sediment on top of the seabed. Evidence suggests from a study which was conducted surrounding noise offsets from offshore wind farms that the installation process can alter the physical and behavioural processes of animals such as porpoises and seals. The welfare of seabirds is at risk due to the potential for collisions with the turbines, as well as causing the birds to adjust their travel routes which can significantly impact their endurance as a migratory specie. Alongside this, the presence of offshore wind farms may cause seabirds to change their behaviour due to the visual and noise offsets. It has been noted that all forms of underwater noise from offshore developments have the capacity to reduce the survival rate of marine animals. Since 2015, there has been a surge in whale deaths across the East coast of the United States of America. Research involving data analysis has claimed that there is a link between both the increased mortality rate of whales alongside the expansion of offshore wind infrastructure on the busy coastal cities of New York and New Jersey. Research conducted in Spain found that the visual presence of offshore wind farms can decrease the demand for recreational tourism, yielding negative national and local economic consequences for coastal communities that are home to a developing offshore wind industry. However, others have regarded this link as overstated, with part of the public opinion claiming support for the physical visual presence of the turbines. This sub-issue represents how research surrounding offshore wind is still relatively novel as well as through the introduction of new claims remaining highly contested. The threat of invasive species has been noted as a significant environmental risk from offshore wind acting as a suitable home. The impacts can include the possible destabilisation of biodiversity due to the presence of alien species causing the distinction of other forms of marine life. === Marine spatial planning and the environment === As the offshore wind industry has developed, a range of environmental considerations have come to the fore concerning the spatial planning decision processes of the turbines. As demonstrated in the above section, a wide array of environmental concerns have been made in recent times concerning the relationship between offshore wind and the environment. As well as the commonly regarded considerations of wind conditions and profitability in the planning phase, the specific placement of offshore wind farms can have substantial benefits for the marine environment without harming business capital. Collision-risk models are a fine example of how marine spatial planning has begun to incorporate environmental protections into its procedures. In 2022, the Scottish government published a study outlining a mathematical formula for its own collision risk model which calculated the potential for seabirds to collide into wind turbines. A growing expectation is that the politics of spatial planning will become increasingly complex. As renewable energy targets need to be met, it has been claimed that the development of offshore wind was largely in part to solve the political issues that onshore wind infrastructures face, yet in reality these issues have been replicated. It has become difficult to balance environmental considerations in the planning process with relevant stakeholders such as local residents. The marine spatial planning of offshore wind farms is incredibly political, with an array of agendas and actors that seek to influence the process. However, as marine spatial planning offers a common legal framework, it has been claimed to be an overall benefit for environmental considerations to be realised in relation to offshore wind developments. ==Largest offshore wind farms== Offshore wind farms with a capacity of at least 500 MW Wind farm Location Site coordinates Capacity (MW) Turbines number Turbines model Commissioning date Refs Hornsea 2 1,386 165 Siemens Gamesa SG 8.0-167 DD 2022 Hornsea 1 1,218 174 Siemens Gamesa SWT-7.0-154 2019 Moray East 950 100 MHI Vestas V164 9.5 MW 2022 Triton Knoll 857 90 MHI Vestas 9.5 MW 2021 Jiangsu Qidong 802 134 Four different domestic manufacturers 2021 Borssele I & II 752 94 Siemens Gamesa 8MW 2020 Borssele III & IV 731.5 77 MHI Vestas V164 9.5MW 2021 East Anglia ONE 714 102 Siemens Gamesa SWT-7.0-154 2020 Walney Extension 659 MHI- Vestas 8.25 MW Siemens Gamesa 7 MW 2018 London Array 630 175 Siemens Gamesa SWT-3.6-120 2013 Wittrup, Sanne. First foundation Ing.dk, 8 March 2011. Accessed: 8 March 2011. Kriegers Flak 605 72 Siemens Gamesa SWT-8.4-167 2021 Gemini Wind Farm 600 150 Siemens Gamesa SWT-4.0 2017 Beatrice 588 84 Siemens Gamesa SWT-7.0-154 2019 Gode Wind (phases 1+2) 582 97 Siemens Gamesa SWT-6.0-154 2017 Gwynt y Môr 576 160 Siemens Gamesa SWT-3.6-107 2015 Race Bank 573 91 Siemens Gamesa SWT-6.0-154 2018 Greater Gabbard 504 140 Siemens Gamesa SWT-3.6-107 2012 ===Projects=== Most of the current projects are in European and East Asian waters. There are also several proposed developments in North America. Projects are under development in the United States in wind-rich areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Pacific coast. In January 2012, a "Smart for the Start" regulatory approach was introduced, designed to expedite the siting process while incorporating strong environmental protections. Specifically, the Department of Interior approved “wind energy areas” off the coast where projects can move through the regulatory approval process more quickly. The first offshore wind farm in the USA is the 30-megawatt, 5 turbine Block Island Wind Farm which was commissioned in December 2016. Many sportfishermen and marine biologists believe the bases of the five, 6-megawatt wind turbines off of Block Island are acting as an artificial reef. Another offshore wind farm that is in the planning phase is off the coast of Virginia Beach. On 3 August 2018, Dominion Energy announced its two wind turbine pilot program that will be 27 miles offshore from Virginia Beach. The area is undergoing a survey that will last for 4–6 weeks. Canadian wind power in the province of Ontario is pursuing several proposed locations in the Great Lakes, including the suspendedOffshore wind development hits a snag in Ontario Alberta Oil Magazine, April 2011. Accessed: 29 September 2011. Trillium Power Wind 1 approximately 20 km from shore and over 400 MW in capacity. Other Canadian projects include one on the Pacific west coast. India is looking at the potential of offshore wind power plants, with a 100 MW demonstration plant being planned off the coast of Gujarat (2014). In 2013, a group of organizations, led by Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) started project FOWIND (Facilitating Offshore Wind in India) to identify potential zones for development of off-shore wind power in India and to stimulate R & D activities in this area. In 2014 FOWIND commissioned Center for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP) to undertake pre-feasibility studies in eight zones in Tamil Nadu which have been identified as having potential. The Netherlands announced on 11 February 2022 that the government increased its offshore wind target to 21 GW by 2030. That would meet approximately 75% of the countries electricity needs. With this, offshore wind energy makes an important contribution to achieving the increased climate target of 55% less -emissions. ==Offshore wind power by country== Most offshore wind farms are currently in northern Europe. The United Kingdom and Germany alone accounted for roughly two thirds of the total offshore wind power capacity installed worldwide in 2016. China is now rapidly expanding its offshore wind power capacity, and in 2022 surpassed UK and Germany combined. List of countries by cumulative installed offshore wind power capacity (MW) Rank Country 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 1 China 1,627 2,788 4,588 6,838 9,996 19,747 26,563 2 United Kingdom 5,156 6,651 7,963 9,723 10,428 12,281 13,601 3 Germany 4,108 5,411 6,380 7,493 7,689 7,701 8,043 4 Netherlands 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 2,611 3,010 3,010 5 Denmark 1,271 1,268 1,329 1,703 1,703 2,343 2,343 6 Belgium 712 877 1,186 1,556 2,261 2,263 2,263 7 France 0 2 2 2 2 2 482 8 Vietnam 99 99 99 99 99 99 396 9 Taiwan 0 8 8 128 128 237 237 10 Japan 60 65 65 85 85 85 225 11 Sweden 202 202 192 191 192 191 191 12 South Korea 35 38 73 73 136 104 112 13 Finland 32 92 87 71 71 71 71 14 United States 30 30 30 30 42 42 42 15 Italy 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 =16 Ireland 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 =16 Portugal 0 0 0 0 25 25 25 18 Norway 2 2 2 2 2 6 8 19 Spain 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 World total 14,482 18,658 23,140 29,142 35,500 48,176 57,609 Increase - 28.8% 24.0% 25.9% 21.8% 35.7% 19.6% ==See also== *List of offshore wind farms *Floating wind turbine *Offshore wind port *Unconventional wind turbines ==References== Category:Wind power |
Andrew John Bower Mitchell (born 23 March 1956) is a British politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Sutton Coldfield since 2001. A member of the Conservative Party, Mitchell was previously the MP for Gedling from 1987 to 1997. Mitchell served in the Cabinet as Secretary of State for International Development from 2010 to 2012 and then briefly as Government Chief Whip in the House of Commons until he resigned after an alleged altercation with a police officer, referred to as "Plebgate". Mitchell studied History at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he was elected President of the Cambridge Union in 1978. He was elected to the House of Commons for Gedling in Nottinghamshire at the 1987 general election. He served in the second Major government as a Lord Commissioner of the Treasury from 1994 to 1995 and as a junior minister at the Department of Social Security from 1995 to 1997. Mitchell lost his seat to the Labour Party's Vernon Coaker at the 1997 general election. In 2001, he contested Sutton Coldfield in the West Midlands, a safe seat for the Conservatives, and was returned to Parliament. Mitchell was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet in 2005 as Shadow Secretary of State for International Development. In this role, he founded Project Umubano, a Conservative Party social action project in Rwanda and Sierra Leone in central and west Africa. Under the coalition government of David Cameron, he served as Secretary of State for International Development from 2010 to 2012. In the September 2012 cabinet reshuffle, he was appointed Chief Whip. Amid public pressure due to the Plebgate scandal, Mitchell resigned from the government the following month, and returned to the backbenches. In 2022, after serving on the backbenches for a decade, Mitchell made a return to government as Minister of State for Development and Africa following the appointment of Rishi Sunak as Prime Minister. He attends Cabinet in that role. ==Early life and career== Mitchell was born at Hampstead in north London, the son of Sir David Bower Mitchell, a future Conservative MP of 33 years, and Government Minister. He was educated at Ashdown House School and Rugby School, where the self-confessed "stern disciplinarian" earned the nickname "Thrasher". In February 1975, he joined the Royal Tank Regiment as a second lieutenant on a Short Service Limited Commission (a commission designed for teenagers applying to Oxford or Cambridge University after leaving the sixth form), spending time in Cyprus where his unit was carrying out peacekeeping duties. In October of that year, he transferred to the Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve. He resigned his commission on 9 February 1977. He went to the University of Cambridge, where he read History at Jesus College. He was Chairman of the Cambridge University Conservative Association in the Michaelmas Term of 1977. He served as President of the Cambridge Union 1978–79, after graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1978, later proceeding Master of Arts. Mitchell worked for Lazard, the investment bank, where he worked with British companies seeking large-scale overseas contracts.About Andrew www.andrew-mitchell- mp.co.uk ==Political career== Mitchell was the only Conservative member of Islington Health Authority (IHA) in north London during the 1980s, and in that capacity, he called for the IHA to make greater use of competitive tendering in the allocation of service contracts. After unsuccessfully contesting Sunderland South at the 1983 general election, Mitchell entered Parliament in 1987 at the age of 31 as MP for Gedling, Nottinghamshire, serving in the House of Commons concurrently with his father. In 1988, under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, he became PPS to William Waldegrave, who was Minister of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. In 1990, he became PPS to John Wakeham, who was Secretary of State for Energy. In 1992, under John Major, he became Vice-Chairman of the Conservative Party, and in the same year was appointed as an Assistant Government Whip. In 1993, he became a Government Whip. In 1995, he became Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Department of Social Security, a position he held until 1997. Mitchell lost his Commons seat with Tony Blair's Labour victory at the 1997 election. He was returned to Parliament at the 2001 election as the MP for Sutton Coldfield, near Birmingham. He held no shadow ministerial or organisational position under the leadership of Iain Duncan Smith, but in November 2003, under new leader Michael Howard, he became Shadow Economic Affairs Minister. In 2004, he became Shadow Home Office Minister, primarily dealing with police matters. ===Shadow International Development Secretary=== In May 2005, Mitchell was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Secretary of State for International Development. After Howard's decision to stand down as leader following the Conservatives' 2005 general election defeat, Mitchell ran the unsuccessful leadership campaign of David Davis, but retained his Shadow Cabinet position under the winner of the leadership election, David Cameron. In that role, Mitchell visited a number of countries in Africa and Asia containing some of the worst poverty in the world, such as Sierra Leone, Ghana, Ethiopia, Chad, Eritrea, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Kenya, Thailand, Cambodia and Burma (Myanmar). In many of these places, he created video reports detailing local conditions and some of the NGO projects aimed at ameliorating them. Whilst in Burma, Mitchell challenged its Government by raising evidence of systematic human rights abuses in the country, and its continued imprisonment of opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi. ====Project Umubano==== Mitchell led groups of Conservative volunteers from the professions in social development projects in Rwanda for three consecutive summers, from 2007 to 2009, as part of Project Umubano, and kept a detailed diary of their activities and experiences. The volunteers focused on five areas: health, education, justice, the private sector, and a community centre construction project. In 2008, Mitchell himself taught English to over a thousand Rwandan primary school teachers. It was during one of these trips that Mitchell and his aides are reported to have verbally abused one of the volunteers, a student journalist who had circulated a draft newspaper article she had written stressing the positives of the project, but also pointing out some problems with its operation. The journalist, Lucy Kinder, claimed Mitchell texted her father, a friend from Mitchell's university days: "They [his aides] are threatening her with physical violence and I can't say I blame them". ====Views on Gaza==== Mitchell expressed support for the idea of a televised appeal for Gaza on the BBC in 2009, a subject which had aroused much controversy on both sides of the argument. He said that, while the matter was ultimately for the BBC to decide, "We believe that they should allow the broadcast to proceed so that the British public, who have proved themselves so generous during recent emergencies in the Congo and Burma, can make their own judgement on the validity of the appeal". Following the resignation of Baroness Warsi during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, Mitchell criticised repeated Israeli attacks on UN schools and called for an arms embargo, warning that the misery suffered by an "enormous number of innocent people" was poisoning attitudes. ===International Development Secretary=== Following the general election and formation of the Conservative – Liberal Democrat coalition in May 2010, he became Secretary of State for International Development. Mitchell travelled to countries in need of aid. He visited Pakistan during the floods in 2010 and returned the following year. He also visited Haiti, to see the effects of the earthquake, and Somalia and Libya in 2011. He also addressed the United Nations General Assembly in 2010 to press the case for greater support for the developing world, strongly criticised the developed world for failing in its responsibilities towards it, and announced that Britain would double its aid contribution to Pakistan.Both in Opposition and Government, Mitchell asserted the need for transparency and value for money in British aid contributions to the developing world, with resources concentrated on the world's poorest and most troubled countries. During the 2011 Battle of Tripoli, Mitchell said that the UK had learned from Iraq and had laid the groundwork for a post-Gaddafi Libya. While emphasising that the transition should be Libyan-led, he said that Libya's allies had outlined steps to ensure a smooth transition. He added, "We have made clear that there should be no revenge attacks," and, "Libyans have to work together for a new Libya. They should keep in place the sinews of security. The National Transitional Council (NTC) in Benghazi has good informal connections with security officials in Tripoli and has told them: 'You've got a job, please help us keep stability'." He added that "Divisions between the rebels groups are overstated. The way the National Transitional Council has reached out gives us some confidence." Mitchell accepted that a smaller aid budget might have meant fewer cuts elsewhere, but insisted that development projects also helped protect Britain. "Our security is not just provided by soldiers and tanks and fighter jets, it is also provided by training the police in Afghanistan, by building up governance structures in the Middle East and by getting girls into school in the Horn of Africa," he said, "Those things are all part of what makes us safer." ====Praise in debate==== On 1 July 2010, at the end of a debate on global poverty in the House of Commons,Global Poverty Debate – www.parliament.uk (1 July 2010 : Column 1104)Global Poverty Debate – BBC Democracy Live 1 July 2010 (Quotation made 4 hrs, 3 mins 55 secs into the debate) the Minister of State for International Development, Alan Duncan, quoted the journalist Jon Snow as having said, "Andrew Mitchell is unquestionably the best prepared Secretary of State – nobody has waited longer in the wings and everyone in the sector knows of his commitment to the sector". ====Aid transparency==== Both in Opposition, and later as Secretary of State for International Development, Mitchell repeatedly asserted the need for transparency in aid donations to other countries, with contributions fully accounted for and published, and announced his intention for Britain to lead the world in this transparency. He made clear that value for money in aid donations was of critical importance and provided a guarantee that British legislation would be amended to ensure that Britain's aid contributions would be maintained at 0.7 per cent of UK GNI (Gross National Income) by 2013. He also asked former international envoy and Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown to conduct a review of the UK's response to international humanitarian disasters, such as the 2010 Haiti earthquake, to see whether lessons could be learned from them. ====Aid to Rwanda==== On his final day as International Development Secretary, Mitchell authorised the payment of £16 million of previously suspended aid to Rwanda, half of Britain's annual aid to Rwanda. The aid had been suspended in July, along with other governments' aid, over concerns about Rwanda's alleged support of the rebel March 23 Movement in east Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mitchell's successor stopped further aid payments as Rwanda had breached agreements, and following the publication of a United Nations Security Council investigators' report which provided evidence that Rwanda had supplied guns, money and recruits to the rebels contrary to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1807, and engaged directly in combat to help the rebels capture territory. The International Development Select Committee launched an inquiry into the suspending, then subsequent authorisation, of budget support to Rwanda. On 30 November 2012 the committee published its report criticising Mitchell for restoring the funding, stating "We do not understand how [Mitchell] reached the conclusion that support for the M23 had ceased", which was one of the three conditions that the Prime Minister had set for the resumption of aid. === "Plebgate" === In September 2012, Mitchell was appointed Government Chief Whip in David Cameron's first significant Cabinet reshuffle. On the evening of 19 September Mitchell allegedly swore when a police officer told him to dismount from a bicycle and exit Downing Street through the pedestrian gate rather than the main gate. The leaked official police log of the incident stated that Mitchell said "Best you learn your fucking place. You don't run this fucking government...You're fucking plebs". The allegations became known in the media as "Plebgate". In response to the allegations, Mitchell apologised, but disputed many of the details of the accusations, in particular that he had used the word "pleb". He later resigned on 19 October. In December 2012, CCTV evidence was published in the media which appeared to contradict the police account of the incident, along with evidence that an email corroborating the police account and purporting to be sent by a member of the public to their MP was actually sent by an off-duty police officer who was not at the scene. Additionally, a claim by Police Federation officers from the West Midlands Police who met Mitchell that he refused to give his side of events was contradicted by a recording of the meeting, made by Mitchell himself, and subsequently released to the media. The Metropolitan Police investigation of both the leak of the police log and the discrepancies between it and other accounts was known as Operation Alice. Mitchell strongly disputed the police account of the incident in statements to the media, and in an article in The Sunday Times alleged the police officers were involved in a "cynical smear campaign". Operation Alice resulted in one police officer, Constable Keith Wallis, being charged with misconduct in a public office, for sending an email in which he falsely claimed to be an ordinary member of the public who had witnessed the alleged incident from the public footpath outside the Downing Street gates. On 10 January 2014, Wallis pleaded guilty to the charge. Wallis was dismissed from the police force and three other police officers who were involved in aspects of 'Plebgate' were dismissed for gross misconduct. Following Wallis' conviction, Mitchell received a public apology from the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, Bernard Hogan-Howe, and fellow MPs called for him to be reappointed to the cabinet. Mitchell launched a civil libel case against UK newspaper The Sun, which had first published reports of the affair. He was countersued by PC Toby Rowland, the officer who had been on duty at the Downing Street gate. On 27 November 2014, Mr Justice Mitting ruled against Mitchell, describing his behaviour as childish and saying: "I am satisfied at least on the balance of probabilities that Mr Mitchell did speak the words alleged or something so close to them as to amount to the same including the politically toxic word pleb". In consequence, Mitchell lost the libel cases against both The Sun and PC Rowland and became liable for both parties' costs, which were estimated at £2m. Mitchell said he was "bitterly disappointed". On 30 January 2015, court papers revealed that News Group newspapers offered a deal on 19 September 2014 which would have allowed Mitchell to avoid liability for the legal costs incurred by the media organisation up to that date. However, the offer did not include any apology from the publisher and Mitchell turned it down. The media organisation's legal costs subsequently increased by at least £500,000. PC Rowland successfully sued Mitchell for libel and agreed to accept a payment of £80,000 in damages. ==Work as an MP== ===Keep Justice Local campaign=== In 2002, Mitchell led the successful Keep Justice Local campaign across his constituency of Sutton Coldfield to safeguard the 50-year-old Magistrates' Court from closure. He presented a petition signed by more than 5,500 constituents, protesting at plans to transfer the Courthouse's work to Birmingham. However, its closure was again announced in December 2010 by the government in which Mitchell was by then a minister. He said, "We must now ensure that there's a widespread local discussion about the future of the site and the building. I know that our councillors are already looking at how best we can do this".http://www.thisissuttoncoldfield.co.uk/news/Local-justice- brought-end-Sutton-court-axed/article-3015492-detail/article.html ===Voting record=== In 1994, as MP for Gedling, Mitchell voted in the House of Commons for the restoration of the death penalty; the motion was defeated 383–186. Between 2001 and 2010, as MP for Sutton Coldfield, his House of Commons voting record shows that he voted for limiting climate change, civil partnerships for gay couples, greater autonomy for schools, a UK referendum on the EU Lisbon Treaty, replacement of Trident, the invasion of Iraq and the subsequent Iraq investigation, and limiting pollution from civil aviation. During the same period, he voted against ID cards, the closure of post offices, both 42 days' and 90 days' detention without charge or trial, the DNA database, closer EU integration, the relaxation of gambling laws, Section 28 (although in 1988 he had voted in favour), employment discrimination against gay people, the legalisation of recreational drugs, a fully elected House of Lords, and a ban on fox hunting. In 2013 Mitchell voted against the legalisation of same-sex marriage and also voted for an amendment to the bill which would have allowed a government registrar to opt out of performing marriage ceremonies 'to which he had a conscientious objection'. He was ranked by the Liberal Democrat Voice (connected to, but not part of, the Liberal Democrat Party) as one of the least authoritarian members of Parliament, scoring 3 out of 100 points for his votes between 2005 and 2010. with a joint ranking of 542 out of 619. Mitchell supported continued membership of the European Union in the 2016 referendum. === Reaction to 2017 General Election === Speaking in January 2018, to the Jesus College, Cambridge, Debating Society, Mitchell expressed the belief that the Labour would win the next general election and Jeremy Corbyn would become the next Prime Minister. Mitchell explained that this was a prospect he regarded with apprehension, and speculated that under a Labour Government borrowing and taxation would increase drastically. === Famine in Yemen === In October 2018, Mitchell said that by supporting the Saudi coalition "Britain is complicit in creating" a famine in Yemen. === Relationship with Boris Johnson === On 31 January 2022, after Boris Johnson issued a statement to the house about the interim report by Sue Gray, into the Partygate scandal, Mitchell announced that he no longer supported the Prime Minister. Mitchell had previously been one of Johnson's longest supporters. In 1993, Johnson attempted to stand as a Conservative candidate in the 1994 European Parliament elections. Mitchell convinced Prime Minister John Major, who was critical of Johnson, not to veto Johnson's candidacy, but Johnson could not find a constituency. ==Allegations of lobbying on behalf of donors== An article in The Sunday Times newspaper on 30 October 2010, quoted by The Guardian newspaper the following day, claimed that Mitchell had pressured the Foreign Office and colleagues to lobby Ghana (successfully) for the lifting of a trading ban on a cocoa company, Armajaro, which had been a repeated donor to Mitchell's parliamentary office and also a donor to the Conservative Party. Ghana had imposed the ban as the company was believed to have been smuggling cocoa out of the country. However, when questioned by ITV News on 2 November about his role in the case, Mitchell said that he had a duty as a member of the government to respond to the company's requests, as it was registered as a British company, and that the government had a responsibility to promote British trade. He argued that he had seen no evidence that the Ghanaian government's suspicions about the company in question had been substantiated, and that the claim that he had acted improperly on behalf of a party donor was unreasonable, as the company had ceased to donate to both the Conservative Party and his parliamentary office several years earlier.ITV Lunchtime News, ITV1 2 November 2010. ==Allegations of tax avoidance== In 2006, Mitchell invested funds in privately owned firms implicated in a tax avoidance scheme. According to The Daily Telegraph, a subsidiary of DV3 purchased the lease on the Dickins & Jones department store building in central London for £65.1 million and sold it a month later to a partnership controlled by DV3 for £65,100, thus avoiding stamp duty. The loophole, although legal, was reported by The Times to be considered "aggressive tax avoidance" by Revenue & Customs. ==Personal life== Mitchell is married to Dr Sharon Bennett, a GP, and has two children. He maintains a residence in his constituency of Sutton Coldfield and primarily lives in Islington, London. Mitchell is a trustee of International Inspiration – a charity that promotes access to sport, play and physical exercise in low and middle income countries around the world. He sits on the Board of Trustees alongside Sebastian Coe, Katherine Grainger and David Davies. Mitchell was previously a trustee of the E. M. Radiation Research Trust,EM Radiation Research Trust Andrew Mitchell, Conservative MP, is listed at the bottom of the webpage, together with other members of the Board of Trustees, dated 2003-2009. now known as the Radiation Research Trust, which conducts research into radiation emissions, from sites such as mobile phone masts. He was also a senior strategy adviser for consultants Accenture. He is also Freeman of the City of London and a Liveryman of the Vintners' Company. In 2010, Mitchell was sworn in as a Privy Councillor. Mitchell is a member of the elite Burgundian bacchanalian fraternity, the Confrérie des Chevaliers du Tastevin. ==Publications== * Beyond a Fringe : Tales from a reformed Establishment lackey (Biteback Publishing, London, 2021) ==References== ==Sources== * == Notes == ==External links== *Andrew Mitchell MP official constituency website * *Profile: Andrew Mitchell BBC News, 10 February 2005 *Pan-African Free Trade Agreement: Helping Africa through Free Trade – Andrew Mitchell talks at the Cato Institute *Debrett's People of Today * |- |- |- |- |- |- Category:1956 births Category:Alumni of Jesus College, Cambridge Category:British Secretaries of State Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Category:English male cyclists Category:Living people Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Category:People educated at Ashdown House Category:People educated at Rugby School Category:Presidents of the Cambridge Union Category:Royal Tank Regiment officers Category:UK MPs 1987–1992 Category:UK MPs 1992–1997 Category:UK MPs 2001–2005 Category:UK MPs 2005–2010 Category:UK MPs 2010–2015 Category:UK MPs 2015–2017 Category:UK MPs 2017–2019 Category:UK MPs 2019–present |
Tacloban ( ; ), officially the City of Tacloban (; ), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the Eastern Visayas region of the Philippines. The city is autonomous from the province of Leyte, although it serves as its provincial capital. According to the 2020 census, Tacloban has a population of 251,881, making it the most populous city in the Eastern Visayas. The city is located southeast from Manila. Tacloban City was briefly the capital of the Philippines under the Commonwealth Government, from October 20, 1944, to February 27, 1945. In an extensive survey conducted by the Asian Institute of Management Policy Center and released in July 2010, Tacloban City ranks as the fifth most competitive city in the Philippines, and second in the emerging cities category. On November 8, 2013, the city was largely destroyed by Typhoon Haiyan, having previously suffered similar destruction and loss of life in 1897 and 1912. On January 17, 2015, Pope Francis visited Tacloban during his Papal Visit to the Philippines and held a mass at Barangay San Jose, and later he led mass of 30,000 people in front of the airport. ==Etymology== The place got its name from the word taklub, a bamboo tray used to catch crabs or shrimp. ==History== thumb|left|Street performers carrying taklub on their backs (Tacloban takes its name from the taklub, a bamboo fish- catching contraption). thumb|left|Aerial view of Tacloban, 1931 Tacloban was first known as Kankabatok, an allusion to the first inhabitants - Kabatok. They established their dwellings in the vicinity of the present day Santo Niño Church. Others who came later were Gumoda, Haraging and Huraw who erected their own settlements in nearby sites. Huraw's domain is the hill where the city hall now sits. The combined settlements acquired the name Kankabatok, meaning "property of Kabatoks". The constant threat of pirates due to its lack of a natural barrier hindered the development and progress of the settlement. And so the place never figured out in the early centuries of the Spanish colonization of Leyte. When the Jesuits (the first evangelizers of Leyte) left in 1768, the Augustinians took over and in 1770 they established the barrio with a chapel (visita) of Tacloban under the jurisdiction of Palo. The Augustinians who came from the Province of the Holy Name of Jesus based in Cebu were also responsible in introducing the devotion to the Santo Niño becoming therefore the heavenly patron of the settlement. With the Moro raids in check, the place became a hub for commercial activity and soon after the place was renamed Tacloban becoming an independent municipality and then capital of the province of Leyte. In 1843, the Augustinians ceded the administration of the parish to the Franciscans. The change of the name came about in this manner: Kankabatok was a favorite haunt of fishermen. They would use a bamboo contraption called a "taklub" to catch crabs, shrimps or fish. When asked where they were going, the fishermen would answer, "(to) tarakluban", which meant the place where they used the device to catch these marine resources. Eventually, the name Tarakluban or Tacloban took prominence. It is not known when Tacloban became a municipality because records supporting this fact were destroyed during a typhoon. It is commonly believed that Tacloban was officially proclaimed a municipality in 1770s. In 1768, Leyte and Samar were separated into two provinces, each constituting a politico-military province. Due to its strategic location, Tacloban became a vital trading point between the two provinces. The capital of Leyte was transferred from one town to another with Tacloban as the last on February 26, 1830. The decision to make Tacloban the capital was based on the following reasons: 1) ideal location of the port and 2) well-sheltered and adequate facilities. On June 20, 1952, Tacloban was proclaimed a chartered city by virtue of Republic Act No. 760. thumb|left|Madonna Maria Kanon, a peace commemoration statue in Kanfuraw Hill The arrival of Colonel Arthur Murray in 1901 made him the first military governor of Leyte. His first official act was the opening of Tacloban port to world commerce. Before World War II, Tacloban was the commercial, education, social and cultural center of the Province of Leyte. Copra and abaca were exported in large quantities. The leading institutions were: Leyte Normal School, Leyte High School, Leyte Trade School, Holy Infant Academy and Tacloban Catholic Institute. In November 1912, a typhoon swept through the central Philippines and "practically destroyed" Tacloban. In Tacloban and Capiz on the island of Panay, the death toll was 15,000, half the population of those cities at the time. On May 25, 1942, Japanese forces landed in Tacloban, signalling the beginning of their two-year occupation of Leyte. They fortified the city and improved its airfield. Since San Pedro Bay was ideal for larger vessels, the Japanese Imperial Naval Forces made Tacloban a port of call and entry. This time was considered the darkest in the history of Tacloban and the country due to the incidences of torture among civilians, including the elderly. In response, guerrilla groups operated in Leyte - the most notable of which was the group of Ruperto Kangleon. The Japanese established a "comfort station" in the city, where they kidnapped local girls, teenagers and young adults who they then forced into becoming sex slaves under the gruesome "comfort women" system. Leyte was the first to be liberated by the combined Filipino and American troops. General Douglas MacArthur's assault troops landed in the Tacloban and Palo beaches (White Beach and Red Beach, respectively) and in the neighboring town of Dulag (Blue Beach) on October 20, 1944. These landings signaled the eventual victory of the Filipino and American forces and the fulfillment of MacArthur's famous promise: "I Shall Return." Three days later, on October 23, at a ceremony at the Capitol Building in Tacloban, MacArthur, accompanied by President Sergio Osmeña, made Tacloban the temporary seat of the Commonwealth Government and temporary capital of the Philippines until the complete liberation of the country. The provincial government of Leyte and the municipal government of Tacloban were re-established. Paulo Jaro was the Liberation mayor of Tacloban. The first mayor of this capital upon inauguration of the Philippine Republic was Epifanio Aguirre. On January 8, 1960, MacArthur made his "sentimental" journey to Leyte. He was greeted with cheers by locals when he visited Tacloban. The city was proclaimed as a highly urbanized city by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on October 4, 2008Proclamation No. 1637 dated October 4, 2008 and ratified by the people on December 18, 2008. Tacloban was officially declared an HUC at 10:40PM of that day. === 2013 Typhoon Haiyan === thumb|Debris lines the streets of Tacloban after Typhoon Haiyan hit the city. On November 8, 2013 (PST), Tacloban was hit by the full force of Typhoon Haiyan, causing massive destruction across the city. Dead bodies were scattered on the streets, trees were uprooted, and a storm surge largely destroyed the airport, though it functioned soon after as a makeshift command and evacuation center. After taking a helicopter flight over the city, US Marine Brigadier General Paul Kennedy was quoted as saying, "I don't believe there is a single structure that is not destroyed or severely damaged in some way – every single building, every single house." Widespread looting and violence is reported to have taken place and local government virtually collapsed, as many city officials were victims. President Aquino declared a state of emergency in Tacloban. The official final death toll stood at 6,201. === 2015 Papal visit === On January 17, 2015, Pope Francis, the leader of the Roman Catholic Church, arrived in Tacloban to celebrate Mass with the survivors of Haiyan (Yolanda). The pope arrived at Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport on a flight operated by Philippine Airlines. ==Geography== Tacloban is located on the northeastern tip of Leyte island, with its easternmost part facing Cancabato Bay. The bay is at the east mouth of San Juanico Strait. The Tacloban territory follows the length of the strait, along with Babatngon municipality north of the city. The strait divides the islands of Leyte and Samar. Tacloban Bay, Leyte, Philippines.jpg|Tacloban Bay File:Cancabato Bay front IMG 0868.jpg|The eastern part of the city facing Cancabato Bay. File:SANPEDROBAY.JPG|San Pedro Bay shore facing northeastward towards Cancabato Bay and the San Juanico Strait beyond, backgrounded by Samar island on the horizon. File:Cancabato Bay fishermen IMG 0874.jpg|Fishing folks on outrigger canoes on Cancabato Bay, with the San Juanico Strait and Samar island in the background. Tacloban, Hills around Tacloban, Philippines.jpg|Hills around Tacloban File:Tacloban.jpg|Coastal village in Tacloban ===Barangays=== The City of Tacloban is politically subdivided into 138 barangays, each having its own council. Number Name 1 Libertad 2 Jones 3 Upper Nulatula 4 Libertad 5 T. Claudio 5-A T. Claudio 6 6-A Sto. Nino 7 8 T. Claudio 8-A 12 GE Palanog 13 Salazar/J. Romualdez 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 P. Burgos 22 23 23-A 24 25 26 P.Gomez 27 28 29 P.Gomez 30 31 32 33 34 Real 35 35-A 36 Sabang 36-A Sabang 37 Sea Wall 37-A G.E. Palanog Gawad Kalinga Village 38 Calvary Hill 39 Calvary Hill 40 Calvary Hill 41 Calvary Hill 42-A Quarry 42-B Quarry 43-A Quarry 43-B Quarry 44-A Quarry 44-B Quarry 45 46 Imelda/Juan Luna 47 48-A 48-B 49 Youngfield 50 Youngfield 50-A Youngfield 50-B Youngfield 51 51-A 52 Lucban Magallanes 53 Magallanes 54 Magallanes 54-A Magallanes 55 El Reposo 56 El Reposo 56-A El Reposo 57 Whitelane Sampaguita 58 59 Sagkahan Picas 59-A Sampaguita 59-B Sampaguita 59-E Sagkahan Picas 60 Sagkahan Aslum 60-A Sagkahan 61 Sagkahan 62 Sagkahan Saging 62-A Sagkahan Ilong 62-B Sagkahan Picas 63 Sagkahan Mangga 64 Sagkahan Bliss 65 66 Anibong 66-A Anibong 67 Anibong 68 Anibong 69 Anibong, Happy Land 70 Anibong, Rawis 71 Naga-naga 72 PHHC Seaside 73 PHHC Mountainside 74 Lower Nula-Tula 75 Fatima Village 76 Fatima Village 77 Fatima Village 78 Marasbaras 79 Marasbaras 80 Marasbaras 81 Marasbaras 82 Marasbaras 83 Paraiso 83-A Burayan 83-B San Jose, Cogon 83-C San Jose 84 San Jose 85 San Jose 86 San Jose 87 San Jose 88 San Jose 89 San Jose, Baybay 90 San Jose 91 Abucay 92 Apitong 93 Bagacay 94 Tigbao 94-A Basper 95 Caibaan 95-A Caibaan 96 Calanipawan 97 Cabalawan 98 Camansinay 99 Diit 100 San Roque 101 New Kawayan 102 Kawayan 103 Palanog 103-A San Paglaum 104 Salvacion 105 Suhi 106 Santo. Niño 107 Santa Elena 108 Tagapuro 109 V&G; Subdivision 109-A V&G; Subdivision 110 Utap ===Climate=== Tacloban has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af) but due to the numerous cyclones present in the area, the climate is not equatorial. Tropical rainforest climates are tropical climates in which there is no dry season - all months have mean precipitation values of at least . Tropical rainforest climates have no pronounced summer or winter; it is typically wet throughout the year and rainfall is both heavy and frequent. One day in an equatorial climate can be very similar to the next, while the change in temperature between day and night may be larger than the average change in temperature between "summer" and "winter". The average high (daytime) temperature for the year in Tacloban is . The warmest month on average is May with an average daytime temperature of . The coolest month on average is January and February, with an average (nighttime) temperature of . The highest recorded temperature was , recorded on April 6, 1924, and in August. The lowest recorded temperature in Tacloban is which was recorded in December. The average rainfall for the year is , with the most rainfall on average in December with and the least on average in April with . ==Demographics== According to the 2020 census, Tacloban has a population of 251,881 inhabitants. Tacloban is predominantly a Waray-speaking city. The language is also officially called Lineyte-Samarnon ("Leyte-Samarnon") and is spoken by more than 90% of the total city population. Waray-Waray, aside from being the native language of the city, is also the lingua franca used in the city among Filipinos of various ethnic groups. Tacloban is culturally and linguistically diverse. A decade before the end of Spanish sovereignty, it was largely a typical colonial community: most of its residents were either pure Iberian families or the new generations of Spanish-Filipino blood. Today's population consists of a mix of Spanish and Chinese mestizos, foreign expatriates and native Leyteños. Other Filipino ethnic groups who migrated to the city are the Cebuano/Kana/Visayan speaking populace accounts for 6.08% of the total population, 0.80% are Tagalog, 0.10% are Ilocano, 0.07% are Kapampangan, and 2.95% come from other ethnic origins. 88.52% of the residents of Tacloban City are Roman Catholic; 6.12% are Muslims (most are Maranao migrants from Mindanao); 0.83% are of the indigenous Christian denomination, Iglesia ni Cristo; 0.94% are Evangelicals (born-again Christians); Baptists 0.80%; 0.49% Seventh-Day Adventists. Others comprise 3.10%. ==Economy== Tacloban is the economic center of the entire Eastern Visayas, with an economy largely focused on agriculture, commerce, and tourism. Proximal to the city proper is the 237-hectare Eastern Visayas Agri-Industrial Growth Center (EVRGC), which was approved and accredited by the Philippine Economic Zone Authority by virtue of Presidential Proclamation No. 1210 on April 23, 1998. EVRGC serves as an eco- industrial hub with the Tacloban city government as its developer and operator. Several regional broadcasters are also based in the city including ABS-CBN TV-2 Tacloban, GMA TV-10 Tacloban and PRTV-12 Tacloban. The Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport also makes the city a key regional transportation hub. Tacloban is one of the fastest-growing cities in the Philippines, and has one of the lowest poverty incidence rates in the country (at roughly 9%, while the national poverty incidence stands at 30%). After its massive devastation on November 8, 2013, Tacloban was declared by its local government as a start-up city, which means everything had to start back from scratch. Currently the city is experiencing a rapid economic recovery. ==Government== thumb|left|Kanhuraw - this nickname of the Tacloban City Hall is also the name of the hill where the building stands. The executive power of the City Government is vested in the mayor. The Sangguniang Panlungsod or the city council has the legislative power to create city ordinances. It is a unicameral body composed of ten elected councilors and certain numbers of ex officio and sectoral representatives. It is presided by the vice mayor, the mayor and the elected city councilors who are elected-at-large every three years. The current city mayor is Alfred Romualdez. The city government ceased to be under the supervision of the provincial government after it became a highly urbanized city in 2008. The city is now under the direct supervision of the national government. Tacloban City is part of the 1st District of Leyte, alongside seven other municipalities: Alangalang, Babatngon, Palo, San Miguel, Santa Fe, Tanauan, and Tolosa. The district is currently represented by Congressman Martin Romualdez. ===Official seal=== right|150px|Tacloban City Official Seal The official Seal of Tacloban is the symbol of the city's identity when it became a city under Republic Act No. 760 on June 20, 1952. The city's emblem stands for the following physical attributes and character: *Left Portion - Symbolizes the province of Samar (Santa Rita), major supplier of agricultural and marine products to the city, stabilizing its volume of business and trade. *Center - Stands for the beautiful and scenic San Juanico Strait *The Galleon - Illustrates the ship of Ferdinand Magellan who landed in the island of Homonhon, Eastern Samar, the first Philippine island he sighted during the historic circumnavigation of the world *Right Portion - Leyte side, where Tacloban City is located ==Culture== thumb|left|Dancers during the Pintados Festival in 2008 The week-long celebrations peaks on June 30, the Grand fiesta of Tacloban celebrated with the traditional turn-over ceremonies of the "Teniente" made by the immediate past Hermano Mayor to the incoming Hermano Mayor. This is accompanied by the ritual of giving the medallion containing the names of all Hermanos Pasados and the Standartes. Fireworks and grand parades mark the occasion. Every house in the city prepares a feast and opens its doors to guests and well wishers. ;Subiran Regatta: Subiran Regatta is a race of one-man native sailboats with outriggers locally called "subiran" along scenic and historic Leyte Gulf. The race is done without using a paddle but only skills and techniques to manoeuvre the sail. The Subiran Regatta is now on its 32nd year and counting. This contest is done annually on that weeklong celebration of the Tacloban City Fiesta. The race aims to preserve the art of sailing with the wind alone, and to showcase the mastery of this art by local boatmen. thumb|Balyuan Park ;Balyuan: Organized by the Department of Tourism and the city government, this activity which only started in 1975 is supposedly a re-enactment of a purported exchange of images between Barrio Buscada of Basey and Sitio Kankabatok, now Tacloban City. A local story which only saw print in the 20th century purports that in the old days, Sitio Kankabatok was a small barrio under the jurisdiction of Basey town in Samar. During the Feast of Santo Niño, the residents of Sitio Kankabatok would borrow the bigger image of the saint from the chapel of Barrio Buscada in Basey. Santo Niño is the revered patron saint of both Kankabatok and Barrio Buscada. The image is returned promptly after the festivities. When Kankabatok grew into a barrio of its own, the local Catholic authorities decided that the bigger Santo Niño image be retained in prospering village. However, because of its highly questionable anthropological and historical basis, the story can be best understood as simply etiological. It gives witness to the cultural, ethnographical and historical relationship between the people of south Samar and the eastern seaboard of Leyte. Likewise, stories of the image missing in Buscada and turning up in Kankabatok aided to this decision of honoring this relationship. The Basey Flotilla bearing the church and government leaders goes on a fluvial procession along San Pedro Bay. A budyong (shell) call announces the sight of the flotilla off Kankabatok Bay. ;Sangyaw Festival: Sangyaw is an archaic Waray word which means to herald the news. The Sangyaw Festival was created by Imelda Marcos in the 1980s. The festival was revived in 2008 by her nephew, current city mayor Alfred Romualdez. The Sangyaw Festival invites contingents of different performing groups of various festivals in the country to compete in this side of the region. Cash prizes and trophies are at stake as the Sangyaw Festival grooms itself to be a big festival to watch out in the succeeding years. ==Transportation== thumb|right|The San Juanico Bridge, north of the city Tacloban is served by air, multicabs, taxis, jeepneys, buses, tricycles and pedicabs. The city host the Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport. The New Transport Terminal of Tacloban City or New Bus Terminal located in Abucay district serves as the land transportation hub to and from various points in the region. The San Juanico Bridge connects the city to the town of Santa Rita in Samar. ==Healthcare== As the regional center of Eastern Visayas, Tacloban offers a range of healthcare services. There are a number of hospitals and other medical institutions serving the city's population. *Public hospitals **Eastern Visayas Medical Center (EVMC) **Tacloban City Hospital *Private hospitals **ACE Medical Center Tacloban (near Robinsons Marasbaras) **Divine Word Hospital (owned by the Benedictine Sisters) **Our Mother of Mercy Hospital (owned by the Religious Sisters of Mercy) **Remedios Trinidad Romualdez Hospital (owned by the RTR Medical Foundation) **Tacloban Doctors Medical Center (owned by a group of locally prominent doctors) ==Education== Tacloban has a variety of educational institutions both public and private. Notable institutions include: * UP Tacloban College * Leyte Normal University * Eastern Visayas State University * Holy Infant College * Holy Spirit Foundation College, Inc. * Holy Virgin of Salvacion Foundation College, Inc. * ABE International Business College Tacloban * ACLC College of Tacloban * AMA College Tacloban (currently located in nearby Palo, Leyte) * Asia Pacific Career College * Asian Development Foundation College * Leyte Progressive High School * CIE British School Tacloban * Colegio De La Salle Fondation de Tacloban, Inc. * Dr. Vicente Orestes Romualdez Educational Foundation (College of Law) * JE Mondejar Foundation College * Leyte Colleges * National Maritime Polytechnic * Remedios Trinidad Romualdez Medical Foundation * Sacred Heart College of Tacloban * St. Scholastica's College, Tacloban (currently located in nearby Palo, Leyte) * St. Benedict College of Tacloban, Inc. *Liceo del Verbo Divino (formerly "Divine Word University of Tacloban") *St. Therese Educational Center of Leyte (STECL) *St. Therese Christian Development Center Foundation, Inc. (STCDCFI) *St. Therese Educational Foundation of Tacloban, Inc. (STEFTI) * Saint Arnold Janssen College of Tacloban, Inc. ==Sister cities== ===International=== : Fukuyama, Hiroshima, Japan ==Notable personalities== *Merlie Alunan - poet and instructor *Gina Apostol - writer *Norberto Castillo - 91st Rector Magnificus of the University of Santo Tomas *Andres Centino - 57th Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines *Kim Chiu - Pinoy Big Brother Teen Edition winner; television and movie star *Dennis Daa - professional basketball player *Dino Daa - professional basketball player *Bullet Dumas - indie and contemporary folk singer-songwriter *Karla Estrada - actress and singer *Ted Failon - news anchor; TV and radio personality; former Representative for Leyte's 1st District *Jose Mari Gonzales - actor; father of Cristina Gonzales-Romualdez *Ruby Ibarra - Filipina-American rapper *Iluminado Lucente - the "grand old man of Waray letters"; poet, playwright, and mayor of Tacloban *Carlo Francisco Manatad - filmmaker and film editor *Dan Palami - businessman; manager of Philippine Azkals *Rudy Robles - actor *Benjamin Romualdez - former governor of Leyte; former ambassador to the US, China and Saudi Arabia *Cristina Romualdez - former actress and former mayor of Tacloban City *Ferdinand Martin Romualdez - Representative of the 1st District of Leyte; incumbent Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines *Imelda Romualdez-Marcos - Former First Lady and former Representative for Leyte's 1st District *Lou Salvador - basketball player *Joel Porlares – 14th Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church ==References== ==External links== * Official website * [ Philippine Standard Geographic Code] *Typhoon Haiyan appears to be the deadliest natural disaster on record *Official Website of the Provincial Government of Leyte * * Category:1770 establishments in the Philippines Category:Cities in Leyte (province) Category:Highly urbanized cities in the Philippines Category:Populated places established in 1770 Category:Provincial capitals of the Philippines |
This is an alphabetical list of lists of known Hindi (mainly) songs performed, sung and/or recorded by Mohammed Rafi between 1942 and 1980. Over 5,000 of his songs are listed here. Mohammed Rafi also sang in several other languages, which might not be included here. == List of songs == Song Movie Year Remarks Ja Ja Jaare Tujhe Hum Jaan Gaye Sehra 1963 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Ramlal/Hasrat Jaipuri Ja Ja Na Chhed Maan Bhi Ja Satta Baza inar 1959 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Kalyanji-Anandji/Shailendra Ja Ja Re Ja Deewane Ja Grihasthi 1963 Duet Asha Bhosle - Ravi/Shakeel Badayuni Ja Meri Chhod De Kalayi Phagun 1958 Duet Asha Bhosle - O. P. Nayyar/Qamar Jalalabadi Ja Re Gokul Ke Natkhat Chor Lal Quila 1960 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Shri Nath Tripathi/Bharat Vyas Ja Re Gokul Natkhat Chor Lal Quila 1960 Janmashthami Lata Mangeshkar - Shri Nath Tripathi Ja Re O Makhanchor Champakali 1957 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Hemant Kumar/Rajendra Krishan Jaa Chali Jaa O Ghata Aag Ka Dariya 1953 Solo - Vinod/Aziz Kashmiri Jaa Re Jaa Re O Maakhan-Chor, Chale Champakali 1957 Janmashthami Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Hemant Kumar/Rajendra Krishan Jaa Teri Meri Teri Tu Mukhda 1951 Duet Asha Bhosle - Vinod/Aziz Kashmiri Jaach Mainu Aa Gaye Gham Khaan Di Shoukan Mele Di 1965 Punjabi Solo - Sapan Jagmohan/Shiv Kumar Batalvi Jaadu Dekhein Tone Dekhein Jantar Mantar 1964 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Sardar Malik/Hasrat Jaipuri Jaag Dil E Diwana Oonche Log 1965 Solo - Chitragupt/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jaag Jaag O Shaktiwaan Devyani 1952 Solo - S. Purushottam/ Jaag Raha Bhagwan To Sun Le Shyam Ki Jogan 1957 Prayer Solo - Narayan/S. P. Kalla Jaagat Raha Bhaiya Tu Soye Mati Jay Balam Pardesia 1979 Bhojpuri Solo - Chitragupt/Anjaan Jaago Jaago Ankhen Kholo Badrinath Dhaam 1980 Duet Hemlata - Ravindra Jain/Ravindra Jain Jaako Raakhe Saayian Zara Bachke 1959 Duet Shamshad Begum - Nashad Ali/Khumar BaraBankvi Jaako Raakhe Saiyaa Raja Vikram 1957 Solo - Baldev Nath Bali/Bharat Vyas Jaam Chal Ne Ko Hain Mall Road 1962 Solo - Sudarshan/Viren Dablish Jaan Chali Jayein Anjaana 1969 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jaan E Bahaar Husn Tera Bemisaal Ha Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya 1963 Solo - Ravi/Shakeel Badayuni Jaan E Chaman Aaja Raat Andheri Thi 1967 Duet Asha Bhosle - Usha Khanna/Akhtar Romani Jaan E Chaman Shola Badan Pehlu Mei Gumnaam 1965 Duet Sharada Sinha - Shankar-Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Jaan E Jigar Tu Hain Haseen Shararat 1972 Solo - Ganesh Jaan E Jigar Yun Hi Agar Ho-a-ta Ra Mujrim 1958 Duet Asha Bhosle - O. P. Nayyar/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jaan E Mohabbat Saat Sawal 1971 Duet Asha Bhosle - Laal Asar Sattar/Asad Bhopali-Farooq Qaiser Jaan E Tamanna 1 Dastaan- E-Laila Majnu 1974 Solo - Iqbal Qureshi/Jan Nisar Akhtar Jaan E Tamanna 2 Dastaan-E-Laila Majnu 1974 Solo - Iqbal Qureshi/Jan Nisar Akhtar Jaan E Tamanna 3 Dastaan-E-Laila Majnu 1974 Solo - Iqbal Qureshi/Jan Nisar Akhtar Jaan Pahechan Ho Jina Aasaan Ho Dil Gumnaam 1965 Twist Solo - Shankar- Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Jaan Sake To Jaan, Mere Man Mein Ch Ustad 1957 Classical Solo - O. P. Nayyar/Jan Nisar Akhtar Jaan Se Pyara Lagta Hain Kaala Aadmi 1978 Multi Manna Dey and Asha Bhosle - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Verma Malik Jaane Hum Sadak Ke Logon Se Aasha II 1980 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jaane Kahaan Dekha Hain Biwi Aur Makaan 1966 Solo - Hemant Kumar/Gulzar Jaane Kahaan Gaye Tum Aa Jaa Sanam 1975 Solo - Usha Khanna/M. K. Javed Jaane Kis Roop Ki Archana 1973 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Jaane Mera Dil Kise Dhoond Raha Hai Laat Saab or Saheb 1967 Horse-Cart Solo - Shankar- Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Jaane Waalon Ka Gham To Hota Hain Kali Ghata 1979 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jaane Waalon Zara Mud Ke Dekho Dosti 1964 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jaaneman Aap Hum Se Mohabbat Anokha 1975 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Kalyanji-Anandji/Saawan Kumar Tak Jaanu Meri Jaan Shaan 1980 Multi Kishore Kumar, Asha Bhosle and Usha Mangeshkar - R. D. Burman/Anand Bakshi Jaao Jaao Tum Bhi Jaao Dil Ka Raja 1972 Solo - R. D. Burman/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jaat Na Poocho Saadhu Ki, Poocho Us Daku Aur Mahatma 1977 Duet Asha Bhosle - Ravindra Jain Jaata Hoon Main Mujhe Ab Na Bulan Daadi Maa 1966 Solo - Roshan Lal/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jaate Jaate Ek Nazar Bhar Dekh Lo Kawwali Ki Raat 1964 Qawali Shamshad Begum - Iqbal Qureshi Jaate Jaate Ishaaron Se Maar Gayi R Bhai behan 1959 Duet Geeta Dutt - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Sahir Ludhianvi Jaayiye Jaayiye Huzoor Aap Ko Kis N Bandish 1969 Duet Krishna Kalle - Usha Khanna Jab Aati Hogi Yaad Meri Phaansi 1978 Duet Sulakshana Pandit - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Gulshan Bawra Jab Baithe Baithe Dil Bhar Aaye Dak Bangla 1947 Solo - Naresh Bhattacharya/Deena Nath Madhok Jab Bhi Yeh Dil Udaas Hota Hain Jaa Seema 1971 Duet Sharda Sinha Sinha - Shankar- Jaikishan/Gulzar Jab Dekh Liya To Chhoopenge Kanhaa Chirag 1969 Solo - Madan Mohan Kohli/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jab Dil Se Dil Takrata Hain Mat Puc Sangharsh 1968 Solo - Naushad Ali/Shakeel Badayuni Jab Din Haseen Dil Ho Jawaan, Kyun Adalat II 1958 Cycle Duet Asha Bhosle - Madan Mohan Kohli/Rajendra Krishan Jab Ek Qaza Se Guzaro To Ek Aur Qaz Devata 1978 Chorus - R. D. Burman/Gulzar Jab Ghadi Bolein Chaar Gori Kar Ke Gambler 1960 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Chitragupt/Prem Dhawan Jab Is Dharti Par Dukh Mitti Mein Sona 1960 Duet Asha Bhosle - O. P. Nayyar/Raja Mehdi Ali Khan Jab Jab Apna Mel Hua To Dil Yeh Hi Mahua 1969 Duet Sulakshana Pandit - Sonik-Omi/Qamar Jalalabadi Jab Jab Bahaar Aayee 1 Taqdeer 1967 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jab Jab Dekhoon Tere Roop Ki Bahar Dost Aur Dushman 1971 16 th Birthday - RajKamal Jab Jab Dekhoon Tere Roop Ki Bahar, Dost Aur Dushman 1971 16th Birthday - RajKamal Jab Ladka Keh De Haan, Aur Ladki Ke Anjam IV 1952 Solo - Madan Mohan Kohli/Qamar Jalalabadi Jab Liya Haath Mein Haath Vachan 1955 Duet Asha Bhosle - Ravi/Prem Dhawan Jab Mohabbat Jawan Hoti Hai Har Aad Jawan Muhabbat 1971 Solo - Shankar- Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Jab Nainan Se Nain Mile, Jab Nainan Veer Babruwahn 1950 Multi Ameerbai Karnataki, Chitragupt and Geeta Roy - Chitragupt/Anjum Jaipuri Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hain Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai 1961 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Jab Roop Hi Pyasa Ho Kar Ratna Manjari 1955 Solo - Shri Nath Tripathi/B. D. Mishra Jab Sapane Poore Yaad Huye, Jab Sap Veer Babruwahan 1950 Duet Geeta Roy - Chitragupt/Anjum Jaipuri Jab Se Ankhein Ho Gayi Tum Se Chaar Dharti 1970 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Rajendra Krishan Jab Se Dekha Hain Tujh Ko Hum Junglee Hain 1973 Duet Usha Mangeshkar - Vedpal Varma/Vedpal/Varma Jab Se Hum Tum Baharon Mein, Kho Ba Main Shadi Karne Chala 1962 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Chitragupt/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jab Se Main Ho Gayi Young Haye Mera Dil 1968 Duet Usha Khanna - Usha Khanna??/Pyare Lal Santoshi Jab Se Mili Tujh Se Nazar Betaab Ha Sun Le To Haseena 1958 Solo - S. Mohinder/Kaif Irfani Jab Se Paida Hua Arab Ka Sonaa or Abu Kaliya 1970 Duet Krishna Bose - Jitin Shyam/Aish Kanwal Jab Se Tumhein Dekha Hain Aankhon M Gharana 1961 Duet Asha Bhosle - Ravi/Shakeel Badayuni Jab Sham E Haseen Jalti Hain Captain Sheroo 1963 Asha Bhosle - S. Mohinder/Raja Mehdi Ali Khan Jab Tak Hum Hain Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya 1963 Solo - Ravi/Shakeel Badayuni Jab Tak Khadaa Himalay Sati Vaishalini 1959 Solo - Prem Nath/Bharat Vyas Jab Tak Yeh Duniya Rahegi Durga Pooja 1954 Solo - Shri Nath Tripathi/B. D. Mishra Jab Teri Nazar Ke Teer Chale Kuch I Noor-E-Yaman 1956 Duet Shamshad Begum - Bulo C. Rani/Raja mehdi Ali Khan Jab Tu Badi Ho Jayegi Koi Matwaala Ginny Aur Johnny 1976 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Rajesh Roshan/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jab Tum Ho Mere Humsafar Khoobsurat Aan Baan II 1972 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Jab Un Ka Khayal Aa Jata Hain Pehla Pehla Pyar 1958 Solo - Baldev Nath Bali/Hasrat Jaipuri Jab Yaad Kiya Hum Aa Bhi Gaye Jannat 1949 Solo - Hanuman Prasad/M. K. Chibbar Jab Yaad Kiya Hum Aa Bhi Gaye Chilman 1949 Solo - Hanuman Prasad/Suhail Jab Yaad Tumhari Humein Aa Aa Ke Sa Bin Maa Ke Bachche 1979 Solo - O. P. Nayyar/Shamshul Huda Bihari Jadoo Bhara Tarana Sun Lo Ajeeb Ladki 1952 Solo - Ghulam Mohammed/Shakeel Badayuni Jadoo Hain Kya Jadoo Hain Matwala 1958 Duet Asha Bhosle - R. Sudarsanam/HarGovind Jadugarni Cheen Ki Hum Bhi Kuchh Kam Nahin 1958 Duet Asha Bhosle - S. D. Batish/Rahil Gorakhpuri Jag Jag O Shaktimaan Devyani 1952 Solo - S. Purushottam/Manohar Khanna Jag Tere Charano Mein Bhakti Mein Shakti 1978 Solo - Sonik-Omi/Inderjeet Singh Tulsi Jagat Mein Ho Ram Bharat Jaise Bhai Shri Ram Bharat Milan 1965 Solo - Shivram/Kavi Pradeep Jagat Raha Bhaiyaa Balam Pardesiya 1979 Bhojpuri - Chitragupt Jagdeeshwar Jag ke Pitah Jagadguru Shankaracharya 1955 Solo - Avinash Vyas/Bharat Vyas Jago Jago Re Gopal Dwar Aayein Hain Patit Paavan 1955 Solo - Jamal Sen/Bharat Vyas Jago Re Jago, Jago Re Mahakaal Jagadguru Shankaracharya 1955 Prayer - Avinash Vyas/Bharat Vyas Jagwala Mela Yaaro Thodi Der Ka Lachhi 1949 Punjabi Solo - Hansraj Behl/M. R. Bhakri Jahan Bachapan Bitaya Aaj Woh Aanga Bin Maa Ke Bachche 1979 Bidai - O. P. Nayyar Jahan Daal Daal Par Sikandar E Azam 1965 Solo - Hansraj Behl/Rajendra Krishan Jahan Dil Se Dil Mile The Pyar Ka Bandhan 1963 Duet Asha Bhosle - Ravi Jahan Jahan Khayal Jata Hain, Wahan Bade Sarkar 1957 Swing Duet Geeta Dutt - O. P. Nayyar/Sahir Ludhianvi Jahan Jayenge Deewane Issi Ka Naam Duniya Hain 1962 Solo - Ravi/Shamshul Huda bihari Jahan Kahin Deepak Jalta Hain 1 Pooja 1954 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Shailendra Jahan Kahin Deepak Jalta Hain 2 Pooja 1954 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Shailendra Jahan Kamna Ka Sajan Mere Main Sajan Ki 1980 Solo - Ravindra Jain/Ravindra Jain Jahan Mein Log Sachche Hazaar Raatein 1953 Solo - Ghulam Mohammad/Shakeel Badayuni Jahan Tu Hain Wahan Phir Chandni Ko Aao Pyar Karen I 1964 Duet Saira Banu - Usha Khanna/Rajendra Krishan Jahan Yahin Hain To, Aise Jahan Ko Char Minar 1956 Duet Sudha Malhotra - Sardul Kwatra/Vishwamitra Adil Jai Ambe Maa Bolo Khoon Ki Pukar 1978 Prayer Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Bappi Lahiri/Hasrat Jaipuri Jai Bolo Bholenath Ki Bolo-o ..Nahi Bhookh 1978 Multi Prayer Kumar Sonik and Asha Bhosle - Sonik-Omi/Verma Malik Jai Bolo Siyawar Ram Ki Hanuman Pataal Vijay 1951 Prayer Solo - Chitragupt/Gopal Singh Nepali Jai Ganesh Jai Ganesh Jai Ganesh De Maha Pooja 1954 Prayer Solo - Shankar Rao Vyas/Ramesh Gupta Jai Govind Gopal Jai Govind Gopala Narsi Bhagat 1957 Janmashthami Prayer Solo - Ravi/Gopal Singh Nepali Jai Jai Gopal Bolo ..He Bansiwale T Phir Janam Lenge Hum 1977 Gujarati Multi Janmashthami Prayer Anuradha Paudwal and Aarti Mukherjee - Bappi Lahiri/Gauhar Kanpuri Jai Jai Ram Jai Shri Ram Hanuman Vijay 1974 Solo - Ajay-Vishwanath/B. D. Mishra Jai Jai Shyam GhanShyam, Jai Jai Sh TakSaal 1956 Janmashthami Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Roshan Lal/Prem Dhawan Jai Jai Shyam GhanShyam, Jai Jai Sh TakSaal 1956 Janmashthami Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Roshan Lal/Prem Dhawan Jai Jawaan Jai Kisaan Shankar Khan 1966 Patriotic Solo - Shri Nath Tripathi/Bashar Nawaz Jai Kanhaiya Lal Ki Jai Kanaiya Lal Neel Mani 1957 Prayer Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Chitragupt/Bharat Vyas Jai Krishna Hare Heera Moti 1979 Duet Manna Dey - O. P. Nayyar/Ahmed Wasi Jai Mata Di [at the end of the Song - Aasha 1980 Prayer Duet Narendra Chanchal - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jai Raghunandan Pawan Putra Hanuman 1957 Prayer Solo - Chitragupt/Gopal Singh Nepali Jai Raghunandan Jai Sitaram Gharana 1961 Prayer Duet Asha Bhosle - Ravi/Shakeel Badayuni Jaisa Kiya Hain Tu Ne, Waisa Hi Tu Shaadi 1962 Prayer Solo - Chitragupt/Rajendra Krishan Jaise Ankhon Se Aaansoo Aise Nikle Harishchandra Taramati 1970 Solo - Hridaynath Mangeshkar/Virendra Mishra Jaise Chahe Rakhe O Daata Rikshawala 1960 Prayer Solo - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Jan Nisar Akhtar Jaisi Karni Waisi Bharni Yahin Prab Shravan Kumar 1960 Prayer Solo - ShivRam Krishna/Bharat Vyas Jaith Ki Tapti Dupheriya Badla Aur Balidan 1980 Multi Omi and Asha Bhosle - Sonik-Omi/K. L. Sharma Jaiyein Jaiyein Huzoor Bandish 1969 Duet Krishna Kalle - Usha Khanna/Akmal Hyderabadi Jal Jal Jal Jal Re Deepak Jal .. Aa Waman Avtaar 1955 Duet Asha Bhosle - Avinash Vyas/Gopal Singh Nepali Jal Jal Ke Shama Ki Tarah Fariyaadi 1953 Solo - Baldev Nath Bali/Muzzafar Orkazai Jal Thal Nabh Mein Tu Jahan Bhi Hai Shri Krishna Bhakti 1955 Solo - Chitragupt/Gopal Singh Nepali Jala Do Duniya Rivaaj 1972 Duet Manna Dey - Shankar Jaikishan/Kaifi Azmi Jaldi Jaldi Chal Re Kahara Balam Pardesiya 1979 Bhojpuri - Chitragupt Jalein Jalaane Wale Hum Ko Jaise Mo Jannat 1949 Duet Mukesh - Hanuman Prasad/Pyarelal Santoshi Jalte Deep Bhuj Gaye, Jalte Deep Bu Jalte Deep 1950 Solo - Sardul Kwatra-T. K. Das/M. A. Taj Jalwon Se Tere Chaand Ka Munh Ko Ch Kawwali Ki Raat 1964 Solo - Iqabal Qureshi Jana Hain Musafir Tujhe Madur Milan 1955 Solo - Bulo C. Rani/Shamshul Huda Bihari Janam Diya Jis Maa Ne 1 Badi Maa 1974 Solo - Mohammed Shafi/Indeevar Janam Diya Jis Maa Ne 2 Badi Maa 1974 Solo - Mohammed Shafi/Indeevar Janam Janam Ka Saath Hain Nibhane K Tumse Achha Kaun Hai 1969 Solo - Shankar- Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Janam Janam Ka Saath Hain Tumhara H Bheegi Palkein 1982 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Jugal Kishore-Tilak Raj/M. G. Hasmat Janam Janam Ke Paap Kathe Bharam Ke Sakshi Gopal 1957 Duet Manna Dey - Chitragupt/Barat Vyas Janam Janam Ke Phere Saanjh Savere Janam Janam Ke Phere 1957 Message Solo - Shri Nath Tripathi/Bharat Vyas Jane Hum Sadak Ke Logon Se - Aasha 1980 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jane Jana Yeh Faulad 1963 Duet Asha Bhosle - G. S. Kohli Jane Kahaan Gaaye Tum Bechain Hey N Aa Jaa Sanam 1975 Solo - Usha Khanna Jane Kahaan Mera Jigar Gaya Ji Abhi Mr. and Mrs. 55 [Fifty Five] 1955 Duet Geeta Dutt - O. P. Nayyar/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jane Kahan Dekha Hai Biwi Aur Makaan 1966 Solo - Hemant Kumar Jane Kahan Gayi Dil Apna Aur Preet Parai 1960 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Shailendra Jane Kya Baat Huyi Nayan Jhuke Halla Gulla 1954 Duet Asha Bhosle - Nisar Bazmi/Saba Afghani Jane Kya Dhoondti Rahti Hain Shola Aur Shabnam 1961 Solo - Khayyam/Kaifi Azmi Jane Kya Doondthi Rahti Shola Aur Shabnam 1961 Solo - Khaiyyam Jane Kya Ho Jaye Aaina 1974 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Naushad Ali/Jan Nisar Akhtar Jane Meri Ankhiyon Ne Dekha Hain Ky Pyar Ki Jeet 1962 Duet Asha Bhosle - Sudhir Phadke/Qamar Jalalabadi Jane Teri Nazron Ne Kya Kar Diya Grihasthi 1963 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Ravi Jane Teri Nazron Ne Kya Kar Diya Grihasthi 1963 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Ravi/Shakeel Badayuni Jane Wafa Jane Jahaan Jane Tammana Dil Tera Diwana 1962 Waltz Lata Mangeshkar - Shankar-Jaikishan/Shailendra Jane Wale Humari Gali Aana Baraat 1960 Duet Manna Dey - Chitragupt/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jane Wale Khuda Ki Rehmaton Ka Tujh Hatimtai 1956 Duet Asha Bhosle or Suman Kalyanpur - Shri Nath Tripathi/Raja Mehdi Ali Khan Jane Walon Ka Gham - Kali Ghata 1980 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal Jane Woh Kaun Hai Kya Naam Hain Un Bheegi Raat 1965 Solo - Roshan La/Majrooh Sultanpuril Jan-E-Jigar Tu Hain Haseen Sharaarat 1972 Solo - Ganesh/Hasrat Jaipuri Janeman Chilman Utha Kar Dekh Le Naach Ghar 1959 Duet Asha Bhosle - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Sahir Ludhianvi Jangal Mein Mor Nacha Madhumati 1958 Solo - Salil Chowdhary Janiya Aa Aa Aa ..O Dil Janiya Laag Naach Uthe Sansaar 1975 Dandiya - Laxmikant-Pyarelal Jannat Ki Hain Tasveer Johar In Kashmir 1966 Solo - Kalyanji-Anandji/Indeevar Jannat Ki Hoor Aapki Mehfil Mein Aa Sarhadi Lutera 1966 Qawali Duet Asha Bhosle - Iqbal Qureshi/M. A. Taj Janoon Kya Mera Dil Ziddi 1964 Solo - S. D. Burman/Hasrat Jaipuri Janu Meri Jaan - Shaan 1980 Multi Kishore Kumar, Asha Bhosle and Usha Mangeshkar - R. D. Burman/Anand Bakshi Jao Jao Tum Bhi Jao Samajhate Kya H Dil Ka Raaja 1972 Swing - R. D. Burman Jao Ji Hum Ne Maaf Kiya Dekha Pyar Tumhara 1963 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Raj Ratan/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jao Ji Jao Dekhe Hain Tum Jaise Cho Sharabi 1964 Duet Asha Bhosle - Madan Mohan Kohli/Rajendra Krishan Japan Love In Tokyo Le Gayi Dil Gud Love in Tokyo 1966 Solo - Shankar- Jaikishan/Hasrat Jaipuri Jara Ankhiyan La Laiye Yara Khushiy Parchaiyan 1972 Solo - R. D. Burman Jara Suno Ji Dilli Ka Dada 1962 Solo - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Sahir Ludhianvi Jate Jate Ek Nazar Bhar Dekh Lo Qawali Ki Raat 1964 Duet Shamshad Begum - Iqbal Qureshi/Shewan Rizvi Jawab Jis Ka Nahin Dil Hi Dil Mein 1982 Duet Asha Bhosle - Mandheer-Jatin/Anwar Farrukhabadi Jawab Nahin Kangan 1959 Duet Geeta Dutt - Chitragupt/Rajendra Krishan Jawan Aankhon Mein Kitna Saroor Hot Sun Le To Haseena 1958 Duet Asha Bhosle - S. Mohinder/Sarshar Sailani Jawan Ho Mashallah 1 Yeh Zindagi Kitni Haseen Hain 1966 Solo - Ravi/Rajendra Krishan Jawan Ho Ya Budhiya Ya Nanhi Si Kud Bhabhi 1957 Funny 60th Birthday - Chitragupt/Rajendra Krishan Jawan Jawan Husn Ke The Adventures Of Robinhood 1965 Duet Asha Bhosle - G. S. Kohli/Anjaan Jawan Mohabbat Jahan Jahan Hai Dilo Jawan Muhabbat 1971 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Rajendra Krishan Jawan Tum Ho Jawan Ham Hai Yeh Pyar Duniya 1968 Solo - Laxmikant- Pyarelal/Hasrat Jaipuri Jawani Chaand Salona, Jawani Chaand Saudamini 1950 Duet Zohrabai Ambalewali - Shri Nath Tripathi/Anjum Pilibhiti-Arjun-Joshi Jawani Ko Jagao Naa Jawani Soi Hai Chacha Chowdhary 1953 Duet Asha Bhosle - Madan Mohan Kohli/Rajendra Krishan Jawani Mein Akelepan Ki Ghadiyan, U Paigham 1959 Duet Asha Bhosle - C. RamChandra/Kavi Pradeep Jawani Mein To Ek Dil Ki Zaroorat Rikshawala 1960 Duet Asha Bhosle - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Jan Nisar Akhtar Jawanian Yeh Mast Mast Bin Piye Jal Tumsa Nahin Dekha 1957 Outdoor Solo - O. P. Nayyar/Marrooh Sultanpuri Jayega Jab Yahaan Se Kuchh Bhi Naa Moti Mahal 1952 Duet Madhubala Zaveri - Hansraj Behl/Asda Bhopali Jayiye Jayiye Huzoor Aap Ko Kis Ne Bandish 1969 Duet Krishna Kalle - Usha Khanna Jazbe Dil Jo Salamat Hain To Insha Main Shadi Kar Ne Chala 1962 Solo - Chitragupt/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jazbe Dil Jo Salamat Hain To Insha Main Shadi Kar Ne Chala 1962 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Chitragupt/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jee Jee, Jee Jee Sarkaar, Do Aur Do Alam Ara 1973 Duet Chandrani Mukherjee - Iqbal Qureshi Jee Lagta Nahin Apna Inn Desi Nazar Pyar Ka Sapna 1969 Twist Solo - Chitragupt/Rajendra Krishan Jeena Hain Tera Ban Kar, Marna Hai Do Bhai 1969 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jeena Marna Hain Ab Din Raat Tere S Suraj Aur Chanda 1973 Duet Suman Kalyanpur - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jeena Mushkil Marna Mushkil Neela Aakash 1965 Solo - Madan Mohan Kohli/Raja Mehdi Ali Khan Jeena To Hain Usi Ka, Are Jeena Hai Adhikar II 1971 Munna Birthday Qawali - R. D. Burman/Ramesh Pant Jeene Wale Khushi Se Jiye Ja Santan 1959 Solo - Dattaram Wadkar/Hasrat Jaipuri Jeene Wale Muskura Ke Jee Chhote Nawab 1961 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - R. D. Burman/Shailendra Jeene Wale Tu Agar Marne Se Darta Pyara Dushman 1955 Solo - Nisar Bazmi/Saba Afghani Jeet Hi Lenge Bazi Hum Tum Shola Aur Shabnam 1961 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Khayyam/Kaifi Azmi Jeet Ho Humari Jeet Ho Veer Babruwahan 1950 Duet Geeta Roy - Chitragupt/Anjum Jaipuri Jeete Hain Mar Mar Ke MusafirKhana 1955 Duet Nirmala - O. P. Nayyar/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jeevan Dhoop-Chhao Ka Khel Ishwar Bhakti 1951 Message Solo - Sonik-Giridhar/Narendra Sharma Jeevan Hain Anmol Musafir Jeevan Ha Shanti 1947 Solo - B. S. Thakur/Shakeel Badayuni Jeevan Mein Piya Tera Saath Rahein, Goonj Uthi Shehnai 1959 Engagement Lata Mangeshkar - Vasant Desai/Bharat Vyas Jeevan Path Par Pyar Ne Chhedi Madh Ek Shriman Ek Shrimati 1969 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Kalyanji-Anandji/Rajendra Krishan Jere Desh Te Jaan Luta Sawa Lakh Se Ek Ladau 1976 Punjabi - Unknown Jetoo Mundiya Do Posti 1981 Duet Minoo Purushottam - Sardool Kwatra Jhaank Jharokon Ke Se Tu Mehlon Wal Sabak 1950 Duet Surinder Kaur - Ustad Alla Rakha Qureshi/Deena Nath Madhok Jhalak Dikha De Sanam Hamara Adhikar 1970 Solo - Chitragupt/Kaifi Azmi Jhan Jhan Baaje Payaliya Rani Rupmati 1959 Classical Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Shri Nath Tripathi/Bharat Vyas Jhaank Kar Jo Tumney Chilman Dall D Atyachaar 1978 Solo - Ravindra Jain/Hasrat Jaipuri Jhilmil Sitaron Ka Angan Hoga 1 Jeevan Mrityu 1970 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jhin Chak Jhin Chak Jhin Chakachak Lal Quila 1960 Duet Shamshad Begum - Shri Nath Tripathi Jhin Chaka Jhin Chak Pyar Karo Lal Quila 1960 Duet Shamshad Begum - Shri Nath Tripathi/Bharat Vyas Jhol Jhappa Dhai Dhappa Jhol Jhappa Chandu 1958 Food Solo - Bipin Babul/ Jholi Mein Goli Piya Milan Ki Aas 1961 Solo - Shri Nath Tripathi/Bharat Vyas Jhooka Kar Sar Ko Baithe Hain Pyase Panchhi 1961 Multi S. Balbir and Shamshad Begum - Kalyanji-Anandji/Qamar Jalalabadi Jhoole Mein Pawan Ke Aai Bahar Nain Baiju Bawra 1952 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Naushad Ali Jhoom Jhoom Kar Baadal Aaye Khamosh Sipahi 1950 Duet Geeta Roy - Hansraj Behl/Deena Nath Madhok Jhoom Jhoom Kar Bahaar Naache Guzara 1954 Duet Shamshad Begum - Ghulam Mohammad/Fauk Jaami Jhoom Jhoom Ke Do Diwane Gaate Jaay Mastana 1954 Duet Lakshmi Shankar - Madan Mohan Kohli/Rajendra Krishan Jhoom Kar Aaya Achank Bhare Mehfil Sone Ka Dil Lohe Ke Haath 1978 Qawali Asha Bhosle - Usha Khanna Jhoom Ke Gaa Yun Aaj Mere Dil, Raat Patanga 1970 Piano - Shankar- Jaikishan Jhoom Rahin Hain Mast Bahaarein Chand Ki Duniya 1959 Duet Asha Bhosle - Nirmal Kumar/Qamar Jalalabadi Jhoomta Sawan Dekho Aaya, Barkha Ne Do Khilaadi 1976 Solo - Usha Khanna/Gauhar Kanpuri Jhoomti Hain Nazar Jhoomta Hain Pya Hatimtai 1956 Waltz Asha Bhosle - Shri Nath Tripathi/Raja Mehdi Ali Khan Jhoot Ka Deepak Kabhi Guest House 1959 Solo - Chitragupt/Prem Dhawan Jhoote Ka Muh Kala Sheikh Chilli 1956 Solo - Vinod/Pandit Indra Jhuk Ke Zameen Chum Raha Hain Dhoop Chhaon 1954 Duet Asha Bhosle - Aziz Hindi/Jan Nisar Akhtar Jhuka Jhuka Ke Nazaar Yun Uthayi Ja Mere Sartaj 1975 Solo - Ravi/Mehboob Sarwar Jhuka Kar Apni Garma Garam 1957 Multi S. D. Batish, Asha Bhosle and Shamshad Begum - Vinod/Raja Mehdi Ali Khan-Pyarelal Santoshi Jhuke Hain Baadal, Baalon Ke, Khile Kal Hamara Hai 1959 Swing Duet Asha Bhosle - Chitragupt/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jhukti Hain Duniya Jhuknewala Chaah Sagai 1951 Multi Chitalkar and Lata Mangeshkar - C. RamChandra/Rajinder Krishan Jhum Ke Ga Patangaa 1971 Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Neeraj Jhun Jhun Paayal Jhanke Maya Machhindra 1960 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Ramlal Heerapanna/Keshav Trivedi Ji Chahta Hain Aaj Kahin Door Jayiy Chandrakanta 1956 Duet Asha Bhosle - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Sahir Ludhianvi Jidhar Bhi Main Dekhoon Tuhi Meri Zindagi 1965 Duet Asha Bhosle - Rono Deb Mukherjee/Raja Mehdi Ali Khan Jigar Ka Dard Badhata Ja Raha Hai Street Singer 1966 Duet Sharda Sinha - Shankar aka Suraj Jagan of Shankar-Jaikishan Jihar Dekhta Hoon Udhar Hain Sheroo 1957 Solo - Madan Mohan Kohli/Kaif Irfani Jin Ke Liye Main Diwana Bana Woh Bh Aao Pyar Karen I 1964 Solo - Usha Khanna/Rajendra Krishan Jin Ke Paas Haathi Ghoda, Unke Paas Dil Ka Raja 1972 Multi Manna Dey and Asha Bhosle - R. D. Burman/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jin Ki Kismat Mein Kaante Raja Saab 1969 Solo - Kalyanji-Anandji/Anand Bakshi Jin Ki Tasveer Nigahon Mein Liye Husn Aur Ishq 1966 Solo - Ganesh/Noor Devasi Jin Ko Tu Bhool Gaya Watan 1954 Solo - Hafiz Khan/Shewan Rizvi Jin Raaton Mein Neend Ud Jaati Hain Raat Ki Rani 1949 Solo - Hansraj Behl/Arzoo Lakhnavi Jin Veeron Ne Atyachaar 1978 Solo - Ravindra Jain/Naqsh Lyallpuri Jine-waale Muskura Ke Jee Khushi Ke Chhote Nawab 1961 Swing Lata Mangeshkar - R. D. Burman Jinhen Naaz Hai Hind Par Woh Kahan Pyaasa 1957 Patrotic - S. D. Burman/Sahir Ludhianvi Jis Din Is Duniya Se Nafarat Maa Baap 1960 Solo - Chitragupt/Rajendra Krishan Jis Din Se Main Ne Tum Ko Dekha Hai Parwana 1971 Duet Asha Bhosle - Madan Mohan Kohli/Kaifi Azmi Jis Ka Darshan Kar Ne Ko Kaaran 1980 Solo - Usha Khanna/Indeevar Jis Ka Man Ho Prem Ka Darpan Raeeszada 1976 Duet Asha Bhosle - Ravindra Jain/Tajdar Taj Jis Ka Palla Bhari Dekhe Kya Kya Hoga 1958 Solo - Nisar Bazmi/Saba Afghani Jis Ka Rakhwala Bhagwan Aisa Bhi Hota Hain 1971 Solo - O. P. Nayyar/Shamshul Huda Bihari Jis Ka Saathi Hain Bhagwan Aastik 1956 Solo - Narayan/S. P. Kalla Jis Ke Liye Sab Ko Chhoda, Usi Ne M Saajan Ki Saheli 1980 Duet Sulakshana Pandit - Usha Khanna/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jis Ko Us Malik Ki Rehmat Ka Sahara Son Of Hatimtai 1965 Solo Prayer - Bulo C. Rani/Prem Warbartani Jis Ko Us Malik Ki Rehmat Ka Sahara Son Of Hatimtai 1945 Solo Prayer - Bulo C. Rani/Prem Warbartani Jis Mitti Mein Khel Rahein Bachche Maharani Padmini 1964 Patriotic Solo - Sardar Malik/Deena Nath Madhok Jis Pyar Mein Yeh Haal Ho Us Pyar S Phir Subah Hogi 1958 Friendship Duet Mukesh - Khaiyyam/Sahir Ludhianvi Jis Raat Jalein Na Parwane Sanjog 1961 Duet Asha Bhosle - Madan Mohan Kohli/Rajendra Krishan Jis Rang Raakhein Prabhu Us Rang Krishna Sudhama 1957 Janmashthami Prayer Solo - Husnlal-Bhagatram/Qamar Jalalabadi Jise Dhoondhati Firti Hain Meri Naz Sheesh Mahal 1950 Duet Geeta Roy - Vasant Desai/Nazim Panipati Jiske Liye Sab Ko Chhoda Usi Ne Mer Sajan Ki Saheli 1980 Duet Sulakshana Padit - Usha Khanna Jiski Lagi Lagan Bhagwan Mein Patit Paavan 1955 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Jamal Sen/Bharat Vyas Jiski Samajh Mein Jaisa Bhi Kuchh A Shri Krishna Bhakti 1955 Solo - Chitragupt/Gopal Singh Nepali Jitni Haseen Ho Tum Mangu Dada 1970 Solo - C. Arjun/Akhtar Romani Jitni Likhi Thi Muqqadar Mein, Hum Nai Roshni 1967 Solo - Ravi/Rajendra Krishan Jiyo To Aise Jiyo Jaise Sab Tumhara Bahu Beti 1965 Solo - Ravi/Sahir Ludhianvi Jo Aage Badhe Rangbhoomi 1946 Duet Shamshad Begum - Prem Nath/Pandit Phani Jo Aaj Tak Hua Na Gul Bakavali 1963 Solo - Hansraj Behl/Gulshan Bawra Jo Aaye Tere Dar Pe Patal Pari 1957 Solo - S. Mohinder/Tanveer Naqvi Jo Baat Honi Hain Khakaan 1965 Solo - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Anand Bakshi Jo Baat Tujh Mein Hai Teri Tasveer Taj Mahal 1963 Solo - Roshan Lal/Sahir Ludhianvi Jo Bhi Chahe Maang Le, Bhagwan Ke B Naya Aadmi 1956 Prayer - M. S. Vishwanathan-T. K. Ramamoorthy/Rajendra Krishan Jo Chahe Saza De Do Vandana 1975 Solo - Ravi/Asad Bhopali Jo Dekhta Hain Kehta Hain Kudrat Naya Kanoon 1965 Solo - Madan Mohan Kohli/Hasrat Jaipuri Jo Dil Ki Baat Hoti Hai Nazar Tak A Baaz 1953 Solo - O. P. Nayyar/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jo Hain Deewane Pyar Ke Re Sada Cha Baat Ek Raat Ki 1962 String-Walk Duet Asha Bhosle - S. D. Burman/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jo Honge Agar Do Laal Saat Phere 1970 Solo - Sudhir Sen/Kaifi Azmi Jo Ijaazat Ho To Ek Baat Kahoon Sun Baat Ek Raat Ki 1962 Duet Asha Bhosle - S. D. Burman/Majrooh Sultanpuri Jo Insaan Jitna Pasina Bahaye ..Pho Phool Khile Hain Gulshan Gulshan 1978 Multi Manna Dey and Asha Bhosle - Laxmikant-Pyarelal Jo Ishq Ke Haqiqi Rakhata Ho Woh Na Son Of Hatimtaai 1965 Qawali Duet Jani Babu Qawal - Bulo C. Rani Jo Kehne Se Tum Sharmati Ho Chandi Ki Deewar 1964 Duet Asha Bhosle - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Sahir Ludhianvi Jo Kuchch Humein Kehna Hain Sabz Baagh 1951 Duet Asha Bhosle - Vinod/Aziz Kashmiri Jo Soch Ke Karega Jalan 1978 Duet Asha Bhosle - Madan Mohan Kohli/Indeevar Jo To Se Nahin Boloon Samrat Chandragupt 1958 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Kalyanji Veerji Shah/Bharat Vyas Jo Un Ki Tamanna Hain Barbaad Ho Ja Intaqam 1969 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Rajendra Krishan Jo Wada Kiya Woh Nibhana Padega Rok Taj Mahal 1963 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Roshan Lal/Sahir Ludhianvi Jo Wada Kiya Woh Nibhana Padega Rok Taj Mahal 1963 Duet Lata Mangeshkar - Roshan Lal/Sahir Ludhianvi Jo Waqt Pe Kaam Aa Jayein Farishta 1958 Duet Asha Bhosle - O. P. Nayyar/Qamar Jalalabadi Jo Yeh Dil Diwana Machal Gaya Dharmaputra 1961 Qawali Solo - N. Dutta aka Datta Naik/Yusuf Azad or Sahir Ludhianvi Jogiya Mera Thir Ke Badan, Dekh Ke Wohi Raat Wohi Awaaz 1973 Duet Radha Saluja -Sonik-Omi/Hasrat Jaipuri John Jani Janardhan Naseeb 1981 Solo - Laxmikant-Pyarelal/Anand Bakshi Jolfon Walon Se Baghdad Ki Raatein 1962 Duet Shamshad Begum - Dilip Dholakia/Prem Dhawan Joodey Mein Gajra Mat Bandho Mera G Dhoop Chhaon 1977 Classical Solo - Shankar-Jaikishan/Virendra Mishra Juda Na Karo 1 Habari 1979 Solo - Sapan JgMohan Juda Na Karo 2 Habari 1979 Solo - Sapan-Jagmohan Jude Mein Gajara Mat Bandho Mera Ge Dhoop Chhaon 1977 Classical Solo - Jaikishan Dayabhai Panchalal of Shankar -JaiKishan/Virendra Mishra Jungle Ghooma Basti Ghooma Badshah Salamat 1956 Solo - Bullo C. Rani/Shafiq Kanpuri Jungle Mein Mor Nacha Madhumati 1958 Solo - Salil Chowdhary/Shailendra == See also == * List of songs recorded by Mohammed Rafi * Recorded songs (A) * Recorded songs (B-C) * Recorded songs (D-F) * Recorded songs (G) * Recorded songs (H-I) * Recorded songs (K) * Recorded songs (L) * Recorded songs (M) * Recorded songs (N) * Recorded songs (O) * Recorded songs (P-R) * Recorded songs (S) * Recorded songs (T) * Recorded songs (U-Z) J Rafi, Mohammed |
Robert Leicester Wagner (August 2, 1872 – July 20, 1942) was the editor and publisher of Script, a weekly literary film magazine published in Beverly Hills, California, between 1929 and 1949. Rob Wagner was a magazine writer, screenwriter, director and artist before founding the liberal magazine that focused its coverage on the film industry and California and national politics. Its leftist leanings attracted many of the best artists and writers during the Depression. == Early years == Born in Detroit, Michigan, on August 2, 1872, Wagner graduated from the University of Michigan with an engineering degree in 1894. He worked as an illustrator for the Detroit Free Press before moving to New York in 1897 to illustrate magazine covers. He served as art director for The Criterion, a literary magazine considered the forerunner to The New Yorker. His illustrations of coverage of the Spanish–American War and the rising star of Theodore Roosevelt increased circulation and gave considerable weight to the magazine's political commentary and coverage. ]Rob Wagner wrote for the Saturday Evening Post, The Western Comrade and Liberty magazines among other publications. In 1901, he moved to London to work as an illustrator for the Historians' History of the World. He returned a year later to New York to illustrate the Encyclopædia Britannica. He returned to Detroit in 1903 to marry Jessie Brodhead, and then moved to Paris to study art. In 1903–04 he studied at Academies Julian and Delacluse, initially working in charcoal before focusing on oil portraits. Toward the end of his studies, he joined the Paris art studio of Robert MacCameron where his work in oils greatly improved. When he returned to Detroit he took commissions to paint portraits, many of them life-size, of the city's high society families. In 1906, he moved to Santa Barbara, California, when Jessie, who was suffering from tuberculosis, could no longer endure the harsh Michigan winters. In Santa Barbara Wagner continued taking commissions for portraits. The couple had two sons, but Jessie's health deteriorated rapidly, and she died on August 19 at the age of 28. With two young motherless boys, Wagner left them with his own mother, Mary Leicester Wagner, in Santa Barbara and opened a studio on South Figueroa Street in Los Angeles to pursue his art. == Motion picture background == Instead, he became intrigued with motion pictures as an art form. He wrote his first scenario for The Artist's Sons in 1911. The semi-autobiographical two-reel film produced by Selig Studios explored the bohemian lifestyle of a Los Angeles artist and his two young sons. Wagner's own sons, Leicester ("Les") and Thornton, played themselves in the film, which also featured dozens of Wagner's original oil portraits. In this period, Wagner taught for a number of years at the Manual Arts High School, where his students included Frank Capra, Jimmy Doolittle and Leland Curtis. Wagner went on to write scenarios for Charles Ray, Hal Roach and Mack Sennett. For Hal Roach he wrote and directed films for Will Rogers, including Two Wagons, Both Covered (1924). He also directed Rogers in Our Congressman, Goin' to Congress and High Brow Stuff, also in 1924. Toward the end of his contract with Roach in 1924, he served a stint as assistant director in the Our Gang comedies. He also was under contract in 1922 and 1923 to write scenarios and titles for Paramount Studios and in 1926 and 1927 for Universal Studios where he was a co-writer on The Collegians (1926). He also wrote scenarios for film comedian Maurice "Lefty" Flynn for Robertson-Cole Pictures Corporation. He also wrote scenarios for Constrance Binney at Realart, a low-budget film studio. In 1914, Wagner married Kansas City newspaperwoman Florence Welch, who told her new husband that he could make a better living writing about the motion picture industry than working as an artist. He covered the film industry writing for the Saturday Evening Post, Collier's, Liberty, Photoplay and other magazines. His series of articles on the film industry in The Saturday Evening Post resulted in the book Film Folk (1918), one of the first serious examinations of the movie business. == Motion Picture & Television Fund == In 1921, Wagner, Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford, Charlie Chaplin and D.W. Griffith co-founded the Motion Picture Relief Fund, which later became the Motion Picture & Television Fund, to provide financial aid to film industry workers who fell on hard times. The creation of the program eventually led to the Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital retirement facility in Woodland Hills. Acquisition of the of land and building started in 1940. Wagner was an original member of the Board of Trustees. Other members included Harold Lloyd, William S. Hart, Jesse L. Lasky, Rupert Hughes, Irving Thalberg and Mae Murray among others. == Script == thumb|May 11, 1940 issue The Wagners founded Script in February 1929 and enlisted noted writers and film people to contribute articles without pay."Seventeen Years: Feb. 1929-Feb. 1946" By Florence Wagner, Rob Wagner's Script, Feb. 2, 1946 Edgar Rice Burroughs, Walt Disney, William Saroyan, Ogden Nash, Dalton Trumbo, Chaplin, Hughes, William DeMille, Ray Bradbury, Leo Politi and Stanton MacDonald-Wright among others wrote for the magazine. Bradbury was a regular contributor with a series of short stories from about 1940 through 1947. MacDonald-Wright provided art reviews. Gladys Robinson, wife of actor Edward G. Robinson, wrote a Hollywood gossip column. Script was liberal, witty and fond of tweaking the noses of the country's movers and shakers. thumb|Rob Wagner (r.) with artist Leo Politi on Olvera Street in Los Angeles, 1940 == Leftist leanings == Wagner, a Socialist, was a progressive advocate dating to at least 1900 during his tenure as art director at The Criterion. The magazine and its theater group, The Criterion Theater, was a magnet for artists and writers that embraced individualism and Socialism. By 1914, he helped establish with Job Harriman the Llano del Rio cooperative colony in California's Antelope Valley. The project ultimately failed. During this period he served as associate editor for Los Angeles-based Western Comrade magazine, which offered a mix of socialist dogma, labor- related film news, advocacy on the women's suffrage movement, and profiles on artists and writers. The magazine also featured leftist writers Emanuel Haldeman-Julius and Frank E. Wolfe. Through the period of World War I to the early 1920s he was often the subject of Department of Justice scrutiny for his Socialist and pro-Bolshevik activities. Wagner also sent his sons to Boyland, an avant-garde boarding school with a progressive, if not unorthodox, approach to education. Pacifist Prynce Hopkins operated the school. However, Hopkins was arrested under the Espionage Act in 1918 for making an anti-war speech in Los Angeles. Hopkins was charged and pleaded guilty in federal court of interfering with military recruitment. Federal authorities interrogated Wagner about Hopkins. Although Wagner defended Hopkins, it put Wagner in the spotlight of the government's attempt to crush the anti-war movement. His defense of Hopkins cost him his job as a teacher at Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles.Artful Lives: Edward Weston, Margrethe Mather, and the Bohemians of Los Angeles by Beth Gates Warren Around 1915 Wagner had become friends with Charlie Chaplin and was soon employed as the comedian's part-time secretary. Chaplin was eligible for the draft in both the United States and England during World War I, but was rejected for military service because he was too small. Yet he was under intense scrutiny for failing to support the war effort. Wagner waged a publicity campaign on Chaplin's behalf to demonstrate the actor's support. Wagner also helped organize a War Bond tour that included Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. Shortly before the Liberty Bond tour began some of Wagner's friends informed on him to the US Bureau of Investigation that he supported Germany during the war and expressed his strong opposition to America's entry into the conflict. Sisters Ruth Sterry, a Los Angeles newspaperwoman active in the suffragette movement, and Nora Sterry, a school principal, attended round table discussions with Wagner at his Los Angeles art studio. They reported to federal authorities that Wagner voiced support for Germany. Ruth Sterry claimed that Wagner told her sister that the United States should surrender if Germany invaded. Her allegations were never proven. Wagner's longtime friend, the artist Elmer Wachtel, provided agents with a letter Wagner wrote, which contained anti-war statements and sympathy for the German government. The Bureau of Investigation and the War Department's Military Intelligence Branch attempted to determine whether Wagner was a German agent. Undercover operatives conducted around-the- clock surveillance of Wagner as the Chaplin party swung through the Southern states during the tour. Agents attempted to recruit Douglas Fairbanks as an informant, but there is no evidence to suggest the actor agreed to the plan. Agents also hired a young woman to seduce Wagner to gain access to his personal diaries while the Chaplin party stayed at a New Orleans hotel, but the plan was never carried out. Ultimately, however, agents obtained Wagner's diaries, but found no evidence that he was a German spy. FBI files In November and December 1919, he was summoned before a Los Angeles County Grand Jury on charges of sedition for his vocal opposition to America's entry into the European war, his association with the radical International Workers of the World (IWW) and his sympathies for Germany. The grand jury did not deliver an indictment due to insufficient evidence. Wagner also introduced Chaplin to leftists Max Eastman and Upton Sinclair, and between the three men helped influence Chaplin's left-leaning worldview. Chaplin often participated in roundtable political and moral discussions of the war, which was sponsored by the Severance Club that consisted of writers and film people, including Wagner. Script was a supporter of Franklin Roosevelt's policies. As the world teetered on the brink of war, it often took a pacifist tone. And its wartime domestic coverage took on unpopular causes such as defending the rights of Mexican-Americans during the Los Angeles Zoot Suit riots, the postwar resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan"The Hooded Brethren Ride Again" By M.J. King, Rob Wagner's Script, June 8, 1946 and questioning the wisdom of interning Japanese-Americans. Wagner had written extensively for Socialist publications in the first decades of the 20th century and his liberal views were reflected in his columns and interviews with leftists Upton Sinclair, Max Eastman and William C. deMille. The magazine also conducted extensive interviews with Communist revolutionary Leon Trotsky in 1938. "An Exile in Mexico" By Gladys Lloyd Robinson, Rob Wagner's Script, September 10, 1938 Script also published articles written by blacklisted screenwriters, including Dalton Trumbo and Gordon Kahn."The Russian Menace" By Dalton Trumbo, Rob Wagner's Script, May 25, 1946 Politi, the magazine's art director, often used the illustrations of his Mexican child characters, Pancho and Rosa, to advocate pacifist and anti- fascist arguments.Rob Wagner's Script Archive == Upton Sinclair association == During the 1934 California gubernatorial campaign, Script gave considerable editorial space to Upton Sinclair's candidacy while the rest of the film community waged a smear campaign against him by claiming his radical economic policies would bankrupt the movie studios. During Sinclair's campaign for governor, his balanced coverage nearly sank the magazine as advertisers and subscribers began to pull out. Keeping a low profile, Wagner also worked on Sinclair's EPIC (End Poverty in California) campaign writing the text for pamphlets and designing the organization's logo. thumb|Florence Wagner The magazine's free-thinking attitudes appealed to most of its readers. The magazine, with a circulation that never rose above 50,000, was illustrated with cartoons from various contributors. The art often were unrelated to the articles and only occasional photographs beyond the covers were used. == Scripts demise == Wagner died of a heart attack on July 20, 1942, less than two weeks before his 70th birthday, in Santa Barbara. His son, Les, a reporter for the original Los Angeles Daily News and later a war correspondent for the Office of War Information in India, took over the editing duties until his India assignment in 1944. Under Les Wagner, the magazine took on a more news- oriented approach. It took up populist causes and critiqued local media, often criticizing as fascist Hearst newspaper coverage and editorials on Constitutional issues and the civil rights of Mexican- and Japanese- Americans."American-Japanese Heroes" by Les Wagner, Rob Wagner's Script, January 5, 1946 In 1943, Script published editorials defending Charlie Chaplin, who was named as a defendant in a paternity lawsuit by Joan Barry, while Los Angeles newspapers were critical of the filmmaker. Blood tests ultimately determined that Chaplin did not father Barry's child. In 1944–45, Wagner filed dispatches for Script from Calcutta, India, on U.S. and British forces in the China-Burma-India Theater.thumb|Leicester "Les" Wagner wrote a column and later covered science and aviation for the Los Angeles Mirror-News after Script ceased publication. Florence Wagner kept the magazine going, but it lost much of its punch because the personality of the publication was driven by Rob Wagner. Wagner continued championing leftist causes by often profile left-leaning actors and directors. For example, Script profiled actor Angela Lansbury, who wrote a first-person account of her father, Edgar Lansbury, leader of the Labour Party in the United Kingdom. In March 1947, she sold the magazine to Robert Smith, the general manager of the original Los Angeles Daily News. Smith brought in new writers that added new voices and a much needed lift in film comment. Smith also arranged to have Salvador Dalí contribute cover illustrations. While the publication's circulation rose to its pre-war levels of 50,000, it failed to attract the necessary advertising. It folded in 1949. Les Wagner died in 1965 in South Laguna Beach, California. Florence Wagner died in 1971 in La Jolla, California. == Partial filmography == * The Artist's Sons (1911) (writer) * From Dusk to Dawn (1913) (set decorator) * Our Wonderful Schools (1915) (director / writer) * Mabel, Fatty and the Law (1915) (writer) * A Yoke of Gold (1916) (writer) * A Dog's Life (1918) (actor) * The Mite of Love (1919) (actor) * Dangerous Business (1920) (writer) * R.S.V.P. (1921) (writer) * Smudge (1922) (writer) * A Trip to Paramountown (1922) (titles) * Gee Whiz, Genevieve (1924) (additional gags) * Two Wagons, Both Covered (1924) (director / writer) * Going to Congress (1924) (director) * High Brow Stuff (1924) (director) * Our Congressman (1924) (director) * It's a Bear (1924) (assistant director) * Fair Week (1924) (director) * Smilin' at Trouble (1925) (writer) * Heads Up (1925) (writer) * The Collegians (1926) (writer) * So This Is Paris (1926) (titles) * Ladies at Ease (1927) (writer) * Has Anybody Here Seen Kelly? (1928) (writer) == References == == Sources == * The Best of Rob Wagner's Script by Anthony Slide (1985) * Tramp: The Life of Charlie Chaplin by Joyce Milton (1998) * Rob Wagner's Beverly Hills Script (Vol. I) * Rob Wagner's Script (Vols. II–IV) * Western Comrade (1914) * Hollywood Bohemia: The Roots of Progressive Politics in Rob Wagner's Script by Rob Leicester Wagner (2016) () == External links == * Rob Wagner biography IMDb * Rob Wagner Papers (1925–1942), UCLA Special Collections * Motion Picture & Television Fund * https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/pubs/westerncomrade/d Category:1872 births Category:1942 deaths Category:University of Michigan College of Engineering alumni Category:American magazine editors |
The original lineup of the Beatles, John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best regularly performed at different clubs in Hamburg, West Germany, during the period from August 1960 to December 1962; a chapter in the group's history which honed their performance skills, widened their reputation, and led to their first recording, which brought them to the attention of Brian Epstein. The Beatles' booking agent, Allan Williams, decided to send the group to Hamburg when another group he managed, Derry and the Seniors, proved successful there. Having no permanent drummer at the time, they recruited Best a few days before their departure. After breaking their contract by playing at another club, Harrison was deported for being underaged, and McCartney and Best were arrested and deported for attempted arson. The Beatles first met Astrid Kirchherr in Hamburg, who was instrumental in their adoption of the mop topped Beatle haircut. During their period in Hamburg, Sutcliffe decided to leave the group to continue his studies. In April 1962, less than a year after leaving the group, he suffered a brain hemorrhage and died as a result. ==Hamburg in the 1960s== Hamburg had once been West Germany's main seaport, the fourth largest in the world, but during World War II in 1943 half of the city was reduced to rubble by American and British bombing raids. By 1960, when they arrived, the Hamburg that had grown up from the ruins of WWII had established a reputation throughout Europe as a city of vice and criminal activity. In contrast to an economically depressed post-war Liverpool, Hamburg was a wealthy city. Since the end of the war in which England and Germany had been mortal ennemies, only 15 years had passed when this first wave of British musicians started to wash the shores of the Hamburg harbour. Tony Sheridan explained the resistance faced at home by these musicians as they were preparing to embark for Germany for the first time: "My parents - all our parents - they went wild when they heard that we were coming to Germany... When I went anyway, I broke my mother's heart by coming to Germany... to the enemy... to play rock and roll music." ===Leaving Liverpool=== Allan Williams, a 29-year-old Liverpool businessman and promoter, had sent his leading group, Derry and the Seniors (later known as Howie Casey and the Seniors) to Hamburg, where they were enjoying success, and wanted to send an additional group. He initially tried to send Rory Storm and the Hurricanes, but Storm and his group were committed to a Butlins holiday camp and turned Williams' offer down, as did Gerry and the Pacemakers. Williams started promoting concerts for The Beatles in May 1960, after they had played at his Jacaranda club in Liverpool, and offered The Beatles the Hamburg bookings.The Beatles, Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:38:45) Harrison talking about the offer to play in Hamburg. He booked them into Bruno Koschmider's Indra club in Hamburg for a season of bookings starting on 12 August 1960, but said that he was not impressed with them as a musical group, and hoped to find a better act to follow them. As they had no permanent drummer, McCartney looked for someone to fill the position, which was difficult, as Lennon later said that drummers were "few and far between", because a set of drums was an expensive item.The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:18) Lennon talking about drummers. Harrison had seen Best playing with the Black Jacks in The Casbah Coffee ClubThe Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:01) Harrison talking about having seen Pete Best play drums. (which was run by his mother, Mona Best). He was regarded as a steady drummer, playing the bass drum on all four beats in the bar, which pushed the rhythm, and was known in Liverpool at the time as being "mean, moody, and magnificent" by female fans,The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:07) McCartney talking about Best and his reputation. which convinced McCartney he would be good for the group.(The Beatles Anthology) DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:39:26) McCartney talking Best's reputation in Liverpool After the Black Jacks broke up, McCartney asked Best to go to Hamburg, telling him they would earn £15 per week each. Best had the chance to go to a teacher- training college, as he had passed his school exams, unlike Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, who had failed most of theirs, but decided that playing in Hamburg would be a better career move. The St. Pauli quarter of Hamburg, where the Indra club was located, was well known as a red light district where prostitutes were to be found, and was a dangerous place for anyone that looked different from the usual clientele. McCartney's father, Jim McCartney, was reluctant to let his teenage son go to Hamburg, but relented after a visit from Williams, who told him that he "shouldn't worry". Lennon's aunt, Mimi Smith, was also reluctant to allow Lennon to go to Hamburg, wanting Lennon to continue his studies, but Lennon placated her by exaggerating the amount he would earn. Best had an audition in Williams' Jacaranda club on 15 August 1960,The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:31) Harrison talking about Best's audition. and travelled to Hamburg the next day as a member of the group.(The Beatles Anthology) DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:39:49) Harrison talking about the audition with BestMy Beatle Days, by Pete Best triumphpc.com - Retrieved 26 November 2007 Williams later admitted that the audition with Best was not needed, as they had not found any other drummer willing to travel to Hamburg, but did not tell Best in case he asked for more money.Goldsmith (2004) p46 The group were to be paid about £100 per week, which was much more than promoters in Liverpool paid. Williams drove the group and their equipment in his Austin J4 minibus which was loaded by crane onto a ferry at Harwich on 16 August 1960, and landed at Hook of Holland. All five Beatles, Williams and his wife Beryl, her brother Barry Chang, and "Lord Woodbine" were in the minivan, along with Georg Sterner (Koschmider's translator and future waiter), making a total of ten people, which resulted in a journey that was both uncomfortable and dangerous. As Williams had not obtained German work permits, they were detained at Harwich for five hours. Williams finally convinced the authorities that they were students on holiday, although work permits were later obtained after their arrival in Hamburg. Note: "Lord Woodbine" and Williams ran a strip club called New Cabaret Artistes club at 174A Upper Parliament Street in Liverpool. Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Sutcliffe once played backing music for "Janice the Stripper" there, in July 1960. ==Hamburg clubs== In the early 1960s, the Hamburg scene revolved around the Kaiserkeller, Top Ten, Star-Club, Beer-Shop, Mambo, Holle, Wagabond, and the Pacific Hotel, as well as the less popular clubs like Grannies, the Ice Cream Shop, Chugs, and Sacha's. The Reeperbahn and the Grosse Freiheit were decorated with neon lights, with posters advertising the performers in the clubs. Each club had a doorman whose job was to entice customers inside, as the drinks were expensive. === The Indra and Kaiserkeller=== alt=The Indra Club from the outside looks like a simple storefront, with a closed security gate at the entrance and display windows.|thumb|left|The Indra Club, where The Beatles first played on arriving in Hamburg, as it appeared in 2007. The Beatles arrived very early in the morning of 17 August 1960, but had no trouble finding the St. Pauli area of Hamburg, as it was so infamous.The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 – 0:41:14) McCartney talking about arriving in Hamburg. Unfortunately the Indra Club (64 Große Freiheit) was closed, so a manager from a neighbouring club found someone to open it up, and the group slept on the red leather seats in the alcoves.The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 – 0:41:47) McCartney talking about sleeping in the club on the first night. The group played at the club on the same night, but were told they could sleep in the storeroom of Bambi Kino (a small cinema), which was cold and in very poor condition (33 Paul-Roosen Straße). McCartney later said, "We lived backstage in the Bambi Kino, next to the toilets, and you could always smell them. The room had been an old storeroom, and there were just concrete walls and nothing else. No heat, no wallpaper, not a lick of paint; and two sets of bunk beds, with not very much covers—Union Jack flags—we were frozen." Lennon remembered: "We were put in this pigsty. We were living in a toilet, like right next to the ladies' toilet. We'd go to bed late and be woken up next day by the sound of the cinema show and old German fraus [women] pissing next door." After having been awoken in this fashion, the group were then obliged to use cold water from the urinals for washing and shaving. They were paid £2.50 each a day, seven days a week, playing from 8:30–9:30, 10 until 11, 11:30–12:30, and finishing the evening playing from one until two o'clock in the morning. German customers found the group's name comical, as "Beatles" sounded like , which is an infantile word for penis. Harrison remembered the Reeperbahn and Große Freiheit as the best thing the group had ever seen, as it had so many neon lights, clubs and restaurants, although also saying, "The whole area was full of transvestites and prostitutes and gangsters, but I couldn't say that they were the audience ...The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 – 0:43:14) Harrison talking about Hamburg’s gangsters and hookers. Hamburg was really like our apprenticeship, learning how to play in front of people." Best remembered the Indra as being a depressing place that was filled with a few tourists, and having heavy, old, red curtains that made it seem shabby compared to the larger Kaiserkeller, a club also owned by Koschmider and located nearby at 36 Große Freiheit. After the closure of the Indra because of complaints about the noise, the Beatles played in the Kaiserkeller, starting on 4 October 1960. ====Performances==== Their playing schedule at the Kaiserkeller remained the same as it had been in the Indra. Lennon said: "We had to play for hours and hours on end. Every song lasted twenty minutes and had twenty solos in it. That's what improved the playing. There was nobody to copy from. We played what we liked best and the Germans liked it as long as it was loud." The Beatles had been used to simply standing still when they had performed in Liverpool, but Koschmider would come to the front of the stage and loudly shout "Mach Schau, mach Schau!" ("make [a] show" or, more idiomatically, "put on a show" for the customers). Harrison explained that this prompted Lennon to "dance around like a gorilla, and we'd all knock our heads together."The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 – 0:45:48) Harrison talking about "Mach schau". When reminiscing about the harsh conditions they endured, performing 8 hours per day, with little money for salary, and sometimes sleeping in cramped and squalid living quarters, all of which they had to endure for the love of Rock and Roll, Tony Sheridan pointed out with a grin, "We were like slaves". As Best had been the only one to take O-Level German at school, he could communicate with Koschmider and the clientele better than the rest of the group, and was invited to sing a speciality number called "Peppermint Twist" (while McCartney played the drums) but Best complained that he always felt uncomfortable being at the front of the stage.Best and "Peppermint Twist" eskimo.com - Retrieved 26 November 2007 Willie Limpinski, Koschmider's business manager, decided that the club would attract more customers if it presented continuous live music. Williams warned the Beatles about the competition they would face by playing in the same club as the Hurricanes (featuring future Beatle Ringo Starr on the drums) by saying, "You'd better pull your socks up because Rory Storm and the Hurricanes are coming in, and you know how good they are. They're going to knock you for six." In early October 1960, Storm and the Hurricanes were free to travel to Hamburg, replacing Derry and the Seniors at the Kaiserkeller. They arrived in Hamburg on 1 October 1960, having negotiated to be paid more than the Seniors or the Beatles. They played five or six 90-minute sets every day, alternating with the Beatles. They were appalled at the living conditions the Beatles and other groups like Howie Casey and the Seniors (who were sleeping in one room at the back of the Kaiserkeller) had to put up with, so they booked into Hamburg's Seamens' Mission.The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:42:17) Starr talking about living conditions. ====Violence and conflict==== The stage of the Kaiserkeller was made of planks of wood balanced on the top of beer crates, so the two groups made a bet to see to who would be the first to break it. After punishing the stage for days, a slight crack appeared, and when Storm jumped off the top of the upright piano it finally broke. Johnny 'Guitar' Byrne remembered that as Storm hit the stage, it cracked loudly and formed a V-shape around him. He disappeared into it, and all the amplifiers and drummer Ringo Starr's cymbals slid into the hole. Koschmider was furious and had to replace the live music with a juke box. Both groups went across the road to Harold's cafe for breakfast on the Große Freiheit, but were followed by Koschmider's doormen, armed with coshes, who beat them all as punishment. Horst Fascher (born 1936, Hamburg) was Koschmider's nightclub bouncer, who had been the 1959 West German featherweight boxing champion, but his career was cut short after he unintentionally killed a sailor in a street fight. He later became a friend of the Beatles, and protected them from drunken customers. Lennon occasionally urinated out of his apartment's window onto the street below, and often started arguments with the audience, so that eventually one member of the audience would jump on stage to hit him, but it was Fascher's job to protect Lennon and the group. In some occasions beer bottles were thrown at them. Fascher remembered Lennon often greeting the audience with a "Heil Hitler", and a Nazi salute: "He'd pull out a black comb and pretend it was a moustache... people laughed." Lennon was missing for a performance one evening, and Fascher found him in the toilet with a woman. He broke up the tête-à-tête with a bucket of cold water which he threw over them both, and ordered Lennon onto the stage. Lennon was furious, and complained that he could not go on stage dripping wet. Fascher snapped back: "I don't give a shit, you're going onstage and I don't care if you do it naked." A short time later the audience was roaring with laughter. Fascher ran to see what the commotion was, and saw Lennon playing guitar, but only wearing underpants with a toilet seat around his neck. (Epstein later asked Liverpool journalist Bill Harry not to publish photos showing Lennon walking along the Reeperbahn in his underpants). Fascher's brother, Fred, sang lead vocals with the group on "Be Bop A Lula", while he sang with them on "Hallelujah I Love Her So", and his alliance with the Beatles continued, as he later went to work at the Star- Club. Tony Sheridan reflects on the era when he arrived in Germany, just over a decade after the end of World War II. He describes these teenagers and young adults whom he encountered in these Hamburg night clubs: "This was a violent place in those days, because all the kids from the war time (like I'm a wartime child too)... so the German wartime kids, they had problems, psychological problems and aggressive, very aggressive. This was a very rough place, people getting kicked and hit and blood and fists... One day I was on the stage [of the Kaiserkeller] playing, and somebody was getting killed down here and I just went... put my hands up... [covering my eyes with my hands], closed myself up and just carried on playing... I didn't see anything [mimicking playing guitar and singing] Rock and roll, man! ... Being musicians, it was easier to stay alive, you know, because if you played, people liked you, because everybody likes music, even the bad people like music, even the gangsters they like music, so we had everybody on our side." ====Performance skills==== According to McCartney, Sutcliffe was a "typical art student", with bad skin and pimples, but his reputation grew after he began wearing tight trousers and dark Ray-Ban sunglasses. Sutcliffe's high spot was singing "Love Me Tender". Lennon also started to criticise Sutcliffe; making jokes about Sutcliffe's size and playing. While Sutcliffe is often described in Beatles' biographies as appearing very uncomfortable onstage, and often playing with his back to the audience, Best denies this, recalling Sutcliffe as usually good-natured and "animated" before an audience.An Evening With Pete Best, Part I: The Interview rickresource.com - Retrieved: 20 January 2007 The Beatles steadily improved during their time in Hamburg, and this was noticed by other musicians who were there at the time. McCartney recalled, "We got better and better and other groups started coming to watch us. The accolade of accolades was when Sheridan would come in from the Top Ten (the big club where we aspired to go) or when Rory Storm or Ringo [Starr] would hang around to watch us. 'What'd I Say' was always the one that really got them." The song was often played by the group, once being played for 90 minutes non-stop, with group members walking off stage to wash and drink before returning. Sutcliffe wrote a letter to his mother saying, "We have improved a thousand-fold since our arrival and Allan Williams, who is here at the moment, tells us that there is no group in Liverpool to touch us." Tony Sheridan explained it in these words: "Of course we were just copying [other people's music] at the beginning you know, we would listen to the record and copying what we heard from playing on stage again, reproducing it and not being original. (...) But there were a few of us who wanted to do more than that, so we put some strange chords in and we played it differently every time; Any song we did, we played it differently, so this version of My Bonnie that you hear on the record with the Beatles, was only one of two or three we did in the studio... the others are gone, they were lost. So we never did the same song twice, and that kept us from falling down from boredom. (...) After a while I discovered that the German public didn't mind if we changed a few things, if we changed a few chords, we sang it in a different way and of course, we used to play a song, not two minutes 25 seconds, but we used to play one song, sometimes 15 minutes long and in 15 minutes you can do a lot with a song like "What'd I Say", so we were changing the music, we were doing it on purpose - it wasn't an accident, we discovered that you can make something original and authentic out of an old song by doing your own thing and putting your own energy into it your own creativity and being innovative at the same time, and of course you don't get bored that way after playing eight hours a night for months on end. On Saturday 15 October 1960, Williams arranged a recording session for Lou Walters (of the Hurricanes) at the Akustik Studio, a small booth on the fifth floor of 57 Kirchenallee (The Klockmann-House).Lou Walters' recording session Retrieved: 29 January 2007 Williams asked Lennon, McCartney and Harrison to play and sing harmonies on the recording. Best was in town buying drumsticks, so Starr, the Hurricanes' drummer, played drums. This was the first time Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr recorded together. They recorded three songs: "Fever", "September Song" and "Summertime". ===Top Ten Club=== alt=The Reeperbahn nighclub as seen from the side walk with its entrance lighted. Theatre marques say "Sex" and "Peep live shows".|thumb|left|200px|The Reeperbahn Formerly the Hippodrome (Reeperbahn 136), the Top Ten club was opened in 1960 by Peter Eckhorn, and was operated by Iain Hines, who was an organist. In late October 1960, The Beatles left Koschmider's club to work at the Top Ten Club, as Eckhorn offered the group more money, a better PA (with reverb and echo) and a slightly better place to sleep (above the club itself) although by doing so the group broke their contract with Koschmider. Koschmider then reported Harrison for working under the legal age limit (even though he had been working at Koschmider's club) and Harrison was deported on 21 November 1960.(The Beatles Anthology) DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:49:56) Notice telling Harrison to leave Hamburg. When Best and McCartney went back to the Bambi Kino to get their belongings they found it in almost total darkness. As a snub to Koschmider, McCartney and Best found a condom in their luggage, attached it to a nail on the concrete wall of the room, and set fire to it in order to have light to gather their possessions. There was no real damage done, but Koschmider reported them both for attempted arson. McCartney: "One evening we were just walking down the Reeperbahn, when we heard this 'ta-ti-ti-ta', and then 'Komm mit mir!' ('Come with me!')". Best and McCartney spent three hours in the Davidwache Police Station, and were deported on 1 December 1960. Lennon's work permit was revoked a few days later and he went home by train, but as Sutcliffe had a cold, he stayed in Hamburg. Sutcliffe later borrowed money from Kirchherr (his German girlfriend) for the airfare back to Liverpool in early January 1961. Back in Liverpool, no one contacted each other for two weeks, but Best and his mother made numerous phone calls to Hamburg to recover the group's equipment. Back in Liverpool, the group played an engagement on 17 December 1960, at the Casbah Coffee Club, with Chas Newby substituting for Sutcliffe, playing bass with them for four shows.Photo of Chas Newby beatlesource.com - Retrieved 5 November 2007 Newby was shocked at the vast improvement of their playing and singing after the residency in Hamburg, and was struck by how powerful Best's drumming now was, pushing the group to play harder and louder. (It was probably due to McCartney that Best developed a loud drumming style, as he would often tell Best in Hamburg to "Crank it up" = play as loud as possible). After Harrison turned 18 and the immigration problems had been solved, the Beatles went back to Hamburg for another residency at the Top Ten Club, playing from 27 March to 2 July 1961. To secure their return, Eckhorn paid DM 158 to the German authorities, which was the cost of deporting McCartney and Best back to Liverpool the previous winter. Fellow musician, Tony Sheridan, later remembered the living conditions at the club: "John, George, Paul, Stuart and Pete and I were booked to open the smart Top Ten in the Reeperbahn. We moved into a dormitory over the club and slept in bunks. It was terrible really, now I look back. We all washed our own shirts and socks so the place smelt like a Chinese laundry. But we had great times and I’m afraid we used to tease the life out of the old lady who [took care of] us". Sutcliffe decided to leave the Beatles to concentrate on his art studies and to be with Kirchherr, so McCartney (unwillingly) took over as bass player for the group. Sutcliffe later enrolled at the Hamburg College of Art under the tutelage of the pop artist Eduardo Paolozzi. Sutcliffe lent McCartney his Höfner President 500/5 model bass guitar but asked McCartney not to change the strings around, so McCartney had to play it with the strings arranged backwards, until he could buy a specially made left-handed Höfner bass of his own.(The Beatles Anthology) DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:28:02) Harrison and McCartney talking about Sutcliffe’s first bass guitar.Sutcliffe's cheque book - liverpoolmuseums.org.uk - Retrieved: 13 May 2007Sutcliffe's President Bass rockmine.com - Retrieved: 9 May 2007 McCartney bought his first Höfner Violin bass guitar (model 500/1) from the Steinway-Haus Music Store (Colonnaden 29) for £30 (equivalent to £ in ); he couldn't afford a Fender since they cost around £100 (equivalent to £ in ).mccartney3 Lennon bought a 1958 Rickenbacker 325 Capri guitar prior to Sutcliffe's departure and Harrison bought a Gibson amplifier. The matching lilac jackets, made by McCartney's next-door neighbour in Liverpool to be worn as stage clothes, were soon threadbare, as were any other items of clothing, so the group bought cowboy boots, jeans and black leather jackets and trousers, from Paul Hundertmark's (Spielbudenplatz 9) and a tailor's shop at Thadenstrasse 6. Lennon said: "We had a bit more money the second time so we bought leather pants ... we looked like four Gene Vincents." ===The Star-Club=== On 13 April 1962, the Beatles were booked as the opening act for the launch of a new club. The Star-Club, opened by Manfred Weissleder, had a capacity for two thousand people, as well as cinema-style seating. When the Beatles were booked to play there, Neil Aspinall left his job to become the Beatles' permanent road manager, as he was earning more money driving them around than he was earning by being an accountant.First meeting with George Harrison - Merseybeat triumphpc.com - Retrieved 11 February 2007 The Beatles returned to Hamburg by plane to play from 13 April to 31 May 1962. Upon their arrival, they were informed of Sutcliffe's death. By the time of their second Star-Club visit from 1–14 November 1962, Starr had become the group's drummer. The Beatles stayed at the Hotel Germania (Detlev-Bremer-Strasse 8), having the luxury of single rooms for the first time, and then stayed at the Hotel Pacific (Neuer Pferdemarkt 30) for another booking from 18 to 31 December 1962. Harrison said: "We came back to play the Star-Club, a big place and fantastic because it had a great sound system. This time we had a hotel. I remember it was quite a long walk from the club, at the top of the Reeperbahn going back towards the city." Portions of their final performances were taped with a portable recorder by an associate of Ted "King Size" Taylor of the Dominoes, another group playing at the club. The tapes were released on West Germany's Bellaphon label in 1977 as The Beatles: Live! at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany; 1962, and subsequently re-released in various formats and titles. The set list at the Star-Club (with the lead singer in parentheses): "I Saw Her Standing There" (McCartney) "Roll Over Beethoven" (Harrison) "Hippy Hippy Shake" (McCartney) "Sweet Little Sixteen" (Lennon) "Lend Me Your Comb" (Lennon) "Your Feet's Too Big" (McCartney) "Red Sails in the Sunset" (McCartney) "Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby" (Harrison) "Matchbox" (Lennon) "Talkin' 'bout You" (Lennon) "Shimmy Shimmy" (McCartney) "Long Tall Sally" (McCartney) "I Remember You" (McCartney) "I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry (Over You)" (Lennon) "Where Have You Been All My Life" (Lennon) "Twist and Shout" (Lennon) "Mr. Moonlight" (Lennon) "A Taste of Honey" (McCartney) "Besame Mucho" (McCartney) "Reminiscing" (Harrison) "Kansas City" (McCartney) "Nothin' Shakin' But the Leaves on a Tree" (Harrison) "To Know Her is to Love Her" (Harrison or Lennon) "Little Queenie" (McCartney) "Falling in Love Again" (McCartney) "Ask Me Why" (Lennon) "Hallelujah I Love Her So" (club manager Horst Fascher) "Be-Bop-A-Lula" (Fred Fascher, Horst's brother) "Till There Was You" (McCartney) "Sheila" (Harrison) ===Debauchery=== McCartney explained that the Beatles had only experienced sex with girls from Liverpool, but when they got to Hamburg the only women who hung around the clubs late at night were strippers, dancers, or prostitutes. Harrison (who was then only 17) called Hamburg "the naughtiest city in the world".The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:05) Harrison talking about Hamburg women and sex. McCartney said: "By the time you got to Hamburg, a girlfriend there was likely to be a stripper, so to be suddenly involved with a hard-core striptease artist, who obviously knew a thing or two about sex... it was quite an eye-opener."The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:39) McCartney talking about Hamburg women and sex. Gerry Marsden—frontman for Gerry & the Pacemakers—remembered visiting a Hamburg brothel in Herbertstrasse with Lennon: "We paid our money, went in and sat down. This guy came out with the biggest lady we had ever seen in our lives. She looked like a bus with a bra on. We ran out that door so quick we didn't hear it shut. I wanted to go back to get my money back but John said: 'No, we'd better not. Might cause trouble.'" The Beatles's introduction to "Prellies" (Preludin - a successor of Pervitin) was in Hamburg.(The Beatles Anthology) DVD 2003 (Episode 1: 44:28) Starr and Harrison talking about Preludins in Hamburg. As the group had to play for hours, Sheridan offered them Preludin, saying: "Here's something to keep you awake." Astrid Kirchherr also supplied Sutcliffe and the other Beatles with Preludin, which when taken with beer, made them feel euphoric and helped to keep them awake until the early hours of the morning. Looking back, Harrison said that the whole group would be "frothing at the mouth" and would sometimes stay awake for days.The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:44:29) Harrison talking about drugs in Hamburg. Lennon recalled, "The waiters always had these pills [Preludin], so when they saw the musicians falling over with tiredness or drink, they'd give you the pill. You could work almost endlessly until the pill wore off, and then you'd have another."The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:45:10) Lennon talking about drugs in Hamburg. McCartney said that he would usually take one, but Lennon would often take four or five. Legitimate use of Preludin required a doctor's prescription, but Kirchherr's mother was able to obtain it from a local chemist who supplied the drug without asking questions. Epstein later asked the Star-Club owner, Weissleder, not to publish photographs showing the group playing with tubes of Preludin. Starr explained that Dexedrine too was in plentiful supply in Hamburg, as it was known to produce increased wakefulness and focus, in association with decreased fatigue, and decreased appetite.The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:44:06) Starr talking about drugs in Hamburg. ==Record release== The first recording of the Beatles ever released was the single "My Bonnie", made in Hamburg with Tony Sheridan, who also had a residency at the Top Ten club. He recruited the band to act as his backing group on a series of recordings for the West German Polydor Records label, the tracks produced by the bandleader Bert Kaempfert. On 22 June 1961, Sheridan and the Beatles drove to Hamburg-Harburg (about 30 minutes from Hamburg) to the Friedrich-Ebert-Halle (auditorium/hall) and were paid 330 Deutschmarks (about $75) for the recording. Kaempfert signed the group to a one-year Polydor contract at the first session on 22 June 1961. There were subsequent recording sessions on 23 June and in May 1962. On 31 October 1961, Polydor released "My Bonnie" (Mein Herz ist bei dir nur), appearing on the West German charts under the name "Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers"—a generic name used for whoever happened to be in Sheridan's backup group. McCartney later explained: "They didn't like our name and said, 'Change to the Beat Brothers, this is more understandable for the German audience.' We went along with it... it was a record." The song was later released in the UK, on 5 January 1962."My Bonnie“ / "The Saints“ 23 April 1962. Polydor NH 66833 (Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers) A few copies were also pressed on the American Decca Records label.Palowski (1989), p. 64 ===Brian Epstein=== "My Bonnie" brought the Beatles to the attention of a key figure in their subsequent development and commercial success, Brian Epstein. In September 1961, Harrison had a German copy of the record, which Sutcliffe had sent to him, as he was still in Hamburg. Harrison loaned it to Bob Wooler (The Cavern Club DJ) who played it at various venues, when the members of the group lent it to him. On 28 October 1961, the 27-year-old Epstein, manager of the record department in his father's NEMS music store in Whitechapel Street, Liverpool, was asked for the record by an 18-year-old boy, Raymond Jones. Epstein could find nothing on his files about the Beatles or the record, but the following day it was requested again by two girls, this time mentioning that the Beatles had been seen playing at the Cavern, a club in nearby Mathew Street. Alistair Taylor (Epstein's assistant) later said that the story had been invented and that he had used the name Jones to order copies of the record himself. Mersey Beat founder Bill Harry later repudiated the story about Epstein not knowing who the Beatles were, as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the band for a long time (being the group he promoted the most in Mersey Beat) and by McCartney saying, "Brian [Epstein] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were, they were on the front page of the second issue of Mersey Beat." Regardless, the interest in the record eventually led Epstein to make his way to the Cavern with Taylor, during lunch hour on 9 November 1961. He was initially repelled by the dark, damp club, but he congratulated them on their performance. ==Associates and social circle== Astrid Kirchherr, Klaus Voormann, and Jürgen Vollmer were early fans of the Beatles after they heard the group play in the Kaiserkeller. Kirchherr, Voormann's girlfriend, was initially horrified at the idea of spending any time in such a sordid district, but Voormann, after watching the Beatles several times without her, eventually persuaded her to come too. After having previously only listened to trad jazz, the Platters and Nat King Cole, the Rock n' Roll that the Beatles played was totally new to them. The three friends visited the Kaiserkeller almost every night, arriving at 9 o'clock and sitting by the front of the stage. Kirchherr, then 22 years old, later said: "It was like a merry-go-round in my head, they looked absolutely astonishing... My whole life changed in a couple of minutes. All I wanted was to be with them and to know them." Sutcliffe was fascinated by Kirchherr and Harry later wrote that when Kirchherr walked in, every head would immediately turn her way. Sutcliffe wrote to a friend that he could hardly take his eyes off her when she had first walked into the club and tried to talk to her during the next break, but she had already left. Kirchherr asked the Beatles if they would mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session, which impressed them, as other groups only had snapshots that were taken by friends. The next morning Kirchherr took photographs in a fairground park called "Der Dom" which was close to the Reeperbahn.(The Beatles Anthology) DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:47:16) Harrison talking their friends Kircherr, Voormannn and Vollmer. Kirchherr started dating Sutcliffe, and they were engaged in November 1960. Kirchherr is credited with inventing the Beatles' moptop haircut, although she personally disagreed. In 1995, she told BBC Radio Merseyside: "All my friends in art school used to run around with this sort of what you call Beatles' haircut, and my boyfriend then, Klaus Voormann, had this hairstyle, and Stuart [Sutcliffe] liked it very very much. He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the Brylcreem out of his hair and asking me to cut his hair for him. Pete [Best] has really curly hair and it wouldn't work."Kirchherr's interview on BBC Radio Merseyside's 500th On the Beat programme, Saturday 26 August 1995."Liverpool Days" book genesis-publications.com - Retrieved: 21 May 2007 After suffering blackouts and intense headaches, Sutcliffe was taken to a hospital on 10 April 1962—Kirchherr rode with him in the ambulance—but died before the ambulance reached the hospital.Lennon (2005) p110 Three days later Kirchherr met the Beatles at the Hamburg airport and told them Sutcliffe had died of a brain haemorrhage. In 1966, Voormann was asked by Lennon to design the sleeve for the Beatles' album Revolver, and also played bass on solo recordings by Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr. In 1995, Voormann designed the artwork for the three-volume CD sets in The Beatles Anthology series. In 1999, Kirchherr published a book called Hamburg Days (a two-volume limited edition) containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and "memory drawings" by Voormann of the Beatles time in Hamburg.Genesis books - Hamburg Days genesis-publications.com - Retrieved: 23 May 2007 ==Later years== 150px|thumb|The doorway of Jäger-Passage, Wohlwillstraße 22, as it looks today|leftThe Beatles returned to Hamburg in June 1966, staying at the Tremsbüttel castle (Schlosstraße 10), and played two concerts in the Ernst- Merck-Halle on 26 and 27 June. Lennon later said, "I might have been born in Liverpool - but I grew up in Hamburg". Lennon posed in front of the door of Jäger-Passage at Wohlwillstraße 22 for a photograph which was later used on the covers of the Rock 'n' Roll and Rock 'n' Roll Sessions albums. The photo was taken by Jürgen Vollmer, during the time The Beatles were playing at the Top Ten club. Individual Beatles later commented about their memories of Hamburg, with Lennon reflecting, "We'd outlived the Hamburg stage and wanted to pack that up. We hated going back to Hamburg those last two times. We'd had that scene. Brian [Epstein] made us go back to fulfill the contract". Harrison had positive memories of the period: "I'd have to say with hindsight that Hamburg bordered on the best of Beatles times. We didn't have any luxury, we didn't have any bathrooms or any clothes, we were pretty grubby, we couldn't afford anything, but on the other hand we weren't yet famous, so we didn't have to contend with the bullshit that comes with fame." McCartney was philosophical: "Hamburg was certainly a great childhood memory. But I think all things are enhanced by time. It was very exciting, though I think it felt better to me a little later in our career, once we'd started to get a bit of success with the records." A memorial square, Beatles-Platz, was constructed in Hamburg in 2008 at the meeting of Reeperbahn and Große Freiheit streets, containing five stainless steel sculptures of the Beatles. Construction costs amounted to €550,000 ($776,000), of which €200,000 was provided by sponsors and donors. The idea of creating a memorial to the Beatles had been initiated in 2001 by Hamburg radio station Oldie 95. Hamburg's Mayor, Ole von Beust, said at the opening, "It is about time that Hamburg commemorated this great group." The square when illuminated resembles a spinning turntable. Because the band members are shown only in outline form, the figure of the drummer can be either Best or Starr. ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * The Jets and the beginning * The Beatles' Hamburg Recordings on Record * Photos of the Quarrymen and the Beatles in Hamburg * Photos taken by Robert Whitaker of the Beatles in Hamburg. * Interview with James McGrath about Liverpool's black community Includes Discussion of Lord Woodbine and The Beatles in Hamburg *Article on Bambi Kino at Keenwood Blogspot Category:History of the Beatles Category:Culture in Hamburg Category:1960 in music Category:1961 in music Category:1962 in music Category:1960 in British music Category:1961 in British music Category:1962 in British music Category:1960s in Germany Category:Musical groups from Hamburg |
A Satire of the Three Estates (Middle Scots: Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis), is a satirical morality play in Middle Scots, written by makar Sir David Lyndsay. The complete play was first performed outside in the playing field at Cupar, Fife in June 1552 during the Midsummer holiday, where the action took place under Castle Hill. It was subsequently performed in Edinburgh, also outdoors, in 1554. The full text was first printed in 1602 and extracts were copied into the Bannatyne Manuscript. The Satire is an attack on the Three Estates represented in the Parliament of Scotland – the clergy, lords and burgh representatives, symbolised by the characters Spiritualitie, Temporalitie and Merchant. The clergy come in for the strongest criticism. The work portrays the social tensions present at this pivotal moment in Scottish history. ==Synopsis== A complete version of the play was printed by Robert Charteris as, Ane (Pleasant) Satyre of the Thrie Estaits, in Commendation of Vertew and Vituperation of Vyce, Edinburgh (1602)."Pleasant" appears in the title on the first page of the play, not on the title-page of Charteris's (1602) edition. In the first part there are 27 different characters. In the second part 7 more are added. The key characters are: King Humanity, Divine Correction, Sensuality, Spirituality, Temporality, Gude Counsel and Chastity. The play opens with Diligence delivering a sermon on good kingship. The main character, young King Humanity, then appears and is at first led astray by Sensuality and the Vices. His false counsellors introduce him to a mistress, Sensuality, which is the starting point of his disconnection from the moral way of life. He is then fooled by three disguised liars. Gude Counsel is sent to prison by the liars who already have taken control of King Humanitie's mind. With the beginning of his lecherous new life the king forgets about the moral virtues and can no longer judge properly. He consigns Charity and Verity to the stocks. In the course of the following scenes the audience sees how the three so called Vices (Discretion, Devotion and Sapience) try to get rid of everything and everyone who could be dangerous to them. For instance Lady Chastitie, who is homeless since the church in Scotland is not as it was meant to be, begs for shelter from Spiritualitie, Temporalitie and finally the People but is rejected in each case. In the end when Lady Chastitie is sent to prison by the Vices, Divine Correction enters the stage. This is the moment when the vices know that their time has come to an end and they flee and take away the king's treasure box. Correction frees Gude Counsel, Chastitie and Vertie. He advises the young king to call a parliament and gives him advice regarding a successful reign. The second part starts with an interruption. A member of the King's realm, known only as The Poor Man, emerges from the audience, establishes an alliance with John Commonweal to demand reform, and Diligence reappears to announce that the King will seek to improve his realm. Afterwards the Pardoner enters the scene and tries to sell pardoners. Poor Man hears that and buys pardoners worth ‘ane groat’. But Poor Man is not satisfied and gets angry and so they start to argue. In the following scene Diligence opens parliament and King Humanitie, Correction, the king's courtiers and the virtues enter. The three estates greet the king and parliament is opened. John Commonweal stands up and talks to the King and Correction. He reveals all the failures of the estates. In the course of the following hearing Temporalitie gets punished but as this estate wants to cooperate this is just a short episode. Spiritualitie does not agree on what is said about their estate and fights back. But there are too many accusations against this estate and therefore they also have to give in. The three Vices are imprisoned and sentenced to be hanged. Flatterie tried to get away by betraying his fellows Falsehood and Deceit but this did not work. In the end of the second part the three vices Deceit, Falsehood and Flatterie are allowed to say something before they are hanged. After the execution of the vices and a rousing speech by Folie, Diligence closes the play and advises the audience to go their ways and enjoy their time.Edington, Carol, Court & Culture in Renaissance Scotland, pp.221-224 ==Sixteenth century performances== ===Interlude at Linlithgow, 1540=== The 1931 edition of Lindsay's works by Douglas Hamer hypothesized different forms of the play.Hamer, Douglas, Works of Sir David Lindsay of the Mount, vol.2, Scottish Text Society (1931-4), pp.1-8 The critic John MacQueen proposed the play might have been composed by Lindsay as early as 1532 for the court of the young James V of Scotland.MacQueen, Ane Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis, SSL(1965-6), 129-43. An early form of the play is recorded in the royal treasurer's accounts and an English agent's report to Thomas Cromwell.Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol.7 (1907), pp.276-7, purchase of costumes in Jan. 1540 This short play or 'interlude' performed in January 1540 used characters who later appeared in the Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis, and had the same themes.Joanne Spencer Kantrowitz, Dramatic Allegory:Ane Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis, University of Nebraska Press, 1975. Greg Walker,'Sir David Lindsay's Ane Satire of the Thrie Estaitis,' Scottish Literary Journal, 16.2 (Nov. 1989); Roderick Lyall, Ane Satyre of The Thrie Estaitis, edited with an introduction and commentary, Canongate Classics 18, 1989 A letter written by the Englishman William Eure to Thomas Cromwell on 26 January 1540 gives a description of the interlude.Letters & Papers Henry VIII, vol.15 (1894), no.114, link to British History Online, does not include synopsis Eure, a Border Warden and Privy Councillor, had spoken to Sir Thomas Bellenden at Coldstream, who described the performance at Linlithgow Palace before James, his wife Mary of Guise and his bishops and council on the feast of the Epiphany. As the play turned on the Reformation of the church, Eure obtained a more detailed description from a Scottish contact who saw the play at Linlithgow, and enclosed in his letter the synopsis written by his spy .Ellis, ed., Original Letters relative to British History, series 3 vol.3 (1846), pp.279-285 This description corresponds with the expanded later text of Lindsay's play. A king was shown with his courtiers, Placebo, Picthanke, and Flatterye. A Poor Man made his complaint, and was answered by a Burgess, a Man at Arms and a Bishop, who represented the three estates of the Parliament of Scotland. The Poor Man mentioned the real events of James V executing both John Armstrong (of Staplegordon; in ballads the Laird o'Gilnockie), hanged in July 1530, and 'Sym the Laird,' who was hanged in February 1536.Cameron, Jamie, James V, (1998), pp.77-83 The role of the poor man was described in the spy's synopsis; > "After them come a poor Man, who did go up and down the scaffald, making a > heavy complaint that he was harried (chased) through the Courtier's place, > where through he hade strayled (lost) his house, his wife and children > beggyng thair bread, and so of many thousand in Scotland, whiche would make > the Kyng's Grace lose of men if his Grace stod neide (required), saying > there was no remedy to be gotten, for though he would suite to the King's > Grace, he was neither acquainted with Controller nor Treasurer, and without > them might no man get no goodness of the King. And after, he spered (asked) > for the King, and when he was shewed the Man that was King in the play, he > answered and said he was no King, for there was but one King, which made all > and governethe all, who is eternal, to whom he and all earthly Kings are but > officers, of the which they must make reckoning. And so forth much more to > that effect. And then he looked to the King, and said he was not the King of > Scotland, for there was another King in Scotland that hanged John Armestrang > with his fellowes, and Sym the Larde, and many other more, which had > pacified the country, and stanched theft, but he had left one thing undone, > which pertained as well to his charge as th'other. And when he was asked > what that was, he made a long narration of the oppression of the poor, by > the taking of the 'corse presaunte beists' (animals due as tithes at > funerals), and of the harrying of poor men by Consistory law, and of many > other abussions of the spiritualitie and Churche, with many long stories and > authorities."Ellis, ed., Original Letters relative to British History, > series 3 vol.3 (1846), 283-5 (here modernized) Eure said he had talked with Bellenden, a member of the council of James V of Scotland about the possibility of a Reformation of the 'spirituality' in Scotland. The play at Linlithgow had shown the 'naughtiness' of the church. Bellenden said after the play the King spoke to the churchmen in the audience asking them to reform their factions and manner of living, otherwise he would send six of them into England to his uncle, Henry VIII.Pinkerton, John, The History Of Scotland From The Accession Of The House Of Stuart To That Of Mary, vol.2, (1791), pp.494-497 ===The Cupar Banns, 1552=== The performance at Cupar on 7 June 1552 was heralded by a short piece called the Cupar Banns announcing the play, presumably also written by Lindsay.David Lyndsay's Cupar Banns in, John Pinkerton, Scottish Poems Reprinted From Scarce Editions, vol.2 (1792) This has three sections of comic drama as a foretaste of the Satire; the Cotter and his wife, Bessy and the Auld Man, and Fynlaw of the Foot Band, introduced by the 'Nuncius' and linked by the Fool. The characters of the three parts are supposed to be members of the Satire's audience. The Banns with some stage directions are found only in the Bannatyne Manuscript.Newlyn, Evelyn S., 'Traditions of Myth in The Cupar Banns', in, The European Sun, Tuckwell (1993), pp.355-367 ===Edinburgh, 1554, and the Charteris synopsis=== Some preparations for the Edinburgh performance on Sunday 14 August 1554 were made by the Burgh Council. William MacDowall with six carpenters built a stage of boards, a seat for Mary of Guise and the French ambassador Henri Cleutin, and a 'Convoy House', at the Greenside playfield, with the gallows, 'jebbettis,' used in the final scene.Van Heijnsbergen, Theo, 'Literature in Queen Mary's Edinburgh: the Bannatyne Manuscript', in, The Renaissance in Scotland, Brill (1994), p.206 The town council paid the wages of 12 minstrels, and after the play treated the actors to dinner.Adam, Robert, ed., Edinburgh Records: The Burgh Accounts, vol.1 (1899), p.110: Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer, vol.10 (1913), p.232:Marwick, ed., Extracts from the Records of the Burgh of Edinburgh, 1528-1557, (1871), entries from 1554 via British History Online, (The other play event mentioned on 15 June 1554 was the entry of Guise as Regent) The printer Henry Charteris mentioned the Edinburgh performance in his introduction to Lindsay's Warkis (1568), saying how the clergy were surprised by the play and considered taking revenge. Charteris gave this summary of the Satire; > "In the play, playit beside Edinburgh, in the presence of the Quene Regent, > and ane greit part of the nobilitie, with ane exceeding greit nowmber of > pepill. lestand fra 9 houris afoir none till 6 houris at evin, quhair, > amangis mony baith grave materis and merie trickis, he brocht in ane > Bischop, ane Persone (Parson), ane Freir, and ane Nun, deckit up in their > papisticall ornamentis and maner of raiment. And theirefter broicht in King > Correction, quha reformand sindie deformities in his realme, passit to the > tryall of the Clergie. And findand thame to be altogether Idiotis, unworthie > of ony functioun ecclesiasticall, dicernit thame to be degradit of their > dignateis, and spulzeit (deprived) of their offices, quhilk beand executit, > thay war fund bot verray fulis, hypocrites, flatteris & nouchtie > persones."Hamer, Douglas, Works of David Lindsay, vol.1, STS (1931), p.398 The Bannatyne Manuscript contains only selected "merry interludes" from the 1554 Greenside performance, the copyist George Bannatyne omitted the "grave matter" because the church had been reformed in reality in the 1560 Scottish Reformation Parliament, and he noted, "the samyne abuse is weill reformit in Scotland." Stage directions in the Bannatyne Manuscript mention the settings of "houses", the "King's seat" and "palyeoun" tent, and props for the scene of the Poor Man and the Pardoner, "Heir thay feight togeddir and the puir man sall cast doun the burd and cast the rillickis in the watter."Tod Ritchie, W. ed., Banntyne Manuscript, 4 vols., STS: Facsimile Bannatyne Manuscript, NLS / Scolar Press (1980), f.182: Pinkerton, ed., Scottish Poems: the Bannatyne Interludes, (1792), pp.23, 80 ==Modern performances== The play's first complete modern production occurred on August 24, 1948, at the Edinburgh International Festival, with a modernised text by Robert Kemp, directed by Tyrone Guthrie, costumes designed by Molly MacEwen, and featuring Stanley Baxter.University of Glasgow Scottish Theatre Archive, 1948 production It was staged again during the Festival in 1959.Elder, Michael (2003), What do You do During the Day?, St. Giles Press, Edinburgh, pp. 146 & 147 Simon Callow and Fulton Mackay acted in a 1973 Edinburgh Festival production.University of Glasgow Scottish Theatre Archive, 1973 production thumb|300px|New College, Edinburgh was the venue for the 1982 production Mary McCluskey directed a performance by young people in July 1996 as part of Scottish Youth Theatre's Summer Festival. The script was translated into modern Scots by Fiona McGarry, and the play was performed in the round in The Cottier Theatre, Glasgow, with an original score. John McGrath adapted the play as a contemporary morality A Satire of the Four Estaites, which was presented by Wildcat Theatre Company at the Edinburgh International Conference Centre as part of the Edinburgh International Festival, also in 1996.From the programme to the production. This production opened on 16 August 1996 and starred Sylvester McCoy. The play was quoted at the opening of the new Scottish Parliament, a mark illustrating its importance to modern Scots. A new performance at Linlithgow Palace and Stirling Castle based on the story of the 1540 interlude took place in 2013 using a cast drawn from stage and screen. In Linlithgow an open-air stage was erected on the Peel looking out across the loch for the performance.Scotsman Newspaper: Plans for 40-player presentation of the Satire at Linlithgow Peel, 2013 ==Language== The Satire is notable for being one of the earliest recorded instances of fuck, predating any English language forms but preceded in the Scots language by the makar William Dunbar (Oxford English Dictionary entry.) ==Excerpt from the 1602 text== A complete version of the play was printed in 1602, see external links for an edition of the text. In this extract Diligence meets the Pauper, who begins his complaint, including the practice of the parish priest claiming livestock at funerals which was mentioned in the 1540 interlude, (Lines 1954–2028);Hall, Fitzedward, ed., Ane Satire, EETS, pp.459-252 ==See also== *Scottish literature ==References== *The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907–21). Volume III. Renascence and Reformation. VI. Sir David Lyndsay. **§ 2. The Testament and Complaynt of our Soverane Lordis Papyngo. **§ 3. Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis. ==External links and editions== * Staging the Scottish Court: research and rehearsal for the 2013 revival of Lindsay's Play & Interlude * The complete 1602 text: Hall, Fitzedward, ed., Ane satyre of the thrie estaits, Trübner / EETS * Pinkerton, John, ed., Scottish Poems: Lindsay's Eight interludes from the Bannatyne Manuscript, vol.2, London (1792) Category:1552 plays Category:16th century in Scotland Category:Christian allegory Category:Comedy plays Category:Medieval drama Category:Ethics literature Category:Parliament of Scotland Category:Political history of Scotland Category:Religion and politics Category:Satirical plays Category:Scottish plays Category:Scots-language works Category:Court of James V of Scotland Category:Plays set in Scotland Category:Poetry of the Bannatyne Manuscript Category:Christian plays Category:Drama at the Scottish royal court Category:Philosophical fiction |
Juan Vallejo Corona (February 7, 1934 – March 4, 2019) was a Mexican serial killer who was convicted of the murders of 25 migrant farm workers found buried in peach orchards along the Feather River in Sutter County, California, United States in 1971. At the time, his crimes were characterized as among the most notorious in U.S. history. Until the discovery of Dean Corll's victims two years after his own conviction, Corona was the deadliest American serial killer by number of proven victims. Corona was convicted of 25 counts of first-degree murder in 1973. An appellate court overturned the conviction in 1978 on the basis of incompetent legal representation and granted Corona a new trial. In 1982, he was again found guilty of all twenty-five homicides. He served out a life sentence in California State Prison, Corcoran and died in 2019. == Early life == Juan Corona was born in Autlán, Jalisco, Mexico, on February 7, 1934, first entering the United States in 1950. Crossing the border into California at age 16, he picked carrots and melons in the Imperial Valley for three months before moving on north to the Sacramento Valley. His half-brother, José Natividad Corona Sánchez (December 30, 1921–May 23, 1973), had immigrated to California in 1944 to work and settled at Marysville, across the Feather River from Yuba City. In May 1953, Corona moved to the Marysville- Yuba City area at the suggestion of Natividad, finding work on a local ranch. He was first married to Gabriella E. Hermosillo on October 24, 1953, in Reno, Nevada.Washoe County Clerk, Reno, NV, Marriage License No. 386376. In 1959, he married Gloria I. Moreno and they had four daughters. === Mental illness === In January 1956, after suffering what was thought to be a schizophrenic episode, Natividad had Corona committed to DeWitt State Hospital in Auburn, California, where he was diagnosed with "schizophrenic reaction, paranoid type." Corona received twenty-three shock treatments before being pronounced recovered and released three months later. He was deported to Mexico upon release. Six years later, Corona was given a green card and returned to the United States legally. Aside from schizophrenic episodes and a reported violent temper, he was regarded as a hard worker. In 1962, the same year he returned to the U.S., he became a licensed labor contractor, being put in charge of hiring workers to staff the local fruit ranches. In March 1970, Corona was again admitted to DeWitt State Hospital for treatment. A year later, in March 1971, he applied for welfare. His application was denied. == Evidence == On May 19, 1971, a farm owner who had used Corona to contract field workers noticed a freshly dug hole in his peach orchard which was filled the next day. In the hole was found the body of a man who had been stabbed and hacked. In one grave, deputies found two meat receipts bearing Corona's signature.Los Angeles Times, October 11, 1972, "The State --- Corona Receipts Found in Grave, Trial Told," p. A2 In another two graves, there were two crumpled Bank of America deposit slips printed with Corona's name and address. This circumstantial evidence gave an added boost to the case. Witnesses later told police that some of the victims had been last seen riding in Corona's pickup truck. In the early morning hours of May 26, 1971, police entered Corona's Yuba City home with a search warrant and arrested him. Evidence indicating his guilt was discovered and seized, such as two bloodstained knives, a machete, a pistol, and blood-stained clothing. There was also a work ledger that contained 34 names and dates, including seven of the known victims. The ledger came to be referred to as a "death list" by the prosecution, who alleged it recorded the dates the men were murdered. Corona had been supplying workers to the ranches where the victims were discovered. He housed many of the men who worked for him in a bunkhouse on the Sullivan Ranch, where most of the victims were discovered. == Victims == All of Corona's victims were middle-aged Caucasian male drifters between the ages of 47 and 64 (except 3), most of them had criminal records and all but one were stabbed or slashed with a knife or machete. Victims (charged) Number Name Age Death Date Method of Killing 1 John Joseph Haluka 52 February 25, 1971 – May 11, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 2 Sigurd E. "Pete" Beierman 62 February 25, 1971 – May 11, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 3 John Doe (4th victim found) Unknown February 25, 1971 – May 11, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 4 John Doe (7th victim found) Unknown February 25, 1971 – May 11, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 5 William Emery Kamp 62 February 26, 1971 – May 12, 1971 Shot in the head w/ a 9 mm. 6 Clarence Hocking 53 February 26, 1971 – May 12, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 7 John Doe (10th victim found) Unknown February 26, 1971 – May 12, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 8 John Doe (12th victim found) Unknown February 26, 1971 – May 12, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 9 Albert Leon "Scratchy" Hayes 58 February 27, 1971 – May 13, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 10 Warren Jerome Kelley 62 On or around March 30, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 11 John Henry Jackson 64 May 3, 1971 - May 14, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 12 Joseph J. Maczak 54 April 26, 1971 – May 21, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 13 Mark Beverly Shields 56 On or around April 28, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 14 Donald Dale "Red" Smith 60 April 30, 1971 – May 11, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 15 James Wylie Howard 64 May 1, 1971 – May 13, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 16 Sam Bonafiede (a.k.a. Joe Carriveau) 55 On or around May 6, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 17 Edward Martin Cupp 43 May 9, 1971 – May 13, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 18 Charles Levy Fleming 67 On or around May 11, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 19 Jonah Raggio Smallwood 56 On or around May 12, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 20 Elbert J.T. Riley 45 On or around May 12, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 21 Lloyd Wallace Wenztel 60 May 14, 1971 – May 22, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 22 Paul Buel Allen 59 On or around May 15, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 23 Raymond Reand Muchache 47 On or around May 18, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 24 Kenneth Edward Whitacre 40 On or around May 19, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. 25 Melford Everett Sample 59 On or around May 21, 1971 Stabbed/slashed w/ a knife or machete. == Legal proceedings == Corona was provided legal aid and assigned a public defender, Roy Van den Heuvel, who hired several psychiatrists to perform a psychological evaluation. Although the sheriff, Roy Whiteaker, said the prisoner was in no apparent or immediate danger from his fellow townsmen, Corona was moved to the new and larger county jail in Marysville, on May 30, 1971, for "security reasons."Los Angeles Times, May 31, 1971, "Suspect in Mass Murders Moved to Marysville Jail," p. 1 On June 2, Corona was returned to Sutter County for arraignment, which was closed to the media and public. A plea of not guilty was entered and a date was set for Corona's preliminary hearing.Los Angeles Times, June 3, 1971, "Yuba City Mass Murder Suspect Pleads Innocent," p. 1 By the time the search was terminated on June 4, a total of 25 male victims had been discovered. Four of them were unidentified. On June 14, Van den Heuvel was replaced by Richard Hawk, a privately retained defense attorney. In return for his legal representation, an agreement was made granting Hawk exclusive literary and dramatic property rights to the defendant's life story, including the proceedings against him. Under the agreement, Corona waived the attorney–client privilege. Shortly after taking over the defense, and even before seeing Corona's medical record or reading any of the reports, Hawk decided against having him plead not guilty by reason of insanity and fired the psychiatrists.Los Angeles Times, June 16, 1971, "No Plea of Insanity Planned for Corona,'" p. 32 Corona complained of chest pain from his cell in Yuba City, on June 18, and was taken to the hospital, where he was diagnosed with having had a mild heart attack.Los Angeles Times, from Yuba City (UPI), June 30, 1971, "Mild Heart Attack Suffered By Corona," p. 18 The grand jury returned a 25-count murder indictment against him on July 12.Los Angeles Times, July 13, 1971, "Jury Raises Corona Murder Counts to 25," p. 18A In early August, Corona was hospitalized again after complaining of chest pain and saying he had not been able to sleep because of it.Los Angeles Times, from Yuba City (UPI), August 9, 1971, "Corona Hospitalized 2nd Time After Complaining of Chest Pain," p. 3 == Trial == It took over a year after the murders were discovered for the case against Corona to come to trial. The California Supreme Court voided the death penalty in the state on February 18, 1972, ruling it unconstitutional, cruel and unusual.Los Angeles Times, February 18, 1972, "No Death Penalty — Cal. Court Voids It; Appeal Likely — Punishment Ruled 'Cruel and Unusual,'" p. 1 Therefore, it would not be a capital case. Hawk succeeded in getting a change of venue from Sutter County, to Solano County. The trial began on September 11, 1972, at the courthouse in Fairfield, California, more than 60 miles (100 km) from Yuba City. Jury selection took several weeks, and the trial another three months. Though Corona denied culpability, he was not called to the stand to testify in his own defense and no defense witnesses were called. The jury deliberated for 45 hours and returned a verdict, on January 18, 1973, finding Corona guilty of first-degree murder on all 25 counts charged.Los Angeles Times, January 18, 1973, "Corona Guilty --- Convicted of All 25 Murders --- Courtroom Stunned by Verdict," p. 1 The judge, Richard Patton, sentenced Corona to 25 terms of life imprisonment, to run consecutively, without the possibility of parole. Despite being sentenced to so many consecutive terms, the Department of Corrections said that Corona would be eligible for parole in seven years, citing section 669 of the penal code, which mandates that when a crime is punished by life imprisonment, with or without the possibility of parole, then all other convictions shall be merged and run concurrently.Los Angeles Times, February 6, 1973, "Corona Held Eligible for Parole in 7 Years --- L.A. District Attorney's Office Calls 25 Consecutive Prison Term 'an Idle Exercise,'" p. 3 Corona was first incarcerated at Vacaville's California Medical Facility, nine miles (14 km) from Fairfield, because of the heart irregularities. In 1973 he was stabbed 32 times in his cell because he had bumped into a fellow inmate in a corridor and failed to say 'excuse me.' Of the five men questioned, including the one involved in the bumping incident, one identified as the man's sexual partner and three inmates identified as friends of the partner, four were charged with assault with a deadly weapon.Los Angeles Times, December 6, 1973, "The State --- Bumping Incident Linked to Corona Stabbing," p. B3Los Angeles Times, December 22, 1973, "Four Inmates Charged in Corona Attack," p. A12 Corona was transferred to Correctional Training Facility (CTF), in Soledad, California. In 1974 his wife filed for divorce.Los Angeles Times, January 8, 1974, "The State," p. OC2 It was granted on July 30. == Second trial == On May 18, 1978, the California court of appeal granted Juan Corona a new trial based on his Appeal and Petition for the Writ of Habeas Corpus filed by his lawyers, Alan Exelrod and Michael Mendelson. The Appeals Court based its decision on two primary issues raised by appellate counsel; first, trial counsel did not do the requisite legal and factual investigations required; second, trial counsel's obtaining publication rights as part of his fee created an impermissible conflict between trial counsel and Corona. The second trial began on February 22, 1982, in Hayward, California.Los Angeles Times, February 22, 1982, "Corona Retrial Begins," p. A1 Corona's defense posited that the real murderer of the ranch workers was most likely Natividad Corona, a known homosexual who was accused of attacking Romero Raya at his cafe in Marysville, and, after losing the lawsuit Raya filed, had fled back to his native Mexico.Los Angeles Times, March 16, 1982, "Corona Kin May Be Killer, Lawyer Hints --- 'Maniacal Half- Brother Suggested as Murderer of 25 Laborers,'" p. B3 Natividad had died eight years earlier in Guadalajara.Los Angeles Times, from Guadalajara (UPI), June 8, 1973, "Corona Sister Tells of Three Family Deaths," p. F8 This time around, more than 50 defense witnesses were called to the stand by Hallinan. Corona was called in his own defense. He was asked only two questions, through an interpreter, taking only two minutes. "Do you understand the state has accused you of killing 25 men?" "Yes", Corona answered, almost inaudibly. "Did you have anything to do with killing those men?" "No", Corona replied. Hallinan then turned Corona over to the prosecutor, Ronald Fahey, for cross- examination. Startled prosecution attorneys requested a brief recess to gather their wits and prepare some of the more than 630 exhibits for their cross.Los Angeles Times, from Hayward, California, July 21, 1982, "Corona Takes Stand, Denies 25 Slayings," p. OC22 Later, Fahey questioned Corona about various vans and cars he used at the ranch where he worked and where he lived, in which some weapons were found. The trial lasted seven months. Corona was again convicted of the crimes on September 23, 1982, and returned to prison after the strategy failed to persuade the jury, which deliberated for 54 hours over a two-week period, of his innocence. Afterward, the foreman told the press that the most incriminating piece of evidence against Corona was his work ledger, for which the labor contractor had "no reasonable explanation."Los Angeles Times, from Hayward, California, September 24, 1982, "Corona Found Guilty Again --- Convicted of Killing 25 in 1971," p. 1 He said the jury had dismissed the defense contention that Natividad committed the murders. "He wasn't in Marysville enough to have committed the bulk of the killings", he said. == Later years and death == Corona was transferred from CTF at Soledad to Corcoran State Prison, Corcoran, California, in 1992, where he served a life sentence in the Sensitive Needs Yard (SNY), because he had dementia. He was denied parole eight times. Corona died on March 4, 2019, aged 85, from natural causes."Serial killer Juan Corona dies at 85", kmph.com. Accessed December 11, 2022. == See also == * List of serial killers in the United States * List of serial killers by number of victims == References == == Further reading == *Cray, Ed. Burden of Proof: The Case of Juan Corona. New York: Macmillan, 1973. *Kidder, Tracy. The Road to Yuba City: A Journey into the Juan Corona Murders. New York: Doubleday, 1974. *Villaseñor, Victor. Jury: The People vs. Juan Corona. Massachusetts: Little Brown, 1977. *Talbitzer, Bill. Too Much Blood. New York: Vantage Press, 1978. *Cartel, Michael. Disguise of Sanity: Serial Mass Murderers. California: Pepperbox Books, 1985. Category:1934 births Category:2019 deaths Category:20th-century criminals Category:Criminals from California Category:Male serial killers Category:Mexican emigrants to the United States Category:Mexican people convicted of murder Category:Mexican people imprisoned abroad Category:Mexican prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment Category:Mexican serial killers Category:People convicted of murder by California Category:People from Autlán, Jalisco Category:People from Marysville, California Category:People from Yuba City, California Category:People with schizophrenia Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by California Category:Prisoners who died in California detention Category:Serial killers who died in prison custody Category:Violence against men in North America |
Nico Erik Rosberg (born 27 June 1985) is a German-Finnish former professional racing driver. He competed in Formula One from 2006 to 2016, winning the World Drivers' Championship in with Mercedes-AMG Petronas Motorsport. The only child of Finnish Formula One World Champion Keke Rosberg and his German wife Sina Rosberg, he was raised primarily in the Principality of Monaco. Rosberg began competitive go-kart racing at the age of six and achieved early success, winning regional and national French championships, before moving to European- based series and world championships. At the age of 16, he progressed to car racing, winning nine races to claim the 2002 Formula BMW ADAC Championship with VIVA Racing. He subsequently moved to the higher-tier Formula 3 Euro Series with Team Rosberg in 2003 and 2004 before winning the inaugural GP2 Series championship with ART Grand Prix in 2005. Rosberg first drove in Formula One with Williams from to and achieved two podium finishes for the team in . For , he moved to Mercedes, partnering fellow German and seven-time world champion Michael Schumacher. Rosberg took his first career win at the . He was the teammate of former karting friend and eventual seven-time World Drivers' Champion, Lewis Hamilton, from to 2016, twice finishing runner-up to his teammate before a title win in 2016. Rosberg announced his retirement from motor racing five days after clinching the title, citing wanting to spend more time with his family and not wanting his driving ability to atrophy as the main factors behind his decision. Overall he competed in 206 Grands Prix, winning 23, securing 57 podium finishes, 30 pole positions, and amassing 1594.5 championship points. In retirement, Rosberg moved into driver management, television punditry, and became an eco-entrepreneur. He was awarded the Laureus World Sports Award for Breakthrough of the Year and was inducted into the FIA Hall of Fame in 2017. ==Personal background and education== Rosberg was born on 27 June 1985 at the Red Cross Hospital in Wiesbaden, West Germany, the only child of Finnish racing driver Keke Rosberg, who won the Formula One World Championship, and German interpreter Gesine "Sina" Rosberg (formerly Gleitsmann-Dengel). Because his father is Finnish and his mother is German, Rosberg is a citizen of both countries, competing with a Finnish racing license until after his first season in the Formula 3 Euro Series. He switched to a German license as he felt it was easier to obtain major sponsorship agreements with nationality of a larger country. Rosberg was raised in the Wiesbaden district of Nordenstadt in the first four weeks of his life, before living between the principality of Monaco and the Spanish island of Ibiza. He was educated at the International School of Nice and the International School of Monaco. Rosberg was encouraged to pursue ventures in academia and sports. He was taught five languages: English, French, German, Italian and Spanish, but not Finnish or Swedish, as his father considered those other languages more important for Nico's life and career. Rosberg enjoyed studying mathematics and science, and passed all of his examinations except history. He graduated with an average grade of 1.2 in 2002. Rosberg married interior designer Vivian Sibold at a civil ceremony in Monaco on 11 July 2014. They have two children, Alaïa (born 2015) and Naila (born 2017), and run a creamery shop in Ibiza. He is a fan of the German football club FC Bayern Munich, played for the Monaco national tennis team, and formerly competed in triathlon events; these skills allowed him to save a five-year-old child from drowning in Monaco. ==Karting (1991–2001)== At the age of four, Rosberg had his first driving experience when his father took him to a go-kart track in Ibiza for a holiday. He steered a Jeep, and his father controlled its speed with the accelerator and the brake pedals. Rosberg began competitive racing at the age of six and decided to aim for a career in Formula One motor racing after he observed his father competing in the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft in 1995. His parents, who did not discourage their son's career choice, consented on the condition that he maintained good grades at school. Rosberg's competitive mindset, and his early achievements in go-karting helped him to improve his driving ability and to convince his father to manage him. In 1996, Rosberg won the Côte d'Azur Mini-Kart Regional Championship, and the Trophee Jérôme Bernard and the Trophee de France in 1997. Aged 12, he was the youngest champion of a French national karting series. Rosberg finished second in the French Manufacturers' Trophy and the Côte d'Azur Regional Championship in the same year. He progressed to the European karting championships for 1998 after moving from France to Italy so he could enter international events. Competing in the 100 Junior category in a CRG kart, Rosberg finished fifth at the 28° Torneo Industrie, seventh in the Trofeo Andrea Margutti, and crashed out in the 1998 Green Helmet Trophy Cadets class of the European Championship for Cadets. In 1999, he was runner-up in the Italian Junior Karting Championship and was fourth in the ICA Junior CIK-FIA European Championship, again driving a CRG. Rosberg's father asked CRG executive Dino Chiesa in late 1999 to establish a separate karting team for his son and fellow driver Lewis Hamilton for a period of two to three years. Rosberg raced for TeamMBM.com (Mercedes-Benz McLaren) for the 2000 season. He was runner-up in the European KF1 Championship and finished ninth in the Formula A World Cup. In 2001, Rosberg was tenth in the South Garda Winter Cup and sixteenth in the Formula Super A World Championship. He concluded his karting career with a third-place finish in the latter series at a race in Kerpen. ==Junior car career (2001–2005)== At the age of 16, Rosberg progressed to car racing, competing in three races for the 2001 Formula BMW Junior Cup Iberia finishing in 18th in the Drivers' Championship with 38 points. For his first full season of car racing, he drove for VIVA Racing in the 2002 Formula BMW ADAC Championship, winning the drivers' title with nine victories from twenty races and amassing 264 points. For winning the title, Rosberg drove a Williams FW24 at a test session at the Circuit de Catalunya on 3 December. At the time, he became the youngest person ever to drive a Formula One car. The 2003 season saw Rosberg progress to the higher-tier Formula 3 Euro Series with Team Rosberg. Driving a Dallara F303-Opel car, he won once at the Bugatti Circuit and took five podium finishes for eighth in the Drivers' Championship with 45 points. He was second in the Rookie Cup to Christian Klien. In November 2003, Rosberg was given a test in a Formula 3000 car at the Circuito de Jerez by Paolo Coloni, the team owner of Scuderia Coloni, as preparation for future F1 testing with Williams. That same month, he entered the Macau Grand Prix and the Korea Super Prix with Carlin Motorsport, finishing 11th in Korea. Rosberg tested twice more for Williams in a modified FW25A car at the Circuit de Catalunya in December and January 2004 for them to evaluate his ability as a test driver. He remained with Team Rosberg for the 2004 Formula 3 Euro Series. Before that, Rosberg won two rounds of the Spanish Formula 3 Winter Series at the Circuito de Albacete as preparation. He won the season's first two races at the Hockenheimring and his campaign faltered through incidents and accidents: he took one other victory at the Nürburgring and three podium finishes. Rosberg finished fourth in the Drivers' Championship with 70 points and was sixth at the Masters of Formula 3. He later crashed from the lead of the Macau Grand Prix in November and was second at the Bahrain Superprix a month later. In the off-season, he passed an interview for acceptance into Imperial College London, a university where several Formula One designers were educated, to study aeronautical engineering. Rosberg chose not to further his education so as to be able to commit to his racing career; the university would have allowed him to combine the course with his racing. Rosberg's father did not overturn the decision. For the inaugural GP2 Series season in 2005, Rosberg wanted to drive for BCN Competicion due to its form in the 2004 International Formula 3000 Championship. ART Grand Prix founders Nicolas Todt and Frédéric Vasseur used a sales presentation to persuade him to race for their squad; he paid around £850,000 to drive for the team. Rosberg achieved his first series victory in the sprint race at the Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours and won the feature races at Silverstone Circuit and the Hockenheimring from pole position. He took the Drivers' Championship lead with a third-place finish in the feature race at the Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps when previous leader Heikki Kovalainen took eighth. Rosberg maintained the points lead during the season-ending Bahrain International Circuit round, winning both races to claim the first GP2 Series title with 120 points. ==Formula One career (2005–2016)== ===Williams (2005–2009)=== ====2005==== In April 2005, Rosberg was signed by Williams as its second test driver. He and fellow driver Nelson Piquet Jr. were analysed extensively before Rosberg was selected. He worked with Williams's test and reserve driver Antônio Pizzonia and continued to focus on the GP2 Series. After race driver Nick Heidfeld was injured in a bicycle accident in September, Rosberg was shortlisted by Williams as his potential replacement for the final two races, the and the . The team opted for Pizzonia because they did not want to risk delaying Rosberg's career by one to two years if he had a poor performance. ====2006–2007==== thumb|Rosberg at the Bernie Ecclestone, Formula One's commercial rights owner, said to Williams team principal and founder Frank Williams he thought it would be advantageous to sign Rosberg as part of a campaign to bring energetic drivers to the sport. Williams told Rosberg in October 2005 that he was assured of a role on the team as either a racer or test driver for after British American Racing's Jenson Button was released from a contract with the team. Autosport reported Rosberg signed a contract that month to race for Williams in 2006 allowing the team to provide him with as much car acclimatisation as possible. The following month, Rosberg signed a five-year contract with Williams, being selected by Frank Williams for his driving ability, his knowledge of Formula One technology, and for articulately communicating data to engineers. He was told of the news by his father in advance. Rosberg was paid £500,000 by Williams and was the first son of a former world champion in Formula One since Damon Hill in . To prepare for the season, he achieved the highest score ever in Williams's Engineering Aptitude Test, which tests a new driver's knowledge of car mechanics and engineering aspects of Formula One, and ceased reading the news to avoid becoming angered by negative publicity. He was assigned race engineer Tony Ross. At the season-opening , Rosberg scored his first career points with a seventh-place finish and set the race's fastest lap, becoming at the time the youngest fastest lap setter in history, aged 20 years, 8 months and 13 days. One week later, at the , he achieved a season-best start of third before his engine failed after seven laps. He scored points once more during the season with a seventh at the as he made driver errors from inexperience and drove an unreliable car. Rosberg was outpaced by his teammate Mark Webber, with whom he had a good relationship. He finished with 4 points for 17th in the World Drivers' Championship (WDC).left|thumb|Rosberg driving at the For , Rosberg was partnered by the more experienced Alexander Wurz. He and his father mutually agreed to stop working with each other, and began working with a sports psychologist. Rosberg's performances improved greatly from 2006 due to Williams restructuring itself and employing more experienced and capable personnel, making his FW29 car reliable and more efficient with the installation of a less complex seamless transmission. He had more confidence in setting up the car to his liking, extracting additional speed and balance consistently. Rosberg also gained experience in controlling his emotions without losing speed, frequently qualified ahead of Wurz and took points seven times with a season-best of fourth at the season-ending . Rosberg scored 20 points for ninth in the WDC. His performances throughout the season enhanced his reputation, and he was linked to several teams for . McLaren offered Frank Williams "majestic proportions" to sign Rosberg to replace the outgoing two- time world champion Fernando Alonso, but Williams immediately rejected the offer. Rosberg's contract was extended to the end of on the basis of where Williams finished in the Constructors' Championship. Rosberg later told Williams of his desire to remain with them on the condition he would receive a competitive car. ====2008–2009==== thumb|Rosberg driving in the The 2008 season was the first in which Rosberg was the more experienced driver on his team, being partnered by Williams test driver Kazuki Nakajima. He began the season by finishing third at the , the first podium finish of his career. Afterwards, his campaign faltered because the FW30 car lacked outright performance and Williams did not develop the car fast enough for it to be competitive. Rosberg was occasionally outperformed by Nakajima, and driver errors lost him chances to score more points; he was able to adapt to a ban on traction control from Formula One. He improved the best result of his career with a second at the inaugural 14 races later, and finished 13th in the WDC with 17 points. left|thumb|Rosberg competing at the Rosberg was again partnered with Nakajima for the 2009 season. He lost five percent of his body weight to compensate for the introduction of the kinetic energy recovery systems increasing the car's minimum weight limit to . Rosberg had an improved season: the Williams FW31 was one of three cars to have an early speed advantage because it featured a double diffuser system and Rosberg led the first 15 laps of the Malaysian Grand Prix, however, the team could not sustain the car's pace of development. He finished 16 of 17 rounds; the exception was the . Rosberg was consistent in finishing in the points-paying positions, achieving a season-best result of fourth at the and the following . He scored 34.5 points for seventh in the WDC. ===Mercedes (2010–2016)=== ====2010–2012==== thumb|Rosberg at the start of the In mid-to-late 2009, Mercedes-Benz vice-president of motorsport Norbert Haug discussed with Rosberg the possibility of driving for the manufacturer in pending its acquisition of Brawn GP. Rosberg also talked to McLaren and Williams about potential employment; he was skeptical because Williams was mulling over whether Renault or Cosworth should be the team's engine supplier. On 29 October, he confirmed his departure from Williams at the conclusion of the season and was officially released from his contract with the team on 1 January 2010. One week later Mercedes purchased 75 percent of Brawn GP and entered Formula One under its own name, employing Rosberg to drive for the team. He was partnered with the seven-time world champion Michael Schumacher and was assigned car 4 after Schumacher requested No. 3 for superstitious reasons. Rosberg was mentored by Mercedes team principal Ross Brawn and was apprehensive when Schumacher joined the team, given the history of Brawn and Schumacher's relationship at Ferrari. He was concerned that Schumacher would dominate the team, and in early strategy meetings, found that his own strategy was being discussed with Schumacher more than with him. He felt that Schumacher was constantly acting to cause him minor stress or to assert dominance. Rosberg finished in third place at the , the , and the . He scored championship points in all but four rounds; he generally finished higher than he qualified and did so against his teammate Schumacher fifteen times to four that season. He was better able than Schumacher to cope with a terminal understeer affecting the MGP W01's handling due to Mercedes forgoing much development work on the car because of Brawn GP's title focus the previous year. The car was five-tenths of a second slower on most circuits. Rosberg was seventh in the WDC with 142 points. His performances during the season enhanced his reputation as a consistent and fast driver. Rosberg remained with Mercedes for and was again joined by Schumacher. He had a mixed season: he led the and the , but the MGP W02 wore the Pirelli tyres quickly, making the car noncompetitive. Rosberg was able to maintain a consistent performance in every qualifying session and began higher than his teammate Schumacher sixteen times to three. He finished no higher than fifth in the season's 19 rounds and was seventh in the WDC with 89 points. thumb|Rosberg driving at the The press linked Rosberg to replace the poor performing Felipe Massa at Ferrari for . In November 2011, he signed a contract extension to remain at Mercedes until after . An important factor in Rosberg's decision was the Mercedes team undergoing a technical restructure, which saw the appointments of Bob Bell as technical director and Geoff Willis as head of technology in mid-2011. Other reasons included his belief Mercedes would be able to improve their performance and challenge for race victories. Three-time world champion Niki Lauda began to advise Rosberg. At the , the season's third round, he took the first pole position of his career and his maiden career victory. He then challenged Red Bull's Mark Webber for the victory at the three races later before he settled for a second-place finish. Rosberg had accumulated more championship points than any other driver in the season's previous four races and emerged as an unlikely contender for the WDC. Notwithstanding this, he achieved one further top-five finish during the season. However, he struggled to generate temperature into the rear tires on the Mercedes F1 W03 regardless of the climatic conditions, and the car was suited to circuits with slow-speed corners. He was ninth in the WDC with 93 points. ====2013–2016==== thumb|Rosberg took the third victory of his career at the |alt= Before the 2013 season, Rosberg was joined at Mercedes by the 2008 world champion Lewis Hamilton, who replaced the retired Michael Schumacher. He was granted equal status by Mercedes and received no preferential treatment alongside Hamilton. During the pre-season period, Rosberg visited the Mercedes factory in Brackley, England, displaying a fascination with the F1 W04's technological development and assisting the team in the car's development. Rosberg challenged his teammate Hamilton during the season qualifying higher eight times and finishing more often. At the , the season's second race, a minor controversy came about when Mercedes invoked team orders on him to stay behind Hamilton. Unhappy with the decision, Rosberg led every lap from pole position to win the and became the first son of a world champion to win the event. He then won the for his third career victory after Red Bull driver Sebastian Vettel suffered a broken gearbox. Thereafter, Rosberg earned points in nine of the season's ten final rounds with consecutive podium finishes— second at the and third at the . He finished sixth in the WDC with 171 points and three pole positions. Rosberg's results over the season earned him additional respect within the Formula One community. thumb|Rosberg during practice for the |alt=|left Rosberg continued to drive for Mercedes in with Lewis Hamilton again as his teammate. He was regarded as a favourite for the WDC because of the team's development of the F1 W05 Hybrid car and adaptation to the technical regulations mandating the use of turbo-hybrid engines in pre-season testing at the Bahrain International Circuit and the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya. Rosberg won the to take the lead of the WDC and finished second in the next four races but Hamilton's four straight victories lost Rosberg the championship lead. Rosberg won the for the second year in succession to regain the points lead after qualifying on pole position in contentious circumstances. Victories in Austria, Germany, followed by contact with Hamilton in Belgium made it appear he would win the championship, until a short circuit on his car in Singapore nullified his points lead. Rosberg took four consecutive podium finishes and won the to ensure the championship would be decided at the season-ending . To win the title, he needed to win the race with Hamilton third or lower. Hamilton was already ahead of Rosberg on track and leading the race when an energy recovery system failure meant Rosberg scored no points for second in the WDC with 317 points. thumb|Rosberg at the |alt= Having signed a contract worth a reported €55 million with Mercedes that was due to expire at the conclusion of , Rosberg continued to drive for the team in . During the off-season he sought to correct a body deficiency, which caused him to hold his breath against g-forces in high-speed corners, since he did not want to limit the flow of oxygen to his brain and muscles. After four top-three podium finishes in the first four races, he won in Spain, Monaco and Austria, which came as his overall performance lowered from focusing more on the race than on qualifying; Vettel threatened Rosberg's hold on second overall. Retirements in Italy and Russia and two errors on a wet track at the stopped him from taking the championship, but wins in the final three races in Mexico, Brazil and Abu Dhabi and six consecutive pole positions placed him runner-up overall with 322 points. Before the 2016 season, Rosberg stopped reading the news and studied sleep with a jet-lag doctor as he focused on his family and winning the next event. He altered his racing gloves to improve his starts, removed paint from his helmet to make it lighter that slightly improved his performance, employed a mental trainer to increase his aggression, and spent his spare time go- karting to maintain his ability. Rosberg eschewed Facebook for five months, studied philosophy, meditated to stay concentrated, and received detailed technical input from Mercedes's mechanics at its headquarters in Brackley, England. He worked with his sports psychologist for up to eight hours per week with two hours of mental discipline every two days. Rosberg said he was confident of driving a competitive car and wanted to maintain his form by beating Hamilton more regularly. thumb|Rosberg competing at the |alt=|left He carried over his form from the 2015 season, winning the first four races to lead Hamilton by 43 championship points although Hamilton suffered reliability issues in two of those first four races. Rosberg and Hamilton made high-speed contact at the after which Hamilton took the championship lead from Rosberg over the next eight races after sub-par results from the former. During the mid-season interval, Mercedes non-executive chairman Niki Lauda paid a special visit to Rosberg's home in Ibiza, to help Rosberg regain his confidence and to bounce back. Rosberg changed his diet to remove sugars from his body and abstained from alcohol. Rosberg mulled over how to further improve his performance; to avoid the strain of starting a diet, he refrained from cycling, losing of muscle in both his legs. He went on to win in Belgium, Singapore and Japan, and achieved three-second-place finishes in a row to enter the season-ending leading Hamilton by 12 points. To win the championship, Rosberg needed to finish no worse than third, even if Hamilton won. He won the WDC by five points with a second-place finish after withstanding Hamilton's attempts to back him into the chasing pack and encourage drivers to pass Rosberg to claim the title for himself. Rosberg became the second son of a former world champion to win the title since Damon Hill replicated his father Graham Hill in . He published a limited-edition book entitled Finally about the 2016 season on 24 December 2016. Overall, Rosberg competed in 206 races: he won 23, achieved 30 pole positions, gained 57 podium finishes, and scored 1594.5 championship points. ==Retirement from motor racing (2016–present)== left|thumb|Rosberg holding the 2016 Formula One World Drivers' Championship trophy Rosberg, who had signed a two-year contract extension with Mercedes to in mid-2016, began to contemplate retirement from motor racing when he considered the possibility of a championship win after the 2016 Japanese Grand Prix. He discussed it twice with his wife Vivian before the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix and decided to commit to retiring before the race commenced. Afterwards, Rosberg told Vivian and manager Georg Noite that he would retire before telephoning the Mercedes team principal Toto Wolff about it. He did not tell Wolff in person because he was apprehensive about Wolff's reaction. At an FIA Prize Giving Ceremony in Vienna on 2 December 2016, five days after winning the championship, he made public his decision to retire. Rosberg said he had reached the "pinnacle" of his career; he did not want his driving skills to atrophy and wished to spend more time with his young family. He was the first reigning champion to retire from Formula One since Alain Prost in 1993. Williams driver Valtteri Bottas replaced Rosberg at Mercedes. In retirement, Rosberg's love of engineering and innovation saw him become an eco-entrepreneur by investing in positive change to the environment and society. He used his celebrity status to advance the industry, beginning with a fact-finding visit to Silicon Valley, where he tested and observed the construction of electric and self-driving vehicles. In July 2017, he visited the headquarters of the all-electric Formula E racing series, and became fascinated in the e-mobility movement. Rosberg became a long-term investor and shareholder in Formula E in early 2018. Focusing primarily on Europe, Rosberg has invested in multiple start-up technology and e-mobility companies, and had the idea to launch the annual Greentech Festival trade fair, which he did with the entrepreneurs Sven Krüger and Marco Voigt in February 2019 to showcase sustainable technologies from around the world in Berlin. He replaced Frank Thelen as an investor on the German television programme Die Höhle der Löwen ('The Lions' Cave') in late 2019. In October 2017, Rosberg joined Team Rosberg as an adviser for its ADAC GT Masters sports car championship team in 2018. He also joined the management team of the racing driver Robert Kubica that September. Rosberg assisted in Kubica's desire to return to Formula One after a severe 2011 rally accident left the latter with partial movement in his right arm. He reduced his involvement with Kubica in April 2018 to focus on his business career. Since the 2018 season, Rosberg has analysed select Formula One races for Sky Sports F1 in the United Kingdom, RTL in Germany, and Sky Italia in Italy. He impressed viewers for conveying digestible information to them. That same year, Rosberg co-founded the Rosberg Young Drivers Academy with karting mentor Dino Chiesa to scout and support young go-kart drivers. In April 2019, Rosberg declined an offer from the Head of Audi Motorsport Dieter Gass to drive an RS5 DTM as a wild-card entrant in the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM) because he did not feel fit enough to return to racing. In late 2020, he established Rosberg X Racing formed on parts of the structure of his father's DTM team to compete in the all-electric SUV off-road racing series Extreme E from the 2021 season on. He entered the series because of its promised racing action and wanted to help combat some of climate change's effects collectively. In 2021 Rosberg X Racing won the inaugural Extreme E constructors' title with Johan Kristoffersson and Molly Taylor as drivers. Rosberg has a YouTube vlogging channel and hosts the podcast "Beyond Victory" in which he discusses human performance and development with his guests. ==Personality and driving style== Journalists describe Rosberg as articulate, one who speaks with "Germanic precision" and has "more than a hint of canny PR-iness, distributing praise with diligent equality and seasoning his narrative with caveats when required." He has avoided appearing to be courageous to impress others, and some saw him as detrimental to Formula One's goal to attract new fans due to a perceived lack of personality and his commitment to fitness. Nicknamed "Britney" after the singer Britney Spears by his colleagues at Williams for sporting blonde hair, Rosberg is shy in private, reserved, quiet, and has a dry and sarcastic wit, which has occasionally "played out with a deft finesse." He has been called charming, shrewd, intelligent, focused, and photogenic. Rosberg prefers to be challenged for structuring, and is an avid reader of books that further his knowledge. His wealthy and cosmopolitan Monegasque upbringing, coupled with his polyglotism led him to describe himself as an "International German." Throughout his career, Rosberg had a strong work ethic, talking to engineers and mechanics, and approached each circuit with the care of a cartographer. Formula One pundits regarded Rosberg as "among the most promising emergent stars of what some already call 'the Lewis generation'." The media and fans compared him initially to the 1982 world champion, his father Keke. That comparison lessened as his career progressed; he refused to discuss the comparison with the press and the difficulty in attempting to achieve as much success as his father was rarely mentioned. When Rosberg was Michael Schumacher's teammate at Mercedes, he was highly cautious about what he said to the off-track press, fearing that they could misinterpret his words. Rosberg had a scientific and technical driving style; he sought to fine-tune his car in specific detail and adapted his driving ability around the changes, especially over a single lap. He shared his father's preference of oversteer over understeer and lacked a flamboyant driving technique. Rosberg's qualifying preparations would be compromised in the event that he leaned towards a race setup; he analysed the situation and attempted to optimise his driving style to win races. He occasionally used more of the circuit, using his car's ride over a bumpy track to ask the car to take as much as possible. Rosberg was sometimes unable to cope with the stress of extra complications, causing him to overdrive in the process, but was adept at managing technical issues on his car. Will Buxton, a motorsport commentator and pundit, described him as "quick from the outset" and a driver who "was so impressive; seemingly effortlessly rapid and blessed with a precision that was metronomic." ===Helmet design and car number=== For the 2014 season, the FIA created a new sporting regulation to allow a driver to select a unique car number for use throughout their Formula One career. Rosberg selected number six because it was his wife and father's lucky number. He also changed the colour of his helmet after eight years from yellow to dark grey. The overall design included chrome, some Buddhist influence, clean lines, and personal symbols; it was designed by Jens Munser. ==Endorsements and philanthropy== Creative Artists Agency (CAA), through its sports division CAA Sports, represents Rosberg's commercial ventures. From 2010 to 2015, he was associated with the jewellery and watch brand Thomas Sabo, and the luxury travel accessory maker Tumi. Rosberg signed numerous endorsement contracts; some of the companies with which he has done business are the watchmakers Rolex, International Watch Company and Oris, the tyre maker Continental Tire, the luxury fashion house Hugo Boss, the toy car company Hot Wheels, the railway company Deutsche Bahn, and the media broadcasters Sky Sports and RTL. As a result of Rosberg's endorsement money and Mercedes salary, he was listed as one of the world's highest-paid athletes by Forbes in 2016. Rosberg is an ambassador for Mercedes-Benz, Laureus, the investment bank UBS, the Tribute to Bambi Foundation, and the electric car manufacturer Schaeffler Group. He is part of the alcohol brewing company Heineken's anti-drink-drive campaign, including appearing with his father in an advertisement for zero-alcohol beer in 2020. Rosberg accumulated €160,900 for the Laureus Sport for Good Foundation as part of a campaign called #DriveForGood in which €100 was donated for every kilometre he led in a Formula One race from the to the season-ending 2015 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix. In 2012, Rosberg teamed with the children's aid organisation Ein Herz für Kinder (German: A Heart for Children) and has raised capital for the charity through various events. Rosberg has worked for the Viva con Agua de Sankt Pauli charity, which supplies water and basic sanitation to individuals in developing countries. In response to the murder of George Floyd, in June 2020, Rosberg donated €10,000 to the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund to aid its efforts in educating the public on racism and ending segregation. He invested money into projects involving reforestation in Germany and the promotion of South American sustainable agro-forestry. ==Achievements and recognition== On 5 June 2011 Rosberg received the Lorenzo Bandini Trophy, which honours a recipient "for their dedication to motor racing, spirit of competition and achievements". At the 2014 Brazilian Grand Prix, he won the inaugural FIA Pole Trophy for winning more pole positions than any other driver during the 2014 season with 11. Rosberg won the DHL Fastest Lap Award because he recorded seven fastest laps, more than any other driver during the 2016 season. Rosberg won the Bambi Best Sportsman Award in 2014, the Sport Bild Special Award 2014, the 2016 BRDC Johnny Wakefield Trophy for "setting the fastest race lap of the season on the Silverstone Grand Prix Circuit", the Autosport International Racing Driver Award in the same year, the 2016 ADAC Motorsportsman of the Year Award, the 2017 Laureus World Sports Award for Breakthrough of the Year, the DMSB Cup from the German Motor Sport Federation (German: Deutscher Motor Sport Bund; DMSB) that same year, and the 2018 Special Prize Entrepreneur of the Year at the GreenTec Awards. Rosberg was inducted into the FIA Hall of Fame in December 2017. == Karting record == === Karting career summary === Season Series Team Position 1997 Trophee Jérôme Bernard – Minimes 1st Trophee de France – Minimes 1st 1998 Torneo Industrie – 100 Junior 5th Green Helmet Trophy Cadets Trofeo Andrea Margutti – 100 Junior CRG 7th 1999 Trofeo Andrea Margutti – 100 Junior CRG 13th European Championship – ICA Junior 4th 2000 Trofeo Andrea Margutti – Formula A 18th European Championship – Formula A MBM.com 2nd World Championship – Formula A 22nd 2001 South Garda Winter Cup – Formula Super A 10th 18th Italian Open Masters – Formula A 5th World Championship – Formula Super A 16th Sources: ==Racing record== ===Career summary=== Season Series Team Races Wins Poles F/Laps Podiums Points Position 2001 Formula BMW Junior Cup Iberia 3 0 0 0 0 38 18th 2002 Formula BMW ADAC VIVA Racing 20 9 5 1 13 264 1st 2003 Formula 3 Euro Series Team Rosberg 20 1 1 2 5 45 8th 2003 Masters of Formula 3 Team Rosberg 1 0 0 0 0 N/A NC 2003 Macau Grand Prix Carlin Motorsport 1 0 0 0 0 N/A NC 2003 Korea Super Prix Carlin Motorsport 1 0 0 0 0 N/A 11th 2004 Formula 3 Euro Series Team Rosberg 19 3 2 2 5 70 4th 2004 Macau Grand Prix Team Rosberg 1 0 0 0 0 N/A NC 2004 Masters of Formula 3 Team Rosberg 1 0 0 0 0 N/A 6th 2004 Bahrain Superprix Team Rosberg 1 0 0 0 1 N/A 2nd 2005 GP2 Series ART Grand Prix 23 5 5 5 12 120 1st 2005 Formula One BMW Williams F1 Team Test driver Test driver Test driver Test driver Test driver Test driver Test driver 2006 Formula One WilliamsF1 Team 18 0 0 1 0 4 17th 2007 Formula One AT&T; Williams 17 0 0 0 0 20 9th 2008 Formula One AT&T; Williams 18 0 0 0 2 17 13th 2009 Formula One AT&T; Williams 17 0 0 1 0 34.5 7th 2010 Formula One Mercedes GP Petronas F1 Team 19 0 0 0 3 142 7th 2011 Formula One Mercedes GP Petronas F1 Team 19 0 0 0 0 89 7th 2012 Formula One Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team 20 1 1 2 2 93 9th 2013 Formula One Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team 19 2 3 0 4 171 6th 2014 Formula One Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team 19 5 11 5 15 317 2nd 2015 Formula One Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team 19 6 7 5 15 322 2nd 2016 Formula One Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team 21 9 8 6 16 385 1st ===Complete Formula 3 Euro Series results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap; small number denotes the finishing position) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Points 2003 Team Rosberg Dallara F303/005 Spiess-Opel HOC 1 HOC 2 ADR 1 ADR 2 PAU 1 PAU 2 NOR 1 NOR 2 LMS 1 LMS 2 NÜR 1 NÜR 2 A1R 1 A1R 2 ZAN 1 ZAN 2 HOC 1 HOC 2 MAG 1 MAG 2 8th 45 2004 Team Rosberg Dallara F303/006 Spiess-Opel HOC 1 HOC 2 EST 1 EST 2 ADR 1 ADR 1 PAU 1 PAU 2 NOR 1 NOR 1 MAG 1 MAG 2 NÜR 1 NÜR 2 ZAN 1 ZAN 2 BRN 1 BRN 2 HOC 1 HOC 2 4th 70 ===Complete GP2 Series results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap; small number denotes the finishing position) Year Entrant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Points 2005 ART Grand Prix IMO FEA IMO SPR CAT FEA CAT SPR MON FEA NÜR FEA NÜR SPR MAG FEA MAG SPR SIL FEA SIL SPR HOC FEA HOC SPR HUN FEA HUN SPR IST FEA IST SPR MNZ FEA MNZ SPR SPA FEA SPA SPR BHR FEA BHR SPR 1st 120 ===Complete Formula One results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap; small number denotes the finishing position) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Points Williams F1 Team Williams FW28 Cosworth CA2006 2.4 V8 BHR MAL AUS SMR EUR ESP MON GBR CAN USA FRA GER HUN TUR ITA CHN JPN BRA 17th 4 AT&T; Williams Williams FW29 Toyota RVX-07 2.4 V8 AUS MAL BHR ESP MON CAN USA FRA GBR EUR HUN TUR ITA BEL JPN CHN BRA 9th 20 AT&T; Williams Williams FW30 Toyota RVX-08 2.4 V8 AUS MAL BHR ESP TUR MON CAN FRA GBR GER HUN EUR BEL ITA SIN JPN CHN BRA 13th 17 AT&T; Williams Williams FW31 Toyota RVX-09 2.4 V8 AUS MAL CHN BHR ESP MON TUR GBR GER HUN EUR BEL ITA SIN JPN BRA ABU 7th 34.5 Mercedes GP Petronas F1 Team Mercedes MGP W01 Mercedes FO 108X 2.4 V8 BHR AUS MAL CHN ESP MON TUR CAN EUR GBR GER HUN BEL ITA SIN JPN KOR BRA ABU 7th 142 Mercedes GP Petronas F1 Team Mercedes MGP W02 Mercedes FO 108Y 2.4 V8 AUS MAL CHN TUR ESP MON CAN EUR GBR GER HUN BEL ITA SIN JPN KOR IND ABU BRA 7th 89 Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team Mercedes F1 W03 Mercedes FO 108Z 2.4 V8 AUS MAL CHN BHR ESP MON CAN EUR GBR GER HUN BEL ITA SIN JPN KOR IND ABU USA BRA 9th 93 Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team Mercedes F1 W04 Mercedes FO 108F 2.4 V8 AUS MAL CHN BHR ESP MON CAN GBR GER HUN BEL ITA SIN KOR JPN IND ABU USA BRA 6th 171 Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team Mercedes F1 W05 Hybrid Mercedes PU106A Hybrid 1.6 V6 t AUS MAL BHR CHN ESP MON CAN AUT GBR GER HUN BEL ITA SIN JPN RUS USA BRA ABU 2nd 317 Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team Mercedes F1 W06 Hybrid Mercedes PU106B Hybrid 1.6 V6 t AUS MAL CHN BHR ESP MON CAN AUT GBR HUN BEL ITA SIN JPN RUS USA MEX BRA ABU 2nd 322 Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team Mercedes F1 W07 Hybrid Mercedes PU106C Hybrid 1.6 V6 t AUS BHR CHN RUS ESP MON CAN EUR AUT GBR HUN GER BEL ITA SIN MAL JPN USA MEX BRA ABU 1st 385 Driver failed to finish the race but was classified since he had completed more than 90% of the race distance. Half points awarded because less than 75% of race distance was completed. ==Notes and references== ===Notes=== ===References=== ==External links== * * * * * Category:1985 births Category:Living people Category:German people of Finnish descent Category:Finnish expatriates in Monaco Category:Finnish racing drivers Category:Formula 3 Euro Series drivers Category:Formula BMW ADAC drivers Category:German Formula One drivers Category:Formula One race winners Category:Formula One World Drivers' Champions Category:German racing drivers Category:GP2 Series Champions Category:GP2 Series drivers Category:Karting World Championship drivers Category:Mercedes-Benz Formula One drivers Category:Sportspeople from Wiesbaden Category:Racing drivers from Hesse Category:Williams Formula One drivers Category:People named in the Panama Papers Category:Finnish people of German descent Category:Team Rosberg drivers Category:ART Grand Prix drivers Category:Motorsport team owners Category:Carlin racing drivers Category:German expatriate sportspeople in Monaco |
Prison reform is the attempt to improve conditions inside prisons, improve the effectiveness of a penal system, or implement alternatives to incarceration. It also focuses on ensuring the reinstatement of those whose lives are impacted by crimes. In modern times the idea of making living spaces safe and clean has spread from the civilian population to include prisons, on ethical grounds which honor that unsafe and unsanitary prisons violate constitutional (law) prohibitions against cruel and unusual punishment. In recent times prison reform ideas include greater access to legal counsel and family, conjugal visits, proactive security against violence, and implementing house arrest with assistive technology. ==History== thumb|right|Prison populations of various countries in 2008 Prisons have only been used as the primary punishment for criminal acts in the last few centuries. Far more common earlier were various types of corporal punishment, public humiliation, penal bondage, and banishment for more severe offenses, as well as capital punishment. All of which occur today. The concept of incarceration was presented circa 1750 as a more humane form of punishment than the aforementioned corporal and capital punishment. They originally were designed as a way for criminals to participate in religious self-reflection and self- reform as a form of penance, hence the term penitentiary.Davis, Angela Y. "Imprisonment and Reform" Dimensions of Culture 2: Justice, edited by Dr. Amanda Solomon, Dr. Megan Strom, and Dr. Emily Johnson, Cognella, 2019, pp. 95-102. Prisons contained both felons and debtors—the latter of which were allowed to bring in wives and children. The jailer made his money by charging the inmates for food and drink and legal services and the whole system was rife with corruption. One reform of the sixteenth century had been the establishment of the London Bridewell as a house of correction for women and children. This was the only place any medical services were provided. ===Europe=== ====Continental countries==== The first public prison in Europe was Le Stinche in Florence, constructed in 1297, copied in several other cities. The more modern use grew from the prison workhouse (known as the Rasphuis) from 1600 in Holland. The house was normally managed by a married couple, the 'father' and 'mother', usually with a work master and discipline master. The inmates, or journeymen, often spent their time on spinning, weaving and fabricating cloths and their output was measured and those who exceeded the minimum received a small sum of money with which they could buy extras from the indoor father. An exception to the rule of forced labor were those inmates whose families could not look after them and paid for them to be in the workhouse. From the later 17th century private institutions for the insane, called the beterhuis, developed to meet this need. In Hamburg, a different pattern occurred with the spinhaus in 1669, to which only infamous criminals were admitted. This was paid by the public treasury and the pattern spread in eighteenth-century Germany. In France the use of galley servitude was most common until galleys were abolished in 1748. After this the condemned were put to work in naval arsenals doing heavy work. Confinement originated from the hôpitaux généraux which were mostly asylums, though in Paris they included many convicts, and persisted up till the revolution. The use of capital punishment and judicial torture declined during the eighteenth century and imprisonment came to dominate the system, although reform movements started almost immediately. Many countries were committed to the goal as a financially self-sustaining institution and the organization was often subcontracted to entrepreneurs, though this created its own tensions and abuse. By the mid nineteenth century several countries initiated experiments in allowing the prisoners to choose the trades in which they were to be apprenticed. The growing amount of recidivism in the latter half of the nineteenth century led a number of criminologists to argue that "imprisonment did not, and could not fulfill its original ideal of treatment aimed at reintegrating the offender into the community". Belgium led the way in introducing the suspended sentence for first-time offenders in 1888, followed by France in 1891 and most other countries in the next few years. Parole had been introduced on an experimental basis in France in the 1830s, with laws for juveniles introduced in 1850, and Portugal began to use it for adult criminals from 1861. The parole system introduced in France in 1885 made use of a strong private patronage network. Parole was approved throughout Europe at the International Prison Congress of 1910. As a result of these reforms the prison populations of many European countries halved in the first half of the twentieth century. Exceptions to this trend included France and Italy between the world wars, when there was a huge increase in the use of imprisonment. The National Socialist state in Germany used it as an important tool to rid itself of its enemies as crime rates rocketed as a consequence of new categories of criminal behavior. Russia, which had only started to reform its penal and judicial system in 1860 by abolishing corporal punishment, continued the use of exile with hard labor as a punishment and this was increased to a new level of brutality under Joseph Stalin, despite early reforms by the Bolsheviks. Postwar reforms stressed the need for the state to tailor punishment to the individual convicted criminal. In 1965, Sweden enacted a new criminal code emphasizing non-institutional alternatives to punishment including conditional sentences, probation for first-time offenders and the more extensive use of fines. The use of probation caused a dramatic decline in the number women serving long-term sentences: in France the number fell from 5,231 in 1946 to 1,121 in 1980. Probation spread to most European countries though the level of surveillance varies. In the Netherlands, religious and philanthropic groups are responsible for much of the probationary care. The Dutch government invests heavily in correctional personnel, having 3,100 for 4,500 prisoners in 1959. However, despite these reforms, numbers in prison started to grow again after the 1960s even in countries committed to non-custodial policies. ====United Kingdom==== =====18th century===== During the eighteenth century, British justice used a wide variety of measures to punish crime, including fines, the pillory and whipping. Transportation to The United States of America was often offered, until 1776, as an alternative to the death penalty, which could be imposed for many offenses including pilfering. When they ran out of prisons in 1776 they used old sailing vessels which came to be called hulks as places of temporary confinement. The most notable reformer was John Howard who, having visited several hundred prisons across England and Europe, beginning when he was high sheriff of Bedfordshire, published The State of the Prisons in 1777. He was particularly appalled to discover prisoners who had been acquitted but were still confined because they could not pay the jailer's fees. He proposed that each prisoner should be in a separate cell with separate sections for women felons, men felons, young offenders and debtors. The prison reform charity Howard League for Penal Reform takes its name from John Howard. The Penitentiary Act which passed in 1779 following his agitation introduced solitary confinement, religious instruction and a labor regime and proposed two state penitentiaries, one for men and one for women. These were never built due to disagreements in the committee and pressures from wars with France and jails remained a local responsibility. But other measures passed in the next few years provided magistrates with the powers to implement many of these reforms and eventually in 1815 jail fees were abolished. Quakers such as Elizabeth Fry continued to publicize the dire state of prisons as did Charles Dickens in his novels David Copperfield and Little Dorrit about the Marshalsea. Samuel Romilly managed to repeal the death penalty for theft in 1806, but repealing it for other similar offences brought in a political element that had previously been absent. The Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline, founded in 1816, supported both the Panopticon for the design of prisons and the use of the treadwheel as a means of hard labor. By 1824, 54 prisons had adopted this means of discipline. Robert Peel's Gaols Act of 1823 attempted to impose uniformity in the country but local prisons remained under the control of magistrates until the Prison Act of 1877. =====19th century===== The American separate system attracted the attention of some reformers and led to the creation of Millbank Prison in 1816 and Pentonville prison in 1842. By now the end of transportation to Australia and the use of hulks was in sight and Joshua Jebb set an ambitious program of prison building with one large prison opening per year. The main principles were separation and hard labour for serious crimes, using treadwheels and cranks. However, by the 1860s public opinion was calling for harsher measures in reaction to an increase in crime which was perceived to come from the 'flood of criminals' released under the penal servitude system. The reaction from the committee set up under the commissioner of prisons, Colonel Edmund Frederick du Cane, was to increase minimum sentences for many offences with deterrent principles of "hard labour, hard fare, and a hard bed". In 1877 he encouraged Disraeli's government to remove all prisons from local government and held a firm grip on the prison system till his forced retirement in 1895. He also established a tradition of secrecy which lasted till the 1970s so that even magistrates and investigators were unable to see the insides of prisons. By the 1890s the prison population was over 20,000. ======1877–1914====== The British penal system underwent a transition from harsh punishment to reform, education, and training for post-prison livelihoods. The reforms were controversial and contested. In 1877–1914 era a series of major legislative reforms enabled significant improvement in the penal system. In 1877, the previously localized prisons were nationalized in the Home Office under a Prison Commission. The Prison Act of 1898 enabled the Home Secretary to and multiple reforms on his own initiative, without going through the politicized process of Parliament. The Probation of Offenders Act of 1907 introduced a new probation system that drastically cut down the prison population while providing a mechanism for transition back to normal life. The Criminal Justice Administration Act of 1914 required courts to allow a reasonable time before imprisonment was ordered for people who did not pay their fines. Previously tens of thousands of prisoners had been sentenced solely for that reason. The Borstal system after 1908 was organized to reclaim young offenders, and the Children Act of 1908 prohibited imprisonment under age 14, and strictly limited that of ages 14 to 16. The principal reformer was Sir Evelyn Ruggles- Brise. the chair of the Prison Commission.R.C.K. Ensor. ‘’ England 1870-1914’’ (1937) pp 520-21.J.W. Fox, ‘’The Modern English Prison ‘’ (1934). ======Winston Churchill====== Major reforms were championed by The Liberal Party government in 1906–1914. The key player was Winston Churchill when he was the Liberal Home Secretary, 1910–11.Jamie Bennett, "The Man, the Machine and the Myths: Reconsidering Winston Churchill’s Prison Reforms." in Helen Johnston, ed., Punishment and Control in Historical Perspective (2008) pp. 95-114. online He first achieved fame as a prisoner in the Boer war in 1899. He escaped after 28 days and the media, and his own book, made him a national hero overnight. He later wrote, "I certainly hated my captivity more than I have ever hated any other in my whole life... Looking back on those days I've always felt the keenest pity for prisoners and captives." As Home Secretary he was in charge of the nation's penal system. Biographer Paul Addison says. "More than any other Home Secretary of the 20th century, Churchill was the prisoner's friend. He arrived at the Home Office with the firm conviction that the penal system was excessively harsh." He worked to reduce the number sent to prison in the first place, shorten their terms, and make life in prison more tolerable, and rehabilitation more likely.Addison, p. 51. His reforms were not politically popular, but they had a major long-term impact on the British penal system.Edward Moritz, Jr., "Winston Churchill - Prison Reformer," The Historian 20#4 (1958), pp. 428-440 Victor Bailey, "Churchill As Home-Secretary--Prison Reform." History Today vol 35 (March 1985): 10-13. ======Borstal system====== During 1894–95, Herbert Gladstone's Committee on Prisons showed that criminal propensity peaked from the mid-teens to the mid- twenties. He took the view that central government should break the cycle of offending and imprisonment by establishing a new type of reformatory, that was called Borstal after the village in Kent which housed the first one. The movement reached its peak after the first world war when Alexander Paterson became commissioner, delegating authority and encouraging personal responsibility in the fashion of the English Public school: cellblocks were designated as 'houses' by name and had a housemaster. Cross-country walks were encouraged, and no one ran away. Prison populations remained at a low level until after the second world war when Paterson died and the movement was unable to update itself. Some aspects of Borstal found their way into the main prison system, including open prisons and housemasters, renamed assistant governors and many Borstal-trained prison officers used their experience in the wider service. But in general the prison system in the twentieth century remained in Victorian buildings which steadily became more and more overcrowded with inevitable results. ===United States=== In colonial America, punishments were severe. The Massachusetts assembly in 1736 ordered that a thief, on first conviction, be fined or whipped. The second time he was to pay treble damages, sit for an hour upon the gallows platform with a noose around his neck and then be carted to the whipping post for thirty stripes. For the third offense he was to be hanged. But the implementation was haphazard as there was no effective police system and judges would not convict if they believed the punishment was excessive. The local jails mainly held men awaiting trial or punishment and those in debt. In the aftermath of independence most states amended their criminal punishment statutes. Pennsylvania eliminated the death penalty for robbery and burglary in 1786, and in 1794 retained it only for first degree murder. Other states followed and in all cases the answer to what alternative penalties should be imposed was incarceration. Pennsylvania turned its old jail at Walnut Street into a state prison. New York built Newgate state prison in Greenwich Village and other states followed. But by 1820 faith in the efficacy of legal reform had declined as statutory changes had no discernible effect on the level of crime and the prisons, where prisoners shared large rooms and booty including alcohol, had become riotous and prone to escapes. In response, New York developed the Auburn system in which prisoners were confined in separate cells and prohibited from talking when eating and working together, implementing it at Auburn State Prison and Sing Sing at Ossining. The aim of this was rehabilitative: the reformers talked about the penitentiary serving as a model for the family and the school and almost all the states adopted the plan (though Pennsylvania went even further in separating prisoners). The system's fame spread and visitors to the U.S. to see the prisons included de Tocqueville, who wrote Democracy in America as a result of his visit. However, by the 1860s, overcrowding became the rule of the day, partly because of the long sentences given for violent crimes, despite increasing severity inside the prison and often cruel methods of gagging and restraining prisoners. An increasing proportion of prisoners were new immigrants. As a result of a tour of prisons in 18 states, Enoch Wines and Theodore Dwight produced a monumental report describing the flaws in the existing system and proposing remedies. Their critical finding was that not one of the state prisons in the United States was seeking the reformation of its inmates as a primary goal. They set out an agenda for reform which was endorsed by a National Congress in Cincinnati in 1870. These ideas were put into practice in the Elmira Reformatory in New York in 1876 run by Zebulon Brockway. At the core of the design was an educational program which included general subjects and vocational training for the less capable. Instead of fixed sentences, prisoners who did well could be released early. But by the 1890s, Elmira had twice as many inmates as it was designed for and they were not only the first offenders between 16 and 31 for which the program was intended. Although it had a number of imitators in different states, it did little to halt the deterioration of the country's prisons which carried on a dreary life of their own. In the southern states, in which blacks made up more than 75% of the inmates, there was ruthless exploitation in which the states leased prisoners as chain gangs to entrepreneurs who treated them worse than slaves. By the 1920s drug use in prisons was also becoming a problem. At the beginning of the twentieth century, psychiatric interpretations of social deviance were gaining a central role in criminology and policy making. By 1926, 67 prisons employed psychiatrists and 45 had psychologists. The language of medicine was applied in an attempt to "cure" offenders of their criminality. In fact, little was known about the causes of their behaviour and prescriptions were not much different from the earlier reform methods. A system of probation was introduced, but often used simply as an alternative to suspended sentences, and the probation officers appointed had little training, and their caseloads numbered several hundred making assistance or surveillance practically impossible. At the same time they could revoke the probation status without going through another trial or other proper process. In 1913, Thomas Mott Osborne became chairman of a commission for the reform of the New York prison system and introduced a Mutual Welfare League at Auburn with a committee of 49 prisoners appointed by secret ballot from the 1400 inmates. He also removed the striped dress uniform at Sing Sing and introduced recreation and movies. Progressive reform resulted in the "Big House" by the late twenties – prisons averaging 2,500 men with professional management designed to eliminate the abusive forms of corporal punishment and prison labor prevailing at the time. The American prison system was shaken by a series of riots in the early 1950s triggered by deficiencies of prison facilities, lack of hygiene or medical care, poor food quality, and guard brutality. In the next decade all these demands were recognized as rights by the courts. In 1954, the American Prison Association changed its name to the American Correctional Association and the rehabilitative emphasis was formalized in the 1955 United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners. Since the 1960s the prison population in the US has risen steadily, even during periods where the crime rate has fallen. This is partly due to profound changes in sentencing practices due to a denunciation of lenient policies in the late sixties and early seventies and assertions that rehabilitative purposes do not work. As a consequence sentencing commissions started to establish minimum as well as maximum sentencing guidelines, which have reduced the discretion of parole authorities and also reduced parole supervision of released prisoners. Another factor that contributed to the increase of incarcerations was the Reagan administration's "War On Drugs" in the 1980s. This War increased money spent on lowering the number of illegal drugs in the United States. As a result, drug arrests increased and prisons became increasingly more crowded. The rising prison population was made up disproportionately of African American with 90% of those sentenced to prison for drug offense in Illinois in 2002.Alexander, Michelle. "The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Color Blindness." Dimensions of Culture 2: Justice, Edited by Dr. Amanda Solomon, Dr. Megan Strom, and Dr. Emily Johnston, Cognella, 2019, pp. 89-94. By 2010, the United States had more prisoners than any other country and a greater percentage of its population was in prison than in any other country in the world. "Mass incarceration" became a serious social and economic problem, as each of the 2.3 million American prisoners costs an average of about $25,000 per year. Recidivism remained high, and useful programs were often cut during the recession of 2009–2010. In 2011, the U.S. Supreme Court in Brown v. Plata upheld the release of thousands of California prisoners due to California's inability to provide constitutionally mandated levels of healthcare. In 2015, a bipartisan effort was launched by Koch family foundations, the ACLU, the Center for American Progress, Families Against Mandatory Minimums, the Coalition for Public Safety, and the MacArthur Foundation to more seriously address criminal justice reform in the United States. The Kochs and their partners are combatting the systemic overcriminalization and overincarceration of citizens from primarily low- income and minority communities. The group of reformers is working to reduce recidivism rates and diminish barriers faced by rehabilitated persons seeking new employment in the work force. In addition they have a goal in ending Asset forfeiture practices since law enforcement often deprives individuals of the majority of their private property. Decarceration in the United States includes overlapping reformist and abolitionist strategies, from "front door" options such as sentencing reform, decriminalization, diversion and mental health treatment to "back door" approaches, exemplified by parole reform and early release into community supervision programs, amnesty for inmates convicted of non-violent offenses and imposition of prison capacity limits. While reforms focus on incremental changes, abolitionist approaches include budget reallocations, prison closures and restorative and transformative justice programs that challenge incarceration as an effective deterrent and necessary means of incapacitation. Abolitionists support investments in familial and community mental health, affordable housing and quality education to gradually transition and jail employees to jobs in other economic sectors. ==Theorists== thumb|Reformer Thomas Mott Osborne, Attorney Ziegler, and Victor Folke Nelson 1921 Numerous theorists have written on the topic of prison reform and advocated for scientific, compassionate, and evidence-based approaches to rehabilitation. One of the most famous was Thomas Mott Osborne, former prison commander of Portsmouth Naval Prison and former warden of New York's Sing Sing prison, who himself chose to live briefly as a prisoner to better understand the prison experience."Thomas Mott Osborne and Prison Reform – Cayuga Museum of History and Art. ." Retrieved on February 8, 2022. Osborne was a mentor to other renowned prison reform theorists, such as Austin MacCormick. Prisoners themselves, such as Victor Folke Nelson, Prison Days and Nights, by Victor F. Nelson (New York: Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1936) have also contributed to the theories and literature on American prison reform. ==Theories of incarceration and reform== ===Retribution, vengeance and retaliation=== This is founded on the "eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth" incarceration philosophy, which essentially states that if one person harms another, then equivalent harm should be done to them. One goal here is to prevent vigilantism, gang or clan warfare, and other actions by those who have an unsatisfied need to "get even" for a crime against them, their family, or their group. It is, however, difficult to determine how to equate different types of "harm". A literal case is where a murderer is punished with the death penalty, the argument being "justice demands a life for a life". One criticism of long term prison sentences and other methods for achieving justice is that such "warehousing" of criminals is rather expensive, this argument notwithstanding the fact that the multiple incarceration appeals of a death penalty case often exceed the price of the "warehousing" of the criminal in question. Yet another facet of this debate disregards the financial cost for the most part. The argument regarding warehousing rests, in this case, upon the theory that any punishment considered respectful of human rights should not include imprisoning humans for life without a chance of release—that even death is morally and ethically a higher road than no-parole prison sentences. ===Deterrence=== The criminal is used as a "threat to themselves and others". By subjecting prisoners to harsh conditions, authorities hope to convince them to avoid future criminal behavior and to exemplify for others the rewards for avoiding such behavior; that is, the fear of punishment will win over whatever benefit or pleasure the illegal activity might bring. The deterrence model frequently goes far beyond "an eye for an eye", exacting a more severe punishment than would seem to be indicated by the crime. Torture has been used in the past as a deterrent, as has the public embarrassment and discomfort of stocks, and, in religious communities, ex-communication. Executions, particularly gruesome ones (such as hanging or beheading), often for petty offenses, are further examples of attempts at deterrence. One criticism of the deterrence model is that criminals typically have a rather short-term orientation, and the possibility of long-term consequences is of little importance to them. Also, their quality of life may be so horrific that any treatment within the criminal justice system (which is compatible with human rights law) will only be seen as an improvement over their previous situation. There used to be many European Monks who disagreed with the containment of the mentally ill, and their ethics had a strong influence on Dorothea Dix's mission to find a proper way to care for the challenged people. ===Rehabilitation, reform and correction=== ("Reform" here refers to reform of the individual, not the reform of the penal system.) The goal is to "repair" the deficiencies in the individual and return them as productive members of society. Education, work skills, deferred gratification, treating others with respect, and self-discipline are stressed. Younger criminals who have committed fewer and less severe crimes are most likely to be successfully reformed. "Reform schools" and "boot camps" are set up according to this model. One criticism of this model is that criminals are rewarded with training and other items which would not have been available to them had they not committed a crime. Prior to its closing in late 1969, Eastern State Penitentiary, then known as State Correctional Institution, Philadelphia, had established a far reaching program of voluntary group therapy with the goal of having all inmates in the prison involved. From 1967 when the plan was initiated, the program appears to have been successful as many inmates did volunteer for group therapy. An interesting aspect was that the groups were to be led by two therapists, one from the psychology or social work department and a second from one of the officers among the prison guard staff. ===Removal from society=== The goal here is simply to keep criminals away from potential victims, thus reducing the number of crimes they can commit. The criticism of this model is that others increase the number and severity of crimes they commit to make up for the "vacuum" left by the removed criminal. For example, incarcerating a drug dealer will result in an unmet demand for drugs at that locale, and an existing or new drug dealer will then appear, to fill the void. This new drug dealer may have been innocent of any crimes before this opportunity, or may have been guilty of less serious crimes, such as being a look-out for the previous drug dealer. ===Restitution or repayment=== Prisoners are forced to repay their "debt" to society. Unpaid or low pay work is common in many prisons, often to the benefit of the community. In some countries prisons operate as labour camps. Critics say that the repayment model gives government an economic incentive to send more people to prison. In corrupt or authoritarian regimes, such as the former Soviet Union under the control of Joseph Stalin, many citizens are sentenced to forced labour for minor breaches of the law, simply because the government requires the labour camps as a source of income. Community service is increasingly being used as an alternative to prison for petty criminals. ===Reduction in immediate costs=== Government and prison officials also have the goal of minimizing short-term costs; however, there could be a way for prisons to become self- sustaining independent institutions—with little need for government funds. :In wealthy societies: :This calls for keeping prisoners placated by providing them with things like television and conjugal visits. Inexpensive measures like these prevent prison assaults and riots which in turn allow the number of guards to be minimized. Providing the quickest possible parole and/or release also reduces immediate costs to the prison system (although these may very well increase long term costs to the prison system and society due to recidivism). The ultimate way to reduce immediate costs is to eliminate prisons entirely and use fines, community service, and other sanctions (like the loss of a driver's license or the right to vote) instead. Executions at first would appear to limit costs, but, in most wealthy societies, the long appeals process for death sentences (and associated legal costs) make them quite expensive. Note that this goal may conflict with a number of goals for criminal justice systems. :In poor societies: :Poor societies, which lack the resources to imprison criminals for years, frequently use execution in place of imprisonment, for severe crimes. Less severe crimes, such as theft, might be dealt with by less severe physical means, such as amputation of the hands. When long term imprisonment is used in such societies, it may be a virtual death sentence, as the lack of food, sanitation, and medical care causes widespread disease and death, in such prisons. Some of the goals of criminal justice are compatible with one another, while others are in conflict. In the history of prison reform, the harsh treatment, torture, and executions used for deterrence first came under fire as a violation of human rights. The salvation goal, and methods, were later attacked as violations of the individual's freedom of religion. This led to further reforms aimed principally at reform/correction of the individual, removal from society, and reduction of immediate costs. The perception that such reforms sometimes denied victims justice then led to further changes. ==Advocacy work== John Howard is now widely regarded as the founding father of prison reform, having travelled extensively visiting prisons across Europe in the 1770s and 1780s. Also, the great social reformer Jonas Hanway promoted "solitude in imprisonment, with proper no one asked profitable labor and a spare diet".Hanway, Jonas (1776) Solitude in Imprisonment: With Proper Profitable Labour and a Spare Diet, the Most Humane and... J. Bew. Retrieved 2006-10-30 Indeed, this became the popular model in England for many decades. ===United Kingdom=== Within Britain, prison reform was spearheaded by the Quakers, and in particular, Elizabeth Fry during the Victorian Age. Elizabeth Fry visited prisons and suggested basic human rights for prisoners, such as privacy and teaching prisoners a trade. Fry was particularly concerned with women's rights. Parliament, coming to realize that a significant portion of prisoners had come to commit crimes as a result of mental illness, passed the County Asylums Act (1808). This made it possible for Justice of the Peace in each county to build and run their own pauper asylums. "Whereas the practice of confining such lunatics and other insane persons as are chargeable to their respective parishes in Gaols, Houses of Correction, Poor Houses and Houses of Industry, is highly dangerous and inconvenient" There is contemporary research on the use of volunteers by governments to help ensure the fair and humane detention of prisoners. Research suggests that volunteers can be effective to ensure oversight of state functions and ensure accountability, however, they must be given tasks appropriately and well trained. ===United States=== In the 1800s, Dorothea Dix toured prisons in the U.S. and all over Europe looking at the conditions of the mentally handicapped. Her ideas led to a mushroom effect of asylums all over the United States in the mid-19th-century. Linda Gilbert established 22 prison libraries of from 1,500 to 2,000 volumes each, in six states. In the early 1900s Samuel June Barrows was a leader in prison reform. President Cleveland appointed him International Prison Commissioner for the U.S. in 1895, and in 1900 Barrows became Secretary of the Prison Association of New York and held that position until his death on April 21, 1909. A Unitarian pastor, Barrows used his influence as editor of the Unitarian Christian Register to speak at meetings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, the National International Prison Congresses, and the Society for International Law. As the International Prison Commissioner for the U.S., he wrote several of today's most valuable documents of American penological literature, including "Children's Courts in the United States" and "The Criminal Insane in the United States and in Foreign Countries". As a House representative, Barrows was pivotal in the creation of the International Prison Congress and became its president in 1905. In his final role, as Secretary of the Prison Association of New York, he dissolved the association's debt, began issuing annual reports, drafted and ensured passage of New York's first probation law, assisted in the implementation of a federal Parole Law, and promoted civil service for prison employees. Moreover, Barrows advocated improved prison structures and methods, traveling in 1907 around the world to bring back detailed plans of 36 of the best prisons in 14 different countries. In 1910 the National League of Volunteer Workers, nicknamed the "Barrows League" in his memory, formed in New York as a group dedicated to helping released prisoners and petitioning for better prison conditions. Zebulon Brockway in Fifty Years of Prison Service outlined an ideal prison system: Prisoners should support themselves in prison though industry, in anticipation of supporting themselves outside prison; outside businesses and labor must not interfere; indeterminate sentences were required, making prisoners earn their release with constructive behavior, not just the passage of time; and education and a Christian culture should be imparted. Nevertheless, opposition to prison industries, the prison-industrial complex, and labor increased. Finally, U.S. law prohibited the transport of prison-made goods across state lines. Most prison-made goods today are only for government use—but the state and federal governments are not required to meet their needs from prison industries. Although nearly every prison reformer in history believed prisoners should work usefully, and several prisons in the 1800s were profitable and self-supporting, most American prisoners today do not have productive jobs in prison.One in 100: Behind Bars in America , 2008, Pew Center's Public Safety Performance Project @ pewcenteronthestates; Stephen Garvey, "Freeing Prisoners' Labor," 50 Stanford Law Review 339, 343 (1–1998); John Dewar Gleissner, Prison & Slavery – A Surprising Comparison, Outskirts Press, 2010. Kim Kardashian-West has fought for prison reform, notably visiting the White House to visit President Donald Trump in on May 30, 2018. In 2018, Trump announced he was providing clemency to Alice Johnson, a week after the meeting with Kardashian-West. Johnson was given a life sentence for drug charges. She has also helped with lobbying the First Step Act, reducing the federally mandated minimum prison sentences. Rappers Jay-Z and Meek Mill have also been advocates for prison reform, both being very outspoken about the issue. In 2019, they announced the launching of an organization, REFORM Alliance, which aims to reduce the number of people who are serving probation and parole sentences that are unjust. The organization was able to pledge $50 million to debut, also deciding to bring on CNN news commentator Van Jones as CEO. Musician Johnny Cash performed and recorded at many prisons and fought for prison reform. His song "Folsom Prison Blues" tells the tale from the perspective of a convicted killer in prison. It is named after Folsom State Prison, which is California's second oldest correctional facility. Twelve years after the song was released, Cash performed it live at the prison. Not all prison reformers approach the problem from the left side of the political spectrum, although most do. In "How to Create American Manufacturing Jobs", it was proposed that restrictions on prison industries and labor and federal employment laws be eliminated so that prisoners and private employers could negotiate wage agreements to make goods now made exclusively overseas.John Dewar Gleissner, How to Create American Manufacturing Jobs, Vol. 9, Tennessee Journal of Law and Policy, Issue 3 (2013) @ https://trace.tennessee.edu/tjlp/vol9/iss3/4 This would boost prison wages and revitalize prison industries away from the money-losing state industries approach that now limits prison labor and industries. Prisoners want to work, but there are not enough jobs in prison for them to be productive. Nonprofit can help voice issues as seen by inmates on the other side, however limits to funding and access to those currently incarcerated limit the ability of these NGOs. On December 21, 2018, President Donald Trump signed the First Step Act bill into law. The First Step Act has provisions to ease prison sentences for drug related crimes, and promote good behavior in federal prisons. Clementine Jacoby's Recidiviz looks to reduce incarceration rates by making complex and fragmented criminal justice data usable, which enables leaders to take data- driven action and track the impacts of their decisions. ==See also== *Decarceration in the United States *Death in custody *Incarceration in Norway *LGBT people in prison *Penal Reform International *Preservation of the Rights of Prisoners (PROP) *Prisoner abuse *Prison abolition movement *Prison education *Prison Strike *Prisoners' Union *Restorative justice *Sentencing disparity ==References== == Further reading == * International Journal of Prisoner Health, Taylor & Francis Publishing * Cheney, Glenn A. Lurking Doubt: Notes on Incarceration, New London Librarium, 2018. * Denborough, D. (Ed.) (1996). Beyond the prison: Gathering dreams of freedom. Adelaide, South Australia: Dulwich Centre Publications. * Dilulio, John J., Governing Prisons: A Comparative Study of Correctional Management, Simon and Schuster, 1990. * * Johnston, Helen, ed., Punishment and Control in Historical Perspective (2008) online * * Serrill, M. S., "Norfolk – A Retrospective – New Debate Over a Famous Prison Experiment," Corrections Magazine, Volume 8, Issue 4 (August 1982), pp. 25–32. * United States. Congress. House of Representatives. (2014). Lessons From the States: Responsible Prison Reform: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, Second Session, July 15, 2014. Washington, D.C.: G.P.O. * SpearIt, Evolving Standards of Domination: Abandoning a Flawed Legal Standard and Approaching a New Era in Penal Reform (March 2, 2015). Chicago-Kent Law Review, Vol. 90, 2015. Online * * * ==External links== *Howard League for Penal Reform *Preventing Prisoner Rape Project A national project in Australia, aiming to raise awareness about the issue of rape in prisons, and support survivors, their families, and workers in prisons dealing with sexual assault. Website contains free downloadable resources. *UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime – Justice and Prison Reform *Prison and Judicial Reform Research |
In firearms and artillery, the primer () is the chemical and/or device responsible for initiating the propellant combustion that will push the projectiles out of the gun barrel. In early black powder guns such as muzzleloaders, the primer was essentially the same chemical as the main propellant (albeit usually in a finer-powdered form), but poured into an external flash pan, where it could be ignited by an ignition source such as a slow match or a flintlock though some muzzleloaders have primers like cap gun caps. This external powder was connected through a small opening at the rear of the gun barrel that led to the main charge within the barrel. As gunpowder will not burn when wet, this made it difficult (or even impossible) to fire these types of weapons in rainy or humid conditions. Modern primers, by contrast, are more specialized and distinct from the main propellant they are designed to ignite. They are of two types, those using shock-sensitive chemicals, and those reliant on chemicals ignited by an electric impulse. In smaller weapons the primer is usually of the first type and integrated into the base of a cartridge. Examples include handgun cartridges, rifle cartridges, and shotgun shells. Larger artillery pieces in contrast typically use electric priming. In artillery the primers are frequently a separate component, placed inside the barrel to the rear of the main propellant charge—but there are other examples of guns, including for example some automatic weapons, designed to shoot cartridges with integral electric primers. Upon being struck with sufficient force generated by the firing pin, or electrically ignited, primers react chemically to produce heat, which gets transferred to the main propellant charge and ignites it, and this, in turn, propels the projectile. Due to their small size, these primers themselves lack the power to shoot the projectile, but still have enough energy to drive a bullet partway into the barrel — a dangerous condition called a squib load. ==Priming methods== The first step to firing a firearm of any sort is igniting the propellant. The earliest firearms were hand cannons, which were simple closed tubes. There was a small aperture, the "touchhole", drilled in the closed end of the tube, leading to the main powder charge. This hole was filled with finely ground powder, which was then ignited with a hot ember or torch. With the advent of hand-held firearms, this became an undesirable way of firing a gun. Holding a burning stick while trying to pour a charge of black powder carefully down a barrel is dangerous, and trying to hold the gun with one hand while simultaneously aiming at the target and looking for the touchhole makes it very difficult to fire accurately. ==External priming== ===Matchlock=== The first attempt to make the process of firing a small arm easier was the "matchlock". The matchlock incorporated a "lock" (so-called because of its resemblance to door locks of the day) that was actuated by a trigger, originally called a "tricker." The lock was a simple lever which pivoted when pulled and lowered the match down to the touchhole. The match was a slow-burning fuse made of plant fibers that were soaked in a solution of nitrates, charcoal, and sulfur, and dried. This "slow-match" was ignited before the gun was needed, and it would slowly burn, keeping a hot ember at the burning end. After the gun was loaded and the touchhole primed with powder, the burning tip of the match was positioned so that the lock would bring it into contact with the touchhole. To fire the gun, it was aimed and the trigger pulled. This brought the match down to the touchhole, igniting the powder. With careful attention, the slow-burning match could be kept burning for long periods of time, and the use of the lock mechanism made fairly accurate fire possible. ===Wheellock=== The next revolution in ignition technology was the "wheel-lock". It used a spring-loaded, serrated steel wheel which rubbed against a piece of iron pyrite, similar to a modern lighter. A key was used to wind the wheel and put the spring under tension. Once tensioned, the wheel was held in place by a trigger. When the trigger was pulled, the serrated edge of the steel rubbed against the pyrite, generating sparks. These sparks were directed into a pan, called the "flash pan", filled with loose powder which led into the touchhole. The flashpan usually was protected by a spring-loaded cover that would slide out of the way when the trigger was pulled, exposing the powder to the sparks. The wheel-lock was a major innovation -- since it did not rely on burning material as a source of heat, it could be kept ready for extended periods of time. The covered flashpan also provided some ability to withstand bad weather. Wind, rain, and wet weather would render a matchlock useless, but a wheel-lock that was loaded and waterproofed with a bit of grease around the flashpan could be fired under most conditions. ===Flintlock=== The wheel-lock enjoyed only a brief period of popularity before being superseded by a simpler, more robust design. The "flintlock", like the wheel-lock, used a flashpan and a spark to ignite the powder. As the name implies, the flintlock used flint rather than iron pyrite. The flint was held in a spring-loaded arm, called the "cock" from the resemblance of its motion to a pecking chicken. The cock rotated through approximately a 90-degree arc and was held in the tensioned, or "cocked" position by a trigger. Usually, flintlocks could lock the cock in two positions. The "half-cock" position held the cock halfway back, and used a deep notch so that pulling the trigger would not release the cock. Half-cock was a safety position, used when loading, storing or carrying a loaded flintlock. The "full-cock" position held the cock all the way back and was the position from which the gun was fired. The L-shaped "frizzen" was the other half of the flintlock's ignition system. It served as both a flashpan cover and a steel striking surface for the flint. The frizzen was hinged and spring- loaded so that it would lock in the open or closed position. When closed, the striking surface was positioned so that the flint would strike at the proper angle to generate a spark. The striking flint would also open the frizzen, exposing the flashpan to the spark. The flintlock mechanism was simpler and stronger than the wheel-lock, and the flint and steel provided a good, reliable source of ignition. The flintlock remained in military service for over 200 years, and flintlocks are still made today for historical re- enactments and muzzle-loading target competition, and for hunters who enjoy the additional challenge that the flintlock provides. ===Caplock=== thumb|right|Percussion caps The next major leap in ignition technology was the invention of the chemical primer, or "cap", and the mechanism which used it, called the "caplock". Percussion ignition was invented by Scottish clergyman Rev. Alexander John Forsyth in 1807 but needed further refinements before it was gradually accepted in the 1820s to 1830s. By the middle of the 19th century, the percussion or caplock system was well established. It was adopted by both sides in the American Civil War, as it was simpler and more reliable than the flintlock. The main reason the caplock was so quickly adopted was its similarity to the flintlock and the ease of converting older arms to use percussion-cap ignition; usually, the same lock and barrel could be used with minor changes. The flashpan and frizzen were removed and replaced by a small, hollow horizontal cylinder (drum) screwed into the bored-out and tapped flash hole and carrying a "nipple" over which the cap could be fitted. A "hammer" which also had half-cock (for loading and applying the cap) and full-cock positions replaced the cock. When released by pulling the trigger, the hammer would strike the cap, crushing it against the nipple. The percussion cap was a thin metal cup that contained a small quantity of pressure-sensitive explosive, often mercury fulminate. When crushed, the explosive would detonate, sending a stream of hot gas down through a hole in the nipple and into the touchhole of the gun to ignite the powder charge. In the process of firing, the cap generally split open and would fall off when the hammer was moved to the half-cock position for loading. The caplock system worked well, and is still the preferred method of ignition for hunters and recreational shooters who use muzzle-loading arms. === Electric-fired === A small number of caseless cartridges use no primer at all, but the primary propellant is ignited using an externally provided electric charge, such as with the Voere VEC-91 and the O'Dwyer VLe. This is not to be confused with an electrically ignited internal primer (see below). ==Internal priming== thumb|left|Fired rimfire and centerfire casings Chemical primers, advanced metallurgy and manufacturing techniques all came together in the 19th century to create an entirely new class of firearm -- the cartridge arm. Flintlock and caplock shooters had long carried their ammunition in paper cartridges, which served to hold a measured charge of powder and a bullet in one convenient package; the paper also served to seal the bullet in the bore. Still, the source of ignition was handled separately from the cartridge. With the advent of chemical primers, it was not long before several systems were invented with many different ways of combining bullet, powder, and primer into a single package which could be loaded quickly from the breech of the firearm. This greatly streamlined the reloading procedure and paved the way for semi- and fully automatic firearms. This big leap forward came at a price. It introduced an extra component into each round – the cartridge case - which had to be removed before the gun could be reloaded. While a flintlock, for example, is immediately ready to be reloaded once it has been fired, adopting brass cartridge cases brought in the problems of extraction and ejection. The mechanism of a modern gun not only must load and fire the piece, but also must remove the spent case, which may require just as many moving parts. Many malfunctions involve this process, either through failure to extract a case properly from the chamber or by allowing it to jam the action. Nineteenth- century inventors were reluctant to accept this added complication and experimented with a variety of self-consuming cartridges before acknowledging that the advantages of brass cases far outweighed their one drawback. The three systems of self-contained metallic cartridge ignition which have survived the test of time are the rimfire, the Berdan centerfire primer, and the Boxer centerfire primer. ===Pinfire=== A pinfire firearm cartridge is an obsolete type of brass cartridge in which the priming compound is ignited by striking a small pin which protrudes radially from just above the base of the cartridge. Invented by Casimir Lefaucheux in 1828 but not patented until 1835, it was one of the earliest practical designs of metallic cartridge. However, the protruding pin was vulnerable to damage, displacement and accidental ignition. Moreover, the pin had to be positioned carefully in a small notch when loading, making the pinfire's use in repeating or self-loading weapons impossible. The pinfire survives today only in a few very small blank cartridges designed as noisemakers and in novelty miniature guns. ===Rimfire=== Rimfire cartridges use a thin brass case with a hollow bulge, or rim, around the back end. This rim is filled during manufacture with an impact-sensitive primer. In the wet state, the primer is stable; a pellet of wet primer is placed in the shell and simply spun out to the full extremes of the rim. (For more on the exact process and one set of chemical compounds that have been used successfully, see , a 1932 Remington Arms patent by James E. Burns.) In the dry state, the primer within the rim becomes impact-sensitive. When the rim is then crushed by the hammer or firing pin, the primer detonates and ignites the powder charge. Rimfire cartridges are single-use and normally cannot be reloaded. Also, since the rim must be thin enough to be easily crushed, the peak pressure possible in the case is limited by the strength of this thin rim. Rimfire cartridges originally were available in calibers up to 1" (100 caliber), however, all but the small .22 caliber rounds eventually died out. The .22 Long Rifle, also fired in pistols, is the most popular recreational caliber today because it is inexpensive, quiet, and has very low recoil. While the rimfire priming method is limited due to the thin cases required, it has enjoyed a few resurgences recently. First was Winchester's .22 Magnum Rimfire, or .22 WMR, in the 1950s, followed in 1970 by Remington's short-lived 5mm Rimfire, based on Winchester's magnum case. In 2002 Hornady introduced a new .17 caliber cartridge based on the .22 WMR, the .17 HMR. The .17 HMR is essentially a .22 WMR cartridge necked down to accept a .17-caliber bullet and is used as a flat-shooting, light-duty varmint round. The .17 HMR was followed a year later by Hornady's .17 Mach 2, or .17 HM2, which is based on a slightly lengthened and necked-down .22 Long Rifle cartridge. Both of the .17 caliber rimfires have had widespread support from firearms makers, and while the high-tech, high-velocity .17 caliber jacketed bullets make the .17 Rimfire cartridges quite a bit more expensive than the .22 caliber versions, they are excellent for shorter-range shooting and still far less expensive than comparable centerfire cartridges. In 2013, Winchester released the .17 Winchester Super Magnum, which utilizes the larger case of the long-obsolete .25 Stevens allowing for velocities approaching 3000fps with a 20gr bullet and making it the world's fastest rimfire round.John B. Snow, "Ammo Review: New .17 Winchester Super Magnum, World's Fastest Rimfire Round", Outdoor Life ===Centerfire=== The identifying feature of centerfire ammunition is the metal cup containing the primer inserted into a recess in the center of the base of the cartridge. The firearm firing pin crushes this explosive between the cup and an anvil to produce hot gas and a shower of incandescent particles to ignite the powder charge.Davis, William C., Jr. Handloading (1981) National Rifle Association p.65 Berdan and Boxer primers are used in centerfire cartridges; the primers differ in construction. Various priming mixtures have been used in different sized primers to effect prompt ignition of the powder charge. Particles with relatively high heat capacity are required to promptly ignite smokeless powder deterrent coatings. Some priming explosives decompose into incandescent solids or liquids. Inert ingredients may be heated into incandescent sparks when the explosive decomposes into gas. Cartridges for military use require stable priming formulations so war reserves of small-arms ammunition will dependably function after years of storage.Davis, William C., Jr. Handloading (1981) National Rifle Association p.21 === Electric-primed === Some rapid-fire, and larger military gun and autocannon rounds (such as the M50 20mm) utilize an internal electric primer that contains chemicals activated by an externally provided electric charge, as opposed to a mechanical impact. The primer in turn ignites the main propellant, just as with a shock-sensitive or external electric type. Among the advantages this brings is the ability, in an automatic weapon, to control the moment of cartridge ignition partially independently of the mechanical action of the gun. Historically this flexibility was employed by the German Luftwaffe in WW II, in the unusually efficient synchronization gear that enabled machine guns and autocannon to be fired through the moving propellers of their fighter aircraft with a relatively small compromise in the guns' output of automatic fire. Other countries such as the Soviet Union relied on cruder mechanical systems, which reduced the rate of fire of their guns more severely. Electric priming was also used in the EtronX system developed and sold by Remington for some of its sporting rifles. It was sold as a firearm with a much faster lock time. It never became a popular sporting arms system and was discontinued by Remington as a result. ==Primer actuated blowback== thumb|right| Primer actuated firearms use the energy of primer setback to unlock and cycle the firearm. John Garand developed the system in an unsuccessful bid to replace the M1903 bolt-action rifle in the early 1920s. Garand's prototypes worked well with US military .30-06 ammunition and uncrimped primers, but then the military changed from a fast burning gunpowder to a progressive burning Improved Military Rifle (IMR) powder. The slower pressure rise made the primer actuated prototypes unreliable, so Garand abandoned the design for a gas operated rifle that became the M1 Garand. AAI Corporation used a primer piston in a rifle submitted for the SPIW competition.Flirting With Flechettes: The US Army's Search for the Ideal Rifle Projectile Cruffler.com May 2000 article Other rifles to use this system were the Postnikov APT and Clarke carbine as described in . A similar system is used in the spotting rifles on the LAW 80 and Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon use a 9mm, .308 Winchester based cartridge with a .22 Hornet blank cartridge in place of the primer. Upon firing, the Hornet case sets back a short distance, unlocking the action. ===Primer actuated cartridges=== Primer actuated cartridges/Piston primer cartridges use a primer in the form of a blank to contain the propellant within the cartridge, or as a piston to unlock the bolt and cycle the weapons operation. Examples are the 9x51mm SMAW, MBA Javette and the M48A2. ==See also== *Lead(II) azide *Lead styphnate ==References== ==External links== *. Thirteen chemicals used in U.S. Army small arms cartridges; 7 chemicals are not available within the U.S. *, p. 2-3 stating "1602-1604\. Fulminating gold, later used as a priming explosive, was invented by Johann Tholden, a Dutch chemist in the employ of the British Navy." Later, on same page, "1628. Gold fulminate priming explosives for torpedoes were invented by J. Thollen for the British Navy." * c.f. p. 129\. Basilius Valentinus described "explosive gold" in first half of 17th century. In 1630, Van Drebbel (Cornelis Drebbel?) investigated fulminate of mercury and "explosive gold". In 1690, Johann von Löwenstern-Kunckel's book Laboratorium Chymicum described how to make fulminate of mercury. In 1805, Alexander John Forsyth used potassium chlorate to make pellets, but these were not safe. "The first ignition caps were invented in the early nineteenth century. In these caps the ignitable composition was enclosed in a casing of brass or copper. This invention cannot be traced with any certainty to any individual. The literature on the subject names several chemists including Bellot and Egg in 1815 [5]. The first application of mercury fulminate in ignition caps is attributed to Wright[6] in 1823." Category:Ammunition |
Syracuse Orange women's ice hockey is a college ice hockey program that has represented Syracuse University in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and College Hockey America (CHA) since the 2008–09 season. Syracuse plays its home games at Tennity Ice Skating Pavilion in Syracuse, New York. ==History== === 2008–09 season === On March 6, 2008, it was announced that the Orange would join College Hockey America. Syracuse was the fifth school to join the conference for women's hockey. Paul Flanagan, who coached the St. Lawrence Skating Saints women's ice hockey program to five NCAA Frozen Four appearances was appointed as the first coach for the Orange women's ice hockey program. Flanagan had been the 2001 ECAC and American Hockey Coaches Association Coach of the Year. For the inaugural season, Flanagan was joined by Graham Thomas, who played for Mannheim Jung Adler in Germany, and Erin O'Brien, a two-time All-American at Plattsburgh State, an NCAA Division III school for women's ice hockey. Some of the first players for the team were transfer players from other schools. Gabrielle Beaudry, transferred to the Orange from Boston College. Cheyenne Bojeski was a transfer from Mercyhurst, while Julie Rising came to the Orange from Bemidji State. Lucy Schoedel and Stefany Marty were both transfers from New Hampshire. The Orange's inaugural season was in 2008–09, and the team played its first ever game on Wednesday, October 1, 2008 at Colgate. During the first game Lucy Schoedel recorded 34 saves and Megan Skelly scored the first goal in Syracuse women's ice hockey history nine seconds into the game. Despite holding a 2–0 lead in the game, the Orange lost to Colgate by a score of 3–4. The following two games were against the eventual NCAA champion Wisconsin Badgers on October 2 and 3. Despite losing both games, Lucy Schoedel made seventy five saves in two games. A week later, Syracuse played in its first ever College Hockey America conference game. The Orange took on the Robert Morris Colonials. Lucy Schoedel recorded her 100th career save (and totaling 130 stops in just four games) in a 1–0 losing effort. Team captain Stefanie Marty scored her first goal for Syracuse on October 17. It was a 4–2 loss at Quinnipiac. Of note, Cheyenne Bojeski also scored her first ever goal for Syracuse. The following day, co- captains Julie Rising and Stefanie Marty would both score as Syraucse won its first ever game by a 2–0 tally. March 5, 2009 was the first postseason game in Orange history. In the quarterfinal round of the College Hockey America tournament, the Orange were ousted by the Niagara Purple Eagles by a score of 3–2. Freshman forward Kylie Klassen made history by scoring the first playoff goal in the program's history. Assists went to Megan Skelly and Julie Rising. === 2009–10 season === After a slow start to the season, the Orange won their first game of the season on October, 2009 in a 3–1 win over the Providence Friars. The win would be the first of a four-game win streak after starting the season winless in the first six games. The start of the 2009–10 season was highlighted by eight straight road games to start the season, after a home exhibition game against the University of Guelph. By December 2009, the team was ranked in the ranked tenth in the USA Today/USA Hockey Magazine poll. The ranking marked the first time the Orange was nationally ranked in the program's history. On March 5, 2010, the Orange won the first playoff game in program history. Sophomore Lisa Mullan scored two goals, as the Orange defeated Niagara by a score of 5–3. In addition, freshman Isabel Menard added three points. The Orange advanced to the CHA Championship against rival Mercyhurst but fell 1–3. === 2010–11 season === On October 1, 2010, by tying Northeastern in the season opener, it marked the first time that the Orange started the season unbeaten. Stefanie Marty had two goals in the game. Northeastern featured her twin sister Julia Marty. It was the first time the sisters had ever played against each other in their NCAA careers. With a 4–2 defeat of New Hampshire on October 8, 2010, the Orange is off to its best start in program history (1–0–1). In the win, senior transfer Ashley Cockell scored her first career goal for the Orange. Freshman goaltender Kallie Billadeau made 26 saves as she played in her first game for the Orange. The Orange continued their best start in program history with a 2–2–1 record. The Orange registered a 7–1 win against Connecticut on the 16th of October. Syracuse's seven goals against Connecticut ties for second all-time in Orange history. Twelve different players registered points. Isabel Menard recorded the first hat trick in school history and added an assist. In addition, freshman Sadie St. Germain scored her first career goal and had two assists in the win. The Orange outshot the Huskies 38–19. In faceoffs, they had a 38–17 advantage over them. On November 30, Kallie Billadeau set a Syracuse record with 57 saves in a 4–1 loss against No. 1 Cornell. By December 6, 2010, Isabel Menard had nine multiple-point scoring games, setting a Syracuse program record. The team ended the season ===2018-2019=== Syracuse won its first CHA Tournament championship in 2019, defeating Robert Morris by a score of 6-2. Orange forward Lindsay Eastwood scored three goals in the tournament, tying the league record. It was Syracuse's 7th appearance in the championship game. En route, they defeated Lindenwood in the quarterfinals and Mercyhurst in the semi-finals. As CHA champions, the Orange earned an automatic berth in the NCAA tournament, their first appearance ever. They played Wisconsin in the first round, losing 4-0. Allie Munroe won the CHA Defenseman of the Year award, and forward Lauren Bellefontaine won CSA Rookie of the Year. ==Coaches== Head coach Paul Flanagan, who started the program at SU, retired at the end of 2021-22 season after 14 seasons. At Syracuse, he was a four-time CHA Coach of the Year compiled a 204-225-49 record. In May 2022, former Clarkson University Assistant Coach Britni Smith was named the 2nd head coach in program history. == Year by year statistics == Won Championship Lost Championship Conference Champions League Leader Year Coach W L T Conference Conf. W Conf. L Conf. T Finish Conference Tournament NCAA Tournament 2022-23 Britni Smith 10 24 2 CHA 6 9 1 3rd CHA Lost Semifinal vs. Mercyhurst Did not qualify 2021-22 Paul Flanagan 15 11 6 CHA 11 4 1 1st CHA Won Semifinals vs. RIT Won Championship vs. Mercyhurst Lost First Round vs. Quinnipiac 2020-21 Paul Flanagan 12 9 1 CHA 8 6 1 4th CHA Won Quarterfinals vs. Lindenwood Won Semifinal vs. Penn State Lost Championship vs. Robert Morris Did not qualify 2019–20 Paul Flanagan 14 20 2 CHA 7 12 0 3rd CHA Won Quarterfinals vs. Lindenwood Lost Semifinal vs. Robert Morris Did not qualify 2018–19 Paul Flanagan 13 22 3 CHA 10 8 2 3rd CHA Won Quarterfinals vs. RIT Won Semifinal vs. Mercyhurst Won Championship vs. Robert Morris Lost Quarterfinals vs. Wisconsin 2017–18 Paul Flanagan 13 21 3 CHA 11 8 1 3rd CHA Won Quarterfinals vs. RIT Lost Semifinal vs. Mercyhurst Did not qualify 2016–17 Paul Flanagan 16 13 5 CHA 14 4 2 2nd CHA Won Semifinals vs. RIT Lost Championship vs. Robert Morris Did not qualify 2015–16 Paul Flanagan 19 14 3 CHA 14 4 2 2nd CHA Won Semifinals vs. Penn State Lost Championship vs. Mercyhurst Did not qualify 2014–15 Paul Flanagan 11 15 10 CHA 8 6 6 2nd CHA Won Semifinals vs. Penn State Lost Championship vs. RIT Did not qualify 2013–14 Paul Flanagan 8 8 2 CHA 9 8 3 4th CHA Won Quarterfinals vs. Lindenwood Lost Semifinals vs. Mercyhurst Did not qualify 2012–13 Paul Flanagan 20 15 1 CHA 13 6 1 2nd CHA Won Semifinals vs. RIT Lost Championship vs. Mercyhurst Did not qualify 2011–12 Paul Flanagan 10 22 3 CHA 1 8 3 4th CHA Lost Semifinals vs. Mercyhurst Did not qualify 2010–11 Paul Flanagan 14 16 6 CHA 7 6 3 3rd CHA Won Semifinals vs. Niagara Lost Championship vs. Mercyhurst Did not qualify 2009–10 Paul Flanagan 18 17 1 CHA 8 8 0 3rd CHA Won Semifinals vs. Niagara Lost Championship vs. Mercyhurst Did not qualify 2008–09 Paul Flanagan 9 16 3 CHA 2 11 3 5th CHA Lost First Round vs. Niagara Did not qualify ==Current roster== As of August 30, 2022. == Exhibition games == *On November 28 and 29, 2008, Syracuse travelled to Ottawa, Ontario to participate in two exhibition games with two Canadian universities. The Orange defeated Carleton University by a score of 3–1 on the 28th but felt to the University of Ottawa in a 4–3 overtime loss. *The Orange played the McGill Martlets women's ice hockey team in Montreal, Quebec. McGill was ranked number one in Canada, but Syracuse provided a valiant effort. The Martlets outshot the Orange by a tiny margin of 30–28 and won the game by a score of 4–2. Julie Rising and Megan Skelly each had two points for the Orange. ==Olympians== Player Event Nationality Finish Stefanie Marty 2010 Winter Olympics – Ice hockey 5th Akane Hosoyamada 2018 Winter Olympics – Ice hockey 6th Akane Hosoyamada 2022 Winter Olympics – Ice hockey 6th ===International=== Player Event Nationality Finish Isabel Menard 2011 MLP Nations Cup Gold Akane Hosoyamada 2017 Asian Winter Games Gold Akane Hosoyamada 2017 IIHF Women's World Championship Division I Gold Akane Hosoyamada 2019 IIHF Women's World Championship 8 ==Awards and honors== *Gabrielle Beaudry, CHA Defensive Player of the Week (February 15, 2010) * Erin Burns, CHA Rookie of the Week (November 30, 2009) * Holly Carrie- Mattimoe, CHA Rookie of the Week (Week of January 11, 2010) *Abbey Miller, 2016 CHA Goaltending champion * Jenn Gilligan, Syracuse, CHA Goaltender of the Month (March 2015) *Stephanie Grossi – Syracuse, 2014–15 CHA Rookie of the Year * Stefanie Marty, CHA Offensive Player of the Week, (Week of October 12, 2009) * Stefany Marty, CHA Offensive Player of the Week, (Week of December 13, 2009) * Isabel Menard, CHA Rookie of the Week, (Week of October 12, 2009) * Isabel Menard, CHA Rookie of the Week, (Week of October 19, 2009) * Isabel Menard, CHA Rookie of the Week, (Week of November 23, 2009) * Isabel Menard, CHA Rookie of the Week, (Week of December 7, 2009) * Isabel Menard, CHA Rookie of the Week (Week of February 8, 2010) * Isabel Menard, 2011 Patty Kazmaier Award Nominee * Julie Rising, CHA Player of the Week, (Week of February 1) * Lucy Schoedel, CHA Defensive Player of the Week, (Week of November 23) * Lucy Schoedel, CHA Defensive Player of the Week, (Week of December 13) * Lucy Schoedel, Nominee for Patty Kazmaier Memorial Award ===CHA Major Awards=== *Paul Flanagan, 2015 CHA Coach of the Year *Paul Flanagan, 2013 CHA Coach of the Year *Paul Flanagan, 2010 CHA Coach of the Year * Isabel Menard, CHA 2010 Rookie of the Year * Allie Munroe, 2019 CHA Best Defenseman *Lauren Bellefontaine, 2019 CHA Rookie of the Year *Jessica DiGirolamo, 2020-21 CHA Defensive Player of the Year Award *Abby Moloughney, 2020-21 CHA Best Defensive Forward ===Pre-Season All-CHA Team=== *G – Lucy Schoedel, 2009 selection ===All-CHA First Team=== *Isabel Menard, First Team All-CHA 2010 *Isabel Menard, 2011 All-CHA First Team *Melissa Piacentini: Syracuse, 2014–15 All-CHA First Team *Nicole Renault: Syracuse, 2014–15 All-CHA First Team *Stephanie Grossi, Syracuse, 2015-2016, All CHA First Team *Allie Munroe, 2018-19 All CHA First Team ===All-CHA Second Team=== *Stefanie Marty, Second Team All-CHA 2010 *Brittaney Maschmeyer, Second Team All-CHA 2010 *Gabrielle Beaudry, Second Team All-CHA 2010 *Lucy Schoedel, Second Team All-CHA 2010 *Jennifer Gilligan: Syracuse, 2014–15 All-CHA Second Team *Akane Hosoyamada: Syracuse, 2014–15 All-CHA Second Team *Emma Polask, 2018-19 All-CHA Second Team ===CHA All-Rookie Team=== *Holly Carrie-Mattimoe, 2010 selection *Isabel Menard, 2010 selection *Kallie Billadeau, 2011 CHA All-Rookie team *Akane Hosoyamada, 2011 CHA All-Rookie team *Alsyha Burriss: Syracuse, 2014–15 CHA All- Rookie Team *Stephanie Grossi: Syracuse, 2014–15 CHA All- Rookie Team ===CHA All-Tournament Team=== *Lisa Mullan, 2010 tournament *Gabrielle Beaudry, 2010 tournament *Lucy Schoedel, 2010 tournament ==Orange in professional hockey== = CWHL All-Star = NWHL All-Star = Clarkson Cup Champion = Isobel Cup Champion Player Position Team(s) League(s) Years Titles Holly Carrie Mattimoe Forward Toronto Furies CWHL 2014 Clarkson Cup Shiann Darkangelo Forward Connecticut Whale Buffalo Beauts Kunlun Red Star Toronto Furies Toronto Six NWHL CWHL NWHL Lindsay Eastwood Forward Toronto Six NWHL 1 Akane Hosoyamada Defence DK Peregrine Calgary Inferno WJIHL CWHL 4 Stefanie Marty Forward SC Reinach Damen Linköping HC HC Université Neuchâtel Dames SWHL A Riksserien (W) SWHL A (W) Isabel Menard Forward Lugano ZSC Lions Frauen SWHL 2 Elizabeth Scala Forward ESC Planegg Perth Inferno Frauen-Bundesliga (W) AWIHL ==See also== * List of college women's ice hockey coaches with 250 wins (Paul Flanagan ranks seventh on all-time list) ==References== ==External links== * Category:Ice hockey clubs established in 2008 Category:Ice hockey teams in New York (state) Category:2008 establishments in New York (state) |
Nahum Stutchkoff, Yiddish נחם סטוטשקאָװ [nɔxəm (nʊxəm) stʊtʃkɔv], originally Polish Nachum Stuczko or Yiddish נחם סטוטשקאָ [nɔxəm (nʊxəm) stʊtʃkɔ]J. B.: Stutshkov, Nokhem. In: Leksikon fun der nayer yidisher literatur, aroysgegebn fun Alveltlekhn yidishn kulturkongres, Vol. 6, New York 1965, c. 385; Mame- loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 14. (born 7 June 1893 in Brok near Łomża,The indication "Brock, a neighbourhood of Lodz" on yiddishradioproject.org is a faulty translation of the Yiddish text in Zylbercveig's Lexicon of the Yiddish Theatre, where it is said "Brok, lomzher gegnt". However, Lomzhe is Łomża, not Łodż, and gegnt means here 'region, district, county', not 'neighbourhood'. Russian Empire, now Poland; died 6 November 1965 in Brooklyn, New York City), was a Yiddish-Polish and later Yiddish-American actor, author, lexicographer, and radio host. The largest Yiddish dictionary ever to be finished was compiled by him: the Oytser fun der yidisher shprakh ("The Treasure [Thesaurus] of the Yiddish Language"). == Life and work == === Childhood === Nahum Stutchkoff was born Nachum Stuczko (or Nokhem Stutshko in Yiddish) into a Chassidic family living in the northeast of Congress Poland ("Vistula Land") in the then Russian Empire. Only in America did he add a vov (װ-) to his Yiddish name and two -ff to his English name.Mame-loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 14. The family moved to Warsaw in 1900, where Stutchkoff visited the traditional elementary school (cheder). He later studied at two Talmud academies (yeshivos), one in Łomża and one in Warsaw. === Theatre === At the age of 16 (in 1909), Stutchkoff had his first experience with Yiddish theatre. He broke off his traditional religious schooling to join the theatre company of the cultural organisation Hazomir (Hebrew for "the nightingale"), led by the author Isaac Leib Peretz. He gave his acting debut in Sholem Aleichem's Mentshn ("Humans") and went on to act with different troupes in Poland and Russia. In 1912 he was drafted for military service. After his release he was hired by Adolf Segal and from 1917 on he played at the Undzer vinkl theatre in Kharkiv (now Ukraine), which maintained a lively theatre scene in spite of the First World War and subsequently, the Russian Civil War. In 1921 the company was incorporated in a state theatre company which led to the group's break up. Stutchkoff joined the Yiddish State Theatre of Vitebsk (now Belarus). In 1923 he emigrated to the United States – with his wife Tsilye and his son Misha, born in 1918. Stutchkoff performed on Yiddish stages in New York City (1923) and Philadelphia (1924–1925) before he became the secretary of the Yiddish Drama Club in 1926. In Russia he had translated pieces for the Yiddish theatre, in America he concentrated on writing and adapting operettas, comedies, and dramas for the Yiddish stage. He worked with many illustrious names of the Yiddish theatre, such as Molly Picon, Ludwig Satz, Sholom Secunda, Joseph Rumshinsky, and Menasha Skulnik. His work usually earned him more approval from the audiences than from the critics.For this chapter see J. B.: Stutshkov, Nokhem. In: Leksikon fun der nayer yidisher literatur, aroysgegebn fun Alveltlekhn yidishn kulturkongres, Vol. 6, New York 1965, c. 385–387; Sh. un M. E.: Stutshkov, Nokhem. In: Zalmen Zylbercweig, Leksikon fun yidishn teater, Vol. 2, Warsaw 1934, p. 1464–1466; Mame-loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 14–17. === Radio === In 1931, Stutchkoff got his first post at a small radio station in Brooklyn, in a studio built by the owner of a women's clothing store. Shortly after that, he started work as an announcer at WLTH, where he soon took over a children's talent show from Sholom Secunda and renamed it Feter Nokhems yidishe sho ("Uncle Nahum's Yiddish hour"). Stutchkoff quickly became popular and was hired by WEVD in 1932, a radio station which had been bought by the Yiddish newspaper Forverts (The Jewish Daily Forward) after the American Socialist Party had founded it. In the three following decades, Stutchkoff worked as a writer, director, and host of about one dozen serial programs and produced thousands of advertisements for his sponsors. His melodramatic series Ba tate-mames tish ("At The Family Table"), on family conflicts, aired every Sunday in the 1930s. The program was so popular that Stutchkoff adapted it for the stage. He also wrote many comedies for radio, such as Eni un Beni ("Annie and Benny"), In a yidisher groseri ("In A Jewish Grocery Store"), In a freylekhn vinkl ("In A Happy Place"), and An eydem af kest ("A Son-In-Law, living with and supported by the wife's parents"). One could call these comedies the sitcoms of their time. After the United States entered the Second World War in 1941, comedies of the type Stutchkoff wrote lost their popularity. He wrote the series Tsores ba laytn ("People's Worries") instead, which ended with a plea for donations to nursing homes and which ran for fifteen years. The only time he directly referred to the Holocaust was in a show called Der gehenem ("Hell") in 1943. The purpose of this show – it was funded by the Ministry of Finance – was the propagation of American war bonds. From 1948, 615 episodes of Mame-loshn ("Native Language") aired, a program dedicated to the Yiddish tongue. Stutchkoff reminded his listeners of the rich Yiddish lexicon in countless anecdotes and dramatic scenes. The show was Stutchkoff's answer to the destruction of the European Jewry – Yiddish lost his 'father and mother' in the Holocaust; American Jewry was to take in the orphan. Another purpose of the show was the promotion of his Oytser (Thesaurus; see below). Finally, in 1951 Stutchkoff started a program on family drama A velt mit veltelekh ("A World With Small Worlds"). Stutchkoff worked in radio until 1958 or 1959.For this chapter see Mame-loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 17–22, 42–46. === Lexicography === Stutchkoff gained importance as a lexicographer: in 1931 he published a Yiddish rhyming dictionary (Gramen-leksikon), and, based on it, in 1950 a thesaurus of the Yiddish language followed (Oytser fun der yidisher shprakh). A Hebrew thesaurus (Otsar ha'safah ha'ivrit) was published posthumously in 1968. The latter was outdated by the time it was published, since it was based on the educated Hebrew of the European Jews rather than the modern everyday speech of Israel.Concerning the Otsar ha'safah ha'ivrit see Mame-loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 56 sq. However, the Oytser fun der yidisher shprakh, which was arranged onomastically, is undisputedly Stutchkoff's main achievement.Concerning the Oytser see Mame-loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 22–42. It remains even today the most extensive dictionary of the Yiddish language, containing approximately 90,000 single-word entries and 8,000 idioms (because of multiple designations it amounts to nearly 175,000 entries). The dictionary was meant to 'store' the Yiddish language, which was in danger of extinction after the Holocaust. Peter Mark Roget's English thesaurus served as an example; nonetheless, Stutchkoff reduced Roget's 1000 onomastic categories to 650. The dictionary received critical acclaim and 2000 copies were sold within the first year of its publication alone. It does not project purist language views; instead it includes 1500 Americanisms, 3000 Germanisms, 1000 Slavisms, 500 vulgarisms, 700 funny expressions, and 700 archaisms, dialectal words, slang words and Sovietisms. This inclusion of modern lexicon distinguished Stutchkoff's dictionary from other publications put out by the Institute for Jewish Research YIVO (Yidisher visnshaftlekher institut). Stutchkoff's decision to include those terms went against the advice of his publisher, Max Weinreich. However, some reviewers – among others Isaac Bashevis Singer – criticised the fact that Weinreich had designated certain terms as "not recommended", while others regretted that the Oytser included many artificial terms invented by the YIVO that were not in use in other circles. The Oytser's broadsheet catalogue became the basis of the Groyser verterbukh fun der yidisher shprakh ("Great Dictionary of the Yiddish Language"), an even more extensive dictionary. Stutchkoff planned on compiling it with the linguists Yudel Mark and Judah A. Joffe and then publishing it at YIVO. In 1955, he left the project for personal and conceptual reasons after only three years: his pragmatic approach to lexicography was not compatible with Yudel Mark's scientific claim.Mame-loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 48–55. Finally, only the first four parts of the Groyser verterbukh were published between 1961 and 1980. They covered all words starting with Aleph and most words starting with a vowel (in Yiddish orthography all words starting with /a/, /aj/, /ej/, /o/, /oj/ and /u/ are written with an Aleph). === Personal life === Stutchkoff's wife Tsilye (Celia) née Grenzer (1893–?) was also an actress and she later participated in the radio programs, as did their son Misha (1918–2003) and their daughter Esther (later married Baron, 1924–?). Misha also appeared in Yiddish movies and wrote English television programs for Hollywood, using the pseudonym Michael Morris. Stutchkoff's father is thought to have died before the Second World War, his mother and sister died in the Warsaw Ghetto. His brother Aaron was a rabbi in London. Although he grew up in a traditional Jewish-Yiddish environment in Poland, Stutchkoff abandoned this way of life as an adolescent. However, the destruction of the European Jewry by the Nazis made him an energetic supporter of traditional Judaism and an adversary of assimilation in language and religion. He became more purist and conscientious in his use of Yiddish, and recommended a Jewish upbringing for children.Mame-loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 46–48. Stutchkoff was very gifted in languages. He grew up speaking Yiddish, Polish and Russian, and learned Hebrew, German and French at school. His grandchildren also claim that he learned English on his passage to America with the help of William Shakespeare, Mark Twain, and the Encyclopædia Britannica. == Published work == === Select publications === The catalogue raisonné by Burko and SeigelMame- loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, New York 2014, p. 62–76. includes three dozens stage plays, including stage adaptations of Stutchkoff's own radio programs: * Der shlang in Gan-eydn [The Serpent in Garden Eden] (drama, staged in the 1910s/1920s) * Di tsvey kales [The Two Brides] (musical comedy, staged in 1925) * Ver bin ikh? [Who Am Im?] (Comedy, staged 1925–1926) * Mazl fun froyen [Women's Luck] (comedy, staged 1925–1926) * A mol is geven [Once Upon A Time] (drama, staged in 1926) * In roytn Rusland [In Red Russia] (drama, staged in 1928) * As der rebe vil [What The Rebbe Wants] (operetta, staged in 1929) * Der tsadik in pelts [The Wise Man in Fur] (musical comedy, staged in 1929) * Oy, Amerike [Oh, America] (musical comedy, staged in 1930/1931) * Ba tate-mames tish [At The Family Table] (two dramas, staged in 1938 and 1939) * In a yidisher groseri [In A Jewish Grocery Store] (two dramas, staged in 1938 and 1939) two dozens translations of plays in other languages, such as: * Der yid fun Konstants (Der Jude von Konstanz [The Jew of Konstanz], by Wilhelm von Scholz, staged in the 1910s/1920s) * Der ayngebildeter kranker (Le malade imaginaire [The Imaginary Invalid], by Jean-Baptiste Molière, staged in the 1910s/1920s) * Interesn-shpil (Los intereses creados [The Bonds Of Interest], by Jacinto Benavente, staged 1917–1921) * Hotel-virtn (La locanderia [The Female Innkeeper], by Carlo Goldoni, staged 1917–1921) * Der ganev (Scrupules [Scruples], by Octave Mirbeau, staged 1917–1921) * Der karger (L'avare [The Miser], by Jean-Baptiste Molière, staged 1921–1923) more than ten radio shows produced for the WEVD, including: * In a yidisher groseri [In A Jewish Grocery Store] (?–?, 159 episodes) * Ba tate-mames tish [At The Family Table] (1935–1940, 136 episodes) * Tsores ba laytn [People's Worries] (1944–1959?, 217 episodes) * Mame-loshn [Native Language] (1948–?, 615 episodes) – published in print by Alec Eliezer Burko, New York 2014 * A velt mit veltelekh [A World With Small Worlds] (1951–?, 114 episodes) uncounted advertisements (product placements and commercial sketches) around a dozen texts for sheet music, which Abe Ellstein, Joseph Rumshinsky, and Sholom Secunda put to music three books: * Yidisher gramen-leksikon [Yiddish rhyming lexicon], New York 1931 * Oytser fun der yidisher shprakh [Thesaurus of the Yiddish language], New York 1950, unaltered reprint New York 1991 * Otsar ha'safah ha'ivrit [Thesaurus of the Hebrew language], New York 1968 === Abatement === Stutchkoff's abatement is kept in the New York Public Library (New York City), the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research (New York City), the Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.), and the American Folklife Center (Washington, D.C.). While the scripts for the radio programs still largely exist, only a few audio files have survived time. They were retrieved by the Yiddish Radio Project (under the direction of Henry Sapoznik) and are partly available on www.yiddishradioproject.org. == References == Literature (a selection) * Y. B. [= Yankev Birnboym]: Stutshkov, Nokhem. In: Leksikon fun der nayer yidisher literatur, aroysgegebn fun Alveltlekhn yidishn kulturkongres, Vol. 6, New York 1965, c. 385–387. – Appendix with an incorrect death date (25 November 1965) in Berl Kagan: Leksikon fun yidish-shraybers. New York 1986, c. 404\. * Mame- loshn fun Nokhem Stutshkov, redaktirt fun Leyzer Burko, mit an araynfir un an arumnemiker biblyografye fun Leyzer Burko un Miryem-Khaye Seygel, Forverts oysgabe, Nyu-York 2014 / ed. by Alec Eliezer Burko, with an introduction and comprehensive bibliography by Alec Eliezer Burko and Amanda Seigel. Forward, New York 2014, (in Yiddish, with an English summary). * Amanda Seigel: Nahum Stutchkoff's Yiddish Play and Radio Scripts in the Dorot Jewish Division, New York Public Library. In: Judaica Librarianship 16, 2011, p. 55–82. * Miryem- Khaye Seygel [= Amanda Seigel]: 'Du host krim-tshis?' 'Gazlnte, iz vos-zhe shvaygstu?' Di yidishe radio-programen fun Nokhem Stutshkov. In: Afn shvel 348–349, 2010, p. 37–43 (in Yiddish). * Sh. un M. E. [= shriftlekher un mindlekher entfer, = written and oral information]: Stutshkov, Nokhem. In: Zalmen Zilbertsvayg, Leksikon fun yidishn teater, Vol. 2, Warsaw 1934, p. 1464–1466 (in Yiddish; an English translation is available online). * Yankl Stillman: The Yiddish Thesaurus and Nahum Stutchkoff. In: Jewish Currents 2, 2008, p. 60–62 (also available online; basically a summary of the information taken from Zylbercveig's theatre lexicon and the Yiddish Radio Project). Obituaries * Yitskhok Varshavski [= pseudonym of Isaac Bashevis Singer]: Nokhem Stutshkov un zayn groyser monument. In: Forverts, 15 November 1965, p. 4–5 (in Yiddish). * [no name:] Nahum Stutchkoff, Yiddish Dramatist. In: New York Times, 19 November 1965. Weblinks * Yiddish Radio Project – Nahum Stutchkoff. * Boris Sandler, Leyzer Burko: Ads by Nahum Stutchkoff. Treasures From the Forvert's Archive, Chapter No. 7, The Jewish Daily Forward (ed.), 11 June 2015 (Yiddish, with English subtitles). * 'Yiddish Dialect Dictionary' based on Stutchkoff's Lists. == Footnotes == Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at :de:Nahum Stutchkoff by the same author; see its history for attribution. Category:1893 births Category:1965 deaths Category:People from Ostrów Mazowiecka County Category:People from Łomża Governorate Category:Yiddish-speaking people Category:Soviet emigrants to the United States Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent Category:Male actors from New York City Category:Jewish Polish male actors Category:Jewish American male actors Category:Jewish American writers Category:Radio personalities from New York City Category:Yiddish-language writers Category:Yiddish theatre performers Category:Linguists of Yiddish Category:American philologists Category:Lexicographers Category:20th-century philologists Category:20th- century lexicographers Category:20th-century American Jews |
300px|thumb|right|Church Historians office ca 1875, across the street from Brigham Young's home, the Beehive HouseYoung, Brigham, and Everett L. Cooley. Diary of Brigham Young, 1857. Tanner Trust Fund, University of Utah Library, 1980 found online at:https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=328944 Church Historian and Recorder (usually shortened to Church Historian) is a priesthood calling in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The role of the Church Historian and Recorder is to keep an accurate and comprehensive record of the church and its activities. His office gathers history sources and preserves records, ordinances, minutes, revelations, procedures, and other documents. The Church Historian and Recorder also chairs the Historic Sites Committee and Records Management Committee, and may act as an authoritative voice of the church in historical matters. ==History== This office is based on revelations to Joseph Smith calling for keeping records and preparing a church history.Doctrine and Covenants 21:1, 47:1, 69:3, 85:1 Oliver Cowdery, the first in this position, originally recorded meeting minutes, patriarchal blessings, membership information, priesthood ordinations, and a kind of narrative church history. For a time, the callings of Church Historian and Church Recorder were separate, but in 1842 these callings were merged and now the Church Historian also acts as the Church Recorder. In 1972, the Church Historian's Office was renamed to become the Historical Department. In 2000, this department was merged with the Family History Department to become the Family and Church History Department. On March 12, 2008, the Church Historian separated again from the Family History Department to become the Church History Department. While the majority of Church Historians and Recorders have been general authorities of the church, there have been some exceptions to the practice. ==Assistants== Church Historians and Recorders have often been assisted by individuals called to the position of Assistant Church Historian. Research assistants and other personnel are also usually employed within the Church Historian's Office, but the Church Historian and Assistant Church Historian(s) are the only ones to hold priesthood callings. ==Chronology== In the following tables, general authorities are listed in bold. The date ranges span from the sustaining date to the release date unless otherwise indicated. ===Church Historian and Church Recorder=== Date range Church Historian Church Recorder Notes 1830-31 Oliver Cowdery Although Cowdery did not receive an official call to be Church Historian, he was Joseph Smith's scribe and was appointed to keep minutes and records in an early conference.Minute Book 2, The Joseph Smith Papers, accessed 30 Dec. 2015, http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/?target=X1F070313-CB05-49BB-A39C-2C6F4776617F#!/paperSummary/minute- book-2&p;=3. Therefore, he is widely regarded as the first unofficial Church Historian and Recorder. 1831-35 John Whitmer Whitmer was called to be the Church Historian by a revelation to Smith,Revelation, circa 8 March 1831–B [D&C; 47], The Joseph Smith Papers, accessed 30 Dec. 2015, http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/?target=x6506. which is now Doctrine and Covenants section 47. He was the first official historian of the Latter Day Saint church. 1835-37 John Whitmer Oliver Cowdery Beginning in 1835, a new calling of "Recorder for the Church" was created, with Oliver Cowdery being the first appointee.Minute Book 1, The Joseph Smith Papers, accessed 30 Dec. 2015, http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/?target=X5DC3AFA7-7FC3-4682-A442-EAA9E3053E51#!/paperSummary/minute- book-1&p;=111. 1837-38 John Whitmer George W. Robinson Robinson was sustained "as General Clerk & recorder of the whole Church" to replace Cowdery.Minute Book 1, The Joseph Smith Papers, accessed 30 Dec. 2015, http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/?target=XDA13C966-4445-489E-A9D2-4D119ED6F002. 1838 John Corrill George W. Robinson Corrill and Higbee were both called to this position at the same time.Minute Book 2, The Joseph Smith Papers, accessed 30 Dec. 2015, http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/?target=X2AD5F438-886E-4A15-92B7-46B86303B3B0. Corrill apostatized from the church later that year and was excommunicated in March 1839.History, 1838-1856, volume C-1, The Joseph Smith Papers, accessed 30 Dec. 2015, http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/?target=X70B3ABDE-E179-47FC-B7F1-CA8D0E460F3E#!/paperSummary/history-1838-1856-volume-c-1-2-november-1838-31-july-1842&p;=80. 1838–40 Elias Higbee George W. Robinson It is assumed that Robinson was released on 3 October 1840 since his replacement, Robert B. Thompson, was sustained that day.“Minutes of the general conference of the church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints…”, Times and Seasons, Oct. 1840, page 185, http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/NCMP1820-1846/id/9361. 1840–41 Elias Higbee Robert B. Thompson 1841–42 Elias Higbee James Sloan When Sloan was sustained his position was given as "General Church Clerk."“Minutes of a Conference,” Times and Seasons, 15 Oct. 1841, 2:577. http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/NCMP1820-1846/id/9086. 1842–43 Willard Richards James Sloan Richards was appointed as Joseph Smith's private secretary and Church Historian in late 1842.Willard Richards journals and papers: Journals, Journal (volume 9), 1842 July-1844 February. Church History Library, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Salt Lake City, Utah. https://catalog.churchofjesuschrist.org/record/692b9f3e-0ea2-464b-9027-e6a4d8f7af06/comp/f7cd9020-db11-4469-8375-1eeb9ed26a37?view=browse&subView;=arrangement (image 26). ===Church Historian and Recorder=== No. Date range Church Historian and Recorder Assistant(s) Notes 1 30 July 1843Willard Richards journals and papers: Journals, Journal (volume 9), 1842 July-1844 February. Church History Library, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Salt Lake City, Utah. https://catalog.churchofjesuschrist.org/record/692b9f3e-0ea2-464b-9027-e6a4d8f7af06/comp/f7cd9020-db11-4469-8375-1eeb9ed26a37?view=browse&subView;=arrangement (image 42). – 11 March 1854He died in office. Orson Spencer, “Death of Our Beloved Brother Willard Richards,” Deseret News, 16 Mar. 1854, page [2]. http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deseretnews1/id/178000. Willard Richards office not yet created In 1843, the callings of Church Historian and Church Recorder were merged when Richards, already serving as Church Historian, was appointed Church Recorder. Although, he wasn't sustained by the general church membership until 1845.“Historic Men Served as Church Historians,” Church News, 14 Feb 1970, page 15. Thomas Bullock was Richards' assistant (as was Charles Wesley Wandell), but the Assistant Church Historian priesthood calling wasn't given until Wilford Woodruff. 2 7 April 1854“Minutes,” Deseret News, 13 Apr 1854, page [2], http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deseretnews1/id/174950. – 8 October 1870 George A. Smith Wilford Woodruff (1856–1881) Woodruff was the first Assistant Church Historian. 3 8 October 1870“Fortieth Semi-Annual Conference of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints,” Deseret News, 12 Oct 1870, page 419, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deseretnews2/id/43733. – 9 May 1874 Albert Carrington 4 9 May 1874“Forty-Fourth Annual Conference,” Deseret News, 13 May 1874, page 232, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deseretnews3/id/193805. – 3 October 1881He died in office. “Death of Apostle Orson Pratt,” Deseret News, 5 Oct 1881, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deseretnews3/id/196551; “Death of Orson Pratt,” The Salt Lake Tribune, 4 Oct 1881, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/slt5/id/18369. Orson Pratt 1881–83 Wilford Woodruff (Acting) After Pratt's death in 1881, no official Church Historian was chosen, but Pratt's assistant Woodruff acted as Church Historian until he was formally selected as such. 5 7 October 1883“Fifty-Third Semi- Annual Conference,” Deseret News, 10 Oct 1883, page 604, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deseretnews3/id/2214409 – 7 April 1889 Wilford Woodruff Franklin D. Richards (1884–1889) 6 7 April 1889“General Conference,” Deseret [News] Weekly, 13 Apr 1889, page 487, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/deseretnews4/id/9935 – 9 December 1899He died in office; “Franklin D. Richards Dead,” Deseret Evening News, 9 Dec 1899, page 1, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/den1/id/4612. Franklin D. Richards John Jaques (1889–1900) Charles W. Penrose (1896–1904) Andrew Jenson (1897–1941) File:Andrew Jenson.jpg| File:John Jaques (Mormon).jpg| File:Charleswpenrose.gif| Penrose became a general authority when released as an Assistant. 1899–1900 Andrew Jenson and John Jaques (Acting) After the death of Richards on December 9, 1899, no Church Historian was chosen until July 26, 1900. 7 7 October 1900Conference Report, October 1900, page 42, https://archive.org/stream/conferencereport1900sa/conferencereport711chur#page/42/mode/2up/. – 2 March 1921He died in office. J. M. Sjodahl, “President Anthon H. Lund,” Improvement Era, April 1921, page 499, https://archive.org/stream/improvementera2406unse#page/498/mode/2up. Anthon H. Lund Charles W. Penrose (until 1904) Andrew Jenson Orson F. Whitney (1902–1906) A. Milton Musser (1902–1909) B. H. Roberts (1902–1933) Joseph Fielding Smith (1906–1921) A. William Lund (1911–1971) File:Andrew Jenson.jpg| File:Brigham Henry Roberts2.jpg| File:A. William Lund.jpg| File:Charleswpenrose.gif| File:Orson F. Whitney2.JPG| File:A. Milton Musser.jpg| File:Joseph Fielding Smith.jpg| Whitney became a general authority when released as an Assistant. Smith became a general authority in 1910, during Lund's tenure. 8 6 April 1921Conference Report, April 1921, page 189, https://archive.org/stream/conferencereport1921a#page/n189/mode/2up/. – 23 January 1970“New First Presidency Called,” Church News, 24 Jan 1970, page 3. Joseph Fielding Smith Andrew Jenson (until 1941) B. H. Roberts (until 1933) A. William Lund Junius F. Wells (1921–1930) Preston Nibley (1957–1963) E. Earl Olson (1965–1972) File:Preston Nibley.jpg| Smith's tenure as Church Historian and Recorder is by far the longest in church history. He was released when he was called as President of the Church. 9 6 April 1970Conference Report, April 1970, page 110, https://archive.org/stream/conferencereport1970a#page/n113/mode/2up. – 1972 Howard W. Hunter A. William Lund (until 1971) E. Earl Olson ==Church Historical Department== In 1972, the Church Historian's Office was renamed to become the Historical Department. In 2000, this department was merged with the Family History Department to become the Family and Church History Department. On March 12, 2008, the Church Historian separated again from the Family History Department to become the Church History Department. No. Date range Church Historian and Recorder Assistant Notes 10 6 April 1972Conference Report, April 1972, page 9, https://archive.org/stream/conferencereport1972a#page/n11/mode/2up. – February 1982 Leonard J. Arrington Davis Bitton"Noted LDS historian R. Davis Bitton dies", Deseret Morning News, 2007-04-16. James B. Allen (1972–1979) Arrington was the first non-general authority Church Historian since 1842 and the first to simply be Church Historian, instead of Church Historian and Recorder, since Willard Richards.He was only sustained as Church Historian, Conference Report, April 1972, page 9, https://archive.org/stream/conferencereport1972a#page/n11/mode/2up. He was also the first in the position to be a professional historian. Arrington is reported to have lost the title of Church Historian in 1978, though he was formally released in 1982. 11 February 1982 – 10 January 1985 G. Homer Durham Durham became Church Historian without formal public pronouncement by the church nor sustaining by the general church membership. Although, it was mentioned as an aside in General Conference.Conference Report, April 1982, page 96, https://archive.org/stream/conferencereport1982a#page/n99/mode/2up. Some claim his tenure as Historian began when Arrington lost the title in 1978, or when Durham became Managing Director of the church Historical Department. 12 6 April 1985 – 4 October 1997 Dean L. Larsen Larsen was also the first Executive Director of the Historical Department, in which he was replaced by John K. Carmack in 1989. Larsen then moved on to other assignments, such as serving in the Temple Department and Area Presidencies and was not active in any historical role, though technically he was still the Church Historian until his release in 1997. === Executive Director of the Historical Department === Larsen was also the first Executive Director of the Historical Department, in which he was replaced by John K. Carmack in 1989. Larsen then moved on to other assignments, such as serving in the Temple Department and Area Presidencies and was not active in any historical role, though he was still technically the Church Historian until his release from the Seventy in 1997. While holding the office of Church Historian, and afterward, others succeeded Larsen as Executive Directors of the Historical Department. During this time, these men stood in for the Church Historian and were sometimes referred to with that title. No. Dates Executive Directors of the Historical Department Notes 12b 1989–91 John K. Carmack Carmack was given the position of the department's Executive Director, but he was not called as the Church Historian. 12c 1991–93 Loren C. Dunn 12d 1993–96 Stephen D. Nadauld 12e 1996–98 Marlin K. Jensen During this time (1997), Larsen was finally officially released as Church Historian, and the office was left unfilled. 12f 1998–99 John K. Carmack 12g 1999–2000 Loren C. Dunn 12h 2000–04 D. Todd Christofferson Organizational changes during this time changed Christofferson's title to the Executive Director of the Family and Church History Department. 12i 2004–05 Marlin K. Jensen Jensen retained his position as Executive Director when he was called to be Church Historian in 2005. Since the office of Church Historian had been revived, after this time the Executive Director was no longer standing in as a substitute. No. Dates Church Historian and Recorder Assistant Notes 13 2 April 2005Conference Report, April 2005, page 25, https://archive.org/stream/conferencereport2005a#page/n27/mode/2up. – 6 October 2012 Marlin K. Jensen Richard E. Turley, Jr. (2008–2016) In 2005, Jensen became the first Church Historian since 1997. He had been made Executive Director of the Historical Department the previous year, a position he also held in 1997 when Dean L. Larsen was released. Jensen later said he "really [didn't] know why the office went unfilled for a few years." Some of his accomplishments in this position are chronicled at Marlin K. Jensen: Church Historian. 14 6 October 2012 – 1 August 2019 Steven E. Snow“The Sustaining of Church Officers,” Ensign, November 2012, https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/2012/11/the-sustaining-of- church-officerschurchofjesuschrist.org Steven E. Snow BiographyFirst Presidency Announces New Church Historian, Commissioner of Church Education, Mormon Newsroom, 10 April 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2019. Richard E. Turley, Jr. (2008–2016) Reid L. Neilson (2015-2019)Mission Presidents Called to Ecuador, Singapore, Korea, and More, News & Events, churchofjesuschrist.org, 5 February 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2019. On January 10, 2012, the church announced that Snow, who was serving in the Presidency of the Seventy, would succeed Jensen as Church Historian and Recorder later in the year. On August 1, 2012, Snow assumed the new role and was released from the Presidency of the Seventy, while Jensen was then designated as an emeritus general authority in October 2012. On April 10, 2019, the church announced that Snow would be released, effective August 1, 2019, and would be designated as an emeritus general authority in October 2019. 15 1 August 2019-1 August 2022 LeGrand R. Curtis Jr.8 highlights from the church historian and recorder as his service draws to a close, Deseret News, 3 August 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2022. On April 10, 2019, the church announced that Curtis, who had been serving as an Assistant Executive Director of the Church History Department, would replace Steven E. Snow as Church Historian and Recorder, effective August 1, 2019. Snow will be released from full-time service and designated an emeritus general authority in October 2019. A Deseret News article published on August 3, 2022 confirmed the release of Curtis and the appointment of Kyle S. McKay to replace him. 16 1 August 2022- Kyle S. McKay A Deseret News article published on August 3, 2022 reported the release of Curtis and the appointment of McKay. ==Notes== ==References== * * * * ==Further reading== * * — summary of the role of the Assistant Church Historian * Category:1831 establishments in the United States Category:1831 in Christianity Category:History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Category:History of the Latter Day Saint movement Category:Leadership positions in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |
Margaret Lucas Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1623 – 15 December 1673) was a prolific English philosopher, poet, scientist, fiction writer and playwright. In her lifetime she was able to keep that tone of productivity by creating more than twelve works that were completely original to her own. Margaret Cavendish even would have her portrait engraved on the covers of her different works so that people would know that she would solely responsible for the creation of whatever she wrote and then published in some way or another. This made Margaret Cavendish a pioneer for other women who wanted to engage in social sciences. In a time where it was difficult for all women to become any type of professional scientist or doctor, Margaret Cavendish was supported by an active husband with high social status. This high social status allowed Margret to meet and converse with some of the most important and influential minds of her time. Being the first woman to be formally invited to visit the Royal Society, her trail-blazing personality shows how she was bold enough to take a stand for women at her own risk. Her husband, William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was Royalist commander in Northern England during the First English Civil War and in 1644 went into self-imposed exile in France. Margaret accompanied him and remained abroad until the Stuart Restoration in 1660. She wrote in her own name in a period when most women writers remained anonymous. ==Background== Born Margaret Lucas to Sir Thomas Lucas (1573–1625) and Elizabeth Leighton (died 1647), she was the youngest child of the family. She had four sisters and three brothers, the royalists Sir John Lucas, Sir Thomas Lucas and Sir Charles Lucas, who owned the manor of St John's Abbey, Colchester.N. Goose and J. Cooper (1998), "Tudor and Stuart Colchester", Victoria County History of Essex () She became an attendant on Queen Henrietta Maria and travelled with her into exile in France, living for a time at the court of the young King Louis XIV. She became the second wife of William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1645, when he was a marquess.David Cunning, "Margaret Lucas Cavendish", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 ed.), Edward N. Zalta, ed., URL=. ==Writings== Cavendish, as a poet, philosopher, writer of prose romances, essayist and playwright, published under her own name at a time when most women writers remained anonymous. Her topics included gender, power, manners, scientific method and philosophy. Her utopian romance The Blazing World is one of the earliest examples of science fiction.Lee Cullen Khanna, "The Subject of Utopia: Margaret Cavendish and Her Blazing-World", Utopian and Science Fiction by Women: World of Difference. Syracuse: Syracuse UP, 1994, pp. 15–34. She was unusual in her time for publishing extensively in natural philosophy and early modern science,O'Neill. producing over a dozen original works; with her revised works the total came to 21. Cavendish has been championed and criticised as a unique, ground-breaking woman writer. She rejected the Aristotelianism and mechanical philosophy of the 17th century, preferring a vitalist model. In May 1667, she became the first woman to attend a meeting at the Royal Society of London, criticising and engaging with members and philosophers Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, and Robert Boyle.Nadine Akkerman and Marguérite Corporaal, "Mad science beyond flattery. The correspondence of Margaret Cavendish and Constantijn Huygens", Early Modern Literary Studies 14 May 2004, 2.1–21. She has been claimed as an early opponent of animal testing.Shevelow, Kathryn. For the love of animals: the rise of the animal protection movement, Henry Holt and Company, 2008, chapter 1. Cavendish's publications brought her fame and helped to disprove the contemporary belief that women were inherently inferior to men. Cavendish used them to advocate women's education: women were capable of learning and benefiting from education, and she insisted her own works would have been better still if, like her brothers, she had been able to attend school. ==Early years== ===Childhood=== thumb|Mary Lucas, older sister of Margaret Cavendish Cavendish's father, Thomas Lucas, was exiled after a duel that led to the death of "one Mr. Brooks", but pardoned by King James. He returned to England in 1603. As the youngest of eight, Cavendish recorded spending a lot of time with her siblings. She had no formal education, but had access to libraries and tutors, although she hinted that the children paid little heed to tutors, who were "rather for formality than benefit". Cavendish began putting ideas down on paper at an early age, although it was poorly accepted for women to display such intelligence at the time and she kept her efforts in the privacy of her home. The family had significant means and Cavendish stated that her widowed mother chose to keep her family in a condition "not much lower" than when her father was alive; the children had access to "honest pleasures and harmless delights". Her mother had little to no male help. ===Lady-in- waiting=== When Queen Henrietta Maria was in Oxford, Cavendish never gained permission from her mother to become a lady-in-waiting. She accompanied the Queen into exile in France, away from her family for the first time. She notes that while she was confident in the company of her siblings, amongst strangers she became bashful, being afraid she might speak or act inappropriately without her siblings' guidance, while anxious to be well received and well liked. She spoke only when necessary and so came to be regarded as a fool, which Cavendish stated that she preferred to being seen as wanton or rude. Regretting that she had left home to be a lady-in-waiting, Cavendish informed her mother that she wanted to leave the court, but her mother persuaded her not to disgrace herself by leaving and provided her with funds that Cavendish noted quite exceeded the normal means of a courtier. She remained a lady-in- waiting for two more years before marrying William Cavendish, then still Marquess of Newcastle. ===Marriage to the Marquess=== Cavendish noted that her husband liked her bashfulness; he was the only man she was ever in love with, not for his title, wealth or power, but for merit, justice, gratitude, duty and fidelity. She saw these as attributes that held people together even in misfortune, and in their case helped them to endure suffering for their political allegiance. Cavendish had no children, despite efforts by her physician to help her conceive. Her husband had five surviving children from a previous marriage, two of whom, Jane and Elizabeth, wrote a comic play, The Concealed Fancies. Cavendish later wrote a biography of her husband: The Life of the Thrice Noble, High and Puissant Prince William Cavendish. In her dedication, Cavendish recalls a time when rumours surrounded the authorship of her works: that her husband wrote them. Cavendish notes that her husband defended her from these, but admits to a creative relationship, even as her writing tutor, for writing "fashions an image of a husband and wife who rely on each other in the public realm of print." ==Personal life== thumb|Margaret Cavendish and her husband, William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne ===Financial problems=== A few years after her marriage, she and her husband's brother, Sir Charles Cavendish, returned to England. Cavendish had heard that her husband's estate, sequestrated due to his being a royalist delinquent, would be sold and that she as his wife could hope to benefit from the sale. In the event she received no benefit. She noted that while many women petitioned for funds, she herself only did so once, and being denied decided such efforts were not worth the trouble. After a year and a half she left England to be with her husband again. ===Character and health=== Cavendish stated in A True Relation of My Birth, Breeding, and Life that her bashful nature, which she described as "melancholia", made her "repent my going from home to see the World abroad." It manifested itself in reluctance to discuss her work in public, but this she satirised in her writing. Cavendish defined and sought self-cures for the physical manifestations of her melancholia, which included "chill paleness", inability to speak, and erratic gestures. ===Religious beliefs=== Cavendish's views on God and religion remained ambiguous. Her writings show her as a Christian, but she did not often address the matter. In her Physical Opinions, she explicitly stated her belief in the existence of God – "Pray account me not an Atheist, but believe as I do in God Almighty," – but sought to split philosophy from theology and so avoid debating God's actions in many of her philosophical works. Her theological temerity was unusual at a time when much women's writing was built around religion. Although Cavendish acknowledged God's existence, she held "that natural reason cannot perceive or have an idea of an immaterial being." So "when we name God, we name an Inexpressible, and Incomprehensible Being." ===Fashion and fame=== thumb|Monument to William & Margaret Cavendish, Westminster Abbey Cavendish in her memoir explained her enjoyment in reinventing herself through fashion. She said she aimed at uniqueness in dress, thoughts and behaviour, and disliked wearing the same fashions as other women. She also made her desire for fame public. Several passages remark on her virtuous character: while acknowledging goodness in others, she thought it acceptable to hope to better them and even achieve everlasting fame. She expected to be criticised for deciding to write a memoir, but retorted that it was written for herself, not for delight, to give later generations a true account of her lineage and life. She noted that others, such as Caesar and Ovid, had done the same. ===Death=== She died in London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey on 7 January 1674. Her husband arranged for a monument, by the sculptor Grinling Gibbons, to be erected in the north transept of the abbey. The epitaph reads: "Her name was Margaret Lucas youngest daughter of Lord Lucas, earl of Colchester, a noble family, for all the brothers were valiant, and all the sisters virtuous". All the Brothers Were Valiant became the title of a novel and number of film adaptations in the early 20th century. ==Major works== ===Poems and Fancies (1653)=== Poems and Fancies encompasses poems, epistles and some prose on topics that include natural philosophy, atoms, nature personified, macro/microcosms, other worlds, death, battle, hunting, love, honour and fame. Her poems at times take a dialogue form between such pairs as earth and darkness, an oak and a tree- cutter, melancholy and mirth, and peace and war. As noted by Mistress Toppe, formerly Elizabeth Chaplain and Cavendish's maid, Cavendish's writings took the form of poetical fiction, moral instruction, philosophical opinion, dialogue, discourses and poetical romances. Poems and Fancies included The Animal Parliament, a prose piece consisting largely of speeches and letters. The collection concludes with her thoughts on her writing and an advertisement for one of her future publications. ====Authorial intent==== Cavendish concluded the collection by stating she was aware that she did not write elegantly and that her phrasing and placement of words could be criticised. She said she had difficulty creating rhymes that could communicate her intended meaning. In short, Cavendish stated that she strove for meaning at the expense of elegance, her aim being to communicate ideas. She also noted that she expected her work to be criticised for not being useful, but she wrote not to instruct her readers in the arts, sciences or divinity, but to pass her time, asserting that she made better use of her time than many others. Cavendish returned to these points in her epistles and poems. ====Epistle dedicatory==== Cavendish, like authors such as Aphra Behn and William Wordsworth, stated her intended audience, writing purpose and philosophy in prefaces, prologues, epilogues and epistles. Her several epistle dedications for Poems and Fancies often sought to justify writing at a time when women writers were not encouraged and in terms of her subject choice. She instructed readers in how to read and respond to her poetry, most often by inviting praise from supporters and requesting silence from those unaffected by her work. Cavendish commonly used the epistles to admit and excuse potential weaknesses in her writing. They were directed at specific audiences and varied accordingly. ====Mental spinning==== Looking at several of the epistles in Poems and Fancies, her dedication to Sir Charles Cavendish, her brother in law, compares writing poetry to spinning and calls poetry mental spinning – it was commonly thought to be more appropriate for women to spin than to write, but she herself was better at writing. This is one of several occasions when Cavendish calls attention to stereotypical gender roles and expands on her reasons for not following them. As here, Cavendish often employed metaphors to describe her writing in terms of stereotypical feminine tasks or interests, such as spinning, fashion and motherhood. While criticising her own work, she said it would seem better if Sir Charles Cavendish looked favourably on it. Cavendish often appealed to readers for applause: if it were well received it would be somewhat improved. She ends by complimenting Charles's charity and generosity. ====The pursuit of fame==== In her epistle to noble and worthy ladies and in many others, Cavendish plainly expresses her desire for fame. She was not concerned that the best people should like her writing, as long as many people did. She justified this by linking fame to noise and noise to great numbers of people. Cavendish often assumed a defensive position, here justified by asserting that she expected critiques from males and females not only of her writing, but of her practice of writing itself. Cavendish argued that women who busy themselves writing will not act ineptly or gossip. Though she expected criticism from females, she calls for female support in gaining honour and reputation. She ends by stating that if she fails, she will see herself as martyred for the cause of women. ====Defence of writing and fame==== In her epistle to Mistress Toppe, Cavendish states a desire for fame as her main reason for writing. Again she asks for acceptance of her writing as a digression from accepted gender norms. While she often brings in metaphors of domestic or stereotypical feminine activities, here she tries to excuse her desire for fame by distancing her ambition from what is feminine: her ambition is a quest for glory, perfection and praise, which she states is not effeminate. Even while writing and pursuing fame she remained modest and honourable and does nothing to dishonour her family. Cavendish attributed her confidence, as a type of censor, to her belief that there is no evil, only innocence in her desire for fame. As to her writing without permission, Cavendish excuses herself by stating it is easier to get a pardon after the fact than to obtain leave beforehand. She places writing over gossip, as a common and negative female activity. She credits her books as tangible examples of her contemplation and contrasts her self- proclaimed harmless ideas with wild ideas that might lead to indiscreet actions. Cavendish explored writing closet dramas in her exile. She became one of the best-known women playwrights through her interest in philosophical nature. This epistle is followed by a response from Mistress Toppe, praising Cavendish and her skill in poetical fiction, moral instruction, philosophical opinion, dialogue, discourses and poetical romances. ====Language, knowledge and error==== Cavendish included a prefatory letter to natural philosophers. She knew no language but English, and even her English was somewhat limited, since she was familiar only with "that which is most usually spoke." In other words, she downplayed her knowledge of the technical vocabulary used by natural philosophers, and thereby her knowledge of opinions and discourses that preceded her own. She then dismissed errors she might make as trivial, asserting that she did not mean her text to be taken as truth. She wrote simply to pass time and expected her work to be read for the same end. This epistle also explained her writing in verse: poets were thought to write fiction and that fiction was aligned with pastime, not truth. So verse might be expected to contain errors. Cavendish lamented that her work was not more entertaining and advised readers to skip any part they did not like. ====Writing to pass the time==== Her epistle states that with no children and at that time no estate, she has a lot of spare time, which she fills by writing, not housekeeping. Food husbandry in poetry was well-ordered fancy composed of fine language, proper phrases and significant words. Cavendish excused errors that might be found in her work as due to youth and inexperience, for she wrote only to distract herself from hardships of her husband's and her own. Comparing her book to a child, she said that it was innocent, young, well-behaved, bashful and sensitive. Readers should blame her, not the book, if they did not like it. If, however, the book was well liked, she made it clear that she expected fame. ====Instruction on comprehension and judgement==== In her epistle to the poets, Cavendish notes that as women seldom wrote, her writing may be ridiculed, as the strange and unusual seem fantastical, the fantastical seems odd, and the odd seems ridiculous. She requests that her work be judged by reason, not prejudice. She then excuses weaknesses in her poetry by stating that she writes only to escape melancholy thoughts and fill idle time. She employs a food/feasting metaphor: her poems are not ripe, but applause and praise will make them pass as a "general feast" to those of vulgar taste who take quantity over quality. As was typical in her writing, applause is welcomed and criticism censored, as she advises those who dislike her poetry to keep silent. Hers are poems of fancy and so require study. She recommends that as one with a troubled conscience ought to look to a minister for guidance. Likewise a reader will ask a poet for help in understanding her poems. Attempting again to guide readers to a positive reception of her book, Cavendish distinguishes poets (able judges of poetry) from rhymers (faulty judges of poetry) and advises people not to call her book nonsense or poorly constructed out of their own ignorance and malice. Returning again to her desire for fame, Cavendish notes that if judged by an honest poet, who would not be envious, her work would receive applause. Cavendish asks the reader to read her fancies (poems) slowly, paying heed to each word, for each is a fancy itself. She warns that if readers lose their place or skip lines, they will miss the meaning of the entire work. ====Poems: excuses and instructions==== Cavendish followed some epistles with poems on how they came to be published and how they should be received. The proximity of the poems to the epistles and their similarity in subject and tone, suggests that they may be interpreted as Cavendish's own point of view. The poem The Poetresses sic hasty Resolution, like many of Cavendish's epistles, contains excuses for errors that may be found in the poet's work and begs for praise. The poet states that self-love influences her judgement of her own poetry, which she finds she likes so much that she is moved to continue writing in hope of fame. She claims to write without thought of how her work would be received by critics. She then recalls how she was visited by Reason, who advised her to stop writing. Reason said her writing was a waste of time, that her work would not be well received and she should not have her work printed, so that the printer would not lose money. Reason also stated that there were already too many books and she should burn what she had written to spare the world from more. The poet noted her own angry response: she sent her book to press before she could be persuaded otherwise. In hindsight, however, she regretted doing so: she felt ashamed by her writing and told the reader to pity her and wipe away her tears with praise. In The Poetresses Petition, she compares a negative reception to her books with their death. If the books suffer such a death (i. e. criticism), she requests silence and that they be forgotten, without alteration or inscriptions, and left undisturbed unless new merit is found. Again Cavendish sought to censor criticism and promote fame by instructing that only positive criticism should be voiced. In An Apology for Writing So Much upon This Book, she compares it to a child and the book/child and author/parent to birds. The book is like a baby bird just going out on its own. The author, like a parent bird, is unsure whether the book/baby bird will be safe and chirrups an attempt to protect it. ===Nature's Pictures drawn by Fancy's Pencil to the Life (1656)=== This is viewed as "Cavendish's most ambitious attempt to combine modes and genres." It includes short prose romances – "The Contract" and "Assaulted and Pursued Chastity" – and several prefatory addresses to the reader. The stories concern "the advantageous production of woman as spectacle" and "repeatedly [feminise] the aristocratic and chivalric trope (or figure) of the fair unknown." ===A True Relation of my Birth, Breeding, and Life (1656)=== Cavendish published this autobiographical memoir as an addendum to Natures Pictures Drawn by Fancies Pencil to the Life, in 1656.Margaret Cavendish, Paper Bodies: A Margaret Cavendish Reader, eds. Sylvia Bowerbank and Sara Mendelson. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2000. . She wrote it at the age of 33, which has been discussed by literary critics. One critic sees Cavendish's autobiography as a way to gain credibility and a marketable image that would undercut a socially improper public image. Cavendish wrote her autobiography in response to what people were saying of her in her lifetime. It relates Cavendish's lineage, social status, fortune, upbringing, education and marriage, describes her pastimes and manners, and offers an account of her personality and ambition, including thoughts on her bashfulness, contemplative nature and writing. She also shares her views on gender (appropriate behaviour and activity), politics (Parliamentarians v. Royalists) and class (proper behaviour of servants). The memoir details the lives of her family, including a short account of her brother Charles Lucas, one of the best Civil War Cavalier cavalry commanders, executed by the Parliamentarians for treason in the Second English Civil War. She goes on to address the economic and personal hardships that she and her family faced from the war and their political allegiance, such as loss of estates and bereavements. ===CCXI Sociable Letters (1664)=== Published in 1664 by William Wilson, CCXI Sociable Letters (1664) is a collection of letters, written as if composed by real women. The organisation is similar to that of The World's Olio (1655). The topics are as varied as the forms and length of the letters. They cover marriage, war, politics, medicine, science, English and classical literature, and miscellaneous matters like gambling and religious extremism. Some letters seem to point to characters as actual people – Thomas Hobbes may appear in letter 173 and C. R. stand for King Charles II,Fitzmaurice, James. "Introduction." Sociable Letters. Ed. James Fitzmaurice. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2004. – and some are addressed to real people with whom Cavendish often communicated, but most are fictional, leading to a surprisingly vibrant, ongoing conversation and observation of contemporary life. ===Observations upon Experimental Philosophy (1666)=== File:Margaret Newcastle 1664 Philosophical letters RGNb10347550.01.tp.tif|Philosophical letters, 1664 File:Cavendish-Blazing.jpg|The Blazing World, 1666 File:Margaret Newcastle 1668 Grounds frontis.jpg| Grounds of Natural Philosophy, 1668, Frontispiece File:Margaret Newcastle 1668 Grounds of Natural Philosophy RGNb10347549.02.tp.tif|Grounds of Natural Philosophy, 1668, Title page ====Cavendish's natural philosophy==== Eileen O'Neill provides an overview of Cavendish's natural philosophy and its critical reception in her introduction to Observations upon Experimental Philosophy.O'Neill 2001 She describes Cavendish's natural philosophy as rejecting Aristotelianism and mechanical philosophy and favouring Stoic doctrines: while women rarely wrote about natural philosophy in the 17th century, Cavendish published six books on the subject.O'Neill 2001 xv–xvii O'Neill points out that Cavendish herself was not formally educated in natural philosophy, though William Cavendish and his brother Charles shared an interest in the subject and supported her interest and study in the area. She may also have been influenced by social encounters with philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes. O'Neill believes Hobbes (who had instructed Charles in philosophy) had marked influence on Cavendish's natural philosophy, making her one of the few 17th-century supporters of Hobbes' materialist philosophy, which argued that incorporeal souls did not exist in nature. Beginning in the 1660s, Cavendish began to study the work of her contemporaries more seriously. O'Neill suggests that such study was meant to enable Cavendish to argue her own points better by contrast with those of other natural philosophers. O'Neill notes that Cavendish's natural philosophy and her writing in general were criticised by many contemporaries and by more recent readers, such as Pepys, Henry More and Virginia Woolf.O'Neill 2001, p. xviii. Cavendish's work has also received positive criticism and been lauded by many for tackling typically male-dominated subjects such as natural philosophy. Letters and poems of praise by her husband were included in several of her published works. ====Writing as an honourable disease==== Cavendish in her preface to Observations upon Experimental Philosophy states that she expects readers to say that her practice of writing prolifically is a disease., p. 7 If so, Cavendish stated, many others, including Aristotle, Cicero, Homer and St Augustine, have suffered the same disease. It was an honour for someone of great ambition (as she often identified herself) to share the disease of such wise and eloquent men. In these, as in her other writings, she asserts that she writes for herself and that her writing is a harmless pastime when compared with those of many other women. She contradicts herself, however, by adding that she writes for delight, which she had denied in her previous work. Also somewhat contradictory is her intention of continuing to write even if she has no readers, which belies her desire for fame. Ultimately, Cavendish excuses her criticism of and engagement with the theories of other natural philosophers as a necessary step in the search for truth. ====Learning versus wit==== In her epistle to the reader, Cavendish writes that woman's wit may equal that of man, and women may be able to learn as easily as men. She argues that wit is natural, whereas learning is artificial, and in her time, men have more chance of educating themselves than women.Cavendish 1668, pp. 11–13. Cavendish remarks on her own experience reading philosophical works: many such works have challenged her understanding with their frequently difficult words and expressions. Thus Cavendish advises writers of philosophy to use language appropriate to less expert readers. She defends this by stating that philosophical terms should ease communication of thoughts. She believes that successful communication is possible in all languages and accuses those who complicate communication (particularly English writers) of aiming for esteem from those who admire writing simply because they do not understand it, without considering that it may be nonsense. In her own work, Cavendish states, she chooses not to use difficult terms, although she adds that she understands such terms. Her stated reason is that she desires her work to be accessible to people regardless of their education. Her aim is to communicate her ideas clearly. She requests that any errors that may be found in her work be overlooked and readers remain focused on her main ideas. Here, as in many epistles, she instructs readers on how to approach her work and requests them to read it fully and withhold criticism until they have done so. ===The Description of a New World, Called the Blazing World (1666)=== Cavendish's prose tale was published in 1666 and again in 1668, each time with Observations upon Experimental Philosophy. As many such as Silvia Bowerbank and Sara Mendelson have noted, this early version of science fiction critiques and explores such issues as science, gender and power. It also views relations between imagination and reason and philosophy and fiction. Cavendish writes herself into the book, which details a fictional, quite separate new world and its empress. She remarks in her epilogue that she is the empress, adding that in much the same way as there was a Charles the First, she would be seen as Margaret the First. ==Plays in 1662 and 1668== Two volumes of Cavendish's dramatic works were printed. Plays (1662), printed by A. Warren (London) includes: *Loves Adventures *The Several Wits *Youths Glory, and Deaths Banquet *The Lady Contemplation *Wits Cabal *The Unnatural Tragedy *The Public Wooing *The Matrimonial Trouble *Nature's Three Daughters, Beauty, Love and Wit *The Religious *The Comical Hash *Bell in Campo *A Comedy of the Apocryphal Ladies *The Female Academy Plays, Never Before Printed (1668) was published by Anne Maxwell (London): *The Sociable Companions, or the Female Wits *The Presence *Scenes (edited from The Presence) *The Bridals *The Convent of Pleasure *A Piece of a Play ==Other works== Cavendish also published collections of Philosophical Letters (1664), orations, as in her collection entitled Orations (1662). Many of her works address such issues as natural philosophy, gender, power and manners. Cavendish's plays were never acted in her lifetime, but a number, including The Convent of Pleasure (1668) have been staged since.Williams, Gweno. Margaret Cavendish: Plays in Performance. York: St. John's College, 2004 Several of Cavendish's works have epistles, prefaces, prologues and epilogues in which she discusses her work, philosophy and ambition, while instructing the reader on how to read and respond to her writing. Her work has been alternately criticised and championed from its original publication to the present day. ==Critical reception== Cavendish was an unorthodox and daring intellectual who received positive and negative commentary from her contemporaries. Negative comments can be found by the Royal Society member Samuel Pepys who once wrote of her as "a mad, conceited, ridiculous woman" though he was eager to read her work. Dorothy Osborne reflected in one published letter, after reading a book by the Duchess, that she was "sure there are soberer people in Bedlam." She also had numerous admirers, Constantijn Huygens, Mildmay Fane, Earl of Westmorland, John Dryden, Kenelm Digby, Henry More were among them. Joseph Glanvill and Walter Charleton corresponded with her and engaged with philosophy and science. After her death, her husband William Cavendish compiled a book of admiring letters, poems, and epitaphs by numerous people. In the nineteenth century Charles Lamb enjoyed her Sociable Letters and so much admired her biography of her husband that he called it a jewel "for which no casket is rich enough." James Fitzmaurice argues “Cavendish was viewed sympathetically by the English Romantic poets”. Margaret Cavendish was the first person to develop an original theory of atomism in Britain. She was also the first female to be invited to attend a session of the Royal Society. One member, John Evelyn, saw in Cavendish "a mighty pretender to learning, poetry, and philosophy". Yet her knowledge was recognised by some, such as the protofeminist Bathsua Makin: "The present Dutchess of New-Castle, by her own Genius, rather than any timely Instruction, over-tops many grave Gown-Men." She saw her exemplifying what women could become through education. New manuscript evidence also suggests she was read and taken seriously by at least some early Royal Society members, such as its secretary, Nehemiah Grew. Cavendish was mostly lost to obscurity in the early twentieth century. Not until Virginia Woolf's The Common Reader (1925) did discourse rediscover the Duchess. Woolf remarked that: > the vast bulk of the Duchess is leavened by a vein of authentic fire. One > cannot help following the lure of her erratic and lovable personality as it > meanders and twinkles through page after page. There is something noble and > Quixotic and high-spirited, as well as crack-brained and bird-witted, about > her. Her simplicity is so open; her intelligence so active. Margaret Cavendish began to generate intense scholarly interest in the 1980s, when rediscovered and analysed from a modern feminist perspective. Since then there have been many book-length critical studies of her. She has also gained fame as one of the first science-fiction writers, with her novel The Blazing World. Her self inserted as a character named Margaret Cavendish in The Blazing World is said to be among the earliest examples of the modern Mary Sue trope. More recently, her plays have been examined in performance studies, for blurring the lines between performance and literature, challenging gender identities and upsetting gender norms. Further analysis on Cavendish appears here. This new interest has engendered media projects. The film, The Blazing World (2021) is loosely inspired by Cavendish's science fiction story. Siri Hustvedt's The Blazing World (2014), which was also loosely inspired by Cavendish, won The Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Fiction and was long listed for the Booker Prize. Margaret the First by Danielle Dutton dramatises her "with lucid precision and sharp cuts through narrative time", as a new approach to "imagining the life of a historical woman".] As the digital humanities grow, several projects have begun archiving Cavendish. The International Margaret Cavendish Society was set up as "a means of communication between scholars worldwide", to increase awareness of Cavendish's scholarly presence as a hub for newsletters, contacts and links to Cavendish's works. Likewise the Digital Cavendish Project works to make Cavendish's writing accessible and readable for people across the web and "highlight digital research, image archives, scholarly projects, and teaching materials". On 26 January 2018, the Digital Cavendish Twitter account announced that its next goal was to compile the Complete Works of Margaret Cavendish. ==See also== *List of animal rights advocates ==References== ==Sources== ===Modern Editions of Works by Margaret Cavendish=== *Bell in Campo and The Sociable Companions. Ed. Alexandra G. Bennett. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2002. *Grounds of Natural Philosophy. Ed. Anne Thell. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2020. *Margaret Cavendish: Essential Writings. Ed. David Cunning. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. *Margaret Cavendish: Political Writings. Ed. Susan James. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. *Observations upon Experimental Philosophy. Ed. Eileen O'Neill. New York: Cambridge UP, 2001. *Observations upon Experimental Philosophy, abridged. Ed. Gwendolyn Marshall. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2016. *Paper Bodies: A Margaret Cavendish Reader. Eds. Sylvia Bowerbank and Sara Mendelson. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2000. *Philosophical Letters, abridged. Ed. Deborah Boyle. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2021. *Poems and Fancies, with the Animal Parliament. Ed. Brandie Siegfried. Iter Press, 2018. * Sociable Letters. Ed. James Fitzmaurice. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2004. *The Description of a New World Called The Blazing World And Other Writings. Ed. Kate Lilley. London: William Pickering, 1992. *The Convent of Pleasure and Other Plays. Ed. Anne Shaver. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1999. ===Books=== *Lisa Walters and Brandie Siegfried, eds. Margaret Cavendish: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. *Lisa Hopkins and Tom Rutter. A Companion to the Cavendishes. ARC Humanities Press, 2020. *David Cunning, Cavendish. Routledge, 2015. *Lisa Sarasohn, The Natural Philosophy of Margaret Cavendish: Reason and Fancy during the Scientific Revolution. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010. *Lara A. Dodds. The Literary Invention of Margaret Cavendish. Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 2013. *Anna Battigelli, Margaret Cavendish and the Exiles of the Mind. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998 *Lisa T. Sarasohn and Brandie R. Siegfried, eds. God and Nature in the Thought of Margaret Cavendish. New York: Routledge, 2014. *Deborah Boyle, The Well-Ordered Universe: The Philosophy of Margaret Cavendish. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018. *Lisa Walters, Margaret Cavendish: Gender, Science and Politics. TOC Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. *Kate Whitaker, Mad Madge: Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, Royalist, Writer and Romantic. London: Chatto and Windus, 2003 Mad Madge : the extraordinary life of Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, the first woman to live by her pen *Stephen Clucas, ed., A Princely Brave Woman: Essays on Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003 *Line Cottegnies and Nancy Weitz, eds., Authorial Conquests: Essays on Genre in the Writings of Margaret Cavendish. Cranbury, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2003 *Douglas Grant, Margaret the First: A Biography of Margaret Cavendish Duchess of Newcastle 1623–1673. London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1957 *Kathleen Jones, Margaret Cavendish: A Glorious Fame. The life of the Duchess of Newcastle. London: Bloomsbury: , 1988 *Emma L. E. Rees, Margaret Cavendish: Gender, Genre, Exile. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2004 ===Articles=== *N. N. W. Akkerman and M. Corporaal (2004), "Mad Science Beyond Flattery: The Correspondence of Margaret Cavendish and Constantijn Huygens", Early Modern Literary Studies *Siri Hustvedt. "Afterword: Margaret Cavendish: A Grandmother for Twenty-first Century Philosophy of Science". Margaret Cavendish: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Eds. Lisa Walters and Brandie R. Siegfried. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. 274-288. *Mihoko Suzuki, "Animals and the political in Lucy Hutchinson and Margaret Cavendish". The Seventeenth Century. 30.2 (2015): 229-247. *Mihoko Suzuki, "Thinking Beings and Animate Matter: Margaret Cavendish's Challenge to the Early Modern Order of Things". In Challenging Women's Agency and Activism in Early Modernity. Edited by Merry Wiesner-Hanks. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2021. 183-206 *Justin Begley, "'The Minde is Matter Moved': Nehemiah Grew on Margaret Cavendish", Intellectual History Review 27, No. 4 (May 2017): 493–514 *Karen Detlefsen, "Atomism, Monism, and Causation in the Natural Philosophy of Margaret Cavendish". Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy, Vol. III, 199–240. Ed. Daniel Garber and Steven Nadler. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2006 *Karen Detlefsen, "Margaret Cavendish and Thomas Hobbes on Reason, Freedom, and Women". In Feminist Interpretations of Thomas Hobbes, 149–168. Ed. Nancy J. Hirschmann and Joanne H. Wright. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2012 *Karen Detlefsen, "Margaret Cavendish on the Relation between God and World". Philosophy Compass 4, no. 3 (2009): 421–438 *Karen Detlefsen, "Reason and Freedom: Margaret Cavendish on the Order and Disorder of Nature". Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie 89, No. 2 (2007): 157–191 *Lara Dodds, "Margaret Cavendish's Domestic Experiment". Genre and Women's Life Writing in Early Modern England. Ed. Michelle M. Dowd and Julie A. Eckerele. Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007. 151–168. *Deborah Boyle. "Informed by 'Sense and Reason': Margaret Cavendish's Theorizing about Perception". The Senses and the History of Philosophy, ed. Brian R. Glenney and Filipe Pereira da Silva. Routledge, 2019. *Brandie R. Siegfried and Lisa Walters. "A New Science for a New World: Margaret Cavendish on the Question of Poverty". 1650-1850: Ideas, aesthetics, and inquiries in the early modern era. Eds. Betty Joseph, Elizabeth Sauer, and Kevin L. Cope. Lewisburg, Pennsylvania: Bucknell University Press, 21-36. *Hilda L. Smith. "'A General War Amongst the Men ... But None Amongst the Women': Political Differences Between Margaret and William Cavendish." Politics and the Political Imagination in Later Stuart Britain: Essays Presented to Lois Green Schwoerer (1997): 143-60. *Sara Heller Mendelson, "Margaret Cavendish and the Nature of Infinity". Margaret Cavendish: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Eds. Lisa Walters and Brandie Siegfried. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. *Jeffrey Masten, "Material Cavendish: Paper, Performance, 'Sociable Virginity'". Modern Language Quarterly 65.1 (2004): 49–68 *Elspeth Graham, "Intersubjectivity, Intertextuality, and Form in the Self-Writings of Margaret Cavendish". Genre and Women's Life Writing in Early Modern England. Edited by Michelle M. Dowd and Julie A. Eckerele. Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007. 131–150 *Susan James, "The Philosophical Innovations of Margaret Cavendish". British Journal for the History of Philosophy, Vol. 7, no. 2 (1999): 219–244 *Kegl, Rosemary. "'The World I Have Made': Margaret Cavendish, Feminism, and the Blazing World", Feminist Readings of Early Modern Culture: Emerging Subjects. Edited by Valerie Traub, M. Lindsay Kaplan, and Dympna Callaghan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 119–141 *James Fitzmaurice, "Fancy and the Family: Self-characterizations of Margaret Cavendish". Huntington Library Quarterly 53.3 (1990): 198–209 *James Fitzmaurice, "Margaret Cavendish on Her Own Writing: Evidence from Revision and Handmade Correction." PBSA 85.3 (1991): 297–308 *Gertrude Townshend Mayer, "Margaret Cavendish Duchess of Newcastle". Women of Letters Vol. 1. London: Richard Bentley & Son, 1894 *Bronwen Price, "Feminine Modes of Knowing and Scientific Inquiry: Margaret Cavendish's Poetry as Case Study". Women and Literature in Britain, 1500–1700. Ed. Helen Wilcox. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 117–142 *Diana Solomon, "Laugh, or Forever Hold Your Peace: Comic Crowd Control in Margaret Cavendish's Dramatic Prologues and Epilogues". Women and Comedy: History, Theory, Practice. Ed. Peter Dickinson, Anne Higgins, Paul Matthew St. Pierre, Diana Solomon and Sean Zwagerman. Lanham, MD: Fairleigh Dickinson UP, 2014. 55–64 *Anne M. Thell, "Meet the hottest early-modern philosopher. No, that’s not an oxymoron. Margaret Cavendish’s brilliant writing was largely neglected in the 1600s, but it’s more relevant than ever. Here’s where to start with her work", The Washington Post, June 27, 2023 *Special issue on Margaret Cavendish, In- between: Essays & Studies in Literary Criticism, Vol. 9, 2000 *Special Issue on Margaret Cavendish, Women's Writing, Vol. 4, No.3, 1997 *Jo Wallwork, "Disruptive Behaviour in the Making of Science: Cavendish and the Community of Seventeenth-Century Science". Early Modern Englishwomen Testing Ideas. Ed. Jo Wallwork and Paul Salzman. Surrey: Ashgate, 2011. 41–54 *Clara H. Whitemore, "Margaret Cavendish". Woman's Word in English Fiction: From the Restoration to the Mid-Victorian Period. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1910 *Virginia Woolf, "The Duchess of Newcastle, The Common Reader". The Essays of Virginia Woolf, Volume IV, 1925–1928. Edited by Andrew McNeillie. London: Hogarth Press, 1994. 81–90 ==Further reading== *Diana G. Barnes, "Epistolary Restoration: Margaret Cavendish's Letters". Epistolary Community in Print, 1580–1664. Surrey: Ashgate, 2013. 137–196 *Anna Battigelli, Margaret Cavendish and the Exiles of the Mind. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998. *Alexandra G. Bennett, "'Yes, and': Margaret Cavendish, the Passions and Hermaphrodite Agency." Early Modern Englishwomen Testing Ideas. Ed. Jo Wallwork and Paul Salzman. Surrey: Ashgate, 2011. 75–88 *Rebecca D'Monte, "Mirroring Female Power: Separatist Spaces in the Plays of Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle". Female Communities 1600–1800: Literary Visions and Cultural Realities. Ed. Rebecca D'Monte and Nicole Pohl. New York: MacMillan, 2000. 93–110 *Jane Donawerth, "The Politics of Renaissance Rhetorical Theory by Women". Political Rhetoric, Power, and Renaissance Women. Ed. C. Levin and P. A. Sullivan. Albany: SUNY Press, 1995. 257–272 *Margaret J. M. Ezell Writing Women's Literary History. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996 *Alison Findlay, Gweno Williams and Stephanie J. Hodgson-Wright, "'The Play is ready to be Acted': Women and dramatic production, 1570–1670". Women's Writing 6.1 (1999): 129–148 *Amy Greenstadt, "Margaret's Beard". Early Modern Women: An Interdisciplinary Journal 5 (2010): 171–182 *Theodora A. Jankowski, "Pure Resistance: Queer(y)ing Virginity in William Shakespeare's Measure for Measure and Margaret Cavendish's The Convent of Pleasure." Shakespeare Studies 26 (1998): 1–30 *Katherine R. Kellett, "Performance, Performativity, and Identity in Margaret Cavendish's The Convent of Pleasure". SEL 48.2 (2008): 419–442 *Kate Lilley, "Blazing Worlds: Seventeenth-Century Women's Utopian Writing". Women's Texts and Histories 1575–1760. Eds. Clare Brant and Diane Purkiss. London: Routledge, 1992. 102–133 *Jeffrey Masten, Textual Intercourse: Collaboration, Authorship and Sexualities in Renaissance Drama. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 *Vimala Pasupathi, "New Model Armies: Re-contextualizing The Camp in Margaret Cavendish's Bell in Campo". ELH 78 (2011): 657–685 *Kamille Stone Stanton, "'An Amazonian Heroickess': The Military Leadership of Queen Henrietta Maria in Margaret Cavendish's "Bell in Campo" (1662)" Early Theatre 10.2 (2007): 71–86 *Ryan Stark, "Margaret Cavendish and Composition Style." Rhetoric Review 17 (1999): 264–81 *Christine Mason Sutherland, "Aspiring to the Rhetorical Tradition: A Study of Margaret Cavendish", in Listening to Their Voices, ed. M. Wertheimer, 255–71. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1997 *Christine Mason Sutherland, "Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle". The Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 281: British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500–1660, Second Series, 36–47. Detroit: Gale, 2003 *Sophie Tomlinson, "'My Brain the Stage': Margaret Cavendish and the Fantasy of Female Performance". Women's Texts and Histories 1575–1760. Ed. Clare Brant and Diane Purkiss. London: Routledge, 1992. 134–163 *Valerie Traub, The Renaissance of Lesbianism in Early Modern England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002 *Marion Wynne-Davies, '"Fornication in My Owne Defence': Rape, Theft and Assault Discourses in Margaret Cavendish's The Sociable Companion". Expanding the Canon of Early Modern Women's Writing. Ed. Paul Salzman. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010. 14–48 ==External links== *Cavendish: A Scholarly Collaboration *Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673), Project Vox *Cunning, David, "Margaret Lucas Cavendish", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy *The International Margaret Cavendish Society * * * *Essays by Margaret Cavendish at Quotidiana.org *Biography of Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle, with links to online catalogues, on the website of Manuscripts and Special Collections, The University of Nottingham *Cavendish plays online *Margaret Cavendish: bibliographical and biographical references. - Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists Category:1623 births Category:1673 deaths Category:17th-century English women writers Category:17th-century English writers Category:17th-century English novelists Category:17th-century philosophers Category:17th-century English scientists Category:17th-century women scientists Category:People associated with animal welfare and rights Margaret Cavendish Margaret Newcastle Category:English women philosophers Category:English essayists Category:English philosophers Category:English dramatists and playwrights Category:English science fiction writers Category:English women poets Category:English women dramatists and playwrights Category:Rhetoricians Category:Women science fiction and fantasy writers Category:British women essayists Category:Household of Henrietta Maria Category:People from Colchester Category:People from Essex Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey Category:Wives of knights |
Leslie Mark Hughes (born 1 November 1963) is a Welsh football coach and former player who is the manager of Bradford City. During his playing career he usually operated as a forward or midfielder. He had two spells at Manchester United, and also played for Barcelona and Bayern Munich, as well as the English clubs Chelsea, Southampton, Everton and finally Blackburn Rovers. He made 72 appearances for Wales scoring 16 goals. He won a host of winners' medals during his playing career, including two Premier League titles, four FA Cups, three League Cups and two UEFA Cup Winners' Cups. He also collected an FA Cup runners-up medal and a League Cup runners-up medal. Hughes was the first player to win the PFA Players' Player of the Year award twice, in 1989 and 1991. He retired from playing in 2002. Hughes was appointed manager of Wales in 1999 and remained in the role until 2004. He failed to qualify for a World Cup or European Championship during his five years in charge, although his reign coincided with a marked improvement in results. Wales came particularly close to securing 2004 European Championship qualification. Hughes then spent four years in charge of Blackburn, guiding them to sixth place in 2005–06. He took charge of Manchester City in June 2008 for a year and a half before spending the 2010–11 season at Fulham. He joined Queens Park Rangers in January 2012, helping them retain their Premier League status in 2011–12. Despite some high-profile signings in the summer of 2012, QPR began the 2012–13 season in very poor form, and Hughes was dismissed on 23 November 2012. Hughes was appointed manager of Stoke City on 30 May 2013. He guided the club to three consecutive ninth-place Premier League finishes in 2013–14, 2014–15 and 2015–16. Progress at Stoke stalled in the 2016–17 season, with the club finishing 13th in the table. Following a poor start to the 2017–18 season, with the club in the relegation zone heading into the new year, he was dismissed by Stoke on 6 January 2018, hours after an FA Cup third round exit to League Two side Coventry City. He was appointed manager of Southampton on 14 March 2018, signing a contract until the end of the season, with Southampton one point above his former club Stoke in 17th place at the time of his appointment. He guided the club to safety at the end of the 2017–18 season, but was dismissed in December 2018 with the club at 18th in the table. ==Club career== ===Manchester United=== Born in Ruabon, Wrexham, Hughes joined Manchester United after leaving school in the summer of 1980, having been spotted by the team's North Wales talent scout Hugh Roberts. However, he did not make his first team debut for three years – scoring in a 1–1 draw away to Oxford United in the League Cup, in the 1983–84 season. When Hughes made his United debut, the club's forward partnership consisted of 27-year-old Irishman Frank Stapleton and 18-year-old Norman Whiteside from Northern Ireland, and breaking up that partnership would not be an easy challenge for Hughes. But Hughes quickly broke into the first team, partnering Frank Stapleton in attack while Norman Whiteside was switched to midfield to partner Ray Wilkins and stand in for the injury prone Remi Moses. The departure of Wilkins to Milan at the end of the season saw manager Ron Atkinson decide to stick to using Whiteside in the centre of midfield, enabling Hughes to keep his place in the first team ahead of new signing Alan Brazil, and he was rewarded handsomely as he scored 25 goals in 55 matches across all competitions as United achieved an FA Cup final victory over Everton. They also finished fourth in the league. Hughes managed a further 18 goals in the 1985–86 season, where they led until February having won their first ten league matches of the season, before a dismal second half of the season saw them slip into fourth place in the final table. That season saw him score 17 goals in the Football League First Division – it would remain the highest goals tally in a league season throughout his career. ===Barcelona=== In the summer of 1986, Hughes was sold to Barcelona for £2 million. United announced on 21 March 1986 that Hughes would be heading for Spain at the end of the season, but the transfer had been agreed many weeks earlier. Manager Terry Venables signed Hughes at the same time that he signed Gary Lineker from Everton to form a new strike partnership at the Camp Nou, but Hughes was a disappointment in his only season at Barcelona, whereas Lineker did well in three seasons there. ====Bayern Munich (loan)==== He was subsequently loaned out to West German club Bayern Munich for the 1987–88 season, where he regained his form. On 11 November 1987, he played two competitive matches in one day, first for Wales against Czechoslovakia in Prague in a Euro 1988 qualifier, and second, after being flown across the border into West Germany, appearing as a substitute for Bayern in their second round cup replay over Borussia Mönchengladbach. ===Return to Manchester United=== In May 1988, Hughes returned to Manchester United, managed by Sir Alex Ferguson, for a then club record fee of £1.8 million. As he had done in his first spell at Old Trafford, Hughes proved to be a dynamic goalscorer and was a key player for the club over the next seven years. Alex Ferguson had been keen on re-signing Hughes for United soon after becoming manager in November 1986, but Hughes would have been liable for taxation on money earned playing overseas if he had returned to England before April 1988. In 1988–89, his first season back in England, United disappointed in the league and finished 11th after an erratic season. They had gone ten league matches without a win in the autumn but then went on a strong run after the turn of the new year to lift them to third place, only for a late season collapse to drag them down to mid-table. Hughes was voted PFA Player of the Year, the first Manchester United player to be credited with that award, in its 16th season. He was also United's joint top scorer that season, along with Brian McClair, on 16 goals. A year later, Hughes scored twice as United drew 3–3 with Crystal Palace in the FA Cup final, before a Lee Martin goal in the replay gave United their first major trophy in five years. He was United's top goalscorer that season, scoring 15 goals in all competitions; 13 of his goals had come in the league, where United finished a disappointing 13th. He scored his third United hat-trick in a September clash against Millwall in the league at Old Trafford, which United won 5–1. The following season, Hughes scored both goals against former club Barcelona as United lifted the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, winning the final 2–1 in Rotterdam. Once again, he was their top scorer, this time with 21 goals in all competitions, although his tally in the league was bettered by Brian McClair and Steve Bruce. They also reached the Football League Cup final that year, but United suffered a shock 1–0 defeat to a Sheffield Wednesday side managed by Ron Atkinson, who had been Hughes's manager in his first spell at Old Trafford. Hughes was also voted PFA Player of the Year again this season. The 1990–91 season also saw Hughes score the last of his four hat-tricks for United, in a League Cup quarter-final replay against Southampton at Old Trafford, which United won 3–2. In 1991–92, Hughes suffered the disappointment of missing out on a league title medal as United were pipped to the title by Leeds United, but had some compensation in the form of a League Cup winner's medal. He found the net 11 times in the league and 14 times in all competitions. For much of the 1991–92 season, United had been linked with a move for the Southampton striker Alan Shearer, but the player chose to stay at the South Coast club until the season's end before making a decision about his future, before deciding to sign for Blackburn Rovers. Sir Alex Ferguson remained intent on signing a new striker for United that summer, although it was far from clear whether it was Hughes or his strike-partner Brian McClair who would lose his place in the first team or be switched to another position in order to accommodate a new signing. Ferguson's hunt for a new striker ended with the acquisition of Dion Dublin, although Dublin was injured after playing just a few matches for the club, and it was not long before United were in the hunt for another new striker, as a lack of goals were seeing them slip behind in the title race. Eric Cantona was eventually signed at the end of November, which prompted interest from Newcastle United manager Kevin Keegan, who had first asked Ferguson about Hughes's availability that summer. Ferguson, however, insisted that Hughes was not for sale, and he remained a regular choice in the first team, playing alongside Cantona while McClair was mostly selected in central midfield from then on. In May 1993, Hughes finally collected an English league title medal as United won the first-ever Premier League title; Hughes was United's top scorer with 15 goals in the league and a further goal in the League Cup. From December, he mostly played alongside new signing Eric Cantona in attack, with Brian McClair being switched to the centre of midfield. Hughes collected yet more silverware in 1994 as United won the league title as well as the FA Cup, with Hughes scoring in the final. He also scored Manchester United's consolation goal in their 3–1 defeat in the 1994 League Cup Final at the hands of Aston Villa at Wembley in that season. In so doing, he became only the second player (after Norman Whiteside in 1983) to score in the finals of both the domestic cups in the same season. This has since been achieved a third time by Didier Drogba in 2007. His partnership with Cantona in attack also went from strength to strength, as he found the net 22 times in all competitions as Cantona scored a further 25. In December 1994, with United second to Blackburn in the race for the league title, media reports were linking United with the signature of several highly rated strikers including Andy Cole and Stan Collymore, and there had already been some impressive performances in the first team from 20-year-old striker Paul Scholes. Hughes was now widely tipped to be the player most likely to lose his place to any new signing in the forward positions, and when United completed the £7 million signing of Cole on 10 January 1995, it was almost immediately reported that new Everton manager Joe Royle was tabling a £2.5 million bid for Hughes. Four days later, however, Hughes suffered a knee injury early in a match against Newcastle, colliding with opposition goalkeeper Pavel Srníček as he scored a goal. The injury was initially feared to be cruciate knee ligament damage, which would inevitably have put him out of action for at least the rest of the season, but it was instead revealed to be a serious gash, and he was back in action within a month, during which time United were left without the services of Eric Cantona, who attacked a Crystal Palace fan and was subsequently banned for eight months. Hughes now found himself with his first team place still looking secure, at least in the short term, and in partnership with Andy Cole. He even signed a new two-year contract. Hughes came close to winning both the Premier League and FA Cup again in 1995, but a failure to beat West Ham United on the final day of the season and the inability to score an equaliser against Everton in the FA Cup final a week later condemned United to their first trophyless season in six years. The FA Cup final was his last match in a United shirt. He had scored eight goals that season and 12 in all competitions. During two spells at the club, he had found the net a total of 163 times (116 of his goals coming during his second spell). Perhaps the most memorable of those goals came in April 1994, when he scored a spectacular equaliser in the final minute of extra time in the FA Cup semi-final against Oldham Athletic at Wembley. Hughes scored eight league goals in 1994–95 (two of them in the 9–0 defeat of Ipswich Town at Old Trafford on 4 March 1995) and managed a total of 12 in all competitions (two in the FA Cup and another two in the European Cup). By the time of his departure from Manchester United, he was the last player at the club to have been there before the appointment of Sir Alex Ferguson as manager in November 1986, albeit having left for Barcelona before Ferguson was hired and then returning two years into his stint as manager. ===Chelsea=== Hughes left Old Trafford for the second and final time in June 1995 when he was sold to Chelsea for £1 million, in a summer that also saw the departures of players such as Paul Ince (to Inter Milan) and Andrei Kanchelskis (to Everton). Ironically, Hughes scored a consolation goal for Chelsea in the home Premier League fixture against Manchester United in 1995–96; a 4–1 win for United at Stamford Bridge in October. He was on the losing side again as United beat Chelsea 2–1 in the FA Cup semi-final that season, less than two years after he had scored one of United's goals in their FA Cup final triumph over Chelsea. Hughes was one of the key players in Chelsea's resurgence as a top club in the late 1990s, forming a potent strike partnership with Gianfranco Zola and helping to freeze out Gianluca Vialli (who became the club's player-manager in February 1998). He put in match-winning performances against Liverpool and Wimbledon in the FA Cup in 1997, and Vicenza in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup a year later, playing a big part in Chelsea's glory in both of these competitions. In winning the FA Cup, he became the only player in the 20th century to win the trophy four times. He ended his Chelsea career with 39 goals from 123 matches and was transferred to Southampton for £650,000 in July 1998. ===Southampton=== In July 1998, Hughes was signed by Southampton for a fee of £650,000 by manager Dave Jones, as an alternative to injury-plagued David Hirst, who retired within 18 months of Hughes's arrival. The goals failed to flow and Hughes was pushed back into midfield, where his experience helped Southampton maintain their Premier League status. His two goals for Southampton came against Blackburn Rovers, who he was later to join, and a "memorable volley" at home to Newcastle on 15 August 1999. Hughes had disciplinary problems throughout his career, and in his first season at The Dell he received 14 yellow cards, a total which has not been exceeded in the Premier League . ===Everton=== When Glenn Hoddle arrived as Southampton's manager in January 2000, Hughes did not fit into his plans and he left for Everton in March 2000. He played 16 times over the course of seven months for Everton, scoring his only goal against Watford. ===Blackburn Rovers=== Hughes left Goodison Park on a free transfer for Blackburn Rovers in October 2000, moving outside the top division for the first time in his playing career in 2000–01. He played a key role in getting Blackburn promoted from Division One in 2001. He also lifted the League Cup with Blackburn in February 2002, before finally hanging up his boots in July 2002 a few months short of his 39th birthday. Hughes's final career goal came in a 2–1 Premier League defeat to Leicester City on 30 March 2002. At the time, he was the second oldest player to score in the Premier League, behind Stuart Pearce. More than a decade on he is still ranked as third in this category following goals by Teddy Sheringham, who scored his final Premier League goal in December 2006 at the age of 40. ==International career== Hughes scored just 17 minutes into his Wales debut, scoring the winning goal against England on 2 May 1984. He went on to play 72 times for his country, scoring 16 times. ==Managerial career== ===Wales=== Hughes was appointed as head coach of the Wales national team in 1999, while still playing elite club football for a few more seasons. Initially appointed on a temporary basis alongside Neville Southall to replace Bobby Gould, Hughes had soon done enough to earn himself a long-term contract, with Southall eventually leaving the set-up. When he took over, Wales were going through a bad patch but in the five years with Hughes in charge, Wales came close to qualifying for UEFA Euro 2004. In their Euro 2004 qualifying group, Wales ended up second, beating Italy 2–1 in Cardiff in the process, but was denied a place in the final tournament after losing to Russia in the playoffs. ===Blackburn Rovers=== Hughes quit the Welsh national side in September 2004 to take charge of Blackburn in the FA Premier League, the last club he had played for. His key aim was to keep Blackburn clear of relegation, which he succeeded in doing, while also taking the club to an FA Cup semi-final for the first time in over 40 years. In his second season, he helped Blackburn finish inside the top six of the Premier League and subsequently qualify for the UEFA Cup, beating teams such as Chelsea, Manchester United (twice) and Arsenal en route. After just missing out on the League Cup final, his team sealed their spot in Europe by defeating champions Chelsea 1–0 at home. On 4 May 2006, Hughes and assistant Mark Bowen signed new three-year contracts to remain at Blackburn until the summer of 2009. Hughes then set about creating a formidable side at Ewood Park. He entered the transfer market, bringing in players such as Benni McCarthy (£2 million), David Bentley (£500,000), Ryan Nelsen (free), Stephen Warnock (£1.5 million), Roque Santa Cruz (£3.5 million), and Christopher Samba (£400,000). Rovers finished tenth in the Premier League in 2006–07, and reached the UEFA Cup round of 32, where they were knocked out by Bayer Leverkusen 3–2 on aggregate. Rovers faced Chelsea in the FA Cup semi-final, their third consecutive semi- final since Hughes took charge. The match ended in defeat, 2–1. He won the Premier League Manager of the Month award for October 2007, and eventually led Blackburn to a league finish of seventh in 2007–08, Hughes's final season in charge at Ewood Park. During his spell in charge of Blackburn, Hughes's side was accused of being "over-physical" and "dirty" on multiple occasions and the club finished bottom of the Premier League disciplinary table in all four of Hughes's seasons in charge. ===Manchester City=== On 2 June 2008, Manchester City sacked manager Sven-Göran Eriksson. Interest was also reported from Chelsea, however, who had recently sacked their manager, Avram Grant. Blackburn confirmed on 2 June that they had agreed to allow Hughes to talk to City. The following day, Blackburn agreed to a then-world record compensation package for Hughes to take over as manager of Manchester City, and he was appointed as head coach on 4 June 2008 on a three-year contract. Following the appointment, Manchester City's executive chairman Garry Cook stated, "The Club intends to invest in new players as well as securing the long term services of key members of the current first team squad. Mark has already identified some of the players and backroom staff that he wants to see here at City, and we will begin the process of recruiting them immediately." The players who did arrive were Jô, Tal Ben Haim, Vincent Kompany, Shaun Wright-Phillips (returning from Chelsea) and Pablo Zabaleta. Hughes's first match in charge resulted in a 4–2 loss to Aston Villa at Villa Park but was followed up with 3–0 wins against West Ham and Sunderland. On 1 September 2008, Manchester City were taken over by the Abu Dhabi United investment group, who made large amounts of transfer funds available to Hughes, allowing City to break the British transfer record and sign Robinho from Real Madrid for £32.5 million. Hughes was very active in the January 2009 transfer window, signing Wayne Bridge from Chelsea, Craig Bellamy from West Ham and Shay Given from Newcastle, as well as Nigel de Jong from Hamburger SV. City finished tenth in Hughes's first season with the club, as well as reaching the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup. City's home form was among the best in the League, but their away form was among the worst. In the summer of 2009, Hughes added Gareth Barry from Aston Villa, Roque Santa Cruz from Blackburn, and Emmanuel Adebayor and Kolo Touré from Arsenal to his squad, while Carlos Tevez also joined after his two-year deal with Manchester United expired. In addition, Hughes signed defenders Joleon Lescott from Everton for a reported £22 million, and Sylvinho – a former Arsenal and double Champions League winner with Barcelona – on a free transfer. Hughes started the 2009–10 Premier League campaign with a 2–0 away win at former club Blackburn, followed by a 1–0 win over another former club, Barcelona, in the Joan Gamper Trophy at a capacity Camp Nou. City then won 1–0 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers at Eastlands, followed by Crystal Palace in the League Cup 2–0 and Portsmouth 1–0 to maintain a 100% clean sheet start to the season. City continued in good form, beating Arsenal 4–2 and West Ham 3–1 either side of a 4–3 derby day defeat to Manchester United. City would then, however, go on a run of seven-straight draws. Manchester City beat Scunthorpe United 5–1 and Arsenal 3–0 in the League Cup to reach their first semi-final since 1981. Hughes then led City to their first victory over his former club Chelsea for five years with a 2–1 victory. That last victory was one of only two wins in 11 successive Premier League matches, and Hughes left City before their League Cup two-legged semi-final against Manchester United; he was sacked on 19 December 2009 and replaced by Roberto Mancini. ===Fulham=== On 29 July 2010, Hughes became the new manager of Fulham, following the departure of Roy Hodgson to Liverpool. Hughes agreed a two-year contract with the London side and was officially unveiled to the media on 3 August 2010, before his first match as manager on 7 August against Werder Bremen. Hughes was joined at Fulham by his backroom team of Eddie Niedzwiecki, Mark Bowen and Kevin Hitchcock. His first league match in charge of the Cottagers came exactly a week later, when they drew 0–0 at Bolton Wanderers on the opening day of the Premier League season, followed by a resolute display against Manchester United in a 2–2 draw at Craven Cottage. Draws followed in four of Fulham's next five Premier League matches against Blackpool, Blackburn Rovers, Everton and West Ham, with a solitary 2–1 home win over Wolves. This meant that at that stage – including the seven-draw streak at Manchester City before his dismissal the season before – all but two (86%) of Hughes's last fifteen Premiership matches had been drawn. The bizarre run, exclusively made up of draws or 2–1 results, continued with 2–1 defeats to Tottenham Hotspur and West Bromwich Albion in the second half of October 2010. At the end of the 2010–11 season, Hughes led Fulham to an eighth-placed finish in the league and UEFA Europa League qualification through the Fair Play league. Hughes resigned as manager of Fulham on 2 June 2011, having spent less than 11 months at the club. Following his departure, he said, "As a young, ambitious manager I wish to move on to further my experiences." Fulham owner Mohamed Al-Fayed hit back at Hughes for questioning the club's ambition, calling him a "strange man" and a "flop" and said he rescued him from becoming a forgotten man after being sacked by Manchester City. In September 2013, Hughes said he made a mistake in leaving Fulham when he did. ===Queens Park Rangers=== On 10 January 2012, Hughes agreed terms with Queens Park Rangers and signed a two-and-a-half-year contract as their new manager, replacing the recently sacked Neil Warnock. Hughes's first match in charge of QPR came on 15 January 2012, a 1–0 defeat away to Newcastle. Hughes's first win as QPR manager came on 17 January 2012, a 1–0 victory over Milton Keynes Dons in a FA Cup third round replay at Loftus Road. His first Premier League victory was on 21 January 2012, QPR beating Wigan Athletic 3–1 at home. In January 2012, Hughes brought in two defenders in Nedum Onuoha and Taye Taiwo and two strikers in Djibril Cissé and Bobby Zamora. Cissé made an immediate impact scoring on his debut against Aston Villa. Defeats against Wolves, Blackburn and Fulham, however, prevented QPR from pulling themselves away from relegation trouble. Victories over Liverpool, Arsenal, Stoke City, Swansea City and Tottenham meant that they went into the final match of the season two points ahead of Bolton. They faced Hughes's former club Manchester City at the City of Manchester Stadium, who needed a win to secure the Premier League title. Despite scoring twice through Cissé and Jamie Mackie, two late goals from Edin Džeko and Sergio Agüero earned City a dramatic victory and championship title. Bolton's failure to beat Stoke, however, meant that QPR survived in the Premier League. In the summer of 2012, QPR brought in a large number of high-profile signings with the intent of establishing themselves as a Premier League club. In came Ryan Nelsen, Andrew Johnson, Robert Green, Samba Diakité, Fábio, Park Ji-sung and Junior Hoilett all before the start of the season. Rangers' new-look squad, however, got off to an awful start as they crashed to a 5–0 home defeat against Swansea on the opening day of the 2012–13 Premier League season. Hughes branded his players performance as "embarrassing". Hughes then signed José Bosingwa, Júlio César and Esteban Granero but saw no improvement in results, going 12 matches without victory. He was sacked as manager on 23 November 2012 after the team suffered a 3–1 home defeat to Southampton six days earlier and replaced by Harry Redknapp. ===Stoke City=== ====2013–14==== Hughes was appointed manager of Stoke City on 30 May 2013, signing a three- year contract after taking over from fellow Welshman Tony Pulis. Speaking after being announced as Stoke's new manager, Hughes admitted that he had a point to prove following his disappointing spell at QPR. Hughes's first task was to release Rory Delap, Mamady Sidibe, Matthew Upson, Dean Whitehead, Carlo Nash and Matty Lund, at the same time giving Jermaine Pennant a new contract. He made his first signing on 28 June 2013 in Dutch international left-back Erik Pieters from PSV for a fee of €3.6 million (£3 million). Hughes's first match in charge of Stoke on 17 August 2013 ended in a 1–0 defeat at Liverpool. Hughes's first win as Stoke manager came in his next match as Stoke beat Crystal Palace 2–1 at the Britannia Stadium. This was followed up by a 1–0 win away at West Ham. On 2 September 2013, transfer deadline day, Hughes brought in Austrian forward Marko Arnautović from Werder Bremen and Stephen Ireland on loan from Aston Villa. Meanwhile, Michael Kightly, Cameron Jerome and Ryan Shotton all departed the club on long-term loans. Stoke soon lost their early form, however, and went through September and October without a Premier League win, picking up just two points and scoring only three goals. Stoke improved in November and December, going a run of one defeat in seven matches, including a 3–2 win over Chelsea on 7 December 2013. December ended badly for Stoke and Hughes, however, as they were on the receiving end of a 5–1 defeat at Newcastle in which Stoke were reduced to nine men and Hughes himself was sent off. Stoke went through January 2014 in poor form and managed to pick up just a point and a 1–0 defeat at Sunderland on 29 January, leaving the club just above the relegation zone. The one piece of transfer activity Hughes did was to swap Kenwyne Jones for Peter Odemwingie in a player-exchange deal with Cardiff City. The arrival of Odemwingie enabled Hughes to alter his tactics and formation and it immediately paid off with a 2–1 victory over Manchester United. Stoke's form continued to improve and they went through March unbeaten with wins over Arsenal, West Ham, Aston Villa and Hull City. Stoke proceeded to end the season strongly with wins over Newcastle, Fulham and a 2–1 win against West Brom on the final day of the season, which saw Stoke finish in ninth position, their best finish since 1974–75. ====2014–15==== For the 2014–15 season, Hughes signed Sunderland full-back Phil Bardsley, Fulham midfielder Steve Sidwell and Senegalese striker Mame Biram Diouf on free transfers. Also arriving for small fees were Slovakian defender Dionatan Teixeira and Barcelona forward Bojan, while wingers Victor Moses and Oussama Assaidi joined on season-long loans. Departing were Matthew Etherington, Michael Kightly, Cameron Jerome and Ryan Shotton. Stoke had a mixed start to the 2014–15 season, losing 1–0 to Aston Villa on the opening day, drawing 1–1 with ten-men Hull City, yet defeating reigning Premier League champions Manchester City 1–0. Stoke's inconsistency continued through the autumn as Stoke managed just three wins beating Newcastle, Swansea and Tottenham. The club then suffered frustrating home defeats against newly promoted Burnley and Leicester City. Stoke found form in December beating Arsenal 3–2, Everton 1–0 and West Brom 2–0. In January 2015, Hughes began talks with the Stoke board of directors about extending his contract with the club. Hughes's only new arrival in January was that of German centre back Philipp Wollscheid from Bayer Leverkusen. Stoke suffered a number in injuries to key players in January and February, most notably to Shawcross and Bojan. In February, Stoke suffered back to back 4–1 defeats against Manchester City and then in the FA Cup against Blackburn. Hughes signed a new contract with Stoke in March 2015 to keep him contracted until the summer of 2019. City then went a run of three wins against Aston Villa, Hull and Everton and then three defeats against West Brom, Crystal Palace and Chelsea. Stoke ended the season strongly with victories over Southampton (2–1), Tottenham (3–0) and Liverpool (6–1), ensuring a second consecutive ninth-place finish. ====2015–16==== Hughes made a number of alterations to his squad in preparation for the 2015–16 campaign. Leaving the club were the long-serving trio of Asmir Begović, Robert Huth and Steven Nzonzi, with Stoke receiving their record transfer fee in the process. With the money available, Hughes broke Stoke's transfer record by paying Inter Milan £12 million for Swiss winger Xherdan Shaqiri. Hughes also brought in Spanish striker Joselu for £5.75 million, Dutch midfielder Ibrahim Afellay, Shay Given, Jakob Haugaard, Glen Johnson and Marco van Ginkel. The club had a poor start to the season, failing to win any of their first six fixtures, losing three of them. Stoke recovered well, however, winning their next three matches against AFC Bournemouth, Aston Villa and Swansea. Stoke's improvement continued through November and December with victories against Premier League champions Chelsea, Southampton, Manchester City and Manchester United; the team's style of football was praised by the national press. Stoke ended 2015 with a dramatic 4–3 win away at Everton, while they also reached the semi- final of the League Cup after defeating Luton Town, Fulham, Chelsea and Sheffield Wednesday en route. Stoke started 2016 poorly, falling to West Brom and then Liverpool in the first leg of the League Cup semi-final. The club endured a tough final week of January as they lost 3–0 to both Leicester and Manchester United and were knocked out of the League Cup by Liverpool after losing on penalties, and were also ousted from the FA Cup by Crystal Palace. In the January transfer window, Hughes let Steve Sidwell leave as well as cutting short Marco van Ginkel's loan, while he broke the club's transfer record he had set in the summer after signing French midfielder Giannelli Imbula from Porto for a fee of £18.3 million. Stoke's form improved in February and March as they defeated Bournemouth, Aston Villa, Newcastle, Watford and earned a first Premier League draw at Chelsea. Following a season- ending injury to goalkeeper Jack Butland while on international duty, however, Stoke lost their defensive organisation: They let a 2–0 lead slip against Swansea to draw 2–2 and then went and conceded four goals in three successive matches, against Liverpool, Tottenham and Manchester City. Hughes's team were able to end the season on a positive as they beat West Ham 2–1 on the final day of the season, enough to secure a third-straight ninth-place finish. ====2016–17==== Hughes spent £18 million in July 2016 to bring in Welsh midfielder Joe Allen and Egyptian winger Ramadan Sobhi, while defender Bruno Martins Indi and striker Wilfried Bony both joined on season-long loans on 31 August 2016 from Porto and Manchester City respectively. Departing the club were Joselu, Philipp Wollscheid and long-serving defender Marc Wilson, who left for Bournemouth after criticizing Hughes's defensive training on social media. Stoke began the 2016–17 season in poor form, drawing 1–1 away at Middlesbrough, then losing 4–1 to Manchester City, 1–0 to Everton and 4–0 to Tottenham, and 4–1 to Crystal Palace with chairman Peter Coates heavily criticising the team's performances. Results improved in October and November and by December Stoke had moved back into a mid-table position. However Stoke picked up just two points over the Christmas period and Hughes came under strong criticism from supporters after his side lost a 2–0 lead against 10-man Leicester City. In the January transfer window, Hughes brought in long term transfer target Saido Berahino from West Brom. Performances until the end of the season were underwhelming with six wins from 19, with Stoke securing their Premier League status with two matches remaining. A 1–0 win against Southampton on the final day of the season, meant that Stoke ended the campaign in 13th place, their lowest finish under Hughes. ====2017–18==== Stoke made a poor start to the new season. Hughes came under intense scrutiny by supporters throughout the season, particularly after a 5–0 thumping by Chelsea, where Hughes rested several first team regulars to prepare for a home match against Newcastle United; Stoke also lost this game, resulting in calls for him to be sacked. By January, Stoke had won only 5 of 22 games, occupying a place in the relegation zone with 20 points. Stoke's run of poor form included a demoralising 3–0 home defeat to West Ham United, where former player Marko Arnautović scored and celebrated in front of the home fans after having been sold in the summer, as well as several heavy defeats to clubs challenging for the top six positions, including a 7–2 away defeat to Manchester City and a 5–1 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur. After a 2–1 defeat in the FA Cup to League Two side Coventry City on 6 January 2018, Hughes was sacked. Stoke had the worst defensive record in the Premier League at the time of his sacking, having conceded a total of 47 goals, nine more than West Ham who had the second-worst record. This was in spite of several defensive signings being made in the summer of 2017, including the £18 million signing of Kevin Wimmer from Tottenham Hotspur, the £7 million permanent signing of Bruno Martins Indi, and the season-long loan of Chelsea defender Kurt Zouma. ===Southampton=== On 14 March 2018, Hughes succeeded Mauricio Pellegrino as manager of relegation-threatened Premier League club Southampton, signing a short-term contract for the remainder of the 2017–18 season. His first game was a 2–0 win at Wigan Athletic in an FA Cup quarter final. On 25 May 2018, after a season that saw the Saints retain their Premier League status, the club announced that Hughes had signed a new three-year contract. His assistants, Mark Bowen and Eddie Niedzwiecki, also signed long-term contracts with the club. Despite a number of positive signings in the summer transfer window, Southampton made a poor start to the 2018–19 season and on 2 December 2018, with the club 18th in the table, Hughes was dismissed. He was replaced by former RB Leipzig boss Ralph Hasenhüttl. ===Bradford City=== On 24 February 2022, Hughes was appointed manager of Bradford City on a deal until the summer of 2024. This was the first time he had managed a club outside the Premier League. Hughes was nominated for the League Two Manager of the Month award for September 2022 after Bradford went unbeaten in four matches. ==Personal life== Throughout his career, Hughes has been known by the nickname "Sparky" which he took from the comic of the same name. Hughes grew up supporting his hometown club, Wrexham. He was awarded an OBE in 2004. Hughes has two sons, Alex and Curtis, and a daughter, Xenna, who plays hockey for Wales. Hughes wrote his autobiography in 1990 entitled Sparky – Barcelona, Bayern and Back. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Sources: Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League National Cup League Cup Europe Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Manchester United 1983–84 First Division 11 4 0 0 2 1 4 0 0 0 17 5 1984–85 First Division 38 16 7 3 2 3 8 2 0 0 55 24 1985–86 First Division 40 17 3 1 2 0 0 0 4 0 49 18 Total 89 37 10 4 6 4 12 2 4 0 121 47 Barcelona 1986–87 La Liga 28 4 2 0 — 7 1 0 0 36 5 Bayern Munich (loan) 1987–88 Bundesliga 18 6 3 1 — 2 0 0 0 23 7 Manchester United 1988–89 First Division 38 14 7 2 3 0 0 0 3 0 51 16 1989–90 First Division 37 13 8 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 48 15 1990–91 First Division 31 10 3 2 9 6 8 3 1 0 52 21 1991–92 First Division 39 11 3 1 6 0 4 2 1 0 53 14 1992–93 Premier League 41 15 2 0 3 1 2 0 0 0 48 16 1993–94 Premier League 36 12 7 4 8 5 2 0 1 1 54 22 1994–95 Premier League 34 8 6 2 0 0 5 2 1 0 46 12 Total 256 83 36 13 32 12 21 7 7 1 352 116 Chelsea 1995–96 Premier League 31 8 6 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 39 12 1996–97 Premier League 35 8 7 5 2 1 0 0 0 0 44 14 1997–98 Premier League 29 9 1 0 6 2 3 1 1 1 40 13 Total 95 25 14 9 10 3 3 1 1 1 123 39 Southampton 1998–99 Premier League 32 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 36 1 1999–2000 Premier League 20 1 2 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 25 1 Total 52 2 4 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 61 2 Everton 1999–2000 Premier League 9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 1 2000–01 Premier League 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 Total 18 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 19 1 Blackburn Rovers 2000–01 First Division 29 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 5 2001–02 Premier League 21 1 3 0 6 1 0 0 0 0 30 2 Total 50 6 8 0 6 1 0 0 0 0 64 7 Career total 606 164 77 27 60 20 45 11 12 2 799 224 :A. The "Other" column constitutes appearances and goals in the European Super Cup, FA Charity Shield, Football League Centenary Trophy and Football League Super Cup. ===International=== Sources: Appearances and goals by national team and year National team Year Apps Goals Wales Wales 1984 5 3 Wales 1985 6 3 Wales 1986 1 0 Wales 1987 5 1 Wales 1988 5 1 Wales 1989 5 0 Wales 1990 4 1 Wales 1991 7 0 Wales 1992 8 1 Wales 1993 6 2 Wales 1994 3 0 Wales 1995 3 0 Wales 1996 5 4 Wales 1997 3 0 Wales 1998 3 0 Wales 1999 3 0 Total Total 72 16 :Wales score listed first, score column indicates score after each Hughes goal. List of international goals scored by Mark Hughes No. Date Venue Opponent Score Result Competition 1 2 May 1984 Racecourse Ground, Wrexham, Wales 1–0 1–0 1983–84 British Home Championship 2 22 May 1984 Vetch Field, Swansea, Wales 1–0 1–1 1983–84 British Home Championship 3 14 November 1984 Ninian Park, Cardiff, Wales 2–1 2–1 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification 4 30 April 1985 Racecourse Ground, Wrexham, Wales 2–0 3–0 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification 5 5 June 1985 Brann Stadion, Bergen, Norway 2–4 2–4 Friendly 6 10 September 1985 Ninian Park, Cardiff, Wales 1–0 1–1 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification 7 9 September 1987 Ninian Park, Cardiff, Wales 1–0 1–0 UEFA Euro 1988 qualification 8 1 June 1988 Ta' Qali National Stadium, Valletta, Malta 2–2 3–2 Friendly 9 17 October 1990 Ninian Park, Cardiff, Wales 3–1 3–1 UEFA Euro 1992 qualification 10 14 October 1992 Tsirion Stadium, Limassol, Cyprus 1–0 1–0 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification 11 17 February 1993 Tolka Park, Dublin, Republic of Ireland 1–0 1–2 Friendly 12 28 April 1993 Bazaly, Ostrava, Czech Republic 1–0 1–1 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification 13 2 June 1996 Stadio Olimpico, Serravalle, San Marino 2–0 5–0 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification 14 2 June 1996 Stadio Olimpico, Serravalle, San Marino 3–0 5–0 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification 15 31 August 1996 Cardiff Arms Park, Cardiff, Wales 2–0 6–0 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification 16 31 August 1996 Cardiff Arms Park, Cardiff, Wales 5–0 6–0 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification ==Managerial statistics== Managerial record and tenure by team Team From To Record Record Record Record Record Team From To Wales 3 August 1999 13 October 2004 Blackburn Rovers 15 September 2004 4 June 2008 Manchester City 4 June 2008 19 December 2009 Fulham 29 July 2010 2 June 2011 Queens Park Rangers 10 January 2012 23 November 2012 Stoke City 30 May 2013 6 January 2018 Southampton 14 March 2018 3 December 2018 Bradford City 24 February 2022 Present Total Total Total ==Honours== ===Player=== Manchester United * Premier League: 1992–93, 1993–94 * FA Cup: 1984–85, 1989–90, 1993–94 * Football League Cup: 1991–92 * FA Charity Shield: 1990 (shared), 1993, 1994 * European Cup Winners' Cup: 1990–91 * European Super Cup: 1991 Chelsea * FA Cup: 1996–97 * Football League Cup: 1997–98 * UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1997–98 Blackburn Rovers * Football League Cup: 2001–02 * Football League First Division runner-up: 2000–01 Individual * PFA Young Player of the Year: 1984–85 * PFA Players' Player of the Year: 1988–89, 1990–91 * PFA First Division Team of the Year: 1985–86, 1988–89, 1990–91, 1991–92 * Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year: 1990–91 *Welsh Footballer of the Year: 1993, 1994 *Chelsea Player of the Year: 1996–97 * Inducted into English Football Hall of Fame * BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year: 2002 ===Manager=== Individual *Premier League Manager of the Month: October 2007 ==References== ==External links== *Premier League profile * * Category:1963 births Category:Living people Category:People from Ruabon Category:Sportspeople from Wrexham County Borough Category:Welsh footballers Category:Welsh expatriate footballers Category:Men's association football forwards Category:Wales men's international footballers Category:Premier League players Category:English Football League players Category:Expatriate footballers in West Germany Category:Welsh expatriate sportspeople in West Germany Category:FC Bayern Munich footballers Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. players Category:Chelsea F.C. players Category:Everton F.C. players Category:Manchester United F.C. players Category:Southampton F.C. players Category:FC Barcelona players Category:Expatriate footballers in Spain Category:Welsh expatriate sportspeople in Spain Category:Welsh football managers Category:Wales national football team managers Category:Blackburn Rovers F.C. managers Category:Manchester City F.C. managers Category:Fulham F.C. managers Category:Queens Park Rangers F.C. managers Category:Southampton F.C. managers Category:Stoke City F.C. managers Category:Premier League managers Category:Bundesliga players Category:English Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:People educated at Ysgol Rhiwabon Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire Category:La Liga players Category:FA Cup final players Category:Bradford City A.F.C. managers |
Al-Sadd SC, a Qatari professional association football club, has gained entry to Asian Football Confederation (AFC) competitions on several occasions. They have represented Qatar in the Champions League on nineteen occasions, the now- defunct Cup Winners' Cup four separate occasions and FIFA Club World Cup on two occasions. ==History== In the 1989 season, they became the first Arab club side to triumph in the Asian Club Championship by defeating Al-Rasheed of Iraq on an aggregate of away goals. Twenty-two years later, they won the 2011 Asian Champions League and earned a spot in the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup, in which Al-Sadd finished third. They also earned a spot in the 2019 FIFA Club World Cup automatically as host club, in which Al-Sadd finished sixth. ==AFC competitions== ===Asian Club Championship=== Al-Sadd SC results in Asian Club Championship Season Round Opposition Score 1988–89 Qualifying Group round Al- Futowa 4–1 (Doha, Qatar) Al-Ansar 1–0 (Doha, Qatar) Al-Rasheed 0–0 (Doha, Qatar) SF Group round Pahang FA 0–2 (Kuantan, Malaysia) Mohammedan SC 2–2 (Kuantan, Malaysia) April 25 2–1 (Kuantan, Malaysia) Al-Ittifaq 2–1 (Kuantan, Malaysia) Final Al-Rasheed 3–2 (Al-Shaab Stadium, Baghdad) 1–0 (a) (Jassim bin Hamad Stadium, Doha) 1989–90 Group stage Al Rasheed 0–3 (Amman, Jordan) Al Ansar 2–0 (Amman, Jordan) Al-Ahli 0–0 (Amman, Jordan) Al Deffatain 3–0 (Amman, Jordan) 1990–91 First Round Esteghlal 1-1 (Doha) 0-1, (Tahran) 1999–2000 First round Al-Wahda 2–2 (Abu Dhabi) 1–1 (a) (Doha) Second round Al-Hilal 0–1 (Doha) 2–1 (Riyadh) ===Cup Winners' Cup=== Al-Sadd SC results in Asian Cup Winners' Cup Season Round Opposition Home Away Aggregate 1991–92 First round Kazma 1–1 1–1 2–2 (2–4 p) 1994–95 Second round Al Qadisiya 2–0 (w/o) 2–0 Quarterfinals Al Ittihad 0–2 0–0 0–2 2000–01 First round Al-Talaba 1–1 3–3 4–4 (a) Second round Esteghlal 0–1 1–2 1–3 2001–02 First round Fajr Sepasi 1–1 1–1 2–2 (5–3 p) Second round Al-Shabab 3–2 0–0 3–2 Quarterfinals Al Ain 1–0 1–2 2–2 (a) Semifinals Al Hilal Single match 0–1 Third place Chongqing Longxin Single match 0–0 (7–6 p) ===Champions League=== Al-Sadd SC results in AFC Champions League Season Round Opposition Home Away Aggregate 2002–03 Group stage Esteghlal 1–2 2nd place Al-Ain 0–2 Al-Hilal 3–1 2004 Group stage Al-Quwa Al- Jawiya 1–0 0–1 2nd place Al-Wahda 0–0 0–0 2005 Group stage Al-Ahli 2–0 1–2 1st place Al Kuwait 1–0 1–0 Neftchi 3–2 0–2 Round of 16 Busan I'Park 1–2 0–3 1–5 2006 Group stage Al-Shabab 2–3 0–0 2nd place Al-Arabi 4–1 2–1 Al-Quwa Al- Jawiya 3–0 2–0 2007 Group stage Al-Karamah 1–1 1–2 4th place Najaf FC 1–4 0–1 Neftchi 2–0 1–2 2008 Group stage Al-Ahli 2–1 2–2 3rd place Al-Wahda 0–0 2–2 Al-Karamah 0–2 0–1 2010 Group stage Al-Hilal 0–3 0–0 3rd place Al-Ahli 2–2 5–0 Mes Kerman 4–1 1–3 2011 Group stage Esteghlal 2–2 1–1 1st place Pakhtakor 2–1 1–1 Al-Nassr 1–0 1–1 Round of 16 Al-Shabab Single match 1–0 Quarter-finals Sepahan 1–2 3–0 4–2 Semi-finals Suwon Samsung Bluewings 0–1 2–0 2–1 Final Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Single match 2–2 (4–2 p) 2014 Group stage Sepahan 3–1 0–4 2nd place Al-Ahli 2–1 1–1 Al-Hilal 2–2 0–5 Round of 16 Foolad 0–0 2–2 2–2 (a) Quarter-finals Al-Hilal 0–0 0–1 0–1 2015 Play-off round Al-Wahda Single match 4–4 (5–4 p) Group stage Foolad 1–0 0–0 2nd place Al-Hilal 1–0 1–2 Lokomotiv Tashkent 6–2 0–5 Round of 16 Lekhwiya 1–2 2–2 3–4 2016 Play-off round Al-Jazira Single match 2–2 (4–5 p) 2017 Play-off round Esteghlal Single match 0–0 (3–4 p) 2018 Group stage Al-Wasl 2–1 2–1 2nd place Persepolis 3–1 0–1 Nasaf Qarshi 4–0 0–1 Round of 16 Al-Ahli 2–1 2–2 4–3 Quarter-finals Esteghlal 2–2 3–1 5–3 Semi-finals Persepolis 0–1 1–1 1–2 2019 Group stage Al- Ahli 2–1 0–2 1st place Persepolis 1–0 0–2 Pakhtakor 2–1 2–2 Round of 16 Al- Duhail 3–1 1–1 4–2 Quarter-finals Al-Nassr 3–1 1–2 4–3 Semi-finals Al-Hilal 1–4 4–2 5–6 2020 Group stage Al-Nassr 1–1 2–2 2nd place Sepahan 3–0 1–2 Al-Ain 4–0 3–3 Round of 16 Persepolis Single match 0–1 2021 Group stage Foolad 1–1 1–0 2nd place Al-Nassr 1–2 1–3 Al-Wehdat 3–1 2–0 ==Non-AFC competitions== Non- AFC competition record Season Competition Round Opposition Score 1992 Arab Cup Winners' Cup Group stage CO Casablanca 0–3 (Prince Abdullah Al Faisal Stadium, Jeddah) Haifa SC 5–0 (Prince Abdullah Al Faisal Stadium, Jeddah) Al-Merrikh 1–1 (Prince Abdullah Al Faisal Stadium, Jeddah) Semi-final Al-Ittihad Jeddah 1–2 (Prince Abdullah Al Faisal Stadium, Jeddah) Final CO Casablanca 0–2 (Prince Abdullah Al Faisal Stadium, Jeddah) 2001 Arab Club Champions Cup Group stage Al-Ahli Sana'a 1–2 (Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium, Doha) Hutteen SC 6–1 (Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium, Doha) MC Oran 7–0 (Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium, Doha) Semi-final Al Rayyan SC 5–1 (Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium, Doha) Final MC Oran 3–1 (Jassim Bin Hamad Stadium, Doha) ==Other competitions== ===FIFA Club World Cup=== ===Afro-Asian Club Championship=== ==Statistics== ===By season=== :Information correct as of 29 April 2021. ;Key *Pld = Played *W = Games won *D = Games drawn *L = Games lost *F = Goals for *A = Goals against *Grp = Group stage *PR = Preliminary round *R1 = First round *R2 = Second round *PO = Play- off round *R16 = Round of 16 *QF = Quarter-final *SF = Semi-final Key to colours and symbols: W Winners RU Runners-up Season Competition Pld W D L GF GA GD Round 1988–89 Asian Club Championship 9 6 2 1 16 8 +8 W 1989 Afro-Asian Club Championship 2 0 0 2 1 5 −4 RU 1989–90 Asian Club Championship 4 1 1 2 2 6 −4 Grp 1991–92 Asian Cup Winners' Cup 2 0 2 0 2 2 +0 R1 1994–95 Asian Cup Winners' Cup 2 0 1 1 0 2 −2 QF 1999–2000 Asian Club Championship 4 0 3 1 4 6 −2 R2 2000–01 Asian Cup Winners' Cup 4 0 2 2 5 7 −2 R2 2001–02 Asian Cup Winners' Cup 8 2 4 2 7 7 +0 3rd 2002–03 Champions League 3 1 0 2 4 5 −1 Grp 2004 Champions League 4 1 2 1 1 1 +0 Grp 2005 Champions League 8 4 0 4 9 11 −2 QF 2006 Champions League 6 4 1 1 13 5 +8 Grp 2007 Champions League 6 1 1 4 6 10 −4 Grp 2008 Champions League 6 1 3 2 6 8 −2 Grp 2010 Champions League 6 2 2 2 12 9 +3 Grp 2011 Champions League 14 7 5 2 24 12 +12 W 2011 FIFA Club World Cup 3 1 1 1 2 5 −3 3rd 2014 Champions League 10 2 5 3 10 17 −7 QF 2015 Champions League 10 3 4 3 16 17 −1 R16 2016 Champions League 1 0 1 0 2 2 +0 PO 2017 Champions League 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 PO 2018 Champions League 12 6 3 3 21 13 0 SF 2019 Champions League 12 6 2 4 20 19 +1 SF 2020 Champions League 7 2 3 2 14 9 +5 R16 2019 FIFA Club World Cup 1 1 0 2 7 10 −3 5th 2021 Champions League 6 3 1 2 9 7 +2 Grp Total Total 153 54 50 49 206 203 +3 ===Overall record=== ====In Asia==== : AFC competitions Competition Seasons Played Won Drawn Lost Goals For Goals Against Last season played Champions League 20 129 50 40 39 182 165 2021 Cup Winners' Cup 4 17 3 9 5 16 18 2001–02 Afro-Asian Club Championship 1 2 0 0 2 1 5 1989 FIFA Club World Cup 2 6 2 1 3 9 15 2019 Total 27 156 55 50 49 208 203 ====Non-AFC competitions==== : Non-AFC competitions Competition Seasons Played Won Drawn Lost Goals For Goals Against Last season played Arab Champions League 1 5 4 0 1 22 5 2001 Arab Cup Winners' Cup 1 5 2 1 2 8 7 1992 Total 2 10 6 1 3 30 12 ==Statistics by country== Statistics correct as of game against Al-Nassr on April 29, 2021 ===AFC competitions=== Country Club Algeria ES Sétif 2 0 0 2 1 5 −4 Subtotal Subtotal 2 0 0 2 1 5 −4 Bahrain Riffa 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 Subtotal Subtotal 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 Bangladesh Mohammedan SC 1 0 1 0 2 2 +0 Subtotal Subtotal 1 0 1 0 2 2 +0 China PR Chongqing Longxin 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 Subtotal Subtotal 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 Iran Esteghlal 8 1 4 3 10 11 −1 Iran Fajr Sepasi 2 0 2 0 2 2 +0 Iran Mes Kerman 2 1 0 1 5 4 +1 Iran Sepahan 6 3 0 3 11 9 +2 Iran Foolad 6 2 4 0 5 3 +2 Iran Persepolis 7 2 1 4 5 7 −2 Subtotal Subtotal 31 9 11 11 38 36 +2 Iraq Al-Rasheed 4 1 1 2 3 6 −3 Iraq Al- Talaba 2 0 2 0 4 4 +0 Iraq Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya 4 3 0 1 6 1 +5 Iraq Najaf FC 2 0 0 2 1 5 −4 Subtotal Subtotal 12 4 3 5 14 16 −2 India Dempo 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2 Subtotal Subtotal 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2 Jordan Al-Wehdat (Ex Al Deffatain) 3 2 0 1 5 4 +1 Subtotal Subtotal 3 2 0 1 5 4 +1 Kuwait Kazma 2 0 2 0 2 2 +0 Kuwait Al Kuwait 2 2 0 0 2 0 +2 Kuwait Al Qadisiya 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2 Al-Arabi 2 2 0 0 6 2 +4 Subtotal Subtotal 7 5 2 0 12 4 +8 Japan Kashiwa Reysol 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 Subtotal Subtotal 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 Lebanon Al-Ansar 2 2 0 0 3 0 +3 Subtotal Subtotal 2 2 0 0 3 0 +3 Malaysia Pahang FA 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2 Subtotal Subtotal 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2 Mexico Monterrey 1 0 0 1 2 3 −1 Subtotal Subtotal 1 0 0 1 2 3 −1 New Caledonia Hienghène Sport 1 1 0 0 3 1 +2 Subtotal Subtotal 1 1 0 0 3 1 +2 Korea DPR April 25 1 1 0 0 2 1 +1 Subtotal Subtotal 1 1 0 0 2 1 +1 Qatar Lekhwiya 2 0 1 1 3 4 −1 Qatar Al-Duhail 2 1 1 0 4 2 +2 Subtotal Subtotal 4 1 2 1 7 6 +1 Saudi Arabia Al-Ittifaq 1 1 0 0 2 1 +1 Saudi Arabia Al Ittihad 2 0 1 1 0 2 −2 Saudi Arabia Al-Hilal 14 3 3 8 13 24 −11 Saudi Arabia Al-Shabab 5 2 2 1 6 5 +1 Saudi Arabia Al-Ahli 6 3 2 1 10 9 +1 Saudi Arabia Al-Nassr 8 2 3 3 11 12 −1 Subtotal Subtotal 36 11 11 14 42 53 −11 Korea Republic Busan I'Park 2 0 0 2 1 5 −4 Korea Republic Suwon Samsung Bluewings 2 1 0 1 2 1 +1 Korea Republic Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 1 0 1 0 2 2 +0 Subtotal Subtotal 5 1 1 3 5 8 −3 Spain Barcelona 1 0 0 1 0 4 −4 Subtotal Subtotal 1 0 0 1 0 4 −4 Syria Al- Futowa 1 1 0 0 4 1 +3 Syria Al-Karamah 4 0 1 3 2 6 −4 Syria Al-Ittihad 1 1 0 0 5 1 +4 Subtotal Subtotal 6 2 1 3 11 8 +3 Tunisia Espérance de Tunis 2 1 0 1 4 7 −3 Subtotal Subtotal 2 1 0 1 4 7 −3 United Arab Emirates Al-Wahda 7 0 7 0 9 9 +0 United Arab Emirates Al-Ain 5 2 1 2 9 7 +2 United Arab Emirates Al-Ahli 6 3 2 1 13 6 +7 United Arab Emirates Al-Jazira 1 0 1 0 2 2 +0 United Arab Emirates Al-Wasl 2 2 0 0 4 2 +2 Subtotal Subtotal 21 7 11 3 37 26 +9 Uzbekistan Neftchi 4 2 0 2 6 6 +0 Uzbekistan Pakhtakor 4 2 2 0 7 5 +2 Uzbekistan Lokomotiv Tashkent 2 1 0 1 6 7 −1 Uzbekistan Nasaf Qarshi 2 1 0 1 4 1 +3 Subtotal Subtotal 12 6 2 4 23 19 +4 Yemen Al-Ahli Sanaa 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 Subtotal Subtotal 1 0 1 0 0 0 +0 Total Total 154 55 50 49 208 203 +5 ===Non- AFC competitions=== Result summary by country Country Pld W D L GF GA GD Algeria 2 2 0 0 10 1 +9 Qatar 1 1 0 0 5 1 +4 Morocco 2 0 0 2 0 5 −5 Palestine 1 1 0 0 5 0 +5 Sudan 1 0 1 0 1 1 +0 Saudi Arabia 1 1 0 0 2 1 +1 Syria 1 1 0 0 6 1 +5 Yemen 1 0 0 1 1 2 −1 Total 10 6 1 3 30 12 +18 ==Asian competitions goals== Statistics correct as March 7, 2023 Player TOTAL 1 Baghdad Bounedjah 25 22 – 3 2 Khalfan Ibrahim 13 13 – – 3 Hassan Al-Haidos 12 11 – 1 4 Akram Afif 11 11 – – 5 Leandro 8 8 – – 6 Carlos Tenorio 8 8 – – 7 Boualem Khoukhi 7 7 – – 8 Abdul Kader Keïta 6 6 – – = Rodrigo Tabata 6 6 – – 10 Nadir Belhadj 5 5 – – = Hassan Jawhar 5 5 – – = Ibrahim Qassem poor 5 5 – – = Santi Cazorla 5 5 – – = Yusef Ahmed 5 5 – – = Abdelkarim Hassan 5 3 – 2 16 Talal Al-Bloushi 4 4 – – = Xavi 4 4 – – = Ali Assadalla 4 4 – – = Emerson Sheik 4 4 – – 17 Majdi Siddiq 3 3 – – = Felipe (footballer, born 1977) 3 3 – – = Mamadou Niang 3 3 – – = Jafal Rashed Al-Kuwari 3 3 – – = Magid Mohamed 3 3 – – = Mohammed Gholam 3 3 – – Player TOTAL 21 Hussein Yasser 2 2 – – = Hamza Sanhaji 2 2 – – = Hossein Kaebi 2 2 – – = Muriqui 2 2 – – = Lee Jung-soo 2 2 – – = Sérgio Ricardo 2 2 – – = Ali Afif 2 2 – – = Nam Tae-hee 2 2 – – 31 Jugurtha Hamroun 1 1 – – = Pedro Miguel 1 – – 1 = Grafite 1 1 – – = Abdulla Koni 1 1 – – = Ali Nasser 1 1 – – = Youssef Chippo 1 1 – – = Nasser Kamil 1 1 – – = Hashim Ali 1 1 – – = Own Goals 3 3 – – Totals 187 180 0 7 ===Hat-tricks=== Date Player Match Score Time of goals 1 10 March 2010 Leandro Al-Ahli Dubai – Al-Sadd 0–5 44', 45+2', 76' 2 17 February 2015 Khalfan Ibrahim Al-Wahda – Al-Sadd 4–4 66', 90+7', 98' ===Two goals one match=== Date Player Match Score 1 9 March 2005 Hussein Yasser Al- Sadd – Al-Ahli Dubai 2–0 2 4 May 2006 Carlos Tenorio Al-Sadd – Al-Shabab 2–3 3 24 March 2010 Leandro Al-Sadd – Mes Kerman 4–1 4 12 February 2011 Abdul Kader Keïta Al-Sadd – Al-Ittihad Aleppo 5–1 5 12 February 2011 Leandro Al-Sadd – Al- Ittihad Aleppo 5–1 6 19 October 2011 Mamadou Niang Suwon Bluewings – Al-Sadd 0–2 7 17 March 2015 Khalfan Ibrahim Al-Sadd – Lokomotiv Tashkent 6–2 8 9 February 2016 Hamza Sanhaji Al-Jazira – Al-Sadd 2–2 9 13 February 2018 Baghdad Bounedjah Al-Wasl – Al-Sadd 1–2 Date Player Match Score 10 20 February 2018 Baghdad Bounedjah Al-Sadd – Persepolis 3–1 11 2 April 2018 Baghdad Bounedjah Al-Sadd – Al-Wasl 2–1 12 7 May 2018 Boualem Khoukhi Al-Sadd – Al-Ahli Jeddah 2–1 13 14 May 2018 Baghdad Bounedjah Al-Ahli Jeddah – Al-Sadd 2–2 14 27 August 2018 Baghdad Bounedjah Esteghlal – Al-Sadd 1–3 15 9 April 2019 Xavi Pakhtakor – Al-Sadd 2–2 16 18 February 2020 Hassan Al-Haydos Al-Sadd – Sepahan 3–0 17 18 September 2020 Baghdad Bounedjah Al-Sadd – Al-Ain 4–0 ==Non-AFC competitions goals== Player Goals = Bouchaib El Moubarki 6 = Karim Bagheri 5 = Ahmed Khalifa 4 Player Goals = John Utaka 3 = Ishaq Madjarah 3 = Fahad Al Kuwari 2 Player Goals = Jafal Rashed Al-Kuwari 1 = Jasem Mahmood 1 = Own Goals 0 ==Notes== ==References== Asia Al Sadd SC |
thumb|A diagram of a bitcoin transfer The Bitcoin network is a peer-to-peer network of nodes which implement the Bitcoin protocol. The protocol itself implements a highly available, public, and decentralized ledger. The nodes verify that each update to the ledger follows the rules of the Bitcoin protocol. Users broadcast cryptographically signed messages to the network using Bitcoin cryptocurrency wallet software. These messages are proposed transactions, changes to be made in the ledger. Each node has a copy of the ledger's entire transaction history. If a transaction violates the rules of the Bitcoin protocol, it is ignored. Transactions only happen when the full network agrees they should happen. This "full network consensus" is achieved when each node on the network verifies the results of a proof-of-work operation called mining. Mining packages groups of transactions into blocks, and produces a hash code that follows the rules of the Bitcoin protocol. Creating this hash requires expensive energy, but a network node can verify the hash is valid using very little energy. If a miner proposes a block to the network, and its hash is valid, the block and its ledger changes are added to the blockchain, and the network moves on to yet unprocessed transactions. In case there is a dispute, then the longest chain is considered to be correct. A new block is created every 10 minutes, on average. Satoshi Nakamoto, the anonymous designer of the protocol, stated that design and coding of Bitcoin began in 2007. The project was released in 2009 as open source software. The network requires minimal structure to share transactions. An ad hoc decentralized network of volunteers is sufficient. Messages are broadcast on a best-effort basis, and nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will. Upon reconnection, a node downloads and verifies new blocks from other nodes to complete its local copy of the blockchain. ==Transactions== thumb|An actual bitcoin transaction including the fee from a web-based cryptocurrency exchange to a hardware wallet thumb|110px|left|The best chain consists of the longest series of transaction records from the genesis block to the current block or record. Orphaned records exist outside of the best chain. A bitcoin is defined by a sequence of digitally signed transactions that began with the bitcoin's creation, as a block reward. The owner of a bitcoin transfers it by digitally signing it over to the next owner using a bitcoin transaction, much like endorsing a traditional bank check. A payee can examine each previous transaction to verify the chain of ownership. Unlike traditional check endorsements, bitcoin transactions are irreversible, which eliminates risk of chargeback fraud. Although it is possible to handle bitcoins individually, it would be unwieldy to require a separate transaction for every bitcoin in a transaction. Transactions are therefore allowed to contain multiple inputs and outputs, allowing bitcoins to be split and combined. Common transactions will have either a single input from a larger previous transaction or multiple inputs combining smaller amounts, and one or two outputs: one for the payment, and one returning the change, if any, to the sender. Any difference between the total input and output amounts of a transaction goes to miners as a transaction fee. ==Mining== thumb|A Bitcoin mining farm, 2018 To form a distributed timestamp server as a peer-to-peer network, bitcoin uses a proof- of-work system. This work is often called bitcoin mining. During mining, practically the entire computing power of the Bitcoin network is used to solve cryptographic tasks, the proof of work. Their purpose is to ensure that the generation of valid blocks involves a certain amount of effort, so that subsequent modification of the block chain, such as in the 51% attack scenario, can be practically ruled out. Because of the difficulty, miners form "mining pools" to get payouts despite these high power requirements, costly hardware deployments, and/or hardware under their own control. The largest proportion of mining pools are based in China, which is also where most of the miners—or about 75% of the computing power—of the cryptocurrency are based. Requiring a proof of work to accept a new block to the blockchain was Satoshi Nakamoto's key innovation. The mining process involves identifying a block that, when hashed twice with SHA-256, yields a number smaller than the given difficulty target. While the average work required increases in inverse proportion to the difficulty target, a hash can always be verified by executing a single round of double SHA-256. For the bitcoin timestamp network, a valid proof of work is found by incrementing a nonce until a value is found that gives the block's hash the required number of leading zero bits. Once the hashing has produced a valid result, the block cannot be changed without redoing the work. As later blocks are chained after it, the work to change the block would include redoing the work for each subsequent block. If there is a deviation in consensus then a blockchain fork can occur. Majority consensus in bitcoin is represented by the longest chain, which required the greatest amount of effort to produce. If a majority of computing power is controlled by honest nodes, the honest chain will grow fastest and outpace any competing chains. To modify a past block, an attacker would have to redo the proof-of- work of that block and all blocks after it and then surpass the work of the honest nodes. The probability of a slower attacker catching up diminishes exponentially as subsequent blocks are added. thumb|Mining difficulty has increased significantly. To compensate for increasing hardware speed and varying interest in running nodes over time, the difficulty of finding a valid hash is adjusted roughly every two weeks. If blocks are generated too quickly, the difficulty increases and more hashes are required to make a block and to generate new bitcoins. ===Difficulty and mining pools=== thumb|The largest Bitcoin mining pools as of April 2020 by nation in which the pools are based Bitcoin mining is a competitive endeavor. An "arms race" has been observed through the various hashing technologies that have been used to mine bitcoins: basic central processing units (CPUs), high-end graphics processing units (GPUs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) and application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) all have been used, each reducing the profitability of the less-specialized technology. Bitcoin-specific ASICs are now the primary method of mining bitcoin and have surpassed GPU speed by as much as 300-fold. The difficulty of the mining process is periodically adjusted to the mining power active on the network. As bitcoins have become more difficult to mine, computer hardware manufacturing companies have seen an increase in sales of high-end ASIC products. Computing power is often bundled together or "pooled" to reduce variance in miner income. Individual mining rigs often have to wait for long periods to confirm a block of transactions and receive payment. In a pool, all participating miners get paid every time a participating server solves a block. This payment depends on the amount of work an individual miner contributed to help find that block, and the payment system used by the pool. === Energy sources and consumption === thumb|left|Bitcoin electricity consumption as of 2021 In 2013, Mark Gimein estimated electricity consumption to be about 40.9 megawatts (982 megawatt- hours a day). In 2014, Hass McCook estimated 80.7 megawatts (80,666 kW). , The Economist estimated that even if all miners used modern facilities, the combined electricity consumption would be 166.7 megawatts (1.46 terawatt-hours per year). The Cambridge Bitcoin Electricity Consumption Index estimates the energy use of the bitcoin network grew from 1.95 terawatt-hours per year at the end of 2014, to 77.1 terawatt-hours per year by the end of 2019. Seeking lower electricity costs, some bitcoin miners have set up in places like Iceland where geothermal energy is cheap and cooling Arctic air is free. Chinese bitcoin miners are known to use hydroelectric power in Tibet to reduce electricity costs. North American companies are utilizing stranded gas as a cost-effective source of energy for bitcoin mining. In West Texas, wind powers bitcoin mining. As of April 2021, at least one-third of Bitcoin mining was powered by coal in China's Xinjiang region. A 2021 study found that carbon emissions from Bitcoin mining in China—where a majority of the proof-of-work algorithm that generated economic value was computed prior to mid-2021—had accelerated rapidly in the late 2010s, are largely fueled by nonrenewable sources and was expected to exceed total annual emissions of countries like Italy and Spain during 2016, interfering with international climate change mitigation commitments. 50px Available under CC BY 4.0. It was also found that in 2021, bitcoin mining consumed more energy than the country of New Zealand. A formal Chinese ban on cryptocurrency mining operations in May 2021—reiterated in both September and November—resulted in the relocation of a large majority of mining equipment away from China. Yet as many as 20 percent of "all the world's bitcoin miners remain in China. This is well off its peak of around 65% to 75% of the global market." By December 2021, the global hashrate had mostly recovered to a level before China's crackdown, with increased shares of the total mining power coming from the U.S. (35.4%), Kazakhstan (18.1%), and Russia (11%) instead. ===Process=== Here are the basic steps of the Bitcoin mining process: * Acquiring mining hardware: Bitcoin mining requires specialized hardware called ASICs, which are designed specifically for mining Bitcoin. These devices are expensive and consume a lot of electricity. * Joining a mining pool: Most Bitcoin miners join a mining pool to increase their chances of successfully mining a block. Mining pools are groups of miners who work together to solve complex mathematical problems and share the rewards. * Installing mining software: Once the hardware is set up and the mining pool is joined, miners need to install mining software on their computers. This software connects the miner's hardware to the mining pool and the Bitcoin network. * Solving mathematical problems: The mining software instructs the hardware to solve complex mathematical problems called hash functions. These problems require a lot of computing power to solve, and the first miner to solve the problem earns the right to add the next block to the blockchain. * Verification: Once a miner solves a block, it needs to be verified by other nodes on the Bitcoin network. This is done through a process called consensus, where other nodes in the network confirm that the block is valid and the transactions it contains are legitimate. * Reward: Miners who successfully solve a block are rewarded with newly minted bitcoins and any transaction fees associated with the block. The current reward for mining a block is 6.25 bitcoins, and the reward is halved every 210,000 blocks, or roughly every four years. * Continuation: The mining process continues, with new blocks added to the blockchain approximately every ten minutes. The difficulty of the mathematical problems that need to be solved is adjusted every 2016 blocks, or roughly every two weeks, to maintain a consistent rate of block production. ===Mined bitcoins=== thumb|left|Diagram showing how bitcoin transactions are verified By convention, the first transaction in a block is a special transaction that produces new bitcoins owned by the creator of the block. This is the incentive for nodes to support the network. It provides the way to move new bitcoins into circulation. The reward for mining halves every 210,000 blocks. It started at 50 bitcoin, dropped to 25 in late 2012 and to 12.5 bitcoin in 2016. The most recent halving, which occurred in May 2020 (with block number 630,000), reduced the block reward to 6.25 bitcoin. This halving process is programmed to continue a maximum 64 times before new coin creation ceases. == Security == Various potential attacks on the bitcoin network and its use as a payment system, real or theoretical, have been considered. The bitcoin protocol includes several features that protect it against some of those attacks, such as unauthorized spending, double spending, forging bitcoins, and tampering with the blockchain. Other attacks, such as theft of private keys, require due care by users. === Unauthorized spending === Unauthorized spending is mitigated by bitcoin's implementation of public-private key cryptography. For example, when Alice sends a bitcoin to Bob, Bob becomes the new owner of the bitcoin. Eve, observing the transaction, might want to spend the bitcoin Bob just received, but she cannot sign the transaction without the knowledge of Bob's private key. === Double spending === A specific problem that an internet payment system must solve is double- spending, whereby a user pays the same coin to two or more different recipients. An example of such a problem would be if Eve sent a bitcoin to Alice and later sent the same bitcoin to Bob. The bitcoin network guards against double-spending by recording all bitcoin transfers in a ledger (the blockchain) that is visible to all users, and ensuring for all transferred bitcoins that they have not been previously spent. === Race attack === If Eve offers to pay Alice a bitcoin in exchange for goods and signs a corresponding transaction, it is still possible that she also creates a different transaction at the same time sending the same bitcoin to Bob. By the rules, the network accepts only one of the transactions. This is called a race attack, since there is a race between the recipients to accept the transaction first. Alice can reduce the risk of race attack stipulating that she will not deliver the goods until Eve's payment to Alice appears in the blockchain. A variant race attack (which has been called a Finney attack by reference to Hal Finney) requires the participation of a miner. Instead of sending both payment requests (to pay Bob and Alice with the same coins) to the network, Eve issues only Alice's payment request to the network, while the accomplice tries to mine a block that includes the payment to Bob instead of Alice. There is a positive probability that the rogue miner will succeed before the network, in which case the payment to Alice will be rejected. As with the plain race attack, Alice can reduce the risk of a Finney attack by waiting for the payment to be included in the blockchain. === History modification === Each block that is added to the blockchain, starting with the block containing a given transaction, is called a confirmation of that transaction. Ideally, merchants and services that receive payment in bitcoin should wait for at least a few confirmations to be distributed over the network before assuming that the payment was done. The more confirmations that the merchant waits for, the more difficult it is for an attacker to successfully reverse the transaction—unless the attacker controls more than half the total network power, in which case it is called a 51% attack, or a majority attack. Although more difficult for attackers of a smaller size, there may be financial incentives that make history modification attacks profitable. === Deanonymisation of clients === Deanonymisation is a strategy in data mining in which anonymous data is cross-referenced with other sources of data to re- identify the anonymous data source. Along with transaction graph analysis, which may reveal connections between bitcoin addresses (pseudonyms), there is a possible attack which links a user's pseudonym to its IP address. If the peer is using Tor, the attack includes a method to separate the peer from the Tor network, forcing them to use their real IP address for any further transactions. The cost of the attack on the full bitcoin network was estimated to be under €1500 per month, as of 2014. ==Payment verification== Each miner can choose which transactions are included in or exempted from a block. A greater number of transactions in a block does not equate to greater computational power required to solve that block. Upon receiving a new transaction a node must validate it: in particular, verify that none of the transaction's inputs have been previously spent. To carry out that check, the node needs to access the blockchain. Any user who does not trust his network neighbors, should keep a full local copy of the blockchain, so that any input can be verified. As noted in Nakamoto's whitepaper, it is possible to verify bitcoin payments without running a full network node (simplified payment verification, SPV). A user only needs a copy of the block headers of the longest chain, which are available by querying network nodes until it is apparent that the longest chain has been obtained; then, get the Merkle tree branch linking the transaction to its block. Linking the transaction to a place in the chain demonstrates that a network node has accepted it, and blocks added after it further establish the confirmation. == Data in the blockchain == While it is possible to store any digital file in the blockchain, the larger the transaction size, the larger any associated fees become. The more information that is stored on each block means more information is stored on nodes, potentially creating "blockchain bloating." The first block of the Bitcoin blockchain, known as the "Genesis Block", contains a famous newspaper headline that may hint at Bitcoin's mission. Various items have been embedded, including URLs to websites, an ASCII art image of Ben Bernanke, material from the Wikileaks cables, prayers from bitcoin miners, and the original bitcoin whitepaper. Other important information is stored in the blockchain as well. In Blockchain: Insights You Need from Harvard Business Review, Tapscott, Lakhani, and Iansiti state "With blockchain, we can imagine a world in which contracts are embedded in digital code and stored in transparent, shared databases, where they are protected from deletion, tampering, and revision. Intermediaries like lawyers, brokers, and bankers might no longer be necessary. Individuals, organizations, machines, and algorithms would freely transact and interact with one another with little friction." == Criminal activity == The use of bitcoin by criminals has attracted the attention of financial regulators, legislative bodies, law enforcement, and the media. The FBI prepared an intelligence assessment, the SEC has issued a pointed warning about investment schemes using virtual currencies, and the U.S. Senate held a hearing on virtual currencies in November 2013. Several news outlets have asserted that the popularity of bitcoins hinges on the ability to use them to purchase illegal goods. In 2014, researchers at the University of Kentucky found "robust evidence that computer programming enthusiasts and illegal activity drive interest in bitcoin, and find limited or no support for political and investment motives." === Black markets === A Carnegie Mellon University researcher estimated that in 2012, 4.5% to 9% of all transactions on all exchanges in the world were for drug trades on a single dark web drugs market, Silk Road. Child pornography, murder-for-hire, and weapons are also allegedly available on black market sites that sell in bitcoin. Due to the anonymous nature and the lack of central control on these markets, it is hard to know whether the services are real or just trying to take the bitcoins. Several deep web black markets have been shut by authorities. In October 2013 Silk Road was shut down by U.S. law enforcement, leading to a short-term decrease in the value of bitcoin. In 2015, the founder of the site was sentenced to life in prison. Alternative sites were soon available, and in early 2014 the Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported that the closure of Silk Road had little impact on the number of Australians selling drugs online, which had actually increased. In early 2014, Dutch authorities closed Utopia, an online illegal goods market, and seized 900 bitcoins. In late 2014, a joint police operation saw European and American authorities seize bitcoins and close 400 deep web sites including the illicit goods market Silk Road 2.0. Law enforcement activity has resulted in several convictions. In December 2014, Charlie Shrem was sentenced to two years in prison for indirectly helping to send $1 million to the Silk Road drugs site, and in February 2015, its founder, Ross Ulbricht, was convicted on drugs charges and given a sentence of double life imprisonment plus 40 years. Some black market sites may seek to steal bitcoins from customers. The bitcoin community branded one site, Sheep Marketplace, as a scam when it prevented withdrawals and shut down after an alleged bitcoins theft. In a separate case, escrow accounts with bitcoins belonging to patrons of a different black market were hacked in early 2014. According to the Internet Watch Foundation, a UK- based charity, bitcoin is used to purchase child pornography, and almost 200 such websites accept it as payment. Bitcoin is not the sole way to purchase child pornography online, as Troels Oertling, head of the cybercrime unit at Europol, states, "Ukash and paysafecard... have [also] been used to pay for such material." However, the Internet Watch Foundation lists around 30 sites that exclusively accept bitcoins. Some of these sites have shut down, such as a deep web crowdfunding website that aimed to fund the creation of new child porn. Furthermore, hyperlinks to child porn websites have been added to the blockchain as arbitrary data can be included when a transaction is made. === Money laundering === Bitcoins may not be ideal for money laundering, because all transactions are public. Authorities—including the European Banking Authority, the FBI, National Treasury (South Africa) and the Financial Action Task Force of the G7—have expressed concerns that bitcoin may be used for money laundering. In early 2014, an operator of a U.S. bitcoin exchange, Charlie Shrem, was arrested for money laundering. Subsequently, he was sentenced to two years in prison for "aiding and abetting an unlicensed money transmitting business". Alexander Vinnik, an alleged owner of BTC-e, was arrested in Greece on 25 July 2017, on $4 billion money laundering charges for flouting anti-money laundering (AML) laws of the US. A report by the UK's Treasury and Home Office named "UK national risk assessment of money laundering and terrorist financing" (October 2015) found that, of the twelve methods examined in the report, bitcoin carries the lowest risk of being used for money laundering, with the most common money laundering method being the banks. Roman Sterlingov was arrested on 27 April 2021 for allegedly laundering about 1.2 million BTC or US$336 million. According to reports from IRS Criminal Investigation, Sterlingov was the principal operator of a Cryptocurrency tumbler Bitcoin Fog, launched in 2011. === Ponzi scheme === In a Ponzi scheme using bitcoins, the Bitcoin Savings and Trust promised investors up to 7% weekly interest, and raised at least 700,000 bitcoins from 2011 to 2012. In July 2013, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission charged the company and its founder in 2013 "with defrauding investors in a Ponzi scheme involving bitcoin". == See also == * Lists of network protocols *List of bitcoin organizations *Web3 *Economics of bitcoin ==References== Category:Bitcoin Category:Blockchains |
The National University of Singapore (NUS) is a national public research university in Singapore. Founded in 1905 as the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States Government Medical School, NUS is the oldest autonomous university in the country. It offers degree programmes in a wide range of disciplines at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including in the sciences, medicine and dentistry, design and environment, law, arts and social sciences, engineering, business, computing, and music. NUS is one of the most highly ranked academic institutions in Asia and in the world. It has consistently featured in the top 30 of the QS World University Rankings and the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, and in the top 100 of the Academic Ranking of World Universities. As of June 2023, NUS is 8th worldwide according to QS and 19th worldwide according to THE. NUS's main campus is located in the southwestern part of Singapore, adjacent to the Kent Ridge subzone of Queenstown, accommodating an area of . The Duke–NUS Medical School, a postgraduate medical school jointly established with Duke University, is located at the Outram campus; and its Bukit Timah campus houses the Faculty of Law and Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. The Yale-NUS College, a joint liberal arts college between NUS and Yale University, is located next to the NUS University Town on the main campus. NUS's affiliated faculty members and researchers include one Nobel Prize laureate, one Tang Prize laureate, and one Vautrin Lud laureate. == History == thumb|University Hall In September 1904, Tan Jiak Kim led a group of representatives of the Chinese and other non-European communities to petition the Governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir John Anderson, to establish a medical school in Singapore. It was noted by Anderson that there were other petitions prior which were not successful due to concerns over having a sufficient number of students and support from the local community. Tan, who was the first president of the Straits Chinese British Association, managed to raise 87,077 Straits dollars from the community, including a personal donation of $12,000. On 3 July 1905, the medical school was founded and was known as the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States Government Medical School. At Anderson's directions, the school was hosted temporarily at a recently emptied block at a Government-run asylum in Pasir Panjang while providing the staff required to run the school. In 1912, the medical school received an endowment of $120,000 from King Edward VII Memorial Fund, started by physician Lim Boon Keng. Subsequently, on 18 November 1913, the name of the school was changed to King Edward VII Medical School. In 1921, it was again changed to King Edward VII College of Medicine to reflect its academic status. In 1928, Raffles College, a separate institution from the medical school, was established to promote education in arts and social sciences. === University of Malaya (1949–1962) === On 8 October 1949, Raffles College was merged with King Edward VII College of Medicine to form the University of Malaya. The two institutions were merged to provide for the higher education needs of the Federation of Malaya. The growth of University of Malaya was very rapid during the first decade of its establishment and resulted in the setting up of two autonomous divisions in 1959, one located in Singapore and the other in Kuala Lumpur. === Nanyang University (1955–1980) === In 1955, Nanyang University (abbreviated Nan-tah, 南大) was established on the backdrop of the Chinese community in Singapore. === University of Singapore (1962–1980) === In 1960, the governments of then Federation of Malaya and Singapore indicated their desire to change the status of the divisions into that of a national university. Legislation was passed in 1961, establishing the former Kuala Lumpur division as the University of Malaya, while the Singapore division was renamed the University of Singapore on 1 January 1962. === Present form === The National University of Singapore (NUS) was formed with the merger of the University of Singapore and Nanyang University on 6 August 1980. This was done in part due to the government's desire to pool the two institutions' resources into a single, stronger entity and promote English as Singapore's main language of education. The original crest of Nanyang University with three intertwined rings was incorporated into the new coat-of-arms of NUS. Most departments of the university were situated at the Bukit Timah campus, with the gradual shift to the Kent Ridge site starting in 1969 and completed in 1986. NUS began its entrepreneurial education endeavours in the 1980s, with the setting up of the Centre for Management of Innovation and Technopreneurship in 1988. In 2001, this was renamed the NUS Entrepreneurship Centre (NEC), and became a division of NUS Enterprise. NEC is currently headed by Wong Poh Kam and its activities are organised into four areas, including a business incubator, experiential education, entrepreneurship development and entrepreneurship research. NUS has 17 faculties and schools across three campus locations in Singapore – Kent Ridge, Bukit Timah and Outram. == Coat of arms == The coat of arms of the National University of Singapore was adopted in 1980 and modernised in 2001. It is the combination of the coat of arms of the former University of Singapore used since 1962, which itself was derived from the former coat of arms of the University of Malaya used since 1949 (which featured a tiger instead of a lion), and consisting of an open book and a lion; and the emblem of the former Nanyang University, three interlocking rings but without the star used since 1955. It is blazoned: == Education == NUS has a semester-based modular system for conducting undergraduate courses. It adopts features of the British system, such as small group teaching (tutorials) on top of regular two-hour lectures, and the American system (course credits). NUS has 17 faculties and schools across three campuses, including a music conservatory. == Reputation and rankings == === Overall Rankings === NUS was ranked 8th worldwide (1st in Asia) in the Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) World University Rankings 2024, 19th worldwide in the Times Higher Education (THE) World University Rankings 2023, 26th worldwide in the U.S. News & World Report (USNWR) 2022-2023 Best Global Universities Rankings, and 71st worldwide in the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) 2022. The Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities (ARTU), which sorts universities based on their aggregate performance across THE, QS, and ARWU, found that NUS was the 28th best-ranked university worldwide in 2022. In the jointly published THE–QS World University Rankings from 2004 to 2009 (before THE and QS started publishing separate rankings in 2010), NUS was ranked globally 18th (2004), 22nd (2005), 19th (2006), 33rd (2007), 30th (2008 and 2009). NUS was ranked 19th worldwide in the THE World Reputation Rankings 2022. NUS was named the world's 10th most international university by THE in 2023. NUS was ranked 29th worldwide by SCImago Institutions Rankings in 2020, and 26th globally in the Informatics Institute/METU's University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP) 2022–2023. === Subject/Area Rankings === ==== QS Subject Ranking ==== According to the QS World University Rankings by Subject 2022, NUS has been placed in the global top 10 in 16 subjects, among which petroleum engineering (1st), civil engineering (3rd), and chemical engineering (3rd) are the highest ranked. In total, 37 NUS programmes were ranked among world's top 50, making NUS the joint top university in Asia alongside The University of Tokyo. In 2022, Singapore had 23 programmes (16 from NUS and 7 from NTU) in the global top 10, the fourth highest number worldwide and the highest among Asia-Pacific economies. Subject (only subjects ranked within world's top 10 are listed) NUS's world rank Engineering - Petroleum 1 Engineering - Civil & Structural 3 Engineering - Chemical 3 Social Policy & Administration 4 Geography 5 Computer Science & Information Systems 6 Architecture / Built Environment 6 Materials Science 7 Engineering - Electrical & Electronic 8 Chemistry 8 Engineering - Mechanical, Aeronautical & Manufacturing 9 Politics & International Studies 9 Sociology 10 Linguistics 10 Law 10 Environmental Sciences 10 According to the QS World University Rankings by Subject (broad subject areas) 2022, NUS was ranked: Broad Subject Area NUS's world rank Engineering & Technology 7 Social Sciences & Management 7 Arts and Humanities 12 Natural Sciences 15 Life Sciences & Medicine 21 ==== THE Subject Ranking ==== According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings by Subjects (2023) which ranked universities in 11 different subjects, NUS was among the world's top 10 in three subjects (computer science, law, and engineering) and top 20 in four subjects (business and economics, physical sciences, clinical & health, and social sciences): Subject NUS's world rank Computer Science 7 Engineering 8 Law 9 Business and Economics 11 Physical Sciences 14 Clinical & Health 14 Social Sciences 17 Life Sciences 23 Arts & Humanities 27 Psychology 48 ==== FT Business School Rankings ==== NUS's performance in the Business School Rankings by Financial Times: FT Subject Year NUS's world rank Ranked Entity EMBA 2022 11 UCLA: Anderson/National University of Singapore EMBA 2022 24 National University of Singapore Business School MBA 2022 21 National University of Singapore Business School === Graduate Employability Rankings === NUS graduates ranked 8th worldwide in the Times Higher Education's Global University Employability Ranking 2022, and 17th worldwide in the QS Graduate Employability Rankings 2022. ==Organisation== ===Business=== thumb|The Mochtar Riady Building of the NUS Business School The NUS Business School was founded as the Department of Business Administration in 1965. The NUS Business School ranks 6th in the Forbes "The Best International MBAs: Two-Year Programs" and 21st in the Financial Times Global MBA Rankings 2022. NUS also offers MBA double degrees in collaboration with overseas universities such as Peking University, HEC Paris, and Yale University. ===Computing=== thumb|NUS School of Computing|alt= The School of Computing established in 1998, has two departments: Computer Science; and Information Systems and Analytics. ===Dentistry=== thumb|Faculty of Dentistry The Faculty of Dentistry traces its origins in 1929 as a Department of Dentistry within the King Edward VII College of Medicine. The faculty conducts a four-year dental course leading to a Bachelor of Dental Surgery degree. ===Design and Engineering=== The interdisciplinary College of Design and Engineering (CDE) was established in 2021, bringing together two pre-existing faculties, the School of Design and Environment (SDE) and the Faculty of Engineering (FoE). ====Design and Environment==== The School of Design and Environment has three departments: Department of Architecture; Department of the Built Environment; and the Division of Industrial Design. ====Engineering==== The Faculty of Engineering was established in 1968. It is the largest faculty in the university, and consists of several departments spanning diverse engineering fields. The NUS Faculty of Engineering was ranked sixth in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities for Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences. It has also been ranked seventh in the world in the subject category of Engineering and Technology by the 2017 QS World University Subject Rankings and 2016-2017 Times Higher Education World University Subject Rankings. ===Humanities and Sciences=== The interdisciplinary College of Humanities and Sciences (CHS) was established in 2020. It comprises the two largest faculties, the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, and the Faculty of Science, though both faculties are still branded independently, unlike CDE. ==== Arts and Social Sciences ==== The Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences has roots in Raffles College. Initially offering just four subjects: English, History, Geography and Economics, the Faculty now offers majors, minors and special programmes across 16 Departments. This includes the Centre for Language Studies, which teaches 12 different languages, and the Office of Programmes, which houses four multidisciplinary fields and five minor programmes. The South Asian Studies Programme is not officially classified as a department, but as a departmental entity. ====Science==== The Faculty of Science comprises multiple departments, spanning across natural and applied sciences. The first female Dean of the Faculty of Science was Gloria Lim, who was appointed in 1973. She served a four-year term and was reappointed in 1979, but resigned after one year to allow Koh Lip Lin to continue his post. In 1980, University of Singapore merged with Nanyang University to form NUS, resulting in overlapping posts. ===Integrative Sciences and Engineering=== The NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering (NGS) was established in 2003. The principal purpose of NGS is "to promote integrative PhD research encompassing both laboratory work and coursework programmes which not only transcend traditional subject boundaries but also provides students with a depth of experience about science and the way it is carried out." ===Law=== The NUS Faculty of Law was first established as a Department of Law in the University of Malaya in 1956. The first law students were admitted to the Bukit Timah campus of the university the following year. In 1980, the faculty shifted to the Kent Ridge campus, but in 2006 it relocated back to the Bukit Timah site. The faculty offers LLB, LLM, JD, and PhD programmes, alongside continuing education and graduate certificate programmes. ===Medicine=== The Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine at NUS was first established as the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States Government Medical School in 1905. The School uses the British undergraduate medical system, offering a full-time undergraduate programme leading to a Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS). For Nursing, the Bachelor of Science (Nursing) conducted by the Alice Lee Centre for Nursing Studies is offered. The department also offers postgraduate programmes in nursing, medicine, and medical science. ===Duke–NUS Medical School=== The Duke–NUS Medical School (Duke–NUS) is a graduate medical school in Singapore. The school was set up in April 2005 as the Duke–NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore's second medical school, after the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, and before the Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine. The Duke–NUS Medical School is a collaboration between Duke University in North Carolina, United States and the National University of Singapore. ===Music=== thumb|Yong Siew Toh Conservatory of Music The Yong Siew Toh Conservatory of Music (YSTCM) is a collaboration between NUS and the Peabody Institute of Johns Hopkins University. Singapore's first conservatory of music, YSTCM was founded as the Singapore Conservatory of Music in 2001. The School was renamed Yong Siew Toh Conservatory of Music after a gift was made by the family of the late Dr Yong Loo Lin in memory of his daughter. ===Public Health=== The Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health is Singapore's first and only tertiary education institution for public health. The school traces its origins to the University of Malaya's Department of Social Medicine and Public Health, formed in 1948. ===Public Policy=== The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy was established in 2004 as an autonomous graduate school of NUS. Although the School was formally launched in 2004, it inherited NUS's Public Policy Programme, which was established in 1992 in partnership with Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government. ===University Scholars Programme=== The University Scholars Programme (USP) was an undergraduate academic programme established in 2001 in NUS, which comprised a compulsory general education programme. USP admitted 240 undergraduates annually. USP students resided in Cinnamon College at the NUS University Town. ===Yale-NUS College=== The Yale-NUS College is a liberal arts college in Singapore established in August 2013 as a joint project of Yale University and the National University of Singapore. It is an autonomous college within NUS, allowing it greater freedom to develop its own policies while tapping on the existing facilities and resources of the main university. Students who graduate receive a degree awarded by NUS. Pericles Lewis, a former professor at Yale, was appointed as the founding president in 2012. In August 2021, NUS announced that it was going to merge Yale-NUS College with the University Scholars Programme to form a new honours college, NUS College, by 2025 The merger marks the dissolution of NUS's partnership with Yale University. The last class of Yale-NUS College students were those admitted in 2021, following which Yale-NUS would operate for several years until all of its students have graduated. == Teaching centres == NUS has a variety of teaching centres including: *Centre for Development of Teaching and Learning (CDTL) *Centre for Instructional Technology (CIT) *Centre for English Language Communication (CELC) *Institute of Systems Science (ISS), which offers professional IT continuing education *Centre for Teaching and Learning CTL at Yale-NUS College === NUS High School of Mathematics and Science === NUS High School of Mathematics and Science is a school specialising in mathematics and science, and provides secondary and pre-tertiary education to students with inclinations to these fields. == Research == The major research focuses at NUS are biomedical science, physical science, engineering, nanoscience, material science, information technology, humanities, social sciences, and defence. One of several niche research areas of strategic importance to Singapore being undertaken at NUS is bioengineering. Initiatives in this area include bioimaging, tissue engineering and tissue modulation. The university has received a number of grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for research into areas including vaccine development, water treatment, mobile devices in healthcare, iris recognition, synthetic antibodies, tuberculosis, and government response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Asia. === Research institutes and centres === Currently, NUS hosts 21 university-level research institutes and centres (RICs) in various fields. Four of these RICs have been designated Research Centres of Excellence by the Singapore government — the Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, Centre for Quantum Technologies, Mechanobiology Institute, and Institute for Functional Intelligent Materials. Besides university-level RICs, NUS also affiliates with other universities to establish research centres and institutes. The Logistics Institute – Asia Pacific is a collaborative effort between NUS and the Georgia Institute of Technology for research and education in logistics. The Next Age Institute, a partnership with Washington University in St. Louis, is the most recent cross- university centre involving NUS, established in February 2015. == Entrepreneurship == NUS began its entrepreneurial education endeavours in the 1980s, establishing the Centre for Management of Innovation and Technopreneurship in 1988. In 2001, this was renamed the NUS Entrepreneurship Centre (NEC), and became a division of NUS Enterprise, the entrepreneurial arm of NUS. Its activities include entrepreneurial education and outreach, technology commercialisation, and a business incubator. The NUS Overseas Colleges (NOC) programme was started in 2001, giving students the opportunity to experience, live, work and study in an entrepreneurial hub. Participants of the programme either spend 6 months or a year overseas, taking courses at partner universities and working in start-ups. The NUS Industry Liaison Office (ILO) is another department that is involved in the creation of deep tech start-ups. It manages the university's technology transfer and promotes research collaborations with industry and partners. ILO manages NUS intellectual property, commercialises its intellectual assets and facilitates the spinning off of technologies into start-up companies. == Campus facilities and resources == === IT and computing services === NUS hosts NUSNET, an intranet, which is used in research, teaching, learning and administration. In 2004, a campus-wide grid computing network was deployed, connecting at least 1,000 computers. At the time, it was one of the largest of such virtual supercomputing facilities in the region. === Library services === The NUS Libraries comprises eight libraries: the Central Library, Chinese Library, CJ Koh Law Library, Hon Sui Sen Memorial Library, the Medical Library, Music Library, Science Library and East Asian Institute Library. As of June 2017, there are 2,354,741 unique titles, and 26,074 microform resources in the collection. ===NUS University Town=== The NUS University Town (UTown) opened in August 2011. Located at the Kent Ridge campus, it was built on the site of a former golf course. UTown hosts the four residential colleges of NUS and also contains a graduate residence. === Transportation === The university has a free Internal Shuttle Bus system that operates across the Bukit Timah and Kent Ridge campuses. In late 2022, the university started to deploy electric bus in partnership with CDG. ==Student accommodation== NUS has three types of student accommodation: halls of residence, student residences, and residential colleges. There are about 6,000 residential places distributed between halls of residence and student residences on campus, in addition to around 4,100 students who live in the residential colleges and graduate residences. === Halls of residence === NUS has 7 Halls of Residence with about 3,000 residential places. A points system, based on co-currciular activities and leadership roles, is used to allocate residential places to students. Halls have their own interest groups and student productions in addition to university-wide student co-curricular activities. Halls compete with each other in the Inter-Hall Games. The Halls of Residence are: * Eusoff Hall * Kent Ridge Hall * King Edward VII Hall * Raffles Hall * Sheares Hall * Temasek Hall === Student residences === NUS has two student residences — Prince George's Park Residences and UTown Residences — for undergraduate and graduate students. The residences are arranged in clusters of 11 to 15 single rooms, with shared kitchen and bathroom facilities. The UTown Residences also has apartments for students. === Residential colleges === NUS also houses residential colleges, which are modeled after the college systems of universities. Like halls, residential colleges have unique co-curricular activities. Residential colleges also have their own academic programmes, with general education requirements differing from each other and the rest of the university. The academic programmes in residential colleges take place in seminars. ====Cinnamon College/West Wing==== Cinnamon College housed the University Scholars Programme (USP) until the 2021 intake. Together with the current Yale-NUS College Campus (which has been renamed the "West Wing"), the college will house the NUS College from the 2022 intake onwards. USP students and faculty are accommodated in 600 rooms. ====Tembusu College==== Tembusu College was the second residential colleges in NUS University Town. Tembusu houses mainly first and second-year undergraduates, in addition to resident faculty, visiting scholars and graduate fellows. The former founding Rector of Tembusu College is Singapore's Ambassador-at-Large and former United Nations Ambassador Tommy Koh, who is also the former Dean of the NUS Faculty of Law. ====College of Alice & Peter Tan==== The College of Alice & Peter Tan (CAPT) is a Residential College for all NUS undergraduates which emphasizes active citizenship and community engagement. It provides a two-year academic programme. ====Residential College 4==== Residential College 4 (RC4) is another Residential College in NUS. ====Ridge View Residential College==== Ridge View Residential College (RVRC) was formally established in April 2014, housed in the former Ridge View Residences. It is the only residential college that is situated outside University Town. The site was the former location for Kent Ridge Hall until November 2002. In November 2015, an annex building to RVRC was constructed. It was completed in February 2017. == List of principal officers == The following table is a list of the principal officers of the National University of Singapore's predecessors. Note that the office of the President of Raffles College was renamed Principal of Raffles College from 1938. Principals (King Edward VII Medical College) Presidents and Principals (Raffles College) 1905–1909 Gerald Dudley Freer 1928–1931 Richard Olaf Winstedt 1909–1918 R. D. Keith 1932–1934 James Watson 1918–1929 G. H. MacAlister 1935–1937 Frederick Joseph Morten 1929–1947 George V. Allen 1937–1938 Alexander Keir 1947–1949 D. W. G. Faris 1938–1941 George McOwan 1949–present Bill Patiten 1946–1948 W. E. Dyer 1948–1949 George V. Allen ==Notable alumni== Since its inception in 1905, NUS has had many distinguished alumni from Singapore and Malaysia, including two Singapore Prime Ministers and four Singapore Presidents, two Malaysian Prime Ministers, and many politicians, judiciaries, business executives, educators and local celebrities. It counts among its graduates, heads of state/government Abdul Razak Hussein, Benjamin Sheares, Goh Chok Tong, Mahathir Mohamad and S. R. Nathan. The first prime minister of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew, attended Raffles College briefly prior to World War II. A number of its graduates are also notable politicians such as Rais Yatim, Malaysia's former Minister of Information, Communications and Culture, Ng Eng Hen, Singapore's Minister for Defence, Vivian Balakrishnan, Singapore's Minister for Foreign Affairs, and S. Jayakumar, Singapore's former Deputy Prime Minister. Many of Singapore's business leaders come from NUS, including as former Chairman of the Singapore Exchange, and Singapore Tourism Board Chew Choon Seng, CEO of the Hyflux Group Olivia Lum, former CEO of the Temasek Holdings Ho Ching, Chairman of SPRING Singapore Philip Yeo and CEO of Razer Inc Min-Liang Tan. In international politics, NUS counts among its graduates former Director-General of the World Health Organization Margaret Chan, former President of the United Nations Security Council Kishore Mahbubani, and vice-president of the International Olympic Committee Ng Ser Miang. NUS had served as Singapore's only law school for half a century, until the SMU School of Law was set up in 2007. Many of Singapore's judges and lawyers come from the school. This includes Singapore's Minister for Law, and Home Affairs K. Shanmugam, the fourth Chief Justice of Singapore Sundaresh Menon and the third Chief Justice of Singapore Chan Sek Keong. In academia, NUS faculty include former vice-president of Finance for the University of Virginia, and Cornell University Yoke San Reynolds, and former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Hong Kong Wang Gungwu. File:Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore Making a Toast at a State Dinner Held in His Honor, 1975.jpg|alt=|Lee Kuan Yew, 1st Prime Minister of Singapore File:GohChokTong-WashingtonDC-20010614.jpg|Goh Chok Tong, 2nd Prime Minister of Singapore File:Tony Tan Keng Yam cropp.jpg|Tony Tan, 7th President of Singapore File:President of Singapore SR Nathan.jpg|S. R. Nathan, 6th President of Singapore File:Mahathir Mohamad addressing the United Nations General Assembly (September 25 2003).jpg|Mahathir Mohamad, 4th and 7th Prime Minister of Malaysia File:Margaret Chan - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2011 crop.jpg|Margaret Chan, 7th Director-General of the World Health Organization File:Kishore Mahbubani - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2011.jpg|Kishore Mahbubani, President of the United Nations Security Council (2001–2002) File:Halimah Yacob APEC Women and the Economy Forum 2012.jpg|Halimah Yacob, 8th President of Singapore File:NgEngHen2017.jpg|Ng Eng Hen, Singapore Minister for Defence File:Graduationshaari.gif|Sha'ari Tadin, Member of Parliament and founder of Singapore Central Council (Majlis Pusat Singapura) == See also == * National University Hospital * Nanyang University * S*, a collaboration between seven universities and the Karolinska Institutet for training in bioinformatics and genomics == References == == External links == * * National University of Singapore official site Category:ASEAN University Network Category:Educational institutions established in 1980 Category:Education in Singapore Category:1980 establishments in Singapore Category:Queenstown, Singapore Category:Tanglin Category:Autonomous Universities in Singapore |
Kyle Elliot Korver (born March 17, 1981) is an American former professional basketball player who currently serves as the Assistant General Manager for the Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Creighton Bluejays. Korver was drafted in the second round of the 2003 NBA draft by the New Jersey Nets. He was immediately traded to the Philadelphia 76ers. After four and a half seasons in Philadelphia, he was traded to the Utah Jazz. During his first stint with the Jazz in 2009–10, Korver shot 53.6 percent from three-point range, which set an NBA single-season three-point field goal accuracy record. In 2010, he joined the Chicago Bulls. In 2012, he was traded to the Atlanta Hawks, where in 2015 he was named an NBA All-Star. In 2017, he was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers, where he was a member of back-to-back Finals teams. In 2018, he was traded back to the Jazz. In 2019, he signed with the Milwaukee Bucks. Korver ranks among the most prolific 3-point shooters in NBA history, ranking fifth all-time in 3-point field goals made and tenth all-time in 3-point field goal percentage. He is the only player to lead the NBA in three-point shooting percentage four times. Korver holds the Hawks and Jazz single-season three- point field goal percentage records and depending on the source/minimum threshold he is the Hawks career three-point percentage record-holder. ==Early life== Korver was born in Paramount, California, and is the oldest of four children of Kevin Korver, a pastor for the Third Reformed Church in Pella, Iowa, and Laine Korver. Both of his parents played basketball at Central College in Pella. His grandfather, Harold Korver, is also a pastor at the Emmanuel Reformed Church in Paramount, California. He grew up in the Los Angeles area and was a Los Angeles Lakers fan as a child. Watching Magic Johnson, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, and the Showtime Lakers instilled a love of basketball in Korver that made him want to pursue it himself. He moved to Iowa in 1993 when his father accepted his current pastoral position and graduated from Pella High School. In 2018, he and his three brothers were still in the top 10 in both career scoring and rebounding at Pella High. ==College career== As a freshman at Creighton in 1999–2000, Korver was named to the MVC's All- Bench team, All-Freshman team, and All-Newcomer team while averaging 8.8 points per game. He came off the bench in all but one game, hitting 43.4 percent of his three-pointers and 89.5 percent at the free-throw line. As a sophomore in 2000–01, Korver earned second-team All-MVC honors while leading the league champion Jays with 14.6 points per game. He made a then-record 100 three-pointers while ranking 12th nationally with 45.2 percent accuracy from downtown. He was also named to the MVC All-Tournament team. As a junior in 2001–02, Korver led Creighton in scoring (15.1), rebounding (5.5), assists (3.3) and steals (1.6) while earning MVC Player of the Year and honorable- mention All-America honors. He ranked 12th nationally in free throw percentage (89.0) and 41st in three-point percentage (42.9) while leading the Jays to MVC regular-season and Tournament titles. As a senior in 2002–03, Korver became one of six players to repeat as MVC Player of the Year, joining Larry Bird, Hersey Hawkins, Xavier McDaniel, Lewis Lloyd, and Junior Bridgeman. He was a consensus All-American, including second-team honors from the Associated Press, ESPN.com, and the USBWA. Korver earned MVC tournament MVP honors for the second year in a row. In 34 games as a senior, he averaged 17.8 points, 6.4 rebounds, 3.1 assists and 1.5 steals in 31.8 minutes per game. Korver finished his career at Creighton fourth all-time in scoring (1,801), first in three-pointers made (371), first in three-point attempts (819), first in three-point accuracy (45.3), first in free throw accuracy (89.1), eighth in assists (294), ninth in blocked shots (58) and fourth in steals (172). His 371 career made three-pointers is an MVC record and tied for sixth most in NCAA history. Korver also holds Creighton single-season records for three-pointers made (129), three-point percentage (.480), and free-throw percentage (.908). Korver graduated with a bachelor's degree in visual communications. He returned to Creighton in May 2019 to deliver the keynote at the university's graduation ceremony."'Shoot it to make it': Kyle Korver offers words of encouragement to Creighton grads" - Omaha World-Herald, May 19, 2019 ==Professional career== ===Philadelphia 76ers (2003–2007)=== left|thumb|upright|Korver (left) with the 76ers in January 2007 On June 26, 2003, Korver was selected by the New Jersey Nets with the 51st overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft. The Nets, fresh off an Atlantic Division win and an appearance in the NBA Finals, were low on cash and had none of their preferred draft choices remaining on the board. The organization selected Korver and immediately sold his draft rights to the 76ers for $125,000. The $125,000 reportedly covered the Nets' summer league costs and covered buying a new copy machine, with the "traded for a copy machine" being a rallying cry for Korver for the rest of his career. In 2019, Korver used the experience to help motivate that year's graduating class at his alma mater, Creighton University, explaining, "a few years ago, the copy machine broke...and I'm still playing." As a rookie in 2003–04, he averaged 4.5 points and 1.5 rebounds in 74 games. On December 21, 2003, he scored a season-high 18 points against the Boston Celtics. In 2004–05, Korver appeared in 82 games (57 starts), and averaged 11.5 points, 4.6 rebounds, and 2.2 assists. He set the Sixers record for three-pointers made (226) and attempted (558). He led the league in three- pointers made, and ranked among NBA leaders in attempts (third) and percentage (18th, .405). On November 26, 2004, he scored a season-high 26 points against the Washington Wizards. On August 2, 2005, Korver re-signed with the 76ers to a six-year, $25 million contract. On February 24, 2006, he scored a career- high 31 points in a 116–111 win over the Milwaukee Bucks. In 82 games (43 starts) in 2005–06, he averaged 11.5 points, 3.3 rebounds, and 2.0 assists in 31.3 minutes. He shot .430 from the field and .849 from the free-throw line and ranked fifth in the league in three-pointers made and 11th in three-point percentage. In his last full year in Philadelphia in 2006–07, Korver appeared in 74 games (one start) and averaged a career-high 14.4 points. He led the NBA in free throw percentage and ranked ninth in three-point shooting. On February 21, 2007, he made six 3-pointers and matched a career high with 31 points to lead the 76ers to a 104–84 victory over the New York Knicks. ===Utah Jazz (2007–2010)=== thumb|upright=0.8|Korver with the Utah Jazz in 2008 On December 29, 2007, Korver was traded to the Utah Jazz in exchange for Gordan Giriček and a future first-round draft pick. On February 6, 2008, he scored a season- high 27 points against the Denver Nuggets. In 2008–09, Korver appeared in 78 games (two starts) and averaged 9.0 points, 3.3 rebounds, and 1.8 assists. On March 14, 2009, he scored a season-high 25 points against the Miami Heat. On October 28, 2009, Korver underwent surgery to remove a bone spur in his left knee. He subsequently missed the first 23 games of the 2009–10 season. On March 31, 2010, he scored a season-high 21 points against the Golden State Warriors. In 52 games, he averaged 7.2 points and 2.1 rebounds. He led the NBA in three-point shooting at .536 (59-110 3FGM), setting the NBA single season three-point shooting record, edging the record percentage of .524 that Steve Kerr set in 1994–95. His spot-on shooting surged after he finally returned fully healthy after the All-Star break, having struggled with wrist and knee issues following surgeries to both over the previous year. ===Chicago Bulls (2010–2012)=== On July 13, 2010, Korver signed with the Chicago Bulls. On November 24, 2010, he scored a season-high 24 points against the Phoenix Suns. In 2010–11, Korver, for the third time in his career, appeared in all 82 regular-season games (all coming off the bench), and averaged 8.3 points, 1.8 rebounds, and 1.5 assists in 20.1 minutes. After finishing as the first seed in the East with a 62–20 record, the Bulls advanced through to the Eastern Conference finals, where they were defeated in five games by the Miami Heat. thumb|upright=0.8|Korver warming up before a 2011 playoff game Korver appeared in 65 games (seven starts) with the Bulls in 2011–12, averaging 8.1 points, 2.4 rebounds, and 1.7 assists in 22.6 minutes. On March 10, 2012, he scored a season-high 26 points in a 111–97 win over the Utah Jazz. He hit 6 of 11 3-pointers and had seven rebounds and six assists. ===Atlanta Hawks (2012–2017)=== ====2012–13 season==== On July 16, 2012, Korver was traded to the Atlanta Hawks in exchange for cash considerations. In 2012–13, he averaged 10.9 points in 30.5 minutes per game, while recording percentages of .461 FG%, .457 3FG%, and .859 FT%. He finished second in the NBA in three-point percentage and fourth in three-point field goals made with 189. He made at least one three-pointer in his final 73 games of the season, the longest active streak in the NBA at the time, a career-best and the fourth longest streak in league history (Dana Barros 89, Michael Adams 79, Dennis Scott 78). In addition, his 189 made threes was the fourth-best single season total in franchise history. ====2013–14 season==== On July 12, 2013, Korver re-signed with the Hawks to a four-year, $24 million contract. On December 6, 2013, Korver passed the NBA record for most consecutive games with a made three- pointer (90) originally set by Dana Barros (89). The streak eventually ended at 127 games on March 5, 2014. Korver finished the 2013–14 season with a 47.2 percent three-point shooting percentage which led the NBA. It broke Tyronn Lue's (45.7%) franchise single-season three-point percentage (47.2%) record. ====2014–15 season: All-Star selection==== On December 15, 2014, Korver passed Jason Richardson for 15th all-time in three-pointers made. Five days later, in the Hawks' 104–97 win over the Houston Rockets, Korver scored a game-high 22 points and made all four of his free-throw attempts. This gave him 49 consecutive made free-throws on the season to set a new Hawks franchise record. The streak ended at 50 in the Hawks' next game against the Dallas Mavericks. On February 10, 2015, Korver received his first NBA All-Star selection as a reserve for the Eastern Conference in the 2015 NBA All-Star Game, replacing the injured Dwyane Wade. At 33 years and 11 months old, he became the fourth-oldest first-time All-Star. On March 11, in a loss to the Denver Nuggets, Korver passed Kobe Bryant for 12th on the all-time three- pointers made list. Four days later in a win over the Los Angeles Lakers, Korver left the game with a broken nose after taking an offensive foul from Ed Davis with 8:59 left in the first half. The injury ended a streak of 51 consecutive games with a three-pointer by Korver, who missed both of his shots from behind the arc. After missing three games with the injury, he returned to action on March 22 against the San Antonio Spurs with protective gear on his face to cover the nose. Despite having the mask on March 31, 2015, Korver made four straight long-range shots, including three 3-pointers, in a 65-second span against the Milwaukee Bucks. Korver led the league in three-point shooting percentage for a third time (the second year in a row) with a 49.2%, which still stands as an Atlanta Hawks single-season franchise record. On April 29, 2015, Korver was named the recipient of the Joe Dumars Trophy for winning the 2014–15 NBA Sportsmanship Award. During the 2015 playoffs, Korver suffered a right ankle sprain playing against the Cleveland Cavaliers on May 22 in the Eastern Conference Finals. The following day, he was ruled out for the rest of the playoffs. ====2015–16 season==== On November 6, 2015, Korver scored 22 points, hitting all eight of his shots, including four from three- point range, as the Hawks won their sixth straight with a 121–115 victory over the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 26, in a win over the New York Knicks, Korver hit one three-pointer and passed Rashard Lewis for ninth place on the all-time list for three-pointers made. However, his late December shooting slump marked one of the worst shooting stretches of his career. In four games between December 23–29, Korver shot 5-of-33 from the field and a woeful 2-of-27 from three-point range. Korver continued to struggle with his shot in January, missing all six of his shots on January 31 against the Miami Heat, marking just the third time in his career that he went 0-of-6 or worse as a starter. Over 47 games to begin the season, his 42% field goal shooting was the worst it had been since the 2004–05 season, and his 37% three-point shooting was a career-low success rate. ====2016–17 season==== On December 16, 2016, Korver scored a season-high 19 points and hit a season-high six three- pointers in a 125–121 win over the Toronto Raptors. The win gave the Hawks a 13–13 record after 26 games; they began the season 9–2. He set a season high on December 30, scoring 22 points in 29 minutes off the bench in a 105–98 win over the Detroit Pistons. Depending on the source/minimum threshold, Korver left the Hawks as the franchise career three-point percentage all-time leader (.452). NBA.com shows him as the leader, but Sports Reference does not (Tony Snell, 62-109 56.9%). ===Cleveland Cavaliers (2017–2018)=== ==== 2016–17 season: First Finals appearance ==== thumb|upright=1.35|Korver as a member of the Cleveland Cavaliers in February 2017 On January 7, 2017, Korver was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for Mike Dunleavy, Mo Williams, cash considerations and a protected future first round draft pick. The trade would pair Korver with fellow 2003 draftee LeBron James. He made his debut for the Cavaliers three days later, recording two points and three rebounds in 17 minutes off the bench in a 100–92 loss to the Utah Jazz. Korver went 2-of-10 over his first two games for the Cavaliers, with both games resulting in losses. On January 13, he scored 18 points off the bench to help the Cavaliers defeat the Sacramento Kings 120–108. On February 1, he had his best game yet as a Cavalier, scoring 20 points off the bench on 8-of-11 from the field with four three-pointers in a 125–97 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. However, on February 8, Korver scored a season-high 29 points on 10-of-12 from the field and 8-of-9 from the three-point line in a 132–117 win over the Indiana Pacers. He subsequently passed Jason Kidd (1,988) for seventh on the all-time three-pointers made list. A week later, on February 15, also against the Pacers, Korver became the seventh player in NBA history to make 2,000 career three-pointers, joining Ray Allen, Reggie Miller, Jason Terry, Paul Pierce, Vince Carter, and Jamal Crawford. On April 4, 2017, he returned after missing 11 games with a sore left foot and scored 11 points in 12 minutes in a 122–102 win over the Orlando Magic. Korver helped the Cavaliers go 12–1 over the first three rounds of the playoffs to reach the 2017 NBA Finals. There they faced the Golden State Warriors and were defeated in five games. ==== 2017–18 season ==== On July 12, 2017, Korver re-signed with the Cavaliers. On November 13, 2017, he scored 19 of his 21 points in the fourth quarter to spark a huge comeback for the Cavaliers, lifting them to a 104–101 win over the New York Knicks after they outscored New York 43–25 in the fourth. On January 6, 2018, in a 131–127 win over the Orlando Magic, Korver tied Paul Pierce for fourth place on the career 3-pointers list with 2,143. Two days later, he hit four 3-pointers and had 19 points off the bench in a 127–99 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves, passing Pierce for fourth place on the NBA's all-time list in 3-pointers made with 2,147. On February 9, 2018, he scored a season-high 30 points in a 123–107 win over the Atlanta Hawks. He made 7 of 13 from 3-point range and finished two points from matching his career high of 32. It was his first 30-point game since February 21, 2007. Korver went 794 games between 30-point games, marking the longest stretch between 30-point games in NBA history. The Cavaliers returned to the NBA Finals in 2018, where they lost 4–0 to the Warriors. ==== 2018–19 season ==== On October 30, 2018, in a 136–114 win over the Atlanta Hawks, Korver reached 11,000 career points. ===Return to Utah (2018–2019)=== On November 29, 2018, Korver was traded to the Utah Jazz in exchange for Alec Burks and two future second-round draft picks. On January 12, 2019, against the Chicago Bulls, Korver passed Jason Terry (2,282) to move into fourth place on the NBA's all-time 3-pointers list. On July 6, 2019, the Memphis Grizzlies acquired Korver from the Jazz as part of a package for Mike Conley Jr. The following day Korver was traded to the Phoenix Suns along with Jevon Carter in exchange for Josh Jackson, De'Anthony Melton, and a 2020 second-round pick. He was subsequently waived by the Suns. ===Milwaukee Bucks (2019–2020)=== On July 25, 2019, Korver signed a one-year deal with the Milwaukee Bucks. On March 8, 2020, in a game where Korver saw increased minutes due to injuries, he scored a season-high 23 points, and tied a season- high five three-pointers made, in a 109–95 loss to the Denver Nuggets. On August 10, 2020, Korver scored 19 points and grabbed 4 rebounds in only 22 minutes of playing time in a 114–108 loss to the Toronto Raptors. Korver's final NBA game was played in Game 5 of the 2020 Eastern Conference Semifinals on September 8th, 2020 in a 94–103 loss to the Miami Heat. In his final game, Korver played for 6 minutes and recorded 3 points. He did not sign with any team for 2020–21 season to spend more time with his family, despite not announcing his retirement. ==Coaching career== In August 2021, Korver was hired by the Brooklyn Nets as a player development coach. == Executive career == On July 20, 2022, Korver joined the Atlanta Hawks as the team's director of player affairs and development. On January 16, 2023, the Atlanta Hawks named Korver Assistant General Manager. ==Career statistics== ===NBA=== ====Regular season==== |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia | 74 || 0 || 11.9 || .352 || .391 || .792 || 1.5 || .5 || .3 || .1 || 4.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia | 82 || 57 || 32.5 || .418 || .405 || .854 || 4.6 || 2.2 || 1.3 || .4 || 11.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia | style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 43 || 31.3 || .430 || .420 || .849 || 3.3 || 2.0 || .8 || .3 || 11.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia | 74 || 1 || 30.9 || .440 || .430 || bgcolor="CFECEC" | .914* || 3.5 || 1.4 || .8 || .3 || 14.4 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia | 25 || 0 || 26.3 || .396 || .352 || .912 || 2.9 || 1.3 || .8 || .2 || 10.0 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Utah | 50 || 0 || 21.5 || .474 || .388 || .917 || 2.0 || 1.4 || .4 || .5 || 9.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Utah | 78 || 2 || 24.0 || .438 || .386 || .882 || 3.3 || 1.8 || .6 || .4 || 9.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Utah | 52 || 0 || 18.3 || .493 || bgcolor="EOCEF2" | .536 || .796 || 2.1 || 1.7 || .5 || .2 || 7.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Chicago | 82 || 0 || 20.1 || .434 || .415 || .885 || 1.8 || 1.5 || .4 || .2 || 8.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Chicago | 65 || 7 || 22.6 || .432 || .435 || .833 || 2.4 || 1.7 || .6 || .2 || 8.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 74 || 60 || 30.5 || .461 || .457 || .859 || 4.0 || 2.0 || .9 || .5 || 10.9 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 71 || 71 || 33.9 || .475 || bgcolor="CFECEC" | .472* || .926 || 4.0 || 2.9 || 1.0 || .3 || 12.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 75 || 75 || 32.2 || .487 || bgcolor="CFECEC" | .492* || .898 || 4.1 || 2.6 || .7 || .6 || 12.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text- align:left;"| Atlanta | 80 || 80 || 30.0 || .434 || .398 || .833 || 3.3 || 2.1 || .8 || .4 || 9.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 32 || 21 || 27.9 || .441 || .409 || .889 || 2.8 || 2.3 || .7 || .4 || 9.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland | 35 || 1 || 24.5 || .487 ||bgcolor="CFECEC" | .485* || .933 || 2.7 || 1.0 || .3 || .2 || 10.7 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland | 73 || 4 || 21.6 || .459 ||.436 || .889 || 2.3 || 1.2 || .4 || .4 || 9.2 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland | 16 || 0 || 15.7 || .461 ||.463 || .813 || 1.8 || 1.1 || .2 || .1 || 6.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Utah | 54 || 0 || 20.1 || .408 ||.384 || .825 || 2.5 || 1.2 || .4 || .2 || 9.1 |- | style="text- align:left;"| | style="text-align:left;"| Milwaukee | 58 || 1 || 16.6 || .430 ||.418 || .854 || 2.1 || 1.2 || .4 || .2 || 6.7 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 1,232 || 423 || 25.3 || .442 || .429 || .877 || 3.0 || 1.7 || .7 || .3 || 9.7 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| All-Star | 1 || 0 || 15.6 || .538 || .583 || .000 || 1.0 || 2.0 || .0 || .0 || 21.0 ====Playoffs==== |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2005 | style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia | 5 || 5 || 29.4 || .286 || .292 || 1.000 || 2.6 || 1.6 || .8 || .2 || 5.0 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2008 | style="text-align:left;"| Utah | 12 || 0 || 21.6 || .411 || .289 || .920 || 2.2 || .6 || .3 || .7 || 7.8 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2009 | style="text-align:left;"| Utah | 5 || 2 || 27.2 || .391 || .462 || .714 || 2.2 || 2.6 || .6 || .2 || 10.6 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2010 | style="text-align:left;"| Utah | 10 || 0 || 21.0 || .525 || .478 || .889 || 1.1 || 1.3 || .5 || .0 || 8.3 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2011 | style="text-align:left;"| Chicago | 16 || 0 || 17.4 || .388 || .423 || 1.000 || 1.2 || 1.1 || .5 || .2 || 6.6 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2012 | style="text-align:left;"| Chicago | 6 || 0 || 15.7 || .409 || .308 || .500 || 1.7 || 1.5 || .5 || .5 || 3.8 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2013 | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 6 || 2 || 29.5 || .388 || .353 || .917 || 3.3 || .7 || .3 || .7 || 10.2 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2014 | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 7 || 7 || 35.1 || .455 || .426 || .917 || 5.3 || .7 || .6 || .3 || 13.4 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2015 | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 14 || 14 || 37.6 || .391 || .355 || .813 || 5.0 || 2.4 || 1.4 || 1.1 || 11.1 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2016 | style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta | 10 || 8 || 31.6 || .467 || .444 || 1.000 || 4.8 || 1.0 || .9 || .4 || 10.3 |- | style="text- align:left;"| 2017 | style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland | style="background:#cfecec;"| 18* || 0 || 18.1 || .425 || .391 || 1.000 || 1.7 || .7 || .4 || .3 || 5.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2018 | style="text- align:left;"| Cleveland | 22 || 11 || 23.0 || .418 || .413 || .864 || 2.4 || .9 || .4 || .4 || 8.3 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2019 | style="text- align:left;"| Utah | 4 || 0 || 7.5 || .375 || .333 || .667 || 1.3 || .0 || .0 || .0 || 2.5 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2020 | style="text-align:left;"| Milwaukee | 10 || 0 || 11.9 || .426 || .405 || 1.000 || .8 || .1 || .3 || .1 || 6.2 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 145 || 49 || 23.2 || .417 || .391 || .895 || 2.5 || 1.0 || .6 || .4 || 8.0 ===College=== |- | style="text-align:left;"| 1999–00 | style="text- align:left;"| Creighton | 33 || 1 || 18.2 || .475 || .434 || .895 || 3.1 || 1.0 || .6 || .2 || 8.8 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2000–01 | style="text- align:left;"| Creighton | 32 || 32 || 29.4 || .470 || .452 || .867 || 5.8 || 2.0 || 1.8 || .4 || 14.6 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2001–02 | style="text- align:left;"| Creighton | 29 || 28 || 31.6 || .478 || .429 || .890 || 5.5 || 3.3 || 1.6 || .6 || 15.1 |- | style="text-align:left;"| 2002–03 | style="text- align:left;"| Creighton | 34 || 34 || 31.8 || .468 || .480 || .908 || 6.4 || 3.1 || 1.5 || .7 || 17.8 |- class="sortbottom" | style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career | 128 || 95 || 27.7 || .472 || .453 || .891 || 5.2 || 2.3 || 1.3 || .5 || 14.1 ==Awards, honors, and records== thumb|Korver at the 2014 World Basketball Festival ===NBA=== *All-Star (2015) *NBA Sportsmanship Award (2015) * 4× NBA three-point field goal percentage leader (2010, 2014, 2015, 2017) *NBA free throw percentage leader (2007) *NBA three-point field goals made leader (2005) *NBA record for highest three-point shooting percentage in a regular season (53.6%): 2010 *NBA record for most seasons leading league in three-point percentage (4) ====Atlanta Hawks==== *Single-season 3-point field goal percentage (.492, 2014-15) *Career 3-point field goal percentage (.452) ====Utah Jazz==== *Single-season 3-point field goal percentage (.536, 2009-10) ===NCAA=== *Missouri Valley Conference career made three-pointers record (371) *Missouri Valley Conference single season made three-pointers record (123): 2003 *Consensus Second Team All-American: 2003 *Honorable Mention All-American by Associated Press: 2002 *Missouri Valley Conference Player of the Year: 2002, 2003 *First Team All-Missouri Valley Conference: 2002, 2003 *Second Team All-Missouri Valley Conference: 2001 *Missouri Valley Conference tournament MVP: 2002, 2003 *Missouri Valley Conference All-Tournament Team: 2001, 2002, 2003 *Missouri Valley Conference All-Freshman Team: 2000 *Missouri Valley Conference All-Bench Team: 2000 *Guardians Classic Omaha Regional MVP: 2003 *Guardians Classic Tournament MVP: 2003 *Guardians Classic All-Tournament Team: 2003 *CollegeInsider.com Mid-Major Player of the Year: 2003 *CollegeInsider.com Mid-Major All-America Team: 2002, 2003 ==Personal life== Korver has three brothers, Klayton, Kaleb and Kirk (1990–2018), all of whom played Division I basketball. Klayton was a guard/forward for the Drake Bulldogs; Kaleb a guard for the Creighton Bluejays; and Kirk a forward for the UMKC Kangaroos. His mother Laine played high school basketball and once scored 74 points in a game. Korver's father Kevin is a pastor in Pella, Iowa, and his uncle Kris is the head basketball coach at Northwestern College in Orange City, Iowa. His cousin Kari Korver is a former UCLA women's basketball player. Korver married Juliet Richardson on August 10, 2011. Their daughter Kyra Elyse was born on December 5, 2012. His wife delivered their first boy, Knox Elliot, on May 28, 2010. Knox plays AAU basketball for the Iowa Breakers in Mason City Iowa Their second son, Koen, was born on November 7, 2016. Korver founded the Kyle Korver Foundation, which contributes to many philanthropic causes. He held a coat drive while with the 76ers, where he collected and donated coats to children in need. Korver added a new line of clothing called Seer Outfitters connected to his foundation to help underprivileged children. In 2013, he started in October the "Socktober Drive" in which he collects socks to donate to homeless people in Atlanta. Korver has also participated in the NBA's Basketball Without Borders outreach program in Africa, China, Brazil and India. Korver is a Christian. In March 2018, Korver took a leave of absence from the Cavaliers following the death of his brother Kirk, who died just before he was about to receive a liver transplant after suffering an unknown illness that caused multiple organ failure. He is also an activist on Instagram, lending support to Black Lives Matter Movement, increase in voting turnout, suicide awareness, clean water in poor countries and anti-slavery. ==See also== * List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders * List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders ==References== ==External links== * Category:1981 births Category:Living people Category:All-American college men's basketball players Category:American Christians Category:American men's basketball players Category:Atlanta Hawks players Category:Basketball players from Iowa Category:Chicago Bulls players Category:Cleveland Cavaliers players Category:Creighton Bluejays men's basketball players Category:Milwaukee Bucks players Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars Category:New Jersey Nets draft picks Category:People from Paramount, California Category:People from Pella, Iowa Category:Philadelphia 76ers players Category:Shooting guards Category:Small forwards Category:Basketball players from Los Angeles County, California Category:Utah Jazz players |
The history of construction embraces many other fields, including structural engineering, civil engineering, city growth and population growth, which are relatives to branches of technology, science, history, and architecture. The fields allow both modern and ancient construction to be analyzed, as well as the structures, building materials, and tools used. Construction has evolved and undergone different trends over time, marked by a few key principles: durability of the materials used, increase in building height and span, the degree of control exercised over the interior environment, and finally, the energy available for the construction process. ==Chronological development== ===Neolithic construction=== thumb|A reconstruction of a pit-house type dwelling made with mammoth bones|left The Neolithic, also known as the New Stone Age, was a time period roughly from 9000 BC to 5000 BC named because it was the last period of the age before woodworking began. The tools available were made from natural materials, including bone, hide, stone, wood, grasses, animal fibers, and water. Various tools for cutting were used such as the hand axe, chopper, adze, and celt, as well as tools to scrape or chop, such as the flake tool, and tools to pound, pierce, roll, pull and lever. Building materials included bones such as mammoth ribs, hide, stone, metal, bark, bamboo, clay, lime plaster, and more. For example, the first bridges made by humans were probably simply wooden logs placed across a stream and later timber trackways. In addition to living in caves and rock shelters, the first buildings were simple shelters, tents like the Inuit's tupiq, and huts sometimes built as pit-houses meant to suit the basic needs of protection from the elements and sometimes as fortifications for safety such as the crannog. They were built self-sufficiently by their inhabitants rather than by specialist builders, using locally available materials and traditional designs and methods, which together are called vernacular architecture.The very simplest shelters, tents, leave no traces. Because of this, what little can be said about very early construction is mostly conjecture and based on what is known about the way nomadic hunter-gatherers and herdsmen in remote areas build shelters today. The absence of metal tools placed limitations on the materials that could be worked, but it was still possible to build quite elaborate stone structures with ingenuity using dry stone walling techniques such as at Skara Brae in Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village. The first mud bricks, formed with the hands rather than wooden moulds, belong to the Neolithic period and were found in Jericho. One of the largest structures of this period was the Neolithic long house. In all cases of timber framed and log structures in these very early cultures, only the very lowest parts of the walls and post holes are unearthed in archaeological excavations, making reconstruction of the upper parts of these buildings largely conjectural. Neolithic architecture ranges from the tent to the megalith (an arrangement of large stones) and rock-cut architecture which are frequently temples, tombs, and dwellings. The most remarkable Neolithic structure in Western Europe is the iconic megalith known as Stonehenge, regarded by some archaeologists as displaying methods of timber construction such as at woodhenge translated into stone, a process known as petrification. The now ruinous remains are of post and lintel construction and include massive sandstone lintels which were located on supporting uprights by means of mortise and tenon joints; the lintels themselves being end-jointed by the use of tongue and groove joints. There is also evidence of prefabrication of the stonework; the symmetrical geometric arrays of stone clearly indicate that the builders of Stonehenge had mastered sophisticated surveying methods. Neolithic villages large enough to have rural and urban features are called proto-cities to distinguish them from cities beginning with Eridu. ===Gallery of Neolithic tools=== File:Canto tallado talando un arbol.png|Man using a hand axe File:Neolithic stone axe with handle ehenside tarn british museum.JPG|A Neolithic stone axe with a wooden handle. File:Museum Quintana - Neolithische Sichel.jpg|A sickle for harvesting crops and thatching materials. File:CucuteniHornmadeToools.JPG|Various bone tools from China File:Plaussig bone hammer 01.jpg|Bone hammer from the Linear Pottery Culture File:Archäologie im Parkhaus Opéra - Horgener Kultur - Knochenmeissel 2013-03-10 16-26-02.JPG|A chisel made of bone, Sechseläutenplatz, Zürich File:Sledge runner from Lapland, radiocarbon dated to 4060 to 3950 BC - National Museum of Finland - DSC04170.JPG|A sledge for moving heavy materials. File:Perforador.png|A stone drill ==Copper Age and Bronze Age construction== thumb|A bronze saw from the archaeological site of Akrotiri - Museum of prehistoric Thera - Santorini, Greece. Image: Norbert Nagel / Wikimedia Commons The Copper Age is the early part of the Bronze Age. Bronze is an alloy made when tin is added to copper, and brass is copper with zinc. Copper came into use before 5,000 BC and bronze around 3,100 BC, although the times vary by region. Copper and bronze were used for the same types of tools as stone such as axes and chisels, but the new, less brittle, more durable material cut better. Bronze was cast into desired shapes and if damaged could be recast. A new tool developed in the copper age is the saw. Other uses of copper and bronze were to "harden" the cutting edge of tools such as the Egyptians using copper and bronze points for working soft stone including quarrying blocks and making rock-cut architecture. During the Bronze Age the corbelled arch came into use such as for beehive tombs. The wheel came into use but was not common until much later. Heavy loads were moved on boats, sledges (a primitive sled) or on rollers. The Egyptians began building stone temples with the post and lintel construction method and the Greeks and Romans followed this style. ==Iron Age construction== The Iron Age is a cultural period from roughly 1200 BC to 50 BC with the widespread use of iron for tools and weapons. Iron is not much harder than bronze, but by adding carbon to iron it becomes steel, which was being produced after about 300 BC. Steel can be hardened and tempered producing a sharp, durable cutting edge. A new woodworking tool allowed by the use of steel is the hand-plane. === Ancient Mesopotamia=== The earliest large- scale buildings for which evidence survives have been found in ancient Mesopotamia. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilizations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took particular care to build them out of materials that last, which has ensured that very considerable parts have remained intact. Major technical achievement is evidenced by the construction of great cities such as Uruk and Ur. The Ziggurat of Ur is an outstanding building of the period, despite major reconstruction work. Another fine example is the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil in modern Iran. Cities created demands for new technologies such as drains for animal and human sewage and paved streets. Archaeological evidence has shown the existence of pitched- brick vaults such as at Tell al-Rimah in what is now Iraq. ====Materials==== The chief building material was the mud-brick, formed in wooden moulds similar to those used to make adobe bricks. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginable and used with considerable sophistication. Drawings survive on clay tablets from later periods showing that buildings were set out on brick modules. By 3500 BC, fired bricks came into use and surviving records show a very complex division of labour into separate tasks and trades. Fired bricks and stone were used for pavement. Life in general was governed by complex ritual and this extended to rituals for setting-out buildings and moulding the first bricks. Contrary to popular belief the arch was not invented by the Romans, but was used in these civilizations. The later Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly Babylon and thence Susa, developed glazed brickwork to a very high degree, decorating the interiors and exteriors of their buildings with glazed brick reliefs, examples of which survive in the Tehran archaeological museum, the Louvre Museum in Paris and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. File:Babylon relief.jpg|Detail of the Ishtar Gate (575 BC) showing the exceptionally fine glazed brickwork of the later period. Glazed bricks have been found from the 13th century B.C. File:Voûte en tranches inclinées.jpg|The pitched-brick vault is a type found in Mesopotamia circa 2000 BC. File:Babylon, 1932.jpg|Babylon,the archaeological site in 1932, before major reconstruction work undertaken by Sadam Hussein File:India - Sights & Culture - Rural Brick Making Kiln 02 (4040024973).jpg|Dried bricks stacked ready for firing without the use of a kiln. File:Kom Ombo13.JPG|Egyptian stonework showing tool marks and butterfly interlocks in the Temple of Kom Ombo begun 180-145 BC ===Ancient Egypt=== As opposed to the cultures of ancient Mesopotamia which built in brick, the pharaohs of Egypt built huge structures in stone. The arid climate has preserved much of the ancient buildings. ====Materials==== Adobe (sun-baked mud brick) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of mud brick construction. Extensive storehouses with mud-brick vaults also survive, all constructed with sloping courses to avoid the need for formwork. The grandest buildings were constructed in stone, often from massive masonry blocks. The techniques used to move massive blocks used in pyramids and temples have been subject to extensive debate. Some authors have suggested that the larger may not be cut stone but fabricated with concrete. ====Technology==== Although the Egyptians achieved extraordinary feats of engineering, they appear to have done so with relatively primitive technology. As far as is known they did not use wheels or pulleys. They transported massive stones over great distances using rollers, ropes and sledges hauled by large numbers of workers. The ancient Egyptians are credited with inventing the ramp, lever, lathe, oven, ship, paper, irrigation system, window, awning, door, glass, a form of plaster of Paris, the bath, lock, shadoof, weaving, a standardized measurement system, geometry, silo, a method of drilling stone, saw, steam power, proportional scale drawings, enameling, veneer, plywood, rope truss, and more. There are no surviving Egyptian manuals so there has been considerable speculation on how stones were lifted to great heights and obelisks erected. Most theories centre on the use of ramps. Imhotep, who lived circa 2650–2600 BC, is credited with being the first recorded architect and engineer. ====Achievements==== The pyramids are chiefly impressive for their enormous size and the staggering manpower that must have been employed in their construction. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Giza which remained the tallest structure in the world for 3800 years (see List of tallest freestanding structures in the world). The engineering problems involved were chiefly to do with the transport of blocks, sometimes over long distances, their movement into location and exact alignment. It is now generally agreed that the skilled building workers were respected and well treated, but undoubtedly very large numbers of labourers were necessary to provide the brute force. The methods used in the construction of the pyramids have been the subject of considerable research and discussion (see Egyptian pyramid construction techniques). File:Great Pyramid of Giza 2010.jpg|Great Pyramid of Giza, the tallest building in the world for over 3800 years File:Menkaures Pyramid Giza Egypt.jpg|Menkaures Pyramid, Giza ===Ancient Greece=== The ancient Greeks, like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. However, many structures do survive, some of which are in a very good state of repair, although some have been partly reconstructed or re-erected in the modern era. The most dramatic are the Greek Temples. The Greeks made many advances in technology including plumbing, the spiral staircase, central heating, urban planning, the water wheel, the crane, and more. The oldest construction drawing is in the Temple of Apollo at Didyma. An unfinished stone wall was etched with the profiles of columns and mouldings, and the wall was never finished so the drawing was not erased: a rare glimpse into the history of working construction drawings. No timber structures survive (roofs, floors etc.), so knowledge of how these were put together is limited. The spans are, in the main, limited and suggest very simple beam and post structures spanning stone walls. For the longer spans, it is uncertain if the Greeks or Romans invented the truss but the Romans certainly used timber roof trusses. Before 650 B.C.E. the now famous ancient Greek temples were built of wood, but after this date began to be built of stone. The process of a timber structure being repeated in stone is called petrification or petrified carpentry. Fired clay was mainly restricted to roofing tiles and associated decorations, but these were quite elaborate. The roof tiles allow a low roof pitch characteristic of ancient Greek architecture. Fired bricks began to be employed with lime mortar. Very prominent buildings were roofed in stone tiles, which mimicked the form of their terracotta counterparts. While later cultures tended to construct their stone buildings with thin skins of finished stones over rubble cores, the Greeks tended to build out of large cut blocks, joined with metal cramps. This was a slow, expensive and laborious process which limited the number of buildings that could be constructed. The metal cramps often failed through corrosion. Building structures mostly used a simple beam and column system without vaults or arches, which based strict limits on the spans that could be achieved. However, the Greeks did construct some groin vaults, arch bridges and, with the Egyptians, the first high rise, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Greek mathematics was technically advanced and it is certain that they employed and understood the principles of pulleys, which would have enabled them to build jibs and cranes to lift heavy stonework to the upper parts of buildings. Their surveying skills were exceptional, enabling them to set out the incredibly exact optical corrections of buildings like the Parthenon, although the methods used remain a mystery. Simpler decoration, such as fluting on columns, was simply left until the drums of the columns were cut in place. The ancient Greeks never developed the strong mortars which became an important feature of Roman construction. ===Roman Empire=== thumb|The hand plane developed in the Iron Age and was known to be used by the Romans. These Roman planes were found in Germany and date to the 1st to 3rd century ADIn striking contrast to previous cultures, an enormous amount is known about Roman building construction. A very large amount survives, including complete intact buildings like the Pantheon, Rome and very well preserved ruins at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The first surviving treatise on architecture is by Vitruvius, which includes extensive passages on construction techniques. ====Materials==== The great Roman development in building materials was the use of hydraulic lime mortar called Roman cement. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash called a pozzolana the mortar would harden under water. This provided them with a strong material for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the wall and then filled the cavity with massive amounts of concrete, effectively using the brickwork as permanent shuttering (formwork). Later they used wooden shuttering that was removed for the concrete to cure. An example of a temple made of Roman concrete in the 1st century BC is the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, Italy. The concrete was made of nothing more than rubble and mortar. It was cheap and very easy to produce and required relatively unskilled labour to use, enabling the Romans to build on an unprecedented scale. They not only used it for walls but also to form arches, barrel vaults and domes, which they built over huge spans. The Romans developed systems of hollow pots for making their domes and sophisticated heating and ventilation systems for their thermal baths. The Romans substituted bronze for wood in the roof truss(s) of the Pantheon's portico which was commissioned between 27 BC and 14 AD. The bronze trusses were unique but in 1625 Pope Urban VIII had the trusses replaced with wood and melted the bronze down for other uses. The Romans also made bronze roof tiles. Lead was used for roof covering material and water supply and waste pipes. The Latin name for lead is , thus plumbing. Romans also made use of glass in construction with colored glass in mosaics and clear glass for windows. Glass came to be fairly commonly used in windows of public buildings. Central heating in the form of a hypocaust, a raised floor heated by the exhaust of a wood or coal fire. ====Organisation of labour==== The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by slaves or free men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings extremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this could be achieved was by the application of vast numbers of workers to the task. ====Technology==== The inventions of the waterwheel, sawmill, and arch were by the Romans. The Romans also began using glass for architectural purposes after about 100 CE and used double glazing as insulated glazing. Roman roads included corduroy roads and paved roads, sometimes supported on raft or pile foundations and bridges. Vitruvius gives details of many Roman machines. The Romans developed sophisticated timber cranes allowing them to lift considerable weights to great heights. The upper limit of lifting appears to have been about 100 tonnes. Trajan's column in Rome contains some of the largest stones ever lifted in a Roman building, and engineers are still uncertain exactly how it was achieved. A list of the longest, highest and deepest Roman structures can be found in the List of ancient architectural records. Roman building ingenuity extended over bridges, aqueducts, and covered amphitheatres. Their sewerage and water-supply works were remarkable and some systems are still in operation today. The only aspect of Roman construction for which very little evidence survives is the form of timber roof structures, none of which seem to have survived intact. Possibly, triangulated roof trusses were built, this being the only conceivable way of constructing the immense spans achieved, the longest exceeding 30 metres (see List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs). ===China=== China is a cultural hearth area of eastern Asia. Many Far East building methods and styles evolved from China. A famous example of Chinese construction is the Great Wall of China, built between the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. The Great Wall was built with rammed earth, stones, and wood and later bricks and tiles with lime mortar. Wooden gates blocked passageways. The oldest archaeological examples of mortise and tenon type woodworking joints were found in China dating to about 5000 BC. The Yingzao Fashi is the oldest complete technical manual on Chinese architecture. The Chinese followed the state rules for thousands of years so many of the ancient, surviving buildings were built with the methods and materials still used in the 11th century. Chinese temples are typically wooden timber frames on an earth and stone base. The oldest wooden building is the Nanchan Temple (Wutai) dating from 782 AD. However, Chinese temple builders regularly rebuild the wooden temples so some parts of these ancient buildings are of different ages. Traditional Chinese timber frames do not use trusses but rely only on post and lintel construction. An important architectural element are the dougong bracket sets. The Songyue Pagoda is the oldest brick pagoda dating to 523 AD. It was built with yellow fired bricks laid in clay mortar, with twelve sides and fifteen levels of roofs. The Anji Bridge is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge built in 595–605 AD. The bridge is built with sandstone joined with dovetail, iron joints. Most of the (restored) Great Wall sections seen today were built with bricks, and cut stone blocks/slabs. Where bricks and blocks were unavailable, tamped earth, uncut stones, wood, and even reeds were used as local materials. Wood was used for forts and as an auxiliary material. Where local timber was not enough, it was delivered in. ====Stone Great Wall sections==== In mountain areas, workers quarried stone to build the Great Wall. Using the mountains themselves as footings, the outer layer of the Great Wall was built with stone blocks (and bricks), and filled with uncut stone and anything else available (like earth and dead workers). ====Soil Great Wall sections==== On the plains, Great Wall workers made use of local soil (sand, loess, etc.) and rammed it into compact layers. Jiayuguan's Great Wall section in west China was mainly built with dusty loess soil, claimed as "the most erodible soil on the planet". ====Sand (and reed/willow) Great Wall sections==== Sand does not stick together, so it was used as a fill material between reed and willow layers to build sections of the wall. West China around Dunhuang is desert. Innovative builders there made use of reeds and willow brought in from rivers and oases to build a strong wall. Jade Gate Pass (Yumenguan) Great Wall Fort was built with 20-cm layers of sand and reed, an impressive 9 meters high. ====Brick Great Wall sections==== The Ming Dynasty Great Wall was mostly built with bricks. To build a strong wall with bricks, they used lime mortar. Workers built brick and cement factories with local materials near the wall. == Middle Ages == The Middle Ages of Europe span from the 5th to 15th centuries AD, from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and is divided into Pre- Romanesque and Romanesque periods. Fortifications, castles and cathedrals were the greatest construction projects. The Middle Ages began with the end of the Roman era and many Roman building techniques were lost. But some Roman techniques, including the use of iron ring-beams, appear to have been used in the Palatine Chapel at Aachen, c. 800 AD, where it is believed builders from the Lombard Kingdom in northern Italy contributed to the work.Stephany, Erich Der Dom zu Aachen (Aachen Cathedral) Arend und Ortmann, Aachen, 1972 A revival of stone buildings in the 9th century and the Romanesque style of architecture began in the late 11th century. Also notable are the stave churches in Scandinavia. ===Materials=== Most buildings in Northern Europe were constructed of timber until c. 1000 AD. In Southern Europe adobe remained predominant. Brick continued to be manufactured in Italy throughout the period 600–1000 AD but elsewhere the craft of brick-making had largely disappeared and with it the methods for burning tiles. Roofs were largely thatched. Houses were small and gathered around a large communal hall. Monasticism spread more sophisticated building techniques. The Cistercians may have been responsible for reintroducing brick-making to the area from the Netherlands, through Denmark and Northern Germany to Poland leading to Backsteingotik. Brick remained the most popular prestige material in these areas throughout the period. Elsewhere buildings were typically in timber or where it could be afforded, stone. Medieval stone walls were constructed using cut blocks on the outside of the walls and rubble infill, with weak lime mortars. The poor hardening properties of these mortars were a continual problem, and the settlement of the rubble filling of Romanesque and Gothic walls and piers is still a major cause for concern. ===Design=== There were no standard textbooks on building in the Middle Ages. Master craftsmen transferred their knowledge through apprenticeships and from father to son. Trade secrets were closely guarded, as they were the source of a craftsman's livelihood. Drawings only survive from the later period. Parchment was too expensive to be commonly used and paper did not appear until the end of the period. Models were used for designing structures and could be built to large scales. Details were mostly designed at full size on tracing floors, some of which survive. ===Techniques=== Romanesque buildings of the period 600–1100 AD were entirely roofed in timber or had stone barrel vaults covered by timber roofs. The Gothic style of architecture with its vaults, flying buttresses and pointed gothic arches developed in the twelfth century, and in the centuries that followed ever more incredible feats of constructional daring were achieved in stone. Thin stone vaults and towering buildings were constructed using rules derived by trial and error. Failures were frequent, particularly in difficult areas such as crossing towers. The pile driver was invented around 1500. ===Achievements=== The scale of fortifications and castle building in the Middle Ages was remarkable, but the outstanding buildings of the period were the Gothic cathedrals with thin masonry vaults and walls of glass. Outstanding examples are: Beauvais Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral, King's College Chapel and Notre Dame, Paris. ==Renaissance== The Renaissance in Italy, the invention of moveable type and the Reformation changed the character of construction. The rediscovery of Vitruvius had a strong influence. During the Middle Ages buildings were designed by the people that built them. The master mason and master carpenters learnt their trades by word of mouth and relied on experience, models and rules of thumb to determine the sizes of building elements. Vitruvius, however, describes in detail the education of the perfect architect who, he said, must be skilled in all the arts and sciences. Filippo Brunelleschi was one of the first of the new style of architects. He started life as a goldsmith and educated himself in Roman architecture by studying ruins. He went on to engineer the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. ===Materials=== The major breakthroughs in this period were to do with the technology of conversion. Water mills in most of western Europe were used to saw timber and convert trees into planks. Bricks were used in ever increasing quantities. In Italy the brickmakers were organised into guilds although the kilns were mostly in rural areas because of the risk of fire and easy availability of firewood and brickearth. Brickmakers were typically paid by the brick, which gave them an incentive to make them too small. As a result, legislation was laid down regulating the minimum sizes and each town kept measures against which bricks had to be compared. An increasing amount of ironwork was used in roof carpentry for straps and tension members. The iron was fixed using forelock bolts. The screw-threaded bolt (and nut) could be made and are found in clockmaking in this period, but they were labour- intensive and thus not used on large structures. Roofing was typically of terracotta roof tiles. In Italy they followed Roman precedents. In northern Europe plain tiles were used. Stone, where available, remained the material of choice for prestige buildings. ===Design=== The rebirth of the idea of an architect in the Renaissance radically changed the nature of building design. The Renaissance reintroduced the classical style of architecture. Leon Battista Alberti's treatise on architecture raised the subject to a new level, defining architecture as something worthy of study by the aristocracy. Previously it was viewed merely as a technical art, suited only to the artisan. The resulting change in status of architecture and more importantly the architect is key to understanding the changes in the process of design. The Renaissance architect was often an artist (a painter or sculptor) who had little knowledge of building technology but a keen grasp of the rules of classical design. The architect thus had to provide detailed drawings for the craftsmen setting out the disposition of the various parts. This was what is called the process of design, from the Italian word for drawing. Occasionally the architect would get involved in particularly difficult technical problems but the technical side of architecture was mainly left up to the craftsmen. This change in the way buildings were designed had a fundamental difference on the way problems were approached. Where the Medieval craftsmen tended to approach a problem with a technical solution in mind, the Renaissance architects started with an idea of what the end product needed to look like and then searched around for a way of making it work. This led to extraordinary leaps forward in engineering. thumb|right|The structure of the dome of Florence cathedral , showing the double skin structure ===Technical advances=== The wish to return to classical architecture created problems for the Renaissance buildings. The builders did not use concrete and thus comparable vaults and domes had to be replicated in brick or stone. The greatest technical feats were undoubtedly in these areas. The first major breakthrough was Brunelleschi's project for the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore. Brunelleschi managed to devise a way of building a huge dome without formwork, relying instead on the weight of the bricks and the way they were laid to keep them in position and the shape of the dome to keep it standing. The exact way the dome was built is still subject to debate today as it is not possible to take the dome apart to study its construction without destroying it. The dome is a double skin, linked by ribs, with a series of wooden and stone chains around it at intervals to attempt to deal with hoop stresses. Brunelleschi's dome was completed (up to the base of the lantern) in 1446. Its size was soon surpassed by the dome of St Peter's, built using flying scaffolding supported on the cornices and constructed using two stone shells. ==The seventeenth century== The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern science which would have profound effects on building construction in the centuries to come. The major breakthroughs were towards the end of the century when architect- engineers began to use experimental science to inform the form of their buildings. However it was not until the eighteenth century that engineering theory developed sufficiently to allow sizes of members to be calculated. Seventeenth-century structures relied strongly on experience, rules of thumb and the use of scale models. ===Materials and tools=== The major breakthrough in this period was in the manufacture of glass, with the first cast plate glass being developed in France. Iron was increasingly employed in structures. Christopher Wren used iron hangers to suspend floor beams at Hampton Court Palace, and iron rods to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strengthen the dome of St Paul's Cathedral. Most buildings had stone ashlar surfaces covering rubble cores, held together with lime mortar. Experiments were made mixing lime with other materials to provide a hydraulic mortar, but there was still no equivalent of the Roman concrete. In England, France and the Dutch Republic, cut and gauged brickwork was used to provide detailed and ornate facades. The triangulated roof truss was introduced to England and used by Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren. Many tools have been made obsolete by modern technology, but the line gauge, plumb-line, the carpenter's square, the spirit level, and the drafting compass are still in regular use. ===Methods=== Despite the birth of experimental science, the methods of construction in this period remained largely medieval. The same types of crane that had been used in previous centuries were still being employed. Flying scaffolds were employed at St Paul's Cathedral, England and in the dome of St Peters, Rome, but otherwise the same types of timber scaffolding that had been in use centuries before were retained. Cranes and scaffolding depended on timber. Complex systems of pulleys allowed comparatively large loads to be lifted, and long ramps were used to haul loads up to the upper parts of buildings. ==The eighteenth century== The eighteenth century saw the development of many the ideas that had been born in the late seventeenth century. The architects and engineers became increasingly professionalised. Experimental science and mathematical methods became increasingly sophisticated and employed in buildings. At the same time the birth of the industrial revolution saw an increase in the size of cities and increase in the pace and quantity of construction. ===Materials=== The major breakthroughs in this period were in the use of iron (both cast and wrought). Iron columns had been used in Wren's designs for the House of Commons and were used in several early eighteenth-century churches in London, but these supported only galleries. In the second half of the eighteenth century the decreasing costs of iron production allowed the construction of major pieces of iron engineering. The Iron Bridge at Coalbrookdale (1779) is a particularly notable example. Large-scale mill construction required fire-proof buildings and cast iron became increasingly used for columns and beams to carry brick vaults for floors. The Louvre in Paris boasted an early example of a wrought-iron roof. Steel was used in the manufacture of tools but could not be made in sufficient quantities to be used for building. Brick production increased markedly during this period. Many buildings throughout Europe were built of brick, but they were often coated in lime render, sometimes patterned to look like stone. Brick production itself changed little. Bricks were moulded by hand and fired in kilns no different to those used for centuries before. Terracotta in the form of Coade stone was used as an artificial stone in the UK. ==The nineteenth century: Industrial Revolution== The industrial revolution was manifested in new kinds of transportation installations, such as railways, canals and macadam roads. These required large amounts of investment. New construction devices included steam engines, machine tools, explosives and optical surveying. The steam engine combined with two other technologies which blossomed in the nineteenth century, the circular saw and machine cut nails, lead to the use of balloon framing and the decline of traditional timber framing. As steel was mass- produced from the mid-19th century, it was used in the form of I-beams and reinforced concrete. Glass panes also went into mass production, and went from a luxury to a commonplace item. Plumbing appeared, and gave common access to drinking water and sewage collection. Building codes have been applied since the 19th century, with special respect to fire safety. ==The twentieth century== With the Second Industrial Revolution in the early 20th century, elevators and cranes made high rise buildings and skyscrapers possible, while heavy equipment and power tools decreased the workforce needed. Other new technologies were prefabrication and computer-aided design. Trade unions were formed to protect construction workers' interests and occupational safety and health. Personal protective equipment such as hard hats and earmuffs also came into use, and have become mandatory at most sites. From the 20th century, governmental construction projects were used as a part of macroeconomic stimulation policies, especially during the Great Depression (see New Deal). For economy of scale, whole suburbs, towns and cities, including infrastructure, are often planned and constructed within the same project (called megaproject if the cost exceeds US$1 billion), such as Brasília in Brazil, and the Million Programme in Sweden. By the end of the 20th century, ecology, energy conservation and sustainable development had become important issues of construction. ==Academic discipline== There is no established academic discipline of construction history but a growing number of researchers and academics are working in this field, including structural engineers, archaeologists, architects, historians of technology and architectural historians. Although the subject has been studied since the Renaissance and there were a number of important studies in the nineteenth century, it largely went out of fashion in the mid-twentieth century. In the last thirty years there has been an enormous increase in interest in this field, which is vital to the growing practice of building conservation. ===Early writers=== The earliest surviving book detailing historical building techniques is the treatise of the Roman author, Vitruvius, but his approach was neither scholarly nor systematic. Much later, in the Renaissance, Vasari mentions Filippo Brunelleschi's interest in researching Roman building techniques, although if he wrote anything on the subject it does not survive. In the seventeenth century, Rusconi's illustrations for his version of Leon Battista Alberti's treatise explicitly show Roman wall construction, but most of the interest in antiquity was in understanding its proportions and detail and the architects of the time were content to build using current techniques. While early archaeological studies and topographic works such as the engravings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi show Roman construction they were not explicitly analytical and much of what they do show is made up. ===Nineteenth- century studies=== In the nineteenth century, lecturers increasingly illustrated their lectures with images of building techniques used in the past and these type of images increasingly appeared in construction textbooks, such as Rondelet's. The greatest advances, however, were made by English and French (and later German) architects attempting to understand, record and analyse Gothic buildings. Typical of this type of writing are the works of Robert Willis in England, Viollet-le-Duc in France and Ungewitter in Germany. None of these however were seeking to suggest that the history of construction represented a new approach to the subject of architectural history. Auguste Choisy was perhaps the first author to seriously attempt to undertake such a study. ===Early twentieth century studies=== has suggested that it was modernism, with its emphasis on the employment of new materials, that abruptly ended the interest in construction history that appeared to have been growing in the last few decades of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth. With the advent of concrete and steel frame construction, architects, who had been the chief audience for such studies, were no longer as interested as they had been in understanding traditional construction, which suddenly appeared redundant. Very little was thus published between 1920 and 1950. The revival of interest started in archaeology with the studies of Roman construction in the 1950s, but it was not until the 1980s that construction history began to emerge as an independent field. ===Late twentieth century=== By the end of the twentieth century, steel and concrete construction were themselves becoming the subject of historical investigation. The Construction History Society was formed in the UK in 1982. It produces the only academic international journal devoted to the subject, Construction History, twice annually. The International Congress on Construction History is held every three years, with the First International Congress on Construction History held in Madrid in 2003. This has been followed by editions held in Queens College, Cambridge, England (2006), Cottbus (2009), Paris (2012), Chicago (2015), Brussels (2018), and Lisbon (2021). ==See also== * History of architecture * History of structural engineering * History of water supply and sanitation * Construction History Society * Timeline of architecture ==References== ==External links== * Construction |
The Morocco national football team, nicknamed "the Atlas Lions", represents Morocco in men's international football competitions. It is controlled by the Royal Moroccan Football Federation, also known as FRMF. The team's colours are red and green. The team is a member of both FIFA and the Confederation of African Football (CAF). Internationally, Morocco won the 1976 African Cup of Nations, two African Nations Championships, and a FIFA Arab Cup. They have participated in the FIFA World Cup six times. They made history in 1986, when they became the first African team to finish top of a group at a World Cup and the first to reach knockout stages. However, they lost to eventual runners-up West Germany 1–0. Morocco defied all expectations at the 2022 FIFA World Cup, topping their group containing 2018 runners-up Croatia, and defeating high ranking teams such as Belgium, Spain, and Portugal. They thus became the first African nation to ever reach the semi-finals and the third ever semi-finalist not from UEFA or CONMEBOL (after the United States in 1930 and South Korea in 2002). They were knocked out by defending champions and eventual runners-up France and lost in the 3rd place playoffs against Croatia resulting in them finishing 4th, their highest ever finish. The Atlas Lions were ranked 10th in the FIFA World Rankings in April 1998. They were ranked by FIFA as the top African national team for three consecutive years, from 1997 to 1999, and again since December 2022. As of April 2023, Morocco is ranked as the 11th best national team in the world. == History == ===Pre-independence period=== The Moroccan national team was founded in 1928 and played its first game on 22 December of that year against the B team of France, to whom it lost 2–1. This team, formed by the best footballers of the LMFA or the Moroccan Football League (settlers or natives), was active in friendly matches against other North African teams such as those of Algeria and Tunisia. These associations of settler clubs and local footballers, in addition to having their own championship, clashed with each other in a tournament that Morocco won several times, such as in 1948–1949. The LMFA also faced some club teams such as NK Lokomotiva Zagreb in January 1950, as well as France A and France B. Against France A the LMFA made a 1–1 draw in Casablanca in 1941. On 9 September 1954, an earthquake struck the Algerian region of Orléansville (now Chlef) and caused the destruction of the city and the death of over 1,400 people. On 7 October 1954, the French Football Association and the Maghreb inhabitants organized a charity match to raise funds for the families of the victims of the catastrophic event. In the match, held at the Parc de Princes in Paris, a team made up of Moroccans, Algerians and Tunisians played against the national team of France. Led by star Larbi Benbarek, the Maghreb selection managed to win 3–2, a month before the Toussaint Rouge attacks by the Algerian National Liberation Front which marked the beginning of the Algerian War. ===The beginnings of Morocco (1955–1963)=== In 1955, the Royal Moroccan Football Federation was established, at the end of the French protectorate of Morocco, which had lasted since 1912. On 19 October 1957, at the 2nd edition of the Pan Arab Games in Lebanon, Morocco made its debut as an independent country against Iraq, at the Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium, and drew 3–3. At the tournament, Morocco took the first win in its history against Libya, winning 5–1, then beat Tunisia 3–1 to reach the semi-finals. After a 1–1 draw with Syria, lots were drawn to decide who would progress to the final, and Syria were selected at Morocco's expense. Morocco withdrew from the third-place play-off against Lebanon and finished fourth overall. Between 1957 and 1958, Morocco held numerous friendly matches against the National Liberation Front team, the representative of Algeria before its independence in 1958. In 1959, the team took part for the first time in an international competition, the qualifying rounds of the 1960 Rome Olympics. Drawn into a group with Tunisia and Malta, Morocco finished second on goal difference and failed to progress. That same year, the football federation of Morocco joined FIFA. In 1960, Morocco competed in World Cup qualification for the first time. Drawn against Tunisia in the first round, Morocco won the first leg 2–1, while Tunisia won the second leg 2–1. A play-off held in Palermo, Italy also finished in a tie, so a coin toss was used to determine who progressed. Morocco won the toss, and beat Ghana 1–0 on aggregate to reach the inter-continental play-offs. Drawn against Spain, Morocco lost 4–2 on aggregate and thus failed to qualify. In 1961, Morocco held the Pan-Arab Games and won the football tournament, winning all five of their matches. Their third match, against Saudi Arabia, resulted in Morocco's biggest-ever victory, winning 13–1. They also claimed their first two wins against a European team, beating East Germany 2–1 and 2–0. In 1963, the Moroccan team came close to qualifying for the African Cup of Nations. In the decisive play-off against Tunisia, they were defeated 4–1 in Tunis and won 4–2 at home, they were therefore eliminated. At the Mediterranean Games in Naples 1963, they finished fourth after a 2–1 defeat in the final for third place against Spain's reserve team. ===First appearances in international competitions (1963–1976)=== thumb|left|Morocco vs Netherlands in 1964 Morocco participated for the first time in the final phase of an international competition at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. Having qualified under the leadership of manager Mohamed Massoun, the Moroccans were included in a group of three teams due to the withdrawal of North Korea. Morocco lost both their matches, against Hungary (6–0, the team's worst-ever defeat) and Yugoslavia (3–1, despite taking the lead in the second minute via Ali Bouachra). In 1966, the Moroccan Football Association joined the Confederation of African Football and was able to participate in the competitions organized by the CAF. During qualifying for the 1968 Olympics, Morocco refused to play against Israel, and were eventually replaced by Ghana. In 1968 and 1969, the team was engaged in qualifying for the 1970 World Cup in Mexico. Their debut eliminated Senegal (1–0) and Tunisia after a draw. In the final round of the preliminaries, against Sudan and Nigeria, Morocco obtained five points, finishing ahead of Nigeria and qualifying for the first time for the final round of a world championship. Shortly after, Morocco lost the decisive play-off against Algeria to enter the final stage of the 1970 Africa Cup of Nations. Morocco thus became the first African national team to qualify for a world championship after having played in an elimination tournament. The Moroccan team, coached by the Yugoslav Blagoje Vidinić, consisted entirely of players in the Moroccan league, including Driss Bamous and Ahmed Faras. On 3 June 1970, against West Germany, Morocco surprisingly opened the scoring with a goal in the twenty-first minute of the game scored by Houmane Jarir. In the second half, however, the West Germans scored with Uwe Seeler and Gerd Müller and won by 2–1. The Lions of the Atlas then played against Peru. This time the Moroccans conceded three goals in ten minutes to lose 3–0. On 11 June 1970, the eliminated Moroccans drew with Bulgaria 1–1, with a comeback goal in the sixtieth game of Maouhoub Ghazouani. It was the first point obtained by an African national team at the World Cup. In the 1972 Africa Cup of Nations qualification, the Lions of the Atlas ousted Algeria, then they faced Egypt, beating them 3–0 in the first leg and suffering a 3–2 defeat on the way back, yet they qualified for the first time for the final phase of the continental tournament. In the group stage, they accumulated three 1–1 draws against Congo, Sudan and Zaire and were eliminated in the first round. All three Moroccan goals were by Ahmed Faras. Qualifying for the 1972 Olympics with two wins and two draws, Morocco debuted in Group A with a goalless draw against the United States, then lost 3–0 against hosts West Germany and defeated Malaysia 6–0 with a Faras hat-trick, thereby advancing to the second round. Due to defeats against USSR (3–0), Denmark (3–1) and Poland (5–0), they were eliminated from the tournament; finishing bottom of their group. To date, this result remains the best performance of the Atlas Lions at the Olympic football tournament. In the 1974 world cup qualifiers, Morocco successfully passed three qualifying rounds before entering the final round alongside Zambia and Zaire. Losing 4–0 away against Zambia, the Moroccans bounced back in the second game, defeating the same opponent 2–0 at home. They then went to Zaire for their third game but lost 3–0, conceding all three goals in the second half, with Faras leaving the field due to injury. Morocco filed an appeal, trying to get the match to be replayed; it was dismissed by FIFA. In protest, Morocco withdrew from the qualifiers causing the Atlas Lions to miss their final game at home against Zaire which had already qualified for the finals, with FIFA awarding Zaire a 2–0 win on walkover. For the same reason, Morocco also decided not to take part in the 1974 African Cup of Nations qualification. In 1974, Morocco played only two games, both against Algeria, achieving a 2–0 win and a 0–0 draw. Morocco then resumed its regular FIFA and CAF competitions, qualifying for the 1976 Africa Cup of Nations by eliminating Ghana in the last round, but failed to qualify for the 1976 Olympics, being eliminated by Nigeria. ===Between successes and defeats (1976–1986)=== Morocco, coached by the Romanian Virgil Mărdărescu and captained by Faras, took the continental throne at 1976 African Cup of Nations, in his second participation in the competition. Ahmed Makrouh scored the goal of the final match to equalize at 1–1, which gave Morocco the first, and to date, only cup in its history. After failing to qualify for the 1974 FIFA World Cup, they also did not make 1978 and 1982. At the 1978 Africa Cup of Nations, they were eliminated in the first round, while at the 1980 Africa Cup of Nations they won third place, beating Egypt 2–0. They then won the 1983 Mediterranean Games, played at home, thanks to a 3–0 success in the final against Turkey B. Morocco did not qualify for either the 1982 or 1984 Africa Cup of Nations. At the 1986 Africa Cup of Nations, they finished fourth, beaten 3–2 in the consolation final by the Ivory Coast. ===Golden Generation (1986–2000)=== Morocco qualified for the 1986 FIFA World Cup which took place in Mexico, and surprisingly won a group with Portugal, England and Poland, thanks to two draws against the English and Polish and a 3–1 win against the Portuguese. However, they were narrowly eliminated by West Germany in the first knockout round, thanks to a goal from Lothar Matthäus one minute from the end of regulation time. Morocco became the first African and Arab national team to have passed the first round of the World Cup. Two years later, the Moroccan team presented itself at the 1988 African Cup of Nations as a host country with high expectations. After winning the first round, they were eliminated in the semifinals by Cameroon and finished in fourth place after losing the consolation final against Algeria (1–1 after extra time and 4–3 after the penalty shots). Failure to qualify for the 1990 FIFA World Cup opened a period of crisis. In the 1992 African Cup of Nations, the team was eliminated in the first round. They then did not participate in the 1994 or 1996 African Cup tournaments. They, however, did qualify for the 1994 World Cup in the United States and the 1998 tournament in France. At the 1998 Africa Cup of Nations, after winning their group, Morocco were defeated and eliminated from South Africa (2–1). ===Difficult years (2006–2017)=== thumb|left|Morocco national football team in 2011Morocco took part in the 2004 African Cup of Nations, drawn into Group D defeating Nigeria 1–0, defeating Benin 4–0 and drawing 1–1 with South Africa. Morocco qualified to the knockout stages, facing Algeria; they eventually won 3–1 in extra time, and 4–0 against Mali in the semi-final. They lost the 2004 African Cup of Nations Final against Tunisia 2–1. In 2012, the national team won the Arab Cup, topping their group, defeating Iraq in the semi-final and Libya in the final. In 2014, Morocco participated for the first time in the African Nations Championship after failing to qualify in the 2009 and 2011 editions. led by coach Hassan Benabicha, Morocco did not make it past the second round after losing 3–4 to Nigeria in the Quarter-finals. They managed to qualify for the 2016 African Nations Championship, but were eliminated in the group stages. Morocco hosted the 2018 African Nations Championship, which included a victory for the home nation, the third North African country to win the competition's title. ===Second Golden Generation (2017–present)=== Morocco returned to the World Cup after a 20-year absence in 2018. The North Africans were drawn in Group B with World Cup favourites Spain, Portugal, and Iran. In their opening game against Iran, Morocco showed full dedication but lost 10 in the final minutes of the match, scored by an own goal. In their second game, Morocco faced Portugal but ended losing 1–0 by a goal scored by Cristiano Ronaldo. In the last match against Spain they took the lead 2–1 but was unable to keep it, and drew 2–2, scored by Khalid Boutaïb and Youssef En-Nesyri. Morocco entered the 2019 AFCON with high confidence and players claiming them to be the favorite to win. However, in spite of three straight group stage wins, Morocco were shockingly knocked out by Benin in the round of sixteen. At the 2020 African Nations Championship in Cameroon, Morocco won their second CHAN title, in its second consecutive final appearance. Captained by Ayoub El Kaabi, they defeated Togo (1–0), Rwanda (0–0), the Uganda (5–2), Zambia (3–1), and Cameroon (4–0) on the way to a final against Mali in Yaoundé. Morocco won 2–0, with both goals scored late into the second half by Soufiane Bouftini and Ayoub El Kaabi. Morocco thus became the first team to win back-to-back titles. Soufiane Rahimi went on to be named Total Man of the tournament after an astonishing performance scoring a total of 5 goals. In December 2021, Morocco started its venture at the 2021 FIFA Arab Cup's Group C, along with Jordan, Palestine and Saudi Arabia. Morocco opened the tournament with a 4–0 win against Palestine, Morocco then managed to overcome a highly defensive Jordan with another 4–0 triumph, They won their final match in a 1–0 victory against Saudi Arabia. they were eliminated in the quarter-final after penalty-shootout against Algeria. After easily topping their 2021 Africa Cup of Nations qualification group which consisted of Mauritania, Burundi, and Central African Republic, Morocco were one of the favorites to win the 2021 edition of the tournament hosted in Cameroon. Morocco were drawn into group E that included Gabon, Ghana and Comoros. Morocco won its first game against Ghana scored by Sofiane Boufal in the final minutes of the game. In their second game against Comoros, they claimed a 2–0 victory. Their final match against Gabon ended in a draw, making Morocco reach the round of 16 after ending up first in the group. They defeated Malawi 2–1 in the round of 16. They were eliminated in the quarter- final after a 2–1 loss against Egypt. After qualifying for the 2022 FIFA World Cup by winning the CAF third round African qualifiers, the team was drawn in Group F along with Croatia, Belgium, and Canada. Morocco were not expected to qualify, but after holding previous runners-up Croatia to a 0–0 draw and shocking previous third place Belgium 2–0, a 2–1 win over Canada meant they finished top of the group and advanced to the round of 16 for the first time since 1986. There, they met Spain, drawing 0–0 to force a penalty shoot-out. Goalkeeper Yassine Bounou saved two penalties, and Achraf Hakimi scored the decisive penalty with a panenka for Morocco to advance to the quarter-finals for the first time. They advanced further to the semi-finals winning against favourite Portugal, 1–0. The Moroccan forward Youssef En-Nesyri leapt to 2.78m (9ft1) to score a header that was the match-winning goal. That made Morocco the first African and Arab team to qualify for the semi-finals. However, they lost to France in the semi-final 2–0 on 14 December at the Al Bayt Stadium in Al Khor, putting an end to Morocco's dream run. They played Croatia for third place on 17 December at the Khalifa International Stadium in Ar-Rayyan, a rematch of the earlier group stage meeting. They lost 2–1 to the latter, and ended their World Cup campaign at fourth place. The team would go on to donate their entire World Cup earnings from the tournament to charities within Morocco that help with poverty that affects children and families in the country. ==Home stadium== At the time of the Cherifian Empire, the Philip stadium was the largest Moroccan stadium. Its capacity was 25,000 seats. After the country's independence, the latter changed its name to the Stade d'honneur de Casablanca (nicknamed "Donor" by the people of Casablanca). The stadium will mainly be used by the Moroccan team as well as by the two main clubs of Casablanca: Wydad AC and Raja CA. The stadium then underwent a major renovation in order to be able to host the 1983 Mediterranean Games in Casablanca towards the end of the 1970s. It reopened in 1983 under its current name, Stade Mohammed V, and then had 80,000 seats before being limited to 67,000 seats following a new renovation in view of Morocco's bid to host the World Cup in 2000. Between 2016 and 2019, the Mohammed V stadium underwent major renovation and modernization works. Its capacity was reduced again and today the stadium has 45,891 all-seated capacity. The Grand Complex of Rabat was inaugurated in 1983 under the name of Prince Moulay Abdellah Stadium. The national team also plays several matches there. The Rabat stadium could then accommodate 65,000 spectators but it was mainly used by the two local teams of Far Rabat and FUS Rabat. Its capacity was reduced to 53,000 seats in 2000 and then to 45,800 seats in 2020. It is currently the stadium of Morocco's national football team. From 2011, the Atlas Lions played most of their matches in the new Marrakesh Stadium, which has a capacity of 45,240 seats. The latter is considered to bring luck to the Moroccan team, which won several important matches there in front of a large audience, notably beating Algeria for the qualifications for the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations football by 4–0, and Tanzania by 3–1 allowing Morocco the qualification, then another important meeting against Mozambique ending in a crushing victory on the score of 4–0, allowing this time, the qualification for the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations. During the period of coach Badou Ezzaki between 2014 and 2016, the Moroccan national team played most of its matches at the Adrar stadium in Agadir, which has a capacity of 45,480, and also a friendly match was played in it during the period of Hervé Renard between Morocco and the Netherlands in 2017, and it is considered the most prominent match for Morocco that was played in this stadium. Morocco also has other large stadiums built in the 2000s such as the one in Fez Stadium which has 45,000 seats and which hosts the two clubs of the city: MAS Fez and Wydad de Fès. File:Stade Prince Moulay Abdellah.jpg|Prince Moulay Abdellah Stadium, Rabat File:Stade Mohamed V, Casablanca.jpg|Stade Mohamed V, Casablanca File:Stade de marrakech.jpg|Stade de Marrakech, Marrakech File:Stade Ibn Batuta, Tanger.jpg|Stade Ibn Batouta, Tangier File:Stade-Adrar2019.png|Adrar Stadium, Agadir ==Kit suppliers== Morocco's home colours are most red shirts and green shorts and socks, away colours are usually all white or all green. Kit provider Period Adidas 1976–1993 Lotto 1994–1997 Puma 1998–2002 Nike 2003–2006 Puma 2007–2011 Adidas 2012–2019 Puma 2019– ==Results and fixtures== The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled. ===2022=== ===2023=== ==Coaching staff== Position Name Head coach Walid Regragui Assistant coach Rachid Benmahmoud Assistant coach Gharib Amzine Goalkeeping coach Omar Harrak Fitness coach Edu Gonzalez Video Analyst Moussa El Habachi Technical director Chris Van Puyvelde Fathi Jamal ===Coaching history=== Managers Name Nationality Years as manager Trophy won World Cup Africa Cup Larbi Benbarek 1957 – – – Mohammed Khamirib & Abdelkader Lokhmiri 1959 – – – Larbi Benbarek 1960 – – – Kader Firoud 1961 – – – Mohammed Massoun & Abderrahmane Mahjoub 1961–1967 – – – Guy Cluzeau & Abdellah Settati 1968–1969 – – – Blagoja Vidinić 1970 – 1970 (GS) – José Barinaga 1971–1972 – – 1972 (GS) Abderrahmane Mahjoub 1972–1973 – – – Virgil Mărdărescu 1974–1978 1976 African Cup of Nations – 1976 (W) – 1978 (GS) Guy Cluzeau 1979 – – – Just Fontaine 1979–1980 – – – Jebrane & Yabram Hamidouch 1980–1981 – – 1980 (3RD) Abdellah El-Ammari 1982 – – – Jaime Valente 1983 – – – Mehdi Faria 1983–1988 – 1986 (R16) 1986 (4TH) – 1988 (4TH) Jaime Valente 1988–1989 – – – Antonio Valentín 1989–1990 – – – Abdellah Ajri Blinda 1990 – – – Werner Olk 1990–1992 – – 1992 (GS) Mohamed Ellouzani 1992–1994 – – – Abdellah Ajri Blinda 1993–1994 – 1994 (GS) – Mohammed Lamari 1994 – – – Gílson Nunes 1995 – – – Henri Michel 1995–2000 – 1998 (GS) 1998 (QF) – 2000 (GS) Henryk Kasperczak 2000 – – – Humberto Coelho 2000–2002 – – 2002 (GS) Badou Ezzaki 2002–2005 – – 2004 (F) Philippe Troussier 2005 – – – Mohamed Fakhir 2006–2007 – – 2006 (GS) Henri Michel 2007–2008 – – 2008 (GS) Fathi Jamal 2008 – – – Roger Lemerre 2008–2009 – – – Hassan Moumen (caretaker) 2009–2010 – – – Eric Gerets 2010–2012 – – 2012 (GS) Rachid Taoussi 2012–2013 – – 2013 (GS) Hassan Benabicha (caretaker) 2013–2014 – – – Badou Ezzaki 2014–2016 – – – Hervé Renard 2016–2019 – 2018 (GS) 2017 (QF) – 2019 (R16) Vahid Halilhodžić 2019–2022 – – 2021 (QF) Walid Regragui 2022– – 2022 (4TH) – ==Players== ===Current squad=== The following players were called up for the friendly match against Cape Verde and the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations qualification against South Africa on 12 and 17 June 2023, respectively. Caps and goals are correct as of 17 June 2023, after the match against South Africa. ===Recent call-ups=== The following players have been called up for the team in the last 12 months. INJ WD INJ U-23 U-23 U-23 U-23 INJ INJ U-23 U-23 DEC Player declined the call-up to the squad INJ Did not make it to the current squad due to injury PRE Preliminary squad / standby RET Player retired from internationals SUS Player is suspended WD Player withdrew from the roster for non-injury related reasons U-23 player joined the Morocco U-23 team ===Previous squads=== Africa Cup of Nations squads Squads CAN 1972 squad CAN 1976 squad CAN 1978 squad CAN 1980 squad CAN 1986 squad CAN 1988 squad CAN 1992 squad CAN 1998 squad CAN 2000 squad CAN 2002 squad CAN 2004 squad CAN 2006 squad CAN 2008 squad CAN 2012 squad CAN 2013 squad CAN 2017 squad CAN 2019 squad CAN 2021 squad African Nations Championship squads Squads CHAN 2014 squad CHAN 2016 squad CHAN 2018 squad CHAN 2020 squad FIFA World Cup squads Squads 1970 FIFA World Cup squad 1986 FIFA World Cup squad 1994 FIFA World Cup squad 1998 FIFA World Cup squad 2018 FIFA World Cup squad 2022 FIFA World Cup squad Summer Olympics squads Squads Olympics 1964 squad Olympics 1972 squad Olympics 1984 squad Olympics 2012 squad ==Player records== :Players in bold are still active with Morocco. ===Most appearances=== Rank Player Caps Goals Career 1 Noureddine Naybet 115 4 2 Ahmed Faras 94 36 1966–1979 3 Youssef Safri 79 8 1999–2009 4 Houssine Kharja 78 12 2004–2015 4 Ezzaki Badou 0 1979–1992 6 Abdelmajid Dolmy 76 2 1973–1988 7 Romain Saïss 75 2012–present 8 Youssef Chippo 73 9 1996–2006 8 Mohamed Hazzaz 0 1969–1979 10 Abdelkrim El Hadrioui 72 4 1992–2001 ===Top goalscorers=== Rank Player Goals Caps Ratio Career 1 Ahmed Faras 36 94 1966–1979 2 Salaheddine Bassir 27 59 1994–2002 3 Hakim Ziyech 20 53 4 Abdeljalil Hadda 19 48 1995–2002 5 Hassan Amcharrat 18 39 1971–1979 5 Marouane Chamakh 65 2003–2014 7 Abdeslam Laghrissi 17 35 1984–1995 7 Youssef En-Nesyri 60 2016–present 9 Youssef El- Arabi 16 46 2010–present 9 Youssouf Hadji 64 2003–2012 ==Competitive record== ===FIFA World Cup=== Morocco's national football team has participated six times in the FIFA World Cup. Their best performance was in the 2022 FIFA World Cup where they finished in fourth place, becoming both the first African and Arab nation to reach the semi-finals of the tournament. FIFA World Cup record Qualification record Year Round Position 1930 Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of 1934 Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of 1938 Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of 1950 Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of 1954 Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of Part of 1958 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1962 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 7 2 2 3 7 8 1966 Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew 1970 Group stage 14th 3 0 1 2 2 6 10 4 4 2 11 7 1974 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 10 4 3 3 12 13 1978 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 2 0 2 0 2 2 1982 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 8 3 2 3 5 6 1986 Round of 16 11th 4 1 2 1 3 2 8 5 2 1 12 1 1990 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 6 1 3 2 4 5 1994 Group stage 23rd 3 0 0 3 2 5 10 7 2 1 19 4 1998 Group stage 18th 3 1 1 1 5 5 6 5 1 0 14 2 2002 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 10 6 3 1 11 3 2006 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 10 5 5 0 17 7 2010 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 10 3 3 4 14 13 2014 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 6 2 3 1 9 8 2018 Group stage 27th 3 0 1 2 2 4 8 4 3 1 13 1 2022 Fourth place 4th 7 3 2 2 6 5 8 7 1 0 25 3 2026 To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined To be determined Total Fourth place 6/23 23 5 7 11 20 27 119 58 39 22 175 83 Morocco's World Cup record First Match 1–2 (León, Mexico; 3 June 1970) Biggest Win 3–0 (Saint-Étienne, France; 23 June 1998) Biggest Defeat 3–0 (Nantes, France; 16 June 1998) Best Result Fourth place (2022) Worst Result Group stage (1970, 1994, 1998, 2018) ===Africa Cup of Nations=== Africa Cup of Nations record Qualification record Year Round Position * 1957 Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF 1959 Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF Not affiliated to CAF 1962 Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew 1963 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 2 1 0 1 5 6 1965 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1968 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1970 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 2 1 0 1 1 2 1972 Group stage 5th 3 0 3 0 3 3 4 2 0 2 9 6 1974 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1976 Champions 1st 6 4 2 0 11 6 6 4 0 2 13 4 1978 Group stage 6th 3 1 1 1 2 4 Qualified as defending champions Qualified as defending champions Qualified as defending champions Qualified as defending champions Qualified as defending champions Qualified as defending champions 1980 Third place 3rd 5 2 1 2 4 3 4 2 1 1 14 5 1982 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 4 3 0 1 8 4 1984 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 4 1 2 1 4 2 1986 Fourth place 4th 5 1 2 2 4 5''' 2 1 1 0 1 0 1988 Fourth place 4th 5 1 3 1 3 3 Qualified as hosts Qualified as hosts Qualified as hosts Qualified as hosts Qualified as hosts Qualified as hosts 1990 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 2 0 2 0 1 1 1992 Group stage 9th 2 0 1 1 1 2 6 4 0 2 11 4 1994 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 6 2 2 2 5 4 1996 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 4 1 1 2 2 4 1998 Quarter- finals 6th 4 2 1 1 6 3 6 4 2 0 10 1 2000 Group stage 11th 3 1 1 1 1 2 4 2 2 0 6 4 2002 Group stage 9th 3 1 1 1 3 4 6 3 1 2 5 4 2004 Runners-up 2nd 6 4 1 1 14 4 6 5 1 0 10 0 2006 Group stage 13th 3 0 2 1 0 1 10 5 5 0 17 7 2008 Group stage 11th 3 1 0 2 7 6 4 3 1 0 6 1 2010 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 10 3 3 4 14 13 2012 Group stage 12th 3 1 0 2 4 5 6 3 2 1 8 2 2013 Group stage 10th 3 0 3 0 3 3 2 1 0 1 4 2 2015 Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Originally qualified as hosts, then disqualified Originally qualified as hosts, then disqualified Originally qualified as hosts, then disqualified Originally qualified as hosts, then disqualified Originally qualified as hosts, then disqualified Originally qualified as hosts, then disqualified 2017 Quarter-finals 7th 4 2 0 2 4 3 6 5 1 0 10 1 2019 Round of 16 9th 4 3 1 0 4 1 6 3 2 1 8 3 2021 Quarter-finals 5th 5 3 1 1 8 5 6 4 2 0 10 1 2023 Qualified Qualified Qualified Qualified Qualified Qualified Qualified Qualified In progress 2025 To be determined To be determined 2027 To be determined To be determined Total 1 Title 19/34 70 27 24 19 82 63 118 63 31 24 182 81 ===African Nations Championship=== African Nations Championship Qualification record Year Round Position * 2009 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 4 1 2 1 5 6 2011 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 2 0 2 0 3 3 2014 Quarter-finals 8th 4 1 2 1 7 6 2 1 1 0 1 0 2016 Group stage 10th 3 1 1 1 4 2 4 3 1 0 11 3 2018 Champions 1st 6 5 1 0 16 2 2 1 1 0 4 2 2020 Champions 1st 6 5 1 0 15 3 2 1 1 0 3 0 2022 Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Total 2 titles 4/6 19 12 5 2 42 13 16 7 8 1 27 14 ===Olympic games=== Summer Olympics Year Round Position 1908–1960 Part of France Part of France Part of France Part of France Part of France Part of France Part of France Part of France 1960 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 1964 Round 1 13 2 0 0 2 1 9 1968 Qualified, but withdrew Qualified, but withdrew Qualified, but withdrew Qualified, but withdrew Qualified, but withdrew Qualified, but withdrew Qualified, but withdrew Qualified, but withdrew 1972 Round 2 8 6 1 1 4 7 14 1976 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 1980 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify 1984 Round 1 12 3 1 0 2 1 4 1988 Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Did not qualify Since 1992 See Morocco national under-23 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team Total Round 2 7/26 23 3 5 15 17 48 * Football at the Summer Olympics has been an under-23 tournament since the 1992 edition. ===All-Africa Games=== All- Africa Games Year Round Position 1965 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1973 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1978 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1987 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1991 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1995 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1999 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 2003 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 2007 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 2011 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 2015 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 2019 Group stage 5th 3 1 1 1 3 4 2023 To be determined All Total Group stage 1/12 3 1 1 1 3 4 * Prior to the Cairo 1991 campaign, the Football at the All- Africa Games was open to full senior national teams. ===Mediterranean Games=== 1951 to 1987 senior teams, from 1991 youth teams. Mediterranean Games Year Round Position 1951 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1955 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1959 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1963 Fourth place 4th 4 2 0 2 4 6 1967 Group stage 7th 3 1 0 2 4 6 1971 Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified Disqualified 1975 Fourth place 4th 5 1 4 0 3 2 1979 Group stage 6th 3 0 2 1 2 3 1983 16px Gold Medal 1st 4 3 1 0 8 2 1987 Group stage 5th 3 1 1 1 2 2 Since 1991 See Morocco national under-23 football team or Morocco national under-20 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team or Morocco national under-20 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team or Morocco national under-20 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team or Morocco national under-20 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team or Morocco national under-20 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team or Morocco national under-20 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team or Morocco national under-20 football team See Morocco national under-23 football team or Morocco national under-20 football team Total 2 Title 7/10 22 8 8 6 23 21 ===Pan Arab Games=== Pan Arab Games Year Round Position 1953 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1957 Fourth place 4th 4 2 2 0 12 6 1961 16px Gold Medal 1st 5 5 0 0 26 6 1965 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1976 16px Gold Medal 1st 6 4 2 0 12 0 1985 16px Silver Medal 2nd 5 3 1 1 9 3 1992 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1997 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 1999 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 2004 No football tournament No football tournament No football tournament No football tournament No football tournament No football tournament No football tournament No football tournament 2007 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 2011 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter 2023 Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Did not enter Total 2 titles 4/12 20 14 5 1 59 15 ===FIFA Arab Cup=== FIFA Arab Cup Year Round Position 1963 Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate 1964 Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate 1966 Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate 1985 Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate 1988 Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate 1992 Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate Did not participate 1998 Group stage 5th 2 1 0 1 2 2 2002 Third place 3rd 5 1 2 2 5 6 2009 Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled Cancelled 2012 Champions 1st 5 4 1 0 11 2 2021 Quarter-finals 5th 4 3 1 0 11 2 Total 1 Title 4/10 16 9 4 3 29 12 ===Minor tournaments=== Year Round Position 1958 Djamila Bouhired Tournament Third place 3rd 2 1 0 1 3 3 1964 Tripoli Fair Tournament Third place 3rd 4 2 0 2 5 5 1965 World Military Cup Third place 3rd 3 1 1 1 3 5 1965 Tripoli Fair Tournament Third place 3rd 3 1 1 1 2 1 1966 World Military Cup Runners-up 2nd 3 0 1 2 1 4 1966 Tripoli Fair Tournament Winners 1st 4 3 0 1 4 5 1967 World Military Cup Third place 3rd - - - - - - 1974 Kuneitra Cup Winners 1st 7 6 1 0 16 5 1980 Merdeka Tournament Winners 1st 8 5 2 1 15 7 1982 Beijing International Friendship Tournaments Winners 1st 5 1 4 0 7 6 1985 Nehru Cup Semi-finals 3rd 4 2 1 1 7 3 1987 President's Cup Football Tournament Group stage 6th 5 2 0 3 6 6 1988 Tournoi de France Runners-up 2nd 2 1 0 1 4 3 1989 World Military Cup Runners-up 2nd 3 1 1 1 3 4 1993 World Military Cup Runners- up 2nd 5 4 0 1 16 5 1994 Friendship Tournament Runners-up 2nd 3 1 2 0 4 3 1996 Friendship Tournament Runners-up 2nd 3 1 1 1 4 3 1996 King Hassan II International Cup Tournament Third place 3rd 2 1 1 0 4 2 1998 King Hassan II International Cup Tournament Third place 3rd 2 0 1 1 2 3 1998 African Military Cup Fourth place 4th - - - - - - 1999 LG Cup (Morocco) Runners-up 2nd 2 1 0 1 2 2 2000 King Hassan II International Cup Tournament Runners-up 2nd 2 1 0 1 2 5 2001 Friendship Tournament Winners 1st 3 1 2 0 6 4 2002 LG Cup (Morocco) Third place 3rd 2 1 1 0 2 0 2002 LG Cup (Iran) Third place 3rd 2 0 2 0 1 1 2004 Qatar International Friendship Tournament Winners 1st 5 4 0 1 9 4 2011 LG Cup (Morocco) Third place 3rd 2 0 1 1 1 2 2015 Toulon Tournament Runners-up 2nd 5 2 2 1 9 7 Total 6 Titles 28/28 91 43 25 23 138 98 ==Head-to-head performance== Correct as of 17 June 2023. Team Confederation UEFA 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 % % CAF 36 11 12 9 31 32 +22 % % CAF 7 4 2 1 11 7 +4 % % CONMEBOL 1 0 0 1 0 5 −5 % % UEFA 1 1 0 0 6 0 +6 % % AFC 1 0 0 1 0 1 −1 % % UEFA 1 1 0 0 3 1 +2 % % AFC 2 2 0 0 5 0 +5 % % UEFA 4 2 0 2 6 6 0 % % CAF 6 5 1 0 20 3 +17 % % CAF 2 2 0 0 2 0 +2 % % CONMEBOL 4 1 0 3 2 8 −6 % % UEFA 6 2 3 1 10 5 +5 % % CAF 11 7 2 2 16 6 +10 % % CAF 2 2 0 0 4 0 +4 % % CAF 13 2 5 6 10 12 −2 % % CONCACAF 4 3 1 0 10 4 +6 % % CAF 4 2 2 0 4 1 +3 % % CAF 5 3 2 0 10 1 +9 % % CONMEBOL 2 1 1 0 3 1 +2 % % AFC 1 0 1 0 3 3 0 % % CONMEBOL 1 0 0 1 0 2 −2 % % CAF 3 2 1 0 5 2 +3 % % CAF 5 3 2 0 6 2 +4 % % CONCACAF 1 1 0 0 1 0 +1 % % UEFA 3 0 2 1 3 4 −1 % % UEFA 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 % % UEFA 2 1 0 1 5 5 0 % % CAF 16 5 8 3 22 11 +11 % % UEFA 4 3 0 1 8 5 +3 % % CAF 30 14 12 4 35 18 +17 % % UEFA 2 0 1 1 0 1 −1 % % CAF 5 4 0 1 10 2 +2 % % UEFA 1 1 0 0 3 1 +2 % % CAF 7 7 0 0 16 0 +16 % % UEFA 2 0 1 1 0 1 −1 % % UEFA 6 0 2 4 6 14 −8 % % CAF 19 9 4 6 38 20 +18 % % CAF 8 6 1 1 14 2 +12 % % UEFA 1 1 0 0 3 0 +3 % % UEFA 6 0 0 6 3 17 −14 % % CAF 11 5 3 3 8 8 0 % % UEFA 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 % % CAF 14 6 6 2 19 12 +7 % % CAF 2 2 0 0 8 0 +8 % % AFC 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 % % UEFA 3 0 0 3 2 12 −10 % % AFC 1 1 0 0 1 0 +1 % % AFC 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2 % % AFC 1 0 0 1 0 1 −1 % % AFC 10 3 4 3 6 10 −4 % % UEFA 1 0 0 1 0 1 −1 % % CAF 21 7 7 7 27 25 +2 % % CONCACAF 1 1 0 0 1 0 +1 % % AFC 4 4 0 0 12 2 +10 % % CAF 5 3 2 0 10 2 +8 % % AFC 6 3 2 1 14 9 +5 % % AFC 3 2 0 1 5 2 +3 % % CAF 4 3 0 1 11 3 +8 % % CAF 20 10 6 4 34 18 +16 % % UEFA 3 3 0 0 6 1 +5 % % CAF 11 7 3 1 17 4 +13 % % AFC 4 2 1 1 10 5 +5 % % CAF 20 9 6 5 33 12 +21 % % UEFA 3 2 1 0 7 4 +3 % % CAF 10 7 3 0 27 5 +22 % % CONCACAF 1 1 0 0 2 1 +1 % % CAF 4 3 0 1 11 2 +9 % % AFC 1 0 1 0 2 2 0 % % CAF 7 6 1 0 15 2 +13 % % UEFA 3 1 0 2 4 5 −1 % % OFC 2 2 0 0 6 0 +6 % % CAF 7 6 0 1 16 2 +14 % % CAF 11 6 2 3 14 8 +6 % % UEFA 2 0 1 1 2 3 −1 % % UEFA 1 0 1 0 2 2 0 % % AFC 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 % % AFC 2 2 0 0 7 0 +7 % % CONMEBOL 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 % % CONMEBOL 2 0 1 1 0 3 −3 % % UEFA 5 1 2 2 3 9 −6 % % UEFA 3 2 0 1 4 2 +2 % % AFC 2 1 1 0 1 0 +1 % % UEFA 1 0 0 1 0 1 −1 % % UEFA 2 1 0 1 3 5 −2 % % UEFA 4 0 1 3 3 7 −4 % % CAF 4 2 1 1 7 4 +3 % % CAF 2 2 0 0 5 0 +5 % % AFC 8 3 2 3 17 7 +10 % % UEFA 1 1 0 0 3 0 +3 % % CAF 30 17 6 7 41 18 +23 % % UEFA 6 1 1 4 5 12 −7 % % CAF 7 6 1 0 14 0 +14 % % AFC 1 1 0 0 1 0 +1 % % UEFA 2 2 0 0 4 2 0 % % CAF 1 1 0 0 3 0 +3 % % CAF 8 2 3 3 10 12 −2 % % AFC 6 1 4 1 10 9 +1 % % AFC 1 1 0 0 4 0 +4 % % UEFA 4 0 2 2 4 6 −2 % % CAF 7 3 4 0 9 3 0 % % UEFA 3 3 0 0 6 2 +4 % % AFC 3 3 0 0 6 0 +6 % % CAF 4 3 0 1 7 5 +2 % % AFC 1 1 0 0 2 1 +1 % % CAF 12 6 3 3 22 11 +11 % % CONCACAF 3 3 0 0 4 0 +4 % % CAF 50 13 28 9 53 46 +7 % % CAF 4 2 0 2 10 8 +2 % % UEFA 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 % % AFC 5 2 2 1 6 4 +2 % % CONMEBOL 2 0 0 2 0 2 −2 % % CONCACAF 5 3 1 1 6 5 +1 % % AFC 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2 % % AFC 1 1 0 0 4 0 +4 % % CAF 18 10 2 6 23 18 +5 % % CAF 5 3 2 0 6 2 +4 % % Total () % – – ;Notes ==Honours== === Major competitions === FIFA World Cup * Fourth place: 2022 18px Africa Cup of Nations * 15px Champions: 1976 * 15px Runner-up: 2004 * 15px Third-place: 1980 * Fourth-place: 1986, 1988 African Nations Championship * 15px Champions: 2018, 2020 FIFA Arab Cup * Champions: 2012 * Troisième: 2002 Pan Arab Games * Gold Medal: 1961, 1976 * Silver Medal: 1985 Mediterranean Games * 15px Gold Medal: 1983, 2013 * 15px Bronze Medal: 1991, 2018, 2022 Islamic Solidarity Games * Gold Medal: 2013 * Silver Medal: 2005 Competition Total Africa Cup of Nations 1 1 1 3 African Nations Championship 2 0 0 2 FIFA Arab Cup 1 0 1 2 Total 4 1 2 7 === Friendly tournaments === Jeux de la Francophonie * Gold Medal: 2001, 2017 * Silver Medal: 1989, 2013 * Bronze Medal: 2009 Kuneitra Cup * Gold Medal: 1974 Nehru Cup * Bronze Medal: 1985 ===Friendly competitions=== LG Cup * Runners-up: 1999 * Third place: 2002, 2002, 2011 World Military Cup * Runner-up: 1966, 1989, 1993 * Third place: 1965, 1967 ===Awards=== African National Team of the Year * First place : 1985, 1986, 1997 * Second place : 1993, 1998, 2003, 2004 * Third place : 1980 FIFA Best Mover of the Year * First place : 2022 * Third place : 1993 ===Orders and decorations=== *: ** Officers of the Order of the Throne (20 December 2022) ==See also== * Cultural significance of the Atlas lion * Morocco A' national football team * Morocco national under-23 football team * Morocco national under-20 football team * Morocco national under-17 football team * Morocco women's national football team * List of Morocco football players in foreign leagues * Morocco national football team records and statistics ===Other football codes=== * Morocco national futsal team * Morocco national beach soccer team ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== *Official website of Morocco's FA *FIFA profile *RSSSF archive of results Category:African national association football teams M |
thumb|Locations of the fiefdoms of Ming princes After Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu Emperor) founded the Ming dynasty, he designated his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as crown prince, and enfeoffed his all other sons and a grandnephew as vassal princes. Fiefs of nine of these princes were located at frontier regions for defense. Hongwu Emperor also posthumously bestowed his late patrilineal and matrilineal relatives with princely titles too. This article shows all princes of Ming dynasty, including non-actual princes (male imperial members and nobles had no title). ==Forefathers of House of Zhu== For convenience to shows relationships of these imperial princes and emperors, this text will shows forefathers of Hongwu Emperor and their sons. Birth name Spouse Temple name Posthumous name Birth & death dates Issue Zhu Zhongba Madam Chen None ? -? Zhu Liu'er Zhu Shi'er Zhu Bailiu, Emperor Xuan Zhu Bailiu Empress Xuan Dezu Xuan Zhu Siwu Zhu Sijiu, Emperor Zhu Sijiu Empress Heng Yizu Heng Zhu Chuyi, Emperor Yu Zhu Chu'er Zhu Chuwu Zhu Chushi Zhu Chuyi Empress Yu Xizu Yu Zhu Wuyi, Prince of Shouchun Zhu Wu'er A premature died son Zhu Shizhen, Emperor Chun Zhu Shizhen Zhu Wusi Empress Chun Renzu Chun 1281 - 1344 Zhu Xinglong, Prince of Nanchang (grandfather of Zhu Shouqian) Zhu Xingsheng, Prince of Xuyi Zhu Xingzu, Prince of Linhuai Zhu Fonǚ (), Princess Caoguo () (paternal grandmother of Li Jinglong) Princess Taiyuan () Hongwu Emperor ==Numbers of actual peerages== ===First rank princely peerages=== 《明史》诸王传、诸王世表《明实录》《弇山堂别集》 *Hongwu Emperor's line: 25 peerages (including Prince of Jingjiang); two were absorbed into the crown (Yongle Emperor and Southern Ming Longwu Emperor), seven were abolished, and two had no heir *Zhu Biao's line: three peerages, all of them abolished. *Yongle Emperor's line: two peerages *Hongxi Emperor's line: eight peerages; four had no heir *Xuande Emperor's line: one peerage, absorbed into the crown (Jingtai Emperor) *Emperor Yingzong's line: eight peerages, one absorbed into the crown (Chenghua Emperor); three had no heir *Chenghua Emperor's line: ten peerages; one was absorbed into the crown (Jiajing Emperor), sic had no heir *Jiajing Emperor's line: two peerages, one absorbed into the crown (Longqing Emperor), one had no heir *Longqing Emperor's line: one peerage *Wanli Emperor's line: four peerages, two peerages absorbed into the Southern Ming crown (Hongguang Emperor and Yongli Emperor) *Taichang Emperor's line: one peerage, absorbed into the crown (Chongzhen Emperor) *Chongzhen Emperor's line: two peerages, both of them abolished ===By Southern Ming=== *By Longwu Emperor: Three peerages, two from the line of the Prince of Tang, one from the cadet peerage of the line of the Prince of Yi *By Zhu Yihai: one peerage, from the cadet peerage of the line of Prince of Ning ==List of actual princely peerages== ===By Hongwu Emperor=== *Prince of Qin (inherited) *Prince of Jin (晉) (inherited) *Prince of Yan (absorbed into crown) *Prince of Zhou (inherited) *Prince of Chu (inherited) *Prince of Qi (abolished) *Prince of Tan (heirless) *Prince of Lu (鲁) (inherited) *Prince of Jingjiang (inherited) *Prince of Shu (inherited) *Prince of Xiang (湘) (heirless) *Prince of Dai (inherited) *Prince of Su (inherited) *Prince of Liao (inherited) *Prince of Qing (inherited) *Prince of Ning (inherited) *Prince of Min (inherited) *Prince of Gu (abolished) *Prince of Han (韩) (inherited) *Prince of Shen (inherited) *Prince of An (heirless) *Prince of Tang (inherited) *Prince of Ying (heirless) *Prince of Yi (inherited) ===By Jianwen Emperor=== *Prince of Wu (demoted to Comm. Prince of Guangze, not inherited) *Prince of Heng (demoted to Comm. Prince of Huai'en, no heir) *Prince of Xu (徐) (demoted to Comm. Prince of Fuhui and Comm. Prince of Ouning, no heir) ===By Yongle Emperor=== *Prince of Han (漢) (second creation, abolished) *Prince of Zhao (second creation, inherited) ===By Hongxi Emperor=== *Prince of Zheng (inherited) *Prince of Yue (no heir) *Prince of Xiang (inherited) *Prince of Jing (荊) (inherited) *Prince of Huai (inherited) *Prince of Teng (no heir) *Prince of Liang (no heir) *Prince of Wei (no heir) ===By Xuande Emperor=== *Prince of Cheng (absorbed into the crown) ===By Emperor Yingzong=== *Prince of De (inherited) *Prince of Xu (許) (no heir) *Prince of Xiu (no heir) *Prince of Chong (inherited) *Prince of Ji (inherited) *Prince of Xin (忻) (no heir) *Prince of Hui (徽) (inherited) ===By Jingtai Emperor=== *Prince of Yi (沂) (absorbed into the crown: Chenghua Emperor) ===By Chenghua Emperor=== *Prince of Xing (inherited and absorbed into the crown: Jiajing Emperor) *Prince of Qi (岐) (no heir) *Prince of Yi (益) (inherited) *Prince of Heng (second creation) (inherited) *Prince of Yong (雍) (no heir) *Prince of Shou (no heir) *Prince of Ru (no heir) *Prince of Jing (涇) (no heir) *Prince of Rong (second creation) (inherited) *Prince of Shen (no heir) ===By Jiajing Emperor=== *Prince of Yu (absorbed into the crown: Longqing Emperor) *Prince of Jing (景) (no heir) ===By Longqing Emperor=== *Prince of Lu (潞) (inherited) ===By Wanli Emperor=== *Prince of Fu (inherited and absorbed into the crown: Hongguang Emperor) *Prince of Rui (inherited) *Prince of Hui (惠) (inherited) *Prince of Gui (inherited) ===By Taichang Emperor=== *Prince of Xin (信) (absorbed into the crown: Chongzhen Emperor) ===By Chongzhen Emperor=== *Prince of Ding (abolished) *Prince of Yong (永) (abolished) ==Posthumous imperial princes and untitled imperial princes== After the Hongwu Emperor was enthroned, he posthumously honored and bestowed on his brothers and patrilineal relatives various second-rank princely titles. Also, some imperial sons who died prematurely were posthumously bestowed with first-rank princely titles, but some of them also had not posthumous titles, too. Below shows all of the posthumous princes of the imperial house, including descendants of Zhu Biao and Southern Ming princes, but excluding matrilineal relatives of the Hongwu Emperor and other nobles, as they cannot be considered members of the imperial house. *Note: Bold names refer to persons with a posthumous title and imperial princes without title ===Line of Hongwu Emperor patrilineal relatives=== *Zhu Zhongba, oldest known paternal ancestor of the dynasty **Zhu Liu'er (朱六二), Zhu Zhongba's eldest son **Zhu Qianshi (朱千十), Zhu Zhongba's second son **Zhu Bailiu (朱百六), Zhu Zhongba's third son, "Emperor Dezu Xuan" (德祖玄皇帝). ***Zhu Siwu (朱四五), Zhu Bailiu's eldest son ***Zhu Sijiu (朱四九), Zhu Bailiu's second son, "Emperor Yizu Heng" (懿祖恆皇帝). ****Zhu Chuyi (朱初一), Zhu Sijiu's eldest son, "Emperor Xizu Yu" (熙祖裕皇帝). *****Zhu Wuyi (朱五一), Zhu Chongyi's eldest son, "Prince of Shouchun" (壽春王). ******Zhu Chongyi (朱重一), Zhu Wuyi's eldest son, "Prince of Huoqiu" (霍丘王). *******Zhu Saige (朱賽哥), Zhu Chongyi's eldest son, "Prince of Gaosha" (高沙王). *******Zhu Tiege (朱鐵哥), Zhu Chongyi's second son "Prince of Shouchun" (壽春王). ******Zhu Chong'er (朱重二), Zhu Wuyi's second son, "Prince of Baoying" (寶應王). ******Zhu Chongsan (朱重三), Zhu Wuyi's third son, "Prince of Anfeng" (安豐王). *******Zhu Zhuan'er (朱轉兒), Zhu Chongsan's eldest son, "Prince of Liu'an" (六安王). *******Zhu Ji'er (朱記兒), Zhu Chongsan's second son, "Prince of Lai'an" (來安王). *******Zhu Sao'er (朱臊兒), Zhu Chongsan's third son, "Prince of Dumeng" (都蒙王). *******Zhu Run'er (朱潤兒), Zhu Chongsan's fourth son, "Prince of Yingshan" (英山王). ******Zhu Chongsi (朱重四), Zhu Wuyi's fourth son, "Prince of Mengcheng" (蒙城王). *****Zhu Wu'er (朱五二), Zhu Chuyi's second son *****Zhu Shizhen (朱世珍), Zhu Chuyi's second son, named Zhu Wusi (朱五四) during his lifetime, "Emperor Renzu Chun" (仁祖淳皇帝). ******Siblings of Hongwu Emperor (see below) ****Zhu Chu'er (朱初二), Zhu Sijiu's second son ****Zhu Chuwu (朱初五), also name Zhu Xiao (朱孝), Zhu Sijiu's third son ****Zhu Chushi (朱初十), Zhu Sijiu's fourth son ===Line of Hongwu Emperor's brothers=== *Zhu Shizhen, "Emperor Renzu Chun" **Zhu Xinglong (朱興隆; died 1344), Zhu Shizhen's eldest son, named Zhu Chongwu (朱重五) during his lifetime, "Prince of Yuzhang" (豫章王), later changed to "Prince of Nanchang" (南昌王) ***Zhu Shengbao (朱聖保), Zhu Xinglong's eldest son, "Prince of Shanyang" (山陽王). ***Zhu Wenzheng (朱文正; died 1365), Zhu Xinglong's second son ****Zhu Shouqian, Prince of Jingjiang **Zhu Xingsheng (朱興盛), Zhu Shizhen's second son, named Zhu Chongliu (朱重六) during his lifetime, "Prince of Xuyi" (盱眙王). ***Zhu Wang'er (朱旺兒), posthumously bestowed as "Prince of Zhaoxin" (昭信王). **Zhu Xingzu (朱興祖), , Zhu Shizhen's eldest son named Zhu Chongqin (朱重七) during his lifetime, "Prince of Linhuai" (臨淮王). **15px Hongwu Emperor, , Zhu Shizhen's fourth son ===Imperial princes without title=== *15px Hongwu Emperor **Zhu Biao, Crown Prince Yiwen, Hongwu Emperor's eldest son ***Zhu Xiongying (朱雄英), Zhu Biao's eldest son, "Prince Huai of Yu" (虞懷王) ***15px Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Biao's second son ****Zhu Wengui (朱文圭), Jianwen Emperor's second son, "Prince Huai of Run" (潤懷王) **15px Yongle Emperor ***15px Hongxi Emperor ****15px Xuande Emperor *****15px Emperor Yingzong ******15px Chenghua Emperor *******Unnamed eldest son of Chenghua Emperor *******15px Hongzhi Emperor ********Zhu Houwei (朱厚煒), "Prince Dao of Wei" (蔚悼王), Hongzhi Emperor's second son *******Zhu Youyuan, Chenghua Emperor's fourth son ********Zhu Houxi (朱厚熙), Zhu Youyuan's eldest son, Prince Huai of Yue (岳懷王) ********15px Jiajing Emperor *********15px Longqing Emperor **********Zhu Yiling (朱翊鈴), Longqing Emperor's second son, "Comm. Prince of Lantian" (藍田郡王), later changed to "Prince Dao of Jing" (靖悼王) **********15px Wanli Emperor ***********15px Taichang Emperor ************Zhu Youxue (朱由㰒), Taichang Emperor's second son, "Prince Huai of Jian" (簡懷王) ************Zhu Youji (朱由楫), Taichang Emperor's third son, "Prince Si of Qi" (齊思王) ************Zhu Youmo (朱由模), Taichang Emperor's fourth son, "Prince Hui of Huai" (懷惠王) ************15px Chongzhen Emperor *************Zhu Cixuan (朱慈烜), Chongzhen Emperor's fifth son, "Prince Yin of Huai" (懷隱王) *************Zhu Cican (朱慈燦), Chongzhen Emperor's sixth son, "Prince Huai of Dao" (悼懷王) *************Chongzhen Emperor's seventh son, "Prince Liang of Dao" (悼良王) ************Zhu Youyi (朱由栩), Taichang Emperor's sixth son, "Prince Huai of Xiang" (湘懷王) ************Zhu Youshan (朱由橏), Taichang Emperor's seventh son, "Prince Zhao of Hui" (慧昭王) ***********Zhu Changxu (朱常漵), Wanli Emperor's second son, "Prince Ai of Bin" (邠哀王) ***********Zhu Changzhi (朱常治), Wanli Emperor's fourth son, "Prince Huai of Yuan" (沅懷王) ***********Zhu Changpu (朱常溥), Wanli Emperor's eighth son, "Prince Si of Yong" (永思王) *********Zhu Zailu (朱載𪉖), Jiajing Emperor's fifth son, "Prince Shang of Ying" (潁殤王) *********Zhu Zai... (朱載14px), Jiajing Emperor's sixth son, "Prince Huai of Qi" (戚懷王) *********Zhu Zaikui (朱載㙺), Jiajing Emperor's seventh son, "Prince Ai of Ji" (薊哀王) *********Zhu Zai... (朱載14px), Jiajing Emperor's eighth son, Prince Si of Jun (均思王) *******Unnamed tenth son of Chenghua Emperor ******Zhu Jianshi (朱見湜), Emperor Yingzong's third son ****Zhu Zhanyin (朱瞻垠), Hongxi Emperor's fourth son, "Comm. Prince of Jingle" (靜樂郡王), later changed to "Prince Xian of Qi" (蘄獻王) ***Zhu Gaoxi (朱高爔), Yongle Emperor's fourth son **Zhu Nan (朱楠), Hongwu Emperor's 26th son ==Non-imperial princes== According to the regulation of the Ming dynasty, only imperial sons and other imperial clan members (excluding matrilineal relatives of the imperial house) can award princely titles. For non-imperial and nobles (excluding matrilineal relatives of the imperial house), the highest rank title that could be awarded was “duke” (国公), they could only posthumously awarded the second-rank princely title after they died. This regulation was carried out until the extinction of the Ming dynasty, and regimes of Hongguang Emperor and Longwu Emperor. During the reign of Yongli Emperor, he abolished the regulation under the force of Sun Kewang, and granted various princely titles to Sun Kewang, Li Dingguo, Zheng Chenggong (known as Koxinga) and other military officers of Southern Ming. ===Posthumously bestowed in Ming dynasty=== *Mr. Hou (侯), "Prince of Da" (大王), maternal great-great-grandfather of Hongwu Emperor *Mr. Wang (王), "Prince of Gao" (高王), maternal great-grandfather of Hongwu Emperor *Mr. Chen (陳), "Prince of Yang" (揚王), maternal grandfather of Hongwu Emperor *Mr. Ma (馬). "Prince of Xu" (徐王), father of Empress Xiaocigao *Guo Zixing (郭子興), "Prince of Chuyang" (滁陽王) *Xu Da, "Prince Wuning of Zhongshan" (中山武寧王), the first Duke of Wei (魏國公) *Chen Youren (陳友仁), "Prince Kangshan" (康山王), fourth brother of Chen Youliang *Chang Yuchun, "Prince Zhongwu of Kaiping" (開平忠武王) *Tang He, "Prince Xiangwu of Dong'ou" (東甌襄武王), the first Duke of Xin (信國公) *Deng Yu (鄧愈), "Prince Wushun of Ninghe" (寧河武順王), the first Duke of Wei (衛國公) *Zhu Yong (朱永), "Prince Wuzhuang of Xuanping" (宣平武莊王), first Duke of Bao, and son-in-law of Zhang Fu ====Dukedom of Cao line==== *Li Zhen (李貞), "Prince Gongxian of Longxi" (隴西恭獻王), the first Duke of Cao (曹國公), husband of Zhu Fonu (sister of Hongwu Emperor) **Li Wenzhong (李文忠), "Prince Wujing of Qiyang" (岐陽武靖王), the second Duke of Cao, maternal nephew of Hongwu Emperor and father of Li Jinglong ====Marquessate of Xiping line==== *Mu Ying, "Prince Zhaojing of Qianning (黔寧昭靖王), the first Marquess of Xiping (西平侯) **Mu Sheng, "Prince Zhongjing of Dingyuan" (定遠忠敬王), the second Marquess of Xiping and later the first Duke of Qian (黔國公) ====Dukedom of Ying line==== *Zhang Yu (general), "Prince Zhongwu of Hejian" (河間忠武王), originally posthumously bestowed as "Duke of Rong" (榮國公) **Zhang Fu, "Prince Zhonglie of Dingxing" (定興忠烈王), the first Duke of Ying (英國公) ***Zhang Mao (張懋), "Prince Gongjing of Ningyang (寧陽恭靖王), the second Duke of Ying ====Dukedom of Cheng line==== *Zhu Neng (朱能), "Prince Wulie of Dongping" (東平武烈王), the first Duke of Cheng (成國公) **Zhu Yong (朱勇), "Prince Wumin of Pingyin" (平陰武愍王), the second Duke of Cheng ***Unknown generation ****Zhu Xizhong (朱希忠), "Prince Gongjing of Dingxiang" (定襄恭靖王), the Duke of Cheng ==References== Category:Ming dynasty princely peerages |
Blackburn Meadows is an area of land just inside the Sheffield city border at Tinsley, England. It became the location of the main sewage treatment works for the city in 1884, and is now one of the largest treatment works in Britain. The treatment process was rudimentary, with sludge being removed to ponds and then to drying beds, after which it was used as manure or transferred by rail to a tip at Kilnhurst. The works progressively expanded to improve the quality of effluent discharged to the River Don and was a pioneer in the use of bio-aeration, following experiments by the works manager during the First World War. This process became known as the "Sheffield System", and was demonstrated to visitors from Great Britain and abroad. Despite these improvements, ammonia levels in the river below the works were high, and fish populations did not survive. The works had its own internal standard gauge railway for over 100 years, which used three steam and three diesel locomotives over the course of its existence, until its replacement by road vehicles in the 1990s. During the 1926 general strike, the locomotives hauled trains over the main line, delivering wagons to Kilnhurst tip under a special dispensation. By the 1960s, the Sheffield sewer system was inadequate for the volume of effluent produced, and the Don Valley Interceptor Sewer was tunnelled beneath the city to the works, enabling 26 storm sewage overflows into the river to be shut down. Water quality was further improved by a new treatment process installed in 1992 to reduce ammonia levels, enabling fish stocks to be re-established in the lower River Don. Subsequent improvements have been made so that the works complies with the Waste Incineration Directive and the Freshwater Fish Directive. The works was inundated by flood water on 25 June 2007, when the Don burst its banks, but was recommissioned in just 18 days. A power station was operational on the southern part of the site from 1921, supplying electricity to the steel works of the Lower Don Valley. Although it closed in October 1980, two of its cooling towers which were designed by L. G. Mouchel and Partners in 1937, remained until 2008, as demolition was difficult because of their proximity to Tinsley Viaduct, which carries the M1 motorway across the Don valley. Following extensive upgrading of the treatment works, to improve the quality of discharges to the river still further, the sludge beds became redundant, and have been turned into a nature reserve, providing habitat for migrating birds. ==Sewage Treatment Works== Blackburn Meadows is the lowest point within Sheffield City Council area. The River Don flows out of the city under Templeborough railway bridge past a benchmark set at above sea level. (Rivet at SK40999170) The meadows therefore formed a good site for a sewage treatment works, and Blackburn Meadows works was opened in 1886. It is located on a site to the north of the Don, and to the east of Tinsley Viaduct. In 2006 it was claimed to be the second largest treatment works in the United Kingdom, processing 79 million gallons (360,000 m3) of effluent each day, with only the works at Leeds processing more. ===History=== As the population of Sheffield increased, Sheffield Corporation bought of land at Blackburn Meadows, on which to build a sewage treatment works. In August 1884, William Bissett and Son won the contract for its construction, which was overseen by Thomas West, who acted as Clerk of Works. of standard gauge railway track connected the limeshed to a junction with the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway. Bissetts had completed their work by January 1886, and although £2,462 had been spent on extras, their final bill came to £23,933, which was £27 cheaper than the original contract value. Savings were made by using concrete for the foundations and bottoms of tanks, rather than brick and puddle clay. thumb|left|Some of the settling tanks at the treatment works By mid-1886, the works was complete, and the Mayor, J. W. Pye-Smith Esq, officially opened it on 2 June. The event was witnessed by members of the Council, and by invited guests, which included a representative from the London Metropolitan Board of Works. Reports at the time indicated that the sewage passed through catch pits by gravity, allowing solids to settle, which were removed weekly. Milk of lime was then added as it flowed through mixing channels, after which it entered rectangular settling tanks. Next it passed on to a number of precipitating tanks, each holding , where after 30 minutes of settling, it passed over aerating weirs. Finally it ran through coke filters and was discharged into the river. Around of sludge was removed from the precipitating tanks each day, to be pumped into ponds. Once the water had drained off, it was moved to drying beds, and was then used as manure by farmers, or was taken by rail to a tip at Kilnhurst, near Rotherham. Initially, there were 30 precipitating tanks and 60 aerating or filtering tanks. The railway also developed, with the acquisition of of portable track and six tipping wagons in 1889, a steam crane later the same year, and more wagons in 1891 and 1892. The first locomotive arrived in 1898, after its purchase from the Yorkshire Engine Company. It was an 0-4-0 saddle tank, which had been built in 1875 for use as a contractor's engine, and had been refurbished by the manufacturer. A maintenance contract for the wagons lapsed in 1900, as the men at the works had become proficient at repairs. In parallel with the construction of the works, trunk sewers were built to convey sewage from the city to the works. These was a major programme of expansion to the sewer network in 1910, to ensure that it could cope with the expected volumes of effluent produced. Because British sewers are also expected to handle rainwater, a series of storm sewage overflows were provided, which resulted in diluted sewage being discharged into the River Don in times of heavy rainfall. ===Expansion=== thumb|top|right|Jordan Bridge, which carried the internal railway over the River Don Navigation to reach the sludge beds The quality of the effluent discharged into the Don was soon giving rise to concern, as the treatment process was unsatisfactory. An act of Parliament was obtained in 1900, which allowed Sheffield Corporation to buy an additional , on which contact beds would be built, so that the effluent could be better treated before discharge. The initial plan was costed at £367,355, which was reduced to £270,369 when secondary contact beds were removed from the scheme. The Local Government Board approved the plans on 13 May 1905, paving the way for the construction of a biological treatment system, instead of the system using lime. Logan and Hemmingway, who were contractors based at Nottingham, won the initial contract for excavations, and also the subsequent one for the construction of six settling tanks, 24 contact tanks, and Jordan bridge, which would carry the internal railway line over the River Don Navigation. The contract was worth £41,046, and further contracts followed, which included £36,500 for 36 more contact beds and three settling tanks, £5,000 for excavating of earth, and £36,484 for storm beds and other work, which was subsequently raised to £39,184, so that they could pay their workers at the same rate as Sheffield Corporation paid their own workmen. The Lord Mayor opened the first part of the new works on 28 October 1909, and Sheffield Council increased the amount of land they owned for sewage treatment to by buying another , on which contact beds could be constructed if required at a later date. Discharges to the river were still of poor quality, and a secondary treatment process was designed, although its implementation was delayed by the onset of the First World War. However, John Haworth became works manager in 1914, and began to experiment with ways to treat the effluent. A continuous narrow channel was constructed within a tank, and paddles were used to agitate the liquid. This allowed it to become oxygenated, which supported bacteria, allowing them to digest the sewage. The process was called bio-aeration, but became known as the "Sheffield System", and a steady stream of people came to inspect the works, both from local authorities in Great Britain and from overseas. Many of the contact beds were converted to use the new system between 1922 and 1927. The treatment process significantly reduced the biochemical oxygen demand of the effluent discharged to the river, but was not good at removing ammonia, which was a major contributor to the poor water quality of the river below the works, and the destruction of the fish populations. The effluent regularly contained more than 20 mg/L of ammonia, which resulted in levels of over 10 mg/L in the river. Few fish can survive in concentrations of over 2 mg/L. In 1915, the Corporation had made enquiries about purchasing a second-hand steam engine, approaching six locomotive manufacturers, but eventually acquired a new 0-4-0 saddle tank from Peckett and Sons Ltd, which was built at their Bristol works in 1918. The original engine became a spare, but was hired out to the Blackburn Meadows power station in March 1936. A year later it was condemned by the insurance company, and was sold for scrap to Maden and McKee Ltd, who were based in Liverpool. A replacement was sought, and a third 0-4-0 saddle tank, made by Hudswell Clarke in 1914, was bought from the Olympia Oil and Cake Company at Selby. It was coupled into a goods train, and arrived at the works in July 1937. At the works, as at Selby, it carried the name Olympia, painted on the tanks. The Peckett was overhauled by the Yorkshire Engine Company at Meadow Hall Works between 1945 and 1946. Because there was a statutory obligation to keep the treatment works operational, a special dispensation was obtained during the 1926 general strike, to allow this engine to run over the main line, delivering wagons to Kilnhurst tip. Kilnhurst tip eventually became full, and in January 1948, regular tipping operations ceased, after a new tip at Thrybergh opened. Tipping continued at Kilnhurst sporadically, until it was closed in 1959. During its operational life up to 1948, 2,917,480 tons of sewage sludge was dumped at the site, and following closure, it was sold to the National Coal Board in 1961. ===Modernisation=== The entire works was upgraded between 1956 and 1969, in five distinct phases. The plan was announced in January 1956, and was expected to cost £1 million. The first phase was the construction of a filter pressing plant, for which the main contractor was Norwest Construction Co Ltd, while the actual presses and other plant were supplied by S. H. Johnson and Co Ltd. This phase was completed in 1962, and was officially opened by the Lord Mayor on 14 May 1963. The second phase consisted of a preliminary treatment plant, a storm sewage separation plant, and metering of the flows within the plant. This was completed in 1965. The third phase was split into two parts, which initially involved the building of new primary sedimentation tanks. Once these were operational in 1969, the old sedimentation tanks were converted to become temporary storm sewage tanks. This fourth phase was called phase 3b, and was completed in 1970. The final phase was the construction of a sludge incinerator, which was completed in 1969 and meant that the pressed sewage cake did not have to be taken to Thrybergh to be dumped. The railway was also upgraded at this time. Thomas Ward Ltd supplied replacement track in 1955, and a new 0-4-0 diesel electric shunter was ordered from Ruston and Hornsby Ltd in 1959. It was delivered from Lincoln on a low-loader in 1960, and was so successful that a second engine of the same type was ordered the following year. The Hudswell Clarke steam engine was cut up on site in 1962, but the Corporation wrote to Peckett's to see if they would convert the Peckett engine to diesel hydraulic transmission. Peckett's declined, and so the engine was converted at the works, by cutting off the boiler and saddle tank, and fitting a Perkins diesel engine removed from a crane. It was completed on 12 May 1962, and worked well, although it spent most of its subsequent life working at Thrybergh tip. It returned to Blackburn Meadows in 1967, and was cut up later that year. A prototype steel side-tipping wagon was ordered from Robert Hudson Ltd of Leeds in 1955, and a further 22 followed in 1957, to replace the original wooden wagons. Charles Roberts and Co Ltd of Wakefield supplied 12 more in 1958, and a further 35 in 1961, with Hudsons supplying the final 6 in 1963. In 1976, a new diesel shunting locomotive, made by Thomas Hill of Rotherham was purchased. It was built at Kilnhurst, and driven along the ex-Great Central Railway line from there to the works. The first Ruston and Hornsby engine was partially dismantled, and eventually cut up in January 1978. The connection between the works and the British Rail network was cut in 1984, and the system became one of a very small number of isolated standard gauge railways. By 1986, the track layout had been simplified, and the track across Jordan bridge had been lifted. When rail operation ceased in the 1990s, one of the Hudson tipping wagons went to the National Railway Museum at Shildon, and the Thomas Hill engine, after several changes of ownership, is now located on the Peak Rail preserved railway at Matlock. By the 1960s, the Sheffield sewers were inadequate for the volume of effluent, and overflowed into the river during periods of light rainfall and sometimes when there was no rainfall. Some of them had been in use for 80 years, and inspection revealed that major reconstruction was required. The solution adopted was to tunnel the Don Valley Interceptor Sewer through the Carboniferous rock beneath the existing sewers. Work began of the first phase in 1979, when of tunnel were built from the works to a drop shaft in Hawke Street. A new pumping station was required at Blackburn Meadows, and this phase was completed in July 1983. Over the next decade, four further phases were completed, involving the tunnelling of of sewer with a diameter of to a drop shaft near Furnival Road, a new sewer from Furnival Road to the Whitbread Brewery with another from the Sheaf Valley sewer to the central bus station, extension of the Don Valley sewer to Gilpin Street, and finally extension from Gilpin Street to Livesey Street in Hillsborough. As a result of this work, the capacity of the sewers was greatly increased, and 26 storm sewage overflows were closed, resulting in significant improvement to water quality in the river. ===Improvements=== thumb|top|right|Diagram of the sewage sludge incineration process In 1992, the problem of ammonia levels in the final effluent was addressed by the construction of a system using anoxic zones and diffuse air activated sludge treatment. This dramatically reduced ammonia levels, and was the most significant factor in the re-establishment of fish stocks in the lower River Don. In 1990, the outdated filter presshouse and incineration plant were replaced by a new sludge-dewatering plant and a fluidized-bed incinerator. The new plant made the old sludge beds, situated to the east of the River Don and on the island formed by the Don and the Holmes Cut, redundant, and these have now become a nature reserve. Further improvements to the process were completed by 2005. These included an upgrade to the wet scrubbing system, in order to remove heavy metals and acid gases such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride from the flue gases produced by the incinerator, and the addition of a tertiary adsorption filter, which removes mercury and dioxins. The improvements were designed to ensure that the plant met the standards set out in the Waste Incineration Directive. The outflow from the works, which passes under the River Don Navigation and joins the river beside Jordans weir, has in the past been a major contributor to the pollution of the River Don, but some £70 million has been invested in upgrading the plant, to ensure that discharges to the river meet the requirements of the Freshwater Fish Directive. In dry weather, the outfall discharges 30 million gallons (136,000 m3) of treated water each day, more than doubling the flow in the river at this point. The works was shut down on 25 June 2007, after the Don burst its banks, and the entire site was engulfed by several feet of water. It remained submerged for over a week, with much of the equipment suffering catastrophic damage. Once the water subsided, imaginative ways had to be found to return it to operation within a reasonable time. The analyser which measures emissions from the incinerator plant had been completely destroyed, and in order to mitigate a 16-week delivery time, the manufacturers removed one from a training centre at Telford, and it was hired by Yorkshire Water until a new unit could be supplied. The plant was recommissioned and operational just 18 days after its inundation. In 2012, a contract for the construction of a mesophilic anaerobic digestion facility was awarded, including the construction of buildings and various other pieces of equipment required for the treatment of sludge. Mesophilic anaerobic digestion enables the breaking down of biodegradable materials using micro-organisms under moderate temperatures. The new sludge treatment facility enables the recycled sludge to be used on neighbouring farmlands as manure, and also enables Yorkshire Water to generate 1.9MW of renewable energy using combined heat and power units. == Association with biological warfare == In 1942 Olympia Oil and Cake Company (based in Blackburn Meadows) was outsourced to produce 5,273,400 cakes by the Porton Down biology department for use in Operation Vegetarian. ==Power Station== thumb|left|The cooling towers prior to demolition In 1921, Sheffield Corporation built a coal-fired power station on spare land at the south west corner of Blackburn Meadows. At the time there was no national grid, and the steelworks which occupied much of the Lower Don Valley needed additional electrical power. The chosen site was close to the steel works, was near the river, which supplied cooling water, and was well- served by railway lines, to deliver coal.Ordnance Survey, 1:2500 map, 1923 (available here) The station was modified between 1937 and 1942, when its capacity was increased to 72 megawatts, and remained operational until the 1980s. When the rest of the power station was demolished, two of its seven cooling towers were left standing due to their close proximity to the M1 motorway, and the risk that their demolition might cause Tinsley Viaduct to be damaged. The towers were hyperbolic in shape, and were designed by L. G. Mouchel and Partners, who had also been responsible for the first such towers erected at Liverpool in 1925. The Blackburn Meadows towers were built between 1937 and 1938. English Heritage considered whether they should be designated as listed structures, but ruled against it because the internal cooling structures had been removed, and there was no context for them, as the rest of the station no longer existed. On 24 August 2008, at 3 am, the two landmark towers were finally demolished with explosives, without damaging the motorway. In 2011, as part of Sheffield City Council's drive to become self-sufficient for energy, construction of a biomass power station began. It is operated by E.ON UK, and was completed in 2014. It generates 30 megawatts by burning waste wood, sourced from the United Kingdom, and waste heat is captured to provide a district heating scheme. ==Nature Reserve== In 1993 Sheffield City Council negotiated with Yorkshire Water and leased an unused part of the former sewage works for 99 years, at an annual rent of one peppercorn, to enable it to be reclaimed and turned into a nature reserve. In order to manage the project, a consortium was formed, with representation from Sheffield City Council, Sheffield Wildlife Trust, South Yorkshire Forest and Yorkshire Water. It now provides habitat for migrating birds, for which it is an area of European significance. The Wildlife Trust run an active programme of school education visits. In 2005 the City Council exercised an option to increase the size of the reserve by taking over additional land from Yorkshire Water. ==Bibliography== * * * (This is available online at The Don Catchment Rivers Trust. Page numbers refer to the pdf file). * * ===References=== == External links == *Loved and hated cooling towers. Sheffield Telegraph *Brief history of the power station *Echoes of Blackburn Meadows Category:Buildings and structures in Sheffield Category:Nature reserves in South Yorkshire Category:Sewage treatment plants in the United Kingdom Category:Meadows in South Yorkshire |
Sparse coding is a representation learning method which aims at finding a sparse representation of the input data (also known as sparse coding) in the form of a linear combination of basic elements as well as those basic elements themselves. These elements are called atoms and they compose a dictionary. Atoms in the dictionary are not required to be orthogonal, and they may be an over-complete spanning set. This problem setup also allows the dimensionality of the signals being represented to be higher than the one of the signals being observed. The above two properties lead to having seemingly redundant atoms that allow multiple representations of the same signal but also provide an improvement in sparsity and flexibility of the representation. One of the most important applications of sparse dictionary learning is in the field of compressed sensing or signal recovery. In compressed sensing, a high- dimensional signal can be recovered with only a few linear measurements provided that the signal is sparse or nearly sparse. Since not all signals satisfy this sparsity condition, it is of great importance to find a sparse representation of that signal such as the wavelet transform or the directional gradient of a rasterized matrix. Once a matrix or a high dimensional vector is transferred to a sparse space, different recovery algorithms like basis pursuit, CoSaMP or fast non-iterative algorithmsLotfi, M.; Vidyasagar, M."A Fast Non-iterative Algorithm for Compressive Sensing Using Binary Measurement Matrices" can be used to recover the signal. One of the key principles of dictionary learning is that the dictionary has to be inferred from the input data. The emergence of sparse dictionary learning methods was stimulated by the fact that in signal processing one typically wants to represent the input data using as few components as possible. Before this approach the general practice was to use predefined dictionaries (such as Fourier or wavelet transforms). However, in certain cases a dictionary that is trained to fit the input data can significantly improve the sparsity, which has applications in data decomposition, compression and analysis and has been used in the fields of image denoising and classification, video and audio processing. Sparsity and overcomplete dictionaries have immense applications in image compression, image fusion and inpainting. thumb|Image Denoising by Dictionary Learning == Problem statement == Given the input dataset X = [x_1, ..., x_K], x_i \in \mathbb{R}^d we wish to find a dictionary \mathbf{D} \in \mathbb{R}^{d \times n}: D = [d_1, ..., d_n] and a representation R = [r_1,...,r_K], r_i \in \mathbb{R}^n such that both \|X-\mathbf{D}R\|^2_F is minimized and the representations r_i are sparse enough. This can be formulated as the following optimization problem: \underset{\mathbf{D} \in \mathcal{C}, r_i \in \mathbb{R}^n}{\text{argmin}} \sum_{i=1}^K\|x_i-\mathbf{D}r_i\|_2^2+\lambda \|r_i\|_0, where \mathcal{C} \equiv \\{\mathbf{D} \in \mathbb{R}^{d \times n}: \|d_i\|_2 \leq 1 \,\, \forall i =1,...,n \\}, \lambda>0 \mathcal{C} is required to constrain \mathbf{D} so that its atoms would not reach arbitrarily high values allowing for arbitrarily low (but non-zero) values of r_i.\lambda controls the trade off between the sparsity and the minimization error. The minimization problem above is not convex because of the ℓ0-"norm" and solving this problem is NP-hard.A. M. Tillmann, "On the Computational Intractability of Exact and Approximate Dictionary Learning", IEEE Signal Processing Letters 22(1), 2015: 45–49. In some cases L1-norm is known to ensure sparsity and so the above becomes a convex optimization problem with respect to each of the variables \mathbf{D} and \mathbf{R} when the other one is fixed, but it is not jointly convex in (\mathbf{D}, \mathbf{R}). === Properties of the dictionary === The dictionary \mathbf{D} defined above can be "undercomplete" if n < d or "overcomplete" in case n>d with the latter being a typical assumption for a sparse dictionary learning problem. The case of a complete dictionary does not provide any improvement from a representational point of view and thus isn't considered. Undercomplete dictionaries represent the setup in which the actual input data lies in a lower-dimensional space. This case is strongly related to dimensionality reduction and techniques like principal component analysis which require atoms d_1,...,d_n to be orthogonal. The choice of these subspaces is crucial for efficient dimensionality reduction, but it is not trivial. And dimensionality reduction based on dictionary representation can be extended to address specific tasks such as data analysis or classification. However, their main downside is limiting the choice of atoms. Overcomplete dictionaries, however, do not require the atoms to be orthogonal (they will never have a basis anyway) thus allowing for more flexible dictionaries and richer data representations. An overcomplete dictionary which allows for sparse representation of signal can be a famous transform matrix (wavelets transform, fourier transform) or it can be formulated so that its elements are changed in such a way that it sparsely represents the given signal in a best way. Learned dictionaries are capable of giving sparser solutions as compared to predefined transform matrices. == Algorithms == As the optimization problem described above can be solved as a convex problem with respect to either dictionary or sparse coding while the other one of the two is fixed, most of the algorithms are based on the idea of iteratively updating one and then the other. The problem of finding an optimal sparse coding R with a given dictionary \mathbf{D} is known as sparse approximation (or sometimes just sparse coding problem). A number of algorithms have been developed to solve it (such as matching pursuit and LASSO) and are incorporated in the algorithms described below. === Method of optimal directions (MOD) === The method of optimal directions (or MOD) was one of the first methods introduced to tackle the sparse dictionary learning problem. The core idea of it is to solve the minimization problem subject to the limited number of non-zero components of the representation vector: \min_{\mathbf{D}, R}\\{\|X-\mathbf{D}R\|^2_F\\} \,\, \text{s.t.}\,\, \forall i \,\,\|r_i\|_0 \leq T Here, F denotes the Frobenius norm. MOD alternates between getting the sparse coding using a method such as matching pursuit and updating the dictionary by computing the analytical solution of the problem given by \mathbf{D} = XR^+ where R^+ is a Moore-Penrose pseudoinverse. After this update \mathbf{D} is renormalized to fit the constraints and the new sparse coding is obtained again. The process is repeated until convergence (or until a sufficiently small residue). MOD has proved to be a very efficient method for low-dimensional input data X requiring just a few iterations to converge. However, due to the high complexity of the matrix-inversion operation, computing the pseudoinverse in high-dimensional cases is in many cases intractable. This shortcoming has inspired the development of other dictionary learning methods. === K-SVD === K-SVD is an algorithm that performs SVD at its core to update the atoms of the dictionary one by one and basically is a generalization of K-means. It enforces that each element of the input data x_i is encoded by a linear combination of not more than T_0 elements in a way identical to the MOD approach: \min_{\mathbf{D}, R}\\{\|X-\mathbf{D}R\|^2_F\\} \,\, \text{s.t.}\,\, \forall i \,\,\|r_i\|_0 \leq T_0 This algorithm's essence is to first fix the dictionary, find the best possible R under the above constraint (using Orthogonal Matching Pursuit) and then iteratively update the atoms of dictionary \mathbf{D} in the following manner: \|X - \mathbf{D}R\|^2_F = \left| X - \sum_{i = 1}^K d_i x^i_T\right|^2_F = \| E_k - d_k x^k_T\|^2_F The next steps of the algorithm include rank-1 approximation of the residual matrix E_k , updating d_k and enforcing the sparsity of x_k after the update. This algorithm is considered to be standard for dictionary learning and is used in a variety of applications. However, it shares weaknesses with MOD being efficient only for signals with relatively low dimensionality and having the possibility for being stuck at local minima. === Stochastic gradient descent === One can also apply a widespread stochastic gradient descent method with iterative projection to solve this problem. The idea of this method is to update the dictionary using the first order stochastic gradient and project it on the constraint set \mathcal{C}. The step that occurs at i-th iteration is described by this expression: \mathbf{D}_i = \text{proj}_{\mathcal{C}} \left\\{\mathbf{D}_{i-1}-\delta_i abla_{\mathbf{D}}\sum_{i \in S}\|x_i-\mathbf{D}r_i\|_2^2+\lambda\|r_i\|_1 \right\\}, where S is a random subset of \\{1...K\\} and \delta_i is a gradient step. === Lagrange dual method === An algorithm based on solving a dual Lagrangian problem provides an efficient way to solve for the dictionary having no complications induced by the sparsity function.Lee, Honglak, et al. "Efficient sparse coding algorithms." Advances in neural information processing systems. 2006. Consider the following Lagrangian: \mathcal{L}(\mathbf{D}, \Lambda) = \text{tr}\left((X-\mathbf{D}R)^T(X-\mathbf{D}R)\right) + \sum_{j=1}^n\lambda_j \left({\sum_{i=1}^d\mathbf{D}_{ij}^2-c} \right), where c is a constraint on the norm of the atoms and \lambda_i are the so-called dual variables forming the diagonal matrix \Lambda. We can then provide an analytical expression for the Lagrange dual after minimization over \mathbf{D}: \mathcal{D}(\Lambda) = \min_{\mathbf{D}}\mathcal{L}(\mathbf{D}, \Lambda) = \text{tr}(X^TX- XR^T(RR^T+\Lambda)^{-1}(XR^T)^T-c\Lambda). After applying one of the optimization methods to the value of the dual (such as Newton's method or conjugate gradient) we get the value of \mathbf{D}: \mathbf{D}^T=(RR^T+\Lambda)^{-1}(XR^T)^T Solving this problem is less computational hard because the amount of dual variables n is a lot of times much less than the amount of variables in the primal problem. ===LASSO=== In this approach, the optimization problem is formulated as: \min_{r \in \mathbb{R}^n}\\{\,\,\|r\|_1\\} \,\, \text{subject to}\,\,\|X-\mathbf{D}R\|^2_F < \epsilon , where \epsilon is the permitted error in the reconstruction LASSO. It finds an estimate of r_i by minimizing the least square error subject to a L1-norm constraint in the solution vector, formulated as: \min_{r \in \mathbb{R}^n} \,\, \dfrac{1}{2}\,\,\|X-\mathbf{D}r\|^2_F + \lambda \,\,\|r\|_1 , where \lambda > 0 controls the trade-off between sparsity and the reconstruction error. This gives the global optimal solution. See also Online dictionary learning for Sparse coding === Parametric training methods === Parametric training methods are aimed to incorporate the best of both worlds — the realm of analytically constructed dictionaries and the learned ones. This allows to construct more powerful generalized dictionaries that can potentially be applied to the cases of arbitrary-sized signals. Notable approaches include: * Translation-invariant dictionaries. These dictionaries are composed by the translations of the atoms originating from the dictionary constructed for a finite-size signal patch. This allows the resulting dictionary to provide a representation for the arbitrary-sized signal. * Multiscale dictionaries. This method focuses on constructing a dictionary that is composed of differently scaled dictionaries to improve sparsity. * Sparse dictionaries. This method focuses on not only providing a sparse representation but also constructing a sparse dictionary which is enforced by the expression \mathbf{D} = \mathbf{B}\mathbf{A} where \mathbf{B} is some pre-defined analytical dictionary with desirable properties such as fast computation and \mathbf{A} is a sparse matrix. Such formulation allows to directly combine the fast implementation of analytical dictionaries with the flexibility of sparse approaches. === Online dictionary learning (LASSO approach) === Many common approaches to sparse dictionary learning rely on the fact that the whole input data X (or at least a large enough training dataset) is available for the algorithm. However, this might not be the case in the real-world scenario as the size of the input data might be too big to fit it into memory. The other case where this assumption can not be made is when the input data comes in a form of a stream. Such cases lie in the field of study of online learning which essentially suggests iteratively updating the model upon the new data points x becoming available. A dictionary can be learned in an online manner the following way: # For t = 1...T: # Draw a new sample x_t # Find a sparse coding using LARS: r_t = \underset{r \in \mathbb{R}^n}{\text{argmin}}\left(\frac{1}{2}\|x_t-\mathbf{D}_{t-1}r\|+\lambda\|r\|_1\right) # Update dictionary using block-coordinate approach: \mathbf{D}_t = \underset{\mathbf{D} \in \mathcal{C}}{\text{argmin}}\frac{1}{t}\sum_{i=1}^t\left(\frac{1}{2}\|x_i-\mathbf{D}r_i\|^2_2+\lambda\|r_i\|_1\right) This method allows us to gradually update the dictionary as new data becomes available for sparse representation learning and helps drastically reduce the amount of memory needed to store the dataset (which often has a huge size). == Applications == The dictionary learning framework, namely the linear decomposition of an input signal using a few basis elements learned from data itself, has led to state-of-art results in various image and video processing tasks. This technique can be applied to classification problems in a way that if we have built specific dictionaries for each class, the input signal can be classified by finding the dictionary corresponding to the sparsest representation. It also has properties that are useful for signal denoising since usually one can learn a dictionary to represent the meaningful part of the input signal in a sparse way but the noise in the input will have a much less sparse representation.Aharon, M, M Elad, and A Bruckstein. 2006. "K-SVD: An Algorithm for Designing Overcomplete Dictionaries for Sparse Representation." Signal Processing, IEEE Transactions on 54 (11): 4311-4322 Sparse dictionary learning has been successfully applied to various image, video and audio processing tasks as well as to texture synthesis and unsupervised clustering. In evaluations with the Bag-of-Words model, sparse coding was found empirically to outperform other coding approaches on the object category recognition tasks. Dictionary learning is used to analyse medical signals in detail. Such medical signals include those from electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (ECG), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI (fMRI), continuous glucose monitors and ultrasound computer tomography (USCT), where different assumptions are used to analyze each signal. == See also == * Sparse approximation * Sparse PCA * K-SVD * Matrix factorization * Neural sparse coding == References == Category:Unsupervised learning |
The following is a list of deaths in March 2009. Entries for each day are listed _alphabetically_ by surname. A typical entry lists information in the following sequence: * Name, age, country of citizenship at birth, subsequent country of citizenship (if applicable), reason for notability, cause of death (if known), and reference. ==March 2009== ===1=== *Robert Haggiag, 95, Libyan-born American film producer (Candy). *Ken Henry, 80, American Olympic gold medal-winning (1952) speed skater. *Charles S. Lieber, 78, Belgian-born American nutritionist, stomach cancer. *Paolo Maffei, 83, Italian astronomer and science fiction writer.Biografia Paolo Maffei *Alf Pike, 91, Canadian ice hockey player and head coach (New York Rangers). *Pepe Rubianes, 61, Spanish Catalan actor and theatre director, lung cancer. *Eric Simms, 87, British ornithologist, writer and conservationist.Eric Simms: naturalist, ornithologist, author and conservationist *Joan Turner, 86, British actress. ===2=== *Ernest Ashworth, 80, American country music singer, member of Grand Ole Opry. *Michael Baker, 52, Canadian politician, member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly since 1998, cancer. *Halit Balamir, c. 87, Turkish Olympic silver medal-winning (1948) wrestler, myocardial infarction. *Ernst Benda, 84, German politician, Interior Minister (1968–1969) and President, Federal Constitutional Court (1971–1983). *Andy Bowman, 74, Scottish footballer (Hearts, Newport County), after long illness. *Robert Bruce, 65, British-born New Zealand professional wrestler and talent agent, after short illness. *Chris Finnegan, 64, British boxer, Olympic middleweight champion (1968), complications from pneumonia. *Alexandre Léontieff, 60, French politician, President of French Polynesia (1987–1991), heart attack.Polynésie : décès d'Alexandre Leontieff *Ann Marie Rogers, 57, British activist, campaigner for breast cancer drug Herceptin, breast cancer. *Jacob T. Schwartz, 79, American mathematician and computer scientist, liver cancer. *Urban Sea, 20, French racehorse and broodmare, Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe winner (1993), complications during foaling. *João Bernardo Vieira, 69, Guinea-Bissauan politician, Prime Minister (1978–1980) and President (1980–1999, since 2005), shot. ===3=== *Sydney Chaplin, 82, American actor. *Frederick Conyngham, 7th Marquess Conyngham, 84, Irish nobleman, cancer. *Sebastian Faisst, 20, German handball player, heart failure. *Flemming Flindt, 72, Danish choreographer, after short illness. *Frank Ford, 92, American radio talk show host, stroke. *Åke Lindman, 81, Finnish actor and film director, after long illness. *Luis Mena Arroyo, 88, Mexican prelate, Auxiliary Bishop of Mexico. *Gilbert Parent, 73, Canadian politician, Speaker (1994–2001) and Member of Parliament (1974–1984, 1988–2000), colon cancer.Former parliamentary Speaker Gilbert Parent dies *Barbara Wright, 93, British translator.Barbara Wright: translator ===4=== *Joseph Bloch, 91, American pianist and professor, heart attack. *John Cephas, 78, American Piedmont blues guitarist, natural causes. *Yvon Cormier, 70, Canadian professional wrestler, bone marrow cancer. *Horton Foote, 92, American playwright and screenwriter, after short illness. *Patricia De Martelaere, 51, Belgian writer and philosopher, complications of brain tumor. *George McAfee, 90, American football player (Chicago Bears) and member of Pro Football Hall of Fame. *Harry Parkes, 89, British footballer (Aston Villa). *Vasili Postnov, 46, Tajikistani footballer. *Salvatore Samperi, 64, Italian film director.Cinema, addio a Salvatore Samperi maestro dell'erotismo all'italiana *Triztán Vindtorn, 66, Norwegian poet.Norwegian poet Triztan Vindtorn dies ===5=== *Mario Acuña, 68, Argentinian-born American astrophysicist, multiple myeloma. *Valeri Broshin, 46, Russian footballer, cancer. *Francis Essex, 79, British television producer. *Temima Gezari, 103, American artist, natural causes. *Thomas T. Goldsmith, Jr., 99, American engineer, pioneer of television technology, complications of hip fracture. *Janez Gradišnik, 91, Slovenian author and translator. *Mac Henderson, 101, British rugby union player (Scotland) and businessman. *Jitsuo Inagaki, 80, Japanese politician, illness. *Oscar Kamau Kingara, 38, Kenyan lawyer and human rights activist, shot.Rights activist Oscar Kamau Kingara shot dead in central Nairobi *Hung-Chang Lin, 89, Chinese-born American inventor, lung cancer. *John Paul Oulu, Kenyan human rights activist, shot. *Dave Pureifory, 59, American football player (Detroit Lions), prostate cancer.Former Lions, EMU star Dave Pureifory dies ===6=== *Jim Bellows, 86, American newspaper editor, Alzheimer's disease. *Silvio Cesare Bonicelli, 76, Italian Bishop of Parma. *James Clyde, Baron Clyde, 77, British judge, Lord of Appeal in Ordinary (1996–2001), cancer. *Anthony Finigan, 83, British actor. *Colleen Howe, 76, American sports agent, wife of Gordie Howe, Pick's disease. *George Keverian, 77, American politician, member (1967–1991) and Speaker (1985–1991) of the Massachusetts House.Former House Speaker George Keverian dead *Francis Magalona, 44, Filipino actor and rapper, leukemia. *Kennedy McIntosh, 60, American basketball player, stroke.Former NBA player Kennedy McIntosh dies at 60 *Vivian Murray, 76, Irish businessman, chairman of An Post and Bord Iascaigh Mhara, after long illness. *Henri Pousseur, 79, Belgian composer. *Eduardo Rodríguez, 57, Puerto Rican baseball player, septic shock. *Christon Tembo, 64, Zambian politician, Vice President (1997–2001). *Susan Tsvangirai, 50, Zimbabwean wife of Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai, car collision. ===7=== *Steve Bernard, 61, American businessman, founder of Cape Cod Potato Chips, pancreatic cancer.Obituary: Steve Bernard *Michael Bowen, 71, American artist, complications of poliomyelitis. *Jimmy Boyd, 70, American actor and singer ("I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus"), cancer. *Daniel E. Button, 91, American politician, member of the House of Representatives for New York (1967–1971), after long illness. *Chan Yun, 93, Taiwanese Buddhist monk and teacher of meditation. *Schuyler Chapin, 86, American general manager of the Metropolitan Opera (1972–1975). *David Gaiman, 75, British businessman, public relations director for the Church of Scientology, heart attack. *Jang Ja-yeon, 26, South Korean actress (Boys Over Flowers), suicide by hanging. *Dmitri Kozlov, 89, Russian aerospace engineer, founder of Progress State Research and Production Space Center. *Barbara Parker, 62, American novelist, after long illness. *Tullio Pinelli, 100, Italian screenwriter (La strada). *Anton Shokh, 49, Ukrainian football player and coach. ===8=== *Girdhari Lal Bhargava, 73, Indian politician, heart attack. *Ali Bongo, 79, Indian-born British magician, pneumonia. *James Allen Keast, 86, Australian ornithologist. *Willie King, 65, American blues musician, heart attack. *Hank Locklin, 91, American country music singer, member of Grand Ole Opry.Hank Locklin, 91, dies; country singer helped usher in 'the Nashville Sound' *Anna Manahan, 84, Irish actress, multiple organ failure. *Zbigniew Religa, 70, Polish cardiac surgeon and politician, Minister of Health (2005–2007), cancer. *Robert Soost, 88, American botanist, heart attack. *Ernest Trova, 82, American artist, heart failure.Obituary of Sculptor Ernest Trova who created Falling Man' *Mary Warburg, 100, American philanthropist. ===9=== *Timothy Abell, 78, English cricketer and field hockey player. *Adiele Afigbo, 71, Nigerian historian. *Hanne Darboven, 68, German artist, lymphoma. *Eddie Lowe, 83, British footballer and manager. *Joseph Martin, 84, American Roman Catholic priest, addiction counselor and author, heart disease. *Larry Regan, 78, Canadian ice hockey player and general manager (Los Angeles Kings), Parkinson's disease. *Russell Spears, 92, American stonemason, elder of the Narragansett tribe. *Frank Stockwell, 80, Irish footballer. *Guillermo Thorndike, 69, Peruvian journalist, writer and editor, co-founder of La República, heart attack. ===10=== *Brian Barry, 73, British philosopher.Brian Barry: philosopher and political scientist *Denis Begbie, 94, South African cricketer. *Derek Benfield, 82, British actor. *Jack Capper, 77, British footballer.Jack Capper: 1931-2009 *Dick Daugherty, 79, American football player (Los Angeles Rams). *Nancy Eiesland, 44, American theologian and author, lung cancer. *Jack Grimes, 82, American actor and voice actor (Speed Racer). *Aaron Gural, 91, American real estate executive, pneumonia. *Tom Hanson, 41, Canadian photojournalist, heart attack. *George Hedges, 57, American lawyer and archaeologist, melanoma. *Ralph Mercado, 67, American music promoter (RMM Records & Video), cancer. *Anel Omar Rodríguez, 47, Panamanian politician, Minister of Culture, shot. *Michael Shannon, 55, American pediatrician. ===11=== *Paul W. Airey, 85, American Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force (1967–1969), complications from heart failure. *Péter Bacsó, 81, Hungarian film director, after long illness. *Frances Blaisdell, 97, American flautist. *Arthur Code, 85, American astronomer, complications of lung condition. *Charles Lewis, Jr., 45, American businessman, co-founder of mixed martial arts apparel company Tapout, car accident. *Grady Lewis, 92, American basketball player, executive with Converse. *Harvey Lowe, 90, Canadian broadcaster and yo-yo world champion, after long illness. ===12=== *Leonore Annenberg, 91, American philanthropist, Chief of Protocol of the United States (1981–1982), natural causes. *Kalman Bloch, 95, American clarinetist. *Yann Brekilien, 88, French author, Breton language advocate. *Jesús Elizondo, 78, Mexican Olympic shooter. *Martin Knowlton, 88, American adult education innovator, founder of Elderhostel. *Reginald C. Lindsay, 63, American jurist, member of the District Court for Massachusetts since 1993, after long illness.US Judge Lindsay dies at 63 *Milan Stitt, 68, American playwright. *Ferenc Szabó, 88, Hungarian footballer (Ferencvárosi TC). *Huw Thomas, 81, Welsh broadcaster. *Blanca Varela, 82, Peruvian poet. *David Wood, 86, British Army officer, last surviving platoon commander of the Pegasus Bridge operation during World War II. ===13=== *Medferiashwork Abebe, 84, Ethiopian royal. *Claude Black, 92, American civil rights advocate, after long illness. *Betsy Blair, 85, American actress (Marty), cancer. *Claude Brinegar, 82, American politician, United States Secretary of Transportation (1973–1975), natural causes. *Anne Brown, 96, American-born Norwegian opera singer. *William Davidson, 86, American businessman, owner of the Detroit Pistons, Tampa Bay Lightning. *Endal, 13, British service dog, stroke. *Keith Herber, 60, American role-playing game designer. *Alan W. Livingston, 91, American music executive, President of Capitol Records, creator of Bozo the clown. *James Purdy, 94, American novelist, poet and playwright. *Medet Sadyrkulov, 55, Kyrgyz politician, car crash. *Andrew Saunders, 77, British civil servant. *Test, 33, Canadian professional wrestler, accidental overdose.Ex-Wrestler Found Dead ===14=== *Alain Bashung, 61, French singer, composer and actor, lung cancer. *Edith Lucie Bongo, 45, Congolese wife of Gabon President Omar Bongo, after long illness.Wife of Gabon's President Bongo dies *Altovise Davis, 65, American actress and dancer, widow of Sammy Davis, Jr., stroke. *Terence Edmond, 69, British actor (Z-Cars), bronchiectasis. *Ronald Max Hartwell, 88, Australian economic historian. *Citizen Kafka, 61, American broadcaster and musician. *Millard Kaufman, 92, American screenwriter (Bad Day at Black Rock), co-creator of Mr. Magoo. *Patrick Kinna, 95, British stenographer to Winston Churchill. *Jeff Komlo, 52, American football player, fugitive, car crash. *Robin Mukherjee, 65, Indian cricketer.Former East Zone opener dies *Coy Watson, Jr., 96, American silent film child actor, stomach cancer. ===15=== *Jumadi Abdi, 26, Indonesian footballer. *Nikolai Afanasyev, 92, Russian firearms designer.http://www.kalashnikov.ru/upload/medialibrary/812/024.pdf *Richard Aoki, 71, American civil rights activist. *Miguel Bernad, 91, Filipino Jesuit priest, academician and writer. *Billy C. Clark, 80, American writer. *Edmund Hockridge, 89, Canadian singer and actor.Edmund Hockridge: singer and actor *Pirkle Jones, 95, American photojournalist. *Paulo Eduardo Andrade Ponte, 77, Brazilian Roman Catholic prelate, Archbishop of São Luís do Maranhão. *Michael Quinn, 86, American Lasallian brother and psychology professor, President of Saint Mary's College (1962–1969). *William Schwartz, 86, American nephrologist. *Ron Silver, 62, American actor (Ali, Timecop) and political activist, esophageal cancer. *Alan Suddick, 64, British footballer, cancer. *Shinkichi Tajiri, 85, American-born Dutch sculptor. *Gunnar Tjörnebo, 81, Swedish steeplechase athlete. *Elmer Weingartner, 90, American baseball player.Elmer W. 'Dutch' Weingartner, was Indians' shortstop in 1945 *Harry Zachariah, 97, Australian cricketer. *Lionel Ziprin, 84, American poet, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. ===16=== *Bill Burns, 75, Australian politician. *Roland Dantes, 67, Filipino film actor and martial arts instructor, heart failure. *Carolyn Dezurik, 90, American country musician. *Franz Feldinger, 80, Austrian Olympic footballer.Franz Feldinger *Marjorie Grene, 98, American philosopher, after short illness. *Sir Nicholas Henderson, 89, British diplomat. *Nicholas Hughes, 47, American marine biologist, son of Sylvia Plath and Ted Hughes, suicide by hanging.Nicholas Hughes, Sylvia Plath's son commits suicide *Jack Lawrence, 96, American songwriter, complications from fall. *Miljenko Licul, 62, Slovenian graphic designer.Graphic Designer Licul Dies *Ramón Mantilla Duarte, 83, Colombian Bishop of Ipiales (1985–1987). *Popcorn Sutton, 62, American moonshiner, suspected suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning.Autopsy ordered for famed Appalachian moonshiner who died days before he was to enter prison ===17=== *Lester Davenport, 77, American blues musician, prostate cancer. *Edith Hahn Beer, 95, Austrian author, Holocaust survivor, natural causes.Edith Hahn-Beer: lawyer and Holocaust survivor *Clodovil Hernandes, 71, Brazilian fashion stylist, politician and television presenter, stroke. *Morton Lachman, 90, American television writer and executive producer, complications from diabetes and heart attack. *Whitey Lockman, 82, American baseball player (San Francisco Giants), pulmonary complications. *Jane Mayhall, 90, American poet. *Dale Memmelaar, 72, American football player (Cleveland Browns) *Roi Wilson, 87, British Royal Navy officer. ===18=== *Eddie Bo, 79, American singer and pianist, heart attack. *Ed Callahan, 79, American credit union administrator, blood complications. *Gianni Giansanti, 52, Italian photographer, bone cancer. *Des Healey, 81, Australian rules footballer. *Kent Henry, 59, American guitarist. *Lil E. Tee, 20, American racehorse, Kentucky Derby winner (1992), euthanized. *Yeremey Parnov, 73, Russian writer. *Moultrie Patten, 89, American actor (Northern Exposure) and jazz musician, pneumonia, *Pocholo Ramirez, 76, Filipino race car driver and television host, cancer. *Natasha Richardson, 45, British actress (Cabaret, The Parent Trap, Maid in Manhattan), epidural hematoma. *Luis Rojas Mena, 91, Mexican Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Culiacán (1969–1993). *Glenn Sundby, 87, American gymnast, co- founder of USA Gymnastics, founder of International Gymnastics Hall of Fame. *Donald Tolmie, 85, Canadian politician, MP for Welland (1965–1972). *Earl Wood, 97, American physiologist, co-inventor of the G-suit. ===19=== *Paul Angelis, 66, English actor and writer (Z-Cars, Porridge (1974 TV series)/Porridge, Yellow Submarine (film)/ Yellow Submarine) *Felipe Benítez Avalos, 82, Paraguayan archbishop of Asunción. *Maria Bergson, 95, American architect and designer. *Alastair Boyd, 7th Baron Kilmarnock, 81, British aristocrat, writer and politician. *Ion Dolănescu, 65, Romanian singer and politician, heart attack. *Ezio Flagello, 78, American opera singer, heart failure. *Harry Harris, 86, American television director (Fame, Falcon Crest), myelodysplasia. ===20=== *Joseph Albright, 70, American jurist, member of the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals, esophageal cancer. *Roberta Alison, 65, American tennis player, injuries sustained in fire. *Bill Bogash, 92, American roller derby skater, respiratory failure. *Mel Brown, 69, American blues guitarist, emphysema. *Abdellatif Filali, 81, Moroccan politician, Prime Minister (1994–1998). *Vicente Gandía, 84, Mexican artist of Spanish origin, heart attack. *Jaroslav Pitner, 83, Czech ice hockey coach. *Vladimir Savčić, 60, Serbian singer, cancer. *Pierre Skawinski, 96, French Olympic sprinter.Pierre Skawinski *George Weber, 47, American radio broadcaster, stabbed. *Václav Winter, 84, Czech Olympic athlete.Václav Winter *Albina Yelkina, 76, Soviet Olympic athlete.Albina Yelkina ===21=== *Bob Arbogast, 81, American radio and television personality, lung cancer. *Beach Towel, 22, American harness racehorse, Harness Horse of the Year (1990), colic. *John Cater, 77, British actor. *Drummond Erskine, 89, American actor (Late Show with David Letterman). *Winifred Foley, 94, British writer. *John Franklyn- Robbins, 84, British actor.John Franklyn-Robbins: accomplished actor who loved performing in the classics *Doug Frith, 64, Canadian MP for Sudbury (1980–1988), Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (1984), heart attack. *Joseph Jasgur, 89, American photographer, natural causes. *Vladimir Kuchmiy, 61, Russian newspaper chief editor (Sport Express). *Genoveva Matute, 94, Filipino writer. *Walt Poddubny, 49, Canadian ice hockey player (New York Rangers, Edmonton Oilers). *Khadijeh Saqafi, 95, Iranian widow of religious/political leader Ruhollah Khomeini, after long illness. ===22=== *Frank Bogert, 99, American politician, Mayor of Palm Springs, California (1958–1966, 1982–1988).Former Palm Springs Mayor Frank Bogert has died *Timothy Brinton, 79, British newsreader and politician, MP (1979–1987). *Awilda Carbia, 71, Puerto Rican actress, comedian, impersonator and television personality, pneumonia. *Ralph Cooperman, 81, British Olympic fencer. *Steve Doll, 48, American professional wrestler, blood clot. *Jade Goody, 27, British reality television personality, cervical cancer. *Archie Green, 91, Canadian-born American folklorist and musicologist, renal failure. *John L. Harper, 73, British biologist. *Reg Isidore, 59, Aruban drummer (Robin Trower, Peter Green), heart attack, *Howard Komives, 67, American basketball player (New York Knicks, Detroit Pistons), natural causes.Former Falcon Komives dead at 67 *Guman Mal Lodha, 83, Indian judge and politician. *Aubrey Mayhew, 81, American music producer. *Abismo Negro, 37, Mexican lucha libre professional wrestler, drowned. *Kanta Rao, 85, Indian actor, liver cancer. *Geoffrey Sherman, 93, British Royal Marines officer, organised the ceremony for the Japanese surrender in 1945.Lieutenant-Colonel Geoffrey Sherman: Royal Marine *Aldo Vagnozzi, 83, American politician, member of the Michigan House of Representatives (2002–2006), cancer. *Leon Walker, 20, British rugby league player, natural causes (Wakefield Trinity Wildcats). ===23=== *Manuel del Rosario, 93, Filipino Bishop of Malolos (1962–1977), pneumonia. *Geoff Holmes, 50, British cricketer. *Raúl Macías, 74, Mexican former NBA (now WBA) world bantamweight champion boxer, cancer. *Xavier Maniguet, 62, French intelligence agent, involved in the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, plane crash.Rainbow Warrior agent dies in plane crash *Billy Rackard, 78, Irish hurler and Gaelic footballer. *Lloyd Ruby, 81, American auto racing driver.Racing legend Lloyd Ruby dies *Ronald Tavel, 72, American playwright, heart attack. *Tonda, 50, American Sumatran-born orangutan, oldest in captivity in United States.Memorial planned for Tonda the orangutan *Peter Wherrett, 72, Australian motoring journalist, cancer. ===24=== *Robert Delford Brown, 78, American artist, drowned (body found on this date). *Irina Gabashvili, 48, Georgian-born American gymnast, cancer. *Uriel Jones, 74, American drummer (The Funk Brothers), complications from heart attack. *George Kell, 86, American baseball player (Detroit Tigers) and broadcaster, member of the Baseball Hall of Fame. *Hans Klenk, 89, German racing driver.Obituaries: Hans Klenk, racing driver *Denis Miller, 90, New Zealand airline and bomber pilot.Squadron Leader Denis 'Dusty' Miller: bomber and airline pilot *Gábor Ocskay, 33, Hungarian ice hockey player, heart attack. *Laurie Short, 93, Australian trade union leader. *Igor Stelnov, 46, Russian ice hockey player (HC CSKA Moscow), 1986 world champions team member, after long illness.Igor Stelnov ===25=== *Frank Adams, 76, British footballer.Frank Adams: 1933 to 2009 *Steven Bach, 70, American film producer and author, cancer. *Johnny Blanchard, 76, American baseball player (New York Yankees), heart attack. *Marilyn Borden, 76, American actress (I Love Lucy), heart failure. *Bob Boucher, 68, British academic. *Donald W. Duncan, 79, American soldier and antiwar activist. *Yukio Endō, 72, Japanese gymnast, esophageal cancer. *John Hope Franklin, 94, American historian, Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient, heart failure. *Mari Kapi, 58, Papua New Guinean judge, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (2003–2008), kidney failure. *Kosuke Koyama, 79, Japanese-born American theologian, pneumonia. *Manny Oquendo, 78, American percussionist (Tito Puente, Tito Rodríguez), heart attack. *Giovanni Parisi, 41, Italian Olympic featherweight champion boxer (1988), car accident. *Arthur Richman, 83, American baseball executive (New York Yankees, New York Mets) and writer (New York Daily Mirror). *Dan Seals, 61, American country music singer- songwriter (England Dan & John Ford Coley), mantle cell lymphoma. *Michael Ward, 77, British politician, MP for Peterborough (1974–1979). *Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu, 54, Turkish politician, founder of the Great Union Party, helicopter crash. ===26=== *Griselda Álvarez, 95, Mexican politician and writer, Governor of Colima (1979–1985), natural causes. *Arne Bendiksen, 82, Norwegian singer, composer and record producer, heart failure. *Kim Bradley, 53, Australian surfer. *Gus Cifelli, 84, American football player (Detroit Lions), natural causes.Alumni Hall of Fame member Judge Gus Cifelli '43 Passes Away *Larry Glick, 87, American talk radio host (WBZ), complications from cardiac surgery.Larry Glick, legendary Boston talkmaster, dies at 87 *Edmund Lawson, 60, British barrister, stroke. *Wayne Lewellen, 65, American film studio executive (Paramount), cancer. *John Mayhew, 61, British drummer (Genesis), heart failure.John Mayhew: Drummer who played with the fledgling Genesis on 'Trespass' *Shane McConkey, 39, Canadian extreme skier, base jumping accident.Ski legend Shane McConkey dies *Bob Scott, 70, British conservationist and ornithologist, cancer.Bob Scott: Ornithologist and conservationist who helped spread the joys of birdwatching *Ivan Wyatt, 85, New Zealand cricketer. ===27=== *Alysheba, 25, American racehorse, Kentucky Derby and Preakness winner (1987), euthanized.Former Derby champ Alysheba dies *Sandra Cantu, 8, American homicide victim. *Jack Dreyfus, 95, American financier, pioneer of mutual funds. *Evert Grift, 86, Dutch Olympic cyclist. *Merle Hansen, 89, American civil rights activist, founding president of the North American Farm Alliance.Farm Leader Merle Hansen Died March 27, 2009 *Dorothy Kelly, 79, American educator, President of the College of New Rochelle, heart attack. *Irving R. Levine, 86, American journalist (NBC news), prostate cancer. *Arnold Meri, 89, Estonian Red Army World War II veteran. *Penor Rinpoche, 77, Tibetan religious leader (Nyingma Buddhist tradition). ===28=== *Earle Brucker, Jr., 83, American baseball player. *Peter F. Donnelly, 70, American arts patron, vice-chairman of Americans for the Arts, complications of pancreatic cancer.Peter F. Donnelly, champion of Seattle arts, dies at 70 *Inger Lise Gjørv, 70, Norwegian politician, cancer. *Janet Jagan, 88, American-born Guyanese President (1997–1999), abdominal aortic aneurysm. *Hugh Kelly, 85, British footballer (Blackpool), pneumonia. *Martin J. Klein, 84, American historian and physicist. *Helmut Noller, 89, German Olympic sprint canoer. *Jorge Preloran, 76, Argentine filmmaker, prostate cancer. ===29=== *Ivor Dent, 85, Canadian Mayor of Edmonton (1968–1974), Alzheimer's disease.Former Edmonton mayor Ivor Dent dies *Helvecia Viera, 80, Chilean comedian and actress, stroke. *Vladimir Fedotov, 66, Russian footballer and manager, Soviet Top League leading goalscorer (1964). *Monte Hale, 89, American country musician and actor, after long illness.Monte Hale dies at 89; cowboy actor helped found Autry museum in L.A. *Andy Hallett, 33, American actor (Angel), heart disease. *Maurice Jarre, 84, French Academy Award-winning film composer (Lawrence of Arabia, Doctor Zhivago, Ghost), cancer. *Helen Levitt, 95, American photographer, respiratory failure. *Miroslav Moravec, 70, Czech actor, cancer. *Earl Paulk, 81, American pastor, implicated in several sex scandals, cancer. *Lou Saban, 87, American football player (Cleveland Browns) and coach (Boston Patriots, Buffalo Bills), complications from fall. *Kanwaljit Singh, 67, Indian politician, traffic accident. *Gerrit Viljoen, 82, South African politician, Administrator-General of South-West Africa (1978–1980). ===30=== *Shirl Bernheim, 87, American actress. *Burton Blumert, 80, American president of the Center for Libertarian Studies, chairman of Mises Institute, cancer. *Eugène Drenthe, 83, Surinamese playwright and poet. *Herman Franks, 95, American baseball manager, heart failure. *Andrea Mead Lawrence, 76, American alpine skier, cancer. *Eric Munoz, 61, American politician, member of the New Jersey General Assembly since 2001, complications of cardiac surgery. *Jackie Pretorius, 74, South African racing driver, assault during home invasion. *David Scott, 92, American art historian. *George Stoddard, 92, American financier, natural causes. *Loras Joseph Watters, 93, American Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Winona (1969–1986). *Sulim Yamadayev, 35, Russian military commander and Chechen warlord, shot. ===31=== *Raúl Alfonsín, 82, Argentine President (1983–1989), lung cancer. *Jarl Alfredius, 66, Swedish journalist, prostate cancer. *John Atkins, 92, British writer. *Marga Barbu, 80, Romanian actress. *Michael Cox, 60, British novelist, cancer. *Paul E. Davis, 87, American college football coach. *Emory Elliott, 66, American academic, heart attack. *A. F. Golam Osmani, 76, Indian politician, lung cancer.Golam Osmani passes away *Hong Song-nam, 79, North Korean politician, Premier (1997–2003). *Gordon Kerr, 91, Canadian Olympic swimmer. *Choor Singh, 98, Singaporean jurist, member of the Supreme Court of Singapore (1963–1980). *Sir Reresby Sitwell, 81, British aristocrat and writer.Sir Reresby Sitwell, Bt: writer and businessman ==References== *2009-03 03 |
In Greek mythology, Electra (; 'amber'A Greek-English Lexicon s.v. ἤλεκτρον.) was one of the Pleiades, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione. She lived on the island of Samothrace. She had two sons, Dardanus and Iasion (or Eetion), by Zeus.Pseudo-Scymnos, Circuit de la terre 646 ff. Electra was connected with the legend of the Palladium, the sacred statue, which became the talismanic protector of Troy. Electra, along with the rest of the Pleiades, were transformed into stars by Zeus. By some accounts, she was the one star among seven of the constellation not easily seen, because, since she could not bear to look upon the destruction of Troy, she hid her eyes, or turned away; or in her grief, she abandoned her sisters and became a comet.Hard 2004, pp. 297-298, 517-519, p. 521; Gantz, pp. 212-215, 558; Fowler 2013, pp. 415-417, p. 522; Grimal, s.v. Electra 2; Tripp, s.v. Electra (3); Smith, s.v. Electra 2; Oxford Classical Dictionary s.v. Electra (2); Parada, s.v. Electra 3. ==Family== The Pleiades were said to be the daughters of Atlas, who was the son of the Titan Iapetos.Gantz, pp. 212-213; Hesiod, Catalogue of Women fr. 118 Most [= Hesiod fr. 169* MW = Schol. on Pindar Nemian 2.17]; Simonides, fr. 555 Campbell; Lycophron, Alexandra 72-80; Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1.916; Catasterismi 23 (Hard 2015, p. 86); Diodorus Siculus, 5.48.2; Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21.2 (Hard 2015, p. 88), Fabulae 155, 192, 250; Conon, Narrations (from the Bibliotheca of Photius) 21 (Greek with facing French translation; English translation by Brady Kiesling at ToposText); Ovid, Fasti, 4.31-32, 4.166-178, 5.83-84; Apollodorus, 3.10.1, 3.12.1. No early source mentions their mother, but according to some late accounts she was the Oceanid Pleione.Gantz, p. 213; Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21.3 (citing Alexander Polyhistor, see Hard 2015, p. 88), Fabulae 192; Ovid, Fasti, 5.83-84; Apollodorus, 3.10.1. Hyginus' De Astronomica says that Electra and her six sisters were called the Pleiades because, according to the 1st- century BC Greek scholar and historian Alexander Polyhistor, they were the daughters of Pleione.Gantz, p. 213; Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21.3 (Hard 2015, pp. 88, 189). Hard 2004, p. 518 says that the Greek name Pleiades for the star-cluster came first, and that the traditional name of the mother of Atlas' daughters Pleione, "was plainly devised to enable the name of the Pleiades to be interpreted as a matronymic". Gantz says that the name Pleiades might have originally been a patronymic, later shifted to a matronymic, when the epithet Atlageneis (see Hesiod Works and Days 383) was misinterpreted (perhaps by Hesiod himself) as referring to their father, see also West 1978, pp. 254-255, on lines 383-4, Πληιάδων Ἀτλαγενέων. De Astronomica also says that, according to Musaeus, their mother was instead an Oceanid named Aithra, explaining that they were called the Pleiades because there were more (pleion in Greek) of them than their sisters the Hyades.Hard 2004, p. 518; Gantz, p. 213, with note 23; Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21.2 (Hard 2015, pp. 88, 189); A Greek-English Lexicon s.v. πλείων; compare with Hyginus, Fabulae 192. According to the mythographer Apollodorus, the Pleiades were born to Pleione "at Cyllene" (Mount Cyllene?) in Arcadia.Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Electra (2); Apollodorus, 3.10.1. On the island of Samothrace, Electra had, by Zeus, a son Dardanus who left Samothrace and founded the city of Dardanus in the Troad. Through Dardanus, Electra was the progenitor of the Trojan royal line.Hard 2004, p. 519; Gantz, pp. 214-215, 558; Hesiod fr. 121 Most [= Hesiod fr. 177 MW = Oxyrhynchus papyrus 1359 fr. 2]; Hellanicus fr. 19a Fowler [= Scholia on Iliad 18.486 = Pherecydes fr. 90c Fowler]; Lycophron, Alexandra 72-80; Catasterismi 23 (Hard 2015, p. 87); Diodorus Siculus, 5.48.2; Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21 (Hard 2015, p. 88), Fabulae 155, 192; Conon, Narrations (from the Bibliotheca of Photius) 21 (Greek with facing French translation; English translation by Brady Kiesling at ToposText); Ovid, Fasti, 4.31-32; Apollodorus, 3.12.1; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica 13.551-560. She also had another son, by Zeus, Iasion (also called Eetion), who, because of an outrage against Demeter (or her statue), was blasted by Zeus' thunderbolt.Fowler 2013, p. 522; Hard 2004, p. 521; Gantz, pp. 215, 558; Hesiod fr. 121 Most [= Hesiod fr. 177 MW = Oxyrhynchus papyrus 1359 fr. 2] (Eetion); Hellanicus fr. 23 Fowler [= Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius 1.916-18a] (called both Iasion and Eetion), fr. 135 Fowler [= Scholia on Odyssey 5.125]; Diodorus Siculus, 5.48.2; Hyginus, Fabulae 250; Conon, Narrations (from the Bibliotheca of Photius) 21 (Greek with facing French translation; English translation by Brady Kiesling at ToposText); Apollodorus, 3.12.1 (blasted by Zeus); compare Homer, Odyssey 5.125-128; Hesiod, Theogony 969-974; Diodorus Siculus, 5.77.1-2; Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.4.7, (Hard 2015, p. 39), 2.22.1 (Hard 2015, p. 99), Fabulae 270. The logographer Hellanicus also makes Electra the mother, by Zeus, of Harmonia the wife of Cadmus, although usually Harmonia is the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite.Fowler 2013, pp. 39-40 with n. 142, 522 (which says that Hellanicus "inovated in giving Elektra a third child, Harmonia"); Hard 2004, pp. 297-298; Gantz, p. 215; Hellanicus fr. 23 Fowler [= Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius 1.916-18a]; so also Diodorus Siculus, 5.48.2. For Harmonia as the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, see e.g. Hesiod, Theogony 933-937; Apollodorus, 3.4.2. Nonnus also makes Electra the mother of Emathion, who succeeded his brother Dardanus as king of Samothrace.Grimal, s.v. Electra 2; Parada, s.vv. Electra 3, Emathion 4; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 3.180-194. According to an Italian tradition, Electra was the wife of the Etruscan king Corythus. Her sons Dardanus and Iasion were born in Italy, with Iasion being the son of Electra and Corythus, and Dardanus being the son of Electra and Zeus.Grimal, s.v. Electra 2; Smith, s.v. Electra 2; Hyginus, Fabulae 270; Lactantius, Divine Institutes 1.23; Servius, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil 3.167, 7.207, 10.719; compare Virgil, Aeneid, 3.163-171; 7.205-209; 8.134-137. ==Mythology== There are two stories involving Electra. One concerns the Palladium, the sacred statue of Pallas Athena, considered to be the divine protector of Troy (and later Rome). According to Apollodorus, Electra, seeking protection from Zeus, took refuge at the divine statue, but Zeus in his anger threw the statue from heaven. It landed near Troy, where Ilus, the founder of Troy, found the statue and built a temple to house and honor it. According to another version of the story Electra herself gave the statue to Dardanus as protection for Troy.Grimal, s.vv. Electra 2, Palladium; Tripp, s.vv. Electra (3), Palladium; Smith, s.v. Electra 2; Hard 2004, p. 523; Apollodorus, 3.12.3. Another story involving Electra, concerns her, and her six sisters transformation into stars. The reason for their transformation varied. According to one account, the Pleiades were being pursued by the huntsman Orion, intent on rape, but Zeus took pity on the sisters and placed them among the stars.Hard, p. 518 (which gives several other stories of how the Pleiades came to reside among the stars); Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21.4 (Hard 2015, p. 89). And by way of explanation for the fact that only six of the seven stars in the constellation were readily visible, it was said that Electra, unable to behold the destruction of Troy, hid her eyes, or turned away; or, in another version, Electra, in mourning, let down her hair, and left her sisters altogether and became a "long haired star" (i.e. a "comet").Hard 2004, pp. 518-519; Gantz, pp. 213, 215; Fowler 2013, pp. 416, 544; Grimal, s.v. Electra 2; Tripp, s.v. Electra 2; The Sack of Ilion (Iliupersis) fr. 5* West [= Scholia on Iliad 18.486] (left her sisters); Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.21.3-4 (Hard 2015, pp. 88-89) (Pleiades chased by Orion; Electra becomes a comet), Fabulae 192 (becomes a comet); Ovid, Fasti, 4.166-178 (covers her eyes); Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica (shrouds herself in a mist). ==Sources== ===Early=== A constellation called the Pleiades is mentioned in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and Hesiod's Works and Days, however none of the stars are named.Homer, Iliad 18.486; Odyssey 5.272; Hesiod, Works and Days 383. Hesiod calls the stars the Atlageneis, possibly meaning "born from Atlas", although linguistic considerations suggests that the epithet refers to some geographic location.Gantz, p. 212; West 1978, pp. 254-255, on lines 383-4, Πληιάδων Ἀτλαγενέων. The lyric poet Simonides of Ceos (c. 556–468 BC), is the first (datable) source to connect the name of the star-cluster with the seven daughters of Atlas.Gantz, p. 213; West 1978, p. 255; Simonides, fr. 555 Campbell. The names of the seven Pleiades are first attested in a scholion on Pindar, which quotes three hexameter lines from an unattributed poem, probably from the Hesiodic corpus:Gantz, pp. 212-213. :lovely Taygete and dark-eyed Electra, :Alcyone and Asterope and godly Celaeno, :Maia and Merope, whom splendid Atlas begot.Hesiod fr. 118 Most [= Hesiod fr. 169* MW = Schol. on Pindar Nemian 2.17]. Electra is also mentioned in the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, where apparently she was said to be the mother of Dardanus and Eetion.Gantz, p. 558; Hesiod fr. 121 Most [= Hesiod fr. 177 MW = Oxyrhynchus papyrus 1359 fr. 2]. The fifth-century Greek logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos provides more details. According to Hellanicus, Electra (called Electryone by Hellanicus) lived on Samothrace, where the locals called her Strategis. She had two sons by Zeus, Dardanus, and Eetion, who was also called Iasion. She also had a daughter Harmonia by Zeus, who was the bride of Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, and that because of this, the Thebans named one of the city gates (the Electran gates) after her.Fowler 2013, p. 522; Gantz, pp. 215, 558; Hellanicus fr. 23 Fowler [= Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius 1.916-18a]; see also Fowler 2013, p. 417; Hellanicus fr. 19a Fowler [= Scholia on Iliad 18.486 = Pherecydes fr. 90c Fowler]. However, according to the geographer Pausanias, 9.8.3, the Electran gate was said to have been named after Cadmus's sister Electra. The story of Electra and her sisters being transformed into stars may also have been told somewhere in the Epic Cycle. A scholion to the Iliad mentions the Pleiades escape from Orion by catasterism and says the following about Electra:Fowler 2013, p. 415; Gantz, pp. 213, 215. :They say that Electra, being unwilling to watch the sack of Ilion [i.e. Troy] because it was a foundation of her descendants, left the place where she had been set as a star, so that whereas they had previously been seven, they became six. The story is found in the Cyclic poets.The Sack of Ilion (Iliupersis) fr. 5* West = Scholia on the Iliad 18.486 = Titanomachhy fr. dubia 14 Bernabé. ===Late=== De Astronomica is a Latin astronomical guide, attributed to Hyginus (died AD 17), containing the most complete surviving ancient compendium of astral mythology.Hard 2015, pp. i, xxvi. It gives the following account of why only six of the seven Pleiades can be seen: :The Pleiades are said to be seven in number, but no one can see more than six of them. It has been suggested by way of explanation that, of the seven, six went to bed with immortals--while the other is indicated to have been the wife of Sisyphos. ... She [Merope] was placed among the stars thanks to her other sisters, but because she married a mortal, her star is faint. :According to other accounts, it is Electra who cannot be seen, for the following reason. The Pleiades led the chorus of the stars, so it is thought, but after the fall of Troy and the destruction of all who ere descended from her through Dardanos, Electra was overcome by grief and abandoned the company of her sisters to establish herself on the circle known as the arctic, and at long intervals she can be seen in mourning with her hair unloosed; for that reason she has come to be called a comet (long-haired star). The Latin poet Ovid, in his poem the Fasti (c. AD 8), gives a similar account, but with a different explanation regarding Electra: :Seven are they [the Pleiades] usually called, but six they usually are; whether it be that six of the sisters were embraced by gods (for they say that Sterope lay with Mars, Alcyone and fair Celaeno with Neptune, and Maia, Electra, and Taygete with Jupiter); the seventh, Merope, was married to a mortal man, to Sisyphus, and she repents of it, and from shame at the deed she alone of the sisters hides herself; or whether it be that Electra could not brook to behold the fall of Troy, and so covered her eyes with her hand.Ovid, Fasti 4.170-178. The mythographer Apollodorus (first or second century AD), discussing the "legend" of the Palladium", says that "Electra, at the time of her violation, took refuge at the image, and Zeus threw the Palladium along with Ate into the Ilian country; and Ilus built a temple for it, and honored it."Apollodorus, 3.12.3. Nonnus, in the third book of his Dionysiaca (c. fifth century AD), has the wandering Cadmus land on Samothrace where he will find his bride to be, Electra's foster-daughter Harmonia.Nonnus, Dionysiaca 3.1ff. He arrives at the palace, "that masterly work of Hephaistos, which the industrious god once built for Electra as a bride",Nonnus, Dionysiaca 3.131–134 where he is received by Electra, the queen of Samothrace, and her son Emathion, who, with the departure of his brother Dardanus, is now "sole king".Nonnus, Dionysiaca 3.180–194 (Emathion "sole king"), 220–233 (Cadmus received). In answer to Electra's questioning, Cadmus tells her of the woeful abduction of his sister Europa, by Zeus, and order of his father Agenor to find his sister or never return home.Nonnus, Dionysiaca 3.243–324 Nonnus has Electra try to console Cadmus with the following speech: :"My guest, let sister and country and father pass into the whirlpool of Forgetfulness and un-remembering silence! For this is the way men's life runs on, bringing trouble upon trouble; since all that are born of mortal womb are slaves by necessity to Fate the Spinner. I am witness, queen though I am, if I was ever born myself one of those Pleiads, seven girls whom our mother once carried under her heart in labour, seven times having called Eileithyia at her lying-in to lighten the pangs of birth after birth—I am witness! for my house is far from my father's; no Sterope is near me, no Maia my companion, nor sister Celaino beside me at my hearth; I have not dandled up and down sister Taygete's Lacedaimon at my breast nor held the merry boy on my cherishing arm; I do not see Alcyone's house hard by, or hear Merope herself speak some heartwarming word! Here is something besides which I lament even more—in the bloom of his youth my own son has left his home, just when the down was on his cheek, my Dardanos has gone abroad to the bosom of the Idaian land; he has given the firstling crop of his hair to Phrygian Simoeis, and drunk the alien water of river Thymbrios. And away by the boundary of Libya my father still suffers hardship, old Atlas with chafing shoulders bowed, upholding the seven-zoned vault of the sky. :"Still and all with these great sufferings I feed a comfortable hope, by the promises of Zeus, that with my other sisters I shall pass from the earth to the stars' Atlantean vault, and dwell in heaven myself a star with my sisters six. ==See also== * 130 Elektra, asteroid == Notes == == References == * Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, edited and translated by William H. Race, Loeb Classical Library No. 1, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2009. . Online version at Harvard University Press. * Campbell, David A., Greek Lyric, Volume III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides, and Others, Loeb Classical Library No. 476, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1991. . Online version at Harvard University Press. * Conon, Narrations (from the Bibliotheca of Photius). Online version at the Topos Text Project.. * Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Volume III: Books 4.59-8, translated by C. H. Oldfather, Loeb Classical Library No. 340. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1939. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Online version by Bill Thayer. * Euripides, The Phoenician Women in Euripides: Helen, Phoenician Women, Orestes, edited and translated by David Kovacs, Loeb Classical Library No. 11. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2002. . Online version at Harvard University Press. * Fowler, R. L. (2000), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. . * Fowler, R. L. (2013), Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2013. . * Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2). * Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. . * Hard, Robin (2004), The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, . Google Books. * Hard, Robin (2015), (trans.) Eratosthenes and Hyginus: Constellation Myths, With Aratus's Phaenomena, Oxford University Press, 2015. . * Hesiod, Works and Days, in Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia, Edited and translated by Glenn W. Most. Loeb Classical Library No. 57. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. . Online version at Harvard University Press. * Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae in Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, Translated, with Introductions by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma, Hackett Publishing Company, 2007. . * Lactantius, Divine Institutes, Translated by William Fletcher (1810-1900). From Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886.) Online version at the Topos Text Project. * Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1940. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Lycophron, Alexandra (or Cassandra) in Callimachus and Lycophron with an English translation by A. W. Mair; Aratus, with an English translation by G. R. Mair, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921. Internet Archive. * Most, G.W., Hesiod: The Shield, Catalogue of Women, Other Fragments, Loeb Classical Library, No. 503, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2007, 2018. . Online version at Harvard University Press. * Nonnus, Dionysiaca, Volume I: Books 1-15, translated by W. H. D. Rouse, Loeb Classical Library No. 344, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1940 (revised 1984). Online version at Harvard University Press. . Internet Archive (1940). * Ovid, Ovid's Fasti, Translated by James G. Frazer. Revised by G. P. Goold, Loeb Classical Library No. 253, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1931 (first published), 1996 (reprinted with corrections). . Online version at Harvard University Press. * The Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. . * Parada, Carlos, Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. . * Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica, edited and translated by Neil Hopkinson, Loeb Classical Library No. 19, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. . Online version at Harvard University Press. * Servius, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil, Georgius Thilo, Ed. 1881. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library (Latin). * Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Tripp, Edward, Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). . * Virgil, Aeneid [books 7-12], in Aeneid: Books 7-12. Appendix Vergiliana, translated by H. Rushton Fairclough, revised by G. P. Goold, Loeb Classical Library No. 64, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2000. . Online version at Harvard University Press. * West, M. L. (1978), Hesiod: Works and Days, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1978. . * West, M. L. (2003), Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC, edited and translated by Martin L. West, Loeb Classical Library No. 497, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2003. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Category:Pleiades (Greek mythology) Category:Nymphs Category:Divine women of Zeus Category:Arcadian characters in Greek mythology Category:Thracian characters in Greek mythology Category:Arcadian mythology |
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system (OS) for real-time computing applications that processes data and events that have critically defined time constraints. An RTOS is distinct from a time-sharing operating system, such as Unix, which manages the sharing of system resources with a scheduler, data buffers, or fixed task prioritization in a multitasking or multiprogramming environment. Processing time requirements need to be fully understood and bound rather than just kept as a minimum. All processing must occur within the defined constraints. Real-time operating systems are event- driven and preemptive, meaning the OS can monitor the relevant priority of competing tasks, and make changes to the task priority. Event-driven systems switch between tasks based on their priorities, while time-sharing systems switch the task based on clock interrupts. == Characteristics == A key characteristic of an RTOS is the level of its consistency concerning the amount of time it takes to accept and complete an application's task; the variability is 'jitter'. A 'hard' real-time operating system (hard RTOS) has less jitter than a 'soft' real-time operating system (soft RTOS). A late answer is a wrong answer in a hard RTOS while a late answer is acceptable in a soft RTOS. The chief design goal is not high throughput, but rather a guarantee of a soft or hard performance category. An RTOS that can usually or generally meet a deadline is a soft real-time OS, but if it can meet a deadline deterministically it is a hard real-time OS. An RTOS has an advanced algorithm for scheduling. Scheduler flexibility enables a wider, computer- system orchestration of process priorities, but a real-time OS is more frequently dedicated to a narrow set of applications. Key factors in a real- time OS are minimal interrupt latency and minimal thread switching latency; a real-time OS is valued more for how quickly or how predictably it can respond than for the amount of work it can perform in a given period of time. See the comparison of real-time operating systems for a comprehensive list. Also, see the list of operating systems for all types of operating systems. == Design philosophies == An RTOS is an operating system in which the time taken to process an input stimulus is less than the time lapsed until the next input stimulus of the same type. The most common designs are: * Event-driven – switches tasks only when an event of higher priority needs servicing; called preemptive priority, or priority scheduling. * Time-sharing – switches tasks on a regular clocked interrupt, and on events; called round robin. Time sharing designs switch tasks more often than strictly needed, but give smoother multitasking, giving the illusion that a process or user has sole use of a machine. Early CPU designs needed many cycles to switch tasks during which the CPU could do nothing else useful. Because switching took so long, early OSes tried to minimize wasting CPU time by avoiding unnecessary task switching. == Scheduling == In typical designs, a task has three states: # Running (executing on the CPU); # Ready (ready to be executed); # Blocked (waiting for an event, I/O for example). Most tasks are blocked or ready most of the time because generally only one task can run at a time per CPU. The number of items in the ready queue can vary greatly, depending on the number of tasks the system needs to perform and the type of scheduler that the system uses. On simpler non-preemptive but still multitasking systems, a task has to give up its time on the CPU to other tasks, which can cause the ready queue to have a greater number of overall tasks in the ready to be executed state (resource starvation). Usually, the data structure of the ready list in the scheduler is designed to minimize the worst-case length of time spent in the scheduler's critical section, during which preemption is inhibited, and, in some cases, all interrupts are disabled, but the choice of data structure depends also on the maximum number of tasks that can be on the ready list. If there are never more than a few tasks on the ready list, then a doubly linked list of ready tasks is likely optimal. If the ready list usually contains only a few tasks but occasionally contains more, then the list should be sorted by priority. That way, finding the highest priority task to run does not require iterating through the entire list. Inserting a task then requires walking the ready list until reaching either the end of the list, or a task of lower priority than that of the task being inserted. Care must be taken not to inhibit preemption during this search. Longer critical sections should be divided into small pieces. If an interrupt occurs that makes a high priority task ready during the insertion of a low priority task, that high priority task can be inserted and run immediately before the low priority task is inserted. The critical response time, sometimes called the flyback time, is the time it takes to queue a new ready task and restore the state of the highest priority task to running. In a well-designed RTOS, readying a new task will take 3 to 20 instructions per ready-queue entry, and restoration of the highest-priority ready task will take 5 to 30 instructions. In more advanced systems, real-time tasks share computing resources with many non-real-time tasks, and the ready list can be arbitrarily long. In such systems, a scheduler ready list implemented as a linked list would be inadequate. === Algorithms === Some commonly used RTOS scheduling algorithms are: * Cooperative scheduling * Preemptive scheduling ** Rate-monotonic scheduling ** Round-robin scheduling ** Fixed priority pre-emptive scheduling, an implementation of preemptive time slicing ** Fixed-Priority Scheduling with Deferred Preemption ** Fixed-Priority Non-preemptive Scheduling ** Critical section preemptive scheduling ** Static time scheduling * Earliest Deadline First approach * Stochastic digraphs with multi-threaded graph traversal == Intertask communication and resource sharing == A multitasking operating system like Unix is poor at real-time tasks. The scheduler gives the highest priority to jobs with the lowest demand on the computer, so there is no way to ensure that a time-critical job will have access to enough resources. Multitasking systems must manage sharing data and hardware resources among multiple tasks. It is usually unsafe for two tasks to access the same specific data or hardware resource simultaneously. There are three common approaches to resolve this problem: === Temporarily masking/disabling interrupts === General-purpose operating systems usually do not allow user programs to mask (disable) interrupts, because the user program could control the CPU for as long as it is made to. Some modern CPUs do not allow user mode code to disable interrupts as such control is considered a key operating system resource. Many embedded systems and RTOSs, however, allow the application itself to run in kernel mode for greater system call efficiency and also to permit the application to have greater control of the operating environment without requiring OS intervention. On single-processor systems, an application running in kernel mode and masking interrupts is the lowest overhead method to prevent simultaneous access to a shared resource. While interrupts are masked and the current task does not make a blocking OS call, the current task has exclusive use of the CPU since no other task or interrupt can take control, so the critical section is protected. When the task exits its critical section, it must unmask interrupts; pending interrupts, if any, will then execute. Temporarily masking interrupts should only be done when the longest path through the critical section is shorter than the desired maximum interrupt latency. Typically this method of protection is used only when the critical section is just a few instructions and contains no loops. This method is ideal for protecting hardware bit-mapped registers when the bits are controlled by different tasks. === Mutexes === When the shared resource must be reserved without blocking all other tasks (such as waiting for Flash memory to be written), it is better to use mechanisms also available on general-purpose operating systems, such as a mutex and OS-supervised interprocess messaging. Such mechanisms involve system calls, and usually invoke the OS's dispatcher code on exit, so they typically take hundreds of CPU instructions to execute, while masking interrupts may take as few as one instruction on some processors. A (non-recursive) mutex is either locked or unlocked. When a task has locked the mutex, all other tasks must wait for the mutex to be unlocked by its owner - the original thread. A task may set a timeout on its wait for a mutex. There are several well-known problems with mutex based designs such as priority inversion and deadlocks. In priority inversion a high priority task waits because a low priority task has a mutex, but the lower priority task is not given CPU time to finish its work. A typical solution is to have the task that owns a mutex 'inherit' the priority of the highest waiting task. But this simple approach gets more complex when there are multiple levels of waiting: task A waits for a mutex locked by task B, which waits for a mutex locked by task C. Handling multiple levels of inheritance causes other code to run in high priority context and thus can cause starvation of medium-priority threads. In a deadlock, two or more tasks lock mutex without timeouts and then wait forever for the other task's mutex, creating a cyclic dependency. The simplest deadlock scenario occurs when two tasks alternately lock two mutex, but in the opposite order. Deadlock is prevented by careful design. === Message passing === The other approach to resource sharing is for tasks to send messages in an organized message passing scheme. In this paradigm, the resource is managed directly by only one task. When another task wants to interrogate or manipulate the resource, it sends a message to the managing task. Although their real-time behavior is less crisp than semaphore systems, simple message-based systems avoid most protocol deadlock hazards, and are generally better-behaved than semaphore systems. However, problems like those of semaphores are possible. Priority inversion can occur when a task is working on a low-priority message and ignores a higher-priority message (or a message originating indirectly from a high priority task) in its incoming message queue. Protocol deadlocks can occur when two or more tasks wait for each other to send response messages. == Interrupt handlers and the scheduler == Since an interrupt handler blocks the highest priority task from running, and since real-time operating systems are designed to keep thread latency to a minimum, interrupt handlers are typically kept as short as possible. The interrupt handler defers all interaction with the hardware if possible; typically all that is necessary is to acknowledge or disable the interrupt (so that it won't occur again when the interrupt handler returns) and notify a task that work needs to be done. This can be done by unblocking a driver task through releasing a semaphore, setting a flag or sending a message. A scheduler often provides the ability to unblock a task from interrupt handler context. An OS maintains catalogues of objects it manages such as threads, mutexes, memory, and so on. Updates to this catalogue must be strictly controlled. For this reason, it can be problematic when an interrupt handler calls an OS function while the application is in the act of also doing so. The OS function called from an interrupt handler could find the object database to be in an inconsistent state because of the application's update. There are two major approaches to deal with this problem: the unified architecture and the segmented architecture. RTOSs implementing the unified architecture solve the problem by simply disabling interrupts while the internal catalogue is updated. The downside of this is that interrupt latency increases, potentially losing interrupts. The segmented architecture does not make direct OS calls but delegates the OS related work to a separate handler. This handler runs at a higher priority than any thread but lower than the interrupt handlers. The advantage of this architecture is that it adds very few cycles to interrupt latency. As a result, OSes which implement the segmented architecture are more predictable and can deal with higher interrupt rates compared to the unified architecture. Similarly, the System Management Mode on x86 compatible Hardware can take a lot of time before it returns control to the operating system. == Memory allocation == Memory allocation is more critical in a real-time operating system than in other operating systems. First, for stability there cannot be memory leaks (memory that is allocated but not freed after use). The device should work indefinitely, without ever needing a reboot. For this reason, dynamic memory allocation is frowned upon. Whenever possible, all required memory allocation is specified statically at compile time. Another reason to avoid dynamic memory allocation is memory fragmentation. With frequent allocation and releasing of small chunks of memory, a situation may occur where available memory is divided into several sections and the RTOS cannot allocate a large enough continuous block of memory, although there is enough free memory. Secondly, speed of allocation is important. A standard memory allocation scheme scans a linked list of indeterminate length to find a suitable free memory block, which is unacceptable in an RTOS since memory allocation has to occur within a certain amount of time. Because mechanical disks have much longer and more unpredictable response times, swapping to disk files is not used for the same reasons as RAM allocation discussed above. The simple fixed-size-blocks algorithm works quite well for simple embedded systems because of its low overhead. == See also == * Adaptive Partition Scheduler * Comparison of real-time operating systems * Data General RDOS * DO-178B * Earliest deadline first scheduling * Firmware * FreeRTOS * Interruptible operating system * Least slack time scheduling * OSEK * POSIX * Rate-monotonic scheduling * Robot Operating System * SCADA * Synchronous programming language * Time-triggered system * Time-utility function == References == Category:Operating systems Category:Real-time computing |
Henric Ștefan Streitman (first name also Henric Șt., Enric, Henri or Henry, last name also Streitmann, Streittman, Ștraitman; 1873 – circa March 30, 1950) was a Romanian journalist, translator and political figure, who traversed the political spectrum from socialism to the far-right. A physicist, social commentator and publisher, in his early years he was a promoter of natural selection ideas as well as a translator of Marxist and naturalist literature. Respected for both his polemical stances and his erudition, he was also rendered controversial by his inconsistencies and his alleged corruption. Often struggling financially, Streitman set up several short-lived periodicals, and involved himself in the cultural and political debates, from 1889 to the time of his death. A Romanian Jew, Streitman left Judaism for political reasons. He returned to it following a death in the family, though he continued to publicize his agnosticism in his essays of the 1930s. He also discarded socialism behind before 1916, moving closer to the National Liberal Party, and working alongside Ion G. Duca and Constantin Banu. He endorsed the Allies during the early stages of World War I, and was consequently detained by the German Army following its occupation of southern Romania. Streitman was sent us a hostage to Bulgaria, but released by the end of 1917; returning to Bucharest, he was recovered by the Germanophile press, endorsing Romania's capitulation. This controversial activity was held against him by political adversaries throughout the interwar period. When Streitman returned to public life in the 1920s, it was primarily as an anticommunist. He affiliated with the right-wing People's Party, serving two terms in the Senate of Romania, where he represented Bukovina; in that context, he publicly endorsed a Polish–Romanian alliance against the Soviet Union. Also employed as an adviser by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, he drew notice for his close collaboration with the titular minister, Nicolae Titulescu. In a contrasting move, Streitman also associated with figures on the Romanian far-right, including Octavian Goga and Pamfil Șeicaru, and eventually joined the National Agrarian Party in 1932. However, in the late 1930s, the ascent of antisemitism put his political career on hold. Streitman turned to collaboration with the military-fascist dictatorship of Ion Antonescu during World War II, becoming president of the Central Jewish Office. Though reviled in Antonescian propaganda as a Jewish pillar of the old regime, he was trusted for his earlier connection with Goga, and also vetted by Nazi Germany. This assignment pitted him against non- collaborationists such as A. L. Zissu, who resented his appeals to compliance. His was a largely ceremonial office, with many of its functions supplanted by the executive leader, Nandor Gingold. Ultimately sidelined in December 1942, Streitman survived the war by a few years. Unlike Gingold, he was never brought before the Romanian People's Tribunals. Slowly forgotten by the time of his death in 1950, he was survived by a son, Max-Radu, who had acted as a lawyer for champions of left-wing causes, and was allowed a second career as a classical musician. ==Biography== ===Early years=== Streitman was a native of Piatra Neamț town, which is located in mountainous Western Moldavia.Podoleanu, p. 311; Streitman, "Legăturile...", p. 462 He was born into the Judaic religion, and, like the majority of Romanian Jews living before 1920, was non- emancipated, and not yet eligible for Romanian citizenship;Durnea, "Primii pași...", p. 29 later in life, he rejected being labeled with the tem "Israelite", which he regarded as a pretentious euphemism.Camil Petrescu, "Conica teatrală. Teatrul Național: Dama cu camelii de Alex Dumas-fiul", in Argus, January 27, 1927, p. 4 According to his own definitions, his father was "one of our town's leading men of culture".Bercovici, p. 44 When he was aged five, his family hosted Velvel Zbarjer, an itinerant singer, whose presence impressed Henric; shortly after this, Zbarjer was expelled from the Principality of Romania for having publicized a poem "critical of the country's injustices."Bercovici, passim Young Streitman was privately tutored, in both German and French, by the Count Jurawski, a Polish refugee. As he recalled decades later, "the all-knowing, all-forgiving" Jurawski was also an amateur scientist who introduced his pupils, and Moldavians in general, to Lamarckism and Darwinism.Streitman, "Legăturile...", p. 462 Enrolled at high school, Streitman also followed politics, and was close to the budding socialist movement of students in the newly-formed Kingdom of Romania. A 1936 note in Rampa magazine dates Steitman's debut to 1888, when the young man was published by Traian Demetrescu's Revista Olteană."G. D. Pencioiu", in Rampa, July 8, 1936, p. 1 In 1889, he began collaborating with Garabet Ibrăileanu's journal Școala Nouă, appearing alongside the young socialists Izabela Andrei, Panait Mușoiu, Raicu Ionescu-Rion. His articles covered a vast category of subjects, introducing the Romanian public to developments in sociology, hard science, and philology.Cioculescu et al., p. 952 The only speaker of German in that group, Streitman is presumably by some as the author of articles signed I. Chilieanu (others believe this was Ibrăileanu's own pen name). Both the anonymous article and Streitman's signed pieces discuss the differences between literary naturalism and realism, and the naturalism vs. "pornography" debate of the 1880s.Cioculescu et al., p. 954; Opriș, pp. 33–34 The young author completed his education abroad, and trained in several fields. He studied physics and chemistry at the universities of Göttingen, Zurich, Berlin, and then at the Technical College Stuttgart.Podoleanu, p. 311 In July 1889, the illegal newspaper Sozialdemokrat claimed that Streitman, "a cowardly and totally characterless person", acted as a police informant "in order to save himself from possible expulsion". Allegedly as a result of his reports, the Kingdom of Württemberg prosecuted a Marxist organizer, Eduard Fuchs.Thomas Huonker, Revolution, Moral & Kunst: Eduard Fuchs, Leben und Werk, pp. 25–26. Zürich: Limmat Verlag, 1985. Throughout this interval as an expatriate, Streitman continued to send his articles to Școala Nouă, before it ultimately succumbed in May 1890.Cioculescu et al., p. 952; Opriș, pp. 32, 34 In Germany, Streitman was university colleagues with several prominent Romanian intellectuals of various political hues: Barbu Brănișteanu, Gheorghe Gh. Longinescu, Simion Mehedinți, Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș, etc.Alexandru Tzigara-Samurcaș, Memorii. I: 1872–1910, p. 111. Bucharest: Grai și Suflet – Cultura Națională, 1991. He also traveled out of Central Europe, and heard lectures in philosophy at Rome University. Marian Petcu, Evoluții recente în jurnalismul autohton, Contributors.ro, December 9, 2016 According to academic Marian Petcu, it remains unclear whether he ever specialized in any particular field. Other records suggest that Streitman eventually obtained a Sc.D. in physical chemistry, and a license degree in Philosophy. G. Brătescu, "Uniunea Ziariștilor Profesioniști, 1919 – 2009. Compendiu aniversar", in Mesagerul de Bistrița-Năsăud, December 11, 2009 Streitman's earliest contributions to cultural journalism also include a profile of poet Mihai Eminescu, published in June 1891 by a radical-liberal newspaper, Românul.Marin Bucur, "Primele zile ale posterității. Un neașteptat promovator al mitului eminescian: Vintilă C. A. Rosetti", Viața Românească, Vol. LXXXIV, Issue 6, June 1989, p. 65 Reportedly, the young writer made his full debut in journalism in 1894, when he contributed regularly to the same Românul. However, he was by then affiliated with the Sotir Circle of socialists, Bucharest, and began contributing to the socialist magazine, Munca. Among his colleagues there was a female journalist, Rachel Vermont, who became his wife.Constantin Titel Petrescu, Socialismul în România. 1835 – 6 septembrie 1940, p. 91. Bucharest: Dacia Traiana, [n. y.] Together, they completed and circulated translations of scientific and scientistic literature. In 1894, Henric and Rachel Streitman published the first volume of Max Nordau's Degeneration.Angheluță et al., p. 408Teodora Dumitru, Rețeaua modernităților: Paul de Man – Matei Călinescu – Antoine Compagnon, p. 216. Bucharest: Museum of Romanian Literature, 2016. A boy (named Max-Radu Streitman)Death announcement for "H. St. Streitman, jurnalist-pensionar", in Adevărul, March 31, 1950, p. 2 was born to the couple in September 1895; this was announced in Lupta, which also noted that Henric was at the time a staff journalist at Țara newspaper."Ediția IIa. Ultime informațiuni", in Lupta, September 6, 1895, p. 3 As a traditionalist reviewer, Ilarie Chendi spoke of the Streitmans' work as part of a "Jewish translation" phenomenon which had taken up cultural space in fin de siècle Romania; he also noted similar contributions by Saniel Grossman, Adolphe Stern, and I. Hussar. Chendi identified Nordau as a main reference for Jews active in Romanian literature, "a sort of protective father-figure for the Romanian Jews."Ilarie Chendi, Foiletoane, p. 238. Bucharest: Minerva, 1904 In their introductory study to Degeneration, the Streitmans highlighted the connections between Nordau and socialism, but also introduced footnotes claiming to correct the author for his disagreements with Marxism. A year later, the literary duo returned with a version of August Bebel's Woman.Podoleanu, p. 312 Streitman's work was soon acknowledged in the literary profession, and discussed by Constantin Stamatin-Nazone in his 1894 essay Profilurĭ ("Profiles").Angheluță et al., p. 344 As argued by historian of journalism G. Brătescu, Streitman impressed and influenced the greats of Romanian journalism with his "subtle, malicious, ironic, doubting, often indulgent" writing style. Moreover, Brătescu writes, Streitman was an "erudite" and a competent reader of both secular and religious literature. In 1902, he followed up with the booklet Oamenii zilei. Instantanee ("People of the Day. Snapshots"), signing it with the pen name Almaviva.Angheluță et al., p. 408; Podoleanu, pp. 311, 312 ===Prezentul and Viitorul=== Streitman's political stances became the subject of controversy when it came to his ignoring the territorial and cultural conflicts opposing Romania and Austria-Hungary. In October 1897, as a representative of Liberalul newspaper, he was invited by the Hungarian literary community to visit Budapest. He accepted the invitation, as did his colleagues Brănișteanu and Henric Sanielevici; most Romanian journalists rejected it, noting that their newspapers were in fact banned from even reaching Transleithania."Ce e nou? D̦iariștii bucureșceni invitați la Budapesta", in Familia, Issue 38/1897, p. 456 In June 1900, Streitman and Petre I. Sturdza attended the Budapest premiere of Radu D. Rosetti's play, O lecție, and were fêted there by Hungarian journalists. According to Gazeta Transilvaniei, this implied that Streitman had "Hungarian sympathies", and had thus befriended Romania's rivals."Scirile d̦ilei. Representarea unei piese românescĭ la Budapesta", in Gazeta Transilvaniei, Issue 125/1900, pp. 2–3 In February 1903, Streitman was ultimately naturalized Romanian by special vote of the Senate."Cronica săptămâneĭ. Indigenatele", in Egalitatea, Issue 6/1903, p. 45"Ediția de dimineață. Informațiuni", in Adevărul, February 6, 1903, p. 2 Covering this event, the community newspaper Egalitatea described him as fost evreŭ (a "former Jew"). According to a 1937 report in Új Kelet review, Streitman had embraced Romanian Orthodoxy—this was after the National Liberal Party chairman, Dimitrie Sturdza, had "predicted a great career for him in case he converted." As a result, both Henric and Rachel "discreetly sunk their heads under holy water at some church in the suburbs".H. E., "Jelentéktelen üggyé zsugorodott a 'kétázak' keresztelkedésről szóló szenzáció. Niemerower főrabbi nyilatkozata. Szenzációhajhász lapok fújták fel néhány ember kitérési akcióját", in Új Kelet, Vol. XX, Issue 5, January 1937, p. 3 Henic now took on the Christian name "Ștefan", which he kept for the rest of his life. He denounced his own baptism soon after, when his pious mother died, leaving him "overcome with remorse". He recited the kaddish in her memory at Malbim Synagogue, where he continued to pray regularly, always wrapped in a tallit. For a while, Streitman affiliated with the Romanian Society for Literature and Arts, an abortive professional organization, noted for attempting to group under one roof the Romanian writers and their non-emancipated Jewish colleagues.Durnea, "Primii pași...", pp. 23–24, 29 This body, created by N. Petrașcu, officially admitted him in December 1904. Victor Durnea, "Constituirea Societății Scriitorilor Români (I)", in Revista Română (ASTRA), Issue 40/2005 With Dumitru Karnabatt as his secretary, Streitman was putting out a new Bucharest newspaper, Observatorul ("The Observer").Anuarul Bucurescilor pe anul 1904, p. 14. Bucharest: Carol Göbl, 1904 He took his journalistic career further when he a new daily, Prezentul ("The Now") and, in 1908, the weekly Cuvinte Libere ("Free Words"). Prezentul was engaged in polemics with Furnica, the satirical magazine. The latter hosted rhyming jokes about Streitman's supposed sensationalism.Cyrano (George Ranetti), "Kneazul Moruzzi la Moși", in Furnica, Issue 39/1905, p. 7 A "political magazine", Cuvinte Libere drew praise in Sămănătorul for the "distinguished urbanity of its polemical tone".Sc., "Revista generală. Notițe bibliografice", in Sămănătorul, Vol. VII, Issue 42, October 1908, p. 957 Streitman's coworkers and employees were Rudolf Uhrinowsky, ridiculed by Furnica for his unusual surname,"Pentru D. Straitman", in Furnica, Issue 43/1905, p. 10 poet Victor Eftimiu, and (Eftimiu noted) Adrien Le Corbeau, already famous as a habitual plagiarist.Philippe Di Folco, Les Grandes impostures littéraires, pp. 220–223. Paris: Éditions Écriture, 2006. ; Eftimiu, pp. 298, 319–320 Joining them as literary contributors were three young poets, all of them representing the Romanian Symbolist movement: Mihail Cruceanu, Al. T. Stamatiad, and Eugeniu Sperantia.Mihail Cruceanu, De vorbă cu trecutul..., p. 40. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1973. Streitman also bonded with a Symbolist author and Christian socialist, Gala Galaction, and prayed together with him at an unnamed synagogue in December 1908. In his account of the visit, Galaction proposed a Romanian–Jewish alliance: "a nation who knows how to pray in that way Jews can pray is invincible, impregnable"; Galaction also referred to Streitman as a "highly intelligent and prestigious journalist".H. D., "Viața cărților. La început de veac. Gala Galaction și evreii", in Buletinul Centrului, Muzeului și Arhivei Istorice a Evreilor din România, Issues 4–5, 2000, p. 143 Streitman remained a practicing Jew into the 1940s,Deletant, p. 122; Vágó, p. 700 whereas his wife never reverted back to Judaism. According to Eftimiu, Prezentul was a struggling business, occupying an unheated room on Macca Arcade, with Streitman often missing out on payments for his staff.Eftimiu, pp. 130–133 In March 1910, Streitman's entire mobile property was confiscated by court order, and auctioned off to pay off his debt to an R. Goldemberg."Anunțuri judiciare. Licitațiuni. Corpul portăreilor tribunalului Ilfov", in Monitorul Oficial, Issue 290/1911, p. 12125 The two papers did not survive this, and Streitman returned to regular publishing work. He was soon appointed editor in chief of Viitorul, a newspaper put out by the National Liberals, with Ion G. Duca and Constantin Banu as managers, while he was also a "very close" collaborator of Banu's own review, Flacăra.Mihail Șerban, "Cu d. Const. Banu, evocând trecutul. După 25 de ani dela apariția revistei Flacăra, fostul ei director ne vorbește despre începuturi, colaboratori și drumul parcurs", in Adevărul, June 27, 1928, p. 3 Still a nominal left-winger, Streitman announced in December 1912 that he would be putting out a new magazine of his own, Realitatea ("Reality"), its mission being to "strip public life of all ideology, of all phraseology";"Ultime informațiuni", in Adevărul, December 8, 1912, p. 3 during those years, he was being approached by right-wing politicians, becoming friends with Duca, then also with Constantin Angelescu and Constantin Argetoianu. According to one account, he chaperoned a "stunningly beautiful actress" whom Duca was secretly dating.Carandino, pp. 150–151 In January 1913, Streitman became involved with Romania's first journalists' union, the General Association of the Press. Alongside Karnabatt, Constantin Bacalbașa, Constantin Costa-Foru, Scarlat Lahovary, Constantin Mille, Barbu Brănișteanu, I. Hussar, he held seat on a steering committee which approved of new entries."Asociația generală a presei", in Gazeta Ilustrată, Issue 13/1913, p. 12; Constantin Bacalbașa, Bucureștii de altă dată. IV: 1910–1914, p. 130. Bucharest: Editura Ziarului Universul, 1936 In 1910 and 1911, Streitman worked as a translator for Biblioteca Lumen company, publishing Henri Murger's Scènes de la vie de bohème, Bebel's Women and Socialism, and the short stories of Vladimir Korolenko. Streitman's version of Henri James de Rothschild's play, La Rampe, was used in production by the Alexandru Davila company. N. D. Cocea, a fellow socialist and a theater chronicler, noted that the production failed, not least of all because of Streitman's adaptation. According to Cocea, Streitman had an "elevated style" of writing, but was also a "very busy man", which meant that his text was published with many grammatical mistakes.N. D. Cocea, "Cronica teatrală. Deschiderea stagiunii", in Viața Românească, Issue 9/1910, pp. 476–477 ===World War I and People's Party=== One of Streitman's last journalistic ventures for 1913 was a series of interviews on the "Jewish Question", which was published as a brochure by the Union of Native Jews. A Romanian rival, Romulus Cioflec, argued that the set mainly featured known philosemites such as Alexandru Ciurcu and Constantin G. Dissescu.Romulus Cioflec, "In chestia evreiască. O anchetă a 'Uniunii evreilor pământeni' în lumea politică românească", in Gazeta Transilvaniei, Issue 265/1913, p. 2 Streitman's advocacy came to a halt during the debates and campaigns of World War I. In 1914, when Romania was still neutral territory, he published a monograph on the life and ideas of Jean Jaurès, the recently assassinated SFIO leader. In March of that year, alongside Brănișteanu, Lahovary, Mille, Uhrinowsky, Petre Locusteanu and Alexandru Mavrodi, he was present at the "Franco–Romanian brotherhood" banquet, honoring visitor Stéphane Lauzanne."Un banchet al înfrățirei franco-română la București", in Românul (Arad), Issue 57/1914, p. 5 In tandem, Streitman was also the staff writer for Naționalul newspaper, put out by Toma Stelian in support of the Allied Powers.Arhibald, pp. 199, 242 His old adversaries at Furnica alleged that he was in business with his National Liberal contacts, a middleman for "compensation" exports to countries of the Central Powers.Kiriak Napadarjan (George Ranetti), "Brașoave", in Furnica, Issue 15/1915, p. 8 Streitman stayed behind enemy lines after the occupation of southern Romania. According to several accounts, he was one of eight Jews picked up as hostages by the German Army, and initially held at Hotel Imperial; the same round-up also included Romanian figures who had supported the Allies: Ciurcu, Constantin Antoniade, Alexandrina Cantacuzino, Constantin Cantacuzino-Pașcanu, Nicolae Malaxa, Mina Minovici, and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru.Filderman, p. 39 Despite being described as "very ill", he was one of the prisoners dispatched to a facility in Săveni.Filderman, pp. 39–40 A polemical memoir of these episodes appeared as Porcii ("The Swine"), and was signed by "Arhibald"—the pen name used by Streitman's fellow exile, Ghiță Rădulescu.Dimitrie Hogea, Din trecutul orașului Piatra-Neamț. Amintiri, pp. 227–228. Piatra-Neamț: Institutul de Arte Grafice Record, 1936 In October 1917, Rădulescu and Streitman were picked out for deportation into Bulgaria; they were selected for a comfortable exile in Troyan, where Streitman appeared "in a mountaineer's attire".Arhibald, pp. 56–57, 84 "Arhibald" claims that Streitman's disease was simulated throughout their Bulgarian exile: "when he forgets that he has to faint, he is as talkative as can be".Arhibald, p. 137 Streitman and the Troyan group were released on December 23, 1917,Arhibald, p. 131 though some accounts suggest that he was also interned for a while at Tismana Monastery."Cuvântarea dlui Dr. Valeriu Pop...", p. 4 He was active in occupied Bucharest following Romania's armistice (May 1918), an editorial director of Virgil Arion's Renașterea newspaper, which promoted reconciliation with the Germans. According to Alexandru Macedonski of Literatorul (himself a Germanophile), Streitman's arrival at Renașterea was good news, Streitman being "one of the most brilliant Romanian journalists", "a man of great culture and a writer of great talent".Alexandru Macedonski, "Paginile zilei. Aparițiunea Renașterei" in Literatorul, Issue 2/1918, p. 7 The newspaper riled up patriotic sensibilities with pro-German stances, such as when it asked that Romanian civilians who had publicly celebrated German defeats in France.Arhibald, p. 250 "Arhibald" suggests that Renașterea was secretly owned by the Germanophile leader, Petre P. Carp, with Jewish publisher Leon Alcaly as his front man.Arhibald, pp. 241–242, 281–282 As he notes, Streitman's tenure there pitted him against his own contributions in the earlier stages of war: Streitman now claimed that nobody had ever supported going to war against the Central Powers.Arhibald, pp. 241–242 The same author includes Streitman and philosopher Iosif Brucăr among a largely Jewish, and more generically foreign, category of intellectuals "passing as Romanians at the German gazettes"; he claims to have found both men's signatures on a memorandum asking the German occupiers to provide them with price-controlled cheese, in return for propaganda services.Arhibald, pp. 250–251 After the German capitulation, Streitman returned at the center of Romanian cultural life. He became known as the owner of a library and art salon, Hasefer, which occupied a Venetian-style villa in Bucharest. In January 1919, he was at the forefront of trade unionism in Greater Romania, becoming co-founder of the Union of Professional Journalists (UZP). At age 44, he was the oldest member, unanimously voted in as UZP President following a proposal made by Pamfil Șeicaru. A detailed account by researcher Aurelia Lăpușan notes that Streitman was only elected because the favorite, Nicolae Constantin Batzaria, declined to take office.Aurelia Lăpușan, "Destinul unui căutător de certitudini, Vasile Canarache", in Datina, Vol. I, Issue 10, December 2014, p. 18 A February 1920 note by fellow Jewish writer I. Peltz informed the general public that Steitman was again preparing his own "entirely original magazine for social and political critique".I. Peltz, "Scrisori din București. Mișcarea literară", in Opinia, February 6, 1920, p. 1 Streitman also reentered politics, now as a committed anticommunist. As Brătescu writes, he rejected socialism altogether after the October Revolution, and supported the National Liberal Party without joining its ranks. Before the electoral year 1920, Streitman joined the politically diverse People's Party (PP), where he worked alongside the Romanian nationalist poet, Octavian Goga. The Jewish journalist sent articles to the PP's own press organ, Îndreptarea.Scurtu, p. 57 He was an enthusiastic follower of the party leader, General Alexandru Averescu. In retrospect, he spoke of Averescu as an "imperturbable and incorruptible" figures, chosen by providence to enact a program of "prosperity and order".Scurtu, pp. 57–58 Streitman was nominated for an eligible seat in a Jewish circumscription, in the newly attached region of Transylvania. Goga campaigned in his favor, telling Jewish voters that "a Jewish intellectual of the Old Kingdom" would be best positioned to advance their demands; Streitman failed at convincing them, probably because Transylvanian Jews wished to be considered separate from the Old-Kingdom Jews.Lya Benjamin, "The Determinants of Jewish Identity in Inter- War Transylvania", Erdélyi Magyar Adatbank reprint (originally published in the Babeș-Bolyai University Studia Judaica, 1996, pp. 68–77); retrieved September 19, 2012 More recognition of his public role in Jewish and Romanian life came in early 1921, when the PP government assigned him to welcome back in Romania Moses Gaster, the expelled Jewish community leader and scholar. Streitman met Gaster at Curtici, and led him to Arad, inspiring his subsequent address to the city's Jewish community.Mănescu, pp. 89–90 Following the 1920 setback, Streitman focused his political ambitions on another one of Greater Romania's newer regions, campaigning for the Jewish vote in Bukovina during the race of 1922. As a PP candidate, he was involved in the provincial conflict opposing two advocates of Jewish rights: Mayer Ebner, of the People's Council Party, and Benno Straucher, of the Jewish National People's Party. While Straucher became a National Liberal ally, Streitman and Karl Klüger where signed by Ebner onto a People's Council Party list for the Senate: Streitman for Storojineț, Klüger for Cernăuți.Mihai, pp. 88–89, 99–100 Streitman worked as a councilor for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which probably interrupted his senatorial mandate. Records of the time describe him as "formerly a senator".Mănescu, p. 89 ===1920s controversy=== At that stage, Streitman was being courted by the radical modernists and the avant-garde. Resuming his contacts with the socialists, he was taken up by N. D. Cocea's leftist review, Facla—repotedly, this was his last-ever steady employment by a publication of any kind. In his articles there, Streitman used the pen name Omul de pe stradă ("Man on the street").Geo Șerban, "Mozaic. 'Omul de pe stradă', un faimos condei", in Realitatea Evreiască, Issues 454–455, July–August 2015, p. 16Carandino, p. 149; Podoleanu, p. 311 According to literary critic Geo Șerban, the choice of name still echoed Streitman's commitment to "social emancipation". As noted by a younger Facla journalist, Nicolae Carandino, he was "convinced that the democratic pseudonym increased [the articles'] circulation."Carandino, p. 149 Streitman's essays were also featured in Contimporanul, a political and art magazine put out by Cocea's pupil, Ion Vinea: his name appears Contimporanul pages from the very first issue, on June 3, 1922. He thus joined the original Contimporanul crew, which mainly comprised left-wing or politically independent social critics, generally adverse to the National Liberal Party. These included, among others, Eugen Filotti, Benjamin Fondane, Nicolae L. Lupu, Camil Petrescu, and Dem. Theodorescu.Cernat, pp. 132–133 Streitman was also one of the guest writers for the special issue honoring Tudor Arghezi's contribution to literary life.Cernat, pp. 148–149 As "V. Dănoiu", Fondane celebrated in Streitman a contributor to both Romanian journalism and Romanian literature: "[In Streitman,] the Jews have given us a journalist who could become illustrious in any foreign literature, considering his gracious style, his subtlety and delicious irony." V. Dănoiu, "Evreii în Cultura Română. I", in Contimporanul, Issues 39–40/1923, [p. 4] (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library). For the identification of Fondane as "Dănoiu", see Sofia Milancovici, "Benjamin Fundoianu / Benjamin Fondane: o biografie româno-franceză", in the Goldiș University of Arad Studii de Știință și Cultură, Issue 1 (12), March 2008, p. 77 In June 1922, as a political chronicler for Contimporanul, Streitman decried the attempted communist takeover of the Socialist Party: "Forever meddling and creating havoc, [extremists] 'exaggerate' the teachings, aspirations and goals of the new movements and parties. Worse still: they spoil the leaders' plans".Emilia Faur, "Leftist Critique or Fight for Democracy? Contimporanul Covering the Trial from Dealul Spirii", in Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai. Philosophia, Special Issue, November 2019, p. 73 In July 1923, he represented the Jewish Romanians at a congress of ethnic minority journalists, hosted by Árpád Paál in Arad. "Congresul ziariștilor minoritari la Arad", in Vestul României, Issue 17/1923, p. 3 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library) Also that year, he collected a volume of his Revizuiri ("Revisions"), republishing his 1894 translation from Nordau in 1924; his wife Rachel remained focused on Darwinist literature, and, before the echoes of the Scopes Trial were first felt in Romania, had translated a Darwinian popularization booklet by Émile Ferrière.I. Florin, "În jurul afacerii din Dayton. Ce e darwinismul?", in Adevărul, August 8, 1925, p. 2 Going over Revizuiri, Streitman's old friend Ibrăileanu found them to be unusually misanthropic and intellectualist, suggesting that their critique of social life in the 1920s was perhaps exaggerated.Garabet Ibrăileanu, Scriitori Romîni și Străini, pp. 219–223. Iași: Viața Romînească, 1926 Overall, according to his colleague Fondane, Streitman remained an "isolated" journalist, shunned by his press colleagues, "many of whom are Jews". Eventually, two Jewish avant-garde magazines took up his work: Puntea de Fildeș and Isac Ludo's Adam. In August 1925, Facla published a piece by Streitman which asked Romanians to ceate an openly antisemitic political party. His text was seen as provocative and tasteless by the National Liberal newspaper, Mișcarea."'Ni trebuie un partid antisemit'", in Mișcarea, August 2, 1925, p. 1 Both Streitman and Klüger were reelected to Senate on the Averescu–Ebner platform during the race of May–June 1926, which returned the PP to government.Mihai, pp. 90, 100 He took 270 votes, whereas the second-placed Stinodela Scala, a National Liberal, only took 9."Rezultatul alegerilor pentru senatorii consiliilor județene și comunale", in Cuvântul Ardealului, June 27, 1926, p. 4 The PP's selection was hotly contested in Romania's radical-right circles. Universul newspaper ran a press campaign claiming to expose Goga as a hypocrite or an opportunist: Goga's "national fanaticism", Universul claimed, had been proven as a hoax by his political association with the "erstwhile Jewish" Streitman and the Hungarian Béla Barabás."Minoritățile în focul concentric", in Glasul Minorităților, Vol. IV, Issues 5–6, May–June 1926, p. 131 As a newspaper of the opposition Peasants' Party, Dreptatea similarly noted that PP candidate Ioan Lupaș was assuring his constituents that Averescu had "kept no company with the Hungarians, nor with the Jews", conveniently "forget[ting] Mr H. St. Streitman"."Polemici. Indelicatețe", in Dreptatea, December 6, 1928, p. 1 Other nationalist venues accused Streitman of harboring anti-Romanian sentiments, and implied that his patron, Goga, was politically incompetent. A rumor circulated that, at the height of the preceding world war, Streitman had called the Romanians "a gang of thieves, consumed with alcoholism and syphilis"."Cuvântarea dlui Dr. Valeriu Pop...", p. 4; "Daltonismul național", in Chemarea Tinerimei Române, Issue 7/1926, p. 2 (digitized by the Babeș- Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library) The antisemitic attack on Streitman was taken up in Parliament by the opposition National-Christian Defense League (or LANC), through the voice of Transylvanian Valeriu Pop. Pop, who noted that the supposed quote could be traced back to Die Weltkampf paper (of the Militant League for German Culture), accused the PP of having betrayed the cause of "nationalist activity"."Cuvântarea dlui Dr. Valeriu Pop...", pp. 3–4 Streitman was publicly defended by another parliamentarian, Mișu Papp- Craiova, who called himself a man of "antisemitic principles". Papp-Craiova argued: "Streitman was the only Jew to have exhibited a dignified attitude during the war. [...] this particular Jew has never described himself as a Jew, but has always said he was a Romanian." Streitman was among the diplomats who worked at tightening Romania's links with the Polish Republic, in the context of the Polish–Romanian alliance. He was an official rapporteur at the Polish–Romanian Conference, held at Galați, and contributed an essay on the history behind that cooperation. It was taken up by Societatea de Mâine magazine, with an editorial note announcing that Streitman was working on three "literary volumes": Între da și nu ("Between Yes and No"), Ziua e scurtă ("The Day Is Short"), Elogiul ipocriziei ("In Praise of Hypocrisy").Streitman, "Legăturile...", p. 461 Of his planned volumes, only Între da și nu came out, in late 1928, at Editura Cultura Națională,"Curier literar", in Cuvântul, December 23, 1928, p. 2 earning attention as a "paradoxical and savory" work.Leon Feraru, "Rumanian Literary News", in The Romanic Review, No. 2/1929, p. 185 (digitized by the Bibliothèque nationale de France Gallica digital library) Streitman announced at the time that he was writing a "major book" of Biblical criticism, which focused on Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity. Averescu's premiership ended abruptly in June 1927. Streitman still served in the Foreign Ministry after the National Liberals carried the day, and, during the mandate of Nicolae Titulescu, traveled extensively in Europe. Nevertheless, he maintained a correspondence on the subject with Averescu, informing him about things he had "seen, heard, and thought about" during his trips.Scurtu, pp. 58, 59 One anecdote suggests that Streitman unwittingly uncovered Titulescu's superficiality while traveling with him through the Kingdom of Italy. The Romanian diplomat asked Streitman to explain Italian fascism, and was informed about its precursor, Georges Sorel; Titulescu "went deep into his thoughts for a moment", persuaded that he had once met Sorel. It consequently emerged that he was thinking of historian Albert Sorel, whose classes Titulescu had once attended."Tatarescu, Titulescu és a kor nagy szociális problémái. Pamfil Seicaru folytatja támadásait Tatarescu ellen", in Új Kelet, Vol. XXIII, Issue 185, August 1940, p. 3 By 1928, Streitman had returned to his career in the national press, managing the newspapers Dimineața and Adevărul. This period coincided with the rise of a National Peasants' Party, which threatened with revolution. Its messages, including alarmist announcements by Ionel Țăranu, were given exposure by Streitman; during October, Streitman was called in to testify at Țăranu's trial, which lasted into 1929.Marian Moșneagu, "Presa română interbelică și starea de asediu. Cazul Alba Iulia", in Marian Moșneagu, Petrișor Florea, Cornel Țucă (eds.), Armata română și societatea civilă. Studii și comunicări prezentate la sesiunea științifică dedicată Zilei Arhivelor Militare și aniversării a 92 de ani de la înființarea Centrului de Studii și Păstrare a Arhivelor Militare Istorice și a 145 de ani de la înființarea Serviciului Istoric al Armatei. Pitești, 28 iulie 2012, pp. 85–87. Brăila: Editura Istros, 2012. Meanwhile, the People's Party made Streitman its Lower Chamber candidate in the December election, moving him from Storojineț to Cernăuți.Mihai, pp. 93, 100 ===Between Facla and the far-right=== By 1927, Streitman had been made an Officer of the Star of Romania, a Commander in the Order of St. Sava, and a Knight of Polonia Restituta. Although no longer holding a seat in Parliament, he was one of Romania's delegates to the 25th Inter-Parliamentary Union Conference,Compte rendu de la XXVe conférence tenue à Berlin du 23 au 28 août 1928. Publié par le bureau interparlementaire, p. 547. Geneva: Éditions Payot, 1928 (digitized by the Bibliothèque nationale de France Gallica digital library) while also representing Romania within a journalists' version of the Little Entente, alongside Filotti and Emil Fagure."Conferința Micii antante a presei. Dezbaterile ședinței de eri după amiază", in Adevărul, June 22, 1928, p. 3 He also remained active as an adviser of the Romanian far-right. In his own pamphlet, Mustul care fierbe ("The Frothing Must"), Octavian Goga paid homage to Streitman as the "fine analyst". Goga cited his admiration for Streitman against those who reproached him his antisemitism: "I have never professed that stupid kind of intolerance."Octavian Goga, Mustul care fierbe, p. 97. Bucharest: Imprimeria Statului, [n. y.] At the time, Streitman also advised and financed his friend Șeicaru to set up the nationalist daily, Curentul. In its original edition, this political tribune employed other Jewish men of letters, among them F. Brunea-Fox and Moses Rosen. In 1929, Streitman launched a new magazine of his own, the short-lived Observatorul Politic și Social ("Political and Social Observer"), with contributions from Mihail Manoilescu."Buletin Bibliografic", in Dreptatea, April 29, 1929, p. 5. See also Podoleanu, p. 311 In August of that year, he led a Romanian journalists' delegation to Poland, also speaking in front of the Polish Commission in the Free City of Danzig."Excusia ziariștilor români în Polonia", in Curentul, August 28, 1929, p. 7 Streitman signed up for the 1931 electoral campaign as a PP candidate, again in Bukovina.Mihai, pp. 94, 100 When, in 1932, Goga left the PP to found his own National Agrarian Party (PNA), Streitman followed suit, thereafter serving on that group's executive committee and writing for Goga's Țara Noastră. On June 5, 1935, he was present at Filantropia Hospital for the funeral wake of Octavian's brother, Eugen Goga."Moartea lui Eugen Goga", in Curentul, June 6, 1935, p. 9 Weeks later, the PNA merged with Streitman's old adversaries, the LANC. As noted by Brătescu, the Jewish Streitman became an election agent for the resulting National Christian Party (PNC), a notoriously antisemitic force; Deptatea, by then a National Peasantist paper, likewise noted that Streitman and Tudor Vianu, both of them Jews, had remained active within a "nationalist, and furthermore antisemitic, movement"."'Oamenii de ordine' ai domnului Tătărăscu ", in Dreptatea, October 3, 1935, p. 1 Új Kelet contrarily claimed that Streitman had "cut off all contact" with Goga following the unification. Although working within the PNA and befriending the fascists, Streitman still assisted with leftist causes. Also in 1932, he joined the staff of Facla, where he was colleagues with several leftist and rightist political commentators: Carandino, Sergiu Dan, Ion Călugăru, N. Davidescu, Sandu Eliad. Geo Șerban, "Causeries du lundi", in România Literară, Issue 25/2000 By August 1933, Max-Radu, a practicing attorney, was handling legal defense for participants in the Grivița strike of February."Procesul incidentelor dela atelierele Grivița. Ziua XXV-a", in Dimineața, August 18, 1933, p. 8; Elis Neagoe-Pleșa, "Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej și 'procesul ceferiștilor' (1933–1934)", in Adrian Cioroianu (ed.), Comuniștii înainte de comunism: procese și condamnări ale ilegaliștilor din România, p. 101. Bucharest: Editura Universității București, 2014. Following up on Între da și nu, Henric returned in late 1933 with the volume Mi se pare că... ("Signs Point to..."), at Alcaly Publishers. A praise of agnosticism and relativism,Doctorul Ygrec, "Caleidoscopul vieții intelectuale. Litere, știință, artă: Mi se pare că...", in Adevărul, December 29, 1933, p. 2 it appeared on Pompiliu Păltânea's list of notable prose works for 1934. According to Păltânea: "Mr. Henri Streitman reveals his very own manner [...] of searching for the truth through the most distant detours, those that run into surprises and open up grand perspectives." Pompiliu Păltânea, "Chronique de Roumanie", in Mercure de France, Issue 867, August 1934, p. 643 (digitized by the Bibliothèque nationale de France Gallica digital library) Fellow writer Alexandru Robot was critical of Streitman's relativistic approach, describing him as a "puppy [...] urinating on some tree."Alexandu Robot, "Căți noui. H.-St. Streitman, Mi se pare că...", in Rampa, January 19, 1934, pp. 1–2 Doctor Ygrec, the reviewer at Adevărul, found the book amusing overall, but objected to its "commonplace" jokes about God as an anthropomorphic deity. Underneath this covering, "it would seem to me that Mr. Streitman is a religious man". Robot notes that Streitman had remained in part an investigative journalist, since he still "squeezed himself though the keyholes of various ministries". He remained a confidant of Duca, by then National Liberal chairman, who ultimately became Prime Minister in late 1933. He recorded Duca's premonition of his assassination by the Iron Guard: "Now begins the I. G. Duca tragedy..."G. I. Duca, Cronica unui român în veacul XX, Vol. II p. 106. Munich: Jon Dumitru Verlag, 1984 As noted in 1934 by Argetoianu, Streitman was again a politically confused person, since he wrote for "all sorts of publications"—driven mainly by material needs, he was "always meaningful" and "intelligent", a "superior Semite". Argetoianu's notebook records a joke about "Streitman's salute", which was neither the fascist salute nor the communist raised fist, but "arm extended, palm turned up, to pick up something or other".Argetoianu, p. 369 He also recorded how Streitman and another journalist, Adolphe Clarnet, colluded to obtain larger gifts from their political patron Titulescu.Argetoianu, pp. 369–370 His wealth, consisting of "an oak desk and other unspecified items", was confiscated by another court order from his home on Calea Plevnei 72. It was auctioned off in April 1932, this time to repay sums borrowed from Banca Centrală a Țării Românești."Vânzări mobiliare. Corpul Port. Trib. Ilfov", in Viitorul, April 22, 1932, p. 2 Streitman enjoyment of relativism and networking between rival groups once pushed him to deliberately introduce the far-right philosopher Nae Ionescu to his left-wing critic, Carandino. He explained that: "In life, one must learn to abstract the opinions in one's writings".Carandino, p. 150 A while after the Duca assassination, he was a correspondent for N. D. Cocea's extreme-left magazine, Reporter, which published his essays (signed Quidam and Alcest); but also worked with the right-wing Ion Gigurtu at Libertatea."Caleidoscopul vieții intelectuale. Litere, știință, artă: Cărți și reviste", in Adevărul, February 7, 1936, p. 2 In January 1933, Libertateas debate club also included Streitman as a guest speaker, introducing a lecture by Argetoianu."Viitoarele conferințe dela cercul 'Libertatea'", in Adevărul, January 3, 1933, p. 5 In a 1934 review, the young writer Geo Bogza referred to Streitman as one of Romania's five model- journalists, and the prime analyst of his day; the list also included Arghezi, Brunea-Fox, Vinea, and Tudor Teodorescu-Braniște.Mihai Lisei, "Reportajul românesc interbelic. Teme și dezbateri (II)", in Studia Universitatis Babeș- Bolyai. Ephemerides, Vol. LVI, Issue 1, June 2011, p. 167 At the time, Streitman was completing an edition of works by Ion Heliade Rădulescu, which was to feature his comparative essay on the links between Rădulescu's poetry and the Bible.Alexandru Rosetti, "Fundația pentru literatură și artă Regele Carol II. Scopurile Fundației și programul de editură pe anul 1934", in Sebastian Sârcă (ed.), Orele culturii. Antologie de conferințe din Arhiva Societății Române de Radiodifuziune. Volumul I, 1931–1935, p. 88. Bucharest: Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company, 1998. On May 21, 1937, he was one of several journalists awarded Czechoslovakia's Order of the White Lion—other recipients for that day include Brănișteanu, Fagure, Demostene Botez, Ion Clopoțel, Romulus Dianu, and Constantin Gongopol."Ziariști români decorați de președintele Beneș. Solemnitatea dela Legația Cehă", in Adevărul, May 21, 1937, p. 3 An occasional contributor to the Zionist review Renașterea Noastră, Streitman was still personally involved in debates about the "Jewish Question" in Romania. In late 1929, Streitman, Galaction, Felix Aderca and Wilhelm Filderman contributed to Iancu Klein's volume, Combaterea antisemitismului ("Defeating Antisemitism")—which also included pieces by several Romanian politicians—Mihai Antonescu, Paul Negulescu, Constantin Rădulescu-Motru, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod—, Jewish banker Aristide Blank, socialist Leon Ghelerter, and Zionist A. L. Zissu."O lucrare de valoare care se trimite gratuit", in Cuvântul, November 21, 1929, p. 2 During February 1934, he was a guest lecturer at a conference on this topic, organized Hasmonaea club and Rădulescu-Motru; he debated the religious aspect, while Mihai Ralea spoke on sociological issues, and Sami Singer discussed Zionism."Memento conferințe", in Rampa, February 21, 1934, p. 4 In the years leading up to World War II, Romania made antisemitism an official policy. Goga took over as Prime Minister and, on the first day of 1938, withdrew the free travel permits on Romania's railway network for all Jewish journalists, specifically including Streitman."Ultima oră. Un decet pentru reglementarea presei. Anularea permiselor ziariștilor evrei", in Curentul, January 2, 1938, p. 8 Max-Radu was arrested the following month, being tried as an alleged confidence man."Cronica judiciară. Arestarea avocatului Radu Streitman", in Cuvântul, February 2, 1938, p. 2 ===Collaboration=== thumb|400px|Jewish labor conscripts decommissioning the Sevastopol Street Cemetery, May 1942 Under successive fascist regimes, Romania sealed its alliance with Nazi Germany and the Axis Powers, and returned with more policies of that nature. On July 13, 1940, Streitman found himself included on lists of "Judaic writers" or "Hebrew thistles", who had "nothing in common with the spiritual structure of the Romanian peasant". Ladmiss Andreescu, "Iudeii în literatura noastră", in Universul Literar, Issue 29/1940, p. 2 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library) Two days later, the ban on his entire work was made official. On August 16, Șeicaru briefly mentioned Streitman in Curentul as "one of the very characteristic personalities of a political world which today's events are irrevocably liquidating". When the Iron Guard imposed its National Legionary State, Streitman was among the Jews expelled from the Bucharest Journalists' Syndicate (September 23, 1940), though its leaders made sure that he would preserve his pension rights.Marian Petcu, "Sindicatul Ziariștilor din București, după 120 de ani", in Me.Dok, Issue 4/2021, p. 24 The Guardists were eventually thrown out by Conducător Ion Antonescu during the clashes of January 1941. In March, I. P. Prundeni wrote in the official newspaper, Porunca Vremii, that there could be no return to the democratic regime as embodied by Titulescu and his followers. Prundeni referred to Streitman as one of Titulescu's Jewish backers, and claimed that he had once served time in prison.George Potra, Pro și contra Titulescu, Vol. III, p. 129. Bucharest: Fundația Europeană Titulescu, 2012. Radu Lecca, appointed as Jewish Affairs Commissioner, initially considered relaxing some of the antisemitic decrees, and consulted Zissu on the issue. As recalled by Zissu, they also discussed Streitman: "I drew up a little portrait of him, depicting him as a first-rate newspaperman, willing to do just about anything for cash, as one who was never active in Jewish political life, and as a liar."Wexler & Popov, p. 196 Antonescu's takeover generally increased pressures on the Jewish community. As reported by diarist Emil Dorian, in December 1941 Streitman was one of the pro-government Jews who took over as leaders of the revamped Jewish Community: "The Jews are amazed, almost horrified. [...] they are confused by the role of Streitman, and they don't know the government official policies and the reasons for this situation, for which one cannot find enough people".Babeș, p. 23 Lecca soon began organizing a system of coercion, which was to be supervised in his name by the so-called Central Jewish Office (CE). It was seen by the German envoys as the Romanian answer to a Judenrat, capable of assisting in the enforcement of the "Final Solution".Babeș, pp. 17, 24; Deletant, p. 121; Edward Kanterian, "Subiectivitate și obiectivitate în Jurnalul lui Mihail Sebastian", in Revista 22, Bucureștiul Cultural supplement, Issue 11/2007; Vágó, pp. 696, 707–708, 717–718 Streitman was selected by Lecca to preside over this body, taking over as such on February 7, 1942."Deciziuni. Președinția Consiliului de Miniștri", in Monitorul Oficial, Issue 38/1942, p. 994 He probably owed his appointment to his good rapport with all sides of the political spectrum, and especially to his friendship with Antonescu's friend, Veturia Goga.Deletant, p. 122; Vágó, pp. 700, 701–702 According to University of Haifa scholar Béla Vágó, he may also have been favored by a special German envoy, Gustav Richter, who also approved of Lazar Halberthal (Streitman's proposal for the Bucharest Jewish Community Presidency, and formerly a Macabi București sportsman).Vágó, pp. 702, 703 The CE was also afforded some recognition by the underground Union of Romanian Jews (UER), whose leader, Filderman, allowed colleague David "Dadu" Rosenkranz to head the CE's Section of Professional Reeducation. Lucian Zeev- Herșcovici, "David (Dadu) Rosenkranz. Din viața unui avocat și lider evreu din România în secolul XX", in Revista ProLitera, February 3, 2018 Scholar Carol Iancu views Streitman, as well as others in the CE, as "traitors and collaborators"—by contrast with the informal Jewish leaders, who stood in opposition to Antonescu.Iancu, p. 231 The former journalist remained a figurehead, publishing appeals to calm and obedience, and leaving most administrative work to his second-in-command, Nandor Gingold, M. D.Deletant, p. 122; Vágó, pp. 700–701 Ethnically Jewish, but a lapsed Catholic by religion, Gingold justified his own compliance by noting that obvious resistance to Nazi demands would bring immediate destruction upon the Romanian Jews.Deletant, p. 122 Similarly, in the Jewish weekly Gazeta Evreiască, Streitman informed his fellow Jews that the moment required a special kind of reasoning: "with our heads, and not with our nerves, and not with our backbone."Vágó, p. 701 Although conflicted due to the religious prohibitions, the CE had to comply with an official order to relocate the Jewish cemetery on Sevastopol Street. Its eviction in May 1942 was overseen by Streitman, Gingold, Halberthal, and a Sephardi delegate, Marco Prezente.Adrian Cioflâncă, "Erasing Memory. The Destruction of the Old Jewish Cemeteries in Bucharest and Iași during Ion Antonescu's Regime", in Revista de Istorie a Evreilor, Issue 1 (16–17), 2016, pp. 323–324 This attitude made Streitman an adversary of the dissident Jews, who still refused to take Lecca's orders. In early August 1942,Wexler & Popov, p. 107 Streitman found himself opposed by Zissu, who called him a traitor and a renegade. According to historian Hildrun Glass, Zissu was making himself known as the "intransigent" community leader, and, as result of his conflict with Streitman, was interned at the Târgu Jiu camp for political prisoners.Hildrun Glass, "Câteva note despre activitatea iui Avram L. Zissu", in Liviu Rotman, Camelia Crăciun, Ana-Gabriela Vasiliu (eds.), Noi perspective în istoriografia evreilor din România, p. 164. Bucharest: Federation of Jewish Communities of Romania & Editura Hasefer, 2010 Zissu himself explained that the internment came as a result of a provocation, after being told that Jews would be forced to contribute 4 billion lei in "special taxes". He recalls having insulted not just Streitman, but also rabbi Alexandru Șafran; he was only arrested because a Romanian inspector general, present at that meeting, deduced that he had also insulted Antonescu.Wexler & Popov, pp. 107–108, 137, 159. See also Iancu, p. 238 Although they countersigned Lecca's extortion measures, no CE official was ever directly involved in the main criminal actions against the Jews, including the deportations to Transnistria.Deletant, pp. 122–123. See also Cazacu, pp. 57–58; Vágó, passim While providing Jewish labor for Antonescu's regime, Rosenkranz also directed relief efforts for survivors of the Iași pogrom and Vapniarka. Iosif Brucăr was asked by Streitman to lead the CE's Education Department, but refused all collaboration.Gligor, pp. 23, 99 Designated by the Zionist Executive to that same position, Theodor Loewenstein-Lavi used it as a platform for Jewish nationalism. This again infuriated Zissu, who argued that the Executive was acting immorally.Wexler & Popov, pp. 107, 108 In September 1942, Lavi's appointment was also reviewed by Richter, who was enraged by Lavi's history as an anti-Nazi; he was dismissed, and the Zionist Executive was outlawed.Mitricioaei, pp. 381–382, 387–388. See also Benvenisti, p. 41 In the aftermath of the incident, Zionist leader Mișu Benvenisti was advised by Streitman to embark for British Palestine, and thus save himself from Richter's vengeance.Benvenisti, p. 42 Streitman himself only served in the CE between February and December 30, 1942, being succeeded by Gingold."Informațiuni", in Curentul, Decembe 30, 1942, p. 3. See also Cazacu, p. 57 Scholar Yehuda Bauer notes that Streitman had ultimately resigned after witnessing Gingold's attempts to "abolish the autonomy of the communities", an additional sign that Gingold's policies were habitually "disobeyed and undercut."Yehuda Bauer, American Jewry and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1939–1945, p. 343. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989. The new CE executive subsequently put Streitman and Brucăr, alongside banker Aristide Blank, on a list of Jewish hostages; according to Brucăr, this list showed Gingold's priorities: "he was not there to protect the Jews, but to persecute and remove them".Gligor, pp. 100–101 Streitman's supervision was assigned to the 31st Police Precinct, which still recorded his address as Calea Plevnei 72.H. D., "Elocvența documentelor — Aprilie 1943. Ostaticii din București", in Buletinul Centrului, Muzeului și Arhivei Istorice a Evreilor din România, Issue 11, 2005, p. 52 ===Postwar obscurity and death=== Streitman's last years brought his return to activism, this time as a Revisionist Zionist, working for a massive Jewish resettlement in Palestine. King Michael's Coup of 1944 toppled Antonescu and brought Romania into the Allied Camp. Rosenkranz, though still criticized by his peers for his past as a "slave-driver", returned to politics in early 1945, when he became general secretary of the legalized UER.I. Herzig, "Monumente. Dadu Rosenkranz", in Tineretul Nou/Hanoar Hazioni, Vol. II, Issues 15–16, July 1945, p. 8 He later moved to the left, joining the Jewish Democratic Committee,Wexler & Popov, pp. 135, 718 which also accepted Loewenstein- Lavi.Caloianu, pp. 407–408 In March 1945, public prosecutor Mihail Mayo interrogated Șafran and Streitman regarding their history with the CE."Activitatea acuzatorilor publici", in Universul, March 8, 1945, p. 3 Streitman was also placed under investigation by a "purification committee" assigned to the Federation of the Jewish Communities in Romania (FCER)."Epurația la Federația Uniunilor de Comunități Evreești", in Scînteia, April 8, 1945, p. 5 A year later, his colleagues at the CE leadership were brought in front of the Romanian People's Tribunals, whereupon Gingold and Vasile Isăceanu were given life sentences.Lucian Nastasă, "Sfârșit de istorie. Evreii din România (1945–1965)", in Jakab Albert Zsolt, Peti Lehel (eds.), Procese și contexte social-identitare la minoritățile din România, p. 168. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Institutului pentru Studierea Problemelor Minorităților Naționale & Editura Kriterion, 2009. . See also Cazacu, p. 58; Vágó, pp. 714–715 All other former CE leaders were stripped of their voting rights, by government order, in July 1946—ahead of the November election.Ioan Lăcustă, "În București, acum 50 de ani", in Magazin Istoric, July 1996, p. 58 Streitman survived the 1947 establishment of a communist regime, which, although anti- Zionist, preferred to ignore him and his political stances. Communist censorship intervened retroactively against Mi se pare că.., copies of which were placed under restricted use."Anexe", in Ionuț Costea, István Kiraly, Doru Radoslav (eds.), Fond Secret. Fond S "Special". Contribuții la istoria fondurilor secrete de bibliotecă din România. Studiu de caz. Librăria Centrală Universitară "Lucian Blaga" Cluj-Napoca, p. 242. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia, 1995. Max-Radu was allowed to perform as a pianist, and, by mid 1947, was managing a "Tudor Vladimirescu people's atheneum" in Bucharest."Șezătoarea Ateneului popular Tudor Vladimirescu", in Adevărul, September 17, 1947, p. 2 In May 1948, he was performing at a similar institution, named after communist leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej."Șezătoarea Ateneului popular Gh. Gheorghiu- Dej", in Universul, May 9, 1948, p. 2 Writer Enric Furtună noted in 1951 that he knew "nothing about Henric, not even if he's still alive", and asked if he may have made his way to Israel.Mihaela Gligor, Enric Furtună, Henry Marcus, Corespondența Enric Furtună – Henry Marcus, p. 50. Cluj-Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeană, 2020. While some files kept by the FCER report that Streitman died in Israel in 1949, Rachel and Max-Radu published a notice of Henric's death in Adevărul on March 31, 1950, which was a day after his burial at the Jewish Cemetery on Giurgiului Highway, Bucharest. They asked the public not to follow up with sympathy visits. Shortly before, the regime had clamped down on Zionist activity. It imprisoned Loewenstein-Lavi, who emigrated to Israel in 1957;Caloianu, p. 408; Mitricioaei, p. 382 after acting as a public defender of the Zionists, Rosenkranz also left the country in 1961. Streitman appears as a background character in Alexandru Voitin's historical play Adio, majestate!, fragments of which were first published in December 1967.Alexandru Voitin, "Adio, majestate!. Tabloul 2", in Scânteia Tineretului, December 23, 1967, p. 3 Carandino's moral and intellectual portrait of his deceased colleague, published as part of his 1979 book De la o zi la alta, calls Streitman "not a reactionary, but a conservative [who] preferred the peacefulness of bourgeois life over any revolution, as long as the revolution was not [just] spiritual." He rates Streitman as one of the "sharpest journalists of that era".Carandino, p. 191 Also in 1979, another journalist- turned-memoirist, A. P. Samson, briefly covered Streitman's transition from socialist to "far-right Jew", noting that he was "never one to display a firmness of conviction". Samson noted that Streitman was also a "remarkable writer", whose style evoked François Rabelais. Streitman's literary contribution remained largely ignored, including after the Romanian Revolution of 1989. Writing in 2015, Șerban noted: "An absurd silence covers [Streitman's] journalistic activity, which is undeniably valuable. Somebody ought to take the initiative of bringing him back into contemporary life, at the very least with a basic selection from the hundreds of texts he left us in those newspapers he wrote for over several decades." A modern UZP appeared in 1990, and claimed legal succession from the interwar equivalent, with Streitman as is founding president. This narrative was disputed in 2016 by Marian Petcu, who traces its lineage only to a syndicate established in 1955 for the communist press; in discussing the issue, Petcu notes that the earliest UZP was itself generally unprofessional, describing Streitman as "in turn a socialist, a liberal, a (nationalist) populist and a fascist, who traversed two religions and many an ideology, four sciences, five universities, [...] but who, in 1919, was invested with the attributes of maximal professionalism in homegrown journalism." ==Notes== ==References== Category:1873 births Category:1950 deaths Category:20th-century essayists Category:Romanian essayists Category:Male essayists Category:Romanian opinion journalists Category:Romanian propagandists Category:Jewish writers Category:Contimporanul writers Category:Romanian book publishers (people) Category:Romanian magazine editors Category:Romanian magazine founders Category:Romanian newspaper founders Category:Romanian newspaper editors Category:Adevărul editors Category:Romanian translators Category:20th-century translators Category:French–Romanian translators Category:German–Romanian translators Category:Romanian Marxists Category:Jewish socialists Category:Romanian anti-communists Category:Romanian trade unionists Category:People's Party (interwar Romania) politicians Category:National Agrarian Party politicians Category:Jewish Romanian politicians Category:Romanian Zionists Category:Revisionist Zionists Category:Members of the Senate of Romania Category:Romanian civil servants Category:Romanian diplomats Category:Officers of the Order of the Star of Romania Category:Commanders of the Order of St. Sava Category:Knights of the Order of Polonia Restituta Category:Commanders of the Order of the White Lion Category:Romanian collaborators with Nazi Germany Category:Jewish collaborators with Nazi Germany Category:The Holocaust in Romania Category:People from Piatra Neamț Category:Romanian Jews Category:Moldavian Jews Category:Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Judaism Category:Members of the Romanian Orthodox Church Category:Jewish agnostics Category:Romanian agnostics Category:Naturalised citizens of Romania Category:Romanian expatriates in Germany Category:Humboldt University of Berlin alumni Category:University of Göttingen alumni Category:University of Stuttgart alumni Category:University of Zurich alumni Category:Romanian physical chemists Category:Romanian people of World War I Category:Romanian prisoners of war Category:Romanian people taken hostage Category:World War I civilian prisoners Category:World War I prisoners of war held by Germany Category:World War I prisoners of war held by Bulgaria |
"Natural kind" is an intellectual grouping, or categorizing of things, in a manner that is reflective of the actual world and not just human interests. Some treat it as a classification identifying some structure of truth and reality that exists whether or not humans recognize it. Others treat it as intrinsically useful to the human mind, but not necessarily reflective of something more objective. Candidates examples of natural kinds are found in all the sciences, but the field of chemistry provides the paradigm example of elements. John Dewey held a view that belief in unconditional natural kinds is a mistake, a relic of obsolete scientific practices. W. V. O. Quine and Hilary Kornblith held the view that natural kinds are the unchanging structure of truth and reality. Hilary Putnam rejects descriptivist approaches to natural kinds with semantic reasoning. Hasok Chang and Rasmus Winther hold the emerging view that natural kinds are useful and evolving scientific facts. ==John Dewey== In 1938, John Dewey published Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. He there explained how modern scientists create kinds through induction and deduction, and why they have no use for natural kinds. :The philosophical issue is how humans can dependably predict that unobserved examples of a kind will have the same traits as a few observed examples. The traditional answer grew out of Aristotle's assertion that humans describe things they know in two kinds of propositions. Existential kinds—known by observing traits—are stated in "generic" propositions. Conceptual kinds—known by intuitive recognition of groups of traits—are stated in "universal" propositions. Dewey argued that modern scientists do not follow Aristotle in treating inductive and deductive propositions as facts already known about nature's stable structure. Today, scientific propositions are intermediate steps in inquiry, hypotheses about processes displaying stable patterns. Aristotle's generic and universal propositions have become conceptual tools of inquiry warranted by inductive inclusion and exclusion of traits. They are provisional means rather than results of inquiry revealing the structure of reality. : Propositions as such are ... provisional, intermediate and instrumental. Since their subject- matter concerns two kinds of means, material and procedural, they are of two main categories: (1) Existential [generic means, known by induction], referring directly to actual conditions, as determined by experimental observation, and (2) ideational or conceptual [universal means, known by deduction], consisting of interrelated meanings, which are non-existential in content ... but which are applicable to existence through the operations they represent as possibilities. Modern induction starts with a question to be answered or a problem to be solved. It identifies problematic subject-matter and seeks potentially relevant traits and conditions. Generic existential data thus identified are reformulated—stated abstractly as if-then universal relations capable of serving as answers or solutions: If H_2 O, then water. For Dewey, induction creates warranted kinds by observing constant conjunction of relevant traits. : No grounded generic propositions can be formed save as they are the products of the performance of operations indicated as possible by universal propositions. The problem of inference is, accordingly, to discriminate and conjoin those qualities [kinds] of existential material that serve as distinguishing traits (inclusively and exclusively) of a determinate kind. Dewey used the example of "morning dew" to describe these abstract steps creating scientific kinds. From antiquity, the common-sense belief had been that all dew is a kind of rain, meaning dew drops fall. By the early 1800s the curious absence of rain before dew and the growth of understanding led scientists to examine new traits. Functional processes changing bodies [kinds] from solid to liquid to gas at different temperatures, and operational constants of conduction and radiation, led to new inductive hypotheses "directly suggested by this subject-matter, not by any data [kinds] previously observable. ... There were certain [existential] conditions postulated in the content of the new [non-existential] conception about dew, and it had to be determined whether these conditions were satisfied in the observable facts of the case." After demonstrating that dew could be formed by these generic existential phenomena, and not by other phenomena, the universal hypothesis arose that dew forms following established laws of temperature and pressure. "The outstanding conclusion is that inductive procedures are those which prepare existential material so that it has convincing evidential weight with respect to an inferred generalization. Existential data are not pre-known natural kinds, but become conceptual statements of "natural" processes. : Objects and qualities [kinds] as they naturally present themselves or as they are "given," are not only not the data of science but constitute the most direct and important obstacles to formation of those ideas and hypotheses that are genuinely relevant and effective. : We are brought to the conclusion that it is modes of active response which are the ground of generality of logical form, not the existential immediate qualities of that which is responded to. Dewey concluded that nature is not a collection of natural kinds, but rather of reliable processes discoverable by competent induction and deduction. He replaced the ambiguous label "natural kind" by "warranted assertion" to emphasize the conditional nature of all human knowings. Assuming kinds to be given unconditional knowings leads to the error of assuming that conceptual universal propositions can serve as evidence for generic propositions; observed consequences affirm unobservable imagined causes. "For an 'inference' that is not grounded in the evidential nature of the material from which it is drawn is not an inference. It is a more or less wild guess." Modern induction is not a guess about natural kinds, but a means to create instrumental understanding. ==Willard Van Orman Quine== In 1969, Willard Van Orman Quine brought the term "natural kind" into contemporary analytic philosophy with an essay bearing that title. His opening paragraph laid out his approach in three parts. First, it questioned the logical and scientific legitimacy of reasoning inductively by counting a few examples posting traits imputed to all members of a kind: "What tends to confirm an induction?" For Quine, induction reveals warranted kinds by repeated observation of visible similarities. Second, it assumed that color can be a characteristic trait of natural kinds, despite some logical puzzles: hypothetical colored kinds such as non-black non-ravens and green-blue emeralds. Finally, it suggested that human psychological structure can explain the illogical success of induction: "an innate flair that we have for natural kinds. He started with the logical hypothesis that, if all ravens are black—an observable natural kind—then non- black non-ravens are equally a natural kind: "... each [observed] black raven tends to confirm the law [universal proposition] that all ravens are black ..." Observing shared generic traits warrants the inductive universal prediction that future experience will confirm the sharing: "And every reasonable [universal] expectation depends on resemblance of [generic] circumstances, together with our tendency to expect similar causes to have similar effects." "The notion of a kind and the notion of similarity or resemblance seem to be variants or adaptations of a single [universal] notion. Similarity is immediately definable in terms of kind; for things are similar when they are two of a kind." Quine posited an intuitive human capacity to recognize criteria for judging degrees of similarity among objects, an "innate flair for natural kinds.” These criteria work instrumentally when applied inductively: "... why does our innate subjective spacing [classification] of [existential] qualities accord so well with the functionally relevant [universal] groupings in nature as to make our inductions tend to come out right?" He admitted that generalizing after observing a few similarities is scientifically and logically unjustified. The numbers and degrees of similarities and differences humans experience are infinite. But the method is justified by its instrumental success in revealing natural kinds. The "problem of induction" is how humans "should stand better than random or coin-tossing chances of coming out right when we predict by inductions which are based on our innate, scientifically unjustified similarity standards." : A standard of similarity is in some sense innate. This point is not against empiricism; it is a commonplace of behavioral psychology. A response to a red circle, if it is rewarded, will be elicited by a pink eclipse more readily than by a blue triangle; the red circle resembles the pink ellipse more than the blue triangle. Without some such prior spacing of qualities, we could never acquire a [classification] habit; all stimuli would be equally alike and equally different. Quine credited human ability to recognize colors as natural kinds to the evolutionary function of color in human survival—distinguishing safe from poisonous kinds of food. He recognized that modern science often judges color similarities to be superficial, but denied that equating existential similarities with abstract universal similarities makes natural kinds any less permanent and important. The human brain's capacity to recognize abstract kinds joins the brain's capacity to recognize existential similarities. : Credit is due to man's inveterate ingenuity, or human sapience, for having worked around the blinding dazzle of color vision and found the more significant regularities elsewhere. Evidently natural selection has dealt with the conflict [between visible and invisible similarities] by endowing man doubly: with both a color-slanted quality space and the ingenuity to rise above it. He has risen above it by developing modified systems of kinds, hence modified similarity standards for scientific purposes. By the [inductive] trial-and-error process of theorizing he has regrouped things into new kinds which prove to lend themselves to many inductions better than the old. : A man's judgments of similarity do and should depend on his theory [universal propositions], on his beliefs; but similarity itself, what the man's judgments purport to be judgments of, [is] an objective relation in the world. It belongs in the [generic] subject matter not of our [universal] theory ... about the world, but of our [universal] theory of the [generic] world itself. Such would be the acceptable and reputable sort of similarity concept, if it could be defined. Quine argued that the success of innate and learned criteria for classifying kinds on the basis of similarities observed in small samples of kinds, constitutes evidence of the existence of natural kinds; observed consequences affirm imagined causes. His reasoning continues to provoke philosophical debates. == Hilary Putnam == In 1975, Hilary Putnam rejected descriptivist ideas about natural kind by elaborating on semantic concepts in language.Hilary Putnam (1975/1985): "The meaning of 'meaning'" . In: Philosophical Papers. Vol. 2: Mind, Language and Reality. Cambridge University Press. Putnam explains his rejection of descriptivist and traditionalist approaches to natural kinds with semantic reasoning, and insists that natural kinds can not be thought of via descriptive processes or creating endless lists of properties. In Putnam's Twin Earth thought experiment, one is asked to consider the extension of "water" when confronted with an alternate version of "water" on an imagined "Twin Earth." This "water" is composed of chemical XYZ, as opposed to H2O. However, in all other describable aspects, it is the same as Earth’s "water." Putnam argues that the mere descriptions of an object, such as "water," is insufficient in defining natural kind. There are underlying aspects, such as chemical composition, that may go unaccounted for unless experts are consulted. This information provided by experts is what Putnam argues will ultimately define natural kinds. Putnam calls the essential information used to define natural kind "core facts." This discussion arises in part in response to what he refers to as "Quine’s pessimism" of theory of meaning. Putnam claims that a natural kind can be referred to via its associated stereotype. This stereotype must be a normal member of the category, and is itself defined by core facts as determined by experts,. By conveying these core facts, the essential and appropriate use of natural kind terms can be conveyed. The process of conveying core facts to communicate the essence and appropriate term of a natural kind term is shown in Putnams example of describing a lemon and a tiger. With a lemon, it is possible to communicate the stimulus-meaning of what a lemon is by simply showing someone a lemon. In the case of a tiger, on the other hand, it is considerably more complicated to show someone a tiger, but a speaker can just as readily explain what a tiger is by communicating its core facts. By conveying the core facts of a tiger (e.g. big cat, four legs, orange, black stripes, etc.), the listener can, in theory, go on to use the word "tiger" correctly and refer to its extension accurately. ==Hilary Kornblith== In 1993, Hilary Kornblith published a review of debates about natural kinds since Quine had launched that epistemological project a quarter-century earlier. He evaluated Quine's "picture of natural knowledge" as natural kinds, along with subsequent refinements. He found still acceptable Quine's original assumption that discovering knowledge of mind-independent reality depends on inductive generalisations based on limited observations, despite its being illogical. Equally acceptable was Quine's further assumption that instrumental success of inductive reasoning confirms both the existence of natural kinds and the legitimacy of the method. : I argue that natural kinds make inductive knowledge of the world possible because the clustering of properties characteristic of natural kinds makes inferences from the presence of some of these properties to the presence of others reliable. Were it not for the existence of natural kinds and the causal structure they require, any attempt to infer the existence of some properties from the presence of others would be no more than quixotic; reliable inductive inference would be impossible. The [generic] causal structure of the world as exhibited in [universal] natural kinds thus provides the natural ground of inductive inference. Quine's assumption of an innate human psychological process—"standard of similarity," "subjective spacing of qualities"—also remained unquestioned. Kornbluth strengthened this assumption with new labels for the necessary cognitive qualities: "native processes of belief acquisition," "the structure of human conceptual representation," "native inferential processes," "reasonably accurate detectors of covariation." "To my mind, the primary case to be made for the view that our [universal] psychological processes dovetail with the [generic] causal structure of the world comes ... from the success of science. Kornblith denied that this logic makes human classifications the same as mind-independent classifications: "The categories of modern science, of course, are not innate." But he offered no explanation of how kinds that work conditionally can be distinguished from mind-independent unchanging kinds. . : If the scientific categories of mature sciences did not correspond, at least approximately, to real kinds in nature, but instead merely grouped objects together on the basis of salient observable properties which somehow answer to our interests, it would be utterly miraculous that inductions using these scientific categories tend to issue in accurate predictions. Inductive inference can only work ... if there is something in nature binding together the [generic] properties which we use to identify kinds. ... Unobservables [universal propositions] are then postulated to explain the constant conjunction of observable properties. : We approach the world by presupposing that it contains natural kinds. Our inferences depend on this presupposition,... This presupposition thus gives us a built-in advantage in understanding what the world is like, and thereby makes inductive understanding of the world a real possibility. : When a population [kind] is uniform with respect to some [generic] property, [inductive] inferences from small samples, and indeed, from a single case, are perfectly reliable. If I note that a [generic] sample of [universal] copper conducts electricity and straightaway conclude that all copper conducts electricity, then I will do just as well as someone ... checking a very large number of copper samples for their conductivity. Kornblith didn't explain how tedious modern induction accurately generalizes from a few generic traits to all of some universal kind. He attributed such success to individual sensitivity that a single case is representative of all of a kind. : If we are sensitive to the situations in which a population is uniform with respect to some property, then making inferences on the basis of very small samples will be a reliable and efficient way to gain information about a population [natural kind].". He argued that even human infants are intuitively sensitive to natural classifications. : "From the beginning, children assume that the natural world is divided into kinds on the basis of underlying features which are responsible for their superficial similarities, and that these similarities are an uncertain guide to that real underlying structure." Accepting intuition as a legitimate ground for inductive inferences from small samples, Kornblith criticized popular arguments by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman that intuition is irrational. He continued to argue that traditional induction explains the success of modern science. : Our [universal] conceptual and inferential tendencies jointly conspire, at least roughly, to carve nature at its [generic] joints and project the features of a kind which are essential to it. This preestablished harmony between the [generic] causal structure of the world and the [universal] conceptual and inferential structure of our minds produces reliable inductive inference. ==Hasok Chang and Rasmus Winther== Hasok Chang and Rasmus Winther contributed essays to a collection entitled Natural Kinds and Classification in Scientific Practice, published in 2016. The editor of the collection, Catherine Kendig, argued for a modern meaning of natural kinds, rejecting Aristotelian classifications of objects according to their "essences, laws, sameness relations, fundamental properties ... and how these map out the ontological space of the world." She thus dropped the traditional supposition that natural kinds exist permanently and independently of human reasoning. She collected original works examining results of discipline-specific classifications of kinds: "the empirical use of natural kinds and what I dub 'activities of natural kinding' and 'natural kinding practices'." Her natural kinds include scientific disciplines themselves, each with its own methods of inquiry and classifications or taxonomies.. Chang's contribution displayed Kendig's "natural kinding activities" or "practice turn" by reporting classifications in the mature discipline of chemistry—a field renowned for examples of timeless natural kinds: "All water is H2O;" "All gold has atomic number 79." He explicitly rejected Quine's basic assumption that natural kinds are real generic objects. "When I speak of a (natural) kind in this chapter, I am referring to a [universal] classificatory concept, rather than a collection of objects." His kinds result from humanity's continuous knowledge-seeking activities called science and philosophy. "Putting these notions more unambiguously in terms of concepts rather than objects, I maintain: if we hit upon some stable and effective classificatory concepts in our inquiry, we should cherish them (calling them 'natural kinds' would be one clear way of doing so), but without presuming that we have thereby found some eternal essences. He also rejected the position taken by Bird and Tobin in our third quote above. "Alexander Bird and Emma Tobin’s succinct characterization of natural kinds is helpful here, as a foil: ‘to say that a kind is natural is to say that it corresponds to a grouping or ordering that does not depend on humans’. My view is precisely the opposite, to the extent that scientific inquiry does depend on humans." For Chang, induction creates conditionally warranted kinds by "epistemic iteration"—refining classifications developmentally to reveal how constant conjunctions of relevant traits work: "fundamental classificatory concepts become refined and corrected through our practical scientific engagement with nature. Any considerable and lasting [instrumental] success of such engagement generates confidence in the classificatory concepts used in it, and invites us to consider them as 'natural'." Among other examples, Chang reported the inductive iterative process by which chemists gradually redefined the kind "element." The original hypothesis was that anything that cannot be decomposed by fire or acids is an element. Learning that some chemical reactions are reversible led to the discovery of weight as a constant through reactions. And then it was discovered that some reactions involve definite and invariable weight ratios, refining understanding of constant traits. "Attempts to establish and explain the combining-weight regularities led to the development of the chemical atomic theory by John Dalton and others. ... Chemical elements were later redefined in terms of atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus)." Chang claimed his examples of classification practices in chemistry confirmed the fallacy of the traditional assumption that natural kinds exist as mind-independent reality. He attributed this belief more to imagining supernatural intervention in the world, than to illogical induction. He did not consider the popular belief that innate psychological capacities enable traditional induction to work. "Much natural-kind talk has been driven by an intuitive metaphysical essentialism that concerns itself with an objective [generic] order of nature whose [universal] knowledge could, ironically, only be obtained by a supernatural being. Let us renounce such an unnatural notion of natural kinds. Instead, natural kinds should be conceived as something we humans may succeed in inventing and improving through scientific practice." Rasmus Winther's Contribution to Natural Kinds and Classification in Scientific Practice gave new meaning to natural objects and qualities in the nascent discipline of Geographic Information Science (GIS). This "inter-discipline" engages in discovering patterns in—and displaying spatial kinds of—data, using methods that make its results unique natural kinds. But it still creates kinds using induction to identify instrumental traits. "Collecting and collating geographical data, building geographical data-bases, and engaging in spatial analysis, visualization, and map-making all require organizing, typologizing, and classifying geographic space, objects, relations, and processes. I focus on the use of natural kinds ..., showing how practices of making and using kinds are contextual, fallible, plural, and purposive. The rich family of kinds involved in these activities are here baptized mapping kinds." He later identified sub-kinds of mapping kinds as "calibrating kinds," "feature kinds," and "object kinds" of "data model types." Winther identified "inferential processes of abstraction and generalization" as methods used by GIS, and explained how they generate digital maps. He illustrated two kinds of inquiry procedures, with sub-procedures to organize data. They are reminiscent of Dewey's multiple steps in modern inductive and deductive inference. Methods for transforming generic phenomena into kinds involve reducing complexity, amplifying, joining, and separating. Methods for selecting among generic kinds involves elimination, classification, and collapse of data. He argued that these methods for mapping kinds can be practiced in other disciplines, and briefly considered how they might harmonize three conflicting philosophical perspectives on natural kinds. Some philosophers believe there can be a "pluralism" of kinds and classifications. They prefer to speak of "relevant" and "interesting" kinds rather than eternal "natural" kinds. They may be called social constructivists whose kinds are human products. Chang's conclusions that natural kinds are human-created and instrumentally useful would appear to put him in this group. Other philosophers, including Quine, examine the role of kinds in scientific inference. Winther does not examine Quine's commitment to traditional induction generalizing from small samples of similar objects. But he does accept Quine's willingness to call human-identified kinds that work natural. "Quine holds that kinds are "functionally relevant groupings in nature" whose recognition permits our inductions to "tend to come out right." That is, kinds ground fallible inductive inferences and predictions, so essential to scientific projects including those of GIS and cartography." Finally, Winther identified a philosophical perspective seeking to reconstruct rather than reject belief in natural kinds. He placed Dewey in this group, ignoring Dewey's rejection of the traditional label in favor of "warranted assertions." "Dewey resisted the standard view of natural kinds, inherited from the Greeks ... Instead, Dewey presents an analysis of kinds (and classes and universals) as fallible and context-specific hypotheses permitting us to address problematic situations effectively." Winther concludes that classification practices used in Geographic Information Science are able to harmonize these conflicting philosophical perspectives on natural kinds. "GIS and cartography suggest that kinds are simultaneously discovered [as pre-existing structures] and constructed [as human classifications]. Geographic features, processes, and objects are of course real. Yet we must structure them in our data models and, subsequently, select and transform them in our maps. Realism and (social) constructivism are hence not exclusive in this field." == See also == * Fact–value distinction * Inductive reasoning * New riddle of induction * Instrumentalism * Instrumental and value rationality * Social constructivism == References == === Footnotes === === Sources === * Andreasen, Robin O. 2005. The Meaning of 'Race': Folk Conceptions and the New Biology of Race. Journal of Philosophy 102(2): 94–106. * Dupré, John. 2001. In Defence of Classification. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 32(2): 203–219. * Gadamer, Hans-Georg. "Truth and Method". Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004. , 9780826476975. * Hacking, Ian. 1990. Natural Kinds. in Robert B. Barrett and Roger Gibson, F., editors. Perspectives on Quine. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell. * Hacking, Ian. 1991. "A Tradition of Natural Kinds", Philosophical Studies, Vol. 61, No.1/2, (February 1991), pp. 109–126. * Kendig, Catherine (ed.), Natural Kinds and Classification in Scientific Practice, Routledge, (Abingdon), 2016. . * Putnam, Hilary. 1975. The Meaning of 'Meaning'. in Keith Gunderson, editor. Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. VII. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * Reprinted in: Quine (1969), Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, Ch. 5, Columbia Univ. Press. * Sokal, Robert R. 1974. Classification: Purposes, Principles, Progress, Prospects. Science 185(4157): 1115–1123. == External links == * Natural Kinds, by Alexander Bird and Emma Tobin, in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy * Project Cosmology Modern effort to produce a comprehensive list of major categories for natural kinds Category:Logic Category:Philosophy of science Category:Semantics Category:Ontology |
Daria Sergeyevna Kasatkina (born 7 May 1997) is a Russian professional tennis player. She is currently the Russian No. 1 player in singles. She made her top-ten debut in the WTA rankings towards the end of the 2018 season and has been ranked as high as world No. 8 achieved on 24 October 2022. Kasatkina has won six WTA Tour titles in singles as well as one title in doubles. Born to athletic parents who were nationally ranked in athletics and ice hockey, Kasatkina began playing tennis at age six at the insistence of her older brother. She excelled as a junior, winning the European 16s championship and one junior Grand Slam singles title at the 2014 French Open. Kasatkina quickly ascended up the professional rankings, reaching No. 32 in the world while still 18 years old and winning her first WTA title in 2017 as a teenager at the Charleston Open. She rose to prominence in 2018 by finishing runner-up to fellow up-and-coming player Naomi Osaka at the Premier Mandatory Indian Wells Open in a match regarded as representing a new wave of women's tennis. Kasatkina also has won the biggest titles of her career at the Kremlin Cup and at the St. Petersburg Trophy at home in Russia. Following three successful seasons on the WTA Tour, Kasatkina struggled in 2019, falling into the bottom half of the top 100. However, she had a resurgent 2021, claiming two titles to return to the top 30, and two titles in 2022, allowing her to return to the top 10. ==Early life and background== Daria was born in Tolyatti, Samara Oblast to Tatyana Borisovna (née Timkovskaya) and Sergey Igorevich Kasatkin. Tolyatti is an industrial city located about southeast of Moscow. Her father works as an engineer at the Volga Automotive Plant and her mother was a lawyer. Both of her parents were nationally ranked athletes in Russia (officially known as Candidates for Master of Sports); her mother in athletics, and her father in ice hockey. Kasatkina also has an older brother named Alexandr. Her brother had played tennis casually, and convinced her parents to have her also begin playing the sport when she was six years old. She initially played two to three times a week for two years. In time she began competing in higher level tournaments. ==Junior career== left|thumb|Kasatkina at the 2013 US Open As a junior, Kasatkina was ranked as high as 3 in the world. She began competing on the ITF Junior Circuit shortly after turning 14 years old and won her first title at just her second career event, the low-level Grade 4 Samara Cup. In early 2012 while still 14, Kasatkina won two higher-level Grade 2 tournaments in Moldova and France, the former of which was the first Grade 2 event she entered. Towards the end of the year, she helped Russia reach the final of the Junior Fed Cup alongside Elizaveta Kulichkova and Alina Silich, where they finished runners-up to the United States. Kasatkina began excelling at the highest level junior tournaments in 2013. She reached her first Grade-1 final in doubles in January, which she followed up with her first Grade-1 final in singles in April. After failing to win a match at her only two Grade A events the previous year, Kasatkina finished runner-up to Belinda Bencic at the Trofeo Bonfiglio in May. She then won her first junior Grand Slam matches the following month, reaching the quarterfinals at the French Open. Following this event, she did not play another tournament until late August, when she won her first Grade-1 title at the International Hard Court Championship in the United States. Kasatkina's last event of the year was the Junior Fed Cup, where she played the No. 1 singles matches. With Veronika Kudermetova and Aleksandra Pospelova, the top-seeded Russian team won the tournament, defeating Australia in the final. Kasatkina had her best year on the junior tour in 2014, despite competing in just five tournaments. She reached both the singles and doubles finals at the Grade 1 Trofeo Mauro Sabatini, and won the title in singles. At the last ITF tournament of her career, Kasatkina won her first and only junior Grand Slam title in the girls' singles event at the French Open. As the No. 8 seed, she defeated top seed Ivana Jorović in the final, coming back from a set down. She was the first Russian girl to win the event since Nadia Petrova in 1998 and helped Russia sweep both junior singles events, with fellow European 16s champion Andrey Rublev winning the boys' singles title. In August, Kasatkina also participated in the Youth Olympic Games in Nanjing. She earned a silver medal in doubles alongside compatriot Anastasiya Komardina. They finished runners-up to Ukrainian Anhelina Kalinina and Belarusian Iryna Shymanovich. ==Professional career== ===2013–15: WTA doubles title=== Kasatkina began her professional career as a wildcard qualifying entrant at the 2013 Kremlin Cup, where she lost her only match. She made her professional main-draw debut on the ITF Circuit in November, and then won her first career title at a low-level $10K event in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt a few months later. She also won a $25K title in Telavi, Georgia the following September. Kasatkina again received a wildcard into the 2014 Kremlin Cup, this time for the main draw. She lost her WTA Tour debut to Alison Riske. Kasatkina began 2015 ranked No. 354, but steadily climbed to No. 161 at the end of June on the strength of four $25K titles. She then recorded her first WTA Tour match-win in July, against Aleksandra Krunić at the Gastein Ladies, en route to the quarterfinals. With her rankings improvement, Kasatkina was able to enter qualifying at a Grand Slam event for the first time at the US Open. Although she lost in the last round, she reached the main draw as a lucky loser and made it to the third round, upsetting compatriot and world No. 38, Daria Gavrilova, as well as No. 79, Ana Konjuh. Before the end of the year, Kasatkina won her biggest titles to date in both singles and doubles. In September, she won the L'Open de Saint-Malo $50K singles event. In October, she won the doubles event at the Kremlin Cup with Elena Vesnina for her first WTA title. She also reached semifinals in singles as a qualifier, her best singles result on the WTA Tour at the time. During the event, she defeated world No. 14, Carla Suárez Navarro, in the quarterfinals for the biggest win of her career. She finished the year ranked No. 72. ===2016: First top ten victory, top 25=== thumb|Kasatkina at the 2016 Wimbledon Championships During the 2016 season, Kasatkina continued to rise in the WTA rankings, reaching No. 32 in the world while still 18 years old and as high as No. 24 later in the year. She began the year at the Auckland Open, where she recorded her first career top ten victory against world No. 7, Venus Williams. Kasatkina then made her Australian Open debut and reached the third round. She defeated No. 27, Anna Karolína Schmiedlová, in the first round before losing to world No. 1, Serena Williams. At her next tournament, she returned to Russia for the St. Petersburg Trophy and reached the semifinals, losing to Belinda Bencic. At the Indian Wells Open, Kasatkina then made it to the quarterfinals at her first Premier Mandatory event. She also produced one good result in doubles, a semifinals appearance at the Qatar Open with Elena Vesnina. The Russian duo notably defeated Martina Hingis and Sania Mirza to end their 41-match-win streak, the longest streak on the WTA Tour since 1990. In the middle of the season, Kasatkina again reached the third round at two more Grand Slam events, the French Open and Wimbledon. At both tournaments, she lost tight matches that each ended 10–8 in the third set, the former against Kiki Bertens and the latter against No. 8, Venus Williams. She had two chances to serve out the match against Bertens. Kasatkina continued her success at big tournaments at the Premier 5 Canadian Open, where she reached the quarterfinals. She defeated world No. 8, Roberta Vinci, in the third round for her second career top ten victory. Her next tournament was at the Rio Olympics. She qualified for the singles draw through her ranking, and also entered the doubles tournament with Svetlana Kuznetsova, after Margarita Gasparyan withdrew due to injury. Kasatkina reached the quarterfinals at both events, falling just short of the medal rounds. She lost to American Madison Keys in singles and the Czech team of Andrea Hlaváčková and Lucie Hradecká in doubles. At the US Open, her streak of four consecutive third round appearances at majors was ended in the opening round by Wang Qiang. Kasatkina's last big singles result of the season came at the Premier 5 Wuhan Open, where she made it to the third round. She had needed to qualify for the main draw after forgetting to sign up for the tournament. For the second consecutive year, Kasatkina reached the doubles final at the Kremlin Cup, this time with Daria Gavrilova. The pair finished runner-up to Hlaváčková and Hradecká. Kasatkina ended the season at a world ranking of No. 27. ===2017: First WTA singles title=== left|thumb|180px|Kasatkina at the 2017 Wimbledon Championships Kasatkina maintained a steady ranking throughout 2017, falling no lower than No. 42 in the world and again reaching the same season- best of No. 24 as 2016. Nonetheless, she had a slow start to the season, not winning a single match at the Australian Open or the two Premier Mandatory events in the United States, the three biggest tournaments through March. Her best results were two quarterfinals at mid-level two Premier tournaments, the Sydney International and the Qatar Open. In Sydney, she also defeated Angelique Kerber for her first career victory over a current world No. 1 player. After struggling on hard courts, Kasatkina had a better clay-court season on the strength of her first and last tournaments on the surface. At the Charleston Open, she won her first career WTA singles title shortly before turning 20 years old. She defeated fellow teenager Jeļena Ostapenko in the final in straight sets. Kasatkina closed out the clay-court season with another third-round appearance at the French Open, where she lost to eventual finalist and world No. 4, Simona Halep. Her only grass-court tournament was Wimbledon, where she made it to the second round. Towards the end of the year, Kasatkina began having more success on hardcourts. At the US Open, she made it to the fourth round of a Grand Slam event for the first time. Although she was able to defeat Ostapenko, who had won the French Open, she was upset by veteran qualifier Kaia Kanepi. Nonetheless, she built on this result in Asia, first by reaching another WTA doubles final with Gavrilova at the Pan Pacific Open. In singles at the Wuhan Open, she upset world No. 2, Halep. She also made her second career Premier Mandatory quarterfinal at the China Open, this time losing to Halep. Kasatkina closed out the year with her second best singles result of the season, a runner-up finish at her hometown Premier tournament, the Kremlin Cup. She upset fifth seed and world No. 18, Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova, in the first round, but was defeated by seventh seed Julia Görges in the final. ===2018: Kremlin Cup title, Russian No. 1, top 10=== thumb|Kasatkina at the 2018 Birmingham Classic Kasatkina continued her late season success from the previous year into 2018. After only winning one match between three tournaments in Australia, she reached the semifinals at the St. Petersburg Trophy and then the final at the Dubai Tennis Championships, two Premier tournaments. In St. Petersburg, she notably defeated world No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki. In Dubai, she saved three match points en route to defeating another top-5 player in world No. 3, Garbiñe Muguruza, before losing to the defending champion and world No. 4, Elina Svitolina. Kasatkina's breakthrough came at Indian Wells, where she reached her second final of the season. She defeated four top-15 players at that event including Wozniacki again and also No. 8, Venus Williams, in a tight three-set match. She finished runner-up to fellow 20-year-old Naomi Osaka. With this result, she climbed to No. 11 in the WTA rankings and also became the Russian No. 1, ending Kuznetsova's long run as Russia's top women's singles player. Kasatkina had strong clay- and grass-court seasons as well. She made the quarterfinals at the Charleston Open and the third round at the Premier 5 Italian Open. She also had another big result at a Premier Mandatory tournament, reaching the quarterfinals at the Madrid Open. During the event, she upset hometown favourite and world No. 3, Garbiñe Muguruza. Her best tournament on clay was the French Open, where she reached her first Grand Slam quarterfinal. She defeated No. 2, Wozniacki, for the third time in 2018 in a match that was suspended midway through due to darkness, before losing to the eventual runner-up Sloane Stephens. Another Grand Slam quarterfinal followed at Wimbledon, losing to the eventual champion and world No. 11, Angelique Kerber. Kasatkina failed to continue her Grand Slam success at the US Open, losing in the second round. In October, she returned to Russia and won the Kremlin Cup for her only title of the season. She defeated Tunisian qualifier Ons Jabeur in the final. With the title, she also made her top 10 debut. Kasatkina was initially named the second alternate for the WTA Finals. With only one withdrawal, she instead participated in the WTA Elite Trophy, where she was grouped with Madison Keys and Wang Qiang. She began the round robin with a win over Wang, but lost to Keys in a match where she had to play on a short amount of rest while Keys was playing her first match. As a result, she finished in last place in the group through the tiebreak criteria. Kasatkina finished the year ranked No. 10 in the world. ===2019: Rankings drop to No. 70=== Kasatkina could not repeat the success from any of her full seasons on the WTA Tour during 2019. After beginning the year in the top ten, her ranking dropped throughout the season down to as low as No. 70 near the end of the year. Whereas she won at least 60% of her matches in each of her three previous years, she finished 2019 with a losing record of 12–21. She parted with her longtime coach Philippe Dehaes in February, replacing him with Carlos Martinez in April. Kasatkina's results did not improve with Martinez as her coach. She did not make the semifinals at any event. Kasatkina won multiple matches at two tournaments during the year, the Premier 5 Italian Open in May and the Premier Mandatory China Open in October where she won three matches and made the quarterfinals. At the China Open, she defeated No. 14, Aryna Sabalenka and No. 38, Ekaterina Alexandrova before losing to No. 19, Caroline Wozniacki. Kasatkina's losses were generally against good competition, with only seven of her 21 losses coming against players ranked outside of the top 50. The highest-ranked opponent she defeated during the year was No. 13, Angelique Kerber, in the first round of the Canadian Open. Kasatkina remained in the top 50 until the very end of the season, when she lost the points she was defending from the previous year's WTA Elite Trophy. ===2020: Mixed results=== In 2020, Kasatkina first participated in Auckland, where she defeated Carla Suárez Navarro before falling to Amanda Anisimova in the second round. At Adelaide, she progressed through qualifying, before being defeated by Belinda Bencic in the first main-draw round. At the Australian Open, she lost to Madison Keys in the first round. At St. Petersburg, she lost in the first round to Ekaterina Alexandrova, and, at Dubai, was forced to enter qualifying. She defeated Natalia Vikhlyantseva in the first round, but lost to Kristina Mladenovic in the second qualifying round. At Doha, she entered the main draw through qualification, defeating Vikhlyantseva and Aliaksandra Sasnovich, but she lost in the first round of the main draw to Garbiñe Muguruza. She reached her first semifinal since 2018 at Lyon where, as the seventh seed, she defeated Pauline Parmentier, Irina Bara, and Camila Giorgi, before being defeated in three sets by Anna-Lena Friedsam. By virtue of her result in this tournament, Kasatkina's ranking rose to No. 66, before the suspension of the WTA Tour due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Kasatkina's first tournament after the suspension was at Palermo, where she lost in the first round to Jasmine Paolini, in a match that lasted 3 hours and 9 minutes; this match was the fourth longest on the WTA Tour in the entirety of 2020. She then qualified for the Cincinnati Open, defeating Kateryna Bondarenko and Christina McHale, before losing in the first round to Anett Kontaveit. At the US Open, she lost in the first round to Marta Kostyuk, winning just three games. She next qualified for the Italian Open, defeating Arina Rodionova and Gabriela Dabrowski, and reached the third round after defeating Vera Zvonareva and Kateřina Siniaková. She withdrew from the competition, however, as she injured herself during a first-set tiebreak against Victoria Azarenka. She recuperated in time for the French Open, where she defeated Harmony Tan in the first round, before falling to Aryna Sabalenka. Her final event of the year was at the inaugural tournament in Ostrava, where she defeated Bethanie Mattek-Sands and Marie Bouzková to qualify. She defeated Elena Rybakina in the first round, before losing to Jennifer Brady, despite leading by 5–2 in the first set, eventually losing that set 7–5. She ended the year ranked No. 72, her lowest year-end ranking since 2015. ===2021: Two singles titles=== Kasatkina started her 2021 season at the Abu Dhabi Open, where she defeated Wang Qiang in the first round in three sets. She was due to face 12th seed Karolína Muchová but the Czech withdrew, sending Kasatkina into the third round. There she lost to sixth seed Elena Rybakina, in straight sets. She then played in the Gippsland Trophy and made the third round with straight sets wins over Mihaela Buzărnescu, with the loss of just two games, and Polona Hercog. However, she lost to Estonian veteran and eventual finalist Kaia Kanepi in straight sets. At the Australian Open, she defeated Briton Katie Boulter in straight sets before losing in two tight sets to Aryna Sabalenka despite winning more points in the first set. Kasatkina bounced back from that loss emphatically at the Phillip Island Trophy, held during the second week of the Australian Open. She defeated Katie Boulter for the second time in five days and Varvara Gracheva, in straight sets, to record back to back wins for the third time in four events that season. The Russian then came from a set down to edge Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova before dominating Petra Martić to make her first WTA semifinal since Lyon in 2020. She then defeated Danielle Collins and Marie Bouzková in three sets to claim her third title and first since Moscow 2018. The win pushed Kasatkina up to No. 57 in the world. However, she crashed out in her opening round match in Dubai to Alizé Cornet. She bounced back at the St. Petersburg Ladies' Trophy, halting the winning streak of rising star Clara Tauson in the first round. Kasatkina then fought hard for a three-set win over Aliaksandra Sasnovich, who served for the match. Back-to-back comeback wins came over compatriots Veronika Kudermetova and Svetlana Kuznetsova. She then defeated wildcard Margarita Gasparyan in the final after Gasparyan was forced to retire early in the second set. This was Kasatkina's second title at home and this also made her the first two-time champion of the 2021 season, moving herself back into the top 50 for the first time since October 2019. Despite clay being her favoured surface, Kasatkina failed to reach a quarterfinal throughout the clay-court season. She was upset by Marta Kostyuk in the second round of the İstanbul Cup before falling to Sabalenka in the second round of the Mutua Madrid Open. At the French Open, Kasatkina defeated 10th seed Belinda Bencic in straight sets to make the third round for the first time since 2018. She was defeated by Sorana Cîrstea in straight sets. Seeded fourth, Kasatkina reached the final at the Birmingham Classic. This was her eighth career final, first on grass and third of 2021. Her run started with a comeback from 4–6, 0–3 against Polona Hercog in the first round, before avenging her loss against Kostyuk, ousting Tereza Martincová and CoCo Vandeweghe to reach the final. However, she lost to Ons Jabeur in straight sets. She lost in the quarterfinals of the Eastbourne International to Jeļena Ostapenko after securing her first top ten win in two years over Iga Świątek, losing just one game after dropping the opening set. Kasatkina's grass-court season ended with a second-round appearance at the Wimbledon Championships, losing to Ostapenko 6–8 in the final set. Kasatkina reached her fourth final of the year at the Silicon Valley Classic, beating former top ten player Caroline Garcia, in three sets before coming back to avoid the upset against Magda Linette in the quarterfinals. She then dominated top seed Elise Mertens without getting broken, but lost to home favourite Danielle Collins in the final. After early defeats at the National Bank Open and Western & Southern Open to Jabeur and world No. 10, Barbora Krejčíková, respectively, Kasatkina reached the third round of the US Open with wins over defending quarterfinalist Tsvetana Pironkova and Olympics silver medalist Markéta Vondroušová, but lost to fifth seed Elina Svitolina, in straight sets. Her season ended with a third-round defeat at the Indian Wells Open to Angelique Kerber, in three sets and a surprising first-round exit to Anhelina Kalinina in the first round of the Kremlin Cup. ===2022: First major semifinal, Russian No. 1, world No. 8=== Kasatkina began the year ranked No. 26. She first played the Melbourne Summer Set 2, a WTA 250 event, as the third seed; here, she reached the semifinals by defeating Anna Kalinskaya, Madison Keys, and Nuria Párrizas Díaz before losing to eventual champion Amanda Anisimova. The next week, she reached a second consecutive semifinal, this time at the Sydney International, a WTA 500 event. She defeated eighth seed Sofia Kenin, Elise Mertens, and second seed Garbiñe Muguruza, before losing to fifth seed and eventual champion Paula Badosa. Kasatkina next reached the third round of the 2022 Australian Open as the 25th seed, defeating qualifier Stefanie Vögele and Magda Linette before falling to seventh seed Iga Świątek. In the next hard court events, Kasatkina was defeated by Iga Świątek in both Dubai and Doha in the first and third rounds respectively. She lost to Angelique Kerber in Indian Wells 3rd round and to Aliaksandra Sasnovich in Miami 2nd round in receipt of first round byes. At the Italian Open, she reached her first WTA 1000 semifinal of the season and second of her career, where she was defeated by Ons Jabeur after having a match point. As a result, she returned to the top 20 in the rankings, becoming once again the No. 1 Russian player on 16 May 2022. Kasatkina entered the French Open as the 20th seed. She defeated lucky loser Rebecca Šramková, qualifier Fernanda Contreras, Shelby Rogers, and 28th seed Camila Giorgi to reach the quarterfinals, matching her best result at the tournament from 2018. She then went one step further, defeating compatriot and 29th seed Veronika Kudermetova to reach her maiden Grand Slam semifinal. She then lost in straight sets to world No. 1, Iga Świątek, for the fourth time this year. This run secured her a top 15 ranking for the first time since early 2019. Kasatkina played two tournaments on grass, Berlin and Bad Homburg; she was defeated in the quarterfinals by Maria Sakkari and Bianca Andreescu, respectively. She did not compete in the 2022 Wimbledon Championships due to the All England Club's decision to ban Russian and Belarusian players, in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. At the Silicon Valley Classic, she reached the semifinals again defeating Wimbledon champion Elena Rybakina, qualifier Taylor Townsend and world No. 6 and fourth seed Aryna Sabalenka, in three sets. She bagelled each opponent in the last set in the match. She reached back-to-back finals after defeating world No. 4 and second seed, Paula Badosa. She defeated Shelby Rogers in the final, securing a WTA 500 title and returning to the top 10 in the rankings at a new career-high of world No. 9 on 8 August 2022. She became tied for third in wins in the season with 32, behind only No. 1 Iga Świątek and Wimbledon finalist Ons Jabeur. After getting eliminated by Bianca Andreescu and Amanda Anisimova in the opening rounds of Toronto and Cincinnati respectively, Daria Kasatkina won her sixth career WTA Title in Granby. She defeated Greet Minnen, Magdalena Fręch, Nuria Párrizas Díaz, Diane Parry and Daria Saville losing just one set in route to win the title. However, she fell to Harriet Dart in the first round of US Open. Seeded 5th at the Ostrava Open, Kasatkina defeated Emma Raducanu in the first round before falling to Ekaterina Alexandrova in straight sets. Seeded 8th at the San Diego Open, she breezed past Leylah Fernandez before losing to Madison Keys in second round. In receipt of a first-round bye in Guadalajara, she was defeated in the third round by Anna Kalinskaya in three sets. This result made her eligible to make her debut at the 2022 WTA Finals. She also reached a new career-high ranking of World No. 8 on 24 October 2022. At the WTA Finals, Kasatkina lost to Świątek again in her first match. She earned her first victory of the Finals against Coco Gauff in straight sets, but she couldn't advance beyond the round robin stage as she was defeated by Caroline Garcia in a close three set match. ===2023: Two WTA 500 finals=== Kasatkina started the season at the Adelaide International 1. Seeded third, she lost in the first round to Czech qualifier Linda Nosková in three sets. In receipt of a first- round bye in Adelaide 2, she defeated Barbora Krejčíková and Petra Kvitová in straight sets, before receiving a walkover from Paula Badosa to the final. In the final, she was ultimately defeated by Belinda Bencic in straight sets. Seeded 8th at the Australian Open, Kasatkina suffered a shocking loss in the first round to Varvara Gracheva in straight sets. At the 2023 French Open she reached the fourth round where she lost to Elina Svitolina. At the 2023 Eastbourne International she reached the final defeating second seed Caroline Garcia by walkover and Camila Giorgi.https://www.wtatennis.com/news/3562420/keys-defeats-gauff-in- eastbourne-meets-kasatkina-in-final ==National representation== Having won the Junior Fed Cup in 2013, Kasatkina made her senior Fed Cup debut for Russia in 2016 in a World Group quarterfinal against the Netherlands. She won the dead rubber doubles match with Ekaterina Makarova against Cindy Burger and Arantxa Rus as Russia lost the tie. She also participated in the World Group play-offs against Belarus two months later and played three rubbers, as Makarova and Svetlana Kuznetsova both opted to skip the tie. Kasatkina won her first live rubber against Aliaksandra Sasnovich, but Russia lost all three other singles rubbers to lose the tie. Partnering with Elena Vesnina, she also won the doubles dead rubber. Nonetheless, Russia were relegated out of the World Group. In 2017, Russia played in World Group II and won their tie to advance to World Group play-offs. After Kasatkina skipped that tie, she returned for the Play-off round. However, for the second consecutive year, Russia lost in this round to Belgium to keep them in World Group II. Kasatkina won her only singles match to set up a decisive doubles rubber. Alongside Vesnina, Kasatkina lost that match to Elise Mertens and An-Sophie Mestach. Kasatkina did not participate in Fed Cup in 2018 as Russia were further relegated to the Europe/Africa zonal group. Kasatkina competed for Russia in 2019 during the zonal competitions, recording a win over Karen Barritza in straight sets in the only match she played throughout the week. Russia ultimately secured a place in the World Group II play-offs. She made her return to the team for the 2020–21 Billie Jean King Cup Finals, where she was nominated for the team as the second-ranked Russian. In the matches she was nominated for, Kasatkina beat Carol Zhao in straight sets for an overall 3–0 win in the group stage. She then beat Jil Teichmann in the final, helping Russia to secure their first title since 2008. ==Playing style== left|thumb|Kasatkina serving Kasatkina is a baseline player with a crafty style of play. She employs a variety of shots including heavy topspin forehands, one-handed slice backhands, kick serves, drop shots, and tweeners. Tennis journalist Steve Tignor compared her ability to naturally hit one-handed backhands despite typically utilizing a two-handed shot similar to that of former world No. 1 men's tennis player Andy Murray. Her former coach Phillip Dehaes described her style as "change of rhythm, change of speed, change of trajectory." She relies on outsmarting her opponents through tactics rather than hitting overpowering shots. However, she is capable of hitting powerful groundstrokes as well. Dehaes said that her key is avoid hitting the ball in her opponent's strike zone. Kasatkina's style has been praised by others including women's tennis coach Wim Fissette, who called her "the Roger Federer of women's tennis". Kasatkina's favourite surface is clay. Fellow top women's player Caroline Wozniacki has commended her clay court ability, saying, "The slower the surface is, the better for her. She has very good hands and good angles and everything." As such, she also excels at tournaments with slower hard courts, such as the Indian Wells Open. Kasatkina has had a good record on all three main surfaces on the WTA Tour, winning a clay court title at the Charleston Open, winning a hard court title at the Kremlin Cup, and reaching the quarterfinals on grass at Wimbledon. ==Coaches== When Kasatkina was eleven years old, Maxim Prasolov began coaching her. At the age of 14, she switched coaches to Damir Rishatovich Nurgaliev. Beginning in 2015, she moved to Trnava in Slovakia to train at the Empire Tennis Academy, citing her preference to train away from a large city, something that was less feasible in Russia. At the academy, she worked with former Slovak professional tennis player Vladimír Pláteník. After three years, she hired Belgian Philippe Dehaes to be her new coach in late 2017. Kasatkina had previously sought out Dehaes as a coach in late 2013 when she visited Belgium in search of funding from a foundation that was providing financial support for one of Dehaes's junior players. Dehaes has stated he has a different coaching style than Pláteník, saying, "She was working before with a coach who was really focused on the opponent and on adapting the game to the opponent. I don't watch the opponent." He added that, "I insist on leaving her a lot of freedom when she plays, but she has to create, has to make things happen, really like an artist. I compared it to an empty canvas a few days ago, and I said she can make whatever art on that canvas that she wants as long as it's beautiful." Kasatkina split with Dehaes in February 2019. She had only wanted to take a break from having a coach, but Dehaes could not accommodate being without a job. After two months without a coach, she replaced him with Carlos Martinez, former coach of fellow Russian Svetlana Kuznetsova. Kasatkina's brother Alexandr is her fitness trainer. Kasatkina and Martinez's relationship ended in February 2023, and former player Flavio Cipolla began coaching her. ==Personal life== Kasatkina's favourite tennis player is Rafael Nadal. In the women's game, she is a fan of Petra Kvitová and Maria Sharapova. She prefers to watch men's tennis over women's tennis, saying that the players are better at serving and moving around the court. Kasatkina likes to play sports in general, including football. She is a fan of FC Barcelona. Kasatkina has been sponsored by Nike, Tecnifibre and Instaforex throughout her career. Her sponsorship with Nike ended in 2021, due to a series of poor results. In August 2021, Kasatkina signed an endorsement deal with Adidas for clothing, footwear, and apparel. She switched to Artengo racquets in 2022 after trying different racquets in a blind test. In an interview with Sofya Tartakova in 2021, Kasatkina made comments that were presumed to be discussing her bisexuality. In 2022, she clarified these comments, coming out as lesbian, and stating in an interview that she is in a relationship with figure skater Natalia Zabiiako. It became public after Kasatkina and Zabiiako posted photos of each other together on Instagram. Zabiiako and Kasatkina also started a YouTube vlog about life on the tennis tour. Kasatkina said that she "found living in the closet impossible" and also speaking out against the attitudes towards the LGBTQ+ community and restrictions of rights within Russia. In that same interview, Kasatkina condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine, calling for an end to Russian aggression and showing solidarity with the Ukrainian people. As a result of her sexuality, Kasatkina is unsure of what will happen to her if she ever chooses to return to Russia to see her friends and family, but the professional tennis player added that she doesn't regret her decision. ==Career statistics== ===Grand Slam tournament performance timelines=== ====Singles==== Tournament 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 Win % Australian Open A 3R 1R 2R 1R 1R 2R 3R 1R 0 / 8 6–8 French Open A 3R 3R QF 2R 2R 3R SF 4R 0 / 8 20–8 Wimbledon A 3R 2R QF 1R NH 2R A 0 / 5 8–5 US Open 3R 1R 4R 2R 1R 1R 3R 1R 0 / 8 8–8 Win–loss 2–1 6–4 6–4 10–4 1–4 1–3 6–4 7–3 3–2 0 / 29 42–29 ====Doubles==== Tournament 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Win % Australian Open 2R 1R 1R A A 1R 1R 0 / 5 1–5 French Open 1R 2R 1R 3R A A A 0 / 4 3–4 Wimbledon 3R A A 1R NH 1R A 0 / 3 2–3 US Open 2R 3R A 2R1 A 2R A 0 / 4 5–3 Win–loss 4–4 3–3 0–2 3–2 0–0 1–3 0–1 0 / 16 11–15 Note: 1Kasatkina and Anett Kontaveit withdrew from the 2019 US Open before their second-round match, which does not officially count as a loss. ==Awards== *The Russian Cup in the nominations: **Team of the Year – Girls Under-14: 2011; **Team of the Year – Girls Under-16: 2012, 2013; **Junior of the Year: 2014; **Team of the Year: 2021. * * * * ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:1997 births Category:Living people Category:Sportspeople from Tolyatti Category:Russian female tennis players Category:French Open junior champions Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' singles Category:Tennis players at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics Category:Olympic tennis players for Russia Category:Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics Category:Lesbian sportswomen Category:Russian LGBT sportspeople Category:LGBT tennis players Category:21st-century Russian LGBT people Category:Russian activists against the Russian invasion of Ukraine |
Nanshiungosaurus (meaning "Nanxiong's lizard") is a genus of therizinosaurid that lived in what is now Asia during the Late Cretaceous of South China. The type species, Nanshiungosaurus brevispinus, was first discovered in 1974 and described in 1979 by Dong Zhiming. It is represented by a single specimen preserving most of the cervical and dorsal vertebrae with the pelvis. A supposed and unlikely second species, "Nanshiungosaurus" bohlini, was found in 1992 and described in 1997. It is also represented by vertebrae but this species however, differs in geological age and lacks authentic characteristics compared to the type, making its affinity to the genus unsupported. It was a large-sized therizinosaurid that is estimated to have cover nearly in length and to have weighed about . Nanshiungosaurus had a very pneumatized vertebral column with the posterior cervical vertebrae of the long neck being unusually robust and slightly more elongated than the dorsals. It was equipped with a broad torso as seen on the bulky pelvis. As for other therizinosaurids, it had a keratinous beak used when feeding, stocky feet with four weight-bearing toes and large flattened claws. Nanshiungosaurus is classified as a therizinosaurian dinosaur. Along with Therizinosaurus and Segnosaurus, Nanshiungosaurus was one of the earliest therizinosaurs to be described and named. The unusual shape of the pelvis led Dong—the original describer—to interpret the remains as belonging to some dwarf sauropod, but during the 1990s the genus was recognized as a segnosaur (now therizinosaur) based the pelvic similarities with Segnosaurus. At first, the research on therizinosaurs was complicated since sparse remains were known at the time and these had features from multiple dinosaur lineages leading to their interpretation as prosauropod dinosaurs. ==History of discovery== In 1974, during a geological expedition at the Nanxiong Basin led by the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology several fossilized remains of dinosaurs were discovered by the team. Near the village of Dapingcun at the Nanxiong Formation, Guangdong Province, a relatively large and partial skeleton was found in articulation dating back to the Late Cretaceous. The specimen was labelled under the number IVPP V4731 and consisted of 12 cervical (lacking the atlas), 10 dorsal, 5 (actually 6) sacral and the first caudal vertebrae with a nearly complete, bulky pelvis only lacking the right ilium and ischium. Later on, in 1979 the specimen was formally described by the Chinese paleontologist Dong Zhiming and used as the basis for the new genus and species Nanshiungosaurus brevispinus. The generic name, Nanshiungosaurus, refers to the site of provenance Nanxiong city and is derived from the Greek (, meaning lizard). Lastly, the specific name, brevispinus, is derived from the Latin brevis and spina (meaning short and spine, respectively) in reference to the relatively short vertebral spines. When first described, Dong mistakenly thought the specimen to have been a dwarf, strange titanosaurine sauropod characterized by a shorter but thicker neck than other sauropods based on the pelvis structure. Translated paper In 1997 Dong Zhiming and You Hailu named and described a supposed second species: "Nanshiungosaurus" bohlini, based on a skeleton found in 1992 near Mazongshan. It consists of 11 cervical and 5 dorsal vertebrae with some ribs. The specimen is catalogued as IVPP V11116 coming from the Early Cretaceous, Upper Xinminbao Group. Also, they coined the Nanshiungosauridae to contain "both species". Dong and Yu presented no evidence or argumentation supporting the assignment of the species to Nanshiungosaurus. In 2010, the North American paleontologist Lindsay Zanno considered this referral to be highly improbable since "N". bohlini dates back from the Barremian-Aptian ages and in the view of lack of synapomorphies, she considered that the supposed second species is unrelated to Nanshiungosaurus and might warrant its own genus. In addition, she corrected the number of sacral vertebrae from 5 to 6 and noted that the holotype pelvis from the latter has suffered damage since collection and has been reconstructed with painted plaster in the affected areas. Moreover, the remains of "N". bohlini were recovered from the lower red beds of the Zhonggou Formation in the Gongpoquan Basin, a completely different geological context. As an overall consensus, this dubious specimen is no longer considered to be relatable to Nanshiungosaurus. ==Description== thumb|Size compared to a human Nanshiungosaurus was a relatively large-bodied therizinosaurid, estimated at long weighing . Genus List for Holtz 2012 Weight Information This taxon can be differentiated by the possession of stocky posterior-most cervical vertebrae with opisthocoel (meaning that they were concave on their posterior sides) centra. Like other derived (advanced) therizinosaurids, Nanshiungosaurus was a pot-bellied animal that had a strong build composed of stout hindlimbs with a functionally tetradactyl pes. The arms ended up in large, recurved claws that were side to side flattened. Though the holotype specimen lacks cranial material, the preserved elements in therizinosaurids Erlikosaurus and Segnosaurus indicate that it had a relatively small skull with coarsely serrated teeth, and developed a prominent rhamphotheca (keratinous beak). ===Vertebral column=== Most cervicals have relatively short neural arches, but in the dorsals they are more elongated. The axis is well preserved and has a length of with platycoelus (slightly concave at both ends) centra. Its odontoid process is fused with the anterior facet of centrum and has a blunt depression to the bottom area in order to articulate with the atlas centrum. The neural arch is narrow, the neural spine has a posterior orientation, and has rounded facets that connect with the atlantal posterior articular processes (bony projections). After the axis, the next cervicals gradually increase in size. The anterior cervicals have platycoelus centra and deep, pocket-like pleurocoels (small holes) develop on the lateral sides; a small ridge-like structure is also present. On the bottom surface, the centra are flat, gently flattened to the inner sides, and two projections originate from the borders of the centra. The anterior capitular process is compressed (flattened) with some degree of thickness, and extends from the bottom to lateral sides to be fused with the capitulum on the ribs. As for most cervicals, the neural arches and spines are short, the anterior articular processes are strongly developed in that direction, and the anterior lobes of the diapophyses (bony projections to the lateral sides) extend to the bottom and lateral directions to articulate with tubercles. Seventh and eighth cervicals are the longest with long centra and posterior to them, the vertebral size slightly narrows. In most posterior cervicals, the centra are opisthocoelous with shallow posterior grooves. The dorsal vertebrae centra, unlike in the cervicals, are narrow and platycoelous with an average length of . They are also pneumatic with shallow pneumatopores (pits leading to air pockets) on the lateral sides, but they reduce in size on posterior dorsals. Along with the centra, the neural arch are well pneumatized with most of the pneumatic areas filled with matrix (sediments). The capitular processes are undeveloped and replaced by poor rounded facets on the anterior surface of the centrum. In most dorsals, the neural spines are very elongated, the articular processes are located within the ligaments of the centrum, the neural spines are stocky, side to side thickened, and the top regions have stout tuberosities. A prominent spiral-like ridge is present on the bottom surface that becomes more notable to the posterior direction. Though most dorsals are completely preserved, eighth through tenth dorsals have damaged centra. On the posterior series the centra become platycoelous, approaching the sacral vertebrae structure. The sacrum is composed by six (originally five) sacral vertebrae and they are fused into a single structure, indicating that the individual was an adult at the time of death. They are lightly more longer than the dorsals and have stocky, side to ide broadened neural spines with the top surfaces bearing small depressions. A single caudal vertebra is present after the sacral series and represents the first caudal. Its neural spine is broken and the centrum is slightly amphicoelous (concave on both ends) with sub-equal height and length. ===Pelvic girdle=== thumb|Schematic comparison of the ilium of Nanshiungosaurus (in E) compared to other therizinosaurs The pelvis is represented by the well-preserved left side composed by the ilium, pubis and both ischia; the right ilium and pubis were eroded though. As a whole, the pelvis is robustly built and some elements are deformed such as the left ilium, which due to taphonomical factors has been bent out of shape. Like other derived therizinosaurids, the pelvis has an opisthopubic condition where the pubis and ischium are fused and directed backwards. The ilium is stocky with an extremely well-developed and elongated preacetabular process (anterior expansion of the iliac blade), nevertheless, the postacetabular process (posterior expansion) is missing. Its pubic peduncle (a robust projection that connects to the pubis) is also well-developed, being straight and thick at the end. The acetabulum (hip socket in the middle) is large and relatively circular in shape. The pubic bone has lost its lower end and is well-fused to the ischial bone. The ischium is relatively thin, expanded, and the obturator process (a notably large projection at the end) is broken. ==Classification== Nanshiungosaurus was in 1979 by Dong assigned to the Titanosaurinae, based on the assumption it was a sauropod genus, more specifically a titanosaurine (titanosaur). During this same year, the paleontologist Altangerel Perle described and named Segnosaurus also erecting the Segnosauridae to contain this strange taxon. Translated paper After the findings of Nanshiungosaurus and Segnosaurus, more complete relatives started to be discovered, but their anatomical traits were so aberrant compared to other theropods to the point of being considered as Late Cretaceous sauropodomorph dinosaurs. In 1990, the paleontologists Rinchen Barsbold and Teresa Maryańska noted the striking similarities between the pelvises of Nanshiungosaurus and Segnosaurus, such as the ophisthopubic condition and large iliac blade. They concluded that the former was part of the Segnosauria and found this group to be a rare and aberrant group of saurischians in a position subject to change among sauropodomorphs and theropods. Dong also agreed with these similarities and placed the genus within the Segnosauridae in 1992. Nevertheless, the description of Alxasaurus in 1993 proved that the long-aberrant segnosaurs were tetanuran theropod dinosaurs and Segnosauridae was a junior synonym of the older name Therizinosauridae. Segnosauria also became synonymous with Therizinosauria. In 1997, with the description and naming of "N". bohlini, Dong and You placed the therizinosaurids Nanshiungosaurus and the former into a separate Nanshiungosauridae. They did not provide authentic traits or bases behind this new grouping. In 2010, Zanno performed one of the most complete analyses of the Therizinosauria at that point and noted that these two species do not pertain to the same genus and therefore the use of the Nanshiungosauridae was invalid and represents a synonym of Therizinosauridae. Nanshiungosaurus features multiple therizinosaurid traits such as an ophisthopubic pelvis, elongated iliac blade and an expanded obturator process. In her phylogenetic analysis, Zanno recovered this taxon as a derived therizinosaurid closer to Nothronychus and Segnosaurus. The therizinosaurid placement of Nanshiungosaurus has been widely followed and corroborated by most cladistic analyses. The extensive phylogenetic analysis conducted by Hartman and colleagues in 2019 based on Zanno's 2010 analysis, recovers Nanshiungosaurus in a more derived position than Neimongosaurus or Therizinosaurus. Below are the obtained results: thumb|Hip variation among therizinosaur genera (Nanshiungosaurus in right corner) ==Paleoecology== Nanshiungosaurus was one of the last therizinosaurs to exist. The fossil remains were unearthed from the Nanxiong Formation, which has been dated to the latest Maastrichtian stage about 66.7 ± 0.3 million years ago. This formation is mainly composed by purplish mudstones and siltstones, and was deposited in a floodplain environment, under a relatively warm, humid subtropical climate. Oviraptorid eggs are particularly common on the formation with at least five well-preserved egg clutches. Moreover, a fossilized female oviraptorid with two eggs is known from the formation. The tracks of ornithopod dinosaurs are locally abundant at the Nanxiong region. The therizinosaurid Nanshiungosaurus was a bulky high-browser in its ecosystem, and shared its habitat with multiple oviraptorosaur species such as Banji, Ganzhousaurus, Corythoraptor, Nankangia, Huanansaurus or Shixinggia. However, it is possible that some of these oviraptorosaurs did not actually live together given the poor stratigraphic analysis of the formation. Additional dinosaurs are represented by the fast-running, long-snouted tyrannosaurid Qianzhousaurus, the sauropod Gannansaurus, and the very sparse remains of hadrosaurid dinosaurs such as Microhadrosaurus (now a nomen dubium). Other reptiles that composed the fauna were the terrestrial or semiaquatic nanhsiungchelyid turtles Nanhsiungchelys and Jiangxichelys, squamates Chianghsia and Tianyusaurus, and the crocodilian Jiangxisuchus. ==See also== * Timeline of therizinosaur research ==References== Category:Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia Category:Therizinosaurs Category:Cretaceous China Category:Taxa named by Dong Zhiming Category:Fossil taxa described in 1979 |
Macrohon Institute, Incorporated or known simply as MACI, is a private, non- sectarian, secondary institution located in the Municipality of Macrohon in Southern Leyte, in the Philippines. ==History overview== ===From 1948-1973=== The aftermath of World War II and consequently of the country's independence from the United States of America, created a zeal and enthusiasm among the people to improve their lives. Realizing that only through a well founded education could this goal be achieved, the families of the township of Macrohon were compelled to send their off springs into the neighboring township of Maasin for a secondary education. It is indeed the only alternative available to them at that time because there is no other place province wide that offers a post elementary education system. Maasin with its two established and prominent educational institutions provided this service. However, the absence of an established road and transportation system made the effort extremely difficult for the families. Their students must endure the heat of the sun and waist deep waters of major rivers and streams en route to Maasin every Sunday afternoon and on week's end as they all head home. Understanding their plight, Mayor Rafael Diola Joven, who himself sends three of his offspring to Maasin, organized a collective effort with the aim of establishing a private high school system in the township of Macrohon. He patiently solicited the support of civic minded individuals from within and outside of the township. With the joint effort of the citizenry of Macrohon as well as of the neighboring townships, Macrohon Institute Incorporated (MACI) was established on April 4, 1948. It officially opened its door for business in July 1948. The enrollment totaled to 325 students. Since the commencement of its operations, Macrohon Institute consistently provided a high quality academic and extra curricular instruction. It received an accolade from the Bureau of Education in 1960–1962 in recognition of its achievements in the yearly National Senior High School Proficiency Examination. The school ranked on the upper quartile among all other secondary schools in the entire country. In the field of military training MACI won the annual PMT Tactical Inspection being conducted by the 38th PC Company in 1955-1956 and again in 1965–1966. At this point, MACI has been the 1st school recipient of the Governor Alfredo K. Bantug Military Trophy Award. The school proved itself by garnering several awards during annual district, provincial, regional, national academic, athletic and cultural competitions. During its entire length of operation, Macrohon Institute produced high-grade professionals in all fields of specialty. Several individuals are currently holding high-ranking positions in both private and public institutions in the country and abroad. Macrohon Institute celebrated its 25th anniversary in 1973. A whole week of competitive and colorful festivities marked the occasion. With the financial support of the administration as well as of the student body government, the school's factions namely the Rising Youth of our Country and the Defenders of our Nation competed evenly on academic, cultural and athletic events. The celebration indeed drew a deep interest from the public and alumni body as evidenced by a very high attendance. As a result, some events were moved into the town's public square. The year 1973 was also marked by two major national curricular innovations. A memorandum from the Bureau of Education and Culture mandated the imposition of National College Entrance Examination for senior high school students. Due to its rigid academic training, Macrohon Institute was assured with a 98% passing rate. High ranking students were indeed able to hurdle additional admission requirements being imposed by top grade colleges and universities of the country. Philippine Military Training (PMT) for all secondary males, underwent a revision too. The course was renamed Citizen Army Training (CAT) required the participation of all senior students and exempting the lower year levels. ===1988-2001=== A bourgeoning public school system created a financial difficulty for Macrohon Institute. Some families decided to avail of this free education by sending their offsprings into the three public schools of the township which are located in barangays Ichon, Villa Jacinta and San Roque. The successful pavement of the national highway also exacerbated the situation. With its completion in 1988, the transportation system also achieved a tremendous improvement. More families are sending their students into the neighboring township of Maasin. As a result, the school's student population plummeted further. With the ouster of the Marcoses on February 25, 1986, the country adopted a new constitution. The new constitution mandated an overhaul of the entire educational system. One of the provisions imposed an allocation of a substantial amount for the funding of private educational entities otherwise known as FAPE. Its introduction in 1988 successfully resuscitated MACI's failing financial capability. The school receives an annual grant from the national government amounting to 1.5 million Pesos. Eventually Macrohon Institute recovered from these losses as more families enrolled their students into the school system. With a renewed sense of optimism and confidence for the future, Macrohon Institute proudly celebrated its 50th anniversary in April 1998. The school term which normally ends in the last week of March was moved into the last few days of April in order to accommodate the occasion. However, due to the public's increasing allegations about the administrator's mismanagement, nepotism, absence of financial accounting, non-allocation of dividends for the stockholders, a dynastic form of succession involving the management structure, incompetence, ineptitude, and sexual exploitation victimizing some of the female students prompted the resignation of the officials of the governing council. A complete usurpation of the entire school system by the current administrator soon emerged. All of these created a climate of discontent and frustration among the heirs of the incorporators and stockholders who for 50 years have been denied of their right for a regular accounting of the school's financial gains and therefore of the expected dividends. Leonardo Yuzon Joven, the founder's first born along with the heirs of Lazaro Kuizon and Julia B. Ligtas, organized a collective and legal effort of reforming and reorganizing the enterprise. Their effort was paid off when they successfully obtained a court order for the expulsion of the current administration and of a comprehensive accounting and review of the school's resources. A general meeting of all heirs was then called. An interim governing council was created and a new set of elected officials immediately assumed their posts. This transition period was marked with so much animosity between the new and the previous administration. Frequent episodes of intimidation and harassment involving the ousted school administrator, some police officers and barangay officials made the new administration's task of reorganization extremely difficult. One incident called for an arbitration between the hired laborers who were painting the main building and the previous school administrator who was accused of physically harassing them while at work. Furthermore, its FAPE has been funnelled into a newly established private high school which was founded by the ousted administration. Efforts to recover this valuable resource were futile due to reasons that are beyond comprehension. As a result, the school's faculty and staff remained underpaid thereby placing the organization in a dangerously precarious situation. ===2001-present=== The darkest period of the newly reorganized Macrohon Institute occurred in the early morning hours of June 1, 2001 when the township was awakened by a rapidly consuming fire involving the whole main building which houses the school's administration offices, library system, faculty room, armory, reception area, stock and utility room, the school's student exchange, two of its class rooms and science laboratories. None of its precious resources were saved. Macrohon Institute stood despondent, abandoned, drained and bankrupt. Even the school's treasury has been plundered. Only seven hundred pesos is left in the account. Worst of all, when the institution started its school year, only 38 students enrolled. All of them must endure a school system that is completely devoid of a sound learning experience. However, they are extremely lucky because of a group of dedicated, conscientious and loyal mentors who in spite of their own financial shortcomings unselfishly dedicated their time and attention equally into these interested learners. Macrohon Institute didn't actually fall or stood alone during this catastrophic event. Its tragedy instead has generated a tremendous amount of sympathy. Financial and moral support poured in. In just a few months after the disastrous fire, the school was able to regain its stance. A repair of the existing classrooms soon followed and then was furnished with a state of the art furniture. Library and instructional materials arrived in crates from the United States of America. For the first time in its long history, Macrohon Institute enjoyed a wide variety of books and modern classroom equipment that other schools in the area can only dream about. A steady flow of contributions from generous individuals assured the school of a reliable and adequate pool of resources in order to meet its own needs. The Securities and Exchange Commission issued MACI its long-awaited registration on September 2, 2002. Having been out of an operating permit since June 17, 1998 due to the intentional failure of the previous school administrator, the institution lifted itself off from that alleged illegal existence and faced its critics with a new ammunition. This jubilation intensified when Dr. Sol Matugas from the Department of Education and Culture released the school's certificate of recognition in April 2003. Cogniant about these latest triumphs, MACI can't help but celebrate and be optimistic about the future. Realizing about this major turn around, the people of Macrohon as well as of the neighboring townships started to entrust again their off springs to Macrohon Institute. Currently the student population grew from a low of 38 to a high of 287 students as of June 2006. Macrohon Institute finally received its long-awaited FAPE on August 1, 2005. The fund's release has lifted the school off from a lingering financial difficulty since its reorganization in 2000. The sum amounting to 200,000 Pesos provided a much needed relief to the institution that has been plagued with a chronic financial shortfall. Unexpectedly, its 2005 freshmen and sophomore year level FAPE was also released on October 24, 2005. The fund's release was a surprise since it was determined earlier that it will be officially handed over in January 2006. On April 7, 2006, Macrohon Institute reluctantly handed over the amphitheater complex to the Sobrepenia family. This is in compliance to the agreement that was being entered upon by the institution with Cedric Sobrepenia who represented the family during its negotiations with the administration regarding the property's lease extension. The new lease agreement that was finalized in July 2003, allowed a transition period of 3 years. Through the benevolence of the Madrona and Handayan family, the institution was guaranteed of a space for the construction of a temporary school building while the administration is trying to secure the entitlement of the school's main lot in order to clear the way for the construction of the proposed four-storey school building. Macrohon Institute will always be a beacon for all individuals who thirst for knowledge. Its ideals and values will never waver with the passage of time. Time perhaps will change but not MACI for sure. The future of the school is brighter today than yesterday. Altruistic, generous, loyal, dedicated, trustworthy and God fearing school officials and employees assured MACI of this entitlement. An effort to downsize the institution was orchestrated immediately after the tragic fire. This in return will assure the enterprise with a competitive edge against all other institutions by being able to effectively streamline its expenditure, manage its meager resources and allot most of these into its new priorities. ==Campus life== thumb|MACI Ground today. The MACI students' supreme government (MACISGO) has been formed since the foundation of the school. Officers are elected on an annual basis every third Tuesday of June. If the election is not well decided, a run-off is immediately scheduled. Elected officers are sworn into office on the first Friday of July. This date also corresponds to the school's annual acquaintance party. General notices are posted in the school's bulletin board. Periodic school meetings are announced on a regular basis. Letters are mailed to the students and parents at least a week before the scheduled gathering. Periodic examinations are scheduled on a monthly basis. The student is required to pay at least 10% of the annual school fee. During each examination, the student is required to present to the school teacher of the required test permit. Otherwise, he/she will be excluded. Scholarship grants are awarded to honor students. A 100% tuition free scholarship is given to class valedictorians, 50% for class salutatorians and 25% for first honorable mention students. Academic and extra curricular activities are encouraged in order to foster the individual student's growth and development. The school actively participates in the annual district, unit, provincial, and national academic, athletic and cultural competitions. The student who garners the highest award will receive a recognition from the school's administration/ faculty and staff in the form of a cash prize and an unspecified material. The school's foundation day is celebrated every October 24 in recognition of the school's founding father, the late Mayor Rafael Diola Joven whose birth anniversary is also celebrated on that day. MACI Day is celebrated every second week of February (movable). The school sponsors varied fund raising activities in order to generate material resources with the sole purpose of upgrading the school's facilities, equipment and supplies and in augmenting the monetary compensation of its faculty and staff. Student participation during the occasion is generated in the form of academic, athletic, and cultural competitions. The school's two factions namely The Rising Youth Of Our Country and The Defenders Of Our Nation compete evenly on academic, athletic and cultural events. The holiday culminates on a Sunday in the form of a school picnic in the school's beach ground and promenade. The school encourages the students to participate actively in civic and religious services. The township's government and parish church enlists the school to provide the effort usually on its annual town fiesta, Independence Day and other designated holidays. Tutorial sessions are scheduled each day for those students who don't perform well academically. The school enlists the services of the honor students to provide the effort. The school has also recently constructed a promenade where visitors can appreciate the school's coral reefs, nearby beach and clear sea water. Picnic huts, and swaying palms provide shelter and comfort during sunny, sultry, and hot hours of the day. ==Factional organization== MACI has two competing factions, namely the Defenders of Our Nation and the Rising Youth of Our Country. The members of these factions are selected from first year and new students and no factional change is allowed (meaning, it will be your faction from first year to graduation). ==References== *History of MACI *The Founding Fathers *Anthology ==External links== *The Official Website of Macrohon Institute, Inc. *The MACI Inc. Alumni Website Category:High schools in the Philippines Category:Schools in Southern Leyte Category:Educational institutions established in 1948 |
This is a list of notable events in the development of Jewish history. All dates are given according to the Common Era, not the Hebrew calendar. ==Ancient Israel and Judah== ;c. 1312 BCE (?*): Moses and the Exodus from Egypt ;c. 1250 BCE–c. 1025 BCE: Biblical judges lead the people ;c. 1025 BCE–c. 1010 BCE: King Saul ;c. 1010 BCE–c. 970 BCE: King David ;c. 970 BCE–c. 931 BCE: King Solomon ;c. 960 BCE: Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem completed ;c. 931 BCE: Split between Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) and the Kingdom of Judah ;c. 931 BCE–c. 913 BCE: King Rehoboam of Judah ;c. 931 BCE–c. 910 BCE: King Jeroboam of Israel ;840 BCE: Mesha inscription describes Moabite victory over a son of King Omri of Israel. ;c. 740 BCE–c. 700 BCE: prophecy of Isaiah ;c. 740 BCE–c. 722 BCE: Kingdom of Israel falls to Neo-Assyrian Empire ;c. 715 BCE–c. 687 BCE: King Hezekiah of Judah ;c. 649 BCE–c. 609 BCE: King Josiah of Judah institutes major reforms ;c. 626 BCЕ – c. 587 BCE: prophecy of Jeremiah ;c. 600 BCЕ: Ketef Hinnom scrolls ;597 BCE: first deportation to Babylon ;586 BCE: Jerusalem falls to Nebuchadnezzar and Solomon's Temple destroyed == Second Temple period == ; ;539 BCE: Jews allowed to return to Jerusalem, by permission of Cyrus ;520 BCE: Prophecy of Zechariah ;c. 520 BCE: Zerubbabel leads the first group of Jews from captivity back to Jerusalem ;516 BCE: Second Temple consecrated ;c. 475 BCE: Often associated with Xerxes I of Persia, Queen Esther revealed her identity to the king and began to plead for her people, pointing to Haman as the evil schemer plotting to destroy them. ;c. 460 BCE: Seeing anarchy breaking out in Judea, Xerxes' successor Persian King Artaxerxes sent Ezra to restore order. ;332 BCE: Alexander the Great conquers Phoenicia and Gaza. ;332 BCE?: According to Josephus, Alexander visits Judea and seeks out the high priest Jaddus. He shows Alexander the prophecy of Alexander's own life and conquests found in the Book of Daniel. This story is considered apocryphal and created centuries later, perhaps in the early Hasmonean period, though. ;167–140 BCE: The Maccabean Revolt against the Greek Syrian Seleucid Empire, led by Judas Maccabeus, resulting in victory and installation of the Hanukkah holiday. ;150 BCE–100 CE: At some point during this era the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) is finalized and canonized. Jewish religious works that were explicitly written after the time of Ezra were not canonized, although many became popular among many groups of Jews. Later works that were included in the Greek translation of the Bible (the Septuagint) become known as the deuterocanonical books. ;140–63 BCE: The Hasmonean dynasty rules Judea. The Hasmonean kingdom expands outward to Idumea, Samaria, Perea, Galilee, and Gilead due to weakness and dissolution within the Seleucid Empire. ;63 BCE: Pompey lay siege to and entered the Temple, Judea became a client kingdom of Rome. ;40 BCE–4 BCE: Herod the Great appointed King of the Jews by the Roman Senate, replacing the Hasmonean dynasty with the Herodian dynasty. ===1st century CE=== ;6 CE: Province of Roman Judea created by merging Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea. ;10 CE: Hillel the Elder, considered the greatest Torah sage, dies, leading to the dominance of Shammai till 30 CE, see also Hillel and Shammai. ;26–36 CE: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Roman trial of Jesus, and the crucifixion of Jesus. ;30 CE: Helena of Adiabene, a vassal Parthian kingdom in Mesopotamia, converts to Judaism. Significant numbers of Adiabene population follow her, later also providing limited support for Jews during Jewish-Roman wars. In the following centuries the community mostly converts to Christianity. ;30–70 CE :Schism within Judaism during the Second Temple era. A sect within Hellenised Jewish society starts Jewish Christianity, see also Rejection of Jesus. ;66–70 :The First Jewish–Roman War ended with destruction of the Second Temple and the fall of Jerusalem. 1,100,000 people are killed by the Romans during the siege, and 97,000 captured and enslaved. The Sanhedrin was relocated to Yavne by Yochanan ben Zakai, see also Council of Jamnia. Fiscus Judaicus levied on all Jews of the Roman Empire whether they aided the revolt or not. ;70–200: Period of the Tannaim, rabbis who organized and elucidated the Oral Torah. The decisions of the Tannaim are contained in the Mishnah, Beraita, Tosefta, and various Midrash compilations.Torah (Shamash.org) ;73: Final events of the First Jewish–Roman War – the fall of Masada. Christianity starts off as a Jewish sect and then develops its own texts and ideology and branches off from Judaism to become a distinct religion. == Talmudic period (70–640 CE) == === 2nd century === ;115–117: Kitos War (Revolt against Trajan) – a second Jewish- Roman War initiated in large Jewish communities of Cyprus, Cyrene (modern Libya), Aegipta (modern Egypt) and Mesopotamia (modern Syria and Iraq). It led to mutual killing of hundreds of thousands Jews, Greeks and Romans, ending with a total defeat of Jewish rebels and complete extermination of Jews in Cyprus and Cyrene by the newly installed Emperor Hadrian. ;131–136: The Roman emperor Hadrian, among other provocations, renames Jerusalem "Aelia Capitolina" and prohibits circumcision. Simon bar Kokhba (Bar Kosiba) leads a large Jewish revolt against Rome in response to Hadrian's actions. In the aftermath, most Jewish population is annihilated (about 580,000 killed) and Hadrian renames the province of Judea to Syria Palaestina, and attempts to root out Judaism. ;136: Rabbi Akiva is martyred. ;138: With Emperor Hadrian's death, the persecution of Jews within the Roman Empire is eased and Jews are allowed to visit Jerusalem on Tisha B'av. In the following centuries the Jewish center moves to Galilee. ===3rd century=== ;200: The Mishnah, the standardization of the Jewish oral law as it stands today, is redacted by Judah haNasi in the land of Israel. ;259: Nehardea in Babylonia destroyed by the Palmyrenes, which destruction caused the widespread dispersion of Jews in the region.The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon (ed. Nosson Dovid Rabinowich), Jerusalem 1988, p. 98 ;220–500: Period of the Amoraim, the rabbis of the Talmud. ===4th century=== ;315–337: Roman Emperor Constantine I enacts new restrictive legislation. Conversion of Christians to Judaism is outlawed, congregations for religious services are curtailed, but Jews are also allowed to enter Jerusalem on the anniversary of the Temple's destruction. ;351–352: Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus is put down. Sepphoris is razed to the ground. ;358: Because of the increasing danger of Roman persecution, Hillel II creates a mathematical calendar for calculating the Jewish month. After adopting the calendar, the Sanhedrin in Tiberias is dissolved. ;361–363: The last pagan Roman Emperor, Julian, allows the Jews to return to "holy Jerusalem which you have for many years longed to see rebuilt" and to rebuild the Second Temple. Shortly after, the Emperor is assassinated, and the plan is dissolved. ;363: Galilee earthquake of 363 ;379: In India, the Hindu king Sira Primal, also known as Iru Brahman, issued what was engraved on a tablet of brass, his permission to Jews to live freely, build synagogue, own property without conditions attached and as long as the world and moon exist. ===5th century=== ;438: The Empress Eudocia removes the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site and the heads of the Community in Galilee issue a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews": "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come"! ;450: Redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud ===6th century=== ;500–523: Yosef Dhu Nuwas, King of Himyarite Kingdom (Modern Yemen) converting to Judaism, upgrading existing Yemenese Jewish center. His kingdom falls in a war against Axum and the Christians. ;550: The main redaction of Babylonian Talmud is completed under Rabbis Ravina and Ashi. To a lesser degree, the text continues to be modified for the next 200 years. ;550–700: Period of the Savoraim, the sages in Persia who put the Talmud in its final form. ;555–572: The Fourth Samaritan Revolt against Byzantium results in great reduction of the Samaritan community, their Israelite faith is outlawed. Neighbouring Jews, who mostly reside in Galilee, are also affected by the oppressive rule of the Byzantines. ===7th century=== ;610–628: Jews of Galilee led by Benjamin of Tiberias gain autonomy in Jerusalem after revolting against Heraclius as a joint military campaign with ally Sassanid Empire under Khosrau II and Jewish militias from Persia, but are subsequently massacred. ;612: Sisebut, king of the Visigoths, forces his Jewish subjects to convert to Christianity. ;7th century: The rise and domination of Islam among largely pagan Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula results in the almost complete removal and conversion of the ancient Jewish communities there, and sack of Levant from the hands of Byzantines. == Middle Ages == ===8th century=== ;700–1250: Period of the Gaonim (the Gaonic era). Jews in southern Europe and Asia Minor lived under the often intolerant rule of Christian kings and clerics. Most Jews lived in the Muslim Arab realm (Andalusia, North Africa, Palestine, Iraq and Yemen). Despite sporadic periods of persecution, Jewish communal and cultural life flowered in this period. The universally recognized centers of Jewish life were in Jerusalem and Tiberias (Syria), Sura and Pumbeditha (Iraq). The heads of these law schools were the Gaonim, who were consulted on matters of law by Jews throughout the world. During this time, the Niqqud is invented in Tiberias. ;711: Muslim armies invade and occupy most of Spain (At this time Jews made up about 8% of Spain's population). Under Christian rule, Jews had been subject to frequent and intense persecution, which was formalized under Muslim rule due to the dhimmi rules in Islam. Jews and Christians had to pay the jizya. Some sources mark this as the beginning of the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, although most mention 912. ;740: The Khazar (a Turkic semi- nomadic people from Central Asia) King and members of the upper class adopt Judaism. The Khazarate lasts until 10th century, being overrun by the Rus, and finally conquered by Rus and Byzantine forces in 1016. ;760: The Karaites reject the authority of the oral law, and split off from rabbinic Judaism. ===9th century=== ;807: Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid orders all Jews in the Caliphate to wear a yellow belt, with Christians to wear a blue one. ;846: In Sura, Iraq, Rav Amram Gaon compiles his siddur (Jewish prayer book.) ;850: al- Mutawakkil made a decree ordering dhimmi Jews and Christians to wear garments distinguishing them from Muslims, their places of worship to be destroyed, and allowing them little involvement in government or official matters. ;871: An incomplete marriage contract dated to October 6 of this year is the earliest dated document found in the papers of the Cairo Geniza. ===10th century=== ;912–1013: The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Abd-ar-Rahman III becomes Caliph of Spain in 912, ushering in the height of tolerance. Muslims granted Jews and Christians exemptions from military service, the right to their own courts of law, and a guarantee of safety of their property. Jewish poets, scholars, scientists, statesmen and philosophers flourished in and were an integral part of the extensive Arab civilization. This period ended with the Cordoba massacre in 1013. ;940: In Iraq, Saadia Gaon compiles his siddur (Jewish prayer book). ;945: In the Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia, the Senate forbids sea captains from accepting Jewish passengers. ===11th century=== ;1008–1013: Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ("the Mad") issues severe restrictions against Jews in the Fatimid Caliphate. All Jews are forced to wear a heavy wooden "golden calf" around their necks. Christians had to wear a large wooden cross and members of both groups had to wear black hats. ;1013: During the fall of the city, Sulayman's troops looted Córdoba and massacred citizens of the city, including many Jews. Prominent Jews in Córdoba, such as Samuel ibn Naghrela were forced to flee to the city in 1013. ;1013–1073: Rabbi Yitchaki Alfassi (from Morocco, later Spain) writes the Rif, an important work of Jewish law. ;1016: The Jewish community of Kairouan, Tunisia is forced to choose between conversion and expulsion. ;1033: Following their conquest of the city from the Maghrawa tribe, the forces of Tamim, chief of the Zenata Berber Banu Ifran tribe, perpetrated a massacre of Jews in Fez. ;1040–1105: Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki (Rashi) writes important commentaries on almost the entire Tanakh and Talmud. ;1066 December 30: Granada massacre: Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, crucified Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day."Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906 ed. ;1090: Granada was captured by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, King of the Almoravides. The Jewish community, believed to have sided with the Christians, was destroyed. Many fled, penniless, to Christian Toledo. ;1095–1291: Christian Crusades begin, sparking warfare with Islam in Palestine. Crusaders temporarily capture Jerusalem in 1099. Tens of thousands of Jews are killed by European crusaders throughout Europe and in the Middle East. ===12th century=== ;1100–1275: Time of the tosafot, Talmudic commentators who carried on Rashi's work. They include some of his descendants. ;1107: Moroccan Almoravid ruler Yusuf ibn Tashfin expels Moroccan Jews who do not convert to Islam. ;1135–1204: Rabbi Moses ben Maimon, aka Maimonides or the Rambam is the leading rabbi of Sephardic Jewry. Among his many accomplishments, he writes one of the most influential codes of law (The Mishneh Torah) in Jewish History as well as, in Arabic, many philosophical works including the (Guide for the Perplexed). ;1141: Yehuda Halevi issues a call to the Jews to emigrate to Palestine. He is buried in Jerusalem. ;1148: Berbers oblige Jews to convert in Cordoba. Maimonides leaves Cordoba ;1176: Maimonides completed his Introduction to the Mishneh Torah. ;1187: Upon the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin summons the Jews and permits them to resettle in the city.Scharfstein and Gelabert, 1997, p. 145. In particular, the residents of Ashkelon, a large Jewish settlement, respond to his request.Rossoff, 2001, p. 6. ;1189: Jacob of Orléans slain in antisemitic riots that swept through London during the coronation of King Richard I. The king later punished the perpetrators of the crime. ;1190: 150 Jews of York, England, killed in a pogrom, known as the York Massacre. ===13th century=== ;1240: Jews living in England, under King Henry III, were blamed for counterfeiting the money and when the local citizens began to exact revenge on them, the king expelled his Jewish subjects in order to save them from harm.Gedaliah Ibn Yechia, Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah ;1250–1300: The life of Moses de Leon, of Spain. He publishes to the public the Zohar the 2nd century CE esoteric interpretations of the Torah by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai and his disciples. Thus begins the evolution of modern Kabbalah (esoteric Jewish mysticism). ;1250–1550: Period of the Rishonim, the medieval rabbinic sages. Most Jews at this time lived in lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea or in Western Europe under feudal systems. With the decline of Muslim and Jewish centers of power in Iraq, there was no single place in the world which was a recognized authority for deciding matters of Jewish law and practice. Consequently, the rabbis recognized the need for writing commentaries on the Torah and Talmud and for writing law codes that would allow Jews anywhere in the world to be able to continue living in the Jewish tradition. ;1267: Nachmanides (Ramban) settles in Jerusalem and builds the Ramban Synagogue. ;1270–1343: Rabbi Jacob ben Asher of Spain writes the Arba'ah Turim (Four Rows of Jewish Law). ;1276: Massacre in Fez to kill all Jews stopped by intervention of the Emir. ;1290: Jews are expelled from England by Edward I after the banning of usury in the 1275 Statute of Jewry. ===14th century=== ;1300: Rabbi Levi ben Gershom, aka Gersonides. A 14th-century French Jewish philosopher best known for his Sefer Milhamot Adonai ("The Book of the Wars of the Lord") as well as for his philosophical commentaries. ;1304–1394: Jews are repeatedly expelled from France and readmitted, for a price. ;1343: Jews persecuted in Western Europe are invited to Poland by Casimir the Great. ;1346–1353: Jews scapegoated as the cause of the growing Black Death. See also Medieval antisemitism ;1348: Pope Clement VI issued two papal bulls in 1348 (6 July and 26 September), the latter named Quamvis Perfidiam, which condemned the violence and said those who blamed the plague on the Jews had been "seduced by that liar, the Devil." He urged clergy to take action to protect Jews as he had done. ;1349: Several hundred Jews are publicly burned to death in the Strasbourg massacre. ;1350s: Genetic testing conducted on Ashkenazi Jews has pointed to a bottleneck in the 1300s in the Ashkenazi Jewish population where it dwindled down to as few as 250–420 people. ;1369–70: Civil war in Spain, between brothers Peter of Castile (Pedro) and Henry II of Castile (Enrico), leads to the deaths of 38,000 Jews, embroiled in the conflict.Abraham Zacuto, Sefer Yuchasin, Cracow 1580 (q.v. Sefer Yuchasin, electronic page 265 (in PDF) (Hebrew).Gedaliah ibn Jechia the Spaniard, Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah, Jerusalem 1962, p. 140 (in Hebrew), who puts the number of Jewish deaths in this conflict at 28,000. ===15th century=== ;1478:King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain institute the Spanish Inquisition. ;1486: First Jewish prayer book published in Italy. ;1488–1575: Rabbi Yosef Karo spends 20 years compiling the Beit Yosef, an enormous guide to Jewish law. He then writes a more concise guide, the Shulkhan Arukh, that becomes the standard law guide for the next 400 years. Born in Spain, Yosef Karo lives and dies in Safed. ;1488: Obadiah ben Abraham, commentator on the Mishnah, arrives in Jerusalem and marks a new epoch for the Jewish community. ;1492: The Alhambra Decree: Approximately 200,000 Jews are expelled from Spain, The expelled Jews relocate to the Netherlands, Turkey, Arab lands, and Judea; some eventually go to South and Central America. However, most emigrate to Poland. In later centuries, more than 50% of Jewish world population lived in Poland. Many Jews remain in Spain after publicly converting to Christianity, becoming Crypto-Jews. ;1492: Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire issued a formal invitation to the Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal and sent out ships to safely bring Jews to his empire. ;1493: Jews expelled from Sicily. As many as 137,000 exiled. ;1496: Jews expelled from Portugal and from many German cities. == Early Modern Era == ===16th century=== ;1501: King Alexander of Poland readmits Jews to Grand Duchy of Lithuania. ;1506 : Lisbon massacre: Dominican friars promised absolution for sins committed over the previous 100 days to those who killed the Jews of Lisbon, and a crowd of more than 500 people (many of them sailors from the counties of Holland and Zeeland, and the Kingdom of Germany) gathered, persecuted, tortured, killed, and burnt at the stake hundreds of Jews. Women and children were beaten to death. Some Portuguese families saved their jewish neighbors by hiding them. ;1511: Printing of Jewish books by mechanical press began by Daniel Bomberg.Gedaliah ibn Jechia the Spaniard, Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah, Jerusalem 1962, p. 275 (in Hebrew) ;1516: Venetian Ghetto established, the first Jewish ghetto in Europe. Many others follow. ;1525–1572: Rabbi Moshe Isserles (The Rema) of Kraków writes an extensive commentary to the Shulkhan Arukh called the Mappah, extending its application to Ashkenazi Jewry. ;1534: King Sigismund I of Poland abolishes the law that required Jews to wear special clothes. ;1534: First Yiddish book published, in Poland. ;1534–1572: Isaac Luria ("the Arizal") teaches Kabbalah in Jerusalem and (mainly) Safed to select disciples. Some of those, such as Ibn Tebul, Israel Sarug and mostly Chaim Vital, put his teachings into writing. While the Sarugian versions are published shortly afterwards in Italy and Holland, the Vitalian texts remain in manuscripti for as long as three centuries. ;1547: First Hebrew Jewish printing house in Lublin. ;1550: Jews expelled from Genoa, Italy. ;1550: Moses ben Jacob Cordovero founds a Kabbalah academy in Safed. ;1567: First yeshiva is founded in Poland. ;1577: A Hebrew printing press is established in Safed, the first press in Palestine and the first in Asia. ;1580–1764: First session of the Council of Four Lands (Va'ad Arba' Aratzot) in Lublin, Poland. 70 delegates from local Jewish kehillot meet to discuss taxation and other issues important to the Jewish community. ===17th century=== ;1621–1630: Shelah HaKadosh writes his most famous work after emigrating to the Land of Israel. ;1623: First time separate (Va'ad) Jewish Sejm for Grand Duchy of Lithuania. ;1626–1676: False Messiah Sabbatai Zevi. ;1627: Kingdom of Beta Israel in what is now modern day Ethiopia collapses and loses autonomy. ;1633: Jews of Poznań granted a privilege of forbidding Christians to enter into their city. ;1648: Jewish population of Poland reached 450,000 (i.e., 4% of the 1,1000,000 population of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is Jewish), Bohemia 40,000 and Moravia 25,000. Worldwide population of Jewry is estimated at 750,000. ;1648–1655: The Ukrainian Cossack Bohdan Chmielnicki leads a massacre of Polish gentry and Jewry that leaves an estimated 65,000 Jews dead and a similar number of gentry. The total decrease in the number of Jews is estimated at 100,000. ;1655: Jews readmitted to England by Oliver Cromwell. ;1660: 1660 destruction of Safed. ;1679: Jews of Yemen expelled to Mawza ===18th century=== ;1700–1760: Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, founds Hasidic Judaism, a way to approach God through meditation and fervent joy. He and his disciples attract many followers, and establish numerous Hasidic sects. The European Jewish opponents of Hasidim (known as Misnagdim) argue that one should follow a more scholarly approach to Judaism. Some of the more well-known Hasidic sects today include Bobover, Breslover, Gerer, Lubavitch (Chabad) and Satmar Hasidim. ;1700: Rabbi Judah HeHasid makes aliyah to Palestine accompanied by hundreds of his followers. A few days after his arrival, Rabbi Yehuda dies suddenly. ;1700: Sir Solomon de Medina is knighted by William III, making him the first Jew in England to receive that honour. ;1720: Unpaid Arab creditors burn the synagogue unfinished by immigrants of Rabbi Yehuda and expel all Ashkenazi Jews from Jerusalem. See also Hurva Synagogue ;1720–1797: Rabbi Elijah of Vilna, the Vilna Gaon. ;1729–1786: Moses Mendelssohn and the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement. He strove to bring an end to the isolation of the Jews so that they would be able to embrace the culture of the Western world, and in turn be embraced by gentiles as equals. The Haskalah opened the door for the development of all the modern Jewish denominations and the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language, but it also paved the way for many who, wishing to be fully accepted into Christian society, converted to Christianity or chose to assimilate to emulate it. ;1740: Parliament of Great Britain passes a general act permitting Jews to be naturalized in the American colonies. Previously, several colonies had also permitted Jews to be naturalized without taking the standard oath "upon the true faith of a Christian." ;1740: Ottoman authorities invite Rabbi Haim Abulafia (1660–1744), renowned Kabbalist and Rabbi of Izmir, to come to the Holy Land. Rabbi Abulafia is to rebuild the city of Tiberias, which has lain desolate for some 70 years. The city's revival is seen by many as a sign of the coming of the Messiah.Morgenstern, Arie. "Dispersion and Longing for Zion, 1240–1840". Azure. ;1740–1750: Thousands immigrate to Palestine under the influence of Messianic predictions. The large immigration greatly increases the size and strength of the Jewish Settlement in Palestine. ;1747:Rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov (Kuty) (1701–1761) is the first immigrant of the Hasidic Aliyah. He is a respected Talmudic scholar, mystic, and brother-in-law of Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov (founder of the Hasidic movement). Rabbi Abraham first settles in Hebron. Later, he relocates to Jerusalem at the behest of its residents.Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 9, pp. 514. Gershon of Kitov ;1759: Followers of Jacob Frank joined ranks of Polish szlachta (gentry) of Jewish origins. ;1772–1795: Partitions of Poland between Russia, Kingdom of Prussia and Austria. Main bulk of World Jewry lives now in those 3 countries. Old privileges of Jewish communities are denounced. ;1775–1781: American Revolution; guaranteed the freedom of religion. ;1775: Mob violence against the Jews of Hebron. ;1789: The French Revolution. In 1791 France grants full right to Jews and allows them to become citizens, under certain conditions. ;1790: In the US, President George Washington sends a letter to the Jewish community in Rhode Island. He writes that he envisions a country "which gives bigotry no sanction...persecution no assistance". Despite the fact that the US was a predominantly Protestant country, theoretically Jews are given full rights. In addition, the mentality of Jewish immigrants shaped by their role as merchants in Eastern Europe meant they were well-prepared to compete in American society. ;1791: Russia creates the Pale of Settlement that includes land acquired from Poland with a huge Jewish population and in the same year Crimea. The Jewish population of the Pale was 750,000. 450,000 Jews lived in the Prussian and Austrian parts of Poland. ;1798: Rabbi Nachman of Breslov travels to Palestine. ;1799: While French troops were in Palestine besieging the city of Acre, Napoleon prepared a Proclamation requesting Asian and African Jews to help him conquer Jerusalem, but his unsuccessful attempt to capture Acre prevented it from being issued. ;1799: Mob violence on Jews in Safed. == 19th century == thumb|Banner from the first issue of the Jidische Folkschtime (Yiddish People's Voice), published in Stockholm, 12 January 1917. ;1800–1900: The Golden Age of Yiddish literature, the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language, and the revival of Hebrew literature. ;1808–1840:Large-scale aliyah in hope of Hastening Redemption in anticipation of the arrival of the Messiah in 1840.Hastening Redemption: Messianism and the Resettlement of the Land of Israel, Arie Morgenstern, Oxford University Press, 2007 ;1820–1860: The development of Orthodox Judaism, a set of traditionalist movements that resisted the influences of modernization that arose in response to the European emancipation and Enlightenment movements; characterized by continued strict adherence to Halakha. ;1830: Greece grants citizenship to Jews. ;1831: Jewish militias take part in the defense of Warsaw against Russians. ;1834–1835: Muslims, Druze attack Jews in Safed, Hebron & in Jerusalem.Changes in the Position of the Jewish Communities of Palestine and Syria in the Mid- Nineteenth Century, by Moshe Maoz, Studies on Palestine During the Ottoman Period, Jerusalem, Israel, 1975, pp. 147–148A descriptive geography and brief historical sketch of Palestine by Joseph Schwarz, translated by Isaac Leeser, published by A. Hart, 1850, p. 399 (See related: Safed plunder). ;1837: Moses Haim Montefiore is knighted by Queen Victoria ;1837: Galilee earthquake of 1837 devastates Jewish communities of Safed and Tiberias. ;1838–1933: Rabbi Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen (Chofetz Chaim) opens an important yeshiva. He writes an authoritative Halakhic work, Mishnah Berurah. ;Mid-19th century: Beginning of the rise of classical Reform Judaism. ;Mid-19th century: Rabbi Israel Salanter develops the Mussar Movement. While teaching that Jewish law is binding, he dismisses current philosophical debate and advocates the ethical teachings as the essence of Judaism. ;Mid-19th century: Positive-Historical Judaism, later known as Conservative Judaism, is developed. ;1841: David Levy Yulee of Florida is elected to the United States Senate, becoming the first Jew elected to Congress. ;1851: Norway allows Jews to enter the country. They are not emancipated until 1891. ;1858: Jews emancipated in England. ;1860: Alliance Israelite Universelle, an international Jewish organization is founded in Paris with the goal to protect Jewish rights as citizens. ;1860–1875: Moshe Montefiori builds Jewish neighbourhoods outside the Old City of Jerusalem starting with Mishkenot Sha'ananim. ;1860–1864: Jews are taking part in Polish national movement, that was followed by January rising. ;1860–1943: Henrietta Szold: educator, author, social worker and founder of Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America. ;1861: The Zion Society is formed in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. ;1862: Jews are given equal rights in Russian-controlled Congress Poland. The privileges of some towns regarding prohibition of Jewish settlement are revoked. In Leipzig, Moses Hess publishes the book Rome and Jerusalem, the first book to call for the establishment of a Jewish socialist commonwealth in Palestine. The book is also notable for giving the impetus for the Labor Zionist movement. ;1867: Jews emancipated in Hungary. ;1868: Benjamin Disraeli becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Though converted to Christianity as a child, he is the first person of Jewish descent to become a leader of government in Europe. ;1870–1890: Russian Zionist group Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion) and Bilu (est. 1882) set up a series of Jewish settlements in the Land of Israel, financially aided by Baron Edmond James de Rothschild. In Rishon LeZion Eliezer ben Yehuda revives Hebrew as spoken modern language. ;1870: Jews emancipated in Italy. ;1871: Jews emancipated in Germany. ;1875: Reform Judaism's Hebrew Union College is founded in Cincinnati. Its founder was Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, the architect of American Reform Judaism. ;1877: New Hampshire becomes the last state to give Jews equal political rights. ;1878: Petah Tikva is founded by religious pioneers from Jerusalem, led by Yehoshua Stampfer. ;1880: World Jewish population around 7.7 million, 90% in Europe, mostly Eastern Europe; around 3.5 million in the former Polish provinces. ;1881–1884, 1903–1906, 1918–1920: Three major waves of pogroms kill tens of thousands of Jews in Russia and Ukraine. More than two million Russian Jews emigrate in the period 1881–1920. ;1881: On December 30–31, the First Congress of all Zionist Unions for the colonization of Palestine was held at Focșani, Romania. ;1882–1903: The First Aliyah, a major wave of Jewish immigrants to build a homeland in Palestine. ;1886: Rabbi Sabato Morais and Alexander Kohut begin to champion the Conservative Jewish reaction to American Reform, and establish The Jewish Theological Seminary of America as a school of 'enlightened Orthodoxy'. ;1890: The term "Zionism" is coined by an Austrian Jewish publicist Nathan Birnbaum in his journal Self Emancipation and was defined as the national movement for the return of the Jewish people to their homeland and the resumption of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel. ;1895: First published book by Sigmund Freud. ;1897: In response to the Dreyfus affair, Theodor Herzl writes Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State), advocating the creation of a free and independent Jewish state in Israel. ;1897: The Bund (General Jewish Labour Bund) is formed in Russia. ;1897: First Russian Empire Census: 5,200,000 of Jews, 4,900,000 in the Pale. The lands of former Poland have 1,300,000 Jews or 14% of population. ;1897: The First Zionist Congress was held at Basel, which brought the World Zionist Organization (WZO) into being. == 20th century == ;1902: Rabbi Dr. Solomon Schechter reorganizes the Jewish Theological Seminary of America and makes it into the flagship institution of Conservative Judaism. ;1903: St. Petersburg's Znamya newspaper publishes a literary hoax The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Kishinev Pogrom caused by accusations that Jews practice cannibalism. ;1905: 1905 Russian Revolution accompanied by pogroms. ;1915: Yeshiva College (later University) and its Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Rabbinical Seminary is established in New York City for training in a Modern Orthodox milieu. ;1916: Louis Brandeis, on the first of June, is confirmed as the United States' first Jewish Supreme Court justice. Brandeis was nominated by American President Woodrow Wilson. ;1917: The British defeat the Turks and gain control of Palestine. The British issue the Balfour Declaration which gives official British support for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people ... it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine". Many Jews interpret this to mean that all of Palestine was to become a Jewish state. ;1917 February: The Pale of Settlement is abolished, and Jews get equal rights. The Russian civil war leads to over 2,000 pogroms with tens of thousands murdered and hundreds of thousand made homeless. ;1918–1939: The period between the two World Wars is often referred to as the "golden age" of hazzanut (cantors). Some of the great Jewish cantors of this era include Abraham Davis, Moshe Koussevitzky, Zavel Kwartin (1874–1953), Jan Peerce, Josef "Yossele" Rosenblatt (1882–1933), Gershon Sirota (1874–1943), and Laibale Waldman. ;1919: :February 15: Over 1,200 Jews killed in Khmelnitsky pogrom. :March 25: Around 4,000 Jews killed by Cossack troops in Tetiev. :June 17: 800 Jews decapitated in assembly-line fashion in . ;1920: At the San Remo conference Britain receives the League of Nations' British Mandate of Palestine. :April 4–7: Five Jews killed and 216 wounded in the Jerusalem riots ;1920s–present: A variety of Jewish authors, including Gertrude Stein, Allen Ginsberg, Saul Bellow, Adrienne Rich and Philip Roth, sometimes drawing on Jewish culture and history, flourish and become highly influential on the Anglophone literary scene. ;1921: British military administration of the Mandate is replaced by civilian rule. ;1921: Britain proclaims that all of Palestine east of the Jordan River is forever closed to Jewish settlement, but not to Arab settlement. ;1921: Polish–Soviet peace treaty in Riga. Citizens of both sides are given rights to choose the country. Hundred thousands of Jews, especially small businesses forbidden in the Soviets, move to Poland. ;1922: Reform Rabbi Stephen S. Wise established the Jewish Institute of Religion in New York. (It merged with Hebrew Union College in 1950.) ;1923: Britain gives the Golan Heights to the French Mandate of Syria. Arab immigration is allowed; Jewish immigration is not. :The First World Congress of Jewish Women is held 6–11 May in Vienna. ;1924: 2,989,000 Jews according to religion poll in Poland (10.5% of total). Jewish youth consisted 23% of students of high schools and 26% of students of universities. ;1926: Prior to World War I, there were few Hasidic yeshivas in Europe. On Lag BaOmer 1926, Rabbi Shlomo Chanoch Hacohen Rabinowicz, the fourth Radomsker Rebbe, declared, "The time has come to found yeshivas where the younger generation will be able to learn and toil in Torah", leading to the founding of the Keser Torah network of 36 yeshivas in pre-war Poland. ;1929: A long- running dispute between Muslims and Jews over access to the Western Wall in Jerusalem escalates into the 1929 Palestine riots. The riots took the form in the most part of attacks by Arabs on Jews resulting in the 1929 Hebron massacre, the 1929 Safed pogrom and violence against Jews in Jerusalem. ;1930: World Jewry: 15,000,000. Main countries USA (4,000,000), Poland (3,500,000 11% of total), Soviet Union (2,700,000 2% of total), Romania (1,000,000 6% of total). Palestine 175,000 or 17% of total 1,036,000. ;1933: Hitler takes over Germany; his anti-Semitic sentiments are well-known, prompting numerous Jews to emigrate. ;1935: Regina Jonas became the first woman to be ordained as a rabbi. ;1937: Adin Steinsaltz born, author of the first comprehensive Babylonian Talmud commentary since Rashi in the 11th century. ;1939: The British government issues the 'White Paper'. The paper proposed a limit of 10,000 Jewish immigrants for each year between 1940 and 1944, plus 25,000 refugees for any emergency arising during that period. ;1938–1945: The Holocaust (Ha Shoah), resulting in the methodical extermination of nearly 6 million Jews across Europe. ;1940s–present: Various Jewish filmmakers, including Billy Wilder, Woody Allen, Mel Brooks and the Coen Brothers, frequently draw on Jewish philosophy and humor, and become some of the most artistically and popularly successful in the history of the medium. ;1941: The Muslim residents of Baghdad carried out a savage pogrom against their Jewish compatriots. In this pogrom, known by its Arabic name al-Farhud, about 200 Jews were murdered and thousands wounded, on June 1–2. Jewish property was plundered and many homes set ablaze. ;1941: The Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Schneerson, arrives in New York after escaping Nazi Europe. Along with his father-in-law, the previous Rebbe, he builds one of the largest worldwide movements (Chabad-Lubavitch) aimed at inspiring Jews to return to their heritage and Torah observance. ;1945–1948: Post-Holocaust refugee crisis. British attempts to detain Jews attempting to enter Palestine illegally. ;1946–1948: The violent struggle for the creation of a Jewish state in the British mandate of Palestine is intensified by Jewish defense groups: Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi (group). ;November 29, 1947: The United Nations approves the creation of a Jewish State and an Arab State in the British mandate of Palestine. ;May 14, 1948: The State of Israel declares itself as an independent Jewish state hours before the British Mandate is due to expire. Within eleven minutes, it is de facto recognized by the United States. Andrei Gromyko, the Soviet Union's UN ambassador, calls for the United Nations to accept Israel as a member state. The UN approves. ;May 15, 1948: 1948 Arab–Israeli War: Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon and Egypt invade Israel hours after its creation. The attack is repulsed, and Israel conquers more territory. A Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands results, as up to a million Jews flee or are expelled from Arab and Muslim nations. Most settle in Israel. See also 1949 Armistice Agreements. ;1948–1949: Almost 250,000 Holocaust survivors make their way to Israel. "Operation Magic Carpet" brings thousands of Yemenite Jews to Israel. ;1956: The 1956 Suez War Egypt blockades the Gulf of Aqaba, and closes the Suez canal to Israeli shipping. Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser calls for the destruction of Israel. Israel, England, and France go to war and force Egypt to end the blockade of Aqaba, and open the canal to all nations. ;1964: Jewish-Christian relations are revolutionized by the Roman Catholic Church's Vatican II. ;1965: Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Sandy Koufax refuses to pitch Game 1 of the 1965 World Series because it fell on Yom Kippur. ;1966: Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970) becomes the first Hebrew writer to win the Nobel Prize in literature. ;May 16, 1967: Egyptian President Nasser demands that the UN dismantle the UN Emergency Force I (UNEF I) between Israel and Egypt. The UN complies and the last UN peacekeeper is out of Sinai and Gaza by May 19. ;1967 May: Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser closes the strategic Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Egyptian troops replace the United Nations in the Sinai Peninsula. ;June 5–10, 1967: The Six-Day War. Israel launches a pre-emptive strike against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Israeli aircraft destroy the bulk of the Arab air forces on the ground in a surprise attack, followed by Israeli ground offensives which see Israel decisively defeat the Arab forces and capture the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights. ;September 1, 1967: The Arab Leaders meet in Khartoum, Sudan. The Three No's of Khartoum: No recognition of Israel. No negotiations with Israel. No peace with Israel. ;1968: Rabbi Mordechai Kaplan formally creates a separate Reconstructionist Judaism movement by setting up the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College in Philadelphia. ;1969: First group of African Hebrew Israelites begin to migrate to Israel under the leadership of Ben Ammi Ben Israel. ;Mid-1970s to present: Growing revival of Klezmer music (The folk music of European Jews)., ;1972: Sally Priesand became the first female rabbi ordained in the US, and is believed to be only the second woman ever to be formally ordained in the history of Judaism.Blau, Eleanor. "1st Woman Rabbi in U.S. Ordained; She May Be Only the Second in History of Judaism", The New York Times, June 4, 1972. Retrieved September 17, 2009. "Sally J. Priesand was ordained at the Isaac M. Wise Temple here today, becoming the first woman rabbi in this country and it is believed, the second in the history of Judaism." ;1972: Mark Spitz sets the record for most gold medals won in a single Olympic Games (seven) in the 1972 Summer Olympics. The Munich massacre occurs when Israeli athletes are taken hostage by Black September terrorists. The hostages are killed during a failed rescue attempt. ;October 6–24, 1973: The Yom Kippur War. Egypt and Syria, backed up by expeditionary forces from other Arab nations, launch a surprise attack against Israel on Yom Kippur. After absorbing the initial attacks, Israel recaptures lost ground and then pushes into Egypt and Syria. Subsequently, OPEC reduces oil production, driving up oil prices and triggering a global economic crisis. ;1975: President Gerald Ford signs legislation including the Jackson–Vanik amendment, which ties US trade benefits to the Soviet Union to freedom of emigration for Jews. ;1975: United Nations adopts resolution equating Zionism with racism. Rescinded in 1991. ;1976: Israel rescues hostages taken to Entebbe, Uganda. ;September 18, 1978: At Camp David, near Washington D.C., Israel and Egypt sign a comprehensive peace treaty, The Camp David Accord, which included the withdrawal of Israel from the Sinai. ;1978: Yiddish writer Isaac Bashevis Singer receives Nobel Prize ;1979: Prime Minister Menachem Begin and President Anwar Sadat are awarded Nobel Peace Prize. ;1979–1983: Operation Elijah: Rescue of Ethiopian Jewry. ;1982 June–December: The Lebanon War. Israel invades Southern Lebanon to drive out the PLO. ;1983: American Reform Jews formally accept patrilineal descent, creating a new definition of who is a Jew. ;1984–1985: Operations Moses, Joshua: Rescue of Ethiopian Jewry by Israel. ;1986: Elie Wiesel wins the Nobel Peace Prize ;1986: Nathan Sharansky, Soviet Jewish dissident, is freed from prison. ;1987: Beginning of the First Intifada against Israel. ;1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall between East and West Germany, collapse of the communist East German government, and the beginning of Germany's reunification (which formally began in October 1990). ;1990: The Soviet Union opens its borders for the three million Soviet Jews who had been held as virtual prisoners within their own country. Hundreds of thousands of Soviet Jews choose to leave the Soviet Union and move to Israel. ;1990–1991: Iraq invades Kuwait, triggering a war between Iraq and Allied United Nations forces. Israel is hit by 39 Scud missiles from Iraq. ;1991: Operation Solomon: Rescue of the remainder of Ethiopian Jewry in a twenty- four-hour airlift. ;October 30, 1991: The Madrid Peace Conference opens in Spain, sponsored by the United States and the Soviet Union. ;April 22, 1993: The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum dedicated. ;September 13, 1993: Israel and PLO sign the Oslo Accords. ;1994: The Lubavitcher (Chabad) Rebbe, Menachem Mendel Schneerson, dies. ;October 26, 1994: Israel and Jordan sign an official peace treaty. Israel cedes a small amount of contested land to Jordan, and the countries open official diplomatic relations, with open borders and free trade. ;December 10, 1994: Arafat, Rabin and Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres share the Nobel Peace Prize.http://www.israel- mfa.gov.il/peace/guide.html ;November 4, 1995: Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated. ;1996: Peres loses election to Benyamin (Bibi) Netanyahu (Likud party). ;1999: Ehud Barak elected Prime Minister of Israel. == 21st century == ;May 24, 2000: Israel unilaterally withdraws its remaining forces from its security zone in southern Lebanon to the international border, fully complying with the UN Security Council Res. 425. ;2000 July: Camp David Summit. ;2000, Summer: Senator Joseph Lieberman becomes the first Jewish- American to be nominated for a national office (Vice President of the United States) by a major political party (the Democratic Party). ;September 29, 2000: The al-Aqsa Intifada begins. ;2001: Election of Ariel Sharon as Israel's Prime Minister. ;2001: Jewish Museum of Turkey is founded by Turkish Jewry ;2004: Avram Hershko and Aaron Ciechanover of the Technion win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The Jewish Autonomous Oblast builds its first synagogue, Birobidzhan Synagogue, in accordance with halakha. Uriyahu Butler became the first member of the African Hebrew Israelite community to enlist in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) ;March 31, 2005: The Government of Israel officially recognizes the Bnei Menashe people of Northeast India as one of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, opening the door for thousands of people to immigrate to Israel. ;2005 August: The Government of Israel withdraws its military forces and settlers from the Gaza Strip. ;2005 December: Prime Minister Ariel Sharon falls into a coma; Deputy Premier Ehud Olmert takes over as Acting Prime Minister ;2006 March: Ehud Olmert leads the Kadima party to victory in Israeli elections, becomes Prime Minister of Israel. ;2006 July–August: A military conflict in Lebanon and northern Israel started on July 12, after a Hezbollah cross-border raid into Israel. The war ended with the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 after 34 days of fighting. About 2,000 Lebanese and 159 Israelis were killed, and civilian infrastructure on both sides heavily damaged. ;2008 December: The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) launches Operation Cast Lead (מבצע עופרת יצוקה) against Hamas in the Gaza Strip. ;2009 March: Benjamin Netanyahu becomes Prime Minister of Israel (also, continues as the Chairman of the Likud Party). ;2014 January: Ariel Sharon dies, after undergoing a sudden decline in health, having suffered renal failure and other complications, after spending 8 years in a deep coma due to his January 2006 stroke, on January 11, 2014. ;2016 March: The Jewish Agency declares an end to immigration from Yemen, following the successful conclusion of a covert operation that brought 19 people to Israel over several days. The last 50 Yemenite Jews refuse to leave Yemen. ;2017 December: The United States extends formal recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. ;2019 March: The United States became the first country to recognize Israeli sovereignty over the Golan heights territory which it held since 1967. ;2020 August : Israel and the United Arab Emirates sign a peace treaty. ;30 April 2021: 45 people are killed in the 2021 Meron stampede during Lag BaOmer. ==Years in the State of Israel== This is a timeline of events in the State of Israel since 1948. * 1940s: 1948 – 1949 * 1950s: 1950 – 1951 – 1952 – 1953 – 1954 – 1955 – 1956 – 1957 – 1958 – 1959 * 1960s: 1960 – 1961 – 1962 – 1963 – 1964 – 1965 – 1966 – 1967 – 1968 – 1969 * 1970s: 1970 – 1971 – 1972 – 1973 – 1974 – 1975 – 1976 – 1977 – 1978 – 1979 * 1980s: 1980 – 1981 – 1982 – 1983 – 1984 – 1985 – 1986 – 1987 – 1988 – 1989 * 1990s: 1990 – 1991 – 1992 – 1993 – 1994 – 1995 – 1996 – 1997 – 1998 – 1999 * 2000s: 2000 – 2001 – 2002 – 2003 – 2004 – 2005 – 2006 – 2007 – 2008 – 2009 * 2010s: 2010 – 2011 – 2012 – 2013 – 2014 – 2015 – 2016 – 2017 – 2018 – 2019 * 2020s: 2020 ==See also== * List of artifacts in biblical archaeology * Timeline of antisemitism * Timeline of the Holocaust * Timeline of Jerusalem * Timeline of Israeli history * Timeline of Zionism * Traditional Jewish chronology ==References== ==External links== *Timelines for Jewish History. The Dinur Center & The Hebrew University of Jerusalem *Interactive, searchable, filterable Jewish history timeline from the Gannopedia *– Timeline from Abraham to the end of the Talmud i.e. 500 CE. *Timeline for the History of Judaism *The History of the Jewish People The Jewish Agency *The Avalon Project at Yale Law School The Middle East 1916–2001: A Documentary Record *Historical Maps and Atlases at Dinur Center *Crash Course in Jewish History (Aish) *The Year by Year History of the Jewish People – by Eli Birnbaum *Ministry of Foreign Affairs. History page *Jewish History Timeline. The Dept. of Jewish Zionist Education *The History Channel *The Time Machine at World Zionist Organization *Jewish Intellectual Timeline, a parallel history of intellectual contributions and advances by Jewish and non-Jewish thinkers *Patheos Interactive Tree Lens – Judaism *The Historyscoper |
thumb|The city of Elliot Lake; the lake on the rightUranium mining in the Elliot Lake area (prior to 1955, more commonly known as the Blind River area) represents one of two major uranium-producing areas in Ontario, and one of seven in Canada. In the mid-1950s, the influx of people to Elliot Lake seeking uranium was described by engineer A. S. Bayne in a 1977 report as the "greatest uranium prospecting rush in the world". Mining activities peaked around 1959 and 1960 to respond to a US military needs for uranium during the Cold War. By 1958, Canada had become one of the world's leading producers of uranium and the $274 million of uranium exports that year represented Canada's most significant mineral export. By 1963, the federal government had purchased more than $1.5 billion of uranium from Canadian producers for export. The opening the mines and the workers they attracted led to the creation of Elliot Lake planned town. US demand slumped in the early 1960s, but the increasing use of nuclear power for electricity-generation globally and locally prompted some mines back into action. Production slowed until the 1990s when it ceased. The Elliot lake area now has ten decommissioned mines and 102 million tons of uranium tailings. Former miners have been left with a twofold increase in lung cancer development and mortality rates. == Area and nomenclature == The 200 square mile area north of Lake Huron that was Canada's largest uranium producing area has been referred to by various names as time passed, specifically Algoma, Blind River and Elliot Lake. Algoma is the name of a wider district that includes this area. Blind River was initially the nearest human settlement, located 12 mines west of the nearest mine, until Elliot Lake was created, which is close to most of the mines. The only road access to the town of Elliot Lake is via Ontario Highway 108. == Geology == Towards the end of the Wisconsin glaciation period, ice flowed approximately south (predominantly at 190°) across the area know known as Elliot Lake. Geologists believe that as the ice sheet retreated back north, it left a large proglacial lake just north of Elliot Lake, probably as part of the main Lake Algonquin. Today's features were created from sediments that sunk while the area was below the 335m deep lake. As the ice retreated, about 10,800 years ago, the ice holding the lake melted, causing the sand and gravel sediments to spill into the valleys. Microscopic grains of uranium occur in ores of uraninite, brannerite and monazite amongst pyritic sheets of quartz-pebble rock. == History == === Traditional territory === thumb|Serpent River First Nation The area is the traditional territory of the Serpent River First Nation and also part of the Huron Robinson Treaty land. In 2021, the Serpent River nation representatives described community consultation about mining activities as "minor." === 19th century === Known at the time as the Blind River area, the Elliot Lake area is situated between the Sudbury Nickel mining area and the abandoned Bruce Mines and was subsequently prospected for gold and copper during the 19th century. Uranium was first discovered in Canada by John Lawrence LeConte in 1847, who named the new mineral coracite. The exact location of his first discovery was unclear, but was understood to be approximately 70 miles north of Soult Ste. Marie on the shore of Lake Superior. A lack of an exact location and the absence of radioactivity detectors, resulted in failures of surveyors or prospectors from repeating his find. === Mid 20th century - uranium discovery === In 1948, Karl Gunterman, financed by Aime Breton, with a Geiger counter discovered radioactive conglomerate near Lauzon Lake in Long Township, Ontario. Their discovery was investigated by geologist Franc R. Joubin, who in 1952 found a uranium deposit in Spragge. In 1953, Joubin persuaded Joseph H. Hirshhorn to finance exploratory drilling and Hirshhorn signed a contract with Eldorado Mining and Refining Ltd, the Canadian Crown Corporation that bought all uranium in Canada; together they quickly started the Pronto Mine. News of the mine and the 1,400 stakes claimed by Joubin and Hirshorn resulted in a rush of prospectors to the area who filed 8,000 claims that summer. The uptick in uranium staking was known as the Backdoor Staking Bee. Mapping by W.H. Collins of the Geological Survey of Canada lad to the discovery of more uranium around Quirke Lake and Elliot Lake (lake, not the town by the same name). By 1958, Eldorado Mining and Refining Ltd estimated that the area had 320 million tons of uranium ore, with on average 2.38 pounds of uranium oxide per ton. Throughout the 1950s, he majority of the world's uranium came from Elliot Lake became known as the "Uranium Capital of the World". 1957 saw bustling activity as contractors blasted paths through rock to make roads, sinking shafts and building uranium processing mills. According to The University of Waterloo's Earth Sciences Museum "Never before in the history of Canada has so much money been spent so quickly in one place." Throughout the 1950s, the people of the Anishinaabek First Nation of the Serpent River were systematically excluded from all decisions about resource extraction in their area. === Late 1950s boom === 1958 was the first full year of mining production, and saw a $200 million of uranium sales, making uranium Canada's number one metal export, and Elliot Lake Canada's largest producer. From 1959 to 1960, Elliot Lake organized town was created and other mines were constructed to meet the growing US demand for uranium. In November 1959, the US announced its plans to stop stockpiling uranium and to cease procurement after 1962, resulting in the closure of five mines in 1960. thumb|Elliot Lake Mine Map, 1962However, by 1966 the global demand for uranium for energy purposes prompted increased production in the area, by 1970 the area had produced $1.3 billion of uranium oxide. Mining companies funded the creation of a Nuclear Museum. The mines all started producing between 1955 and 1958, supplying US military needs. === 1960s drop in demand === When the United States Atomic Energy Commission declared in 1959 that it would no longer stockpile uranium, and not renew procurement contracts beyond 1963, seven of the remaining nine mines closed. The other two mines, Denison and Nordic remained open to supply Canadian federal uranium stockpiling needs while Pronto switched activities to supporting the nearby Pater copper mine. At the same time, Rio Algom Limited was created and became the owner of the seven closed mines, plus the Nordic and Pronto mines. The mine closure resulted population of Elliot Lake town dropping from about 24,877 to 6,000 residents, having an immediate negative impact on the local economy. Rio Algom later became a subsidiary of BHP. === 1970s onwards === In early 1972, Australia, France, South Africa, and Rio Tinto Zinc formed a cartel to control the supply and pricing of uranium, using price fixing and bid rigging.Stewart, Larry R. “Canada’s Role in the International Uranium Cartel.” International Organization, vol. 35, no. 4, 1981, pp. 657–89, . Accessed 24 Apr. 2022. This continued until the cartel was exposed by Friends of the Earth Australia, mid 1976. The growing demand for uranium for nuclear power stations being built in the 1970s promoted Rio Algom to increase production at Quirke Mine and reopen Panel Mine in 1979 and later Stanleigh Mine (1983). Decommissioning started from 1992 and concluded in 2001 when vegetation was added to Pronto Mine. Today, all mines are now fully decommissioned, meaning that mine openings are closed up, all buildings are removed and the sites have been revegetated. Ontario Hydro cancelled its contract to buy uranium from Rio Algom in 1990 and from Denison Mines in 1992, although Stanleigh Mine continued production until June 1996. Currently, Rio Algom owns nine of the mines (Stanleigh, Quirke, Panel, Spanish, American, Milliken, Lacnor, Buckles and Pronto) and Denison Mines owns the others. As of 1980, Elliot Lake supplied 90% of the uranium used in Ontario.Mining , Milling and Refining of Uranium in Ontario, Final Report, Select Committee on Ontario Hydro Affairs, December 1980, 4th Session, 31st Parliament, 29 Elizabeth II, page 16. == Mining process == Mined ore consisted of pyritized quartz conglomerate with 0.1% to 0.2% uranium. The ore was acid leached to extract the uranium using sulphuric acid. Tailing were neutralized before being deposited, however exposed tailings released acid and radium-226 before barium chloride and lime treatment was started in the 1970s. == Individual mines == === Buckles Mine === Buckles mine is located on the south of the Quirke Lake syncline, close to the Nordic Mine. In 1955, Spanish American Mines Limited bought the mine from the original owner of the claim, Buckles Algoma Uranium Mines Limited. The uranium ore was reported to be 486,500 tons, at 0.124% U3O8, located in a ten-feet-thick zone, 75 feet below the surface. From 1958 onwards ore from the mine was processed at the Spanish American mine, where it was transported and treated at rate of approximately 500 tons per day. The mine closed in 1958 after all the ore had been extracted. Twelve Mt of ore remains on the shared tailing management area with Nordic Mine under vegetative cover. === Can-Met Mine === Can-Met's location was first staked by Carl Mattaini who sold it to Can-Met Explorations Limited. The 1958 reporting indicated 8,362,069 tons of ore, which included 6,642,380 tons of uranium ore, with a partly proven average uranium grade of 1.832 pounds of uranium oxide per ton, after dilution. The mine is located on the south shore of Quirke Lake, 15 miles from Elliot Lake. The mine had two shafts to 2,127 and 2,395 feet. There was a processing plant that could process 3,000 tons of ore per day built in October 1957. Tailings were deposited in the natural basin south of the mill. === Denison Mine === Denison Mine (also known as Consolidated Denison Mine) is located 10 miles north of Elliot Lake. It is just south of the Quirke Mine, and just west of the Panel and Can-Met Mines, just north of Spanish American and Stanrock mines. Following successful staking of the Pronto Mine property, mining claims were staked un the summer of 1953 by F. H. Jowsey, A. W. Stollerty and Associates. These stakes were purchased by Consolidated Denison Mines Limited in 1954. Denison undertook geological surveys and diamond drilling. The mine started in September 1957, and there was mill on site to process 6,000 tons per day. The average production was 2,676 tons per day and the ore milled had an average of 2.63 pounds of uranium oxide per ton. 1957 estimates of ore reserves were of 136,787,400 tons above another zone 100-feet lower. 63 million tons of tailings were deposited in Williams Lake, Bear Cub Lake, and Long Lakes. The mine was decommissioned by Denison Mines in 1997. === Lancor Mine === Lancor Mine (also known as Lake Nordic Mine) is located on the south limb of the Quirke Lake syncline, four miles from Elliot Lake. It is located just north of Nordic Mine, and just east of Miliken Mine and just south of Stanleigh Mine. It was purchased by Northspan Uranium Mines, a subsidiary of Rio Tinto. Diamond drilling started in 1954, which found ore. Two shafts were sunk and a processing plant with 3,800 tons per day was constructed. 1957 reports indicated an ore reserve of 8,289,207 tons that produced an average of 0.101% uranium oxide. Tailings were deposited in the valley east of the mill. The mine closed in 1960 and was decommissioned from 1997 to 2000. 2.7 Mt of tailings remain on site === Miliken Lake Mine === Miliken Lake Mine is located approximately one mile from Elliot Lake. The site is bounded on the west and the south by Nordic Mine, and on the north by Stanleigh Mine and on the east by Lake Nordic Mine. The property was first staked in 1953 and purchased by Miliken Lake Uranium Mines Ltd in 1954, before being sold to Rio Tinto in 1956. Production started in 1958; a 3,000-ton-per-day ore processing mill was constructed on site. A 1957 report indicated 7,269,846 tons of ore with an average grade of 0.098% uranium oxide on site, with possible an extra 14 to 18 million tons more. Tailings were deposited in Crotch Lake and Sherriff Creek. The mine closed in 1964 and was decommissioned from 1997 to 2000,. 0.08 Mt of tailings remains on site underwater. === Nordic Mine === thumb|Thucholite in Calcite Hydrocarbon from Nordic Mine Nordic Mine is located 3 miles east of Elliot Lake, it is bounded by the Quirke Mine to the north. It was first staked in 1953 by prospectors working for two companies: Technical Mine Consultants and Preston East Dome. Once uranium was discovered, the Algom Uranium Mines Company was formed, which had control over Nordic Mine and the Quirke Mine property. A mining shaft was sunk in 1955 and production started in January 1957. There was a processing plant with a 3,000 tons per day capacity built on site. The mine was bought by Rio Tinto. 1958 estimates of ore reserves on site were of 11,258,000 tons with an average grade of uranium oxide of 2.65 pound per ton. Tailings were deposited in the swamp and in the valley north of the mill where they remain with the tailings from Buckles Mine, covering a 115.6 hectares . The mine closed in 1968. === Panel Mine === The Panel Mine is located 13 miles north of Elliot Lake, on the north limb of the Quirke Lake syncline. The site is bordered to the west by the Quirke Mine and Denison Mine and on south by Can- Met Mine. The site was staked in 1953 by Emerald Glacier Mines Ltd purchased by Panel Consolidated Uranium Mines Ltd 1955, before being sold to Northspan Uranium Mines Limited, a Rio Tinto subsidiary. Two shafts were sunk on site to depth of 1,102 and 1,250 feet and a processing plant with 3,000 tons per day capacity was built on site. Production started in 1958. A 1956 estimate of ore reserves on site was 6,033,000 tons with an average grade of 2.12 pounds of uranium oxide per ton. Tailings were deposited in the nearby swamp and in the south west corner of Strike Lake. The mine closed in 1961, but reopened in 1979 and operated until 1990. It was decommissioned from 1992 until 1996. 16 Mt of tailings remain on site underwater. The spillways of the dams that hold back the tailings were modified since closure. === Pronto Mine === Pronto Mine was the original mine in the Elliot Lake/Blind River area. Pronto Mine is located in Long Township, 11 miles east of Blind River, close to Ontario Highway 17 and the Canadian Pacific Railway. It has a main shaft sunk that was deepened in 1958 and a ore processing plant with 1,250 tons per day capacity upgraded in 1958 to 1,500 tons per day. Tailings were deposited in the nearby valley and swamp north of the mill. When the demand for uranium subsided, the mine switched to copper production, closing in 1970. 4.4 Mt of tailings remain on site covering 44.7 hectares, the tailing have vegetated cover. === Quirke Mine === thumb|Quirke Lake Quire Mine was owned by Algom Uranium Mines Limited and is located 9 miles north of Elliot Lake, and about 2.5 miles west of the northwest edge of Quirke Lake. The property was first staked in 1953, trenching and sampling was also done the same year. A 864 feet deep shaft was started in 1954 and finished in 1955 and a processing mill with 3,000 tons per day capacity was built on site. Production started in 1956. The company's 1957 annual report indicates 17,942,000 tons of ore reserves, of which 1,409,000 tons had an average grade of 2.31 pounds of uranium oxide per ton. Tailings were deposited in Manred Lake, west of the mill. The mine closed in 1961, but reopened in 1968 and operated until 1990. It was decommissioned from 1992 until 1996. The spillways of the dams that hold back the tailings were modified since closure. 46 Mt of tailings remain on site, in tiered underwater cells, covering an area of 183.5 hectares. === Spanish American Mine === The Spanish American Mine is located 9 miles northeast of Elliot Lake, on the north limb of the Quirke Lake trough. It is bounded on the east by Stanrock Mine and on the north by Denison Mine. The location was first staked by P Westerfield who sold the stake to Spanish American Mines Limited, who subsequently sold them to Northspan Uranium Mines Ltd, a Rio Tino subsidiary. The site had two shafts that are 3,200 and 3,400 feet deep and a ore processing plant with 2,000 tons per day capacity. Production started in May 1958. A 1957 report estimated 6,251,726 tons of ore with an average grade of 0.097% uranium oxide. Tailings were deposited in Northspan Lake. The mine closed in 1959 due to water ingress after only 79,000 tons of ore were extracted. It was decommissioned from 1992 to 1996. 0.5Mt of tailings remain on site, underwater covering 13.2 hectares. === Stanleigh Mine === Stanleigh Mine is located 2 miles northeast of Elliot Lake and was first staked by H. S. Strouth, the chief of mining of Standard Ore and Alloys Corporation, later Stanleigh Uranium Mining Corporation. Ownership was subsequently transferred to Miliken Lake Uranium Mines and Northspan Uranium Mines Limited (who owned Lacnor Mine). Two shafts were started in April 1956 to a depth of 3,415 and 3,690 feet deep, the deepest of all shafts in the Elliot Lake group of mines. Tailings were deposited in Crotch Lake. The mine closed in 1960, but reopened from 1983 until 1996. In August 1993, a power failures resulted in a 2 million liter spill of contaminated water from the mine into McCabe Lake. The Atomic Energy Control Board laid two charges against Rio Algom. It was decommissioned from 1997 until 2000. 20.5 Mt of tailings remain on site under water coving an area of 376.5 hectares. In 2017, the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission found owners Rio Algom to be operating the mine "below expectations" due to radium releases from the decommissioned mine's effluent treatment plant that exceeded allowable limits specified in the operators license. === Stanrock Mine === Stanrock Mine is located 14 miles from Elliot Lake on the south side of Quirke Lake. The site is adjacent to the Can-Met Mine to the east, the Spanish- American Mine to the west, and Denison Mine to the north. The site was initially known as the Z-7 group and owned by Zenmac Metal Mines Ltd, who sold it to the US Stancan Uranium Mines Limited in 1954. In 1995 and 1996 the new owners found uranium via diamond drilling and creating a processing plant with a 3,300 tons per day capacity. 1956 estimates of ore reserves were 5,077,800 tons with a grade of 0.109% uranium oxide with probably 4 million additional tons unconfirmed. Tailings were deposited in the naturally occurring basin south of the mill, along with the tailings of Can-Met mine. Six million tons of tailings remain on site. The mine was decommissioned by Denison Mines in 1999. == Health == === Pollution, environmental, and ecological health === thumb|A former mine in Elliot Lake, photographed in 2010 The health of the watershed in the area deteriorated as mining started. Trout from nearby lakes released an odour when cooked and female fish stopped releasing eggs. Fishing remained permitted at both Quirke Lake and Whiskey Lake, despite the radioactivity in them exceeding levels deemed tolerable by the Ontario Waterways Commission. Terry Jacobs, an elder of the Serpent River First Nation, told Anishinabek News in 2022, that pollution from the mines reduced the number of animals in the area. Other community members reported sulphur fires, dangerous sulphuric dust burning roofs, breathing difficulties, and skin rashes on children who swam in the rivers. By 1976, 20 years after the start of mining, Health and Welfare Canada advised local residents to stop drinking water from local rivers. In 1987, band member Gertrude Lewis requested action from the Government of Canada to clean up the pollution, but the request was rejected. Just before Canada Day 1988, the Serpent River nation transported waste from the mines to the TransCanada Highway. On July 20, 1988, the Government of Canada agreed to construct a treatment plant. The 2022 book Serpent River Resurgence by Lianne C. Leddy documents the impacts of uranium mining on Serpent River First Nation. 102 million tonnes of tailings remain on eights decommissioned mines coving an area of 920 hectares. Rio Algom (a BHP subsidiary) and Denison Mines are both licensed by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission to operate the decommissioned mines. Results from 2015 and 2018 independent environmental monitoring, commissioned by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, report no expected environmental impacts. 2021 reports from the Serpent River First nation report the environmental damage as ongoing, with members unable to use their land or eat local fish. There are twelve decommissioned uranium mines around Elliot lake, ten of which have tailings on site. Current status of Elliot Lake Mines Mine GPS (Decimal) Operating Period Decommissioning Tailings (Megatonnes) Tailings (Hectares) Tailings (Coverage) Current licensee Buckles Mine 46.376083, -82.589094 1957-1968 1997-2000 12* 114.6* Vegetation Rio Algom Can-Met Mine 46.477631, -82.545847 1957-** ** ** ** ** Denison Mines Denison Mine 46.495597, -82.600236 1957-** 1992-1996 63 ** Water Denison Mines Lacnor Mine 46.395075, -82.607917 1957-2000 1997-2000 2.7 31.6 Vegetation Rio Algom Mililken Mine 46.403581, -82.627806 1958-1964 1997-2000 0.08 23.1 Water Rio Algom Nordic Mine 46.379906, -82.586442 1957-1968 1997-2000 12* 114.6* Vegetation Rio Algom Panel Mine 46.383333, -82.633333 1958-1961 1979-1990 1992-1996 16 131.7 Water Rio Algom Pronto Mine 46.21, -82.71 1958-1970 1997-2000 4.4 44.7 Vegetation Rio Algom Quirke Mine 46.5112, -82.6321 1956-1961 1968-1990 1992-1996 46 183.5 Water Rio Algom Spanish American Mine 46.476067, -82.584858 1958-1959 1992-1959 0.5 13.2 Water Rio Algom Stanleigh Mine 46.413519, -82.63735 1958-1960 1983-1996 1997-2000 20.5 376.5 Water Rio Algom Stanrock Mine 46.472333, -82.559825 1958-1964 ** 6 ** Vegetatation Denison Mines *Combined total for Nordic and Buckles **Unknown or unclear === Cancer risks === According to a 2012 study published in Nature, there is a "positive exposure- response between silica and lung cancer". Uranium mining around Elliot Lake produced silica-laden dust at a free silica rate of 60-70%. By the early 1970s, miners were unionized via the United Steelworkers and were growing increasingly concerned about the prevalence of cancers and poor support for sick workers by mine owners. In 1974 union representatives learned of learned about a paper presented by the Ontario Ministry of Health that contained details about cancer risks to uranium miners, that had not been shared with the miners. Approximately 1,000 miners who worked at Denison Mine went on a wildcat strike on the 18 April 1974. Ten days later Denson Mines agreed to improve conditions and the Ontario Premier commissioned James Milton Ham to lead a Royal Commission on the Health and Safety of Workers in Mines. thumb|The Miner's Memorial is a tribute to the mining history of Elliot Lake, ON. This part is a tribute to all the miners who died as a result of working in the uranium mines.The same year, the Ontario Workmen's Compensation Board studied 15,094 people who worked in the uranium mines around Elliot Lake and Bancroft for at least one month, between 1955 and 1974. Of those 15,094 people, 94 silicosis cases were found in 1974, of which 93 were attributed to working in an Elliot Lake mine. According to the Committee on Uranium Mining in Virginia, mines produce radon gas which can increase lung cancer risks. Miners' exposure to radiation was not measured before 1958 and exposure limits were not enacted until 1968. Risks to miners were investigated and the official report of that investigation quotes an Elliot Lake miner: > "We have been led to believe through the years that the working environment > in these mines was safe for us to work in. We have been deceived." The aforementioned 1974 study of 15,094 Ontario uranium miners found 81 former miners who died of lung cancer. Factoring in predicted lung cancer rate for men in Ontario, led to the conclusion that by 1974 there were 36 more deaths than expected attributable to both Elliot Lake and Bancroft mines, with the additional risk appearing to be twice as high for Bancroft miners compared to Elliot Lake miners. A study report for the CNSC undertaken by the Occupational Cancer Research Centre at Cancer Care Ontario tracked the health of 28,959 former uranium miners over 21 years and found a two-fold increase in lung cancer mortality and incidence. The BMJ (journal of the British Medical Association) reported an increase of lung cancer risk; miners who have worked at least 100 months in uranium mines have a twofold increased risk of developing lung cancer. The study is to be updated in 2023. Between the minutes opening and 1980, there were 77 fatal workplace safety incidents in the Elliot Lake mines. == See also == * Uranium mining in the Bancroft area (Ontario's other main uranium mining area) * Agnew Lake Mine (nearby uranium mine) * Uranium ore deposits * List of uranium mines * List of uranium mines in Ontario * List of mines in Ontario == References == == Further reading == * Lianne C. Leddy. Serpent River Resurgence: Confronting Uranium Mining at Elliot Lake. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2022. == External links == * Report of the Royal Commission on the Health and Safety of Workers in Mines * Elliot Lake Nuclear Mining Museum * Denison Mines official website * BHP (owner of Rio Algom) official website Category:Uranium mining in Canada Category:Mining in Ontario Category:Former mines in Canada Category:History of mining in Canada Category:Mining and the environment Category:History of Canada (1945–1960) Category:History of Canada (1960–1981) Category:History of Canada (1982–1992) Category:Energy in Ontario Category:1950s in Ontario Category:1960s in Ontario Category:1970s in Ontario Category:1980s in Ontario Category:20th century in Ontario Category:Geology of Ontario Category:Economy of Canada Category:Environmental impact of nuclear power Category:Lung cancer Category:Nuclear power Category:Nuclear energy |
{{Infobox settlement | name = Lower Manhattan | official_name = | other_name = Downtown Manhattan, Downtown New York City | nickname = | settlement_type = Central business district | motto = | image_skyline = Manhattan in the distance (Unsplash).jpg | imagesize = 300 | image_caption = Lower Manhattan, including Wall Street, the world's principal financial center, and One World Trade Center, the tallest skyscraper in the United States. | image_map = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_caption = | pushpin_mapsize = | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = | subdivision_type1 = State | subdivision_name1 = | subdivision_type2 = City | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = Borough | subdivision_name3 = Manhattan | unit_pref = Imperial | area_footnotes = | area_total_sq_mi = | population_as_of = 2010 | population_footnotes = | population_total = 382,654 | population_note = | population_density_km2 = auto | postal_code_type = ZIP Codes | postal_code = 10004, 10005, 10006, 10007, 10038, 10280, 10012, 10013, 10014 | area_code = 212, 332, 646, and 917 | blank_name = Median household income | blank_info = $201,953 | website = | footnotes = }} Lower Manhattan, also known as Downtown Manhattan or Downtown New York City, is the southernmost part of Manhattan, the central borough for business, culture, and government in New York City, which is the most populated city in the United States with over 8.8 million residents as of the 2020 census. Lower Manhattan includes the area delineated to the north by 14th Street, to the west by the Hudson River, to the east by East River, and to the south by New York Harbor. The Lower Manhattan business district, known as the Financial District or Wall Street, is a world-leading global center for commerce, housing Wall Street, the New York Stock Exchange, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and other major financial institutions. Lower Manhattan has some of New York City's most iconic buildings, including One World Trade Center, the tallest skyscraper in both the United States, and the Western Hemisphere. Lower Manhattan served as the first region of what ultimately became Manhattan Island in 1624 and later New York City. Its population as of the 2010 United States census was 382,654. ==Geography== Lower Manhattan is delineated on the north by 14th Street, on the west by the Hudson River, on the east by the East River, and on the south by New York Harbor. Its northern border is designated by thoroughfares about a mile-and-a-half south of 14th Street and a mile north of Manhattan's southern tip around Chambers Street near the Hudson River east of the entrances and overpass to the Brooklyn Bridge. Two other major arteries to Lower Manhattan are Canal Street, roughly half a mile north of Chambers Street, and 23rd Street, roughly half a mile north of 14th Street. Lower Manhattan's central business district forms the core of the area below Chambers Street and includes the Financial District, commonly known as Wall Street after the name of its primary artery, and the World Trade Center site. At the island's southern tip is Battery Park; City Hall is north of the Financial District. South of Chambers Street are Battery Park City and South Street Seaport. TriBeCa straddles Chambers Street on the west side; at the street's east end is the giant Manhattan Municipal Building. North of Chambers Street and the Brooklyn Bridge and south of Canal Street is the Chinatown neighborhood. Many court buildings and other government offices are located in this area. The Lower East Side neighborhood straddles Canal Street. North of Canal Street and south of 14th Street are SoHo, the Meatpacking District, the West Village, Greenwich Village, Little Italy, Nolita, and the East Village. Between 14th and 23rd Streets are lower Chelsea, Union Square, the Flatiron District, Gramercy, and Stuyvesant Town–Peter Cooper Village. ==History== ===Lenape and New Netherland=== The area that would eventually encompass modern-day New York City was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically identical Native Americans who spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami. European settlement began with the founding of a Dutch fur trading post in Lower Manhattan, later called New Amsterdam () in 1626. The first fort was built at The Battery to protect New Netherland. In approximately 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. The Dutch West Indies Company subsequently imported African slaves to serve as laborers; they helped to build the wall that defended the town against English and native attacks. Early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became a director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kieft's War against the Native Americans. The Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City, New Jersey resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch. The Dutch Republic sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29, 1645. On May 27, 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival. The colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2, 1653. The first mayors (burgemeesters) of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year.Scheltema, Gajus and Westerhuijs, Heleen (eds.),Exploring Historic Dutch New York. Museum of the City of New York/Dover Publications, New York 2011. ===17th and 18th centuries=== In 1664, the English conquered the area and renamed it "New York" after the Duke of York and the city of York in Yorkshire. At that time, people of African descent made up 20% of the population of the city, with European settlers numbering approximately 1,500, and people of African descent numbering 375 (with 300 of that 375 enslaved and 75 free). While it has been claimed that African slaves comprised 40% of the small population of the city at that time,Spencer P.M. Harrington, "Bones and Bureaucrats", Archeology, March/April 1993, accessed February 11, 2012. this claim has not been substantiated. During the mid 1600s, farms of free blacks covered where Washington Square Park later developed. The Dutch briefly regained the city in 1673, renaming the city "New Orange", before permanently ceding the colony of New Netherland to the English for what is now Suriname in November 1674. The new English rulers of the formerly Dutch New Amsterdam and New Netherland renamed the settlement back to New York. As the colony grew and prospered, sentiment also grew for greater autonomy. In the context of the Glorious Revolution in England, Jacob Leisler led Leisler's Rebellion and effectively controlled the city and surrounding areas from 1689 to 1691, before being arrested and executed. By 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200."Gotham Center for New York City History" Timeline 1700–1800. By 1703, 42% of households in New York had slaves, a higher percentage than in Philadelphia or Boston. The 1735 libel trial of John Peter Zenger in the city was a seminal influence on freedom of the press in North America. It would be a standard for the basic articles of freedom in the United States Declaration of Independence. By the 1740s, with expansion of settlers, 20% of the population of New York were slaves, totaling about 2,500 people. After a series of fires in 1741, the city became panicked that blacks planned to burn the city in a conspiracy with some poor whites. Historians believe their alarm was mostly fabrication and fear, but officials rounded up 31 blacks and 4 whites, all of whom were convicted of arson and executed. City officials executed 13 blacks by burning them alive and hanged 4 whites and 18 blacks. In 1754, Columbia University was founded under charter by George II of Great Britain as King's College in Lower Manhattan. The Stamp Act and other British measures fomented dissent, particularly among the Sons of Liberty, who maintained a long-running skirmish with locally stationed British troops over Liberty Poles from 1766 to 1776. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City in 1765 in the first organized resistance to British authority across the colonies. After the major defeat of the Continental Army in the Battle of Long Island, General George Washington withdrew to Manhattan Island, but with the subsequent defeat at the Battle of Fort Washington the island was effectively left to the British. The city became a haven for loyalist refugees, becoming a British stronghold for the entire war. Consequently, the area also became the focal point for Washington's espionage and intelligence-gathering throughout the war. In 1771, Bear Market was established along the Hudson River shoreline on land donated by Trinity Church, and replaced by Washington Market in 1813. New York City was greatly damaged twice by fires of suspicious origin during British military rule. The city became the political and military center of operations for the British in North America for the remainder of the war and a haven for Loyalist refugees. Continental Army officer Nathan Hale was hanged in Manhattan for espionage. In addition, the British began to hold the majority of captured American prisoners of war aboard prison ships in Wallabout Bay, across the East River in Brooklyn. More Americans lost their lives from neglect aboard these ships than died in all the battles of the war. British occupation lasted until November 25, 1783. George Washington triumphantly returned to the city that day, as the last British forces left the city. Starting in 1785, the Congress met in New York City under the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, New York City became the first national capital of the United States under the new United States Constitution. The Constitution also created the current Congress of the United States, and its first sitting was at Federal Hall on Wall Street. The first United States Supreme Court sat there. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted and ratified there. George Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall. New York City remained the capital of the U.S. until 1790, when the role was transferred to Philadelphia. ===19th century=== New York grew as an economic center, first as a result of Alexander Hamilton's policies and practices as the first Secretary of the Treasury and, later, with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the North American interior.Lankevich (1998), pp. 67–68. Immigration resumed after being slowed by wars in Europe, and a new street grid system, the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, expanded to encompass all of Manhattan. Early in the 19th century, the landfill was used to expand Lower Manhattan from the natural Hudson shoreline at Greenwich Street to West Street. In 1898, the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then an independent city), Manhattan and outlying areas.The 100 Year Anniversary of the Consolidation of the 5 Boroughs into New York City, New York City. Retrieved June 29, 2007. The borough of Brooklyn incorporated the independent City of Brooklyn, recently joined to Manhattan by the Brooklyn Bridge in Lower Manhattan. Municipal governments contained within the boroughs were abolished, and the county governmental functions, housed in Lower Manhattan after unification, were absorbed by the city or each borough. "[B]orough presidents ... responsible for local administration and public works." ===20th century=== thumb|upright=1.25|Lower Manhattan in 1931 Washington Market was located between Barclay and Hubert Streets, and from Greenwich Street to West Street. It was demolished in the 1960s and replaced by a new Independence Plaza, Washington Market Park, and other developments. ====Construction boom==== Lower Manhattan retains the most irregular street grid plans in the borough. Throughout the early decades of the 1900s, the area experienced a construction boom, with major towers such as 40 Wall Street, the American International Building, Woolworth Building, and 20 Exchange Place being erected. Many new water crossings into Lower Manhattan were built at this time, including the Williamsburg Bridge in 1903 and the Manhattan Bridge in 1909. The Holland Tunnel to New Jersey opened in 1927, while the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel to Brooklyn opened in 1950 and was the last major fixed crossing to be built to Lower Manhattan. Despite these road connections opening, the economic center of New York City began to shift from Lower Manhattan to Midtown with the opening of many commuter rail terminals at the turn of the 20th century. The original Penn Station opened in 1910, the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (now PATH) extension to 33rd Street was completed in 1910, and Grand Central Terminal opened in 1913. On March 25, 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in Greenwich Village took the lives of 146 garment workers, which would eventually lead to great advancements in the city's fire department, building codes, and workplace regulations. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, New York became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication. Interborough Rapid Transit, the first New York City Subway company, began operating in 1904. The area's demographics stabilized, labor unionization brought new protections and affluence to the working class, the city's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under Fiorello La Guardia, and his controversial parks commissioner, Robert Moses, ended the 'blight' of many tenement areas, by demolishing slums, factories, and working class neighborhoods through public works such as the High line, the West Side Highway and FDR Drive, built housing projects, expanded new parks, rebuilt streets, and zoning controls, especially in Lower Manhattan. The zoning changes were intended to displace the industrial workforce by removing zoning protection for industrial space and incentivizing upscale residential and clerical redevelopment. The port of New York, despite its physical suitability for berthing and it's close proximity to Europe, began to deteriorate due to the city's unwillingness to invest or mordernise the port and the deindustrialization zoning policy. However a large number of small scale, dynamic, and highly specialized industries persisted despite the city's efforts such as the garment industry which was closely tied to the fashion industry in Midtown, or the printing industry; linked with the publishing industry. In the 1950s, a few new buildings were constructed in Lower Manhattan, including an 11-story building at 156 William Street in 1955. A 27-story office building at 20 Broad Street, a 12-story building at 80 Pine Street, a 26-story building at 123 William Street, and a few others were built in 1957. By the end of the decade, Lower Manhattan had become economically depressed, in comparison with Midtown Manhattan, which was booming with the continued march uptown. David Rockefeller spearheaded widespread urban renewal efforts in Lower Manhattan, beginning with constructing One Chase Manhattan Plaza, the new headquarters for his bank. He established the Downtown-Lower Manhattan Association (DLMA) which drew up plans for broader revitalization of Lower Manhattan, with the development of a world trade center at the heart of these plans. The original DLMA plans called for the "world trade center" to be built along the East River, between Old Slip and Fulton Street. After negotiations with New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority decided to build the World Trade Center on a site along the Hudson River and the West Side Highway, rather than the East River site. When building the World Trade Center, 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 m3) of material was excavated from the site. Rather than dumping the spoil at sea or in landfills, the fill material was used to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street, creating Battery Park City. The result was a 700-foot (210-m) extension into the river, running six blocks or , covering , providing a riverfront esplanade and over of parks.ASLA 2003 The Landmark Award, American Society of Landscape Architects. Accessed May 17, 2007. Through much of its history, the area south of Chambers Street was mainly a commercial district, with a small population of residents—in 1960, it was home to about 4,000. Construction of Battery Park City, on landfill from construction of the World Trade Center, brought many new residents to the area. Gateway Plaza, the first Battery Park City development, was finished in 1983. The project's centerpiece, the World Financial Center, consists of four luxury highrise towers. By the turn of the century, Battery Park City was mostly completed, with the exception of some ongoing construction on West Street. Around this time, Lower Manhattan reached its highest population of business tenants and full-time residents. These developments struggled to become fully occupied at desirable rents, with relatively high vacancy rates. In 1993, the Downtown Lower Manhattan Association contributed to a city plan calling for the revitalization of Lower Manhattan. The plan included recommended zoning changes, tax incentives to encourage new tenants, and the conversion of commercial buildings into apartments. It also called for the creation of a business improvement district, called The Alliance for Downtown New York, to help spur the area's renewal. Between 1995 and 2014, 15.8 million square feet of office space was converted to residential or hotel use. As a result, Lower Manhattan's residential population rose from 14,000 to 60,000. ====Culture==== Since the early-20th century, Lower Manhattan has been an important center for the arts and leisure activities. Greenwich Village was a locus of bohemian culture from the first decade of the century through the 1980s. Several of the city's leading jazz clubs are still located in Greenwich Village, which was also one of the primary bases of the American folk music revival of the 1960s. Many art galleries were located in SoHo between the 1970s and early 1990s; today, the downtown Manhattan gallery scene is centered in Chelsea. From the 1960s onward, Lower Manhattan has been home to many alternative theater companies, constituting the heart of the Off-Off-Broadway community. Punk rock and its musical derivatives emerged in the mid-1970s largely at two Lower Manhattan venues, CBGB on Bowery in the western edge of the East Village, and Max's Kansas City on Park Avenue South. At the same time, the area's surfeit of appropriated industrial lofts, played an integral role in the development and sustenance of the minimalist composition, free jazz, disco, and electronic dance music subcultures. The area's many nightclubs and bars, though mostly shorn of the freewheeling iconoclasm, pioneering spirit, and do-it-yourself mentality that characterized the pre-gentrification era, still draw patrons from throughout the city and the surrounding region. ===21st century=== In the early 21st century, the Meatpacking District, once the sparsely populated province of after-hours BDSM clubs and transgender prostitutes, gained a reputation as New York City's trendiest neighborhood. ====September 11 attacks==== During the September 11 attacks in 2001, two of four hijacked planes were flown into the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center, and the towers collapsed. The 7 World Trade Center was not struck by a plane but collapsed because of heavy debris falling from the impacts of planes and the collapse of the North Tower. The 3, 4, 5, and 6 World Trade Center buildings were damaged beyond repair or destroyed, and soon after demolished. The collapse of the Twin Towers also caused extensive damage to surrounding buildings and skyscrapers in Lower Manhattan. A total of 2,753 people, including those on the planes, were killed in New York. About 400,000 people, including rescue workers and residents of the area were exposed to toxic dust and debris; many developed serious respiratory illnesses, cancers, and other harms arising from the attack, and 3,496 died. ====Post-9/11 rebuilding==== Following September 11, Lower Manhattan lost much of its economy and office space but has since rebounded significantly. Private sector employment reached 233,000 at the end of 2016, the highest levels since the end of 2001. This was largely due to growth and diversification in the local workforce with gains in employment sectors like Technology, Advertising, Media and Information, as well as Hotel, Restaurants, Retailing, and Health care. As of 2016, Lower Manhattan's business district is home to approximately 700 retail stores and 500 bars and restaurants. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation has consummated plans to rebuild downtown Manhattan by adding new streets, buildings, and office space. The National September 11 Memorial at the site was opened to the public on September 11, 2011, while the National September 11 Museum was officially inaugurated by President Barack Obama on May 15, 2014. As of the time of its opening in November 2014, the new One World Trade Center, formerly known as the Freedom Tower, is the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere and the sixth-tallest in the world, at ; while other skyscrapers are under construction at the site. The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park, formerly known as Liberty Plaza Park, began in the Financial District on September 17, 2011, receiving global attention and spawning the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide. On October 29 and 30, 2012, Hurricane Sandy ravaged portions of Lower Manhattan with record-high storm surge from New York Harbor, severe flooding, and high winds, causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of Manhattanites and leading to gasoline shortages and disruption of mass transit systems. The storm and its effects have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of Manhattan and the New York City metropolitan region to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future. Lower Manhattan has been experiencing a baby boom, well above the overall birth rate in Manhattan, with the area south of Canal Street witnessing 1,086 births in 2010, 12% greater than 2009 and over twice the number born in 2001. The Financial District alone has witnessed growth in its population to approximately 43,000 as of 2014, nearly double the 23,000 recorded at the 2000 Census. There are currently 61,000 residents in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan south of Chambers Street and more than 62 percent of the population is between 18 and 44. Lower Manhattan is home to more young professionals than Greenpoint, the East Village, and Downtown Brooklyn and on par with Downtown Jersey City and Williamsburg. In June 2015, The New York Times wrote that Lower Manhattan's dining scene was experiencing a renaissance. There are over 400 casual dining and more than 100 full-service dining restaurants in the area. The Village Voice, based at 80 Maiden Lane in the Financial District and historically the largest alternative newspaper in the United States, announced in 2017 that it would cease publication of its print edition and convert to a fully digital venture. On October 31, 2017, a man drove a pickup truck into the Hudson River Park's bike path between Houston Street and Chambers Street, killing eight people and injuring at least 15. Most of those who were hit were bicyclists. It was the first deadly terrorist attack in Manhattan since 9/11. Since 2010, a Lower Manhattan community known as Little Australia has emerged and is growing in the Nolita neighborhoodn. ===Historical sites=== Before the September 11 attacks, the Twin Towers were iconic of Lower Manhattan's global significance as a financial center. The new office towers built since the attack (including One World Trade Center) have transformed the skyline of Lower Manhattan. The 9/11 Memorial & Museum at the former World Trade Center site has become a popular draw for visitors. New York City has been described as the gay capital of the world, and the epicenter of LGBT culture and its catalyst as a continuing cultural force in modern society has been the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village. Similarly, Chinatown, which was spawned just east of the original Five Points neighborhood of Lower Manhattan, was born in the 1850s and continues to be the epicenter of culture for the Chinese diaspora. Lower Manhattan contains many more historical buildings and sites, including Castle Clinton, Bowling Green, the old United States Customs House (now the National Museum of the American Indian), Federal Hall National Memorial commemorating the site where George Washington was inaugurated as the first U.S. President, Fraunces Tavern, New York City Hall, the Museum of American Finance, the New York Stock Exchange Building, South Street Seaport, the Brooklyn Bridge, South Ferry (the embarkation point for the Staten Island Ferry), and Trinity Church. Lower Manhattan is home to some of New York City's most spectacular skyscrapers, including the Woolworth Building, 40 Wall Street (also known as the Trump Building), 26 Wall Street (also known as the Standard Oil Building), and 70 Pine Street (also known as the American International Building). In 1966, the commercial district of Radio Row on Cortlandt Street was demolished to make way for construction of the former World Trade Center. ==Denotation== Downtown in the context of Manhattan, and of New York City generally, has different meanings to different people, especially depending on where in the city they reside. Residents of the island or of The Bronx generally speak of going "downtown" to refer to any southbound excursion to any Manhattan destination.NYC Basics, NYCvisit.com. Retrieved on December 2, 2007. A declaration that one is going to be "downtown" may indicate a plan to be anywhere south of 14th Street—the definition of downtown according to the city's official tourism marketing organization—or even 23rd Street.Hotels: Downtown below 23rd Street , Time Out New York. Retrieved December 3, 2007."Residents Angered By Bar Noise In Downtown Manhattan" , NY1 News, March 3, 2006. Retrieved on December 3, 2007. The full phrase Downtown Manhattan may also refer more specifically to the area of Manhattan south of Canal Street. Within business-related contexts, many people use the term Downtown Manhattan to refer only to the Financial District and the corporate offices in the immediate vicinity. For instance, the Business Improvement District managed by the Alliance for Downtown New York defines Downtown as south of Murray Street (essentially South of New York City Hall), which includes the World Trade Center area and the Financial District. The phrase Lower Manhattan may apply to any of these definitions: the broader ones often if the speaker is discussing the area in relation to the rest of the city; more restrictive ones, again, if the focus is on business matters or on the colonial and early post-colonial history of the island. As reflected in popular culture, "Downtown" in Manhattan has historically represented a place where one could "forget all your troubles, forget all your cares, and go Downtown," as the lyrics of Petula Clark's 1964 hit "Downtown" celebrate (although Tony Hatch, the songwriter of the track, later clarified that he naively believed Times Square to be "downtown," and was the actual inspiration for the hit single). The protagonist of Billy Joel's 1983 hit "Uptown Girl" contrasts himself (a "downtown man") with the purportedly staid uptown world.Downtown: Its Rise and Fall, 1880–1950 by Professor Robert M. Fogelson. Yale University Press, 2003. . pg 3 Likewise, the chorus of Neil Young's 1995 single "Downtown" urges "Let's have a party, downtown all right." ==Economy== Lower Manhattan is the third largest business district in the United States, after Midtown Manhattan and the Chicago Loop. Anchored by Wall Street, New York City functions as the financial and fintech capital of the world and has been called the world's most economically powerful city. Lower Manhattan is home to the New York Stock Exchange, at 11 Wall Street, and the corporate headquarters of NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway, representing the world's largest and second largest stock exchanges, respectively, when measured both by overall average daily trading volume and by total market capitalization of their listed companies in 2013. Wall Street investment banking fees in 2012 totaled approximately US$40 billion. Other large companies with headquarters in Lower Manhattan include (in alphabetical order): *AIG, 175 Water Street *Ambac Financial Group"Contact Us." Ambac Financial Group. Retrieved on December 11, 2009. *AOL, at 770 Broadway"Company Overview ." AOL. Retrieved on May 7, 2009. *BARKER, 30 Broad Street *Condé Nast, One World Trade Center, publisher of Vogue, W, Vanity Fair, The New Yorker, and other publications *EmblemHealth and Standard & Poor's, at 55 Water Street"Office Locations". Standard & Poor's. Retrieved on August 12, 2011. "Corporate 55 Water Street New York New York""Large Employer Group Application ". EmblemHealth. Retrieved on August 12, 2011. "EmblemHealth, 55 Water Street, New York, New York 10041 HIP Insurance Company of New York, 55 Water Street, New York, NY 10041 Group Health Incorporated, 441 Ninth Avenue, New York, NY 10001" HIP Health Plan of New York, which became a part of EmblemHealth, moved there with 2,000 employees in October 2004. It was the largest corporate relocation in downtown Manhattan following the September 11 attacks."HIP Celebrates Opening of New Headquarters in Lower Manhattan Relocation of 2,000 Employees to 55 Water Street Represents Largest Corporate Relocation to Lower Manhattan Since 9/11 ". HIP Health Plan. October 12, 2004. Retrieved on August 12, 2011. *Goldman Sachs, at 200 West Street *Group M, 3 World Trade Center *Hudson's Bay Company, Brookfield Place, the parent company of Saks, Lord and Taylor and Gilt Groupe *IBT Media, publisher of the International Business Times and Newsweek, among other publications; located in Hanover Square *Nielsen Company and subsidiary Nielsen Media Research"Univision sues over Nielsen's meters." Associated Press at the St. Petersburg Times. June 11, 2004. Retrieved on August 28, 2011. "New York is the corporate headquarters of Nielsen,[...]""Contact Us ." Nielsen Company. Retrieved on August 28, 2011. "The Nielsen Company, 770 Broadway, New York, NY 10003-9595" *PR Newswire, at 350 Hudson Street" *Spotify, 4 World Trade Center *Verizon Communications, at 140 West Street. Verizon Corporate Office Headquarters. Retrieved on July 30, 2014. Prior to the September 11 attacks, One World Trade Center served as the headquarters of Cantor Fitzgerald."office locations." Cantor Fitzgerald. March 4, 2000. Retrieved on October 4, 2009. Prior to its dissolution, the headquarters of US Helicopter were in Lower Manhattan."Contact Us." US Helicopter. Retrieved on September 25, 2009. When Hi Tech Expressions existed, its headquarters were in Lower Manhattan.Ward's Business Directory of U.S. Private and Public Companies, 1995: Alphabetic listing, G-O Volume 2. Gale Research, 1995. "2073. Retrieved from Google Books on July 28, 2010. "Hi Tech Expressions Inc. 584 Broadway New York, NY 10012." , ."Playin fair video-game manufacturers target an untapped market -- Girls". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. June 12, 1994. K-1. Retrieved on July 28, 2010. "Meanwhile, over at Hi Tech Expressions, a New York-based software company". ==Government and infrastructure== ===Vehicles=== Lower Manhattan is accessible by vehicle through several major thoroughfares. From New Jersey, Lower Manhattan is accessible through the Holland Tunnel from Interstate 78. From Queens, Long Island, and points east, it is accessible through the Queens–Midtown Tunnel from the Long Island Expressway. From Midtown and Upper Manhattan, it is accessible from the West Side Highway. ===Subway=== The headquarters of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey is located in 4 World Trade Center of the World Trade Center complex."About the Port Authority." Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. June 22, 2000. Retrieved on January 22, 2010. The city hall and related government infrastructure of the City of New York are located in Lower Manhattan, next to City Hall Park. The Jacob K. Javits Federal Building is located in Civic Center. It includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation New York field office."New York Field Office." Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved on June 9, 2015. "26 Federal Plaza, 23rd Floor New York, NY 10278-0004" Many New York City Subway routes converge downtown. The largest hub, Fulton Center, was completed in 2014 after a $1.4 billion reconstruction project necessitated by the September 11, 2001, attacks, and involves six separate stations. This transit hub was expected to serve 300,000 daily riders as of late 2014. The World Trade Center Transportation Hub and PATH station opened in 2016. Ferry services are also concentrated downtown, including the Staten Island Ferry at the Whitehall Terminal, NYC Ferry at Pier 11/Wall Street (and Battery Park City Ferry Terminal starting in 2020), and service to Governors Island at the Battery Maritime Building. ===Bus=== Many MTA express buses stop in lower Manhattan, the , and to Staten Island, the , and to Brooklyn, the , and to Queens, and the to The Bronx. ==See also== * East Side * Lower East Side * Lower West Side * Midtown Manhattan * Upper Manhattan * West Side ==References== ==External links== *Lower Manhattan at NYCgo.com Manhattan Category:Economy of New York City Category:Neighborhoods in Manhattan |
Music education in the United States is implemented in many schools as a form of modern-day teaching. Music education is a field of study that focuses on the teaching and application of music in the classroom. As this addition to the curriculum progresses, the effects and implications to this course of study are being widely debated, especially the factors pertaining to. Researchers are able to follow its progression from its earliest known application within the field of academics. == History == The earliest systematic music education in the country was centered on the training of singers for Protestant church services, to lead the congregation in psalm- singing. In the 18th century, the first singing schools in the country were founded, and a number of legendary traveling singing masters traveled New England, teaching in barns, schoolhouses and other informal locations; these masters included Francis Hopkinson and William Billings. By the end of the century, more formal singing schools in cities like Savannah, Philadelphia and Boston became social singing societies. Public education in the United States first offered music as part of the curriculum in Boston in the 1830s, and it spread through the help of singing teacher Lowell Mason, after he successfully advocated it to the Boston School Committee in 1838. The committee ultimately decided to include music as a curricular subject because it was of a moral, physical, and intellectual nature. Music was considered moral because it played such a part in religion, as well as the fact that it had been documented to produce "happiness, contentment, cheerfulness, and tranquility." It was of a physical nature because singing was exercise for the lungs. The committee justified music's intellectual nature by stating that it had been studied as a part of the quadrivium in the Middle Ages, and that it "contributes to memory, comparison, attention, and intellectual faculties." Another advocate of music in public education was Swiss educational reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Pestalozzi believed that nature was the ultimate and original source of knowledge, therefore his educational theories placed a high value on sensory, kinesthetic, and active learning. He felt students should start with simple concepts in all subjects and move later to more complex ideas. Pestalozzi's method was one of the earliest methods that could be considered "student-centered learning" and his ideas of discipline and a student-teacher rapport based on love and trust were markedly different from the common practice of corporal punishment at the time. The first music educator to use Pestalozzian ideas in teaching music was Hans Negeli, a colleague of Pestalozzi in Switzerland. His Pestalozzian approach to music was brought to the United States, translated, and popularized by William Channing Woodbridge, Elam Ives, and Lowell Mason. This approach prized active and sensory learning, taught sounds before signs, separated music into melody, rhythm, and expression, and also moved from the simple to complex within the context of each element. Many of these ideas are found in later established music teaching methods, such as Orff-Schulwerk, Kodály, and, Dalcroze- Eurthymics. Music education, primarily vocal, remained most common in women's schools, though many private academies also existed, offering boys and girls instruction in orchestral instruments like the violin, viola, cello and piano. In the mid-19th century, educator Luther Whiting Mason established music education in the schools of Cincinnati, and become a prominent author of textbooks. His National Music Course, first published in 1870, was a widely adopted standard part of many American curricula. Music education continued to expand across the country, and gained in respect as an essential part of educational development. There was a music section in the National Education Association by the 1890s. === The scientific method and how it affected music === After the Civil War, pragmatism and the scientific aspects of sequential skill building, accurate evaluations, examinations, systematic teaching methods, and scientific methods were popular in education. Music educators' responses showed that music could be studied scientifically through the use of different methodologies, systematic textbooks and graded music series, and instructional material for teachers. The scientific and more pragmatic goals of education in the nineteenth century had a profound effect on the development of music education in the schools. === Two methodologies: rote vs. note === thumb|right|Lowell Mason thumb|right|Luther Whiting Mason Two main methodologies used to teach music were the "rote" method and the "note" method. The rote method followed many Pestalozzian ideologies. Songs were taught first and musical ideas were presented later, one at time, carefully and systematically. Singing by rote was the basis for this methodology. Lowell Mason authored what is believed to be the first music series using the rote method. Lowell Mason's The Song Garden from 1864 set the stage for other rote methodologies of the late nineteenth century. Luther Whiting Mason was a prominent rote method name presented in the textbook. Luther Mason was employed in Cincinnati schools but later moved to Boston to be the "superintendent of music in the primary schools". Luther Mason wrote school textbooks using rote methodology. The National Music Course, published by Ginn in 1870, had seven books presented in a sequential approach of using rote songs to teach music reading. (p. 196) Luther Mason included very detailed lesson plans for the classroom teacher, since at the time music was taught by the classroom teacher but overseen by a music specialist. The series was designed for fifteen minutes of music instruction each day given by the classroom teacher and overseen by a music educator once per week. The book series was so popular Luther Mason was invited to apply his methods in Japan and Germany. The rote method was less favored than the "note" method later in the nineteenth century. However, the debate continues today. An example of the note method is Joseph Bird's 1861 Vocal Music Reader and Benjamin Jepson's three book series using "note" methodology. The Elementary Music Reader was published in 1871 by the Barnes Company, one year after Luther Mason's The National Music Course. Benjamin Jepson was a military man turned music teacher in New Haven after an injury in the war. His music textbooks had exercises and songs presented systematically for the goal of music reading and sight- singing. Jepson later published two revisions of his series under the names The Standard Music Reader in 1888, and in 1904 The New Standard Music Reader. Following in Jepson's footsteps of note methodology were Hosea Edson Holt and John Wheeler Tufts, who wrote The Normal Music Course published in 1883 (twelve years after Jepson's The Elementary Music Reader). Click here to read the Normal Music Course. This series had five books all geared toward sight- singing and reading music. A few other note methodology textbook were presented to show the seriousness of music reading as a scientific and pragmatic study. These other note methodology books included: The Graded School Singer by Blackman and Whittemore-1873, and the Cincinnati Schools' The Young Singer-1860, The Young Singer's Manual-1866, and the Cincinnati Music Reader-1893. The culmination of the scientific method and note methodology advances was presented in Thomas Tapper's and Frederick Ripley's The National Music Course published in 1895. The book focused on a no-nonsense systematic approach to music literacy to develop beauty in singing. It emphasized the systematic and pragmatic delivery of materials. thumb|right|Philip C. Hayden Music Education in the United States took a big turn with the creation of the Music Supervisors National Conference. The first meeting of the Music Supervisors Conference was held on April 10–12, 1907 in Keokuk, Iowa, at Westminster Presbyterian Church. A music educator by the name of Philip C. Hayden made the first meeting possible by sending invitations and announcing the meeting in the Music School Monthly of which Hayden was the founder and editor of the publication. The gathering was primarily meant for educators to come observe new teaching techniques in rhythm and observe Hayden's music students. During the three-day convention, music demonstrations took place provided by Hayden and his students. Informal discussions on current topics in music education would also take place during the convention. Future conventions and clinics would be based on this model. Throughout the convention, many educators discussed the importance of having a more permanent organization dedicated to music supervisors and teaching techniques. On the last day of the convention, a forum of sixty-nine music supervisors voted to have another convention and became charter members of an organization that would remain nameless. The Music Supervisors National Conference was officially established during the third meeting of the organization in Cincinnati in 1910 with the adoption of the constitution and bylaws. As the role of the music supervisor changed into more of an administrative position, the conference began to focus primarily on the teaching methods provided in the classroom. At the 1934 Chicago meeting, members decided to change the name to Music Educators National Conference. Since the inception of Music Supervisors National Conference, the organization has worked diligently in making sure that every student has access to music instruction in the public school system provided by a qualified music teacher. Vocal instruction dominated public schooling at all levels. Instrumental education was handled largely through private enterprise, until the early 20th century. Inspired by the band music of Frederick Innes, John Philip Sousa and others, many schools offered orchestral instrument bands. This accelerated following World War I, when many soldiers returned with knowledge and interest in the band music they learned as soldiers. The first formal school for music educators was founded in 1884, in Potsdam, New York, by Julia Ettie Crane, but Oberlin Conservatory in Ohio in the 1920s became the first school to offer a four-year degree in music education. == Concert and marching bands == === All-female high school, military, and performance bands === Bands during the mid to late nineteenth century were an integral part of every community. These bands would march in parades, provide free concerts, supported soldiers, and played for those in hospitals. During the golden age of bands which occurred from 1865 to 1917, there were approximately over 10,000 brass bands in existence across the country. The band membership did consist of males, but past photographs indicate that there were also all women bands. The female bands continued their popularity into the twentieth century and influenced the evolution of the high school band from totally male to the integration of female into the programs. High schools often housed the standard male band, but also often included a female band. There were also female bands created to support industry. With the beginning of WW II female bands expanded into women's military bands. These bands were created to entertain female troops, sell war bonds, and perform at concerts, graduations, dances, parades, and hospitals (2008). The WAC (Woman's Army Corps) bands were used to entertain injured soldiers returning from the war. One Ohio music educator, Joan A. Lamb, provided great contributions to world of military bands. Lamb was a public music teacher until enrolling in the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps later known as WAC. In her basic training, she was asked to become a candidate for officer, but she insisted she had joined to play in the WAC band. She was even sent to a psychiatrist because of her persistence in the effort to become a member of the band. Finally, she located the WAC band director, auditioned for him with her oboe, and was immediately reassigned to the band. Lamb held several music positions within the band which was a first for women. She graduated from Army Music School, directed the 400th WAC Band, started an African American WAC Band, and performed in the Armed Forces Radio Orchestra. After her service in the WACS, she returned to her life as a music teacher, educator, and administrator in Los Angeles public schools where she served for 30 years. African-American women also wanted to serve in the WAC Band. A 404 WAC Band was created. The WAC branch of the military was the only branch who allowed African American female bands. The Coast Guard also created their version of the female band. The SPAR Band played for the troops and performed many of the same activities as the WAC Band. After the war, the SPAR Band was disbanded and the Coast Guard again became all male. After the war, the female SPAR band members became teachers, performers, and parents. There were some female members of the WAC and SPAR military bands who used the G.I Bill to go to college while others continued performing professionally post war. During the war, women's swing bands also became popular replacing the male counterpart serving in the war effort. These swing bands were highly successful and were well received by the public longing for a diversion from the war effort. The Ingenues was an all-female jazz band popular in the late 1920s through the 1930s. This performing band would often appear in vaudeville and variety theaters. Anna Mae Winburn was an African American band leader of an all-female jazz band called the International Sweethearts of Rhythm. Frances Klein was another famous female instrumentalist of the 30s and 40s who played in Kermit Dart's All-Girl Band, under the direction of Irene Vermillion. The women military bands and postwar all-female bands opened the door to more female participation in instrumental music. Through the efforts of these frontier-like women, perspectives changed as to the female purpose and level of reliability. Suddenly, female bands were found to be as entertaining as male bands. Women found a place and purpose in the entertainment world. Women who were thought to only have the ability to be mothers were leaders in the music world. Women's equality began to emerge during this time in history and music was a primary avenue for the movement. These women of the past created an environment which the women of today now enjoy. This environment is one of fairness and the ability to seek success in all career areas. Women of today attend college and may become professionals in the work force. Women like Joan Lamb conquered what had in the past seemed like a forbidden world. === High school music programs during World War II === thumb|Students at Washington High School at class, training for specific contributions to the war effort, Los Angeles, Califthumb|Victory Corps at Montgomery Blair HS === Collegiate band service organizations === The entrance of the United States into World War I (1917–1918) prompted the Wilson administration to promote a "patriotic mind-set." Community singing of patriotic songs such as "America" and "The Star Spangled Banner" were popular outlets for citizens as a way to promote "...strong community efforts of all kinds" and also assisted immigrants to learn English. In addition to community singing, concert bands and marching bands were also used to promote patriotism for "maintenance of civilian morale." College and university marching bands were also culturally influential during and after World War I, especially in the Midwest of the United States. Following the war, members of these collegiate bands were looking for ways to "develop good will, fellowship and understanding...and recognize the value of dedicated leadership." Two leading band service organizations were established to fit that calling, the Kappa Kappa Psi fraternity (ΚΚΨ) and the Tau Beta Sigma sorority (ΤΒΣ). thumb|220px|alt=The University of Detroit Band at Dinan Field in the 1920s.|The University of Detroit Band at Dinan Field in the 1920s. Kappa Kappa Psi was the first of those organizations, established on November 27, 1919, at Oklahoma A & M College. The strong sense of patriotism during World War I was wearing off in the U.S., and the band members of the university wanted to continue to advocate band music. Ten collegiate band members were selected including the band leader William A. Scroggs by the director of the ensemble, Bohumil "Boh" Makovsky. The fraternity quickly became national with the addition of the University of Washington and Montana State College in 1920. Since 1919, Kappa Kappa Psi members have been advocating, supporting and serving over 200 higher education institutions with around 5,000 active members each year. Famous fraternal brothers include John Philip Sousa, Karl King, and William Revelli. There are currently five distinctive purposes for Kappa Kappa Psi today which include: (1) promoting the existence and welfare of secondary school bands and cultivate a respect for their endeavors, (2) honoring outstanding band members through fraternal membership, (3) stimulating campus leadership and respect through positive conduct, (4) fostering a positive bond among collegiate bands and a high level or performance achievement, and (5) providing a positive social experience to all involved in college bands or other musical organizations. Collegiate bands in the 1920s were the domain of young men. Women were rarely involved, if at all. However, as the progressive movement of the U.S. was developing, bands became less militaristic and were accepting more women in the 1930s. Even with the progressive movement, some higher education bands held out much longer as a men-only ensemble. Michigan State University did not admit women into the Spartan Marching Band until 1972. Tau Beta Sigma sorority was established on March 26, 1946, twenty seven years after Kappa Kappa Psi. The charter institution was Oklahoma State University, renamed from Oklahoma A & M, after the organization decided it would be easier to start in Oklahoma rather than Texas. A major circumstance for creating a band service organization for women was simply due to the fact that more women were now involved with university bands in the United States. Wava Banes along with some other women classmates at Texas Tech University approached their director, D. O. Wiley about forming a "group of bandswomen" in 1937. The local organization was formalized as Tau Beta Sigma and structured after the Kappa Kappa Psi fraternity. Tau Beta Sigma petitioned Kappa Kappa Psi to become a chapter under their national fraternity in 1943, however a complete constitution re-write and difficulties associated with the U.S. entrance in World War II led Kappa Kappa Psi to suggest that Tau Beta Sigma form their own organization just as they had done in 1919. Due to complications with Texas corporation laws of 1945, A. Frank Martin from Kappa Kappa Psi suggested using a similar women's group at Oklahoma State University (OSU) as the founding chapter for Tau Beta Sigma. One month after OSU's charter was granted, the women traveled back to Texas to install the founding women of Tau Beta Sigma. Kappa Kappa Psi was able to convene in 1947 and officially accepted Tau Beta Sigma as their sister sorority. Both organizations grew in the post-World War II era. Society was still evolving and changing and women's rights became front and center in 1972 with the passage of the Title IX law. This law "requires gender equity for boys and girls in every educational program that receives federal funding." Since both groups were federally funded, women were allowed to join Kappa Kappa Psi and men were allowed to join Tau Beta Sigma. Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma are still active today and strive to promote the bands they are associated with as their founders did over a half century ago. == Modern secondary education == Music is generally optional in high school in the United States, and may or may not be required in middle or junior high school. Many music programs offer multiple opportunities for instrumentalists including concert bands, marching bands, jazz bands, and small ensembles. Other musical opportunities in most middle and high schools are choir and theater performance. Some high schools are starting to add music theory and conducting classes. These classes may be offered for dual credit in the future. ===Music education reform=== In 2015 a study was released from 2010 showing that according to the U.S. Department of Education, 40 percent of high schools don't require coursework in the arts for graduation. More than 8,000 public schools in the US are currently without music programs as of 2010. Across the country, 1.3 million elementary school students don't have access to a music class.U.S. Department of Education ==Music as a core subject== === History === According to the US Department of Education, the core academic subjects studied in schools are currently English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography. In order to teach a core subject in the United States, one must be a Highly Qualified Teacher (HQT), meaning they must have a bachelor's degree from a four-year institution, be licensed in the state in which they wish to teach, and be fully competent in their subject area. However, individual competencies vary from state-to-state. Historically, music and fine arts had not been a part of core curriculum in schools in the United States, however, in July 2015, the United States Senate, passed a bipartisan revision naming music and art core subjects in curriculum under the Every Child Achieves Act. The core subjects that were added were "technology, engineering, computer science, music, and physical education." This was an action against the No Child Left Behind Act, which many United States Education Advocates felt had narrowed down the subjects incorporated into the core curriculum. The No Child Left Behind Act was initially entitled the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, but then was later renamed No Child Left Behind in 2002. The National Association for Music Education, or NAfME, is an "organization of American music educators dedicated to advancing and preserving music education and as part of the core curriculum of schools in the United States." The NAfME is an organization founded in 1907 of more than 60,000 people who advocate for the benefits of music and arts education for students at the local, state, and national levels. NAfME published a press release with the bipartisan senate revision and the impact they believe it will have on the United States Core Curriculum. === Implementation === Music is implemented as an academic subject in schools around the world, in places such as Greece, Germany, Slovenia, Spain,. India, and Africa. This is not a comprehensive, as music is considered a cultural necessity in many countries worldwide. Although the NAfME addresses the plan for implementation for music and arts as core subjects at the national level, the fulfillment of this revision of the Every Child Achieves Act varies from state to state. As of 2014, forty-one states currently have an arts education requirement at all levels, but only seventeen of these states have programs with deliberate assessment policies. Twenty-seven of the fifty United States consider the arts a core subject. Georgia and Arkansas have very specific outlines of music, while Alaska, Colorado, Hawaii, Michigan, and D.C. have no arts instruction requirements for any level of schooling. The National Coalition for Core Arts Standards (NCCAS), has a series of performance assessments entitled Model Cornerstone Assessments, or MCAs, which have been expended in high schools as a pilot program in recent months. In addition to this, NAfME also has nine National Music Education standards, which include: "singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music; performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music; improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments; composing and arranging music within specified guidelines; reading and notating music; listening to, analyzing, and describing music; evaluating music and music performances; understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts; and understanding music in relation to history and culture." === Impacts on childhood development and academic success=== Many policymakers and initiators for music and the arts as a part of the core curriculum believe that students participating in music and arts programs which hold them to high standards will bring a creative outlook now seemingly required in the workforce. Since music has traditionally been viewed as a subject outside of academia, and music has been incorporated into schools as a secondary subject, or often as an elective, there is limited research on classroom benefits of music as a core subject. Many researchers have explored both the benefits to listening to music passively as well as pursuing music actively, as with learning an instrument. The benefits music in the classroom and its effects on brain development, academic performance, and practical life skills have been observed through research by Jenny Nam Yoon. She concluded that the two hemispheres of the brain are stimulated when music is played and how the corpus callosum, the bridge that connects the two hemispheres is larger in musician's brains. The effects of strictly listening to music have long been explored and has been given the name the "Mozart Effect", which is known to cause a "small increase in spatial-temporal reasoning". As seen with the Mozart Effect, listening to music has been proven to affect the brain and mood, as well as spatial temporal reasoning, but does not have any long-term benefits. A 1981 study at Mission Vejo High School proved that music students had a higher GPA than students who did not participate in music (3.59 vs. 2.91). There have been studies done verifying music as an enrichment activity that causes an increase in self-confidence, discipline, and social cohesion, as well as academic benefits. 7 thumb|Music most often effects the lower parts of the frontal lobe. Analyzing the interaction between music and the brain helps in understanding how and why music education affects students the way that it does. Music has the ability to engage the entire brain, which is unlike any other method of education. Scripp and Gilbert, who have analyzed these effects, also make note of the fact that musical training helps in the development of the brain physically and cognitively. It is also mentioned that the human brain is predisposed to musical development, meaning that music is rooted in our auditory, motor, and cognitive functions and plays a large role in the way we as individuals perceive the world around us. Scripp and Gilbert use evidence from ultrasound images of fetal tissue to draw the conclusion that there are "selective responses" to certain songs even before birth. Additionally, musical training seems to affect the brain just as exercise affects the body. For example, someone with musical training will have a more developed sense of auditory processing than someone who is not musically trained. ===Critiques=== Although the US Senate has endorsed music as a core subject, many, including Secretary of Education Lamar Alexander, argue music and the arts to be extra-curricular. Many also believe that among Federal budget cuts, music and the arts would be the first to go because they are not part of our foundation of core curriculum in America. The benefits of music as a core subject and its impact on the education system through the arithmetic, language, concentration, and other skills involved still have to be assessed before conclusions can be drawn about the concrete, measurable impacts music and the arts have on children in the United States public school system. == Views on funding music education == The funding of music education has been debated in the United States due to budget cuts to music programs and varying beliefs on learning priorities in public schools. Proponents of increasing federal funds for music education have argued that music provides children with cognitive and emotional benefits, such as improving spatial and temporal brain functions, which may help them succeed in other school subjects. Socially, advocates describe music as something that provokes peace, passion, and reduces stress, which they feel provides multiple benefits to students. Opponents of increasing federal funding believe that music is not important enough to warrant federal financial support, as they view it as a waste of tax dollars. Some assert that music programs distract students from gaining practical skills and takes money away from more useful areas, where funds could be more wisely spent. Others argue that the research showing cognitive or academic benefits stemming from music is unproven and needs to be further investigated before reaching a conclusion. == Modern elementary education == Elementary schools in the United States typically offer music classes several times a week, with classes ranging from thirty to forty-five minutes in length. Beginning in about fourth grade, performance opportunities are often provided in the form of choirs or orchestral (especially wind) bands. There are several developed teaching methods intended for use in elementary schools. The Kodály Method was developed in Hungary by Zoltán Kodály. The Orff- Schulwerk Method was developed by Carl Orff, the German composer who wrote Carmina Burana. The Dalcroze-Eurythmics Method was developed in Switzerland by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, who was teaching at the Geneva Conservatory at the time. All three methods place an emphasis on activity and learning by doing. The Kodály Method is known best for its use of solfege syllables and corresponding hand signals. The Orff-Schulwerk Method is most famous for its use of varying sizes of xylophones and glockenspiels, known as "Orff instruments." The Dalcroze-Eurythmics Method's most visible characteristic is its use of movement to music, ideally live music. In a report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Education, OECD, it is explained that the time students typically spend in school during primary and lower secondary levels is 7,751 hours—of which, the schools surveyed for the report spent 11 percent of the time on the arts in elementary schools, and only eight percent of the time on the arts in lower secondary schools. This report also explains that the arts classes combined receive almost the same amount of time as physical education classes do, which is between eight and nine percent for both levels of schooling. ("How") The United States Department of Education conducted a survey of 1,201 secondary schools during the 2009–2010 school year, Parsad explains. This survey reported that the majority of secondary teachers teaching the different arts classes were specialists in their field (Parsad). In a secondary investigation, the United States Department of Education concluded that 94 percent of elementary schools offered instruction in music, and 83 percent of schools offered instruction in the visual arts in elementary schools during the same time period. Drama and dance classes were offered to only three and four percent of the elementary schools involved in the study, but more than half of the schools incorporated dance into other subjects (Parsad). Art and music classes were offered to elementary students at least once per week, Parsad explains. thumb|The University of Connecticut implements various music programs that include general education as well as more focused studies. == Music Programs at the Collegiate Level == With the success of the implementation of music education across the United States, this method of teaching began to advance into the collegiate level. For example, the University of Connecticut offers intensive programs to prepare students for careers in the field of music. Other courses are also offered for students who are interested in obtaining a general education regarding music and its components yet not looking to pursue a career in music, as is implemented in many colleges and universities. At the University of Connecticut located in Storrs, Connecticut, the university offers a ‘Popular Music and Diversity in American Society’ class which serves as an introductory course to "popular music and diversity in America". This particular course focuses on these objectives by observing the musical implications of genres such as jazz, blues, and hip-hop, and how it relates to racial and class issues. Another course entitled "Music Fundamentals and Ear Training" in which students are able to develop skills such as note reading, pitch symbols, rhythm, and other musical concepts. These courses, amongst many others, enable attendees of the university to gain a general music education. Ning Xu conducted a study amongst university students in which she tested for competency from multiple dimensions including "moral quality, humanistic quality, mental health, intelligence development and innovation ability". Her conclusion for this study supported the hypothesis that music education plays an important, positive role in regards to the competency of university students. == Introduction of technology == thumb|Girl listening to radio in late 1930s Throughout the history of music education, many music educators have adopted and implemented technology in the classroom. Alice Keith and D.C. Boyle were said to be the first music educators in the United States to use the radio for teaching music. Keith wrote Listening in on the Masters, which was a broadcast music appreciation course.Mark, Michael L., and Charles L. Gary. A History of American Music Education. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2007. Print. Another advocate who promoted the use of technology was Marguerite V. Hood, who was born on March 14, 1903, in Drayton, North Dakota. Hood graduated high school early, at the age of sixteen. She then attended Jamestown College, in Jamestown, North Dakota where she graduated with degrees in romance languages and music, and minors in history and English.Marguerite V. Hood and Music Education Radio Broadcasts in Rural Montana, Cooper, Shelly. "Marguerite V. Hood and Music Education Radio Broadcasts in Rural Montana (1937–39)." Journal of Research in Music Education Vol. 53.No. 4 (2005): 295–307. JSTOR. Hood's professional career led her to Montana in 1923, where she pursued teaching, writing, and public speaking. In 1930, Hood became Montana's second state music supervisor. During Hood's teaching career, the radio was used as an educational tool. Montana received poor radio reception because of the mountain interference, so Hood created local radio station broadcasts. Hood began the music education radio broadcast project, Montana School of the Air, in 1937. These broadcasts aired weekly on four radio stations. Using the radio for educational broadcasts received positive reviews because it allowed students to be reached all over the United States during the unstable time of the Great Depression. Radios were cost effective and could reach isolated, rural schools. The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) played a major role in music education. NBC would broadcast musical examples for students enrolled in public school. Walter Damrosch directed the radio program, Music Appreciation Hour. In the course of this broadcast, teachers were able to obtain the musical selections in advance along with student notebooks and teacher instruction manuals. Two other popular music broadcast programs were Alice in Orchestralia and the Standard Symphony Hour. These broadcasts were an innovative teaching strategy which promoted and encouraged active listening and music appreciation. Prior to the radio, listening to music was limited to live performances and the skill of the teacher to play music, specifically on the piano.Weidenbach, Vanda. "Innovations in Music Education." Primary Educator Vol. 3. No. 1 (1997). Professional Development Collection. Web. 15 Mar. 2011. The impact of the radio in the 1930s can similarly be compared to some of today's technology, such as iPods, compact discs, and computers. Technology has become much more widely available in the classroom since the 1930s. Today, children have access to many musical devices and options that were not available in the 1930s. In essence, technology has been used in music classrooms throughout the United States with the intent to improve the quality of music education for students. == Continued research and development == As the medium of music technology continues to thrive, researchers have found that new developments in Extended Reality (XR) technology (such as augmented and virtual reality) can have direct implications in translating movement into a recorded piece of music. Thomas Deacon, Nick Bryan-Kinns, Patrick G.T. Healey, and Mathieu Barthet of the Queen Mary University of London performed an observational study of collaborative spatial music composition uncovering the practical methods of two experienced music producers to coordinate their understanding of multi- modal and spatial representations of music as part of their workflow. Through their analysis, the team suggested that gesture is used to understand, communicate and form action through a process of shaping sounds in space. This metaphor highlights how aesthetic assessments are collaboratively produced and developed through coordinated spatial activity. The implications establish sensitivity to embodied action in the development of collaborative workspaces for creative, spatial-media production of music. ==References== * * * * * * * * * * * *"How Much Time do Primary and Lower Secondary Students Spend in the Classroom?" OECD.org. April 2014. Web. 20 Nov. 2014. *Parsad, Basmat, and Jared Coppersmith. "Arts Education." U.S. Department of Education. 2014. Web. 20 Nov. 2014. Category:Performing arts education in the United States |
Princeton Township was a township in Mercer County, New Jersey, United States, that existed from 1838 until it was dissolved after it was merged with Princeton Borough in 2013 to form Princeton, New Jersey. As of the 2010 United States Census, the township's population was 16,265, reflecting an increase of 238 (+1.5%) from the 16,027 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 2,829 (+21.4%) from the 13,198 counted in the 1990 Census.Table 7. Population for the Counties and Municipalities in New Jersey: 1990, 2000 and 2010 , New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development, February 2011. Accessed August 20, 2012. Princeton was incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 9, 1838, from portions of West Windsor Township in Mercer County and Montgomery Township in Somerset County. The Borough of Princeton -- created on February 11, 1813 within the area that later became Princeton Township -- became a fully independent municipality circa 1894. Portions of territory were ceded to the Borough of Princeton on January 4, 1928 and August 21, 1951.Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey's Civil Boundaries: 1606-1968, Bureau of Geology and Topography; Trenton, New Jersey; 1969. p. 164. Accessed August 24, 2012. On November 8, 2011, voters in Princeton Township voted to consolidate with Princeton Borough, a change that took effect on January 1, 2013. The Institute for Advanced Study, a private research institution that has been an academic home to Albert Einstein, Kurt Gödel, and many other famous and prize-winning scientists, is located in the former township. Princeton University is located mostly within the former borough, but parts of the campus extended into what was Princeton Township. Drumthwacket, the official residence of the governor of New Jersey, is located at 344 Stockton Street in the area of the former township.Halbfinger, David M. "Governors Don’t Call This Home", The New York Times, November 19, 2009. Accessed August 20, 2012. "It is a 20-room Greek Revival mansion, with Italian gardens, a music room and a wood-paneled library. But no one seems to want to live in Drumthwacket, the governor’s residence in Princeton Township, N.J." The last day Princeton Township existed as an independent municipality was December 31, 2012. ==Geography== According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 16.520 square miles (42.786 km2), including 16.090 square miles (41.672 km2) of it is land and 0.430 square miles (1.114 km2) of water (2.60%) is water.US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990, United States Census Bureau. Accessed September 4, 2014. Princeton Borough was an independent municipality completely surrounded by the township. Princeton North was an unincorporated community located within Princeton Township that had been a census-designated place until the 2010 Census.New Jersey: 2010 - Population and Housing Unit Counts - 2010 Census of Population and Housing (CPH-2-32), P. III-4. United States Census Bureau, August 2012. Accessed December 21, 2014. "Deleted CDPs: Ewing (was coextensive with Ewing township); Mercerville-Hamilton Square (split to form all of Mercerville and part of Hamilton Square CDPs); Princeton North; and Yardville-Groveville (split to form parts of Groveville and Yardville CDPs)." The Princeton Airport is within Princeton's postal district but is situated less than a mile across the Somerset County border, in Montgomery Township. ==Demographics== ===Census 2010=== The 2010 United States census counted 16,265 people, 6,360 households, and 4,325 families in the township. The population density was 1,010.9 per square mile (390.3/km2). There were 6,814 housing units at an average density of 423.5 per square mile (163.5/km2). The racial makeup was 75.52% (12,283) White, 4.98% (810) Black or African American, 0.14% (22) Native American, 14.17% (2,305) Asian, 0.02% (4) Pacific Islander, 2.26% (368) from other races, and 2.91% (473) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.91% (1,124) of the population. Of the 6,360 households, 31.4% had children under the age of 18; 59.1% were married couples living together; 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present and 32.0% were non-families. Of all households, 23.6% were made up of individuals and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.02. 23.1% of the population were under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 23.7% from 25 to 44, 29.7% from 45 to 64, and 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.6 years. For every 100 females, the population had 94.0 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 90.8 males. The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $107,071 (with a margin of error of +/- $12,828) and the median family income was $149,948 (+/- $16,625). Males had a median income of $112,282 (+/- $7,079) versus $66,150 (+/- $11,617) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $71,050 (+/- $6,509). About 6.2% of families and 7.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.1% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over.DP03: Selected Economic Characteristics from the 2006-2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates for Princeton township, Mercer County, New Jersey , United States Census Bureau. Accessed August 20, 2012. ===Census 2000=== As of the 2000 United States Census there were 16,027 people, 6,044 households, and 4,357 families residing in the township. The population density was . There were 6,224 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the township was 79.91% White, 5.32% African American, 0.12% Native American, 9.98% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 2.11% from other races, and 2.51% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.28% of the population.Census 2000 Profiles of Demographic / Social / Economic / Housing Characteristics for Princeton township, New Jersey , United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 31, 2016.DP-1: Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000 - Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1) 100-Percent Data for Princeton township, Mercer County, New Jersey , United States Census Bureau. Accessed August 20, 2012. There were 6,044 households, out of which 34.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.3% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.9% were non-families. 20.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 2.98. In the township the population was spread out, with 24.4% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 27.4% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males. The median income for a household in the township was $94,580, and the median income for a family was $123,098. Males had a median income of $77,845 versus $41,563 for females. The per capita income for the township was $56,360. About 4.2% of families and 5.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.7% of those under age 18 and 3.0% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2000 Census, Princeton Township was the 25th-wealthiest community in the state of New Jersey with a per capita money income of $56,360 as of 1999, an increase of 41.7% from the $39,767 recorded in 1989 when it was ranked 21st in the state.Money Income (1989 and 1999) and Poverty (1999) New Jersey, Counties and Municipalities, New Jersey State Data Center, April 2003. Accessed August 20, 2012. ==Climate== According to the Köppen climate classification system, Princeton Township has a Hot-summer Humid continental climate (Dfa). | source = NOHRSC (Snow, 2008/2009 - 2022/2023 normals)}} ==Ecology== According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Princetown Township would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak (104) with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest (25).U.S. Potential Natural Vegetation, Original Kuchler Types, v2.0 (Spatially Adjusted to Correct Geometric Distortions), Data Basin, Accessed November 26, 2019. == Government == === Local government === Princeton Township was governed under the Township form of government with a five-member Township Committee. The Township Committee was elected directly by the voters in partisan elections to serve three-year terms of office on a staggered basis, with one seat coming up for election each year.2012 New Jersey Legislative District Data Book, Rutgers University Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, March 2013, p. 103. A Mayor and Deputy Member were elected by the Committee from among its members and serve a one-year term. The Mayor served as the Chairperson of the Committee and exercised executive powers vested in the Mayor's Office by law. All legislative powers were assigned to the Committee. 104 of the 565 municipalities in New Jersey operate with a five-member Committee form of local government. An Administrator was also empowered by ordinance to serve in an executive capacity and direct the Township's day-to-day operations. Members of the final Princeton Township Committee were Mayor Chad Goerner (D, term ends December 31, 2012), Deputy Mayor Liz Lempert (D, 2013), Lance Liverman (D, 2013), Bernard P. Miller (D, 2014) and Sue Nemeth (D, 2014).Elected Officials , p. 14. Mercer County, New Jersey, Revised January 26, 2012. Accessed November 20, 2012.Princeton Governing Body, Princeton Township. Accessed August 20, 2012. === Merger of Borough and Township === On November 8, 2011, the residents of both the Borough of Princeton and the Township of Princeton voted to merge the two municipalities into one. In Princeton Borough 1,385 voted for, 902 voted against while in Princeton Township 3,542 voted for and 604 voted against. Proponents of the consolidation measure asserted that when the merger is completed, the new municipality of Princeton will save $3.2 million as a result of some scaled-down services, including layoffs of 15 government workers, including 9 police officers (however, the measure itself does not create any line item cost reduction or layoffs). Opponents to the consolidation measure asserted that cost savings alleged by a widely circulated report were incorrect and/or unsubstantiated and that individual voter representation would be diluted by the merged municipal structure. The consolidation is to take effect in 2013. === Federal, state and county representation === Princeton Township was located in the 12th Congressional district2011 New Jersey Citizen’s Guide to Government , p. 63, New Jersey League of Women Voters. Accessed August 20, 2012. and was part of New Jersey's 16th state legislative district.Municipalities Grouped by 2011-2020 Legislative Districts , New Jersey Department of State, p. 8. Accessed August 20, 2012.Districts by Number for 2011-2020 , New Jersey Legislature. Accessed August 20, 2012. Prior to the 2011 reapportionment following the 2010 Census, Princeton Township had been in the 15th state legislative district. ===Politics=== As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 11,488 registered voters in Princeton Township, of which 5,691 (49.5%) were registered as Democrats, 1,520 (13.2%) were registered as Republicans and 4,263 (37.1%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 14 voters registered to other parties.Voter Registration Summary - Mercer, New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, March 23, 2011. Accessed November 21, 2012. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 75.3% of the vote here (6,963 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 20.7% (1,914 votes) and other candidates with 1.1% (103 votes), among the 9,247 ballots cast by the township's 12,423 registered voters, for a turnout of 74.4%.2008 Presidential General Election Results: Mercer County, New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, December 23, 2008. Accessed November 21, 2012. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 70.6% of the vote here (6,276 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 25.8% (2,295 votes) and other candidates with 1.0% (111 votes), among the 8,894 ballots cast by the township's 11,190 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 79.5.2004 Presidential Election: Mercer County, New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, December 13, 2004. Accessed November 21, 2012. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 66.1% of the vote here (3,867 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 26.9% (1,576 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 5.8% (342 votes) and other candidates with 0.5% (29 votes), among the 5,854 ballots cast by the township's 11,777 registered voters, yielding a 49.7% turnout.2009 Governor: Mercer County , New Jersey Department of State Division of Elections, December 31, 2009. Accessed November 21, 2012. == Education == ===Colleges and universities=== Part of Princeton University, including most of the athletic facilities, was in the township. Most university buildings were in the borough. The rest of the university's land is across Carnegie Lake in West Windsor Township. The Princeton Theological Seminary and the Institute for Advanced Study were in the township. Westminster Choir College was located mainly in the borough; a small part was in the township. Mercer County Community College served residents of the township. ===Primary and secondary schools=== ====Public schools==== For grades K through 12, public school students attend the Princeton Regional Schools, a regional school district shared with Princeton Borough that also serves students from Cranbury Township, as part of a sending/receiving relationship.Princeton Regional Schools 2011 Report Card Narrative, New Jersey Department of Education. Accessed November 20, 2012. "As we strive each hour to serve approximately 3500 pupils from Princeton Township, Princeton Borough and Cranbury Township well, we do so knowing that the work in our classrooms, on our courts, fields and stages and in our offices matters deeply in the individual lives of each child." Schools in the district (with 2010-11 enrollment data from the National Center for Education StatisticsData for the Princeton Regional Schools, National Center for Education Statistics. Accessed November 20, 2012.) are Community Park Elementary School (grades K-5, 321 students; located in Princeton Township), Johnson Park Elementary School (K-5, 372; Princeton Township), Littlebrook Elementary School (K-5, 335; Princeton Township), Riverside Elementary School (K-5, 276; Princeton Township), John Witherspoon Middle School (6-8, 664; Princeton Township) and Princeton High School (9-12, 1,420; Borough of Princeton).New Jersey School Directory Listings for the Princeton Regional Schools , New Jersey Department of Education. Accessed November 20, 2012. The Princeton Charter School, located in the township, opened in September 1997 and serves students from the borough and township who are selected by lottery from among applicants.History and Mission, Princeton Charter School. Accessed November 20, 2012.Admissions, Princeton Charter School. Accessed November 20, 2012. ====Private schools==== Several private schools are located in the Township, including the American Boychoir School, Hun School of Princeton, Princeton Academy of the Sacred Heart, Princeton Day School, Princeton Friends School, and Stuart Country Day School. === Public libraries === The Princeton Public Library, located in the borough, serves the borough and the township. The library was entirely rebuilt in 2004 at its downtown location at the corner of Witherspoon Street and Wiggins Street and opened its doors in April of that year. ==Points of interest== * The site of the Mercer Oak, against which the dying General Hugh Mercer rested while his men around him continued to fight the Battle of Princeton in 1777. The oak is the emblem of Princeton TownshipPrinceton Township - Mercer Oak and appears on the seal of Mercer County. The tree died in 2000, and one of its saplings now grows in its place. * The Washington Oak - 275+ year-old white oak overlooking Princeton Battlefield State Park on the spot where British and American forces first saw each other. * Delaware and Raritan Canal - runs along the Stony Brook and the eastern bank of Carnegie Lake. * Stony Brook Meeting House and Cemetery - historic sites of 18th century meeting house and burial site of Richard Stockton (signer of the Declaration of Independence) and Governor of New Jersey Charles Smith Olden. * Drumthwacket - official residence of the governor of New Jersey ==Sister cities== * Comune di Pettoranello del Molise, Molise, Italy.Princeton-Pettoranello Sister City Foundation. Accessed November 24, 2011. * Colmar, Alsace France ==See also== *Town Topics ==References== ==External links== *Official township web site *Princeton Regional Schools * *Data for the Princeton Regional Schools, National Center for Education Statistics Category:1838 establishments in New Jersey Category:2012 disestablishments in New Jersey Category:Former municipalities in Mercer County, New Jersey Category:Former townships in New Jersey Category:Populated places established in 1838 Category:Populated places disestablished in 2012 Category:Princeton, New Jersey |
Mary Jean "Lily" Tomlin (born September 1, 1939) is an American actress, comedian, writer, singer, and producer. Tomlin started her career in stand-up comedy and sketch comedy before transitioning her career as an actress on stage and screen. In a career spanning over fifty years, Tomlin has received numerous accolades including seven Emmy Awards, a Grammy Award, and two Tony Awards. She was also awarded the Kennedy Center Honor in 2014 and the Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award in 2017.Lily Tomlin Lifetime Achievement SAG accessed 9/2/2016 Tomlin started her career as a stand-up comedian as well as performing off-Broadway during the 1960s. Her breakout role was on the variety show Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In from 1969 until 1973. Her signature role which was written by her then-partner (now wife), Jane Wagner, was in the show, The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe which opened on Broadway in 1985 and earned Tomlin the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play. She won Emmy Awards for the special, Lily (1973), and received a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album for This Is a Recording (1972). In 1975, Tomlin made her film debut with Robert Altman's Nashville, which earned her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. In 1977, her performance as Margo Sperling in The Late Show won her the Silver Bear for Best Actress and nominations for the Golden Globe and BAFTA Award for Best Actress. Her other notable films include All of Me (1984), Big Business (1988), Flirting with Disaster (1996), Tea with Mussolini (1999), I Heart Huckabees (2004), A Prairie Home Companion (2006), and Grandma (2015). Tomlin is known for her collaborations with Jane Fonda starring in the films 9 to 5 (1980), 80 for Brady (2023), and Moving On (2023). She also starred with Fonda Netflix series Grace and Frankie which ran from 2015 to 2022. She earned her four Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series nominations. From 2002 to 2006, she portrayed Deborah Fiderer in the Aaron Sorkin series The West Wing. She also voiced Ms. Frizzle for the children's animated series The Magic School Bus (1994-1997) and The Magic School Bus Rides Again (2017-2020). ==Early life== Tomlin was born in Detroit, Michigan, the daughter of Lillie Mae (née Ford; January 14, 1914July 12, 2005), a housewife and nurse's aide, and Guy Tomlin (March 3, 1913October 24, 1970), a factory worker. She has a younger brother named Richard Tomlin. Tomlin's parents were Southern Baptists who moved to Detroit from Paducah, Kentucky, during the Great Depression. Although she attended a Southern Baptist church as a child, she later grew to become irreligious. She is a 1957 graduate of Cass Technical High School. Tomlin attended Wayne State University and originally studied biology. She auditioned for a play, and it sparked her interest in a career in the theatre and she changed her major. After college, Tomlin began doing stand-up comedy in nightclubs in Detroit and later in New York City. She continued studying acting at the HB Studio. == Career == Tomlin's first television appearance was on The Merv Griffin Show in 1965.Lily Tomlin at the Paley Center accessed 8-24-2015 A year later, she became a cast member on the short-lived third and final incarnation of The Garry Moore Show ===Tomlin characters=== In 1969, after a stint as a hostess on the ABC series Music Scene, Tomlin joined NBC's sketch comedy show Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In. Signed as a replacement for the departing Judy Carne, Tomlin was an instant success on the already established program, in which in addition to appearing in general sketches and delivering comic gags, she began appearing as the regular characters she created; they became well known and she portrayed them outside of the show in later recordings and television specials: * Ernestine was a brash, tough and uncompromising telephone operator who generally treated customers with little sympathy. Ernestine often snorted when she let loose a barbed response or heard something salacious; she also wore her hair in a 1940s hairstyle with a hairnet, although the character was contemporary. Her opening lines were often the comical "one ringy dingy... two ringy dingy", and, "Have I reached the party to whom I am speaking?" In the sketches, Ernestine was usually at her switchboard taking calls. She occasionally phoned her boyfriend, Vito, a telephone repair man, or her pal Phenicia, another operator.thumb|180px|Tomlin as Edith Ann, 1975 Tomlin reprised the role in 2016 for a TV ad as part of PETA's campaign against SeaWorld.Kelli Bender, "Lily Tomlin Reprises Ernestine Role for PETA's New Ad Blasting SeaWorld," People, 14 April 2016. Tomlin has also reprised the role on several episodes of Sesame Street. * Edith Ann is a precocious five-and-a-half-year-old girl who waxes philosophical on everyday life, either about life as a kid or things for which she feels she has the answers, although she is too young to fully understand. She often ends her monologues with "And that's the truth", punctuating it with a noisy raspberry. Edith Ann sits in an oversized rocking chair (to make Tomlin seem child-sized) with her rag doll, Doris, and often talks of life at home with her battling parents and bullying older sister, Mary Jean (Lily Tomlin's given birth names). Edith Ann has an oversized, playfully aggressive dog named Buster and a boyfriend named Junior Phillips, a possibly unrequited love. (Only Edith Ann and "Doris" appear in the Edith Ann sketches.) Tomlin reprised the character for a series of sketches on Sesame Street in the 1970s, and voiced her in three prime-time cartoon specials in the 1990s (including Edith Ann: A Few Pieces of the Puzzle). * Mrs. Judith Beasley is a housewife and mother from Calumet City, Illinois, who is often chosen for television commercials and offers "good consumer advice". She appears in the film The Incredible Shrinking Woman as the lead character's neighbor. * Mrs. Earbore (The Tasteful Lady) is a somewhat prudish and prissy, conservatively dressed middle-aged apolitical woman who dispenses advice on gracious living and a life of elegance. * Susie the Sorority Girl is a blonde collegiate who could be the Tasteful Lady's daughter. Humorless and melodramatic, her biggest worries are the likes of who took her missing album by The Carpenters. *The Consumer Advocate Lady is a dour, austere woman who rigidly inspects and tests products for their alleged value. The Consumer Advocate Lady is something of a variation of Mrs. Beasley. * Lucille the Rubber Freak is a woman addicted to eating rubber, whose monologue details her habit from its beginning (chewing the eraser on pencils) to her obsessive rock bottom (eating the tip off mother's cane). Tomlin performed this character as part of her Laugh-In audition. * Tess/Trudy is a homeless bag lady who accosts theater-goers and various passers-by with her offbeat observations and tales of communications with extraterrestrials. ("They don't care if you believe in 'em or not—they're different from God.") * Bobbi-Jeanine is a showbiz veteran of the lounge circuit where she sings and plays organ. She often dispenses advice. ("It's not called Show Art, it's Show Business.) Tomlin was one of the first female comedians to break out in male drag with her characters Tommy Velour and Rick. In 1982, but later popularized by a January 22, 1983 Saturday Night Live appearance, she premiered Pervis Hawkins, a black rhythm-and-blues soul singer (patterned after Luther Vandross), with a mustache, beard, and close-cropped afro hairstyle, dressed in a three-piece suit. Tomlin used very little, if any, skin-darkening cosmetics as part of the character, instead depending on stage lighting to create the effect. In 1970, AT&T; offered Tomlin $500,000 to play her character Ernestine in a commercial, but she declined, saying it would compromise her artistic integrity. In 1976, she appeared on Saturday Night LiveSeason 2 Episode 1, September 18, 1976 as Ernestine in a Ma Bell advertisement parody in which she proclaimed, "We don't care, we don't have to...we're the phone company." The character later made a guest appearance at The Superhighway Summit at UCLA on January 11, 1994, interrupting a speech being given on the information superhighway by then-Vice President Al Gore. She appeared as three of her minor characters in a 1998 ad campaign for Fidelity Investments that did not include Ernestine or Edith Ann. In 2003, she made two commercials as an "updated" Ernestine for WebEx. Tomlin brought Edith Ann to the forefront again in the 1990s with three animated prime-time television specials. She published Edith Ann's "autobiography" My Life (1995), co-written with Jane Wagner. === Recordings === In 1972, Tomlin released This Is A Recording, her first comedy album on Polydor Records in 1972 that contained Ernestine's run-ins with customers over the phone. The album hit No. 15 on the Billboard Hot 200, becoming (and remaining ) the highest-charting album ever by a solo comedienne."Chart beat: Katy Perry, Kathy Griffin, Miley Cyrus". Billboard.com. She earned a Grammy award that year for Best Comedy Recording. Tomlin's second album, 1972's And That's The Truth, featuring her character Edith Ann, was nearly as successful, peaking at No. 41 on the chart and earning another Grammy nomination. (Tomlin has two of the three top charting female comedy albums on Billboard, sandwiching a 1983 Joan Rivers release.) Tomlin's third comedy album, 1975's Modern Scream, a parody of movie magazines and celebrity interviews, featured her performing as multiple characters, including Ernestine, Edith Ann, Judith, and Suzie. Her 1977 release Lily Tomlin On Stage was an adaptation of her Broadway show that year. Each of these albums earned Tomlin additional Grammy nominations. Tomlin recorded a single/EP called "The Last Duet" with Barry Manilow. === Motion pictures === Tomlin made her dramatic debut in Robert Altman's Nashville, for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress; she played Linnea Reese, a straitlaced, gospel-singing mother of two deaf children who has an affair with a womanizing country singer (played by Keith Carradine). The Oscar that year went to Lee Grant for her role in Shampoo. A comedy-mystery, The Late Show, teaming Tomlin with Art Carney, was a critical success in 1977. One of the few widely panned projects of Tomlin's career was 1978's Moment by Moment, directed and written by Wagner, which teamed Tomlin in a cross-generational older woman/younger man romance with John Travolta. In 1980, Tomlin co-starred in 9 to 5, in which she played a secretary named Violet Newstead who joins coworkers Jane Fonda and Dolly Parton in seeking revenge on their boss, Franklin M. Hart, Jr., played by Dabney Coleman. The film was one of the year's top-grossing films. Tomlin then starred in the 1981 science fiction comedy, The Incredible Shrinking Woman, playing three roles (a fourth, a reprise of her Edith Ann character was cut from the theatrical print, but footage of this character was included in some later TV showings.) The film, a send-up of consumerism, was written by Wagner, and met with mixed reviews. Tomlin bounced back with the critical and financial hit All of Me, opposite Steve Martin, in which she played sickly heiress whose spirit became trapped in Martin's body. Tomlin and Bette Midler played two pairs of identical twins who were switched at birth in the 1988 comedy, Big Business. Tomlin also played chain-smoking waitress Doreen Piggott in Altman's 1993 ensemble film Short Cuts, based on stories by Raymond Carver. Tomlin performed in two films by director David O. Russell; she appeared as a peacenik Raku artist in Flirting with Disaster and later, as an existential detective in I Heart Huckabees. In March 2007, two videos were leaked onto YouTube portraying on- set arguments between Russell and Tomlin, in which among other things he called her sexist names. When the Miami New Times asked Tomlin about the videos, she responded, "I love David. There was a lot of pressure in making the movie—even the way it came out you could see it was a very free- associative, crazy movie, and David was under a tremendous amount of pressure. And he's a very free-form kind of guy anyway." Tomlin collaborated again with director Robert Altman in what would prove to be his last film, A Prairie Home Companion (2006). She played Rhonda Johnson, one-half of a middle-aged Midwestern singing duo partnered with Meryl Streep. Tomlin provided a voice for the film Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea, which was released in August 2009. In 2015, Tomlin starred in filmmaker Paul Weitz's film, Grandma, which Weitz said was inspired by Tomlin. It garnered rave reviews, and earned Tomlin a Golden Globe Award nomination. In 2018, she had a small role voicing Aunt May in the critically-acclaimed animated film Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse. thumb|Tomlin in 1976 === Broadway and stage shows === In March 1977, Tomlin made her Broadway debut in the solo show Appearing Nitely, which she co-wrote and co-directed with Jane Wagner, at the Biltmore Theatre. She received a Special Tony Award for this production. The same month, she made the cover of Time with the headline "America's New Queen of Comedy". Her solo show then toured the country and was made into a record album titled On Stage. In 1985, Tomlin starred in another one-woman Broadway show The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe, written by her long-time life partner, writer/producer Jane Wagner. The show won her a Tony Award and was made into a feature film in 1991. Tomlin revived the show for a run on Broadway in 2000 which then toured the country through mid-2002. In 1989, she won the Sarah Siddons Award for her work in Chicago theatre. Tomlin premiered her one-woman show Not Playing with a Full Deck at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas in November 2009. It was her first appearance in that city, though she did tape an Emmy- winning TV special, a spoof of Las Vegas called Lily: Sold Out which premiered on CBS in January 1981. === Return to television === Tomlin voiced Ms. Valerie Frizzle on the animated television series The Magic School Bus from 1994 to 1997. Also, in the 1990s, Tomlin appeared on the popular sitcom Murphy Brown as the title character's boss. In 1995 she appeared on an episode of "Homicide" as a murder suspect being transported to Baltimore. She also guest starred on The X-Files in 1998, in episode 6 ("How The Ghosts Stole Christmas") of season 6 as a ghost haunting an old mansion. In 2005 and 2006, she had a recurring role as Will Truman's boss Margot on Will & Grace. She appeared on the dramatic series The West Wing for four years (2002–2006) in the recurring role of presidential secretary Deborah Fiderer. In the 2008–2009 fifth season of Desperate Housewives, she had a recurring role as Roberta, the sister of Mrs. McCluskey (played by Kathryn Joosten who coincidentally had played Tomlin's secretarial predecessor on The West Wing). During the 2008 Emmy Awards, Tomlin appeared as part of a tribute to the influential 1960s television series Laugh-In. Tomlin voiced Tammy in the 2005 The Simpsons episode "The Last of the Red Hat Mamas". Since its launch in 2008, Tomlin has been a contributor for wowOwow.com, a website for women to talk culture, politics, and gossip.150px|thumb|Tomlin in 2008|leftTomlin and Kathryn Joosten were in talks to star in a Desperate Housewives spin-off,"Wives" Spins, New York Post, May 12, 2009 which was given the green light in May 2009.Galloping "Girls", New York Post, May 18, 2009 The series plan was scrapped due to Joosten's illness, a recurrence of lung cancer; Joosten died on June 2, 2012, twenty days after the onscreen death from cancer of her character Karen McCluskey. In 2010, Tomlin guest-starred as Marilyn Tobin in the third season of Damages opposite Glenn Close, for which she was nominated for an Emmy. She also appeared in the NCIS episode titled "The Penelope Papers", playing Penelope Langston, the grandmother of Agent Timothy McGee (Sean Murray). In 2012, Tomlin guest starred on the HBO series Eastbound and Down as Tammy Powers, mother of the main character Kenny Powers, and appeared in three episodes of Season 3. Tomlin co-starred with Reba McEntire in the TV series Malibu Country as Reba's character's mother Lillie Mae. The series started shooting in August 2012 with a premiere date of November 2, 2012, at 8:30 pm ET but was canceled in 2013 after 18 episodes. Tomlin starred opposite Jane Fonda, Martin Sheen, and Sam Waterston in the Netflix original series Grace and Frankie. Tomlin plays Frankie Bergstein, recently separated from her husband of forty years (Waterston) while Fonda plays Grace Hanson, recently separated from her husband (Sheen). Grace and Frankie become reluctant friends after learning their husbands are leaving them to be with one another. She received her first Emmy nomination in 2015 as a lead actress for the role. Tomlin reprised her role as Professor Frizzle in the 2017 Netflix sequel The Magic School Bus Rides Again, a continuation of the original series. == Personal life == thumb|right|Tomlin in April 2013 Tomlin met her future wife, writer Jane Wagner, in March 1971. After watching the after-school TV special J.T. written by Wagner, Tomlin invited Wagner to Los Angeles to collaborate on Tomlin's comedy LP album And That's The Truth.Tomlin, in The couple did not have a formal coming out. Tomlin said in 2006: Tomlin stated in 2008, "Everybody in the industry was certainly aware of my sexuality and of Jane ... in interviews, I always reference Jane and talk about Jane, but they don't always write about it."Tomlin in Not online. Quote referenced in sources including In 2015, Tomlin said, "I wasn't totally forthcoming. Everybody in the business knew I was gay, and certainly everybody I worked with and everything like that." Tomlin has been generally quiet about her sexuality. On December 31, 2013, Tomlin and Wagner married in a private ceremony in Los Angeles after 42 years together. Tomlin has been involved in a number of feminist and gay-friendly film productions, and on her 1975 album Modern Scream she pokes fun at straight actors who make a point of distancing themselves from their gay and lesbian charactersanswering the pseudo-interview question, she replies: "How did it feel to play a heterosexual? I've seen these women all my life, I know how they walk, I know how they talk ..." In 2013, Tomlin and Wagner worked together on the film An Apology to Elephants, which Wagner wrote and Tomlin narrated. == Awards and honors == Tomlin has received numerous awards,"The Envelope: Entertainment Awards Database" search for Lily Tomlin. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 25, 2011."Lily Tomlin Awards & Nominations". IMDB.com. including: four primetime Emmys; a special 1977 Tony"Lily Tomlin Awards & Nominations". IBDB. when she was appearing in her one-woman Broadway show, Appearing Nitely; a second Tony as Best Actress, two Drama Desk Awards and an Outer Critics Circle Award for her one-woman performance in Jane Wagner's The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe; a CableACE Award for executive producing the film adaptation of The Search; a Grammy Award for her comedy album, This is a Recording (a collection of Ernestine the Telephone Operator routines"Grammy Past Winners Search" for Comedy Album This is a Recording. Grammy.com. Retrieved September 25, 2011.) as well as nominations for her subsequent albums Modern Scream, And That's the Truth, and On Stage; and two Peabody Awards — the first for the ABC television special, Edith Ann's Christmas: Just Say Noël and the second for narrating and executive producing the 1995 HBO documentary film The Celluloid Closet. In 1992, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award. Tomlin was inducted into the Michigan Women's Hall of Fame in 1998. In 2003, she was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor. Also in 2003, she was recognized again by Women in Film with the Lucy Award in recognition of her excellence and innovation in her creative works that have enhanced the perception of women through the medium of television."Past Recipients" . WIF.org. In March 2009, Tomlin received Fenway Health's Dr. Susan M. Love Award for her contributions to women's health. On March 16, 2012, Lily Tomlin and her partner Jane Wagner received the 345th star on the Walk of Stars in Palm Springs, California. In December 2014, she was one of five honorees for the annual Kennedy Center Honors. In January 2017 Tomlin won the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 23rd annual Screen Actors Guild ceremony. == Filmography == == Works and publications == * Tomlin, Lily, and Jane Wagner. On Stage. New York, N.Y.: Arista, 1977. Recorded live at the Biltmore Theatre, New York City. Audio book on LP. . * Wagner, Jane, Elon Soltes, Wendy Apple, and Lily Tomlin. Appearing Nitely. Valley Village, Calif.: Tomlin and Wagner Theatricalz, 1992. Recorded live at the Huntington Hartford Theater in Los Angeles, Calif. Originally produced for television in 1978. Video recording. . * Wagner, Jane. Edith Ann: My Life, So Far. New York: Hyperion, 1994. As told to and illustrated by Jane Wagner. . . * Tomlin, Lily, Jane Wagner, and Anna Deavere Smith. Conversation with Lily Tomlin and Jane Wagner, October 25, 1994. San Francisco: City Arts & Lectures, Inc, 1994. Masonic Auditorium. * Wagner, Jane. J.T. New York: Carousel Films, 2000. DVD. Originally broadcast in 1969. Jeannette Du Bois, Theresa Merritt, Kevin Hooks. . * Tomlin, Lily, and Jane Wagner. And That's the Truth. United States: Universal Music Enterprises, 2003. Recorded live at The Ice House, Pasadena, March 1976. Audio book. * Tomlin, Lily, and Jane Wagner. The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe. Tarzana, Calif.: Laugh.com, 2005. 1992 HBO television film. A film adaptation of the Broadway play by Jane Wagner. . * Wagner, Jane, Marilyn French, and Lily Tomlin. The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe. New York, NY: ItBooks, an imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers, 2012. Reprint. Originally published: New York: Harper & Row, 1986. Based on the Broadway play written by Wagner starring Lily Tomlin. Includes an Afterword by Marilyn French and Reflections by Lily Tomlin and by Jane Wagner. . . * Wagner, Jane C., and Tina DiFeliciantonio. Girls Like Us. New York, NY: Women Make Movies, 2013. Originally produced as a motion picture documentary film in 1997. DVD. . == References == == External links == * * * * * Category:1939 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American actresses Category:21st- century American actresses Category:Actresses from Los Angeles Category:American film actresses Category:American sketch comedians Category:American stand-up comedians Category:American television actresses Category:American voice actresses Category:American women comedians Category:Audiobook narrators Category:Cass Technical High School alumni Category:Drama Desk Award winners Category:Feminist artists Category:Feminist comedians Category:Grammy Award winners Category:American lesbian actresses Category:Lesbian comedians Category:LGBT people from California Category:LGBT people from Michigan Category:American LGBT rights activists Category:Mark Twain Prize recipients Category:Actresses from Detroit Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners Category:Silver Bear for Best Actress winners Category:Special Tony Award recipients Category:Tony Award winners Category:Volpi Cup winners Category:Wayne State University alumni Category:Comedians from California Category:Activists from California Category:American LGBT comedians Category:Writers Guild of America Award winners |
Wayne Francis Carey (born 27 May 1971) is a former Australian rules footballer who played with the North Melbourne Football Club and Adelaide Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). A dual-premiership captain at North Melbourne (1996 and 1999), four-time North Melbourne best-and-fairest (Syd Barker Medallist) and seven-time All-Australian, Carey is nicknamed "The King", or "Duck". In 2001, he was named as centre half-forward and captain of North Melbourne's Team of the Century, and in 2008 was named as Australian football's greatest ever player, as part of a list of the top 50 players of all time, published in the book The Australian Game of Football, which was released by the League to celebrate 150 years of Australian rules football. In 2002, he left North Melbourne in disgrace after it was revealed he had been having an extramarital affair with the wife of his then-teammate Anthony Stevens. He is also known for a string of legal problems, which include domestic violence charges and assault convictions. From 2014, Carey has worked as a Friday night football commentator and Talking Footy panelist with Channel Seven. He has also written as a columnist for The Age and is a regular fixture on Triple M's The Rush Hour segment called "The Midweek Rub", which has since been spun off as its own podcast. He had previously worked for 3AW and Channel 9 before being fired for a glassing incident in Miami. ==Early life== The son of Kevin and Lynne, Carey was one of five children who grew up in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales. His mother and father separated when Carey was aged six, with his mother taking four of the children to Adelaide, living in a homeless shelter. According to Carey's autobiography, his father was a violent man who had spent time at Mannus Correctional Centre and was troubled by alcoholism. A few months later, Kevin Carey retrieved the children from his estranged wife, and they returned to Wagga Wagga. Carey played rugby league as a junior, and began playing Australian rules football at the age of eight. At the age of thirteen, Carey returned to Adelaide, where he attended The Heights School and played junior football for North Adelaide. ==Playing career: 1987–2004== ===AFL=== ====VFL debut: 1987–1989==== In 1987, Carey was recruited by North Melbourne after their CEO, Greg Miller, met with the Sydney Swans' football department to discuss the transfer to North Melbourne of John Longmire, a highly regarded junior key-position player. Once that deal was concluded, Miller then inquired about Carey who, like Longmire, was zoned to the Swans due to having lived in New South Wales. He made a token offer of $10,000 as a transfer fee, to which the Swans surprisingly agreed. As a 16-year-old, Carey made the move to Melbourne and played for the North Melbourne under-19s, where he starred in their 1988 premiership side under coach Denis Pagan. Carey was promoted to the senior list prior to the 1989 season and, after recovering from dislocating his left shoulder in a practice match early in the year, made his first appearance for the seniors as an 18-year-old in round 11 of 1989 against Fitzroy. ==== State of Origin ==== Carey had a relatively short but successful State of Origin career, and what he describes as a significant period in his career. Carey first played at the game's highest level in 1990 for New South Wales, in a famous win over Victoria, in the side's only 3rd- ever win against the state; Carey scored one goal. In 1992, playing for South Australia against Victoria, Carey played an outstanding game, dominating at centre half-forward and kicking two goals, including the match-winner from 55 metres out in the dying moments. Carey had four opponents in the game, dominating them all, including Chris Langford, Danny Frawley and Garry Lyon. Carey has described this game as the moment he knew he belonged in the AFL. Saying if he could do well at State of Origin level, a higher level than the AFL, he knew he belonged at AFL level. Carey played for NSW/ACT the following year in the State of Origin Carnival scoring one goal. In the latter half of the 1990s, clubs began putting pressure on players to pull out of games due to fear of injury, and players began to stop participating, with the final State of Origin game occurring in 1999. 1989–2001 The 1990s was a decade dominated by forwards, and Wayne Carey dominated his role at centre half-forward more than perhaps any other player in his position before or since. "Carey had established a reputation as one of perhaps the dozen greatest players of all time," according to writer John Devaney of australianfootball.com. > "It was clear right from the outset that the Kangaroos had managed to get > their hands on someone special. Powerfully built even then, Carey could mark > strongly even under the most extreme pressure, and his kicking either to > position or at goal was impeccable. He was also surprisingly quick, both > over the ground, and in terms of his decision making and use of the ball. > Carey won the first of his four North Melbourne best and fairest awards in > 1992, and the following year was appointed captain. "North's emergence as > one of the power clubs of the AFL during the mid- to late 1990s was > attributable in no small measure to Carey's presence and contribution. It is > arguable that no footballer in history has ever been capable of winning a > game entirely off his own boot, but Carey at his peak perhaps came as close > as anyone. On a purely objective measure, he was probably worth at least > three players—which, coincidentally, is sometimes the number of opponents he > had to contend with. Named an AFL All-Australian in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, > 1998, 1999 and 2000, Carey was selected as captain of the side on four > occasions. In both 1996 and 1999 he was a pivotal member of his club's two > most recent premiership sides." —John Devaney ====Extramarital affair and leaving North Melbourne for Adelaide: 2002–2004==== In March 2002, Carey had an extramarital affair with North Melbourne stalwart and Vice Captain Anthony Stevens's wife, Kelli. Making the situation even messier was the fact that Carey was himself married to his long-term partner Sally McMahon. Carey and Stevens were attending a party at teammate Glenn Archer's house. Carey is quoted as saying Kelli followed him into the toilets in front of a large crowd, including her husband. An argument ensued between Carey and Stevens, and both players subsequently failed to attend football training. In the face of his team being united against him, as well as nationwide condemnation, Carey resigned in disgrace from North Melbourne. Carey's then manager Ricky Nixon famously stated that his client was on "suicide watch" during the aftermath. To avoid media attention, Carey fled to Las Vegas, USA. Stevens had played groomsman to Carey at his wedding to Sally. North Melbourne champion and AFL Hall of Famer Brent Harvey said it set the club back "four or five years". The aftermath of the affair resulted in Carey missing the 2002 AFL season and transferring to the Adelaide Crows for the 2003 AFL season; he would play two seasons with the Crows, including kicking 56 goals, retiring at the end of the 2004 AFL season. The first game played between North Melbourne and Adelaide in 2003 made for gripping viewing, with Archer and Stevens both taunting and making aggressive moves towards Carey. Although tension was at fever pitch, all players involved managed to restrain themselves from doing anything rash. Adelaide went on to win convincingly by 54 points. In a twist of fate, Stevens took over Carey's role of captain in 2004. In February 2022, 20 years after the initial fallout from the affair, Carey labelled his affair with Stevens "the biggest regret of my life as an adult" while participating on season three of the reality TV show SAS Australia. Despite withdrawing from the show, Carey was reportedly paid A$250,000 for the appearance. In August 2022, Carey and Stevens met again at a function to celebrate the 26th anniversary of their 1996 premiership (which was initially supposed to be a 25th anniversary but was delayed by a year due to COVID-19); Carey engaged Stevens in a "verbal stoush" at the function, although the situation was reportedly de-escalated. The Herald Sun reported there was no potential of violence and that the pair "moved on and shared a beer together" afterwards. Despite both players' marriages being rocked by the public scandal, it took each marriage several years to dissolve. Carey's marriage ended in 2006, four years after the incident, while Kelli and Anthony Stevens divorced in 2008, six years after the affair. ==Australian Football Hall of Fame== Carey was inducted into the AFL Hall of Fame in 2010. Although he was eligible for induction in 2008, his off-field troubles with drugs and violence delayed his induction. == Salary cap and "creative accounting" == Due to restrictions in the salary cap, North Melbourne was capped at $300,000 per year for Carey for the 2000 AFL season. However, the North Melbourne staff knew that Carey was far more valuable to the team than this, so Carey's manager Ricky Nixon rorted the salary cup to secure Carey an additional $400,000 in salary. Nixon said, “So I requested Wayne’s intellectual property, and it was owned by Wayne Carey Pty Ltd, and he licensed it to me for $2 so I could sell it to North Melbourne for marketing rights of $700,000," Nixon said on the Real Footy podcast. “He was getting paid $300,000 from North Melbourne and $700,000 went to me, and I gave Wayne $400,000. People said it was cheating, but it was absolutely within the rules. According to Nixon, when the AFL complained about this manoeuvre, he simply told them "I run the competition, not you." ==Legacy== Carey has been named by many media commentators as the greatest footballer to play the game. In 1999, Leigh Matthews, who was voted the greatest player of the 20th century, honoured Carey by saying that he was the best player he had ever seen. In 2008, Carey was named as Australian Football's greatest ever player as part of a list of the top 50 players of all time, published in the book The Australian Game of Football, and he placed third in a similar list put together by a panel of football legends in The Age newspaper the same year. In 2011, the Herald Sun polled 21 past and present AFL greats, including Carey, to find the players' opinion as to the greatest player of the AFL era. Carey topped the list, polling 85 of a possible 100 votes, 26 votes ahead of second-placed Gary Ablett Sr. "Sure Got Me" on Paul Kelly's 2004 double album Ways & Means recounts the love triangle involving Carey, Anthony Stevens, and Stevens's wife at the time, Kelli.[ABC Radio National – The Sports Factor – "Leaps and Bounds" – 28 May 2004]. Retrieved 1 April 2013. Hunters & Collectors frontman Mark Seymour also wrote a song inspired by the affair, but he declined to release it after learning of Kelli's take on the events. Jock Cheese, bassist of the satirical Melbourne band TISM, released a tribute to Carey titled "Why Don't You Get A Bigger Set of Tits?" on his 2002 solo album Platter. ==Statistics== As of 2023, Carey's career total of 727 goals ranks him equal 20th in VFL/AFL history, and his 671 goals for North Melbourne is the club record. :Wayne Carey's player profile at AFL Tables |- style="background- color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1989 |style="text- align:center;"| | 40 || 4 || 0 || 2 || 26 || 8 || 34 || 14 || 4 || 0.0 || 0.5 || 6.5 || 2.0 || 8.5 || 3.5 || 1.0 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1990 |style="text-align:center;"| | 18 || 21 || 38 || 23 || 196 || 94 || 290 || 98 || 18 || 1.8 || 1.1 || 9.3 || 4.5 || 13.8 || 4.7 || 0.9 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1991 |style="text-align:center;"| | 18 || 14 || 28 || 21 || 132 || 56 || 188 || 84 || 10 || 2.0 || 1.5 || 9.4 || 4.0 || 13.4 || 6.0 || 0.7 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1992 |style="text-align:center;"| | 18 || 21 || 46 || 32 || 278 || 107 || 385 || 157 || 26 || 2.2 || 1.5 || 13.2 || 5.1 || 18.3 || 7.5 || 1.2 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 1993 |style="text-align:center;"| | 18 || 19 || 64 || 44 || 216 || 123 || 339 || 150 || 21 || 3.4 || 2.3 || 11.4 || 6.5 || 17.8 || 7.9 || 1.1 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1994 |style="text- align:center;"| | 18 || 19 || 63 || 42 || 237 || 116 || 353 || 164 || 13 || 3.3 || 2.2 || 12.5 || 6.1 || 18.6 || 8.6 || 0.7 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1995 |style="text- align:center;"| | 18 || 25 || 65 || 46 || 309 || 143|| 452 || 187 || 28 || 2.6 || 1.8 || 12.4 || 5.7 || 18.1 || 7.5 || 1.1 |- |style="text- align:center;background:#afe6ba;"|1996† |style="text-align:center;"| | 18 || 25 || 82 || 55 || 332 || 154 || 486 || 200 || 31 || 3.3 || 2.2 || 13.3 || 6.2 || 19.4 || 8.0 || 1.2 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1997 |style="text-align:center;"| | 18 || 14 || 25 || 15 || 160 || 66 || 226 || 74 || 14 || 1.8 || 1.1 || 11.4 || 4.7 || 16.1 || 5.3 || 1.0 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1998 |style="text- align:center;"| | 18 || 25 || 80 || 49 || 368 || 121 || 489 || 193 || 40 || 3.2 || 2.0 || 14.7 || 4.8 || 19.6 || 7.7 || 1.6 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1999 |style="text- align:center;"| | 18 || 20 || 76 || 39 || 253 || 100 || 353 || 145 || 33 || 3.8 || 2.0 || 12.7 || 5.0 || 17.7 || 7.3 || 1.7 |- ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2000 |style="text-align:center;"| | 18 || 23 || 69 || 37 || 336 || 86 || 422 || 176 || 35 || 3.0 || 1.6 || 14.6 || 3.7 || 18.3 || 7.7 || 1.5 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2001 |style="text-align:center;"| | 18 || 14 || 35 || 11 || 137 || 37 || 174 || 69 || 13 || 2.5 || 0.8 || 9.8 || 2.6 || 12.4 || 4.9 || 0.9 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2003 |style="text-align:center;"| | 2 || 16 || 29 || 19 || 136 || 35 || 171 || 62 || 21 || 1.8 || 1.2 || 8.5 || 2.2 || 10.7 || 3.9 || 1.3 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2004 |style="text-align:center;"| | 2 || 12 || 27 || 22 || 101 || 26 || 127 || 57 || 12 || 2.3 || 1.8 || 8.4 || 2.2 || 10.6 || 4.8 || 1.0 |- class="sortbottom" ! colspan=3| Career ! 272 ! 727 ! 457 ! 3217 ! 1272 ! 4489 ! 1830 ! 319 ! 2.7 ! 1.7 ! 11.8 ! 4.7 ! 16.5 ! 6.7 ! 1.2 |} ==Post-playing career== thumb|Wayne Carey speaking at an event in July 2019 In early 2005, Carey agreed to assist former coach and mentor Denis Pagan at the Carlton Football Club, acting voluntarily as a part-time skills coach. In 2006 he was an assistant coach at Collingwood Football Club. Carey also worked as a commentator and host of shows on the Fox Footy Channel throughout the 2006 season. In 2007 he participated in the Nine Network football analysis program Footy Classified, as well as special comments for radio station 3AW's football coverage. Subsequent to his dual arrests for domestic violence and assault he was sacked from both positions. In 2009, Carey was approached in a confidential meeting with influential North Melbourne board member Ron Joseph to return to the club as coach in a succession plan which also involved Malcolm Blight. Carey confirmed this when queried by noted football journalist Damian Barrett in May 2021. == Controversies == Carey has had a string of scandals besides the aforementioned extramarital affair with Anthony Stevens's wife. In 1997, Carey pleaded guilty to indecent assault after grabbing a passing woman's breast on a Melbourne city street after 12 hours of drinking with teammates. He allegedly told her "Why don't you get a bigger pair of tits". Carey later settled out of court when the woman filed a civil suit against him. In 2000, Carey provided character evidence for Jason Moran, an infamous gangster who was subsequently murdered in Melbourne's gang war. In 2004, while holidaying with his then wife, Carey was subject to arrest for a misdemeanour battery report while holidaying in Las Vegas. He was placed in custody for one night then released. The local District Attorney elected not to pursue the case. Carey again became the subject of public comment in February 2006 when he announced he was leaving his pregnant wife Sally for model Kate Neilson. His daughter Ella was born six weeks later. In December 2006, Neilson allegedly reported Carey to Australian police for domestic violence, alleging he had punched her in the face. Neilson and Carey denied this report. Subsequently, US security guard Kyle Banks told the Nine Network's A Current Affair he saw Carey attacking Neilson while working at the exclusive W Hotel in New York City in October 2006. Banks said he saw Carey break a bottle of French champagne over his own head. On 27 January 2008, Carey was arrested after reports of a disturbance at his Port Melbourne apartment. Police had to subdue Carey with capsicum spray and he was seen handcuffed after allegedly assaulting the officers. Two days later, the Nine Network announced it would not renew Carey's television contract after it was revealed that Carey had been arrested and charged with assaulting a police officer and Neilson in Miami, Florida, on 27 October 2007, after he allegedly glassed Neilsen in the face and neck with a wine glass. Police Lieutenant Bill Schwartz, however, reported: > When officers went and spoke to him, he immediately was belligerent, > starting striking out at the officers, in fact, kicked one of the female > officers in the face with his foot, elbowed another one in the side of the > face. They had to wrestle him down and handcuff him. When he was in the > police car, he used his head as a battering ram and tried to smash a hole > between the front compartment of the police car and the prisoner > compartment. To stop Carey harming himself and damaging the car, the officers put him into a leather hobble restraint around his hands and legs. Carey faced up to fifteen years in jail and 30,000 fines. Additionally, Carey was fired from commentary jobs at 3AW and the Nine Network following the coverage of the two arrests. Ultimately Carey pleaded guilty to assaulting and resisting Miami police. In exchange for his guilty pleas, prosecutors agreed that Carey should only serve 50 hours of community service, attend alcohol- and anger-management classes, serve two years probation, and pay US$500 to a Miami police charity. As a consequence of his criminal record in the United States, Carey was refused an entry visa in October 2009. In March 2008, Carey publicly revealed he was, for a long period, an abuser of alcohol and cocaine. He was interviewed by Andrew Denton on Enough Rope, where he talked candidly about his life and recent controversies. 1.5 million viewers tuned into the highly publicised interview. Carey was attempting to visit Barwon Prison in February 2012 to speak to indigenous inmates as part of a mentoring program, however he was found to have traces of cocaine on his clothing following a routine drug scan. Carey was informed that he could enter the prison if he submitted to a strip search. He declined and left the correctional facility. On 1 September 2022, according to numerous sources, including The Herald Sun and The Age, Carey was gambling when a Ziploc bag of white powder fell onto a gaming table. Carey denied the substance was illegal, claiming it was a "crushed-up anti- inflammatory". Carey was issued with a "withdrawal of license" notice, which means he cannot attend Crown properties for two years. It saw him ejected from the Crown hotel, where he was staying for the Fremantle–Bulldogs elimination final. This also means that he was unable to attend the 2022 Brownlow Medal count that was held at Crown Palladium in Melbourne. ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== * Category:1971 births Category:Living people Category:Australian rules footballers from New South Wales Category:North Melbourne Football Club players Category:North Melbourne Football Club Premiership players Category:Syd Barker Medal winners Category:Adelaide Football Club players Category:All-Australians (AFL) Category:Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees Category:Leigh Matthews Trophy winners Category:New South Wales Australian rules football State of Origin players Category:South Australian State of Origin players Category:North Adelaide Football Club players Category:Australian memoirists Category:Australian rules football commentators Category:Australia international rules football team players Category:Australian people convicted of assault Category:Australian people convicted of indecent assault Category:Two-time VFL/AFL Premiership players Category:Australian rules footballers from South Australia Category:Sportspeople from Wagga Wagga |
Centaurea solstitialis, the yellow star-thistle, is a species of thorny plant in the genus Centaurea, which is part of the family Asteraceae. A winter annual, it is native to the Mediterranean Basin region and invasive in many other places. It is also known as golden starthistle, yellow cockspur and St. Barnaby's thistle (or Barnaby thistle). ==Description== Centaurea solstitialis is an annual herb from the family Asteraceae. During the vegetative stage it forms a rosette of non-spiny leaves, between in diameter. As the summer approaches, it produces a flowering stem up to in height. The leaves at the base are lobed and range between in length, while the ones on the stem are unlobed and smaller. Between May and October, the stem produces numerous spinous flower heads (capitula) about across, containing between 10–50 yellow flowers, with spines between . Flowers within capitula are pollinated by insects and each capitula produces 10–50 seeds, some with and some without a pappus. It is an annual semelparous species, and will die after reproduction is completed, normally by the end of the summer. === Similar species === Similar species include purple star-thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa), sulphur star-thistle (C. sulphurea), Maltese star-thistle (C. melitensis), and rough star-thistle (C. aspera). Bachelor's button (C. cyaneus) is a relative. ==Ecology== Centaurea solstitialis is a weed also on its native European range (e.g., Turkey, Greece, Italy, France, Spain), consequently, it inhabits highly disturbed ruderal habitats, being typically found on roadsides and cereal crop margins. After introduction in several parts of the world as an exotic species (e.g., Australia, Argentina, Chile, the United States), it has developed local adaptations to the different habitats colonized,Hierro, J. L., Eren, Ö., Khetsuriani, L., Diaconu, A., Török, K., Montesinos, D., … Callaway, R. M. (2009). Germination responses of an invasive species in native and non-native ranges. Oikos, 118(4), 529–538. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2009.17283.xGraebner, R. C., Callaway, R. M., & Montesinos, D. (2012). Invasive species grows faster, competes better, and shows greater evolution toward increased seed size and growth than exotic non-invasive congeners. Plant Ecology, 213(4), 545–553. doi:10.1007/s11258-012-0020-x and an incipient level of reproductive isolation between native and non-native ranges has been detectedMontesinos, D., Santiago, G., & Callaway, R. M. (2012). Neo-allopatry and rapid reproductive isolation. The American Naturalist, 180(4), 529–33. doi:10.1086/667585—a case of ecological speciation. Star-thistle is a valuable source of pollen, thus nectar for pollinators. Yellow star-thistle, a noted pest plant, is a major nectar source for many central valleys and foothill butterflies. Star-thistle populates ground that has been abused: dry, compacted, or scraped clean. A plant with a taproot system, it has a crucial role in restoring the soil by bringing up vital micronutrients. Similar to many plants classified as 'weeds', they (in the words of Mark Schonbeck) "quickly establish in, protect, and restore soil that has been left exposed by natural and human-caused disturbances". C. solstitialis grows as a balanced part of the ecosystems in Eurasia, where it is kept in check by an assortment of natural herbivore enemies and other plants that have with it in its native habitat. However, it has been introduced in several parts of the world, including Australia, Argentina, Chile, and the U.S. In many of these non- native regions, where the particular array of natural biological controls found in the native regions do not exist, it has become an invasive species and noxious weed. The yellow star-thistle plant has the ability to create monotypic stands and habitats in the cultivated soil of fields, graded dirt sites, and disturbed natural ecosystem lands. Its colonization eliminates and prevents other plant species from growing, terminating the habitat's biodiversity. Extensive spreading monotypic fields of yellow star-thistle are not uncommon. Its growth plasticity, competitiveness, preference for the Mediterranean climate, and a lack of natural herbivore enemies and co-evolved species, make it a very successful invader. The plant is an invasive pest in field crops, degrades native plant habitats and natural ecosystems, prevents the grazing of domestic animals in rangelands, and is a physical barrier to indigenous animal movement in wildlands.Yellow star-thistle species profile from the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Invasive Species Information Center === As an invasive species === The introduction of C. solstitialis in North America probably occurred in California sometime after the start of the California Gold Rush, as a fodder seed contaminant in imported Chilean- harvested alfalfa seed, also known as Chilean clover (Trifolium macraei).Yellow Starthistle Information from a University of California, Davis (UCD) website Star-thistle has been introduced throughout North and South America, Africa, and Europe. In California, yellow star-thistle was dispersed into agricultural fields and immediately took hold in the state's areas with a Mediterranean climate. Human factors, such as mowing, land grading for development and roads, domestic animal grazing, and disturbance of the soil surface for agricultural tillage and wildland firebreaks have and continue to contribute to the successful thriving and spread of this plant. Yellow star- thistle is now a very common sight in vacant lots and fields, along roadsides and trails, in pastures and ranch lands, and in parks, open-space preserves and natural areas. After the turn of the 20th century, Spain, France, Italy, and perhaps Turkestan were also likely sources of the invasion's seed in California. Since its introduction to California in the mid-19th century, it has become a large-scale invasive species (noxious weed or invasive exotic) throughout 23 U.S. states. It currently dominates over in California alone. , Mount Diablo Interpretive Association. Retrieved on 2008-10-15.1970 UCD Yellow Starthistle Information website - Map of Distribution of yellow star-thistle in the U.S. By 1970, yellow star-thistle had reached 23 U.S. states. According to the U.S. Forest Service, as of 2006 the plant has been reported present in 41 of the 48 contiguous U.S. states, with the only exceptions being Maine, Vermont, and five of the Deep South states (Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia). , USDA Forest Service. Retrieved on 2008-10-15. The plant is considered an invasive species in six of the 41 states: California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and New Jersey. ==== Chemical control ==== Most herbicides used for controlling yellow star-thistle are registered for range lands, right-of-way, and other non-crop areas. Many auxin-like or growth-regulator herbicides are used for post-emergence control, including , aminopyralid, clopyralid, dicamba, picloram and triclopyr. Alternatively, glyphosate may be used. Pre-emergence herbicides used for yellow star-thistle control include chlorsulfuron and sulfometuron. Pre- emergence and post-emergence herbicides may be used effectively together to kill growing plants as well as any new seedlings that may emerge from the copious soil seed bank often produced by yellow star-thistle. Controlled burning may also be used in conjunction with clopyralid application as an effective integrated approach to yellow star-thistle management. Aminocyclopyrachlor + chlorsulfuron, aminopyralid, chlorsulfuron, clopyralid, clopyralid + 2,4-D, dicamba, diflufenzopyr + dicamba, picloram, and triclopyr + clopyralid for the Pacific Northwest of North America. A yellow star-thistle biotype resistant to picloram was discovered in a pasture near Dayton, Ohio, in 1988. This biotype was determined to have cross resistance to other auxin- like herbicides, especially clopyralid.Fuerst E.P., Sterling T.M., Norman M.A., Prather T.S., Irzyk G.P., Wu Y., Lownds N.K., and Callihan R.H., 1996. Physiological characterization of picloram resistance in yellow star-thistle. Pest Biochem Physiol 56:149–161. Resistance was discovered to be conveyed by a single nuclear recessive gene.Sabba R.P., Ray I.M., Lownds N. and Sterling T.N., 2003. Inheritance of resistance to clopyralid and picloram in yellow star-thistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.) is controlled by a single nuclear recessive gene. J. Heredity 94(6): 523-527. Picloram-resistant C. solstitialis has been observed which had cross-resistance to clopyralid, dicamba, and fluroxypyr, but not triclopyr or 2,4-D. ==== Biological control ==== thumb|Specimen in California in autumn Yellow star-thistle is sometimes resistant to removal methods such as mowing and burning, because of its long root system and the seeds' ability to withstand fire. The plant has been the target of biological pest control programs with positive results. Seven types of seed-feeding insects have been released (one accidentally) to control the plant.Pitcairn, M. J., B.Villegas, D. M. Woods, R. Yacoub, and D. B. Joley. 2008. Evaluating implementation success for seven seed head insects on Centaurea solstitialis in California, USA, pp. 610-616. In M. H. Julien, R. Sforza, M. C. Bon, H. C. Evans, P. E. Hatcher, H. L. Hinz, and B. G. Rector (eds.), Proceedings of the XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. La Grande Motte, Montpellier, France (in press). ===== Insects ===== Three species of weevil in the beetle subfamily Cleoninae effectively reduce seed production in the yellow star-thistle. * Yellow star-thistle bud weevil (Bangasternus orientalis) is a fuzzy brown weevil that lays its eggs in the flowers, and when its larvae hatch, they feed on the developing seed.Campobasso, G.; Sobhian, R.; Knutson, L.; Terragitti, G. 1998. Host specificity of Bangasternus orientalis Capiomont (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) introduced into the United States for biological control of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis L., Asteraceae: Carduae). Environmental entomology,. v. 27 (6), pp. 1525–1530. * Yellow star-thistle hairy weevil (Eustenopus villosus) is a long-snouted, hairy-looking weevil that lays a single egg inside each flower bud. The larva then consumes the seeds within.Fornasari, L., and R. Sobhain. 1993. Life history of Eustenopus villosus (Coleoptera' Curculionidae), a promising biological control agent for yellow starthistle. Environ. Entomol. 22: 684-692.Connett, J.F.; Wilson, L.M.; McCaffrey, J.P.; Harmon, B.L. 2001. Phenological synchrony of Eustenopus villosus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) with Centaurea solstitialis in Idaho. Environmental entomology, v. 30 (2), pp. 439–442. * Yellow star-thistle flower weevil (Larinus curtus) is a brownish weevil that lays eggs in the flowers as it feeds on the pollen. The larvae then eat the seeds when they hatch.Fornasari, L. and C.E. Turner. 1992. Host specificity of the Palearctic weevil Larinus curtus Hochut (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a natural enemy of Centaurea solstitialis L. (Asteraceae: Cardueae). In: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. 2–7 February 1992. Lincoln University, Canter- 1bury, New Zealand, 385-391 This insect has failed to established dense populations in the United States.Pitcairn, M. J., G. L. Piper, and E. M. Coombs. 2004. Yellow starthistle, pp. 421-435. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological control of invasive plants in the United States. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, ORPitcairn, M. J., D. M. Woods, and V. Popescu. 2005. Update on the long-term monitoring of the combined impact of biological control insects on yellow starthistle, pp. 27-30. In D. M. Woods (ed.), Biological control program annual summary, 2004. California Department of Food and Agriculture, Plant Health and Pest Prevention Services, Sacramento, CA Four species of tephritid fruit fly also attack the seedheads of yellow star-thistle. * Yellow star- thistle peacock fly and false peacock fly (Chaetorellia australis and Chaetorellia succinea, respectively, the latter released unintentionally) are small nectar-feeding flies that deposit eggs into the seedheads, where their larvae consume the seeds and flower ovaries.Turner, C.E., G.L. Piper and E.M. Coombs. 1996. Chaetorellia australis (Diptera: Tephritidae) for biological control of yellow starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis (Compositae), in the western USA: establishment and seed destruction. Bull. Entomol. Res. 86: 1 77-182. * Banded yellow star-thistle gall fly (Urophora sirunaseva) produces larvae that pupate within a woody gall within the flower and disrupt seed production.Sobhian, R. 1993. Life history and host specificity of Urophora sirunaseva (Herng)(Dipt., Tephritidae), an agent for biological control of yellow starthistle, with remarks on the host plant. J. Appl. Entomol. 116: 381–390. * Another gall fly Urophora jaculata was released in 1969 but never established.Turner, C.E., Johnson, J.B., McCaffrey, J.P., 1994. Yellow starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis L. (Asteraceae). In: Nechols, J.R. (Ed.), Biological Control in the U.S. Western Region: Accomplishments and Benefits of Regional Research Project W-84 (1964-1989). Division of Agriculture and Natural Research, University of California, Berkeley, pp. 274–279 ===== Fungi ===== A variety of the rust fungus Puccinia jaceae var. solstitialis, first released in July 2003 on a ranch in the Napa Valley, has shown promise as an agent against yellow star-thistle,Fungus Unleashed To Combat Yellow Star- thistle from the U.S. Department of Agriculture website dramatically damaging leaves and hampering growth. The rust causes widespread pathology in the leaves of the plant and slows its dispersal. The fungus Synchytrium solstitiale (Synchytrium of phylum Chytridiomycota) is also being considered as an agent of biological control.Voigt K., A.V. Marano, & F.H. Gleason. 2013. Ecological & Economical Importance of Parasitic Zoosporic True Fungi. in: The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic & Applied Research Vol. 11 Agricultural Applications. 2nd edition Eds: K. Esser & F. Kempken. New York: Springer pp. 243–270. ===== Grazing ===== Grazing by goats, cattle, or sheep can be effective in controlling yellow star-thistle. Goats will eat star-thistle even in its spiny stage. Because yellow star- thistle growth is particularly difficult to inhibit in canyon rangelands since its remoteness limits control options, goats and other herbivores have become an excellent option to curb the plant's spread. According to one study, grazing has decreased yellow star-thistle presence by 58% when compared to the study's controls. Subplots also showed a 94% decrease in seed heads after only three years of experimentation. ===== Integrated methods ===== California researchers (Thomsen et al., 1996) tested mowing, controlled sheep grazing and subterranean clover plantings to control star-thistle growth. According to the researchers, subclover would help fill the void left by star-thistle populations. They compared subclover seeding, grazing, two mowings, grazing + mowing without subclover – and an untouched control without grazing, subclover, or mowing. Thistle seed production was 130 times higher where only one mowing was done, and 1,720 times higher where nothing was done, as compared to the area that had been grazed and mowed twice. Excellent yellow star-thistle control can be achieved with the combination of competing plants, mowing, and rotational grazing. ===== Research ===== Although these biocontrol agents have proven somewhat effective at controlling Centaurea solstitialis, there is interest in finding additional agents to further control the species. Two weevils, including Larinus filiformis, a flowerhead feeding weevil, and Ceratapion basicorne (Illiger) (Coleoptera: Apionidae), which develops in the root crown of rosettes have been evaluated and proposed for introduction.Smith, L. 2007. Physiological host range of Ceratapion basicorne, a prospective biological control agent of Centaurea solstitialis (Asteraceae). Biol. Control 41: 120-133. Also under evaluation are a stem-feeding flea beetle Psylliodes chalcomera (Illiger) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) (Cristofaro et al. 2004a), a lacebug Tingis grisea Germar (Heteroptera: Tingidae), and a mite Aceria solstitialis de Lillo (Acari: Eriophyidae).de Lillo et al. 2003Smith, L. 2004. Prospective new agents for biological control of yellow starthistle, pp. 136-138. Proceedings 56th Annual California Weed Science Society, 12–14 January 2004, Sacramento, CA == Toxicity == Grazing of the plant by horses can cause nigropallidal encephalomalacia or "chewing disease", a neurological condition. The disease generally follows consumption of 60–200% of the horse's body weight over an extended period of a month or more, or of star-thistle per body weight per day. Though star-thistle is most dangerous when it is the only plant available or is delivered as a contaminant in dried hay, horses may develop a taste for it and seek it out. Many other grazing species, including mules and burros, are not affected. == Uses == Although the spines make the plant a pain to deal with, it produces a light honey. == See also == *Invasive species in the United States *List of invasive species in North America ==References== *USDA - " Larinus filiformis as a Biological control agent for Centaurea solstitialis (flowerhead feeding weevil) *Balciunas, J. K., and B. Villegas; "Unintentionally released Chaetorellia succinea (Diptera: Tephritidae): Is this natural enemy of yellow starthistle a threat to safflower growers?"; Environ. Entomol. 30: 953-963; pub. 2001. ==External links== * * Species Profile - Yellow Star Thistle (Centaurea solstitialis), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Yellow Star Thistle. *USDA PLANTS Database - Centaurea solstitialis (yellow star-thistle) *U.C. Jepson Manual treatment - Centaurea solstitialis * Invasive Plants of California's Wildlands - Centaurea solstitialis, California Invasive Plant Council *Plants of Texas Rangelands - Starthistles, Texas A&M; University Extension * * solstitialis Category:Flora of Europe Category:Flora of North Africa Category:Biennial plants Category:Plants described in 1753 Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus |
The Battle of Hengyang () was the longest defense of a single city of the entire Second Sino-Japanese War. When Changsha fell to the Imperial Japanese Army on June 19, 1944, Hengyang became their next target. The reorganized 11th Army, consisting of 10 divisions, 4 brigades, and over 110,000 men, assumed the task of attacking Hengyang. The city was an important railroad junction and Hengyang Airport was used by USAAC General Claire Lee Chennault's Flying Tigers which were engaged in bombing operations of the Japanese homeland. Therefore, Field Marshal Hajime Sugiyama, chief of imperial staff and war minister, ordered the city must be taken at all costs. On June 22, Japanese 68th and 116th divisions received their orders to attack the city and to take it within 2 days, which started the 48 days of siege and defense. ==Background== After successfully capturing Changsha on 18 June 1944, the Japanese 11th army, led by Lieutenant General Isamu Yokoyama (橫山 勇) continued its drive southwards. Yokoyama's plans were to capture Hengyang and Guilin to launch an attack on Liuzhou, thus concluding Operation Ichi-Go. The Allies' successful execution of Operation Overlord in Normandy in 1944 drew attention toward Europe as victory against Nazi Germany was anticipated. On the other hand, however, China was nearing a breaking point: following the loss of Changsha, failure to hold Hengyang could result in the Japanese crossing into Guilin and driving west towards Guizhou, from where they could directly attack Chongqing, thus placing the Chinese wartime capital and military headquarters in imminent danger. Chinese supreme commander Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's relocation of 15 elite divisions to support American general Joseph Stilwell's forces in Burma on 15 June resulted in Chinese forces in Hunan and Guangxi being spread out very thinly. On the other hand, the Japanese offensive involved more troops than any other battle since the war's start, with General Yokoyama deploying 400,000 troops in 150 battalions. ===American involvement=== Although the Chinese army did gain access to American lend- lease weapons by mid-1944, this was severely restricted, as most of this equipment was still in India, held up by General Stilwell for his forces in Burma. During the siege of Hengyang, Stilwell ordered the destruction of Guilin's airfield and removal of its outer bridge on 21 June. ===Changsha campaign=== When the Japanese army captured Changsha and pressed southwards, the Chinese units seemed powerless, because during the defense of Changsha, they dispersed in the face of completely superior Japanese power. Logistics and communication were thus very difficult to maintain. Although Yang Sen's 27th army group and Wang Lingji's 30th army group did fiercely engage the Japanese army at Liling and Chaling respectively, they were unable to stop the advance of the overwhelming Japanese force. As a result, Hengyang was surrounded and unable to receive outside support. The rapid loss of Changsha came as a shock to the Chinese military headquarters, and also resulted in the Chinese having a difficult time to reestablish their line of defense due to overwhelming Japanese advantages in manpower and material. Chiang Kai-shek hurriedly contacted two-star Lieutenant General Fang Xianjue(:zh:方先覺), commander of the 10th Corps, ordering him to hold the city for two weeks, in a desperate attempt to buy time for the HQ to fully analyse the situation. ==Defenses== Led by General Fang, the 10th Corps had previously participated in the Battle of Changde in November–December 1943 during which it suffered heavy casualties. After the siege of Changde was successfully lifted, the Corps was relocated to Mount Heng for replacements and resupplies. Only on 2 June was it deployed to protect Hengyang. The 10th Corps consisted of 3 divisions: the 3rd, 10th, and 190th. In particular, the 10th and 190th division were reserve divisions, and the latter had yet to receive actual troops: it had an en cadre, but no soldiers. Later, the corps gained the temporary 54th division, which was originally stationed at Hengyang, but this division only had the strength of a single regiment. On paper, the Chinese army had 4 divisions, but in reality, they only had 7 regiments. Even with the addition of its mountain artillery company, field artillery company and anti- tank company, its total strength did not exceed approximately 17,000 men. ===Strategic importance=== Hengyang was a small rectangular city situated in the south-eastern plains of Hunan province, south of the foothills of Mount Heng (Hunan). It spanned 500 m from east to west and up to 1600 m from north to south. The Beijing-Guangzhou and Hunan-Guangxi Railways intersected at Hengyang, making it the transportation hub linking the provinces of Hunan, Jiangxi, Guangxi, and Guizhou. The city was also the gateway to south-western China. Additionally, the Hengyang Airport was used by USAAC General Claire Lee Chennault's Flying Tigers, which were engaged in bombing operations of the Japanese homeland. Thus, its military and economic importance made it an inevitable place of contention. A Chinese failure to hold the city could result in the Japanese crossing into Guilin and driving west towards Guizhou, from where they could directly attack Chongqing, thus placing the Chinese wartime capital and military headquarters in imminent danger. Along Hengyang's eastern border, the Xiang River ran from north to south. North of the city, the Zheng River ran from west to east. West of the city was marshlands. Thus, the only terrain favourable for the Japanese armoured and mechanized units lay in the south, where hills ran westward along the Hunan-Guangxi Railway starting from the Jiangxi Hall(:zh:江西會館), including Fengshushan(:zh:楓樹山), Zhangjiashan(:zh:張家山), and Huxingchao(:zh:虎形巢). By advancing westwards and crossing the Xiang River, the Japanese could directly attack the city from the south. Hence, the outer southern gate of the city became a critical location of contention from the outset. ===Chinese defensive disposition=== General Fang deployed his most elite unit, the reserve 10th division, led by General Ge Xiancai(:zh:葛先才) to protect the vitally important southern gate, while the reserve 190th division was deployed on the eastern flank, responsible for protecting the area outside the city east of the Xiang River, bounded by Quanxi(:zh:泉溪) in the east, and Wumaguicao(:zh:五馬歸槽) and the Hengyang Airport in the west. The temporary 54th division was deployed just north of the 190th, at Fengjiachong(:zh:馮家冲), on the west bank of the Leishui River. The 3rd division was deployed west of the city, its area of responsibility spanning from Gaojiatang(:zh:高家塘) in the north to the western bus station in the south. The corps command post was originally situated at Fengshushan, in the south of the city, but was later relocated to the central bank, in the centre of the city. Given that the Japanese captured Changsha on 18 June, just 16 days after the Chinese 10th Corps entered Hengyang, the Chinese had very limited time to prepare their defenses. In spite of this, the Chinese commander General Fang ordered a mandatory evacuation for 300,000 inhabitants of the city, and, recognising his force's inferiority in manpower and material, abandoned some pre-existing defensive positions south of the Hunan-Guangxi Railway in order to minimise the area which his force had to defend, and began to construct earthworks, trenches, pillboxes and bunkers. The Chinese created man-made cliffs of 6 meters high, and covered the place with well-placed mortar and light artillery. In the hills to the south, General Fang deployed machine guns on the summits flanking saddles, creating tight killzones over the open ground, where abatises were also deployed. This meant that the Japanese only had two ways to advance: to scale the cliffs with ladders, or to brave the machine gun fire and run across the open fields. Just before the Japanese launched their attack, the Chinese Army HQ was able to spare some American artillery for the defense of the city. However, the 10th Corps had to send its artillery battalion to Kunming to collect it. The battalion traveled to Jinchengjiang(:zh:金城江) via train, and marched to Kunming from there. En route back to Jinchengjiang after collecting the equipment, however, it found the Hunan-Guangxi Railway to be flooded with refugees. The battalion could only abandon some of the equipment and hurry back to Hengyang. By the time they arrived, the battle had already begun. The battalion managed to bring back 9 anti-tank guns, 6 field guns, 26 mortars, and 2 bazookas, weapons which would play a major role in the Chinese defense. ==Battle== Japanese commander Lieutenant General Yokoyama planned to take the city within two days. On 22 June, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service began dropping incendiary bombs on the city, and a 30,000 strong force made up of the Japanese 68th and 116th Divisions of the 11th Army attacked the city at eight o'clock that night, with the 68th attacking from the south and the 116th attacking from the west. Although faced with concentrated heavy artillery fire, the Chinese held fast. Only when the Japanese troops began assaulting the Chinese defensive positions did their commanders realize something was not right as their troops rapidly fell to small arms fire from the Chinese. Japanese 68th division veteran Yamauchi Iwao (山内 巖) recalled in an interview in 1995: > During the attack, Japanese soldiers fell one by one, making the sound of > 'pa-da, pa-da'. Later, our platoon commander was the first to reach the > frontmost pillbox. Later, I reached it as well. Soldiers as near as five > metres behind me all fell - 'pa-da, pa-da'. After withdrawing, almost our > entire company had been killed: there were only about 30 survivors. The Japanese forces failing to make any progress for two days straight, Lieutenant General Sakuma Tamehito (佐久間為人), commander of the Japanese 68th Division, took it upon himself to personally inspect the battlefield from a hill. Shortly afterwards, a barrage of mortar rounds fell on his position, critically wounding the General and a number of his staff. These rounds had come from the mortar battery of the Chinese 28th regiment, reserve 10th division, stationed at Fengshushan. Battery commander Bai Tianlin (:zh:白天霖) recalled in an interview in 1995: > [700 to 900] metres in front [of our position] was a place called > Oujiating(歐家町). There were at least 7 to 8 [enemy troops], even 30 of them. > As soon as I saw it, [I thought], "this is a good target. How could there be > so many [enemy troops] gathered in one location to reconnoitre our position? > This shows that it could not be a regiment commander." After I saw it, I > immediately made the decision. Each mortar was to fire one round - > concentrated fire. In an instant, eight rounds were fired and simultaneously > landed on that group of [enemy troops]. It was enjoyable to watch. A severe shortage of ammunition resulted in the Chinese adopting a "Three Don't's Policy"(三不主義): Don't shoot at what you can't see (看不見不打); Don't shoot at what you can't aim at (瞄不准不打); and Don't shoot at what you can't kill (打不死不打). While such policy allowed them to hold fast in the early stages of the battle, it also necessitated fierce close quarters combat. Company commander in the 10th Corps' reconnaissance battalion Zang Xiaoxia (:zh:臧肖侠) recalled in an interview in 1995: > I requested mortar fire. I waited for a very long time, until dusk, before a > mortar platoon commander came. He fired seven or eight rounds and stopped. I > asked him, "Why did you fire the mortar like that?". He replied, "Sir, we > are out of mortar rounds." I said, "What is going on?" He replied, "What > rounds do you need? My mortar is an mortar. We had used up all our mortar > rounds ages ago. We still have some mortar rounds remaining [captured from > the Japanese]. Our staff are using rocks to grind them down by , before > loading them up to fire. How many rounds do you think they can grind down in > a day? The staff's hands are already worn out from all the grinding." Despite incurring heavy casualties through seven days and nights of continuous assault, the Japanese 68th and 116th divisions, which had a combined strength of 30,000 men, failed to take any ground from the 17,000-strong Chinese 10th Corps. As a result, General Yokoyama called a halt to the attack on 2 July. During this time, the Chinese 190th division withdrew from their original positions east of the Xiang River, falling back to the city to make their last stand. By this time, the small city of Hengyang had already been reduced to rubble by continuous Japanese air strikes. Chinese medic Wang Nutao (:zh:汪怒濤) from the reserve 10th division recalled in an interview in 1995: > Every evening, the Japanese planes would fly bombing runs with incendiary > bombs. Afterwards, all patients would no longer be sent to field hospitals. > No patients were sent any more. There were no more patients. How could it be > that there are no patients in a battle? The patients no longer went to the > rear, since they knew that they were going to die either way, and chose to > die fighting the Japanese. However, the Chinese Air Force, stationed at Zhijiang, also launched numerous air attacks against the invading Japanese forces throughout this battle. These attacks had a positive effect on the morale of the Chinese troops on the ground. On the morning of 11 July, the Japanese launched their second try, and did not score any major success despite some small gains. On the other hand, while the Chinese were still able to hold the line, their ammunition shortages had become an increasingly severe problem by now: their original supply of 10 days' worth of ammunition having been substantially depleted by half a month of intense fighting. Hence, they resorted to engaging the enemy in close quarters with hand grenades. By mid-July, the Japanese troops no longer used ladders to climb up the cliffs. Instead, they used the piles of their corpses as ramps to scale the cliffs. Zang Xiaoxia (:zh:臧肖侠), a company commander in the 10th Corps' reconnaissance battalion, recalled in an interview in 1995: > At that time I saw that we only had one pillbox left. With no way to > resupply, I, as the company commander, could do nothing else but stay in the > pillbox and defend it with my life. I jumped inside with a machine gun. The > soldier who was already there, said to me while firing at the enemy, "Sir, > what are you doing? You shouldn't be here. You should be at the company > command post directing the entire company." I said, "the rest of the company > has been wiped out. This pillbox here is all we have left. I'll fight > alongside you until death." The pillbox had two firing ports. We each fired > out of one of them. It was only until I entered the pillbox that I saw the > enemies' corpses piling up like mountains, blocking the firing port, making > it impossible to shoot through. It was only after shooting the corpses to > pieces that I could see through. On 18 July, the Japanese were still unable to break through the Chinese southern defensive lines. Pressured with increasingly high casualties, General Yokoyama once again halted the offensive. On 4 August, Japanese Field Marshal Shunroku Hata (畑 俊六) ordered three divisions to reinforce the 68th and 116th Divisions, increasing the total manpower to 110,000 troops. The 40th Division attacked from the northwest, while the 58th attacked from the north and the 13th attacked from the east. After four days of intense bombing and artillery shelling, the Chinese garrison was reduced to 2,000 wounded men, less than a regiment (3,000). On 6 August, the Japanese 57th Brigade launched a fierce assault on the Hengyang hospital. The Chinese reserve 10th division's 8th regiment's mortar battery fired its last eight mortar rounds. The Japanese killed around 1,000 wounded Chinese in the Hengyang hospital before engaging in negotiations. On 7 August, General Fang sent a telegram to Chongqing headquarters. In this message, he said: "The enemy broke in from the north this morning. We are out of ammunition and replacements. I have devoted my life to my country. Goodbye." After sending the message, Fang ordered his staff to destroy all communications equipment. The next day, the Japanese army broke into the city and captured General Fang. Fang actually tried to commit suicide, but his officers stopped him and tried to negotiate a truce with the Japanese. After the Japanese agreed not to harm the civilian population and to treat the Chinese wounded humanely, General Fang ordered the remaining Chinese soldiers to lay down their arms. The day was 8 August 1944. ==Aftermath== Although the Japanese army suffered huge losses, they held the Chinese commanders in high regard. Japanese Emperor Hirohito personally appointed General Fang Xianjue as commander of a puppet unit, made up of his remaining garrison and some Chinese turncoats. But the local Japanese commanders never trusted him or his officers; they were eventually placed under house arrest. Later studies showed that on 7 August 1944, the day before the Japanese army broke into the city, Chiang Kai-shek had sent a telegram to General Fang, saying: "Reinforcements are on the way. They will arrive at your position tomorrow with no delay." However, Fang never received the message. Chinese special forces under General Dai Li(:zh:戴笠), head of China's wartime intelligence service "Military-Statistics Bureau" of National Military Council, carried out a daring rescue mission and freed General Fang and his officers in December 1944. They returned to Chongqing to a hero's welcome and were decorated with the Order of Blue Sky and White Sun, the highest honor for a Chinese commander. The delay at Hengyang cost the Imperial Japanese Army considerable time and the Tojo cabinet collapsed as the war was not in Japan's favor anymore. Lieutenant General Yokoyama was later relieved of his command due to his refusal to obey orders from General Yasuji Okamura (:zh:岡村寧次), commander-in-chief of the Japanese China Expeditionary Forces. The Japanese operation in Hunan did manage to push Chinese troops out of the area, but they could not secure the territory around the railroad or safely transfer war materials to different regions. Because of increased activity of Chinese troops and nationalist guerrillas, they could take no more Chinese land. ==References== ==Sources== Hengyang Category:1944 in China Category:1944 in Japan |
Egypt and Turkey are bound by strong religious, cultural and historical ties, but diplomatic ties between the two have remained extremely friendly at times and extremely strained at others. For three centuries, Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire, whose capital was Istanbul in modern-day Turkey, despite governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, waged war against the Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II, in 1831. Turkey established diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1925 at the level of Charge d’ Affaires and upgraded its mission in Cairo to Ambassadorial level in 1948. Both countries have embassies and consulate generals in the other's capitals. Both countries have signed a free trade agreement in December 2005. Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. A natural gas deal between Egypt and Turkey—the largest joint Egyptian-Turkish project to date, estimated to cost $4 billion—is being implemented. On 16 April 2008, Egypt and Turkey signed a memorandum of understanding to improve and further military relations and cooperation between the two countries. Relations however have been quite tense on many occasions in history of both countries including the Nasser era in Egypt in the 1950s and 60s. It has also strongly deteriorated in the period following the overthrow of the Egyptian president Mohamed Morsi on 3 July 2013 following a 48-hour deadline on 1 July, marking the end of anti-government protests that took place between 30 June and 3 July that year. On 23 November 2013, the Egyptian government expelled the Turkish ambassador in Cairo after a months- long diplomatic crisis. In 2021, both countries are having talks of normalizing ties. ==Diplomatic relations== ===Relations under Gamal Abdel Nasser=== In the midst of the Cold War and during the rule of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, relations between both countries have soured dramatically due to Turkey's membership in the British-led Baghdad Pact, which Nasser viewed as a major threat to his efforts to eliminate Western presence in the Arab world, and because of the growing influence of Nasser's Pan-Arab ideology, called Nasserism. In addition, Turkey was the first Muslim majority country to recognize the State of Israel, Egypt's archrival at the time, showing even more its clear alignment to the West. In 1958, Egypt entered a brief union with Syria, Turkey's southern neighbor with whom it shared longtime diplomatic and border disputes, causing severe tensions between the two countries with Turkey responding by its engagement in a secret "peripheral alliance" with Israel.Daniela, Huber. Turkish-Israeli relations in a Changing Strategic Environment IAI (2010). The tensions reached their peak in 1957 prior to the unification with Syria when Nasser, fearful of a Baghdad Pact toppling of the Syrian government, sent a contingent force to assist Syrian forces that was dispatched near the Syrian-Turkish border as a response to a Turkish threat of incursion when a huge number of troops amassed along the border. This near-confrontation between Egyptian and Turkish troops marked a dark spot in both countries' relations and eventually led to both sides withdrawing, ending the possible escalation of the crisis. ===Relations under post-2011 Egyptian revolution=== Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan made his first three days official visit to Egypt on 12 September 2011, and was accompanied by six ministers and approximately 200 businessmen. This visit was considered a diplomatic success and was met with much enthusiasm by Egyptians. CNN reported some Egyptians saying "We consider him as the Islamic leader in the Middle East", while others were appreciative of his role in supporting Gaza. Erdogan was later honored in Tahrir Square by members of the Egyptian Revolution Youth Union, and members of the Turkish embassy were presented with a coat of arms in acknowledgment of the Prime Minister's support of the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. A week after he left, Turkish Foreign Minister, Ahmet Davutoğlu proclaimed his vision of a strategic alliance between Egypt and Turkey which he described as an "Axis of Democracy". However, some voiced concerns that the Egyptian revolution was not fulfilled and that Erdogan was seeking his own country's strategic interests. It was feared that by forming an alliance with the SCAF interim government in Egypt during the country's transition to democracy, Erdogan may have tipped the balance in favor of those that stand between the Egyptians and their freedom. ===Relations following the removal of Mohamed Morsi from office=== Following the anti-government protests in the middle of 2013 that led to the overthrow of Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi who was strongly backed by Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP), signs of strained relations rose between the newly appointed interim government of Egypt and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's government in Turkey, mainly due to Erdoğan's pro- Brotherhood views, culminating with the August 2013 sit-in raids in Rabaa and Nahda by security forces, where sit-ins organized by the Muslim Brotherhood were dispersed, leading to clashes that resulted in 638 deaths, of which 43 were police officers. The incident resulted in both countries recalling their respective ambassadors and was met with several verbal assaults by Erdoğan, who described the event as "anti-democratic" and referred to it as a "massacre," while suggesting that Egypt's leaders should be put under a "fair and transparent trial." This was followed by a suspension of military exercises involving the two countries. Erdoğan also accused the Egyptian military of conspiring with Israel to topple Morsi's government at an expanded meeting of the provincial chairs of his ruling AKP and claimed to possess "proof" for that: "This is what has been implemented in Egypt. Who is behind this? Israel. We have evidence". The claim was rejected by the Egyptian interim government, describing it as "baseless" and intended to "strike at the unity of Egyptians," with presidential spokesperson Ahmed Muslimani saying that "agents of the West should not give lessons in patriotism". In response to Erdoğan's statements, Egypt's interim president, Adly Mansour announced on his Twitter account on 17 August that Egypt would to sign the international document recognizing the Armenian genocide: In addition, dozens of Egyptian articles have been published condemning Turkey's denial of the Armenian genocide and urging the country's new leaders to recognize it. There have also been calls to erect a memorial monument commemorating the victims of the genocide in Cairo. On 23 November 2013, the Egyptian government expelled the Turkish ambassador to the country, Huseyin Avni Botsali, and recalled their ambassador from Ankara indefinitely after several months of tensions with Turkey's ruling AKP-led government. In response, Turkey also barred the Egyptian ambassador, who was out of the country at the time, and declared him a persona non grata. The declaration came a day after Turkish PM Recep Tayyip Erdoğan repeated his criticism of Egypt's interim government and his call for the urgent release of former Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi. Egypt's Foreign Ministry spokesman, Badr Abdelatty accused Erdoğan of meddling in the country's internal affairs by raising public opinion against the Egyptian government and supporting proscribed organizations that are bent on destabilizing the nation. ===Relations under Abdel Fattah al-Sisi=== In July 2014, the Egyptian Foreign Ministry warned that relations would worsen since Erdoğan called Sisi a "tyrant". This comes after Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan slammed Egypt's President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi as an "illegitimate tyrant", saying that Egypt could not be relied upon to negotiate a truce with Israel during Operation Protective Edge. "Is Sisi a party (to a ceasefire)? Sisi is a tyrant himself," Erdogan told reporters. "He is not different from the others," he said, adding that it was Egypt's current rulers who were blocking humanitarian aid channels to the Gaza Strip ruled by the Hamas Islamist militant group. Egypt's Foreign Minister Sameh Shoukry said Erdogan's comments were "unacceptable". Due to Turkey's interference in Egypt's domestic affairs. The Egyptian foreign ministry also canceled joint naval drills with Turkey. In September 2014, Egypt's foreign minister cancelled a meeting with Turkish president Erdoğan requested by Turkey after Erdoğan made a speech critical of Egypt in the UN General Assembly. An advisor to the Turkish president has denied that the countries' leaders were planning to meet. However, later Egypt's foreign ministry handed out a scanned document of Turkey's meeting proposal to the media and was published by Egypt's Youm7 newspaper. Sisi's administration also decided to cancel the "Ro-Ro" agreement with Turkey, blocking Turkey from transporting Turkish containers to the Gulf via Egyptian ports. An intense campaign started by Egypt and Saudi Arabia against Turkey made it lose its predicted easy victory of membership in the United Nations Security Council. Following the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan gave an interview with Al Jazeera explaining that "President al-Sisi has nothing to do with democracy, and that he’s killed thousands of his own people." The remarks were condemned by Egypt's Foreign Ministry spokesman Ahmed Abu Zeid saying that the Turkish president "keeps confusing matter and is losing the ability to make sound judgments" and that this reflects "the difficult circumstances the Turkish president has been through. "He cannot differentiate between an evident revolution where more than 30 million Egyptians demanded the support of the Egyptian military and between military coups as we know them," the statement explained. On 22 November 2017, Egypt's public prosecutor has ordered the detention of 29 people suspected of espionage on behalf of Turkey against Egypt national interest and joining a terrorist organization. They are also accused of money laundering, conducting overseas calls without a license and trading currency without a license. According to the results of an investigation by the General Intelligence Services, the group has been recording phone calls and passing information to Turkish intelligence as part of a plan to bring the Muslim Brotherhood back to power in Egypt.In Pictures: Egypt foils Turkish espionage attempt Egypt Today Following the executions of 9 people convicted of killing Hisham Barakat in February 2019, President Erdogan sharply criticized President al-Sisi, saying he refused to talk to "someone like him." In June 2019, former Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi died during a court hearing. Erdogan blamed the Egyptian leadership for Morsi's death and called him a martyr. ====Proposal to recognize the Armenian genocide==== Due to the ongoing deterioration of relations between Egypt and Turkey, the Government of Egypt led by el-Sisi, has been receiving proposals to recognize the Armenian Genocide, a sensitive subject that Turkey has denounced more than once. Filmmaker Mohamed Hanafi had produced a movie, "Who Killed the Armenians?", in response to the ongoing tensions between Turkey and Egypt, as an act of Egyptian solidarity to Armenia. In February 2019, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announced it had implicitly recognized the Armenian Genocide, further deteriorating the relationship between Turkey and Egypt. ====Proposal to grant asylum to Fethullah Gülen==== MP Emad Mahrous called on the Egyptian government to grant asylum to Gülen. In the request, sent to Speaker of the House of Representatives Ali Abdel Aal, Prime Minister Sherif Ismail and Foreign Minister Sameh Shoukry on 24 July 2016, Mahrous notes that "[Turkey] was a moderate Muslim country that has become an Islamist dictatorship at the hands of [Turkish president] Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and his affiliated Muslim Brotherhood political party", arguing that it was "highly distasteful" that Erdoğan has requested Gülen's extradition from the United States while at the same time "... giving shelter to hundreds of leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood terrorist organisation and members of other bloody militant Islamist groups which attack Egypt by day and night". Mahrous argues that not only has Erdoğan accused Gülen of plotting the failed coup, Erdoğan has also used this allegation as an excuse to engage in mass purges against public institutions allegedly loyal to Gülen. "(Simultaneously), Erdogan has decided to turn Turkey-Egypt relations into a media battleground, with Turkish intelligence providing funds for several Muslim Brotherhood TV channels that target Egypt". Mahrous stated that his advice to Gülen is to not wait until his extradition, but instead leave the US and obtain permanent asylum in Egypt. Former Egyptian President Anwar Sadat granted asylum to Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi after arriving the Egypt from the US, regardless of all the threats that were issued by Iran's ayatollahs during the Iranian Revolution. == Relations in early 2020s == In early 2020, the Egyptian military practices military drills in the Middle East as a show of force to Turkey according to Xinhuanet News. "It's [the military exercises] a message to the Turkish side to realize the capabilities of Egyptian army on battle ground," said Tariq Fahmy, a professor of international relations at Cairo University. In addition, the Egyptian naval forces conducted a large-scale amphibious exercise in the Mediterranean Sea amidst escalating tensions in the region after Turkey's parliament agreed to send military troops to Libya aimed at shoring up the UN-recognized government in Tripoli. Egypt's naval forces conducted activities in the Mediterranean Sea aimed at imposing maritime control on the country's economic zone and securing vital targets in deep water, according to a statement by the armed forces. In March 2021, Turkey claimed said that they have resumed their diplomatic contacts with Egypt (at the level of intelligence and foreign ministries) after breaking off relations since 2013. However, the Egyptian Foreign Ministry denied these claims by the Turkish Government that there has been a restoration of ties. In the meantime, Turkey had ordered Muslim Brotherhood affiliated TV channels to halt criticisms against Egypt. ==Diplomacy== ;Arab Republic of Egypt *Ankara (Embassy) *Istanbul (Consulate- General) ;Republic of Turkey *Cairo (Embassy) *Alexandria (Consulate-General) == See also == * Foreign relations of Egypt * Foreign relations of Turkey * Turks in Egypt * 2013 Egyptian coup d'état * 2016 Turkish coup d'état ==Bibliography== * * * ==References== == External links == * News Analysis: Egypt's army maneuvers in Mediterranean "message" to Turkey: experts - Xinhua | English.news.cn * Egyptian embassy in Ankara * Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Egypt * Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Turkey * New Era in the Egyptian – Turkish Relations Category:Relations of colonizer and former colony |
Marcus Opellius Macrinus (; – June 218) was Roman emperor from April 217 to June 218, reigning jointly with his young son Diadumenianus. As a member of the equestrian class, he became the first emperor who did not hail from the senatorial class and also the first emperor who never visited Rome during his reign. Before becoming emperor, Macrinus served under Emperor Caracalla as a praetorian prefect and dealt with Rome's civil affairs. He later conspired against Caracalla and had him murdered in a bid to protect his own life, succeeding him as emperor. Macrinus was proclaimed emperor of Rome by 11 April 217 while in the eastern provinces of the empire and was subsequently confirmed as such by the Senate; however, for the duration of his reign, he never had the opportunity to return to Rome. His predecessor's policies had left Rome's coffers empty and the empire at war with several kingdoms, including Parthia, Armenia and Dacia. As emperor, Macrinus first attempted to enact reform to bring economic and diplomatic stability to Rome. While Macrinus' diplomatic actions brought about peace with each of the individual kingdoms, the additional monetary costs and subsequent fiscal reforms generated unrest in the Roman military. Caracalla's aunt Julia Maesa took advantage of the unrest and instigated a rebellion to have her fourteen-year- old grandson, Elagabalus, recognized as emperor. Macrinus was overthrown at the Battle of Antioch on 8 June 218 and Elagabalus proclaimed himself emperor with support from the rebelling Roman legions. Macrinus fled the battlefield and tried to reach Rome, but was captured in Chalcedon and later executed in Cappadocia. He sent his son to the care of Artabanus IV of Parthia, but Diadumenian was also captured before he could reach his destination and executed. After Macrinus' death, the Senate declared him and his son enemies of Rome and had their names struck from the records and their images destroyed; the phrase for such a drastic social/historical erasure came to be damnatio memoriae: damnation (of the) memory (of someone). ==Background and career== Macrinus was born in Caesarea (modern Cherchell, Algeria) in the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis to an equestrian family of Berber origins. According to David Potter, his family traced its origins to the Berber tribes of the region and his pierced ear was an indication of his Berber heritage. He received an education which allowed him to ascend to the Roman political class. Over the years, he earned a reputation as a skilled lawyer; and, under Emperor Septimius Severus, he became an important bureaucrat. Severus' successor Caracalla later appointed him a prefect of the Praetorian Guard. While Macrinus probably enjoyed the trust of Emperor Caracalla, this may have changed when, according to tradition, it was prophesied that he would depose and succeed the emperor. Macrinus, fearing for his safety, resolved to have Caracalla murdered before he was condemned. In the spring of 217, Caracalla was in the eastern provinces preparing a campaign against the Parthian Empire. Macrinus was among his staff, as were other members of the Praetorian Guard. In April, Caracalla went to visit a temple of Luna near the site of the battle of Carrhae and was accompanied only by his personal guard, which included Macrinus. On 8 April, while travelling to the temple, Caracalla was stabbed to death by Justin Martialis, a soldier whom Macrinus had recruited to commit the murder. In the aftermath, Martialis was killed by one of Caracalla's men. For two or three days, Rome remained without an emperor. On 11 April, Macrinus proclaimed himself emperor and assumed all of the imperial titles and powers, without waiting for the Senate. The army backed his claim as emperor and the Senate, so far away, was powerless to intervene. Macrinus never returned to Rome as emperor and remained based in Antioch for the duration of his reign. Macrinus was the first emperor to hail from the equestrian class, rather than the senatorial, and also the first emperor of Mauretanian descent. He adopted the name of Severus, in honour of the Severan dynasty, and conferred the imperial title of Augusta to his wife Nonia Celsa and the title of Caesar and name of Antoninus to his son Diadumenianus in honour of the Antonine dynasty, thus making him second in command. At the time of Diadumenian's accession he was eight years old. ==Reign== Despite his equestrian background, Macrinus was accepted by the Senate for two reasons: for the removal of Caracalla, and for having received the loyalty of the army. The senators were less concerned by Macrinus' Mauretanian ancestry than by his equestrian social background and scrutinized his actions as emperor. Their opinion of him was reduced by his decisions to appoint to high offices men who were of similarly undistinguished background. Macrinus, not being a senator and having become emperor through force rather than through traditional means, was looked down upon. Macrinus had several issues that he needed to deal with at the time of his accession, which had been left behind by his predecessor. As Caracalla had a tendency towards military belligerence, rather than diplomacy, this left several conflicts for Macrinus to resolve. Additionally, Caracalla had been a profligate spender of Rome's income. Most of the money was spent on the army; he had greatly increased their pay from 2,000 sesterces to 3,000 sesterces per year. The increased expenditures forced Caracalla to strip bare whatever sources of income he had to supply the difference. This shortfall left Rome in a dire fiscal situation that Macrinus needed to address. Macrinus was at first occupied by the threat of the Parthians, with whom Rome had been at war since the reign of Caracalla. Macrinus settled a peace deal with the Parthians after fighting an indecisive battle at Nisibis in 217. In return for peace, Macrinus was forced to pay a large indemnity to the Parthian ruler Artabanus IV. Rome was at the time also under threat from Dacia and Armenia, so any deal with Parthia would likely have been beneficial to Rome. Next, Macrinus turned his attention to Armenia. In 216, Caracalla had imprisoned Khosrov I of Armenia and his family after Khosrov had agreed to meet with Caracalla at a conference to discuss some issue between himself and his sons. Caracalla instead installed a new Roman governor to rule over Armenia. These actions angered the Armenian people and they soon rebelled against Rome. Macrinus settled a peace treaty with them by returning the crown and loot to Khosrov's son and successor Tiridates II and releasing his mother from prison, and by restoring Armenia to its status as a client kingdom of Rome. Macrinus made peace with the Dacians by releasing hostages, though this was likely not handled by himself but by Marcius Agrippa. In matters of foreign policy, Macrinus showed a tendency towards settling disputes through diplomacy and a reluctance to engage in military conflict, though this may have been due more to the lack of resources and manpower than to his own personal preference. Macrinus began to overturn Caracalla's fiscal policies and moved closer towards those that had been set forth by Septimius Severus. One such policy change involved the pay of Roman legionaries. The soldiers that were already enlisted during Caracalla's reign enjoyed exorbitant payments which were impossible for Macrinus to reduce without risking a potential rebellion. Instead, Macrinus allowed the enlisted soldiers to retain their higher payments, but he reduced the pay of new recruits to the level which had been set by Severus. Macrinus revalued the Roman currency, increasing the silver purity and weight of the denarius from 50.78 percent and 1.66 grams at the end of Caracalla's reign to 57.85 percent and 1.82 grams from Autumn 217 to the end of his reign, so that it mirrored Severus' fiscal policy for the period 197 to 209. Macrinus' goal with these policies might have been to return Rome to the relative economic stability that had been enjoyed under Severus' reign, though it came with a cost. The fiscal changes that Macrinus enacted might have been tenable had it not been for the military. By this time, the strength of the military was too great and by enacting his reforms he angered the veteran soldiers, who viewed his actions in reducing the pay of new recruits as a foreshadowing of eventual reductions in their own privileges and pay. This significantly reduced Macrinus' popularity with the legions that had declared him emperor. Caracalla's mother Julia Domna was initially left in peace when Macrinus became emperor. This changed when Macrinus discovered that she was conspiring against him and had her placed under house arrest in Antioch. By this time Julia Domna was suffering from an advanced stage of breast cancer and soon died in Antioch. Afterwards, Macrinus sent Domna's sister Julia Maesa and her children back to Emesa in Syria, from where Maesa set in motion her plans to have Macrinus overthrown. Macrinus remained in Antioch instead of going to Rome upon being declared emperor, a step which furthered his unpopularity in Rome and contributed to his eventual downfall. == Downfall == Julia Maesa had retired to her home town of Emesa with an immense fortune, which she had accrued over the course of twenty years. She took her children, Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea, and grandchildren, including Elagabalus, with her to Emesa. Elagabalus, aged 14, was the chief priest of the Phoenician sun-deity Elagabalus (or El-Gabal) in Emesa. Soldiers from Legio III Gallica (Gallic Third Legion), that had been stationed at the nearby camp of Raphanea, often visited Emesa and went to see Elagabalus perform his priestly rituals and duties while there. Julia Maesa took advantage of this, to suggest to the soldiers that Elagabalus was indeed the illegitimate son of Caracalla. On 16 May, Elagabalus was proclaimed emperor by the Legio III Gallica at its camp at Raphanea. Upon Elagabalus' revolt, Macrinus travelled to Apamea and conferred the title of Augustus onto his son, Diadumenianus, and made him co-emperor. === Execution === Macrinus realised that his life was in danger but struggled to decide upon a course of action and remained at Antioch. He sent a force of cavalry commanded by Ulpius Julianus to regain control of the rebels, but they failed and Ulpius died in the attempt. This failure further strengthened Elagabalus' army. Soon after, a force under Elagabalus' tutor Gannys marched on Antioch and engaged Macrinus' army on 8 June 218 near the village of Immae, located approximately 24 miles from Antioch. At some point during the ensuing Battle of Antioch, Macrinus deserted the field and returned to Antioch. He was then forced to flee from Antioch as fighting erupted in the city as well. Elagabalus himself subsequently entered Antioch as the new ruler of the Roman Empire. Macrinus fled for Rome; he travelled as far as Chalcedon before being recognized and captured. His son and co-emperor Diadumenianus, sent to the care of Artabanus IV of Parthia, was himself captured in transit at Zeugma and killed in June 218. Diadumenianus' reign lasted a total of 14 months, and he was about 10 years old when he died. Macrinus, upon learning of his son's death, tried to escape captivity, but he injured himself in the unsuccessful attempt and was afterward executed in Cappadocia; his head was sent to Elagabalus. Much like Macrinus, Diadumenianus' head was also cut off and sent to Elagabalus as a trophy. === Damnatio memoriae === Macrinus and his son Diadumenian were declared hostes, enemies of the state, by the Senate immediately after news had arrived of their deaths and as part of an official declaration of support for the usurper Elagabalus, who was recognized in the Senate as the new Emperor. The declaration of hostes led to two actions being taken against the images of the former Emperors. First, their portraits were destroyed and their names were stricken from inscriptions and papyri. The second action, taken by the Roman soldiers who had rebelled against Macrinus in favour of Elagabalus, was to destroy all of the works and possessions of Macrinus. The damnatio memoriae against Macrinus is among the earliest of such sanctions enacted by the Senate. Many of the marble busts of Macrinus that exist were defaced and mutilated as a response to the damnatio memoriae and many of the coins depicting Macrinus and Diadumenianus were also destroyed. These actions against Macrinus are evidence of his unpopularity in Rome. == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Sources === * * * * * Downey, Glanville. (1961). History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest. Literary Licensing. . * * * * * * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * Dio Cassius. Roman History. * Herodian History of the Roman Empire. * Historia Augusta. * ==External links== * Life of Macrinus (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) * "Macrinus and Diadumenianius" at De Imperatoribus Romanis (by Michael Meckler of Ohio State University) * Macrinus by Dio Cassius * Livius.org: Marcus Opellius Macrinus Category:165 births Category:218 deaths Category:2nd-century Berber people Category:2nd-century Romans Category:3rd-century praetorian prefects Category:3rd-century Berber people Category:3rd-century executions Category:3rd-century murdered monarchs Category:3rd-century Roman emperors Category:Executed Roman emperors Category:Imperial Roman consuls Category:Opellii Category:People executed by the Roman Empire Category:People from Cherchell Category:People of the Roman–Parthian Wars Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Category:Roman pharaohs |
Irving Park is one of 77 officially designated Chicago community areas, and is located on the Northwest Side. It is bounded by the Chicago River on the east, the Milwaukee Road railroad tracks on the west, Addison Street on the south and Montrose Avenue on the north, west of Pulaski Road stretching to encompass the region between Belmont Avenue on the south and, roughly, Leland Avenue on the north. It is named after the American author Washington Irving. Old Irving Park, bounded by Montrose Avenue, Pulaski Road, Addison Street, and Cicero Avenue, has a variety of housing stock with Queen Anne, Victorian, and Italianate homes, a few farmhouses, and numerous bungalows. The CTA Blue Line runs through this neighborhood with stops at Addison, Irving Park, and Montrose. == History == ===Beginnings=== Irving Park's development began in 1843 when Major Noble purchased a tract of land from Christopher J. Ward, upon which Noble established a farm. The boundaries of that farm today would be Montrose Avenue to the north, Irving Park Road to the South, Pulaski Road to the east and Kostner Avenue to the West. Major Noble's house on the East side of Elston just south of Montrose doubled as the Buckthorn Tavern, serving travelers coming to and from the city of Chicago along the North West Plank Road (Elston). After many years of successful farming Noble sold the farm and retired to McHenry County. Four men from New York, Charles T. Race, John S. Brown, Adelbert E Brown and John Wheeler, purchased the farm in 1869 for $20,000 USD. Shortly thereafter they purchased an additional tract immediately south of the Noble farm from John Gray for US$25,000. This parcel, bounded by Irving Park on the north, Grace on the south, Pulaski on the east and Kostner on the west was part of his original farm. The intention of the men was to continue farming, but after seeing the success of suburban communities which had recently opened for settlement, they decided to subdivide their land and create an exclusive settlement, from the city. An agreement was reached with the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad allowing their trains to stop in Irving Park if the developers would build a station. This was done, and this station, still at the same location, continues to serve neighborhood residents today. The original name chosen for the new suburb was "Irvington" after the author Washington Irving, but it was discovered that another town in Illinois had already used the same name, so the name of Irving Park was adopted. The original developers all built substantial mansions along Irving Park Boulevard between 1870 and 1874. All have since been razed, with the exception of the Steven A. Race mansion, which was moved at the turn of the century and now stands at 3945 N. Tripp Avenue. Another early home, built for Erastus Brown, father of John and Adalbert, also remains at 3812 N. Pulaski Road although greatly altered. The Great Chicago Fire of 1871, which was watched from the cupolas of several area homes, brought a new influx of residents who built many unique, but slightly less pretentious homes. In 1872, the area's first church, the Dutch Reformed Church and Society of Irving Park was constructed on the southeast corner of Keeler Avenue and Belle Plaine Avenue. It remained the only house of worship for thirteen years. The building was completely remodeled in 1908, according to plans by noted architect Elmer C. Jensen. Jensen's spectacular personal residence in the Colonial Revival style built in 1905 still stands in the Old Irving Park neighborhood on North Lowell Avenue. By the turn of the century, congregations representing the Episcopalians, Methodists, Disciples of Christ, Catholics and Baptists had been established. ===Annexation to Chicago and subsequent development=== The 1880s found residents beginning to miss some of advantages they had left behind in the city, and in 1889 the community, along with the rest of Jefferson Township, was annexed to Chicago. Water piped to the area from Lake Michigan, and the establishments of a fire department and streetcar service along major streets were some of the improvements to occur during the first year after annexation. Over 200 homes had been built in the original subdivision within the first twenty years. Several additions to Irving Park had greatly increased the original suburb. Grayland, which was opened for settlement in 1874, extended West from Kostner to Cicero Avenue, between Irving Park and Addison. Subdivided by John Gray, the first Republican sheriff of Cook County, on a portion of his extensive farm, it grew around the Grayland station of the Milwaukee Road Railroad, which is still in active use today. Gray's first home built in 1856 at 4362 W. Grace survives today in a remarkable state of preservation and is the oldest house in Irving Park. Gray later built a lavish mansion on the northwest corner of Milwaukee and Lowell to reflect his new- found wealth and it was a community showplace. Indoor plumbing with gold fixtures, exotic woods and expensive marbles highlighted his home. It was razed around the year 1915. Three subdivisions east of Pulaski led to the development of the area in the late 1890s. West Walker is located between Montrose Avenue and Irving Park Road and is characterized by large single family homes in late Victorian, Foursquare and Revival styles. The area south of Irving Park Road was developed by Samuel Gross and was known as "Gross Boulevard addition to Irving Park". The housing stock is similar to that of West Walker. The section between Addison and Avondale was developed as the "Villa addition to Irving Park" and contains many unique Craftsman and Bungalow style homes fronting on boulevard style streets. The Villa District, as it is known, is a Chicago Landmark district, dubbed by hallowed journalist Mike Royko as "Polish Kenilworth" due to its heavily ethnic hue. In 1910 the residents of Irving Park established their own park district and created eight local parks, the largest of which is Independence Park. Considered one of the finest landscaped neighborhood parks in the city for many years, Independence Park also served as the site of local 4th of July celebrations. This annual event features a parade down Irving Park Boulevard involving hundreds of children, athletic events, a band concert and an award-winning display of fireworks. In 1933 the Irving Park District merged with the Chicago Park District. Irving Park continued to grow steadily during the first decades of the 20th century. Several large apartment buildings, featuring elaborate wrought-iron fencing, fountains and terra cotta details were constructed primarily north of Irving Park Boulevard. The depression and war years saw many of the larger homes converted into rooming houses and two family homes. The prosperity following the war was diminished when it was learned that the Northwest Expressway (Kennedy) would cut directly through the heart of Irving Park. This resulted in the displacement of many residents, and loss of many homes and businesses. During the 1960s condominiums replaced several larger homes along Keystone, Kedvale and Keeler north of the expressway. The 1970s provided baseball fans in the area with their own home grown amateur baseball team, the Irving Park White Sox. Founded in 1971 by two Irving Park residents, the late Robert Boomer and William Supernaw, this three time Chicago park champion became one of the top men's baseball clubs in the Chicago area well into the 1980s. They played their home games at Henry Horner Park located at Irving Park and California Avenue. ===Present day=== The early 1980s saw a rebirth for Irving Park as a wider audience discovered the beautiful homes and rich history of the area. The Irving Park Historical Society was formed in 1984, to help preserve the neighborhood's heritage and its irreplaceable architecture, which has survived since the late 19th century. Since the society's inception many homes have been restored and many more restorations are in progress. A survey by volunteers of the Irving Park Historical Society documented several hundred buildings in use which predate 1894, many dating as far back as the 1870s. Some remain intact while many have been modified or remodeled. Others retain just a hint of their former Victorian splendor. ====Serbian Community==== During the 1990s the neighborhood saw an influx of Serbian immigrants, today there are many Serbian-owned cafes and restaurants along Irving Park Road. It is said to have about 2,650 Serbian families living in Irving Park as of 2015. Totally the number of Serbians living in the neighborhood is well over 3,000. ==Demographics== == Neighborhoods == ===Old Irving Park=== Old Irving Park is a neighborhood within the Irving Park Community Area of Chicago, comprising its historical core. Its borders are Montrose to the north, Addison to its south, Pulaski Road to the east and Cicero to the west, those of the original two farms that developed here in the 1870s. ===The Villa=== The Villa district () - (Pulaski Road to the west, Addison to the south, Avondale Avenue to the north and east), was built in 1902 by a number of architects, many of them visibly influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright's Prairie Style of architecture. Most notable among these were bungalows designed by the architectural firm of Hatzfeld and Knox, whose partner Clarence Hatzfeld would later design the fieldhouse and natatorium at Portage Park. The area was originally developed as the "Villa addition to Irving Park" and showcases many unique Craftsman and Prairie style homes fronting on picturesque boulevard style streets. Although St. Wenceslaus church, a majestic Romanesque Revival-Art Deco hybrid draws many of the visitors touring the area, this historic church is actually a few blocks south of the district's formal boundaries. ===Independence Park=== 'Independence Park' is a neighborhood within Irving Park that was developed in the 1800s. It shares its name with a park of the same name. Its borders are Irving Park Road to the north, the Kennedy Expressway to the west, Elston Avenue and Central Park Avenue to the east, and Addison Street to the south. ===West Walker=== 'West Walker' is an area bounded by Irving Park Rd to the South, Central Park Ave to the East, Montrose Ave to the North and Pulaski St to the West. The 'West Walker Triangle' is an enclave within West Walker that comprises the area bounded by Irving Park Road to the south, Pulaski Road to the west, and Elston Avenue to the northeast. ===California Park=== 'California Park' is a neighborhood located in the eastern portion of Irving Park that began development in the 1920s. Understated single-family homes and family-owned businesses are a common feature. Its borders are Montrose Ave. to the north, Addison St. to the south, Kedzie Ave. to the west, and the Chicago River to the east. ===Kilbourn Park=== Kilbourn Park (Milwaukee to the north, Belmont to the south, the Union Pacific/Northwest rail line to the east, and Cicero to the west) is a primarily middle class residential and industrial area. Although technically part of the Irving Park community area, the neighborhood is more akin to neighboring Avondale in terms of both its built environment and the sociology of its residents. ===Avondale Gardens=== Avondale Gardens (also known as Merchant Park) (Addison to the north, Belmont to the south, the Union Pacific/Northwest rail line to the West, Pulaski Road to the east) has been in recent years relabeled as "South Old Irving Park" by some. Like Kilbourn Park, the neighborhood is more akin to neighboring Avondale in terms of both its built environment and the sociological makeup of its residents than other areas of the Irving Park Community Area. The name Merchant Park owes its name to John and Clara Merchant, whose house in Old Irving has been designated an official landmark by the City of Chicago. ===Little Cassubia=== Little Cassubia () was a historical neighborhood in the Irving Park Community Area between Irving Park on the North, Addison to the South, Kimball to the West and Kedzie to the East. The name "Little Cassubia" was coined by locals because of the Kaszub people living in the area, who also founded the Roman Catholic Parish of Immaculate Heart of Mary. ==Education== Chicago Public Schools operates public schools in the area. The Kedvale campus of Disney II Magnet School is located in the Old Irving Park neighborhood. Chicago Jewish Day School is in the community area.Home. Chicago Jewish Day School. Retrieved on July 18, 2019. "3730 N California Ave, Chicago, IL 60618" == Politics == The Irving Park community has supported the Democratic Party in the past two presidential elections by large margins. In the 2016 presidential election, Irving Park cast 15,179 votes for Hillary Clinton and cast 2,673 votes for Donald Trump (80.44% to 14.17%). In the 2012 presidential election, Irving Park cast 13,415 votes for Barack Obama and cast 3,323 votes for Mitt Romney (78.03% to 19.33%). ==Notable people== * Aimee Garcia, actress (The George Lopez Show, Lucifer, Dexter). She spent part of her childhood in Irving Park. * John Nuveen, founder of The John Nuveen Co. which sold the bonds which funded Wacker Drive and Grant Park. He lived in Irving Park during his twenties. * Frank Piatek, artist and educator, born and raised in Irving Park.Bojko, Szymon. Polish-American and Polish Artists in Contemporary American Art, Oficyna Wydawnicza Kucharski, 2007, p. 249–55. Retrieved August 2, 2019. * Jeff Tweedy, songwriter, musician, and record producer best known as the singer and guitarist of the band Wilco is a current resident. ==See also== *Carl Schurz High School * Community areas of Chicago *Neighborhoods of Chicago *Villa District * Whistle Stop Inn ==References== ==External links== * Official City of Chicago Irving Park Community Map *Old Irving Park Association *Greater Independence Park Neighborhood Association *Villa District * Chicago Park District ** Horner Park ** Independence Park ** Kilbourn Park Category:Community areas of Chicago Category:North Side, Chicago Category:Populated places established in 1843 Category:1843 establishments in Illinois |
Get on Up is a 2014 American biographical musical drama film about the life of singer James Brown and is directed by Tate Taylor and written by Jez and John- Henry Butterworth. Produced by Brian Grazer, Mick Jagger, Taylor and Victoria Pearman, the film stars an ensemble cast featuring Chadwick Boseman as Brown, Nelsan Ellis as Bobby Byrd, Dan Aykroyd as Ben Bart, Viola Davis as Susie Brown, Craig Robinson as Maceo Parker, and Octavia Spencer as Aunt Honey. The project was announced August 2013, along with Boseman, Davis, Spencer and Ellis' casting. Principal photography began on November 4, 2013 and took place in Mississippi, where the entire film was shot on location in 49 days. The film was released on August 1, 2014 in the United States and received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise directed at the performances of the cast (particularly those of Boseman and Ellis), and grossed $33 million worldwide at the box office. ==Plot== The film uses a nonlinear narrative, following James Brown's stream of consciousness as he recalls events from his life in an asynchronous manner, occasionally breaking the fourth wall to address the audience. In 1939, young James lives in poverty with his mother and abusive father in the backwoods of Augusta, Georgia. His mother eventually leaves and becomes a prostitute. His father joins the Army, leaving James in the care of his brothel-running aunt. He is fascinated by the shout music at a black church. Later, he fights in a "battle royal" boxing match for the amusement of a white audience. Imagining the jazz band breaking into a funk style inspires him to win the bout. He spots his mother on the street one night, but she denies knowing him. In 1949, 17 year-old James is imprisoned for stealing a suit. When Bobby Byrd and his gospel group perform at the prison, James is inspired. He impresses Bobby with his singing, and Bobby's family supervises his parole. James establishes himself as a lead singer and shifts the group's sound toward R&B.; He leads them to jump onstage at a Little Richard show, introduces them as "the Famous Flames", and they perform a rousing rendition of "Caldonia". Richard gives James advice and warns him of the "white devil". James marries Velma Warren, and they have a son, Teddy. In 1955, Ralph Bass signs the band to King Records and records their first single, "Please, Please, Please". Ben Bart becomes James' manager; he and label executive Syd Nathan relegate the rest of the band to salaried employee status, and they quit. By 1962 James and Bobby have re-formed the band, and James finances the recording of the hugely successful Live at the Apollo. After the show he is approached by his mother, who apologizes for leaving him. He wants nothing to do with her, but gives her financial support. In 1964 James upstages the up-and-coming Rolling Stones on the T.A.M.I. Show with his high-energy performance and dance moves. By paying young radio DJs to promote his shows, he is able to avoid promoter fees. He divorces Velma and marries Deidre Jenkins, but becomes abusive toward her. He treats his new backing band like lackeys, fining them for various infractions, calling rehearsals on their days off, and berating them for questioning him. He develops a signature groove, laying the foundation for funk. When the King- assassination riots break out in 1968, James convinces the mayor of Boston not to cancel his show at the Boston Garden. Tensions are high between the police and the black audience, but James calms the crowd and issues a plea for togetherness. He records "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud" and pitches President Lyndon B. Johnson his idea to perform a series of USO shows for American troops in Vietnam. Though their plane is nearly shot down, the band survives and their performance is well-received. James suffers several setbacks, beginning with Ben's death from a heart attack. He starts several businesses and is investigated by the IRS for back taxes. His band presents a list of demands; when James rebuffs them, all quit except Bobby, who helps him assemble a new band. After a 1971 concert in Paris, Bobby proposes doing a second solo album. James considers this a betrayal; they argue and Bobby quits. James' eldest son, Teddy, dies in a car accident. In Augusta in 1988, James gets high on marijuana and PCP and visits one of his businesses, finding that someone from a neighboring seminar has used his private restroom. He confronts the seminar carrying a shotgun, which he accidentally fires into the ceiling before forgiving the offender. The police arrive and James flees in his truck, crashing through a roadblock before being apprehended and imprisoned. In 1993, James meets Bobby for the first time in 20 years and gives him tickets to his concert at Atlanta's Omni Coliseum. As he takes the stage, he reflects on the cost he has paid for success. Seeing Bobby and his wife in the audience, he performs "Try Me", moving them to tears. ==Cast== * Chadwick Boseman as James Brown ** Jamarion and Jordan Scott as young James Brown * Nelsan Ellis as Bobby Byrd * Dan Aykroyd as Ben Bart * Viola Davis as Susie Brown * Lennie James as Joseph "Joe" Brown * Fred Melamed as Syd Nathan * Jamal Batiste as John "Jabo" Starks * Craig Robinson as Maceo Parker * Jill Scott as Deidre "Dee-Dee" Jenkins * Octavia Spencer as Aunt Honey Washington * Atkins Estimond as Big Junior * Josh Hopkins as Ralph Bass * Brandon Mychal Smith as Little Richard * Tika Sumpter as Yvonne Fair * Aunjanue Ellis as Vicki Anderson * Tariq Trotter as Pee Wee Ellis * Aloe Blacc as Nafloyd Scott * Keith Robinson as Baby Roy * Nick Eversman as Mick Jagger * J. D. Evermore as Seminar Presenter * Ahna O'Reilly as Reporter * James DuMont as Corporal Dooley * Stacey Scowley as Penelope White * Liz Mikel as Gertrude Sanders * Aaron Jay Rome as Frankie Avalon * Clyde Jones as Daddy Grace * Joe T. Blankenship as Alan Leeds * Michael Papajohn as 1949 Cop * Kirk Bovill as Announcer * Aakomon Jones as Bobby Bennett * John Benjamin Hickey as Richard * Allison Janney as Kathy * Jamell Richardson as Jimmy Nolen * Justin Hall as Bootsy Collins * David Carzell as Catfish Collins * Jason Davis as Mayor Kevin White * Billy Slaughter as Pool Cleaner * Charles R. Rooney as President Lyndon B. Johnson * Phyllis Montana-Leblanc as Mrs. Byrd ==Production== === Development === Imagine Entertainment listed a James Brown biopic in development in 2000, with a script titled Star Time written by Steven Baigelman. Mick Jagger joined on as a producer, and Jez and John-Henry Butterworth were brought on to rewrite the script, titled Superbad. Spike Lee was set to direct but development stalled in 2006 over music licensing and finance issues. It was revived in 2012 when Jagger read a recent draft by the Butterworth brothers. John-Henry Butterworth was fascinated by the period concept of celebrity in preparing to write. “When James was becoming famous, you had to hide where you came from and be squeaky clean. Whereas if he were an artist launching his career now his upbringing and what happened to him would be right there in the press release. Everyone knows how many times 50 Cent has been shot.” The script took some liberties and includes at least one scene involving fabricated incidents. Lee vacated the directors position, and on October 22, 2012, it was announced that Tate Taylor was set to direct the untitled biopic about James Brown, to be produced by Mick Jagger and Imagine Entertainment's Brian Grazer. On August 29, 2013, Universal Pictures set October 17, 2014, as a release date for the film, previously untitled. Later, on November 13, Universal shifted the release date of the biopic from October to August 1, 2014. ===Casting=== On August 26, 2013, Universal selected Chadwick Boseman to play the lead role of James Brown. Boseman did all of his own dancing and some singing. The soundtrack is live recordings of James Brown. On September 17, Universal announced an open casting call for actors, musicians, and extras for different roles in the biopic, which was held on September 21. On September 30, Taylor cast Viola Davis to play Susie Brown and Octavia Spencer to play Aunt Honey. On October 21, Nelsan Ellis joined the cast of film to portray Bobby Byrd, Brown's long-time friend. Lennie James joined the cast on October 23, to play the role of Brown's father Joseph "Joe" James. Jill Scott and Dan Aykroyd were added on October 31; Scott played Brown's wife while Aykroyd played Ben Bart, the president of one of New York City's largest talent agencies Universal Attractions Agency. On November 3, Universal added Keith Robinson to the film to portray the role of Baby Roy, a member of Brown's band. On November 14, Tika Sumpter also joined the cast, to play singer Yvonne Fair. There was a rumor that Taraji P. Henson was to join the film to play Tammi Terrell. Nick Eversman joined the cast on November 19, to play Mick Jagger. On December 9, 2013, it became public that Brandon Mychal Smith was selected to portray Brown's musical idol, Little Richard. On December 20, Josh Hopkins joined the film to portray the role Ralph Bass, a music producer. After the shooting wrapped up in Natchez, Mississippi, the production was looking for extras to begin a shoot on January 6, 2014, filming a concert scene set in Paris in 1971. There was another call on January 6, 2014 for extras to film some daytime scenes in Jackson on January 7, 2014. ===Filming=== Shooting began on November 4, 2013, in Natchez, in and around Natchez through the end of the year, and then in Jackson, Mississippi. On December 20, 2013, the film wrapped up shooting in Natchez. Crews were set to take a holiday break and then return to filming from January 6–24, 2014, in Jackson. Filming got on track again on January 6, 2014, in Jackson. On January 13, 2014, press posted the news that crews had filmed large scenes at Thalia Mara Hall, and they shot other scenes at Mississippi Coliseum, Capitol Street, and some of the restaurants in Jackson. In total Get on Up was shot in 49 days. == Soundtrack == The soundtrack to the film, featured live performances of songs performed by James Brown, and newly produced and arranged renditions of Brown songs produced by the Underdogs. The album was released by Universal Music Enterprises on July 29, 2014. ==Release== On September 1, 2014, it was announced that the film would be the opening film of the 2014 Zurich Film Festival. ===Marketing=== On March 13, 2014, Universal released some photos and a first official trailer of the film. A second official trailer was released on May 20. ==Reception== ===Critical response=== On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 80% based on 167 reviews, with an average rating of 6.88/10. The site's consensus reads: "With an unforgettable Chadwick Boseman in the starring role, Get on Up offers the Godfather of Soul a fittingly dynamic homage." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 71 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Brandon Smith received praise from critics for his brief but memorable role as Little Richard. Music critic Robert Christgau found the film "not just good--great. Better than The Help, which I quite admire, and Ray, which I love. A mite short of a work of genius--it fudges too much and mythologizes beyond the call of narrative necessity. But worthy of the genius who inspired it nevertheless ... Get On Up does justice to his unknowable soul and his unending music, both of which defy closure by definition." Less favorable reviews include "Get On Up is a cagey, shapeless James Brown biopic" by Ignatiy Vishnevetsky, who rated the film D+ at The A.V. Club, Several other critics noted key facts and incidents omitted in the film, in articles such as "The Social Activist Side of James Brown You Won't See In Get On Up", "The Great Man Theory of Funk: Get On Up shows us James Brown the unstoppable personality, but skimps on James Brown the musician", and "12 Crazy James Brown Moments You Won't See in Get on Up". ===Box office=== The film grossed $13.4 million during its opening weekend, finishing in third place at the domestic box office behind fellow new release Guardians of the Galaxy ($94.3 million) and Lucy ($18.3 million). Get on Up went on to gross $30.7 million in the U.S. and $2.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $33.4 million by September 2014, against a $30 million budget. ==References== ==External links== * * Category:2014 films Category:2014 biographical drama films Category:2010s buddy drama films Category:2010s musical drama films Category:American buddy drama films Category:American biographical films Category:American musical drama films Category:2010s English-language films Category:African-American musical films Category:Biographical films about musicians Category:Films based on songs Category:Films set in Paris Category:Films set in 1939 Category:Films set in 1949 Category:Films set in 1950 Category:Films set in 1954 Category:Films set in 1955 Category:Films set in 1962 Category:Films set in 1964 Category:Films set in 1965 Category:Films set in 1967 Category:Films set in 1968 Category:Films set in 1969 Category:Films set in 1971 Category:Films set in 1988 Category:Films set in 1993 Category:Films shot in Mississippi Category:Films scored by Thomas Newman Category:Films produced by Brian Grazer Category:Films directed by Tate Taylor Category:Universal Pictures films Category:Imagine Entertainment films Category:Cultural depictions of James Brown Category:Films produced by Mick Jagger Category:African-American biographical dramas Category:Films with screenplays by Jez Butterworth Category:2014 drama films Category:2010s American films Category:Films with screenplays by John-Henry Butterworth |
Ferran Torres García (born 29 February 2000) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a forward for La Liga club Barcelona and the Spain national team. Torres began his career at Valencia, where he made his senior debut in 2017. He moved to Manchester City in 2020 and won the Premier League and the EFL Cup in the 2020–21 season. He departed for Barcelona in January 2022. He has represented Spain internationally at various youth levels, and made his debut for the senior team in 2020. ==Club career== ===Valencia=== Born in Foios, Valencian Community, Torres joined Valencia CF's youth setup in 2006, aged six. On 15 October 2016, while still a junior, he made his senior debut with the reserve team by coming on as a substitute for Grego in a 2–0 Segunda División B home loss against Mallorca B. Torres was promoted to the B-side ahead of the 2017–18 campaign, and scored his first senior goal on 26 August 2017 by netting his team's second in a 4–1 home win over Peralada- Girona B. On 5 October, after being strongly linked to Barcelona and Real Madrid, he renewed his contract, which increased his release clause to €25 million. He was also promoted to the first team on 1 January 2018. Torres made his first team debut on 30 November 2017, replacing fellow youth graduate Nacho Gil in a 4–1 home routing of Real Zaragoza, for the season's Copa del Rey. He made his La Liga debut on 16 December, playing the last nine minutes in a 1–2 loss at Eibar, becoming the first player born in the 2000s to play in the league. Torres made his European and Champions League debut on 23 October 2018, starting in a 1–1 draw against Young Boys. He scored his first La Liga goal on 19 January 2019, ten minutes after coming on as a substitute in a 2–1 victory against Celta Vigo. He remained on the bench as Valencia defeated Barcelona 2–1 in the 2019 Copa del Rey Final at the Estadio Benito Villamarín in Seville, on 25 May. On 5 November 2019, Torres scored his first Champions League goal, netting his team's last goal in a 4–1 home win against Lille, becoming Valencia's youngest goalscorer in the competition. On 23 November, Torres marked his 50th appearance in La Liga for Valencia with a 2–1 away defeat against Real Betis, becoming the youngest Los Ches player to play 50 league games at the age of 19 years and 254 days, breaking a 38-year-old record of Miguel Tendillo (19 years old and 351 days). ===Manchester City=== On 4 August 2020, English club Manchester City confirmed the signing of Torres on a five-year contract, until 2025, for a reported transfer fee of €23 million (£20.8 million). The club later revealed that Torres had inherited the shirt number 21 previously worn by club legend David Silva, a fellow Spanish player who also arrived from Valencia. Torres made his debut in City's first game of the season, coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 away win against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the Premier League. On 30 September, Torres scored his first goal for the club, in a 3–0 away win over Burnley in the EFL Cup. On 21 October 2020, he made his Champions League debut with Manchester City, scoring a goal in a 3–1 win against Porto. Just a week later, Torres started and scored again in the Champions League in a 0–3 victory over Olympique de Marseille, becoming the youngest Spanish player ever to score in three consecutive appearances in the competition, at 20 years and 241 days old. On 28 November, Torres scored his first league goal for City in a 5–0 home win over Burnley. On 14 May, Torres scored his first hat-trick for City in a 4–3 away league win over Newcastle United. Having fallen out of favour during the 2021–22 season, mainly due to injury, Torres agreed a transfer to Barcelona for €55 million (plus conditional add-ons worth €10 million) in December 2021, to be completed the following month dependent on Barça selling players from their squad. ===Barcelona=== On 28 December 2021, both Barcelona and Manchester City confirmed that Torres had completed a permanent move to Barcelona, signing a five-year contract until June 2027, with a buyout clause of €1 billion. On 20 January 2022, Torres scored his first goal for Barcelona in a 3–2 loss against Athletic Bilbao at the end of extra time in the Copa del Rey round of 16. On 20 March 2022, he scored a goal and assisted Pierre- Emerick Aubameyang in his first El Clásico, helping Barcelona to a 4–0 away victory against the league leaders. During his first six months at the club, Torres made 25 appearances in all competitions, scoring seven goals. Torres struggled with his form at the start of the 2022–23 season, and was often benched in favour of Ousmane Dembélé and new signings Raphinha and Robert Lewandowski. On 19 February 2023, he put on a man-of-the-match performance in a 2–0 league win over Cádiz. The following day, Torres revealed in an interview that he had "fallen into a bottomless well", and had worked with a psychologist during his form slump. The second part of the 2022–23 season saw a fair amount of consistency from the 23-year-old. ==International career== Torres was a member of the Spain squad that won the 2017 UEFA European Under-17 Championship final over England, and was also a member of the squad that reached final of the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup later that same year, losing out to the same opponent. He was named in Spain's squad for the 2019 UEFA European Under-19 Championship in Armenia. He scored the winning penalty in the semi-final victory over France, and both goals of the 2–0 final win against reigning champions Portugal at the Vazgen Sargsyan Republican Stadium in Yerevan. He made his debut for the Spain U21 side on 6 September 2019, in a 1–0 away win over Kazakhstan in a European Championship qualifier. Just 16 days after signing for Manchester City, Torres was called up to the senior Spain national team for the first time. He made his debut against Germany in the UEFA Nations League on 3 September 2020, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–1 away draw and setting up a pre-assist for Spain's last minute equaliser. Three days later, he scored his first senior international goal in a 4–0 win over Ukraine. On 17 November 2020, Torres scored his first international hat- trick in a 6–0 win over Germany. On 24 May 2021, Torres was included in Spain's 24-man squad for UEFA Euro 2020. He scored the third goal of the Euro 2020 final 16 in the 76th minute of the game against Croatia, resulting in a 5–3 victory on 28 June. On 6 October, Torres scored both goals in Spain's 2–1 away victory over reigning European Champions Italy in the semi-finals of the 2020–21 UEFA Nations League. In the final four days later, Spain suffered a 2–1 defeat against France. With two goals, he was the joint–top scorer of the Nations League Finals, along with France's Karim Benzema and Kylian Mbappé, with the latter winning the Top Scorer Trophy due to having also provided two assists. ==Style of play== Regarded as a talented and highly promising young attacking winger in the media, Torres has been described as a traditional wide midfielder, due to his work-rate and penchant for running to the touchline, although he is also capable of cutting inside towards the centre of the pitch; due to his role, nationality, and playing style, Simone Lorini has likened him to Joaquín. Torres is known in particular for his pace, creativity, technique, and his close control at speed, which enables him to take on opponents and overload the flanks, while his height, athleticism, and heading ability also make him a strong aerial presence. Although he primarily plays on the right, he is capable of playing anywhere across the attacking line. In 2018, Spanish football journalist Guillem Balagué noted that Torres "is a dribbler, fast on the wing, can play on either wing, and he has got ability and intelligence. He can also play inside if needed, so he is a modern winger." The Valencia academy director of recruitment, José Giménez, instead stated: "He's powerful, quick, steady with the ball at his feet and strong in the air. He's unpredictable. When he's running with the ball at his feet he can go on inside or outside his man because he is two-footed. He can cross, finish and shoot the football." ==Personal life== In 2021, Torres began a relationship with Sira Martínez – the daughter of former Spain national head team coach Luis Enrique. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League National cup League cup Europe Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Valencia Mestalla 2016–17 Segunda División B 2 0 — — — — 2 0 2017–18 Segunda División B 10 1 — — — — 10 1 Total 12 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 1 Valencia 2017–18 La Liga 13 0 3 0 — — — 16 0 2018–19 La Liga 24 2 6 1 — — 7 0 — 37 3 2019–20 La Liga 34 4 3 0 — 6 2 1 0 44 6 Total 71 6 12 1 0 0 13 2 1 0 97 9 Manchester City 2020–21 Premier League 24 7 3 1 3 1 6 4 — 36 13 2021–22 Premier League 4 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 7 3 Total 28 9 3 1 4 2 7 4 1 0 43 16 Barcelona 2021–22 La Liga 18 4 1 1 — 6 2 1 0 26 7 2022–23 La Liga 33 4 4 0 — 7 3 1 0 45 7 Total 51 8 5 1 0 0 13 5 2 0 71 14 Career total 162 24 20 3 4 2 33 11 4 0 223 40 ===International=== Appearances and goals by national team and year National team Year Apps Goals Spain 2020 7 4 2021 15 8 2022 13 3 Total 35 15 :Spain score listed first, score column indicates score after each Torres goal List of international goals scored by Ferran Torres No. Date Venue Cap Opponent Score Result Competition 1 6 September 2020 Alfredo Di Stéfano Stadium, Madrid, Spain 2 4–0 4–0 2020–21 UEFA Nations League A 2 17 November 2020 Estadio de La Cartuja, Seville, Spain 7 rowspan="3" 3 4–0 4 5–0 5 28 March 2021 Boris Paichadze Dinamo Arena, Tbilisi, Georgia 9 1–1 2–1 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification 6 31 March 2021 Estadio de La Cartuja, Seville, Spain 10 2–0 3–1 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification 7 23 June 2021 Estadio de La Cartuja, Seville, Spain 14 4–0 5–0 UEFA Euro 2020 8 28 June 2021 Parken Stadium, Copenhagen, Denmark 15 3–1 5–3 UEFA Euro 2020 9 5 September 2021 Estadio Nuevo Vivero, Badajoz, Spain 19 3–0 4–0 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification 10 8 September 2021 Fadil Vokrri Stadium, Pristina, Kosovo 20 2–0 2–0 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification 11 6 October 2021 San Siro, Milan, Italy 21 rowspan="2" 12 2–0 13 26 March 2022 RCDE Stadium, Cornellà de Llobregat, Spain 23 1–0 2–1 Friendly 14 23 November 2022 Al Thumama Stadium, Doha, Qatar 32 rowspan="2" 15 4–0 ==Honours== Valencia *Copa del Rey: 2018–19 Manchester City *Premier League: 2020–21, 2021–22 *EFL Cup: 2020–21 *UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2020–21 Barcelona *La Liga: 2022–23 *Supercopa de España: 2022–23 Spain U17 *UEFA European Under-17 Championship: 2017 Spain U19 *UEFA European Under-19 Championship: 2019 Spain *UEFA Nations League runner- up: 2020–21 Individual *UEFA European Under-19 Championship Team of the Tournament: 2019 *Manchester City Goal of the Season: 2020–21 *UEFA Nations League top scorer: 2020–21 *UEFA Nations League Finals Silver Boot: 2021 ==References== ==External links== * Ferran Torres at the FC Barcelona website * Ferran Torres at the La Liga website * Category:2000 births Category:Living people Category:People from Horta Nord Category:Sportspeople from the Province of Valencia Category:Footballers from the Valencian Community Category:Spanish footballers Category:Men's association football wingers Category:Valencia CF Mestalla footballers Category:Valencia CF players Category:Manchester City F.C. players Category:FC Barcelona players Category:Segunda División B players Category:La Liga players Category:Premier League players Category:Spain men's youth international footballers Category:Spain men's under-21 international footballers Category:Spain men's international footballers Category:UEFA Euro 2020 players Category:2022 FIFA World Cup players Category:Spanish expatriate footballers Category:Expatriate footballers in England Category:Spanish expatriate sportspeople in England |
In mathematics, a closure operator on a set S is a function \operatorname{cl}: \mathcal{P}(S)\rightarrow \mathcal{P}(S) from the power set of S to itself that satisfies the following conditions for all sets X,Y\subseteq S : X \subseteq \operatorname{cl}(X) (cl is extensive), X\subseteq Y \Rightarrow \operatorname{cl}(X) \subseteq \operatorname{cl}(Y) (cl is increasing), \operatorname{cl}(\operatorname{cl}(X))=\operatorname{cl}(X) (cl is idempotent). Closure operators are determined by their closed sets, i.e., by the sets of the form cl(X), since the closure cl(X) of a set X is the smallest closed set containing X. Such families of "closed sets" are sometimes called closure systems or "Moore families". A set together with a closure operator on it is sometimes called a closure space. Closure operators are also called "hull operators", which prevents confusion with the "closure operators" studied in topology. == History == E. H. Moore studied closure operators in his 1910 Introduction to a form of general analysis, whereas the concept of the closure of a subset originated in the work of Frigyes Riesz in connection with topological spaces. Though not formalized at the time, the idea of closure originated in the late 19th century with notable contributions by Ernst Schröder, Richard Dedekind and Georg Cantor.Marcel Erné, Closure, in Frédéric Mynard, Elliott Pearl (Editors), Beyond Topology, Contemporary mathematics vol. 486, American Mathematical Society, 2009. == Examples == The usual set closure from topology is a closure operator. Other examples include the linear span of a subset of a vector space, the convex hull or affine hull of a subset of a vector space or the lower semicontinuous hull \overline{f} of a function f \colon E \to \mathbb{R} \cup \\{ \pm \infty \\}, where E is e.g. a normed space, defined implicitly \operatorname{epi}(\overline{f}) = \overline{\operatorname{epi}(f)}, where \operatorname{epi}(f) is the epigraph of a function f. The relative interior \operatorname{ri} is not a closure operator: although it is idempotent, it is not increasing and if C_1 is a cube in \mathbb{R}^3 and C_2 is one of its faces, then C_2 \subset C_1, but \operatorname{ri}(C_1) e \emptyset e \operatorname{ri}(C_2) and \operatorname{ri}(C_1) \cap \operatorname{ri}(C_2) = \emptyset, so it is not increasing. In topology, the closure operators are topological closure operators, which must satisfy : \operatorname{cl}(X_1 \cup\dots\cup X_n) = \operatorname{cl}(X_1)\cup\dots\cup \operatorname{cl}(X_n) for all n\in\N (Note that for n=0 this gives \operatorname{cl}(\varnothing)=\varnothing). In algebra and logic, many closure operators are finitary closure operators, i.e. they satisfy : \operatorname{cl}(X) = \bigcup\left\\{\operatorname{cl}(Y) : Y\subseteq X \text{ and } Y \text{ finite} \right\\}. In the theory of partially ordered sets, which are important in theoretical computer science, closure operators have a more general definition that replaces \subseteq with \leq. (See .) == Closure operators in topology == The topological closure of a subset X of a topological space consists of all points y of the space, such that every neighbourhood of y contains a point of X. The function that associates to every subset X its closure is a topological closure operator. Conversely, every topological closure operator on a set gives rise to a topological space whose closed sets are exactly the closed sets with respect to the closure operator. == Closure operators in algebra == Finitary closure operators play a relatively prominent role in universal algebra, and in this context they are traditionally called algebraic closure operators. Every subset of an algebra generates a subalgebra: the smallest subalgebra containing the set. This gives rise to a finitary closure operator. Perhaps the best known example for this is the function that associates to every subset of a given vector space its linear span. Similarly, the function that associates to every subset of a given group the subgroup generated by it, and similarly for fields and all other types of algebraic structures. The linear span in a vector space and the similar algebraic closure in a field both satisfy the exchange property: If x is in the closure of the union of A and {y} but not in the closure of A, then y is in the closure of the union of A and {x}. A finitary closure operator with this property is called a matroid. The dimension of a vector space, or the transcendence degree of a field (over its prime field) is exactly the rank of the corresponding matroid. The function that maps every subset of a given field to its algebraic closure is also a finitary closure operator, and in general it is different from the operator mentioned before. Finitary closure operators that generalize these two operators are studied in model theory as dcl (for definable closure) and acl (for algebraic closure). The convex hull in n-dimensional Euclidean space is another example of a finitary closure operator. It satisfies the anti- exchange property: If x is in the closure of the union of {y} and A, but not in the union of {y} and closure of A, then y is not in the closure of the union of {x} and A. Finitary closure operators with this property give rise to antimatroids. As another example of a closure operator used in algebra, if some algebra has universe A and X is a set of pairs of A, then the operator assigning to X the smallest congruence containing X is a finitary closure operator on A x A.Clifford Bergman, Universal Algebra, 2012, Section 2.4. == Closure operators in logic == Suppose you have some logical formalism that contains certain rules allowing you to derive new formulas from given ones. Consider the set F of all possible formulas, and let P be the power set of F, ordered by ⊆. For a set X of formulas, let cl(X) be the set of all formulas that can be derived from X. Then cl is a closure operator on P. More precisely, we can obtain cl as follows. Call "continuous" an operator J such that, for every directed class T, :J(lim T)= lim J(T). This continuity condition is on the basis of a fixed point theorem for J. Consider the one- step operator J of a monotone logic. This is the operator associating any set X of formulas with the set J(X) of formulas that are either logical axioms or are obtained by an inference rule from formulas in X or are in X. Then such an operator is continuous and we can define cl(X) as the least fixed point for J greater or equal to X. In accordance with such a point of view, Tarski, Brown, Suszko and other authors proposed a general approach to logic based on closure operator theory. Also, such an idea is proposed in programming logic (see Lloyd 1987) and in fuzzy logic (see Gerla 2000). === Consequence operators === Around 1930, Alfred Tarski developed an abstract theory of logical deductions that models some properties of logical calculi. Mathematically, what he described is just a finitary closure operator on a set (the set of sentences). In abstract algebraic logic, finitary closure operators are still studied under the name consequence operator, which was coined by Tarski. The set S represents a set of sentences, a subset T of S a theory, and cl(T) is the set of all sentences that follow from the theory. Nowadays the term can refer to closure operators that need not be finitary; finitary closure operators are then sometimes called finite consequence operators. == Closed sets == The closed sets with respect to a closure operator on S form a subset C of the power set P(S). Any intersection of sets in C is again in C. In other words, C is a complete meet-subsemilattice of P(S). Conversely, if C ⊆ P(S) is closed under arbitrary intersections, then the function that associates to every subset X of S the smallest set Y ∈ C such that X ⊆ Y is a closure operator. There is a simple and fast algorithm for generating all closed sets of a given closure operator.Ganter, Algorithm 1 A closure operator on a set is topological if and only if the set of closed sets is closed under finite unions, i.e., C is a meet-complete sublattice of P(S). Even for non- topological closure operators, C can be seen as having the structure of a lattice. (The join of two sets X,Y ⊆ P(S) being cl(X \cup Y).) But then C is not a sublattice of the lattice P(S). Given a finitary closure operator on a set, the closures of finite sets are exactly the compact elements of the set C of closed sets. It follows that C is an algebraic poset. Since C is also a lattice, it is often referred to as an algebraic lattice in this context. Conversely, if C is an algebraic poset, then the closure operator is finitary. === Pseudo-closed sets === Each closure operator on a finite set S is uniquely determined by its images of its pseudo-closed sets.Ganter, Section 3.2 These are recursively defined: A set is pseudo-closed if it is not closed and contains the closure of each of its pseudo-closed proper subsets. Formally: P ⊆ S is pseudo-closed if and only if * P ≠ cl(P) and * if Q ⊂ P is pseudo- closed, then cl(Q) ⊆ P. == Closure operators on partially ordered sets == A partially ordered set (poset) is a set together with a partial order ≤, i.e. a binary relation that is reflexive (), transitive ( implies ) and antisymmetric ( implies a = b). Every power set P(S) together with inclusion ⊆ is a partially ordered set. A function cl: P → P from a partial order P to itself is called a closure operator if it satisfies the following axioms for all elements x, y in P. : x ≤ cl(x) (cl is extensive) x ≤ y implies cl(x) ≤ cl(y) (cl is increasing) cl(cl(x)) = cl(x) (cl is idempotent) More succinct alternatives are available: the definition above is equivalent to the single axiom :x ≤ cl(y) if and only if cl(x) ≤ cl(y) for all x, y in P. Using the pointwise order on functions between posets, one may alternatively write the extensiveness property as idP ≤ cl, where id is the identity function. A self- map k that is increasing and idempotent, but satisfies the dual of the extensiveness property, i.e. k ≤ idP is called a kernel operator,Giertz, p. 26 interior operator,Erné, p. 2, uses closure (resp. interior) operation or dual closure.Blyth, p. 10 As examples, if A is a subset of a set B, then the self- map on the powerset of B given by μA(X) = A ∪ X is a closure operator, whereas λA(X) = A ∩ X is a kernel operator. The ceiling function from the real numbers to the real numbers, which assigns to every real x the smallest integer not smaller than x, is another example of a closure operator. A fixpoint of the function cl, i.e. an element c of P that satisfies cl(c) = c, is called a closed element. A closure operator on a partially ordered set is determined by its closed elements. If c is a closed element, then x ≤ c and cl(x) ≤ c are equivalent conditions. Every Galois connection (or residuated mapping) gives rise to a closure operator (as is explained in that article). In fact, every closure operator arises in this way from a suitable Galois connection.Blyth, p. 10 The Galois connection is not uniquely determined by the closure operator. One Galois connection that gives rise to the closure operator cl can be described as follows: if A is the set of closed elements with respect to cl, then cl: P → A is the lower adjoint of a Galois connection between P and A, with the upper adjoint being the embedding of A into P. Furthermore, every lower adjoint of an embedding of some subset into P is a closure operator. "Closure operators are lower adjoints of embeddings." Note however that not every embedding has a lower adjoint. Any partially ordered set P can be viewed as a category, with a single morphism from x to y if and only if x ≤ y. The closure operators on the partially ordered set P are then nothing but the monads on the category P. Equivalently, a closure operator can be viewed as an endofunctor on the category of partially ordered sets that has the additional idempotent and extensive properties. If P is a complete lattice, then a subset A of P is the set of closed elements for some closure operator on P if and only if A is a Moore family on P, i.e. the largest element of P is in A, and the infimum (meet) of any non-empty subset of A is again in A. Any such set A is itself a complete lattice with the order inherited from P (but the supremum (join) operation might differ from that of P). When P is the powerset Boolean algebra of a set X, then a Moore family on P is called a closure system on X. The closure operators on P form themselves a complete lattice; the order on closure operators is defined by cl1 ≤ cl2 iff cl1(x) ≤ cl2(x) for all x in P. ==See also== * * * * * * * == Notes == == References == * Garrett Birkhoff. 1967 (1940). Lattice Theory, 3rd ed. American Mathematical Society. * Burris, Stanley N., and H.P. Sankappanavar (1981) A Course in Universal Algebra Springer-Verlag. Free online edition. * Brown, D.J. and Suszko, R. (1973) "Abstract Logics," Dissertationes Mathematicae 102- 9-42. * Castellini, G. (2003) Categorical closure operators. Boston MA: Birkhaeuser. * Edelman, Paul H. (1980) Meet-distributive lattices and the anti-exchange closure, Algebra Universalis 10: 290-299. * Ganter, Bernhard and Obiedkov, Sergei (2016) Conceptual Exploration. Springer, . * Gerla, G. (2000) Fuzzy Logic: Mathematical Tools for Approximate Reasoning. Kluwer Academic Publishers. * Lloyd, J.W. (1987) Foundations of Logic Programming. Springer-Verlag. * Tarski, Alfred (1983) "Fundamental concepts of the methodology of deductive sciences" in Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics. Hackett (1956 ed., Oxford University Press). * Alfred Tarski (1956) Logic, semantics and metamathematics. Oxford University Press. * Ward, Morgan (1942) "The closure operators of a lattice," Annals of Mathematics 43: 191-96. * G. Gierz, K. H. Hofmann, K. Keimel, J. D. Lawson, M. Mislove, D. S. Scott: Continuous Lattices and Domains, Cambridge University Press, 2003 * * M. Erné, J. Koslowski, A. Melton, G. E. Strecker, A primer on Galois connections, in: Proceedings of the 1991 Summer Conference on General Topology and Applications in Honor of Mary Ellen Rudin and Her Work, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 704, 1993, pp. 103–125. Available online in various file formats: PS.GZ PS ==External links== *Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Algebraic Propositional Logic"—by Ramon Jansana. * Category:Universal algebra Category:Order theory pl:Operator konsekwencji |
The Kingdom of Norway as a unified realm dates to the reign of King Harald I Fairhair in the 9th century. His efforts in unifying the petty kingdoms of Norway resulted in the first known Norwegian central government. The country, however, soon fragmented and was collected into one entity in the first half of the 11th century, and Norway has retained a monarchy since that time. Traditionally, it has been viewed as being ruled by the Fairhair dynasty, though modern scholars question whether the eleventh century kings and their successors were truly descendants of Harald. ==Fairhair dynasty, traditional and modern views== According to the traditional view, Norway was the hereditary kingdom of the 'Fairhair' dynasty, agnatic (patrilineal) descendants of the first unifier-king, Harald Fairhair. The successors to the throne after year 872 were all placed by among Harald's male descendants in historical accounts from centuries later. In the 13th century, the kingdom was officially declared hereditary by law, in contrast with the other Scandinavian monarchies which were elective kingdoms in the Middle Ages. Harald Fairhair was the first king of all Norway, bringing the lands of what had previously been several distinct petty-kingdoms under his control. The foundation of this unified Norwegian kingdom is traditionally dated to 872, when he defeated the last petty kings who resisted him at the Battle of Hafrsfjord, though the consolidation of his power took many years. Fairhair's kingdom spanned the coastal areas north to Trøndelag, but upon his death the kingship was fragmented back into the petty kingdoms, most being held by Harald's sons, descendants or allies, though there were also districts in the hands of other dynasties, such as Ladejarls. Nonetheless, the concept of control by a central power had come into existence. It remains disputed the degree to which Norway should be viewed as an hereditary kingdom under Fairhair's sons and successors, Eric I of Norway and Haakon I of Norway. Some historians emphasize their inability to exercise actual monarchical control over the country and assert that St. Olav (Olaf II), who reigned from 1015, was the first king since Fairhair to control the entire country. Olav is traditionally held to be the driving force behind Norway's final conversion to Christianity. He was later also revered as Rex Perpetuum Norvegiæ (Latin: eternal king of Norway).History of Norway from the Norwegian government web site Retrieved 21 November 2006 Only under half-brothers Olav II and Harald III would succession begin to be determined by rules of inheritance, rather than the crown simply being taken by force. The Fairhair dynasty may, however, be an artificial construct. The murder of king Harald Greycloak in 970 brought an end to the rule of the immediate family of his grandfather, Harald Fairhair, and Norway was ruled instead by the Danish king and his proxies for 25 years. Olav I of Norway, who had been raised overseas in obscure circumstances, forcibly conquered the kingdom. His death resulted in another 15-year period of Danish rule before the successful Viking raider, Olav Haraldson in turn conquered the kingdom and was succeeded by his son and then by his half-brother, Harald Hardråde, himself a famous Viking. The later heroic sagas would give each of these three warrior kings distant descents from Harald Fairhair. However, it has been proposed (most vociferously by Claus Krag) that the genealogical lines connecting Harald Fairhair via otherwise obscure individuals to Olav I, Olav II and Harald Hardråde are a political fiction, founded on a later attempt to legitimize their rule and that of Hardråde's descendants, as well as to provide a claim to the region of Viken (the area around the present-day Oslo), a claim challenged by the Danes. Adherents of this proposal consider Harald Hardråde to be the first king of the lineage that would later rule the realm, and that his claim at the time rested solely on being maternal half- brother of Olav II, and not a distant descent from Fairhair. Descent from the same mother was not in Germanic understanding a proper dynastic tie, and thus Harald Hardråde's legitimacy necessitated the fabrication of unbroken male line descents for him and his two predecessors from Fairhair. These fabricated descents are what would appear in the pseudo-historical sagas of Heimskringla. ==The Hårdråde and the Sverre dynasties== Under Harald Hårdråde Norway was firmly established as an independent kingdom and all later kings would claim to be descendants of him. With a few notable exceptions all successful claims are well supported and not disputed by modern historians. This succession of kings is sometimes called the “Hårdråde ætten” to distinguish them from the certain issue of Harald Fairhair. If Hårdråde is accepted as a descendant of Fairhair this dynasty would be just a branch of a larger Fairhair dynasty. The kings themselves are not known to have referred to their dynasty with any official name. Until the 13th century there were no clearly defined succession laws. Instead the succession was based on customs with origins in old Germanic traditions: The situation followed loosely agnatic seniority and agnatic succession with some elements of elective monarchy. All patrilineal male descendants of Harald Hårdråde were entitled to share the kingship. This included sons born outside marriage and many kings had semi-official concubines. To formally become king the candidate had to be hailed at the thing – though he would naturally make sure to have the assembly's support before launching his candidacy. The sources do not record any instance of a candidate being turned down by a thing after demanding to be hailed. As kingship gradually took shape as an institution a few things, particularly Øreting in Trøndelag, received a special status as the places the new king was hailed. The result of these customs was that brothers and half-brothers would inherit the throne to rule jointly, but such arrangements rarely lasted. As a result, succession was generally a matter of conflict, intrigue, and at times minor civil war. From the 1130s, strifes escalated to a more or less continuous civil war until 1240. However, during the reign of the Hårdråde branch of the dynasty, it was generally agreed that only patrilineal male descendants of King Harald III, were entitled to the kingship. Many of the claims by later royal pretenders to belong to the Fairhair dynasty are obvious falsehoods (most notably that of Sverre Sigurdsson). 1163, Magnus V of Norway, the son of a daughter of a previous ruler, ascended to the throne. He was supported by the church, but despite initial success, and the first example of a codified law of succession (allowing his own cognatic heirship), he was overthrown by putative male-line members of the old royal dynasty. In the 13th century, the kingdom was officially declared hereditary by king Haakon Haakonsson, through a succession system that was based on primogeniture. It was also under Haakon Haakonsson, himself the illegitimate son of king Haakon Sverresson, that legitimacy of birth became a factor in the line of succession. Haakon's eldest son, Sigurd, was accordingly bypassed by Haakon's legitimate sons, Haakon and Magnus. In the tradition of the Germanic monarchy the king had to be elected by a representative assembly of noblemen. Men eligible for election had to be of royal blood; the eldest son of the previous king was not automatically chosen. During the civil war era the unclear succession laws and the practice of power-sharing between several kings simultaneously gave personal conflicts the potential to become full-blown wars. Over the centuries kings consolidated their power and eventually a strict succession law made Norway a principally hereditary kingdom. As a result of the unions with Denmark and Sweden, the heredity principles were several times flouted in the succession to the throne, until they were explicitly abolished in 1450. ==Unions with Denmark and Sweden== After the extinction of the male lines of the perceived Fairhair dynasty in 1319, the throne of Norway passed through matrilineal descent to Magnus VII, who in the same year became elected as king of Sweden too. In 1343 Magnus had to abdicate as King of Norway in favour of his younger son, Haakon VI of Norway. The oldest son, Eric, was explicitly removed from the future line of succession of Norway. Traditionally Norwegian historians have interpreted this clear break with previous successions as stemming from dissatisfaction among the Norwegian nobility with Norway's junior position in the union. However it may also be the result of Magnus' dynastic policies. He had two sons and two kingdoms and might have wished they should inherit one each, rather than start battling over the inheritance. Magnus was at the same time attempting to secure Eric's future election as King of Sweden. The Black Death of 1349–1351 was a contributing factor to the decline of the Norwegian monarchy as the noble families and population in general were gravely affected. But the most devastating factor for the nobility and the monarchy in Norway was the steep decline in income from their holdings. Many farms were deserted and rents and taxes suffered. This left the Norwegian monarchy weakened in terms of manpower, noble support, defence ability and economic power. After the death of Haakon VI of Norway in 1380, his son Olav IV of Norway succeeded to both the thrones of Norway and Denmark and also claimed the Kingdom of Sweden (holding its westernmost provinces already). Only after his death at the age of 17 his mother Margaret managed to oust their rival, king Albert, from Sweden, and thus united the three Scandinavian kingdoms in personal union under one crown, in the Kalmar Union. Olav's death extinguished yet one Norwegian male royal line; he was also the last Norwegian king to be born on Norwegian soil for the next 567 years. After the death of Olav IV of Norway in 1387, the closest in line to the succession was the Swedish king Albert of Mecklenburg. However, his succession was politically unacceptable to the Norwegians and Danes. Next in line were the descendants of the Sudreim lineage, legitimate descendants of Haakon V of Norway's illegitimate, but recognized daughter Agnes Haakonardottir, Dame of Borgarsyssel. However, the candidate from this lineage renounced his claim to the throne in favour of Eric of Pomerania, Queen Margaret's favoured candidate. The succession right of this lineage resurfaced in 1448 after the death of King Christopher, but the potential candidate, Sigurd Jonsson, again renounced his candidature – see Sudreim claim. Eric's succession was one in a line of successions which did not precisely follow the laws of inheritance, but excluded one or a few undesirable heirs, leading to Norway formally becoming an elective kingdom in 1450. Starting with Margaret I of Denmark, the throne of Norway was held by a series of non-Norwegian kings (usually perceived as Danish) who variously held the throne to more than one Scandinavian countries, or of all of them. In 1440, the Norwegian privy council reluctantly deposed king Eric III (1383–1459), after Denmark and Sweden had done the same. The nearest heir to throne was Eric's cousin, Bugislav, but the succession-laws were overlooked because of the necessity to choose the same king as Denmark and Sweden. Christopher of Bavaria was therefore chosen as Norwegian king. In 1448 when Christopher died without close heirs, the union between Sweden and Denmark dissolved, as the two countries chose different kings. Sweden chose Charles Knutsson Bonde, while Denmark chose Christian of Oldenburg (Christian I of Denmark). Norway was thus left with a dilemma. Once again, hereditary rights seem to have had little influence over the decisions made (according to feudal inheritance, the Duke of Mecklenburg would have been closest in rights, and Duke Adolf of Schleswig-Holstein as head of next branch, who however had supported his nephew Christian's election). Sigurd Jonsson, of the Sudreim- line, a descendant of Haakon V of Norway, seems to have been mentioned as a candidate, but turned the offer down. The Norwegian nobility then split between supporters of king Charles of Sweden and King Christian of Denmark. Charles succeeded in being crowned king of Norway in Trondheim in 1449, but in 1450 agreed to renounce the Norwegian throne to King Christian of Denmark in a separate peace deal with Denmark. The Norwegians were not a party to this decision, but were left with Christian as their only candidate. He was crowned in Trondheim the same year. Thus, the House of Oldenburg was first introduced to the Norwegian monarchy. In a union treaty, drawn up by the privy councils of Norway and Denmark in Bergen in 1450, it was specified that Norway was to be an elected kingdom, and have the same king as Denmark in perpetuity. On the death of the king, the Norwegian and Danish privy councils would meet and elect the new king among the previous king's legitimate sons. If no such son existed, the choice was free, but the councils should not part until they had agreed on a common king.Diplomatarium Norvegicum (volumes I-XXI) ==Denmark–Norway== On 6 June 1523, Sweden left the union for good, leaving Norway in an unequal union with a Danish king already embarked on centralising the government of the Union. In the following centuries the Norwegian monarchy was characterised by a king mostly residing abroad. This weakened the monarchical governing structures of Norway; the Riksråd, for example, was gradually undermined as the Norwegian nobles were not able to enjoy the King's confidence to the same extent as their Danish counterparts. The King was also less able to govern according to Norwegian needs as the distance meant he and his advisors had less knowledge of the conditions in Norway. The history of power during the Danish era Retrieved 21 November 2006 Norway was one of few countries where the archdiocese was coterminous with the national territory. The church was therefore an important factor in trying to maintain the separate Norwegian monarchy. In the 16th century the power struggle between the Norwegian nobles and the king culminated at the same time as the Protestant Reformation. This prompted an unfortunate set of events in which the struggle against the Danish dominance in Norway was coupled with the struggle against the reformation. When both failed the effects were harsh. The Norwegian Catholic bishops were replaced with Lutheran bishops. The Norwegian Riksråd was de facto abolished in 1536/1537 and more and more foreign men were appointed to important positions in Norway. In 1661, Frederick III introduced absolute monarchy in Denmark and Norway and introduced a new law, the Lex Regis in both countries to that effect. In this law the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway were proclaimed to be hereditary. ==Emerging independence== During the Napoleonic Wars the King aligned Denmark–Norway with France. When Napoleon lost the war Denmark was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden under the Treaty of Kiel in 1814. It was initially proposed that the Norwegian dependencies of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroes would remain with Norway, but that point was dropped during the negotiations so they became Danish.History of Norway on historyworld.com Retrieved 21 November 2006 On hearing news of the treaty, Prince Christian Frederick of Denmark and Norway, the resident viceroy in Norway, participated in founding a Norwegian independence movement. The independence movement was successful, partly due to clandestine support from the Danish Crown, but also because of the strong desire for independence in Norway. On 10 April, a national assembly met at Eidsvoll to decide on a constitution. Norway eventually declared independence on 17 May 1814, electing Christian Frederik as King. A short war with Sweden later that year ended with the Convention of Moss. This led to the ousting of Christian Frederick, and the Norwegian Storting electing Charles XIII of Sweden as King of Norway, creating the union between Sweden and Norway. In turn the king recognised the Norwegian constitution which was only changed to facilitate the union. The end result was that the Norwegian monarchy became a constitutional monarchy. In this new union the King was much more a King of Norway than under the previous Danish system. Norway was not to be treated as a Swedish conquest but rather as an equal party in a union of two independent states. Both the principle and substance of the Norwegian Constitution were accepted, and Norway retained its own parliament and separate institutions, except for the common king and foreign service. The only area of policy not in the hands of the Norwegians was foreign policy. Norway had been brought along into the new developments of the world as they arrived in Denmark. However, with the break the Norwegians were able to forge a more progressive political development than was the case in Denmark. Denmark introduced a constitutional monarchy 35 years after Norway. Parliamentarism was introduced in 1884 in Norway, 17 years before Denmark and 33 years before Sweden.The introduction of parliamentarism is not as clear cut in Denmark and Sweden as in Norway. In Denmark the year 1901 is usually given, but the years 1905 and 1920 are also important in this respect. In Sweden parliamentarism was re-introduced in 1917. The union with Denmark also had its adverse effects on the monarchy, among other things it resulted in the crown of Norway experiencing a loss of territory which today amounts to 2,322 755 km2.This number is found by adding up the areas of Jämtland, Härjedalen, Bohuslän, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Shetland and Orkney. The entire area of Greenland was not effectively controlled by anyone at the time, however it is today under the Crown of Denmark and therefore would have been under the Crown of Norway. However, Norway's territorial size has been more than restored due to Norwegian expansionism in the early 20th century, which led to the annexation of Queen Maud Land (1939) in Antarctica, an area comprising roughly . Very few royal undertakings had been located to Norway and the country is thus lacking the monumental palaces of the period as can be seen in Copenhagen and other parts of Denmark. The Norwegian Storting would propose laws based in Norway and the King would even on occasion enact laws unfavourable to Sweden. As the Norwegian movement towards full independence gained momentum the King approved the building of forts and naval vessels intended to defend Norway against a Swedish invasion. The union was nevertheless marked by the Norwegians' constant and growing discontent with being in a union of any kind. The Storting would propose laws to reduce the king's power or to assert Norwegian independence. This would most often be vetoed by the king, but as he only had the right to veto the same law twice it would eventually be passed. Already in 1814 the Norwegians instituted a separate flag, this would remain an issue until the union badge was discarded from the Norwegian flag in 1898. In 1837, local self-government in certain areas of policy was introduced in rural areas as well as towns. Parliamentarism was introduced in 1884. Quite often, crown princes of the dynasty served some time in the position of Viceroy of Norway at Oslo, as sort of training for their future reign. Charles II, as he was officially known in Norway, was succeeded in both kingdoms by his adopted son Charles III John of Norway, the first Bernadotte. He had no known genealogical roots in Norway, but he had his son and heir, the future Oscar I of Norway marry Josephine of Leuchtenberg, a descendant of the earlier kings Christian II and Frederick II, and thus descending from all their ancestors too. Her sons, Charles IV and Oscar II, were thus issue of the so-called Fairhair dynasty. It also has to be said that the Royal House tried harder to be a Norwegian Royal House as well. The Royal Palace in Oslo was built during this period. There were separate coronations in Trondheim as stipulated in the Constitution. The royal princes even had a hunting lodge built in Norway in order to spend more private time there. King Oscar II himself is said to have been fluent in Norwegian. ==The second independent Norway== ===Change of dynasty=== The third Bernadotte king was Charles IV of Norway. He did not have any male descendants to inherit his thrones of Sweden and Norway, these thrones were "lost" to Charles XV's younger brother, Oscar II, instead of his only daughter Lovisa of Sweden, crown princess of Denmark. It has been said that Carl XV promised Lovisa on his deathbed that eventually a son of Lovisa would be entitled to be the heir of the Norwegian throne. Lovisa's son, Prince Carl of Denmark (namesake of his maternal grandfather the King of Norway and Sweden) was the second son of the future King Frederick VIII of Denmark, a younger brother of Denmark's future King Christian X (young Carl personally became a king before his father and his brother), a paternal grandson of king Christian IX of Denmark (during whose reign he was prince of Denmark) and a maternal grandson of King Charles IV of Norway (who was also King of Sweden). He was born in 1872, a few weeks before King Charles died. The future Haakon VII of Norway belonged to the House of Oldenburg, which 1448–1814 was the Royal House of union of Denmark and Norway, to its branch Schleswig-Holstein- Sonderburg-Glücksburg. His family had permanent links with Norway already beginning from late Middle Ages, and also several of his father's ancestors had been kings of independent Norway (such as Haakon V of Norway, Christian I of Norway, Frederick I, Christian III, Frederick II, Christian IV, as well as Frederick III of Norway). Christian Frederick, who was King of Norway briefly in 1814, the first king of the Norwegian 1814 constitution and struggle for independence, was his great-granduncle. In 1905, Carl, taking the name Haakon, ascended the throne of independent Norway to succeed his deposed great-uncle Oscar II. ===Full independence=== thumb|right|180px|King Haakon VII early during his reign. In 1905 a series of disputes between parliament and the King culminated with the matter of separate Norwegian consuls to foreign countries. Norway had grown into one of the world's leading shipping nations while Sweden retained control of both the diplomatic and consulate corps. The Swedes had little insight in the matters Norwegian ships and businessmen needed assistance with abroad and consulates were not even established in several important shipping cities. The demand for separate Norwegian consuls was seen as very important by the Norwegian parliament and society. The Storting proposed a law establishing a separate Norwegian consulate corps. King Oscar II refused to ratify the law and subsequently the Norwegian cabinet resigned. The king was not able to form any other government that had the support of parliament and as such it was deemed on 7 June that he had failed to function as King of Norway.Royal House web page on the dissolution of the union Retrieved 21 November 2006 The Norwegian people gave their consent in a plebiscite held on 13 August which resulted in an overwhelming 368,208 votes (99.95%) in favor of dissolution of the Union, against 184 (0.05%) opposed, with 85 percent of Norwegian men voting. No women voted, as universal suffrage was not granted until 1913, however Norwegian feminists collected more than 200,000 signatures in favor of dissolution. On 12 November and 13 November, in the second constitutional plebiscite in three months, Norwegian voters decided by a nearly 79 percent majority (259,563 to 69,264) to keep the monarchy instead of establishing a republic. During the summer a Norwegian delegation had already approached the 33-year-old Prince Carl of Denmark, the second son of the Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark. The Norwegian parliament had considered other candidates but ultimately chose Prince Carl, partly because he already had a son to continue the line of succession, but more significantly because Carl was married to Maud of Wales, the daughter of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. By bringing in a king with British royal ties, it was hoped that Norway could court Britain's support. Prince Carl impressed the delegation in many ways, not the least because of his sensitivity to the liberal and democratic movements that had led to Norway's independence. Though the Norwegian constitution stipulated that the Storting could choose a new king if the throne were vacant, Carl was aware that many Norwegians -- including leading politicians and high-ranking military officers -- favored a republican form of government. Attempts to persuade the prince to accept the throne on the basis of election at Parliament failed; Carl insisted that he would accept the crown only if the Norwegian people expressed their will for monarchy by referendum and if the parliament then elected him king. Following the November plebiscite affirming Norwegians' desire for a monarchy, the parliament by an overwhelming majority offered Carl a clear mandate to the Norwegian throne on 18 November. The prince accepted the same evening, choosing the name Haakon, a traditional name used by Norwegian kings. The last king with that name had been Haakon VI, who died in the year 1380. The new king therefore became Haakon VII, King of Norway. His two-year-old son Alexander, the heir apparent, was renamed Olav and became Crown Prince Olav. The new royal family arrived in the capital Kristiania (later Oslo) on 25 November. Haakon VII was sworn in as king of Norway on 27 November. ===A new monarchy=== The early years of the new Norwegian monarchy were marked by a shortage of funds. The Norwegian state was poor and funds were needed elsewhere than in the upkeep of a large court. In that sense it was a stroke of good fortune that Prince Carl had set as a condition for accepting the throne that he would not be forced to keep a large court. However the royal travels and the upkeep of the royal residences, after the initial refurbishment in 1905, were to some extent neglected. One example of the negative financial situation is that Prince Carl had been promised a Royal Yacht when he accepted the throne, but this was not fulfilled until 1947.RNoN web page on the HNoMY Norge (Norwegian) Retrieved 21 November 2006 One important incident in the early years of the new monarchy was in 1928 when the King appointed the first Labour government. The Norwegian Labour Party was at that time quite radical and even had the abolition of monarchy as part of their programme. It was the custom for the King to rely on the advice of previous Prime Minister in deciding whom to give the assignment as new Prime Minister. In this case the previous conservative Prime Minister was opposed to giving power to the radicals and advised the appointment of someone else. But the King adhered to the established practice of parliamentarism and decided to appoint Christopher Hornsrud the first Labour Prime Minister. The Labour party later dropped the abolition of monarchy from their programme. During the German occupation of World War II the King was an important symbol of national unity and resistance. His steadfast opposition to the German demands of surrender was important for the fighting spirit of the Norwegian population. The constitutional powers granted to the King in the Norwegian monarchical system made his position very important and enabled the government in exile to continue its work with the utmost legitimacy. After the war the Norwegian royal house succeeded in maintaining a balance between regality and approachability. King Olav V was deemed the people's king and the spontaneous show of mourning from the population upon his death in 1991 demonstrated the high standing he had among the Norwegian people. Even republicans were among the masses lighting candles in front of the Palace.VG article on Socialist Left party leader's critique of the palace refurbishment where the republican admits to revering King Olav (Norwegian) Retrieved 21 November 2006 In later years the marriages of the then Crown Prince Harald in 1968 and of Crown Prince Haakon in 2001 sparked considerable controversy, but the lasting effect on the popularity of the monarchy has been minimal. Although decreased from its level of above 90 percent after the war, support for the monarchy seems to remain stable around and mostly above the 70 percent mark.Aftenposten article on the Popularity of the Monarchy Retrieved 21 November 2006 ==Heir of Norway== Use of the title "Heir of Norway" (Arving til Norge) established in the 17th century. Firstly, several junior agnatic members of the House of Oldenburg (the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp among the first ones), themselves usually titular Dukes in Schleswig-Holstein, assumed the title to constant use, as one of their main titles. There are plenty of examples from official dispatches and notices of the 17th, 18th and 19th century of several princely persons titled "Duke of Holstein, Heir of Norway". This is why it has been used as part of their titles by the emperors of Russia until 1917 since their agnatic line traces back to Peter III of Russia, first Russian ruler of the House of Oldenburg. From the 15th century, at least up to 1660, the heir apparent of the King of Denmark and Norway was generally titled "Prince of Norway", in recognition to his hereditary right to succeed to the Norwegian throne upon the death of the king, as opposed to the need to pass an election in order to succeed to the Danish throne. Other members of House of Oldenburg, including any younger siblings of the Prince of Norway, were not called princes or princesses of Norway, but the title "Heir of Norway" was sooner or later accorded to them. Next, the heads of the line descending from Haakon V of Norway's illegitimate, but succession-entitlement-recognized daughter Agnes Haakonardottir, started also to use the same title "Heir of Norway". They got support from monarchs of the Swedish Empire to their pretension, being interested in challenging the Danish grip to Norway. Their forefathers (or predecessors in claim line) had in the 14th and 15th centuries launched their ambitions towards Norwegian throne even as revolts - see Sudreim claim. ==See also== * Ahnentafel of Harald V of Norway * Kings of Norway family tree * Norwegian nobility * List of Norwegian monarchs * List of possessions of Norway ==References== ==External links== Category:Norwegian monarchy Category:History of Norway by topic |
Ronald Brooks Kitaj (; October 29, 1932 – October 21, 2007) was an American artist who spent much of his life in England. ==Life== He was born in Chagrin Falls, Ohio, United States. His Hungarian father, Sigmund Benway, left his mother, Jeanne Brooks, shortly after he was born and they were divorced in 1934. His mother was the American-born daughter of Russian-Jewish immigrants. She worked in a steel mill and as a teacher. She remarried in 1941, to Dr Walter Kitaj, a Viennese refugee research chemist, and Ronald took his surname. His mother and stepfather were non-practicing Jews. He was educated at Troy High School (New York). He became a merchant seaman with a Norwegian freighter when he was 17 and travelled by boat to Havana and Mexico. He studied at the Akademie der bildenden Künste in Vienna and the Cooper Union in New York City. After serving in the United States Army for two years, in France and Germany, he moved to England to study at the Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art in Oxford (1958–59) under the G.I. Bill, where he developed a love of Cézanne, and then at the Royal College of Art in London (1959–61), alongside David Hockney, Derek Boshier, Peter Phillips, Allen Jones and Patrick Caulfield. Richard Wollheim, the philosopher and David Hockney remained lifelong friends. He lived in California from 1967-68 and became friends with Robert Creeley and painter Jess Collins. Kitaj married his first wife, Elsi Roessler, in 1953; they had a son, screenwriter Lem Dobbs, and adopted a daughter, Dominie. Elsi committed suicide in 1969. After living with Sandra Fisher for 12 years, he married her in December 1983 and they had one son, Max. Sandra Fisher died in 1994, at age 47, from acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (not an aneurysm, as is commonly written). Kitaj had a mild heart attack in 1990. He died in Los Angeles in October 2007, eight days before his 75th birthday.Obituary, The Independent, October 25, 2007 Seven weeks after Kitaj's death, the Los Angeles County coroner ruled that the cause of death was suicide by suffocation. ==Career== Kitaj settled in England, and through the 1960s taught at the Ealing Art College, the Camberwell School of Art and the Slade School of Art. He also taught at the University of California, Berkeley in 1968. He staged his first solo exhibition at Marlborough New London Gallery in London in 1963, entitled "Pictures with commentary, Pictures without commentary", in which text included in the pictures and the accompanying catalogue referred to a range of literature and history, citing Aby Warburg's analysis of symbolic forms as a major influence.Chaney, 2012, pp. 97–8 ==="School of London"=== He curated an exhibition for the Arts Council at the Hayward Gallery in 1976, entitled "The Human Clay" (an allusion to W. H. Auden's lines 'To me Art's subject is the human clay, / And landscape but a background to a torso … '),W. H. Auden 'Letter to Lord Byron' (1937). including works by 48 London artists, such as William Roberts, Richard Carline, Colin Self and Maggi Hambling, championing the cause of figurative art at a time when abstract was dominant. In an essay in the controversial catalogue, he invented the phrase the "School of London" to describe painters such as Frank Auerbach, Leon Kossoff, Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud, Euan Uglow, Michael Andrews, Reginald Gray, Peter de Francia and himself.Obituary, The Daily Telegraph, October 24, 2007 ===Style and influence=== Kitaj had a significant influence on British pop art, with his figurative paintings featuring areas of bright colour, economic use of line and overlapping planes which made them resemble collages, but eschewing most abstraction and modernism. Allusions to political history, art, literature and Jewish identity often recur in his work, mixed together on one canvas to produce a collage effect. He also produced a number of screen-prints with printer Chris Prater. He told Tony Reichardt, manager of the Marlborough New London Gallery, that he made screen-prints as sketches for his future paintings. From then onwards Tony Reichardt commissioned Chris Prater to print three or four copies of every print he made on canvas. His later works became more personal. Kitaj was recognised as being one of the world's leading draftsmen, almost on a par with, or compared to, Degas. Indeed, he was taught drawing at Oxford by Percy Horton, whom Kitaj claimed was a pupil of Walter Sickert, who was a pupil of Degas; and the teacher of Degas studied under Ingres. Meanwhile art historian Edgar Wind encouraged him to become a 'Warburgian artist'.Edward Chaney, 'R.B. Kitaj (1932–2007): Warburgian Artist', emaj issue 7.1 November 2013, www.emajartjournal.com, pp. 1–34. His more complex compositions build on his line work using a montage practice, which he called 'agitational usage'. Kitaj often depicts disorienting landscapes and impossible 3D constructions, with exaggerated and pliable human forms. He often assumes a detached outsider point of view, in conflict with dominant historical narratives. This is best portrayed by one his best-known works, The Autumn of Central Paris (After Walter Benjamin) (1972–73). Kitaj staged a major exhibition at Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1965, and a retrospective at the Hirshhorn Museum in Washington, D.C. in 1981. He selected paintings for an exhibition, "The Artist's Eye", at the National Gallery, London in 1980. In 1981 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member and became a full Academician in 1984. ===Later years=== In his later years, he developed a greater awareness of his Jewish heritage, which found expression in his works, with reference to the Holocaust and influences from Jewish writers such as Kafka and Walter Benjamin, and he came to consider himself to be a "wandering Jew". In 1989, Kitaj published "First Diasporist Manifesto", a short book in which he analysed his own alienation, and how this contributed to his art. His book contained the remark: "The Diasporist lives and paints in two or more societies at once." And he added: "You don't have to be a Jew to be a Diasporist."Kitaj, First Diasporist Manifesto, 19 A second retrospective was staged at the Tate Gallery in 1994. Critical reviews in London were almost universally negative. British press savagely attacked the Tate exhibit, calling Kitaj a pretentious poseur who engaged in name dropping. Kitaj took the criticism very personally, declaring that "anti-intellectualism, anti-Americanism, and anti-Semitism" had fueled the vitriol. Despite the bad reviews, the exhibition moved to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and afterwards to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1995. His second wife, Sandra Fisher died from hyperacute haemorrhagic leuco-encephalitis in 1994, shortly after his exhibition at the Tate Gallery had ended. He blamed the British press for her death, stating that "they were aiming for me, but they got her instead." David Hockney concurred and said that he too believed the London art critics had killed Sandra Fisher.R. B. Kitaj 1932–2007, Charles Donelan, Santa Barbara Independent Retrieved January 25, 2011 Kitaj returned to the US in 1997 and settled in Los Angeles, near his first son. "When my Wife died", he wrote to Edward Chaney, "London died for me and I returned home to California to live among sons and grandsons – It was a very good move and now I begin my 3rd and (last?) ACT! hands across The Sea."Postcard (Whistler vs. Ruskin 1992) dated June 1999. Three years later he wrote: "I grow older every day and rather like my hermit life."Postcard to Edward Chaney: My Cat and Her Husband 1977, dated June 2002. The "Tate War" and Sandra's death became a central themes for his later works: he often depicted himself and his deceased wife as angels. In Los Angeles No. 22 (Painting-Drawing) the beautiful young (and naked) girl records the shadow of her aged lover (on whose lap she sits) in a pose directly taken from the Scots Grand Tourist David Allan's Origin of Painting. The latter was included by Ernst Gombrich in his 1995 National Gallery exhibition (and catalogue) on Shadows so that Kitaj would have seen it two years before he left England for ever.Chaney, "Warburgian Artist", p. 102 In 1997 Kitaj exhibited his work Sandra Three, an installation of paintings, photographs and text that stretched across an entire wall of the gallery at the Royal Academy's Summer Exhibition. Kitaj used the Academy's Summer Exhibition to showcase this sequence of works that dealt with the events of the "Tate War" and Sandra's death and even included a graffiti inscription stating 'The Critic Kills'. In 2000, Kitaj was one of several artists to make a Post-it note for an internet charity auction held by 3M to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their product. The charcoal and pastel piece sold for $925, making it the most expensive post-it note in history, a fact recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records. Kitaj was elected to the Royal Academy in 1991, the first American to join the Academy since John Singer Sargent. He received the Golden Lion at the Venice Biennale in 1995. He staged another exhibition at the National Gallery in 2001, entitled "Kitaj in the Aura of Cézanne and Other Masters". In September 2010, Kitaj and five British artists including Howard Hodgkin, John Walker, Ian Stephenson, Patrick Caulfield and John Hoyland were included in an exhibition entitled The Independent Eye: Contemporary British Art From the Collection of Samuel and Gabrielle Lurie, at the Yale Center for British Art.Channeling American Abstraction, Karen Wilkin, Wall Street Journal Retrieved October 7, 2010NY Times, exhibition review Retrieved December 15, 2010 In October 2012 a major international symposium was held in Berlin to mark what would have been Kitaj's 80th birthday. It accompanied Obsessions, the first comprehensive exhibition of Kitaj's work since his death, held at the Jewish Museum, Berlin. The title is partly in reference to what he dubbed his "erratic Jewish obsessions". The exhibition was shown in the UK in two parts at Pallant House Gallery, Chichester (February 23 to June 16, 2013) and the Jewish Museum London (February 21 to June 16, 2013).Metro, exhibition review Retrieved March 4, 2013The Independent, exhibition review Retrieved March 4, 2013 All Too Human: Bacon, Freud and a Century of Painting Life opened at Tate Britain in February 2018, inspired by Kitaj's School of London. ==References== ==Sources== * * ==Further reading== * Baskind, Samantha, Jewish Artists and the Bible in Twentieth-Century America,Philadelphia, PA, Penn State University Press, 2014, * Chaney, Edward,'Kitaj versus Creed', The London Magazine (April 2002), pp. 106–11. * Chaney, Edward, "Warburgian Artist: R.B. Kitaj, Edgar Wind, Ernst Gombrich and the Warburg Institute". Obsessions: R.B. Kitaj 1932–2007. Jewish Museum Berlin. Kerber Art, 2012, pp. 97–103. * Chaney, Edward, 'R.B. Kitaj (1932–2007): Warburgian Artist', "emaj" issue 7.1 November *Duncan, Robert. "A Paris Visit, with R.B. Kitaj". Conjunctions, no. 8, Fall 1985, pp. 8–17 *Kampf, Avraham. Chagall to Kitaj: Jewish Experience in Twentieth-Century Art. Exhibition catalogue. London: Lund Humphries and the Barbican Art Gallery, 1990. *Kitaj, R. B. First Diasporist Manifesto. London : Thames and Hudson, 1989. *Kitaj, R. B. The Second Diasporist Manifesto. New Haven, CT : Yale University Press, 2007. *Kitaj, R. B. / Irving Petlin. Rubbings...The Large Paintings and the Small Pastels. Exhibition catalogue. Purchase, New York, and Chicago: Neuberger Museum and Arts Club of Chicago, 1978. * Lambirth, Andrew. Kitaj. London: Philip Wilson Publishers, 2004. * *Palmer, Michael. "Four Kitaj Studies", from The Promises of Glass. New York: New Directions Publishing, 2000. *Stępnik, Małgorzata. Błogosławione błądzenie. Na marginesie diasporycznego manifestu Ronalda B. Kitaja (The Blessed Wandering. Side Notes on Ronald B. Kitaj's Diasporic Manifesto) (in:) Sztuka i edukacja, (eds.) A. Boguszewska, B. Niścior, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin 2015. *Stępnik, Małgorzata. The Aesthetics of the School of London "Diasporic" Painting – on the Basis of Ronald B. Kitaj's Literary Manifestos (in:) Studies on Modern Art Vol. 5: Art of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland & Republic of Ireland in 20th–21st Centuries and Polish – British & Irish Art Relation, (eds.) M. Geron, J. Malinowski, J. W. Sienkiewicz, Toruń: The Nicolaus Copernicus University Press, 2015, pp. 109–116. . ==External links== * * 2 artworks by R. B. Kitaj at the Ben Uri site Category:1932 births Category:2007 deaths Category:20th-century American painters Category:20th-century British painters Category:21st-century American painters Category:21st-century male artists Category:21st-century British painters Category:Academics of Camberwell College of Arts Category:Academy of Fine Arts Vienna alumni Category:Alumni of the Royal College of Art Category:Alumni of the Ruskin School of Art Category:American emigrants to England Category:American male painters Category:American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:British male painters Category:British pop artists Category:British printmakers Category:Cooper Union alumni Category:Jewish American artists Category:Jewish painters Category:Painters who died by suicide Category:People from Chagrin Falls, Ohio Category:Royal Academicians Category:American pop artists Category:2007 suicides Category:Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters |
The American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine (A4M) is a United States 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that promotes the field of anti-aging medicine, and the organization trains and certifies physicians in this specialty. As of 2011, approximately 26,000 practitioners had been given A4M certificates. The field of anti-aging medicine is not recognized by established medical organizations, such as the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) and the American Medical Association (AMA). The academy's activities include lobbying and public relations. The A4M was founded in 1993 by osteopathic physicians Robert M. Goldman and Ronald Klatz, and as of 2013 claimed 26,000 members from 120 countries. Several of the anti-aging methods recommended by the academy have wide support among experts in the field, such as exercise and a healthy diet, but others, such as hormone treatments, do not have support from a consensus of the wider medical community. Many scientists studying aging dissociate themselves from the claims of A4M, and critics have accused the group of using misleading marketing to sell expensive and ineffective products. The A4M's founders and merchants who promote products through the organization have been involved in legal and professional disputes. The activities of the A4M are controversial: in 2003 a commentary on the response of the scientific community to the promotion of anti-aging medicine noted that the activities of the A4M were seen as a threat to the credibility of serious scientific research on aging. According to MSNBC, anti-aging advocates have responded to such criticism by describing it as censorship perpetrated by a conspiracy of the US government, notably the Food and Drug Administration, the AMA, and the mainstream media, motivated by competing commercial interests. Tom Perls of the Boston University School of Medicine, a prominent critic of the organization, has stated that claims of censorship and suppression are a common theme in what he calls "anti-aging quackery". ==Beliefs== According to The New York Times, their co-founder and president Ronald Klatz stated that "We're not about growing old gracefully. We're about never growing old." Writing in the 2001 issue of the journal Generations, historian Carole Haber of the University of Delaware, states that Klatz' aspirations and the rhetoric of the A4M "reflect well-worn ideas and the often-enunciated hopes of the past", drawing parallels with the ideas of the 19th century physiologists Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, Serge Voronoff and Eugen Steinach. Haber states that the current resurgence of these ideas may be due to their appeal to the aging Baby Boom Generation, in a culture that is focused on the ideal of youth. Haber has also discussed the strong continuities within the philosophy of the anti-aging movement, writing that "For Steinach and Voronoff, as for the members of the A4M, old age was a 'grotesque' disease that could be scientifically eradicated through the correct combination of hormones, diet, and surgery." A 2006 review of anti-aging medicine notes that of the researchers who are interested in this topic, the "vast majority dissociate themselves from the A4M." The Los Angeles Times states that "Many physicians, researchers and scientists, delving into the physiological aspects of human aging, view the Academy's activities with disdain, saying that the organization is an inappropriate blend of scientific and commercial interests."Valerie Reitman A rift in business, science of aging Los Angeles Times January 12, 2004, archived url Accessed September 10, 2009 ==Activities== The main activity of the A4M is PR and advocacy for its brand of anti-aging medicine. It does this through publications, on-line activity and sponsoring conferences including the World Anti-Aging Congress and Exposition and the Annual World Congress on Anti-Aging Medicine. Some of these conferences are in conjunction with the World Anti-Aging Academy of Medicine, an umbrella group for several national anti-aging organizations that is also headed by Goldman. The Los Angeles Times stated that the 2004 annual conference of the A4M at Las Vegas presented a mix of "scientific and technical presentations" and exhibitors selling "wrinkle creams, hair-growing potions, sexual enhancement pills and hormone treatments". According to a review of the anti-aging movement published in 2005, the A4M is one of the most prominent organizations that are making "attempts at legitimizing anti- aging as a medical specialty". The review notes that these efforts at legitimization are contentious and have been rebuffed by some academic scientists who work on aging, who instead attempt to portray the A4M as "charlatans whose main goal is making money." In a review of the history of anti-aging medicine published in 2004, Robert Binstock of Case Western Reserve University noted that A4M "actively solicits and displays numerous advertisements on its website for products and services (such as cosmetics and alternative medicines and therapies), anti-aging clinics, and anti-aging physicians and practitioners." The Times reported in 2004 that Klatz professes outrage at suggestions that he is motivated by money, quoting him as insisting that "The only thing that I sell are books... my website is non-commercial – we're just trying to advance science."Want to live for ever? The Times September 4, 2004 archive url, page 1 archive url, page 2, Accessed September 15, 2009 The Times went on to note a partnership between Klatz and Goldman and a business named Market America, which sells products that promise to "slow the ageing process".Market America Refuses to Grow Old Gracefully; Company Launches Anti-Aging Store at Recent Conference. PR Newswire March 18, 2003 cached copy, Accessed September 15, 2009 However, according to a 2005 article in the Chicago Tribune, the company later pulled out of this contract. The A4M's American Board of Anti-Aging Medicine (ABAAM) states that it offers anti-aging medicine as a specialty and gives educational credits to those who attend A4M conferences. The New York Times has reported that the American Board of Medical Specialties does not recognize this body as having professional standing. MSNBC noted that "as far as the American Medical Association or the American Board of Medical Specialties is concerned, there is no such thing as an anti-aging specialty." Robert Binstock stated in a 2004 review article in The Gerontologist that "Although the organization is not recognized by the American Medical Association, A4M has established three board-certification programs under its auspices—for physicians, chiropractors, dentists, naturopaths, podiatrists, pharmacists, registered nurses, nurse practitioners, nutritionists, dieticians, sports trainers and fitness consultants, and PhDs." ==Publications== The A4M publishes Anti Aging Medical News, a trade periodical which is their official magazine, as well as proceedings of its anti-aging conferences in a periodical called Anti-Aging Therapeutics, this is edited by Klatz and Goldman.Anti-aging therapeutics National Library of Medicine, Accessed September 20, 2009 The International Journal of Anti-Aging Medicine (IJAAM) was another periodical published by the A4M. According to Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, IJAAM was published by Total Health Holdings, LLC from 1998 to 2001, on behalf of the A4M.Record for International Journal of Anti-Aging Medicine, Ulrich's Periodicals Directory The contents of the International Journal of Anti-Aging Medicine have been strongly criticised. In a 2002 letter published in Science, Aubrey de Grey described them as consisting of a set of advertisements for a "pseudoscientific anti-aging industry". According to Bruce Carnes of the University of Oklahoma: Leonard Hayflick of the University of California, San Francisco, a former editor of Experimental Gerontology, writes: In 2009 the A4M stated that it is no longer associated with the journal and that it had sold its interests in this publication in 1999. They also defended the scientific quality of its contents, writing that almost all of its articles were reviewed by an editorial board before publication.Deposition www.courthousenews.com, archived url August 20, 2009 Robert Binstock of Case Western Reserve University stated in 2004 that this periodical is a "nonrefereed publication". ==Divergent views on anti-aging products== According to a 2002 article in the Seattle Times, there are two opposing viewpoints of anti-aging products. The article states that the first view is represented by scientists who publish their findings in the scientific literature and who believe that no currently available intervention can slow or prevent aging. The alternative viewpoint is represented by people who the article states have "fewer credentials" and who promote a range of products that claim to have anti-aging properties.Joel Garreau Holding back the years: Scientists say extended youth may be near Seattle Times 2002, Accessed September 28, 2009 A similar observation was made by Business Week in 2006, when they stated that although anti-aging medicine is increasingly popular, there is "precious little scientific data to back up their claims that the potions extend life."Selling The Promise Of Youth cover story Business Week March 20, 2006, Accessed September 28, 2009 As an example of the first viewpoint, a 2004 review in Trends in Biotechnology written by Leigh Turner of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey stated that the products promoted by the A4M have "no credible scientific basis" and that "there are no proven, scientifically established 'anti-aging' medications". A 2006 review published in the Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine of the antioxidants and hormones that are promoted as anti-aging products by the A4M and the Life Extension Institute concluded that these products have "minimal to no effect on improving longevity or functional abilities." In an editorial accompanying this study, Thomas Perls stated that although many unjustified claims were made about anti-ageing products, no substance had yet been shown to halt or slow the aging process. Similarly, the National Institute on Aging, who are part of the National Institutes of Health, published a general warning in 2009 against businesses that claim anti-aging benefits for their products, describing these as "health scams" and stating that "no treatments have been proven to slow or reverse the aging process". The Seattle Times quotes Klatz as describing those who doubt the validity of anti-aging medicine as "flat- earthers" who make unjustified criticisms that are not backed by scientific evidence, the article also states that Klatz "sees the science and medical establishments as out to get him." ===Human growth hormone controversy=== The American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine was formed following a 1990 study on human growth hormone (hGH) that was published in the New England Journal of Medicine. The study was performed by Daniel Rudman and colleagues at the Medical College of Wisconsin. Rudman had treated twelve men over 60 years of age with human growth hormone; after six months, these men had an increase in lean body mass and a decrease in adipose tissue mass when compared with a group of nine men who did not receive hormone. Members of the anti-aging movement have interpreted these results to support a role for growth hormone in slowing or reversing aging. A review in The Journal of Urology noted that this promotion of growth hormone as an anti-aging remedy is "arguably similar" to ideas that date back to the late 19th century, when the physiologist Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard advocated rejuvenating hormone products prepared from animal testicles and stated that "the injections have taken 30 years off my life". The New York Times reports that the idea that growth hormone can improve "health, energy level and sense of well-being." is a core belief of the A4M, with Klatz writing a book in 1998 entitled Grow Young with HGH: The Amazing Medically Proven Plan to Reverse Aging where he states "The 'Fountain of Youth' lies within the cells of each of us. All you need to do is release it". A 2005 review in the Journal of Endocrinological Investigation noted the long history of these ideas, but stated that the "concept of a 'hormonal fountain of youth' is predominantly mythological." Nevertheless, Klatz maintains that growth hormone reverses aging as a physical process and has described growth hormone as "the first medically proven age-reversal therapy." However, MSNBC reports that Daniel Rudman, the author of the 1990 study that sparked the movement, "issued many caveats and cautions about using HGH and never recommended its use to delay aging. In fact, he was horrified his study was being used to support the industry especially since heavy use of growth hormone can have unwanted side effects". The New York Times states that medical authorities not affiliated with the A4M question the safety and efficacy of the use of growth hormone in anti-aging medicine, quoting Michael Fossell of Michigan State University who stated that "hormone therapies are the new patent medicines – cure-alls embraced by a too-trusting public." A 2003 review that was published in the Annual Review of Medicine noted that the long-term risks or benefits of this treatment are uncertain, that "neither the benefits nor the dangers have been defined" and advising that a "prudent physician should not condone the use of GH for normal aging". As a result of the reactions to the 1990 article and its frequent citation by proponents of HGH as an anti-aging agent, in 2003 the New England Journal of Medicine published two articles that strongly and clearly stated that there was insufficient medical and scientific evidence to support use of HGH as anti- aging drug. One article was written by the Journal's then-editor in chief, Jeffrey M. Drazen, M.D. and was entitled, "Inappropriate Advertising of Dietary Supplements". It focused mostly on the advertising of dietary supplements. The other article was written by the editor-in-chief at the time the 1990 article was published, Mary Lee Vance, M.D., and was entitled, "Can Growth Hormone Prevent Aging?"; it focused more on the medical issues around whether there was sufficient evidence to use HGH as an anti-aging agent. A 2007 review on the use of human growth hormone as an anti-aging treatment in healthy elderly people published in the Annals of Internal Medicine concluded the risks of HGH significantly outweigh the benefits, noted soft tissue edema as a common side effect and found no evidence that the hormone prolongs life. ABC News interviewed Hau Liu of Stanford University and lead author of the paper, who stated that people are paying thousands of dollars a year for a treatment that has not been proved to be beneficial and has many side effects. ABC News also reported that the A4M disputed the conclusions of this review, quoting from an A4M statement which maintained that growth hormone supplementation is beneficial in healthy adults and which described arguments against the use of the hormone as a "heinous act of malpractice". Some small studies have shown that low-dose GH treatment for adults with severe GH deficiency, such as that produced after surgical removal of the pituitary gland, produces positive changes in body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength; improves cardiovascular parameters (i.e. decrease of LDL cholesterol), and improves quality of life without significant side effects. The extension of this approach to healthy elderly people is an area of current research, with a 2000 review in Hormone Research commenting that "Clearly more studies are needed before GH replacement for the elderly becomes established." and noting that "safety issues will require close scrutiny". A 2008 review of the controversy surrounding the use of growth hormone in anti-aging medicine which published in Clinical Interventions in Aging noted the opinions of the A4M on this topic, but suggested that high levels of growth hormone might actually accelerate aging. This concern was repeated by the United States National Institute on Aging who stated in 2009 that: The Clinical Interventions in Aging review also stated that although the decreasing levels of the hormone seen in the elderly might reduce quality of life, this change could protect from age-related diseases and cited evidence linking GH to cancer. This concern was mirrored in a 2008 review published in Clinical Endocrinology, which stated that the risk of increasing the incidence of cancer was a strong argument against the use of this hormone as an "elixir of youth" in healthy adults. ==Legal disputes== ===Credential dispute=== The academy's co-founders include Klatz and Goldman, who are licensed osteopathic physicians and have Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degrees (D.O.). However, according to The New York Times, they also received M.D. degrees as doctors of medicine from a university in Belize in 1988, although the paper notes that they had not studied in Belize. In 2009 Klatz and Goldman stated that these degrees involved eight years of medical and surgical training and a year of clinical rotations. The New York Times reported that the Illinois State Board of Medical Registration did not recognize these M.D. degrees, and stated that the Board fined the men for using M.D. after their names. Writing in 2004, The Times stated that Klatz and Goldman "agreed to pay $5,000 penalties for allegedly identifying themselves as doctors of medicine in the state without being "properly licensed"." The Illinois Division of Professional Regulation disciplinary records state that Klatz and Goldman "agreed to cease and desist using the designation "M.D." in addition to the appropriate "D.O." title and fined $5,000. Both physicians did receive degrees as doctors of medicine, but were never properly licensed to use the title "M.D." in Illinois".Illinois Department of Professional Regulation Monthly Disciplinary report for December 2000 Illinois Department of Financial & Professional Regulation, Accessed September 13, 2009 In 2009, Klatz and Goldman stated that Illinois Department of Financial & Professional Regulation had determined that they are currently: They go on to state that they have "valid M.D. degrees from a recognized medical school". Writing in 2004, the historian Carole Haber put this dispute into context, noting that "like the gland doctors before them, the leaders of the A4M have had their practices and credentials assailed by the medical and legal communities". ===Regulatory and tort issues=== Two articles in the Journal of the American Medical Association have stated that the use of growth hormone as an anti-aging product is illegal. However, Klatz and Goldman dispute this, arguing that this use of growth hormone is legal. The United States Department of Justice states that growth hormone is a potentially dangerous drug and its supply "for any use ... other than the treatment of a disease or other recognized medical condition, where such use has been authorized by the Secretary of Human Services" is a felony under the 1990 Anabolic Steroids Control Act.Human Growth Hormone/Steroids Statutory Overview United States Attorneys' Manual 1997, Accessed September 6, 2009 Similarly, the FDA has stated in a Warning Letter that no growth hormone products have been approved as anti-aging treatments and supply for this use is therefore illegal and an "offense punishable by not more than 5 years in prison".Warning Letter Department of Health and Human Services 2002, archived url, Accessed September 6, 2009 In 2007 The New York Times discussed ongoing federal and state investigations into illegal trafficking of human growth hormone and anabolic steroids, noting that "many of the individuals and companies cited in the indictments have been involved with the academy and its conventions over the years". However, the paper notes that the academy is not accused of any wrongdoing as part of these investigations and quotes Klatz and Goldman as stating that "they barely knew the suspects or the nature of their businesses". A May 2000 article in the Los Angeles Times suggested that, from an examination of the disciplinary records of doctors in California, members of the A4M in this state were approximately ten times more likely to be disciplined than the national average. In the article, Klatz is quoted as commenting that:Benedict Cary Troubling Record for Anti-Aging Doctors Los Angeles Times May 8, 2000, Accessed September 22, 2009 ===Wikipedia=== According to lawyers claiming to act for A4M and one or more people involved with it, their clients had initiated "defamation actions in New York and Massachusetts" against Wikipedia editors in 2009. According to Courthouse News Service, the A4M co-founders Ronald Klatz and Robert Goldman are pursuing legal action against the online encyclopedia Wikipedia in New York County Court, seeking damages for alleged defamation.American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine v. Wikimedia, Citizen Media Law Project. ===Dispute with Olshansky and Perls=== In 2002, A4M was a co-recipient of the first "Silver Fleece Award", created to publicize "the most ridiculous claims about antiaging medicine" according to the award's inventor, S. Jay Olshansky.R. J. Davenport, "And the Loser Is ...: Silver Fleece Awards 'honor' antiaging quackery (Questionable therapies)", Science's SAGE KE, February 20, 2002, Accessed January 12, 2015 Heated legal and academic controversies ensued. Olshansky, a biodemographer at the University of Illinois at Chicago, described it as "a lighthearted attempt to make the public aware of ... anti-aging quackery". This "award" was presented by Olshansky, who stated that in his opinion, a "suite of anti-aging substances created by Ronald Klatz and Robert Goldman ... and sold on the Internet by Market America, Inc." had made "outrageous or exaggerated claims about slowing or reversing human aging". Writing in Biogerontology, anthropologist Courtney Mykytyn of the University of Southern California states that this award appears to have been an attempt by Olshansky to protect what he saw as "'real' science from the taint of swindle." Mykytyn states that this involved Olshansky "tagging the A4M as fraudulent and its principals as profiteers". In response, the academy filed defamation lawsuits, demanding $150 million in damages, with Klatz stating "We take great exception to Mr Olshansky and his tactics which have finally compelled us to file suit for various unprofessional and improper actions". Klatz and Goldman described this action as "part of a larger campaign of disparagement by Olshansky and Perls aimed at discrediting A4M and its founders". The Chicago Tribune quoted experts on libel law who stated that the action was an "almost unheard-of attempt to punish academics for comments made in their professional capacity".Jeremy Manier Professor sued over opinion of anti-aging group Chicago Tribune June 22, 2005, archived url, Accessed September 10, 2009 CNN states that Olshansky countersued and that "both sides eventually agreed to drop their cases". The Chicago Tribune states that the case "ended in a settlement, with neither side paying damages or the other's costs."Judith Graham Legal dispute over anti-aging medicine ends. Chicago Tribune November 17, 2006, Accessed September 14, 2009 In 2002, Olshansky, Hayflick, and Carnes published a position paper, endorsed by 51 scientists in the field of aging, stating that "no currently marketed intervention has yet been proved to slow, stop or reverse human aging...The entrepreneurs, physicians and other health care practitioners who make these claims are taking advantage of consumers who cannot easily distinguish between the hype and reality of interventions designed to influence the aging process and age-related diseases,". In 2009, Imre Zs-Nagy of the University of Debrecen, Hungary, defended A4M from what he called the "gerontological establishment" in an editorial published in Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, a journal Zs-Nagy founded and of which he is editor-in-chief. Zs-Nagy defended therapies promoted by A4M, which he states are related to his own "membrane hypothesis of aging", as theoretically feasible. He described the conflict between the scientific community and the academy as one pitting government funds, "personal gain" and "intellectual dishonesty" against the "independent, open-minded approach" of A4M, calling the conflict one of the "biggest scandals of the recent history of medicine". ==See also== * Maximum life span * ApothéCure Inc. * Strategic lawsuit against public participation (SLAPP Suits) ==References== ==External links== * A4M.com Official website ;Newspaper articles * A Drug's Promise (or Not) of Youth Los Angeles Times * Holding back the years with a little passion Daily Telegraph *Holding back the years: Scientists say extended youth may be near The Seattle Times * Selling The Promise Of Youth Business Week ;Academic and governmental * * Beware of Health Scams National Institute on Aging * Can We Prevent Aging? National Institute on Aging Category:Old age in the United States Category:Life extension organizations Category:Geriatrics organizations Category:Medical education in the United States Category:Alternative medicine organizations Category:Fringe science Category:Pseudoscience Category:Health charities in the United States Category:1993 establishments in the United States Category:Charities based in Florida Category:Medical and health organizations based in Florida |
Hegra (),Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, §E260.11Strabo, Geography, § 16.4.24 known to Muslims as Al-Hijr (), also known as Mada’in Salih (), is an archaeological site located in the area of Al-'Ula within Medina Province in the Hejaz region, Saudi Arabia. A majority of the remains date from the Nabataean Kingdom (1st century AD). The site constitutes the kingdom's southernmost and second largest city after Petra (now in Jordan), its capital city. Traces of Lihyanite and Roman occupation before and after the Nabatean rule, respectively, can also be found. The Quran places the settlement of the area by the Thamudi people during the days of Salih, between those of Nuh (Noah) and Hud on one hand, and those of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Musa (Moses) on the other. However, a definitive historical chronology can not be obtained through the order of verses due to the fact that the Quranic chapters (see surah) deal with different subjects in non-chronologic order. According to the Islamic text, the Thamudis were punished by God for their idolatry, struck by an earthquake and lightning blasts. Thus, the site has earned a reputation as a cursed place—an image which the national government is attempting to overcome as it seeks to develop Mada'in Salih for its potential for tourism. In 2008, UNESCO proclaimed Mada'in Salih as a site of patrimony, becoming Saudi Arabia's first World Heritage Site. It was chosen for its well-preserved remains from late antiquity, especially the 131 monumental rock-cut tombs, with their elaborately ornamented façades, of the Nabataean Kingdom. ==Name== Its long history and the multitude of cultures occupying the site have produced several names. References by Strabo and other Mediterranean writers use the name Hegra () for the Nabatean site.Strabo, Geography, 16.4.24Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, E260.11 The use of Mada'in Salih refers to the (Prophet) Salih, sent to Ancient Arabs, a name and identity which may be derived from the Biblical Figure Methuselah ( Məṯūšélaḥ, in pausa Məṯūšālaḥ "Man of the javelin" or "Death of Sword"; Mathousalas) thumb|The word hgr (Hegra) on an Egyptian-style statue of the Persian king Darius Although Hegra was for a long time not as important as Dedan, foreigners appear to have called the oasis Hegra. For example, the famous statue of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great made in Egypt and erected in Susa calls the Arabs hgr. ==Location== The archaeological site of Hegra is situated north of the town of Al-'Ula, north-west of Medina, and south-east of Petra, Jordan. Al-Istakhri wrote in "Al-Masalik": The site is on a plain, at the foot of a basalt plateau, which forms a portion of the Hijaz mountains. Beneath the western and north-western parts of the site, the water table can be reached at a depth of . The setting is notable for its desert landscape, marked by sandstone outcroppings of various sizes and heights. ==History== ===Pre- Dedanite era=== ====In the Qur'an==== According to Islam the site of Al-Hijr was settled by the tribe of Thamud, who "(took) for (themselves) palaces from its plains and (carved) from the mountains, homes". The tribe fell to idol worship, and oppression became prevalent. Salih, to whom the site's name of "Mada'in Salih" is often attributed, called on the Thamudis to repent. The Thamudis disregarded the warning and instead commanded Salih to summon a pregnant she-camel from the back of a mountain. And so a pregnant she-camel was sent to the people from the back of the mountain, as proof of Salih's divine mission. However, only a minority heeded his words. The non-believers killed the sacred camel instead of caring for it as they were told, and its calf ran back to the mountain from whence it came. The Thamudis were given three days before their punishment was to take place, since they disbelieved and did not heed the warning. Salih and his Monotheistic followers left the city, but the others were punished by God—their souls leaving their lifeless bodies in the midst of an earthquake and lightning blasts. According to the Qur'an and tradition, the Thamud existed much earlier than the 715BC inscription from Sargon II would suggest.M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936 However, recent research in Islamic studies asserts that a definitive chronology of the Thamūd cannot be attained from the Quranic context and that this narrative does not "depict a continuous history of the ancient people, because these are not in any genealogical succession, nor do they interact with one another." Robert Hoyland suggested that their name was subsequently adopted by other new groups that inhabited the region of Mada'in Salih after the disappearance of the original people of Thamud. This suggestion is also supported by the narration of ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar and analysis of Ibn Kathir which report that people called the region of Thamud Al-Hijr, while they called the province of Mada'in Salih as Ardh Thamud (Land of Thamud) and Bayt Thamud (house of Thamud).Sahih al-Bukhari, Narrated: ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar, Hadiths: 2116 & 3379 So the term ‘Thamud’ was not applied to the groups that lived in Mada'in Salih, such as Lihyanites and Nabataeans,The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Macropædia Volume 13. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. Page: 818Encyclopædia Britannica, Under the Category of: History of Arabia, the Section of: Dedān and Al-Ḥijr but rather to the region itself, and according to classical sources, it was agreed upon that the only remaining group of the native people of Thamud are the tribe of Banu Thaqif which inhabited the city of Taif south of Mecca.The Detailed History of Arabs before Islam, Prof. Jawwad Ali, Volume: 15, Page: 301The Historical Record of Ibn Khaldon, Volume: 2, Page: 641Kitab Al-Aghani, Abu Al-Faraj Al-Asfahani, Volume: 4, Page: 74 ====Rock writings==== Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous rock writings and pictures not only on Mount Athleb, but also throughout central Arabia. They date between the sixth century BC and the fourth century AD and are labelled as being Thamudic. "Thamudic" was the name invented by nineteenth-century scholars for these large numbers of inscriptions which had not yet been properly studied. ===Lihyan/Dedanite era=== Archaeological traces of cave art on the sandstones and epigraphic inscriptions, considered by experts to be Lihyanite script, on top of the Athleb Mountain, near Hegra (Mada’in Salih), have been dated to the 3rd–2nd century BC, indicating the early human settlement of the area, which has an accessible source of freshwater and fertile soil. The settlement of the Lihyans became a center of commerce, with goods from the east, north and south converging in the locality. ===Nabatean era=== The extensive settlement of the site took place during the 1st century AD, when it came under the rule of the Nabatean king Aretas IV Philopatris (Al-Harith IV) (9 BC – 40 AD), who made Hegra (Mada’in Salih) the kingdom's second capital, after Petra in the north. The place enjoyed a huge urbanization movement, turning it into a city. Characteristic of Nabatean rock-cut architecture, the geology of Hegra (Mada’in Salih) provided the perfect medium for the carving of monumental structures, with Nabatean scripts inscribed on their façades. The Nabateans also developed oasis agriculture—digging wells and rainwater tanks in the rock and carving places of worship in the sandstone outcroppings. Similar structures were featured in other Nabatean settlements, ranging from southern Syria (region) to the north, going south to the Negev, and down to the immediate area of the Hejaz. The most prominent and the largest of these is Petra. At the crossroad of commerce, the Nabatean kingdom flourished, holding a monopoly for the trade of incense, myrrh and spices. Situated on the overland caravan route and connected to the Red Sea port of Egra Kome, Hegra, as it was known among the Nabateans, reached its peak as the major staging post on the main north–south trade route. ===Roman era=== In 106 AD, the Nabatean kingdom was annexed by the contemporary Roman Empire. The Hejaz, which encompasses Hegra, became part of the Roman province of Arabia. thumb|upright=1.15|Hegra Roman inscription dedicated to Emperor Marcus Aurelius The trading itinerary shifted from the overland north–south axis on the Arabian Peninsula to the maritime route through the Red Sea. Thus, Hegra as a center of trade began to decline, leading to its abandonment. Supported by the lack of later developments based on archaeological studies, experts have hypothesized that the site had lost all of its urban functions beginning in the late Antiquity (mainly due to the process of desertification). In the 1960s and 1970s, evidence was discovered that the Roman legions of Trajan occupied Mada'in Salih in northeastern Arabia, increasing the extension of the Arabia Petraea province of the Romans in Arabia. The history of Hegra, from the decline of the Roman Empire until the emergence of Islam, remains unknown. It was only sporadically mentioned by travelers and pilgrims making their way to Mecca in the succeeding centuries. Hegra served as a station along the Hajj route, providing supplies and water for pilgrims. Among the accounts is a description made by 14th-century traveler Ibn Battuta, noting the red stone- cut tombs of Hegra, by then known as "al-Hijr." However, he made no mention of human activities there. ===Ottoman era=== thumb|upright=1.15|The Ottoman Hajj Fort at Mada'in Salih, 1907 The Ottoman Empire annexed western Arabia from the Mamluks by 1517. In early Ottoman accounts of the Hajj road between Damascus and Mecca, Hegra (Mada’in Salih) is not mentioned, until 1672, when the Turkish traveler, Evliya Celebi noted that the caravan passed through a place called "Abyar Salih" where there were the remains of seven cities.Petersen 2012, p. 146. It is again mentioned by the traveler Murtada ibn 'Alawan as a rest stop on the route called "al-Mada'in." Between 1744 and 1757, a fort was built at al-Hijr on the orders of the Ottoman governor of Damascus, As'ad Pasha al-Azm. A cistern supplied by a large well within the fort was also built, and the site served as a one-day stop for Hajj pilgrims where they could purchase goods such as dates, lemons and oranges. It was part of a series of fortifications built to protect the pilgrimage route to Mecca. According to the researches of Al-Ansari, the Ottoman castle was found near the settlement dating to the year 1600 A.D in 1984 ====19th century==== Following the discovery of Petra by the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812, Charles Montagu Doughty, an English traveler, heard of a similar site near Hegra (Mada’in Salih), a fortified Ottoman town on the Hajj road from Damascus. In order to access the site, Doughty joined the Hajj caravan, and reached the site of the ruins in 1876, recording the visit in his journal which was published as Travels in Arabia Deserta. Doughty described the Ottoman fort, where he resided for two months, and noted that Bedouin tribesmen had a permanent encampment just outside of the building. In the 19th century, there were accounts that the extant wells and oasis agriculture of al-Hijr were being periodically used by settlers from the nearby village of Tayma. This continued until the 20th century, when the Hejaz Railway that passed through the site was constructed (1901–08) on the orders of Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II to link Damascus and Jerusalem in the north-west with Medina and Mecca, hence facilitating the pilgrimage journey to the latter and to politically and economically consolidate the Ottoman administration of the centers of Islamic faith. A station was built north of al-Hijr for the maintenance of locomotives, and offices and dormitories for railroad staff. The railway provided greater accessibility to the site. However, this was destroyed in a local revolt during World War I. Despite this, several archaeological investigations continued to be conducted in the site beginning in the World War I period to the establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the 1930s up to the 1960s. The railway station has also been restored and now includes 16 buildings and several pieces of rolling stock. By the end of the 1960s, the Saudi Arabian government devised a program to introduce a sedentary lifestyle to the nomadic Bedouin tribes inhabiting the area. It was proposed that they settle down in al-Hijr, re-using the already existent wells and agricultural features of the site. However, the official identification of al-Hijr as an archaeological site in 1972 led to the resettlement of the Bedouins towards the north, beyond the site boundary. This also included the development of new agricultural land and freshly dug wells, thereby preserving the state of al-Hijr. ==Current development== In 1962, examples of many inscriptions were discovered and renewed the archaeological assessment of Hijr (Mada’in Salih) by Winnett and Reed. Although the Al-Hijr site was proclaimed as an archaeological treasure in the early 1970s, few investigations had been conducted since. Mirdad had lived here for a short time and wrote notices about the region since 1977. Healey studied here in 1985 and wrote a book about the inscriptions of Hijr (Mada’in Salih) in 1993. The prohibition on the veneration of objects/artifacts has resulted in minimal archaeological activities. These conservative measures started to ease up beginning in 2000, when Saudi Arabia invited expeditions to carry out archaeological explorations as part of the government's push to promote cultural heritage protection and tourism. The archaeological site was proclaimed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008. More recent archaeological studies of the area have been made as part of efforts to document and preserve the heritage sites prior to opening the area to more tourism. ==Architecture== The Nabatean site of Hegra was built around a residential zone and its oasis during the 1st century CE. The sandstone outcroppings were carved to build the necropolis. A total of four necropolis sites have survived, which featured 131 monumental rock-cut tombs spread out over , many with inscribed Nabatean epigraphs on their façades: Necropolis Location Period of construction Notable features Jabal al-Mahjar North no information Tombs were cut on the eastern and western sides of four parallel rock outcrops. Façade decorations are small in size. Qasr al walad no information 0–58 AD Includes 31 tombs decorated with fine inscriptions as well as artistic elements like birds, human faces and imaginary beings. Contains the most monumental of rock-cut tombs, including the largest façade measuring high. Area C South-east 16–61 AD Consists of a single isolated outcrop containing 19 cut tombs. No ornamentations were carved on the façades. Jabal al-Khuraymat South-west 7–73 AD The largest of the four, consisting of numerous outcrops separated by sandy zones, although only eight of the outcrops have cut tombs, totaling 48 in quantity. The poor quality of sandstone and exposure to prevailing winds resulted to the poor state of conservation of most façades. Non-monumental burial sites, totaling 2,000, are also part of the place. A closer observation of the façades indicates the social status of the buried person—the size and ornamentation of the structure reflect the wealth of the person. Some façades had plates on top of the entrances providing information about the grave owners, the religious system, and the masons who carved them. Many graves indicate military ranks, leading archaeologists to speculate that the site might once have been a Nabatean military base, meant to protect the settlement's trading activities. The Nabatean kingdom was not just situated at the crossroad of trade but also of culture. This is reflected in the varying motifs of the façade decorations, borrowing stylistic elements from Assyria, Phoenicia, Egypt and Hellenistic Alexandria, combined with the native artistic style. Roman decorations and Latin scripts also figured on the troglodytic tombs when the territory was annexed by the Roman Empire. In contrast to the elaborate exteriors, the interiors of the rock-cut structures are severe and plain. A religious area, known as "Jabal Ithlib," is located to the north-east of the site. It is believed to have been originally dedicated to the Nabatean deity Dushara. A narrow corridor, long between the high rocks and reminiscent of the Siq in Petra, leads to the hall of the Diwan, a Muslim's council-chamber or law- court. Small religious sanctuaries bearing inscriptions were also cut into the rock in the vicinity. The residential area is located in the middle of the plain, far from the outcrops. The primary material of construction for the houses and the enclosing wall was sun-dried mudbrick. Few vestiges of the residential area remain. Water is supplied by 130 wells, situated in the western and north-western part of the site, where the water table was at a depth of only . The wells, with diameters ranging , were cut into the rock, although some, dug in loose ground, had to be reinforced with sandstone. ==Importance== The archaeological site lies in an arid environment. The dry climate, the lack of resettlement after the site was abandoned, and the prevailing local beliefs about the locality have all led to the extraordinary state of preservation of Al-Hijr, providing an extensive picture of the Nabatean lifestyle. Thought to mark the southern extent of the Nabatean kingdom, Al-Hijr's oasis agriculture and extant wells exhibit the necessary adaptations made by the Nabateans in the given environment—its markedly distinct settlement is the second largest among the Nabatean kingdom, complementing that of the more famous Petra archaeological site in Jordan. The location of the site at the crossroads of trade, as well as the various languages, scripts and artistic styles reflected in the façades of its monumental tombs further set it apart from other archaeological sites. It has duly earned the nickname "The Capital of Monuments" among Saudi Arabia's 4,000 archaeological sites. ==See also== * Iram of the Pillars * Leuke Kome * Lihyan * Nabataeans * List of colossal sculptures in situ * Ancient towns in Saudi Arabia *List of World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia ==Footnotes== ==Further reading== * * (I./2003, II./2005, III./2006, IV./2009.) ==External links== * World Heritage listing submission * Explore Hijr: the Archaeological Site of Al-Hijr (Mada'in Salih) in the UNESCO coleection on Google Arts and Culture * ExperienceAlUla.com (Official Tourism Website) * Photo gallery at nabataea.net * Photos from Mauritian photographer Zubeyr Kureemun * Historical Wonder by Mohammad Nowfal * Saudi Arabia's Hidden City from France24 * Madain Salah: Saudi Arabia's Cursed City * Uncovering secrets of mystery civilization in Saudi Arabia – BBC * "Saudi Arabia's Al Ula archaeologists unearth Gulf's first domesticated dogs. The dig at Hegra uncovered remains of human beings and canines dating back 6,000 years. "The National News", March 25, 2021. ===Videos=== * The Road to Mada'in Salih * Round in Mada'in Salih : Part1 – Part2 – Part3 – Part4 Category:Nabataea Category:Nabataean architecture Category:History of Saudi Arabia Category:Archaeological sites in Saudi Arabia Category:Railway museums in Saudi Arabia Category:World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia Category:Former populated places in Southwest Asia Category:Arabic architecture Category:Medina Province (Saudi Arabia) Category:Tourist attractions in Saudi Arabia Category:Castles in Saudi Arabia Category:Rock-cut architecture Category:Rock-cut tombs Category:Ancient Greek geography of Arabia |
The Council of Fashion Designers of America, Inc. (CFDA), founded in 1962 by publicist Eleanor Lambert, and headquartered in Manhattan, is a not-for-profit trade association comprising a membership of over 450 American fashion and accessory designers. The organization promotes American designers in the global economy. In addition to hosting the annual CFDA Fashion Awards, the organization develops future American design talent through scholarships and resources in high schools, colleges, and postgraduate schools. The CFDA also provides funding and business opportunities for working designers. Through the CFDA Foundation, the organization supports charitable causes. ==History== The first president of the CFDA was Sydney Wragge (from 1962 until 1965). Steven Kolb is the CEO since 2006 and CaSandra Diggs is the President since 2020. As of January 2023, Thom Browne is the group's chairman; he follows Tom Ford who served as chairman for three years. Additionally, Diane von Furstenberg served as chairman for 13 years from 2006 until 2019. The following people were founding members of the CFDA, from 1962: ==CFDA Fashion Awards== The CFDA Fashion Awards was founded in 1980 with the first awards in 1981 and honors excellence in fashion design. The CFDA Fashion Awards is an organized event created by the Council of Fashion Designers of America. They honor and showcase the excellence in fashion design in America. It has been called "the Oscars of fashion".thedailybeast.com CFDA awards, the Oscars of fashion 2009/06/15 Prior to the establishment of the CFDA Awards, the Coty Awards filled a similar role until they ended in 1985, with the final Coty Awards given in September 1984. In 1997, the CFDA Awards made a decision to open its doors to younger and upcoming designers. Nominations are submitted by the Fashion Guild, a group of over 1,500 CFDA members including fashion editors, retailers, and stylists. Award winners are determined by vote and announced at an annual black tie event held at Lincoln Center, in Manhattan. Award winners receive a trophy made by the New York firm Society Awards. For the 2022 edition Amazon Fashion sponsored the event. CFDA Fashion Award winners Year Geoffrey Beene Lifetime Achievement Award Womenswear Award Menswear Award Emerging Talent Award for Ready-to-Wear International Award Notes 1981 Fernando Sanchez Jhane Barnes 1982 1983 1984 James Galanos 1985 Katharine Hepburn 1986 Bill Blass 1987 Giorgio Armani Ronaldus Shamask Marc Jacobs 1988 Richard Avedon; Nancy Reagan Bill Robinson 1989 Oscar de la Renta Isaac Mizrahi Joseph Abboud 1990 Martha Graham Donna Karan Joseph Abboud Christian Francis Roth 1991 Ralph Lauren Isaac Mizrahi Roger Forsythe Karl Lagerfeld () for Chanel 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Shew York Daryl Kerrigan for Daryl K ( womenswear) 1997 Geoffrey Beene Marc Jacobs John Bartlett John Galliano () for Dior 1999 Yves Saint Laurent Michael Kors Calvin Klein Yohji Yamamoto () 2000 Valentino Oscar de la Renta Helmut Lang Miguel Adrover (womenswear) and John Varvatos (menswear) Jean-Paul Gaultier () 2001 Calvin Klein Tom Ford John Varvatos Daphne Gutierrez and Nicole Noselli for Bruce (womenswear) and William Reid (menswear) Nicolas Ghesquiere () for Balenciaga 2002 Karl Lagerfeld Narciso Rodriguez Marc Jacobs Rick Owens Hedi Slimane () for Dior Homme 2003 Anna Wintour Narciso Rodriguez Michael Kors Lazaro Hernandez and Jack McCollough for Proenza Schouler Alexander McQueen () 2004 Donna Karan Carolina Herrera Sean Combs for Sean John Zac Posen Miuccia Prada () 2005 Diane von Fürstenberg Vera Wang John Varvatos Derek Lam (womenswear) and Alexandre Plokhov for Cloak (menswear) Alber Elbaz () for Lanvin 2006 Stan Herman Francisco Costa for Calvin Klein Thom Browne Doo-Ri Chung (womenswear) and Jeff Halmos, Josia Lamberto-Egan, Sam Shipley, & John Whitledge for Trovata (menswear) Olivier Theyskens () for Rochas 2007 Robert Lee Morris Oscar de la Renta, and Lazaro Hernandez & Jack McCollough for Proenza Schouler Ralph Lauren Phillip Lim (womenswear) and David Neville & Marcus Wainwright for Rag & Bone Pierre Cardin () 2008 Carolina Herrera Francisco Costa for Calvin Klein Tom Ford Kate and Laura Mulleavy Rodarte (w); Scott Sternberg for Band of Outsiders (m); Philip Crangi (a) Dries van Noten () 2009 Anna Sui Kate & Laura Mulleavy for Rodarte Scott Sternberg for Band of Outsiders and Italo Zucchelli for Calvin Klein Collection Alexander Wang (womenswear); Tim Hamilton (menswear); Justin Giunta for Subversive Jewelry (accessories) Marc Jacobs () for Louis Vuitton 2010 Michael Kors Marc Jacobs Marcus Wainwright and David Neville for rag & bone Jason Wu (womenswear); Richard Chai (menswear); Alexander Wang (accessories) Christopher Bailey () for Burberry 2011 Marc Jacobs Lazaro Hernandez and Jack McCollough for Proenza Schouler Michael Bastian Prabal Gurung (womenswear); Robert Geller (menswear); Eddie Borgo (accessories) Phoebe Philo () for Céline 2012 Tommy Hilfiger Ashley and Mary-Kate Olsen for The Row Billy Reid Joseph Altuzarra (womenswear); Phillip Lim (menswear); Tabitha Simmons (accessories) Rei Kawakubo () for Comme des Garçons 2013 Vera Wang Jack McCollough and Lazaro Hernandez for Proenza Schouler Thom Browne Juan Carlos Obando (womenswear); Dao-Yi Chow and Maxwell Osborne for Public School (menswear); Marc Alary (accessories) Riccardo Tisci () for Givenchy 2014 Tom Ford Joseph Altuzarra Dao-Yi Chow and Maxwell Osborne for Public School Shane Gabier and Christopher Peters for Creatures of the Wind (womenswear); Tim Coppens (menswear); Irene Neuwirth (accessories) Raf Simons () for Dior 2015 Betsey Johnson Ashley Olsen and Mary-Kate Olsen for The Row Tom Ford Rosie Assoulin (womenswear); Shayne Oliver for Hood by Air (menswear); Rachel Mansur and Floriana Gavriel for Mansur Gavriel (accessories) Maria Grazia Chiuri and Pierpaolo Piccioli () for Valentino 2016 Norma Kamali Marc Jacobs Thom Browne Brandon Maxwell (womenswear); Alex Orley, Matthew Orley, and Samantha Orley (menswear); Paul Andrew (accessories) Alessandro Michele () and Dira Zays () for Gucci 2017 Rick Owens Raf Simons for Calvin Klein Raf Simons for Calvin Klein Laura Kim and Fernando Garcia for Monse Demna Gvasalia () for Vetements and Balenciaga 2018 Narciso Rodriguez Raf Simons for Calvin Klein Supreme Sander Lak for Sies Marjan Donatella Versace () 2019 Bob Mackie Brandon Maxwell Rick Owens Sarah Burton, for Alexander McQueen 2020 Gabriela Hearst Kerby Jean-Raymond for Pyer Moss Pierpaolo Piccioli for Valentino (women's design) Kim Jones for Dior (men's design) All the Winners of the 2020 CFDA Fashion Awards - Barry Samaha, 14 September 2020 2022 Elena Velez ==Collaborations== In 2010, the CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund finalists Monique Péan, Patrik Ervell, and Sophie Theallet teamed up with Gap Inc. In 2012 and 2013 the CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund winners and runners-up each created capsule collections with J. Crew. In celebration of the organization's 50th Anniversary, Target and Neiman Marcus partnered with 24 CFDA members to create a special holiday collection that was available at both retailers. Additionally, the CFDA has partnered with Kohl's on designer collaborations such as Derek Lam for Kohl's and most recently, Catherine Malandrino for Kohl's. On October 3, 2013, the CFDA and Google+ launched an innovative shopping tool, titled "Shoppable Hangouts", where users had the ability to shop Hangouts on Air (HOA). The CFDA kicked off the product launch with CFDA President Diane von Fürstenberg. Rachel Zoe, Marcus Wainwright and David Neville of rag & bone, and Rebecca Minkoff also participated in the Shoppable Hangout experience. ==Programs== ===CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund=== The CFDA and Vogue Magazine have created an endowment for the stated purpose of funding significant financial awards to one or more designers and provide business mentoring. Awarded recipients are selected by a committee of industry experts. The CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund Selection Committee annually selects three emerging fashion designers, who receive: # Business mentoring from an established team of fashion industry professionals, in areas such as business planning, marketing, sourcing, production, exporting etc. # To encourage and enable the recipients to pursue his/her own independent design plan (one winner at $300,000 and two runners-up at $100,000 each). ==== 2010s Finalists and Winners ==== * 2014: Paul Andrew (Winner), Wes Gordon, Edie Parker and Simon Miller * 2015: Becca McCharen-Tran of Chromat; Rio Uribe of Gypsy Sport (Winner) * 2017: Chromat: Becca McCharen-Tran (Runner Up), Telfar Clemens (Winner) * 2018: Kerby Jean-Raymond (Winner) * 2019: Abdul Abasi and Greg Rosborough of Abasi Rosborough; Alejandra Alonso Rojas; Victor Barragan of Barragán; Hillary Taymour of Collina Strada, Danielle Hirsch of Danielle Frankel; Raffaella Hanley of Lou Dallas; Siying Qu and Haoran Li of Private Policy; Reese Cooper; Natalie Ratabesi of Tre by Natalie Ratabesi; and Christopher John Rogers (Winner) * 2022: Elena Velez ==== 2020s Expansion and Winners ==== As of 2021, all 10 designers are to be granted resources including funds and mentorship. Global editorial director of Vogue and chief content officer of Condé Nast, Anna Wintour, made a public statement noting that "After an incredibly challenging time for all of us in fashion, especially here in New York, we're thrilled that this year we are able to support all of our finalists." This was to address the challenges the American fashion industry is facing. * 2021: Batsheva Hay of Batsheva; Mike Eckhaus and Zoe Latta of Eckhaus Latta; Anifa Mvuemba of Hanifa; Rebecca Henry and Akua Shabaka of House of Aama; Kenneth Nicholson; Jameel Mohammed of Khiry; LaQuan Smith; Abrima Erwiah of Studio 189; Edvin Thompson of Theophilio; and Willy Chavarria * 2022: Jacques Agbobly of Black Boy Knits; Elena Velez; Felisha Noel of Fe Noel; Lauren Harwell Godfrey of Harwell Godfrey; Taofeek Abijako of head of State; Conley Averett of Judy Turner; Colm Dillane of Kidsuper; Pia Davis and Autumn Randolph of No Sesso; Omar Salam of Sukeina; and, Jackson Wiederhoeft of Wiederhoeft ===CFDA {FASHION INCUBATOR} program=== The CFDA {FASHION INCUBATOR} is a business development program designed to support the next generation of fashion designers in New York City. The program provides a creative professional environment with the mission of helping to grow and sustain the businesses of the 10 participating brands over the course of the two-year program. By offering low-cost design studio space, business mentoring, educational seminars, and networking opportunities, the program provides a way for participants to reach their full potential and become an integral part of the New York Fashion community. In 2010, the program partnered with New York University's Stern School of Business to create a Masters Workshop that pairs their top MBA Students with the designers to work on business development projects. Successful alumni of the Incubator program include Prabal Gurung and the 2013 CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund winners, Dao-Yi Chow and Maxwell Osborne of Public School. The 4.0 class (2016-2018) of the {FASHION INCUBATOR} includes Alexandra Alvarez of Alix, Aurora James of Brother Vellies, Charles Youssef, Daniel DuGoff of Ddugoff, Tim Joo and Dan Joo of Haerfest, Jason Alkire and Julie Alkire of Haus Alkire, Ji Oh, Katie deGuzman and Michael Miller of K/ller Collection, Thaddeus O’Neil, and Molly Yestadt of Yestadt Millinery. ===Fashion Manufacturing Initiative=== The Fashion Manufacturing Initiative (FMI) is an investment fund to help revitalize New York City's garment industry. The program offers matching financial grants to New York City's fashion manufacturing production facilities. In March 2018, the CFDA and NYCA announced that the following seven production facilities would receive a combined total of $480,000 in the fifth round of FMI grants: Atelier Amelia, Sunrise Studio, In Style USA, Mudo Fashion, New York Embroidery Studio, Season Wash, and Werkstatt. ===Fashion Targets Breast Cancer=== Fashion Targets Breast Cancer® (FTBC), a charitable initiative of the CFDA/CFDA Foundation, seeks to raise public awareness and funds for the breast cancer cause. The Fashion Targets Breast Cancer name and symbol were created by Ralph Lauren and subsequently entrusted to the CFDA Foundation. FTBC was first presented in the U.S. in the spring of 1994 during New York Fashion Week, and was formally launched in September 1994 at a special White House reception hosted by then-First Lady Hillary Clinton. During this initial campaign, 400,000 FTBC shirts were sold, raising $2 million to benefit the Nina Hyde Center for Breast Health at the Lombardi Cancer Center at Georgetown University Medical Center. This center was chosen as beneficiary at Ralph Lauren's request, in memory of his friend Nina Hyde, the former fashion editor of The Washington Post, who died of breast cancer in 1990. Since 2011, the council has led an annual campaign to promote the initiative and partners with well known fashion icons. In 2017, Fabletics partnered with Fashion Targets Breast Cancer to produce an activewear collection. A portion of all sales for the collection would be donated to target breast cancer screening and treatment. To date, nearly $50 million has been granted to breast cancer charities worldwide from FTBC campaigns. CFDA Members have designed special FTBC branded or inspired merchandise, which was either sold or auctioned over the course of the campaign. ===CFDA Scholarship Program=== The CFDA scholarship program was created to award annual merit- based scholarship grants to students who study in a four-year, full-time college level design program. It has awarded $1,399,250 to students. The Geoffrey Beene Design Scholarship Award, the Liz Claiborne Design Scholarship Award, and the CFDA/Teen Vogue Scholarship Award in partnership with Target selected scholars from one of the CFDA's 20 participating design schools and donated $25,000 towards tuition and educational expenses. The awards are based solely on merit and judged by a panel of industry experts. == Current members == Notable CFDA Members include: * Tom Ford * Gladys Tamez * Prabal Gurung * Calvin Klein * Michael Kors * Alexander Wang (designer) * Vera Wang * Diane von Fürstenberg * Tommy Hilfiger * Gabriela Hearst * Ralph Lauren * Elena Velez == Publications == The CFDA has published the following books, listed in order by publish date: * American Fashion Home * American Travel * * * * * * * * * * ==See also== * New York Fashion Week * Arab Fashion Council * British Fashion Council * Fédération française de la couture * National Chamber of Italian Fashion * List of fashion awards ==References== ==External links== * * 2008 CFDA Photo Gallery * CFDA on The Sche Report Category:Arts organizations established in 1962 Category:Fashion awards Category:Fashion organizations Category:Lifetime achievement awards |
Petchmorakot Petchyindee (; born February 14, 1994), formerly known as Phetmorakot Wor Sangprapai, is a Thai Muay Thai kickboxer, originally from the Ubon Ratchathani province, Northeast of Thailand, but now fighting out of Bangkok. Phetmorakot's brand of Muay Thai is distinguished by his slicing elbows and devastating knees. Phetmorakot was the 130 lbs. Lumpinee Stadium champion, and former 105 lbs Lumpinee Stadium champion. Additionally, he competes for the Singapore-based organization ONE Championship in their all- striking ONE Super Series format, where he has fought in both Muay Thai and kickboxing. He is the former and inaugural ONE Muay Thai Featherweight World Champion. As of October 6, 2022, he was ranked #1 in the ONE Featherweight Muay Thai rankings. He holds wins over fighters such as Auisiewpor Sujibamikiew, Kwankaw, Wanchai Sor Kitisak, Pokaew, Petpanomrung Kiatmuu9, Liam Harrison, and the well known Saenchai PKSaenchaimuaythaigym. ==Muay Thai career== On March 25, 2011, Phetmorakot defeated Wanchai Sor Kittisak to win the Lumpinee Stadium mini flyweight (105 lbs) title. On April 9, 2013, he defeated Thong Puideenaidee at Lumpinee Stadium to win the Thailand super bantamweight (122 lbs) title. On December 3, 2013, Phetmorakot won his second Lumpinee title by defeating Auisiewpor Sujibamikiew to capture the vacant Lumpinee Stadium super featherweight (130 lbs) title. On February 28, 2014, he defeated Kwankhaw Mor Ratanabandit to retain the Lumpinee Stadium super featherweight title. He successfully defended his Lumpinee Stadium title a third time by defeating Genji Umeno via unanimous decision in Japan on April 19, 2015. On October 9, 2014, he defeated the legendary Saenchai PKSaenchaimuaythaigym by decision after five rounds of battle at Rajadamnern Stadium. On December 8, 2015, Phetmorakot defeated Petchboonchu FA Group at Lumpinee Stadium to win the Thailand super lightweight (140 lbs) title, marking his second Thai national Muay Thai title victory. On December 25, 2015, Phetmorakot defeated future Glory Featherweight Champion Petpanomrung Kiatmuu9 to win the Toyota Vigo Marathon 62 kg Tournament. On July 29, 2016, Phetmorakot later entered the one-night Toyota Hilux Revo Superchamp Tournament that took place in Tokyo, Japan. In the Quarter Finals, he defeated Masashi Hirano by second-round TKO due to a cut. He then defeated Chamuaktong Fightermuaythai in Semi Finals by decision. In the Tournament Final, he defeated Silarit Chor Sampeenong by second-round KO to win the Toyota Hilux Revo Superchamp 63.5 kg Tournament. On October 28, 2016, Phetmorakot defeated Azize Hlali by second-round KO at YOKKAO 21 in Hong Kong. On April 28, 2018, Phetmorakot defeated Mohamed Souanane by TKO at Phoenix Fighting Championship 7 in Phuket to win the Phoenix Fight Championship 149 lb title. On October 4, 2019 at the Hilux Revo Muay Thai Marathon in Chiang Rai, Phetmorakot defeated Ali Ebrahimi by second-round KO to win the WBC Muaythai Diamond Middleweight Championship. As a result, he became the fourth fighter to win a WBC Diamond Championship belt. ===ONE Championship=== On June 23, 2018, Phetmorakot Petchyindee Academy made his ONE Championship debut at ONE Championship: Pinnacle of Power, where he defeated Fabrice Fairtex Delannon by TKO in the second round. Next, on October 6, 2018, he faced Alaverdi Ramazanov at ONE Championship: Kingdom of Heroes, where he lost by unanimous decision. He would bounce back on December 7, 2018 at ONE Championship: Destiny of Champions, where he defeated Liam Harrison by second-round knockout. On March 8, 2019, he defeated Kenta Yamada by unanimous decision at ONE Championship: Reign of Valor. ====ONE Kickboxing Featherweight World Grand Prix==== Phetmorakot was later selected as a competitor in the ONE Super Series Kickboxing Featherweight World Grand Prix, which included other fighters like Yodsanklai Fairtex and Giorgio Petrosyan. His opponent in the Quarter-Finals was Giorgio Petrosyan. On May 17, 2019, Phetmorakot faced Giorgio Petrosyan in the Kickboxing Featherweight World Grand Prix Quarter-Finals at ONE Championship: Enter the Dragon, where he won a closely contested split decision. However, the result of the fight was overturned to a no-contest when reviews showed that Phetmorakot had used illegal clinching throughout the fight. A rematch was scheduled for July 12, 2019 at ONE Championship: Masters of Destiny, where Phetmorakot lost by unanimous decision and was eliminated from the Kickboxing Featherweight World Grand Prix. ====Post-Grand Prix==== On November 22, 2019, Phetmorakot defeated Charlie Peters by second-round KO at ONE Championship: Edge Of Greatness. ====ONE Featherweight Muay Thai World Champion==== Phetmorakot is scheduled to face Jamal Yusupov for the inaugural ONE Featherweight Muay Thai World Championship at ONE Championship: Warrior's Code on February 7, 2020. However, Yusupov was later forced to withdraw from the match and Phetmorakot will now face fellow Thai fighter Detrit Sathian Muay Thai for the ONE Featherweight Muay Thai Title. Detrit was later pulled from the bout and was replaced by Pongsiri P.K.Saenchaimuaythaigym, who took the fight on just two days' notice. Phetmorakot would defeat Pongsiri by unanimous decision to become the first ONE Featherweight Muay Thai World Champion. Phetmorakot made a defense of the ONE Featherweight Muay Thai World Championship for the first time against Muay Thai legend Yodsanklai Fairtex at ONE Championship: No Surrender on July 31, 2020. He successfully retained the title with a split decision victory over Yodsanklai. Phetmorakot was scheduled to make his second defense of the ONE Featherweight Muay Thai World Championship against Magnus Andersson at ONE Championship: A New Breed 3 on September 18, 2020. Phetmorakot won the fight via third-round knockout. Phetmorakot was scheduled to make his third title defense against Jamal Yusupov at ONE: Full Circle on February 25, 2022. The bout was later cancelled, and Phetmorakot was re-booked to face Jimmy Vienot at ONE 157 on May 20, 2022. Petchmorakot won the fight by split decision. Phetmorakot made his fourth ONE Featherweight Muay Thai title defense against Tawanchai P.K. Saenchaimuaythaigym at ONE 161 on September 29, 2022. He lost the fight and title by unanimous decision. Due to a disagreement between his gym, Petchyindee Academy, and ONE Championship, all Petchyindee fighters were released from the promotion at the request of the gym. ==Titles and accomplishments== *ONE Championship **ONE Featherweight Muay Thai World Champion (One time; inaugural) ***Three successful title defenses **Performance of the Night (One time) *WBC Muay Thai **2019 WBC Muay Thai Diamond Middleweight Champion *Phoenix Fighting Championship **2018 Phoenix Fight Championship 149 lbs/68 kg World Champion *Toyota Hilux Revo Superchamp **2016 Toyota Hilux Revo Superchamp 63.5 kg Tournament Champion *Professional Boxing Association of Thailand (PAT) **2015 Thailand Super Lightweight 140 lbs Champion **2013 Thailand Super Bantamweight 122 lbs Champion *Lumpinee Stadium **2013 Lumpinee Stadium Super Featherweight 130 lbs Champion **2011 Lumpinee Stadium Mini Flyweight 105 lbs Champion ==Professional boxing record== Result Record Opponent Type Round, time Date Location Notes 5 Win 5–0 Mongkonchai Namlak1 TKO 3 (6), 8 Mar 2022 4 Win 4–0 Yiamyut Lookmakrodyon111 TKO 3 (6), 14 Dec 2021 3 Win 3–0 Saenkai Lookmakrodyon111 4 (6), 5 Oct 2021 2 Win 2–0 Elias Hannes Kopp UD 6 (6), 6 Mar 2021 1 Win 1–0 Thoedsak Singmanasak 6 (6), 30 Oct 2020 ==Muay Thai record== |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2023-07-01|| Win||align=left| Yodwicha Por Boonsit || Rajadamnern World Series - Group Stage|| Bangkok, Thailand || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2023-05-27|| Win||align=left| Shadow Singmawynn || Rajadamnern World Series - Group Stage|| Bangkok, Thailand || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#CFC;" | 2023-03-11|| Win ||align=left| Oussama Elkoche || RWS + Petchyindee, Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || KO (Flying knee) ||2 ||2:01 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2022-12-09 || Win ||align=left| Reza Ahmadnezhad|| Rajadamnern World Series, Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2022-09-29 || Loss ||align=left| Tawanchai P.K. Saenchaimuaythaigym || ONE 161 || Kallang, Singapore || Decision (Unanimous) || 5||3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2022-05-20|| Win ||align=left| Jimmy Vienot || ONE 157 || Kallang, Singapore || Decision (Split) || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2021-04-02|| Win ||align=left| Thananchai Rachanon || Muaymanwansuk, Rangsit Stadium || Rangsit, Thailand ||Decision ||5 ||3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2020-09-18|| Win ||align=left| Magnus Andersson || ONE Championship: A New Breed 3 || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO (Referee stoppage) || 3 || 2:57 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2020-07-31|| Win ||align=left| Yodsanklai Fairtex || ONE Championship: No Surrender || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision (Majority) || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2020-02-07 || Win ||align=left| Pongsiri P.K.Saenchaimuaythaigym || ONE Championship: Warrior’s Code || Jakarta, Indonesia || Decision (Unanimous) || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2019-11-22 || Win || align="left" | Charlie Peters || ONE Championship: Edge Of Greatness || Kallang, Singapore || KO (Knee to Body) || 2 || 1:48 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2019-10-04 || Win || align="left" | Mohammad Siasarani Kojouri || Hilux Revo Muay Thai Marathon || Chiang Rai, Thailand || KO (Knee to Body) || 2 || |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2019-07-12 || Loss || align="left" | Giorgio Petrosyan || ONE Championship: Masters Of Destiny || Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#c5d2ea;" | 2019-05-17 || NC || align="left" | Giorgio Petrosyan || ONE Championship: Enter the Dragon || Kallang, Singapore || NC (Illegal clinching) || 3 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2019-03-08 || Win || align="left" | Kenta || ONE Championship: Reign of Valor || Yangon, Myanmar || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2018-12-07|| Won||align=left| Liam Harrison || |ONE Championship: Destiny of Champions || Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia || KO (Left Elbow) || 2 || 1:15 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2018-10-06 || Loss ||align=left| Alaverdi Ramazanov || ONE Championship: Kingdom of Heroes || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2018-06-23 || Win||align=left| Fabrice Delannon|| |ONE Championship: Pinnacle of Power || Beijing, China || TKO (Doctor Stoppage/Cut by Elbow) || 2 || 0:45 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2018-04-28 || Win || align=left| Mohamed Souane || Phoenix Fighting Championship 7 || Phuket, Thailand || TKO (Doctor Stoppage/Elbow)|| 2 || |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2018-03-08 || Win ||align=left| Manasak Sor Jor LekMuangnon || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2018-02-10 || Win ||align=left| Fabian Hundt || Top King World Series - TK17 || China || Decision (Unanimous) || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2017-11-09|| Win ||align=left| Manasak Sor Jor LekMuangnon || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2017-09-05|| Win ||align=left| Chujaroen Dabransarakarm || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2017-04-06|| Win ||align=left| Yodpanomrung Jitmuangnon || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2016-12-09 || Loss ||align=left| Manasak Sor Jor LekMuangnon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2016-10-28 || Win ||align=left| Azize Hlali || Yokkao 21 || Hong Kong, China || KO || 2 || |- |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2016-10-06 || Loss ||align=left| Manasak Sor Jor LekMuangnon || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2016-09-05 || Win ||align=left| Yodpanomrung Jitmuangnon || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2016-07-29 || Win ||align=left| Silarit Chor Sampeenong || Toyota Hilux Revo Superchamp Tournament, Final || Tokyo, Japan || KO (Left Body Cross) || 2 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2016-07-29 || Win ||align=left| Chamuaktong Fightermuaythai || Toyota Hilux Revo Superchamp Tournament, Semi Finals || Tokyo, Japan || Decision || 3 || 3:00 |- |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2016-07-29 || Win ||align=left| Masahi Hirano || Toyota Hilux Revo Superchamp Tournament, Quarter Finals || Tokyo, Japan || TKO (Cut Stoppage) || 2 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2016-05-09 || Loss ||align=left| Petpanomrung Kiatmuu9 || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2016-04-07 || Win ||align=left| Yodpanomrung Jitmuangnon || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2016-03-07 || Loss ||align=left| Petpanomrung Kiatmuu9 || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2016-02-20|| Win ||align=left| Design Rajanont || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#CCFFCC;" | 2015-12-25 || Win ||align=left| Petpanomrung Kiatmuu9 || Toyota Vigo Marathon Tournament Finals 2015, Final || Chon Buri, Thailand || Decision || 3 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#CCFFCC;" | 2015-12-25 || Win||align=left| Aranchai Kiatphataraphan || Toyota Vigo Marathon Tournament Finals 2015, Semi Final || Chon Buri, Thailand || Decision|| 3|| 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2015-12-08 || Win ||align=left| Petchboonchu FA Group || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2015-11-10 || Win ||align=left| Chujaroen Dabransarakarm || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#CCFFCC;" | 2015-09-25 || Win||align=left| Brian Denis || Toyota Vigo Marathon Tournament 2015, Final || Nakhon Sawan, Thailand || Decision || 3 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#CCFFCC;" | 2015-09-25 || Win||align=left| Kringkai Tor Silachai || Toyota Vigo Marathon Tournament 2015, Semi Final || Nakhon Sawan, Thailand || Decision || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#CCFFCC;" | 2015-09-25 || Win||align=left| Manowan Sitongpetchyinde || Toyota Vigo Marathon Tournament 2015, Quarter Final || Nakhon Sawan, Thailand || Decision || 3 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2015-08-07|| Win ||align=left| Chujaroen Dabransarakarm || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2015-06-11 || Loss ||align=left| Kwankhao Mor.Ratanabandit || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2015-04-19 || Win||align=left| Genji Umeno || REBELS || Japan || Decision(Unanimous) || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2015-03-06 || Win ||align=left| Kwankhao Mor.Ratanabandit || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2015-02-05 || Loss ||align=left| Kwankhao Mor.Ratanabandit || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2014-11-25 || Win ||align=left| Saeksan Or. Kwanmuang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2014-10-31 || Win ||align=left| Stewart Pringle || Toyota Tournament show || Bangkok, Thailand || KO (knees) || 3 || |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2014-10-09 || Win ||align=left| Saenchai PKSaenchaimuaythaigym || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2014-08-13 || Loss ||align=left| Saeksan Or. Kwanmuang || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2014-07-08 || Loss ||align=left| Kongsak sitboonmee || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2014-06-11 || Win ||align=left| Petpanomrung Kiatmuu9 || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#c5d2ea;" | 2014-05-08 || Draw ||align=left| Kongsak sitboonmee || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2014-04-04 || Win ||align=left| Petpanomrung Kiatmuu9 || Southern Thailand || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2014-02-28 || Win ||align=left| Kwankhao Mor.Ratanabandit || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2014-02-07 || Loss ||align=left| Singtongnoi Por.Telakun || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2014-01-03 || Loss ||align=left| Kaimukkao Por.Thairongruangkamai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-12-03 || Win ||align=left| Auisiewpor Sujibamikiew || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-10-29 || Win ||align=left| Phet Utong Or. Kwanmuang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2013-09-04 || Loss ||align=left| Petpanomrung Kiatmuu9 || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-08-08 || Win ||align=left| Palangtip Nor Sripuang || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO (ref stoppage) || 4 || |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-07-12 || Win ||align=left| Yokwithaya Petsimean || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-06-07 || Win ||align=left| Pokaew Fonjangchonburi || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO (knees) || 3 || |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-05-03 || Win ||align=left| Khunsueklek Or Kwanmuang || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || KO (Elbow) || 3 || |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-04-09 || Win ||align=left| Thong Puideenaidee || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2013-03-07 || Loss ||align=left| Phet Utong Or. Kwanmuang|| Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-02-07 || Win ||align=left| Thong Puideenaidee || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2013-01-03 || Win ||align=left| Tingtong Chor Koiyuhaisuzu || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2012-09-11 || Win ||align=left| Saksuriya Kaiyanghadaogym || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2012-08-17 || Win ||align=left| Ekmongkol Kaiyanghadaogym || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2012-07-12 || Win ||align=left| Yokwithaya Petseemuann || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2012-07-10 || Loss ||align=left| Manasak Narupai || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO (kicks and punches) || 3 || |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2012-03-30 || Win ||align=left| Mongkolchai Kwaitonggym || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2012-02-24 || Loss ||align=left| Panomrunglek Kiatmuu9 || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2011-12-09 || Loss ||align=left| Mongkolchai Kwaitonggym || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2011-11-09 || Win||align=left| Panomrunglek Kiatmuu9 || Rajadamnern Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2011-09-13 || Win ||align=left| Choknamchai Sitjagung || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2011-07-29 || Win ||align=left| Mondam Sor Wirapon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2011-05-10 || Win ||align=left| Wanheng Menayothin || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2011-03-25 || Win ||align=left| Wanchai Sor Kittisak || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- ! style=background:white colspan=9 | |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2011-02-04 || Loss ||align=left| Mondam Sor Wirapon || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || Decision || 5 || 3:00 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 2010-12-31 || Win ||align=left| Nongbonlek Kaiyanghadaogym || Lumpinee Stadium || Bangkok, Thailand || TKO || 2 || |- | colspan=9 | Legend: ==References== Category:Middleweight kickboxers Category:Welterweight kickboxers Petchmorakot Petchyindee Academy Category:Living people Category:1993 births Petchmorakot Petchyindee Academy Category:ONE Championship kickboxers Category:ONE Championship champions |
Monkey is a common name that may refer to most mammals of the infraorder Simiiformes, also known as the simians. Traditionally, all animals in the group now known as simians are counted as monkeys except the apes, which constitutes an incomplete paraphyletic grouping; however, in the broader sense based on cladistics, apes (Hominoidea) are also included, making the terms monkeys and simians synonyms in regard to their scope. In 1812, Geoffroy grouped the apes and the Cercopithecidae group of monkeys together and established the name Catarrhini, "Old World monkeys", ("singes de l'Ancien Monde" in French). The extant sister of the Catarrhini in the monkey ("singes") group is the Platyrrhini (New World monkeys). Some nine million years before the divergence between the Cercopithecidae and the apes, the Platyrrhini emerged within "monkeys" by migration to South America likely by ocean. Apes are thus deep in the tree of extant and extinct monkeys, and any of the apes is distinctly closer related to the Cercopithecidae than the Platyrrhini are. Many monkey species are tree-dwelling (arboreal), although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Most species are mainly active during the day (diurnal). Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent, especially the Old World monkeys. Within suborder Haplorhini, the simians are a sister group to the tarsiers – the two members diverged some 70 million years ago. New World monkeys and catarrhine monkeys emerged within the simians roughly 35 million years ago. Old World monkeys and apes emerged within the catarrhine monkeys about 25 million years ago. Extinct basal simians such as Aegyptopithecus or Parapithecus (35–32 million years ago) are also considered monkeys by primatologists. Lemurs, lorises, and galagos are not monkeys, but strepsirrhine primates (suborder Strepsirrhini). The simians' sister group, the tarsiers, are also haplorhine primates; however, they are also not monkeys. Apes emerged within monkeys as sister of the Cercopithecidae in the Catarrhini, so cladistically they are monkeys as well. However, there has been resistance to directly designate apes (and thus humans) as monkeys, so "Old World monkey" may be taken to mean either the Cercopithecoidea (not including apes) or the Catarrhini (including apes). That apes are monkeys was already realized by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in the 18th century. Linnaeus placed this group in 1758 together with the tarsiers, in a single genus "Simia" (sans Homo), an ensemble now recognised as the Haplorhini. Monkeys, including apes, can be distinguished from other primates by having only two pectoral nipples, a pendulous penis, and a lack of sensory whiskers. ==Historical and modern terminology== According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "monkey" may originate in a German version of the Reynard the Fox fable, published . In this version of the fable, a character named Moneke is the son of Martin the Ape. In English, no clear distinction was originally made between "ape" and "monkey"; thus the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica entry for "ape" notes that it is either a synonym for "monkey" or is used to mean a tailless humanlike primate. Colloquially, the terms "monkey" and "ape" are widely used interchangeably. Also, a few monkey species have the word "ape" in their common name, such as the Barbary ape. Later in the first half of the 20th century, the idea developed that there were trends in primate evolution and that the living members of the order could be arranged in a series, leading through "monkeys" and "apes" to humans. Monkeys thus constituted a "grade" on the path to humans and were distinguished from "apes". Scientific classifications are now more often based on monophyletic groups, that is groups consisting of all the descendants of a common ancestor. The New World monkeys and the Old World monkeys are each monophyletic groups, but their combination was not, since it excluded hominoids (apes and humans). Thus, the term "monkey" no longer referred to a recognized scientific taxon. The smallest accepted taxon which contains all the monkeys is the infraorder Simiiformes, or simians. However this also contains the hominoids, so that monkeys are, in terms of currently recognized taxa, non-hominoid simians. Colloquially and pop-culturally, the term is ambiguous and sometimes monkey includes non-human hominoids. In addition, frequent arguments are made for a monophyletic usage of the word "monkey" from the perspective that usage should reflect cladistics. A group of monkeys may be commonly referred to as a tribe or a troop. Two separate groups of primates are referred to as "monkeys": New World monkeys (platyrrhines) from South and Central America and Old World monkeys (catarrhines in the superfamily Cercopithecoidea) from Africa and Asia. Apes (hominoids)—consisting of gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos, and humans—are also catarrhines but were classically distinguished from monkeys. Tailless monkeys may be called "apes", incorrectly according to modern usage; thus the tailless Barbary macaque is historically called the "Barbary ape". ==Description== As apes have emerged in the monkey group as sister of the old world monkeys, characteristics that describe monkeys are generally shared by apes as well. Williams et al. outlined evolutionary features, including in stem groupings, contrasted against the other primates such as the tarsiers and the lemuriformes. Monkeys range in size from the pygmy marmoset, which can be as small as with a tail and just over in weight, to the male mandrill, almost long and weighing up to . Some are arboreal (living in trees) while others live on the savanna; diets differ among the various species but may contain any of the following: fruit, leaves, seeds, nuts, flowers, eggs and small animals (including insects and spiders). Some characteristics are shared among the groups; most New World monkeys have long tails, with those in the Atelidae family being prehensile, while Old World monkeys have non-prehensile tails or no visible tail at all. Old World monkeys have trichromatic color vision like that of humans, while New World monkeys may be trichromatic, dichromatic, or—as in the owl monkeys and greater galagos—monochromatic. Although both the New and Old World monkeys, like the apes, have forward-facing eyes, the faces of Old World and New World monkeys look very different, though again, each group shares some features such as the types of noses, cheeks and rumps. ==Classification== The following list shows where the various monkey families (bolded) are placed in the classification of living (extant) primates. * Order Primates ** Suborder Strepsirrhini: lemurs, lorises, and galagos ** Suborder Haplorhini: tarsiers, monkeys, and apes *** Infraorder Tarsiiformes **** Family Tarsiidae: tarsiers *** Infraorder Simiiformes: simians **** Parvorder Platyrrhini: New World monkeys ***** Family Callitrichidae: marmosets and tamarins (42 species) ***** Family Cebidae: capuchins and squirrel monkeys (14 species) ***** Family Aotidae: night monkeys (11 species) ***** Family Pitheciidae: titis, sakis, and uakaris (41 species) ***** Family Atelidae: howler, spider, and woolly monkeys (24 species) **** Parvorder Catarrhini ***** Superfamily Cercopithecoidea ****** Family Cercopithecidae: Old World monkeys (135 species) ***** Superfamily Hominoidea: apes ****** Family Hylobatidae: gibbons ("lesser apes") (20 species) ****** Family Hominidae: great apes (including humans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans) (8 species) === Cladogram with extinct families === Below is a cladogram with some extinct monkey families. Generally, extinct non-hominoid simians, including early catarrhines are discussed as monkeys as well as simians or anthropoids, which cladistically means that Hominoidea are monkeys as well, restoring monkeys as a single grouping. It is indicated approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades. It is thought the New World monkeys started as a drifted "Old World monkey" group from the Old World (probably Africa) to the New World (South America). ==Relationship with humans== thumb|Sign at a store in Swyambhunath, Bagmati, Nepal, which reads "Monkey's Food is Available here". Some places use their monkey population as a tourist attraction. The many species of monkey have varied relationships with humans. Some are kept as pets, others used as model organisms in laboratories or in space missions. They may be killed in monkey drives (when they threaten agriculture) or used as service animals for the disabled. In some areas, some species of monkey are considered agricultural pests, and can cause extensive damage to commercial and subsistence crops. This can have important implications for the conservation of endangered species, which may be subject to persecution. In some instances farmers' perceptions of the damage may exceed the actual damage. Monkeys that have become habituated to human presence in tourist locations may also be considered pests, attacking tourists. ===As service animals for disabled people=== Some organizations train capuchin monkeys as service animals to assist quadriplegics and other people with severe spinal cord injuries or mobility impairments. After being socialized in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with disabled people. Around the house, the monkeys assist with daily tasks such as feeding, fetching, manipulating objects, and personal care. Helper monkeys are usually trained in schools by private organizations, taking seven years to train, and are able to serve 25–30 years (two to three times longer than a guide dog). In 2010, the U.S. federal government revised its definition of service animal under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Non-human primates are no longer recognized as service animals under the ADA. The American Veterinary Medical Association does not support the use of non-human primates as assistance animals because of animal welfare concerns, the potential for serious injury to people, and risks that primates may transfer dangerous diseases to humans. ===In experiments=== The most common monkey species found in animal research are the grivet, the rhesus macaque, and the crab-eating macaque, which are either wild-caught or purpose-bred. They are used primarily because of their relative ease of handling, their fast reproductive cycle (compared to apes) and their psychological and physical similarity to humans. Worldwide, it is thought that between 100,000 and 200,000 non-human primates are used in research each year, 64.7% of which are Old World monkeys, and 5.5% New World monkeys. This number makes a very small fraction of all animals used in research. Between 1994 and 2004 the United States has used an average of 54,000 non-human primates, while around 10,000 non-human primates were used in the European Union in 2002. ====In space==== A number of countries have used monkeys as part of their space exploration programmes, including the United States and France. The first monkey in space was Albert II, who flew in the US-launched V-2 rocket on June 14, 1949. ===As food=== Monkey brains are eaten as a delicacy in parts of South Asia, Africa and China. Monkeys are sometimes eaten in parts of Africa, where they can be sold as "bushmeat". In traditional Islamic dietary laws, the eating of monkeys is forbidden. ===Literature=== Sun Wukong (the "Monkey King"), a character who figures prominently in Chinese mythology, is the protagonist in the classic comic Chinese novel Journey to the West. Monkeys are prevalent in numerous books, television programs, and movies. The television series Monkey and the literary characters Monsieur Eek and Curious George are all examples. Informally, "monkey" may refer to apes, particularly chimpanzees, gibbons, and gorillas. Author Terry Pratchett alludes to this difference in usage in his Discworld novels, in which the Librarian of the Unseen University is an orangutan who gets very violent if referred to as a monkey. Another example is the use of Simians in Chinese poetry. The winged monkeys are prominent characters in L. Frank Baum's Wizard of Oz books and in the 1939 film based on Baum's 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. ===Religion and worship=== Monkey is the symbol of fourth Tirthankara in Jainism, Abhinandananatha. Hanuman, a prominent deity in Hinduism, is a human-like monkey god who is believed to bestow courage, strength and longevity to the person who thinks about him or Rama. In Buddhism, the monkey is an early incarnation of Buddha but may also represent trickery and ugliness. The Chinese Buddhist "mind monkey" metaphor refers to the unsettled, restless state of human mind. Monkey is also one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolizing greed, with the tiger representing anger and the deer lovesickness. The Sanzaru, or three wise monkeys, are revered in Japanese folklore; together they embody the proverbial principle to "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil". The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature. They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted monkeys in their art. The Tzeltal people of Mexico worshipped monkeys as incarnations of their dead ancestors. ===Zodiac=== The Monkey (猴) is the ninth in the twelve-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. . ==See also== * List of New World monkey species * List of Old World monkey species * List of individual monkeys * List of fictional primates * List of primates * List of primates by population * International Primate Day * Monkey Day * Signifying monkey ==Notes== ==References== ==Literature cited== * ==Further reading== * "How to Avoid Monkey Bites and Attacks in Southeast Asia" by Gregory Rodgers, Trip Savvy, 21 Dec 2018 * "Monkeys and Monkey Gods in Mythology, Folklore, and Religion" by Anniina Jokinen, Luminarium: Anthology of English Literature * "The Impossible Housing and Handling Conditions of Monkeys in Research Laboratories", by Viktor Reinhardt, International Primate Protection League, August 2001 * The Problem with Pet Monkeys: Reasons Monkeys Do Not Make Good Pets, an article by veterinarian Lianne McLeod on About.com * Helping Hands: Monkey helpers for the disabled, a U.S. national non-profit organization based in Boston Massachusetts that places specially trained capuchin monkeys with people who are paralyzed or who live with other severe mobility impairments Category:Extant Eocene first appearances Category:Paraphyletic groups |
Paris Saint-Germain Football Club holds many records, most notably being the most successful French club in history in terms of official titles won, with 48. They are the record holders of all national competitions, having clinched eleven Ligue 1 championships, fourteen Coupe de France, nine Coupe de la Ligue, and eleven Trophée des Champions. Their trophy cabinet also includes one Ligue 2 title. In international football, PSG have claimed one UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and one UEFA Intertoto Cup. Additionally, they have won 25 unofficial titles. Their victory in the 1995–96 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup makes PSG the sole French side to have won this trophy, one of only two French clubs to have won a major European competition, and the youngest European team to do so. The Parisians are also the club with the most consecutive seasons in the top-flight (48 seasons in Ligue 1 since 1974–75). Furthermore, PSG are the only side to have won the Ligue 1 title after being at the top of the table from the first until the last round (2022–23), the Coupe de France without conceding a single goal (1992–93 and 2016–17), five Coupe de la Ligue in a row (2014–2018), four back-to-back Coupe de France (2015–2018), and eight consecutive Trophée des Champions (2013–2020). PSG have won all four national titles in a single season on four occasions. This feat is known as the domestic quadruple. They have completed the domestic double, the league and league cup double, the domestic cup double, the domestic treble and the league three-peat several times as well. Therefore, PSG are the club with the most domestic doubles and league and league cup doubles, one of two sides to have achieved the league three-peat twice, and the only team to have won the domestic cup double, the domestic treble and the domestic quadruple. Influential officials and players in the club's history include most decorated president Nasser Al-Khelaifi, most decorated manager Laurent Blanc, record appearance maker Jean-Marc Pilorget, all-time top scorer Kylian Mbappé, assist maestro Ángel Di María, clean sheet leader Bernard Lama, most capped and longest-serving captain Thiago Silva, Ballon d'Or winner Lionel Messi, and world-record transfer Neymar. ==Honours== :As of the 2022–23 Ligue 1. ===Official=== Type Competitions Titles Seasons Domestic Ligue 1 11 1985–86, 1993–94, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2021–22, 2022–23 Ligue 2 1 1970–71 Coupe de France 14 1981–82, 1982–83, 1992–93, 1994–95, 1997–98, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2019–20, 2020–21 Coupe de la Ligue 9 1994–95, 1997–98, 2007–08, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2019–20 Trophée des Champions 11 1995, 1998, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022 Continental UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1 1995–96 UEFA Intertoto Cup 1 2001 * * shared record ===Unofficial=== Type Competitions Titles Seasons Friendly Best Sports Audience 1 1973–74 Tournoi de Libreville 1 1979 Tournoi de Paris 7 1980, 1981, 1984, 1986, 1989, 1992, 1993 Tournoi de Troyes 1 1980 Trofeo Ciudad de Palma 1 1982 Tournoi de Mulhouse 1 1985 Tournoi Indoor de Jérusalem 1 1986 Tournoi Indoor de Paris-Bercy 2 1987, 1990 Nike Cup 1 1990 Tournoi de Sedan 1 1992 Trofeo de la Cerámica 1 2001 Trofeo Brandy 1 2001 Coupe de l'Amitié 1 2003 Innsbruck Cup 1 2011 Acqua Lete Cup 1 2014 International Champions Cup 2 2015, 2016 Riyadh Season Cup 1 2023 * * shared record ===Achievements=== Type Competitions Titles Seasons Double Domestic Double 4 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2019–20 League and League Cup Double 5 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2019–20 Domestic Cup Double 7 1994–95, 1997–98, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2019–20 Treble Domestic Treble 4 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2019–20 Quadruple Domestic Quadruple 4 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2019–20 Three-peat League Three-peat 2 2013–2016 (four-peat), 2017–2020 * * shared record ==Competitive record== :As of 3 June 2023. Competition League League League League League League League League League League League Division 1 / Ligue 1 Division 2 / Ligue 2 Division 3 (defunct) National cups National cups National cups National cups National cups National cups National cups National cups National cups National cups National cups Coupe de France Coupe de la Ligue (defunct) Trophée des Champions International cups International cups International cups International cups International cups International cups International cups International cups International cups International cups International cups European Cup / UEFA Champions League European Cup Winners' Cup / UEFA Cup Winners' Cup (defunct) UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League International Football Cup / Intertoto Cup / UEFA Intertoto Cup (defunct) UEFA Super Cup Total ==Club== ===Matches=== *All- time record win: 10–0 (away to Côte Chaude, Coupe de France, 22 January 1994). *All-time record defeat: 0–6 (away to Nantes, Ligue 1, 1 September 1971). *Record home win in Ligue 1: 9–0 (vs. Guingamp, 19 January 2019). *Record away win in Ligue 1: 9–0 (vs. Troyes, 13 March 2016). *Record home defeat in Ligue 1: 0–4 (vs. Nice, 30 April 1988). *Record away defeat in Ligue 1: 0–6 (vs. Nantes, 1 September 1971). *Record home win in UEFA competitions: 7–1. **(vs. Gent, UEFA Intertoto Cup, 1 August 2001). **(vs. Celtic, UEFA Champions League, 22 November 2017). *Record away win in UEFA competitions: 5–0. **(vs. Anderlecht, UEFA Champions League, 23 October 2013). **(vs. Malmö, UEFA Champions League, 25 November 2015). **(vs. Celtic, UEFA Champions League, 12 September 2017). **(vs. Club Brugge, UEFA Champions League, 22 October 2019). *Record home defeat in UEFA competitions: 1–6 (vs. Juventus, UEFA Super Cup, 15 January 1997). *Record away defeat in UEFA competitions: 1–6 (vs. Barcelona, UEFA Champions League, 8 March 2017). *Record home win in national cups: 7–0 (vs. Bastia, Coupe de France, 7 January 2017). *Record away win in national cups: 10–0 (vs. Côte Chaude, Coupe de France, 22 January 1994). *Record home defeat in national cups: 0–5 (vs. Reims, Coupe de France, 4 May 1974). *Record away defeat in national cups: 0–3 (vs. Sochaux, Coupe de France, 5 April 1988). ===Streaks=== *Longest winning run in all competitions: 16 matches. *Longest winning run in Ligue 1: 14 matches (National Record). *Longest winning run in UEFA competitions: 8 matches. *Longest winning run in national cups: 49 matches (National Record). *Longest unbeaten run in all competitions: 37 matches. *Longest unbeaten run in Ligue 1: 36 matches (National Record). *Longest unbeaten run in UEFA competitions: 19 matches. *Longest unbeaten run in national cups: 49 matches (National Record). ===Seasons=== *Most consecutive seasons played in Ligue 1: 48 as of 2021–22 (National Record). *Most matches played in all competitions: 61 in 1994–95. *Most goals scored in all competitions: 171 in 2017–18 (National Record). *Most goals scored in Ligue 1: 108 in 2017–18. *Most goals scored in UEFA competitions: 27 in 2017–18 UEFA Champions League. *Most wins in all competitions: 47 in 2015–16. *Most points in Ligue 1: 96 in 2015–16 (National Record). *Fewest goals conceded in all competitions: 28 in 1993–94. *Fewest goals conceded in Ligue 1: 19 in 2015–16 (National Record). *Fewest goals conceded in UEFA competitions: 2 in 2002–03 UEFA Cup. ===Attendances=== *All- time highest home attendance: 49,575 (vs. Waterschei, UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, 13 March 1983). *All-time lowest home attendance: 2,006 (vs. Mantes, Ligue 2, 25 April 1974). *Highest home attendance in UEFA competitions: 49,575 (vs. Waterschei, UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, 13 March 1983). *Lowest home attendance in UEFA competitions: 9,117 (vs. Karpaty Lviv, UEFA Europa League, 30 September 2010). *Highest average home attendance: 46,930 in 2017–18. *Lowest average home attendance: 434 in 2020–21.Most matches were played behind closed doors due to restrictions on attendance related to the COVID-19 pandemic in France. ==Personnel== ===Presidents=== *All-time most titles won with the club: 30 titles – Nasser Al-Khelaifi. *Most titles won in UEFA competitions: 1 title – Michel Denisot and Laurent Perpère. *Longest-serving: 13 years, 4 months, 23 days – Francis Borelli. ===Managers=== *All-time most titles won with the club: 11 titles – Laurent Blanc. *Most titles won in UEFA competitions: 2 titles – Luis Fernandez. *All-time most matches managed: 244 matches – Luis Fernandez. *Most matches managed in UEFA competitions: 46 matches – Luis Fernandez. *All-time most matches won: 126 wins – Laurent Blanc. *Most matches won in UEFA competitions: 30 wins – Luis Fernandez. *Highest win percentage: 76.32% – Unai Emery. *Longest-serving: 3 years, 7 months – Georges Peyroche. ==Players== ===Appearances=== *Most titles won with the club: 30 titles – Marco Verratti. *Most Ligue 1 titles won with the club: 9 titles – Marco Verratti (National Record). *Most Trophée des Champions titles won with the club: 9 titles – Marco Verratti (National Record). *Unbeaten player (never lost a match with the club): 26 matches without defeat – Juan Pablo Sorín. *Youngest player to play for the club: 16 years, 4 months and 29 days – Warren Zaïre-Emery. *Oldest player to play for the club: 41 years, 5 months – Gianluigi Buffon. ====All-time most appearances==== :Statistics correct as of 3 June 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Jean-Marc Pilorget 435 2 Marco Verratti 416 3 Marquinhos 407 4 Sylvain Armand 380 5 Safet Sušić 344 6 Paul Le Guen 344 7 Bernard Lama 318 8 Thiago Silva 315 9 Mustapha Dahleb 310 10 Edinson Cavani 301 ====Most appearances in Ligue 1==== :Statistics correct as of 3 June 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Jean- Marc Pilorget 371 2 Safet Sušić 287 3 Sylvain Armand 285 4 Marco Verratti 276 5 Marquinhos 269 6 Mustapha Dahleb 268 7 Joël Bats 254 8 Paul Le Guen 248 9 Bernard Lama 242 10 Dominique Baratelli 239 ====Most appearances in UEFA competitions==== :Statistics correct as of 9 March 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Marquinhos 81 2 Marco Verratti 79 3 Thiago Silva 60 4 Paul Le Guen 57 5 Ángel Di María 54 6 Edinson Cavani 54 7 Kylian Mbappé 52 8 Vincent Guérin 50 9 Blaise Matuidi 49 10 Bernard Lama 48 ===Goalscorers=== *Youngest player to score for the club: 16 years, 10 months, 25 days – Warren Zaïre-Emery. *Fastest goal in all competitions: 8 seconds – Kylian Mbappé (vs. Lille, Ligue 1, 21 August 2022). *Most goals in a season: 50 – Zlatan Ibrahimović in 2015–16 (National Record). *Most goals in a Ligue 1 season: 38 – Zlatan Ibrahimović in 2015–16. *Most goals in a UEFA competitions season: 10 – Zlatan Ibrahimović in the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League. *Most goals in a match: 5 – Kylian Mbappé (vs. Pays de Cassel, Coupe de France, 23 January 2023). ====All-time top scorers==== :Statistics correct as of 3 June 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Kylian Mbappé 212 2 Edinson Cavani 200 3 Zlatan Ibrahimović 156 4 Neymar 118 5 Pauleta 109 6 Dominique Rocheteau 100 7 Mustapha Dahleb 98 8 François M'Pelé 95 9 Ángel Di María 92 10 Safet Sušić 85 ====Top scorers in Ligue 1==== :Statistics correct as of 3 June 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Kylian Mbappé 148 2 Edinson Cavani 138 3 Zlatan Ibrahimović 113 4 Mustapha Dahleb 85 5 Dominique Rocheteau 83 6 Neymar 82 7 Pauleta 76 8 Safet Sušić 66 9 Carlos Bianchi 64 10 François M'Pelé 60 ====Top scorers in national cups==== :Statistics correct as of 23 January 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club.Includes goals scored in France's three national cups: the Coupe de France, the Coupe de la Ligue and the Trophée des Champions. 1 Edinson Cavani 32 2 Kylian Mbappé 30 3 François M'Pelé 28 4 Pauleta 26 5 Zlatan Ibrahimović 23 6 Ángel Di María 22 7 Safet Sušić 15 8 Neymar 14 9 Dominique Rocheteau 14 10 Mustapha Dahleb 13 ====Top scorers in UEFA competitions==== :Statistics correct as of 2 November 2022. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Kylian Mbappé 34 2 Edinson Cavani 30 3 Neymar 22 4 Zlatan Ibrahimović 20 5 George Weah 16 6 Ángel Di María 14 7 Raí 11 8 Peguy Luyindula 10 9 Lionel Messi 9 10 Marquinhos 9 11 Guillaume Hoarau 9 ====Hat-tricks in UEFA competitions==== :Statistics correct as of 16 February 2021. Key 4 Player scored four goals 5 Player scored five goals Paris Saint-Germain lost the match Paris Saint-Germain drew the match () Number of times player scored a hat-trick (only for players with multiple hat-tricks) Player Against Result Date Competition Patrice Loko AEK Athens 0–3 (A) 20 March 1997 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Raí Steaua București 5–0 (H) 27 August 1997 UEFA Champions League Laurent Robert Jazz 3–0 (H) 1 July 2001 UEFA Intertoto Cup Zlatan Ibrahimović4 Anderlecht 0–5 (A) 23 October 2013 UEFA Champions League Layvin Kurzawa Anderlecht 5–0 (H) 31 October 2017 UEFA Champions League Neymar (1) Red Star Belgrade 6–1 (H) 3 October 2018 UEFA Champions League Kylian Mbappé (1) Club Brugge 0–5 (A) 22 October 2019 UEFA Champions League Neymar (2) İstanbul Başakşehir 5–1 (H) 9 December 2020 UEFA Champions League Kylian Mbappé (2) Barcelona 1–4 (A) 16 February 2021 UEFA Champions League ===Assists=== *Most assists in Ligue 1: 80 – Safet Sušić. *Most assists in a Ligue 1 season: 18 – Ángel Di María in 2015–16 (National Record). *Most assists in a UEFA competitions season: 7 – Zlatan Ibrahimović in the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League. *Most assists in a season (all official competitions): 24 – Safet Sušić in 1984–85 and Ángel Di María in 2015–16. *All-time most assists in a match: 5 – Safet Sušić (vs. Bastia, Ligue 1, 21 September 1984). *Most assists in a Ligue 1 match: 5 – Safet Sušić (vs. Bastia, 21 September 1984). *Most assists in a UEFA competitions match: 4. **Leonardo (vs. Steaua București, UEFA Champions League, 27 August 1997). **Zlatan Ibrahimović (vs. Dinamo Zagreb, UEFA Champions League, 6 November 2012). ====All-time most assists==== :Statistics correct as of 27 May 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Ángel Di María 112 2 Safet Sušić 103 3 Kylian Mbappé 87 4 Mustapha Dahleb 80 5 Neymar 70 6 Marco Verratti 56 7 Javier Pastore 56 8 Zlatan Ibrahimović 53 9 Jérôme Rothen 52 10 Lucas Moura 45 ====Most assists in UEFA competitions==== :Statistics correct as of 2 November 2022. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Kylian Mbappé 23 2 Ángel Di María 18 3 Neymar 15 4 Zlatan Ibrahimović 11 5 Valdo 11 6 Leonardo 10 7 Marco Verratti 9 8 Blaise Matuidi 9 9 David Ginola 8 10 Gregory van der Wiel 7 ===Decisive actions=== ====All-time most decisive actions==== :Players with a combined total of more than 100 decisive actions (goals + assists). :Statistics correct as of 3 June 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Kylian Mbappé 212 87 299 2 Edinson Cavani 200 35 235 3 Zlatan Ibrahimović 156 53 209 4 Angel Di Maria 92 112 204 5 Neymar 118 70 188 6 Safet Sušić 85 103 188 7 Mustapha Dahleb 98 80 178 8 Dominique Rocheteau 100 42 142 9 Pauleta 109 18 127 10 François M'Pelé 95 23 118 11 Raí 72 30 102 12 Javier Pastore 45 56 101 ===Clean sheets=== ====All-time most clean sheets==== :Statistics correct as of 23 January 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Bernard Lama 137 2 Joël Bats 111 3 Dominique Baratelli 82 4 Lionel Letizi 74 5 Salvatore Sirigu 71 6 Mickaël Landreau 59 7 Alphonse Areola 51 8 Keylor Navas 49 9 Kevin Trapp 47 10 Jérôme Alonzo 38 ====Most clean sheets in UEFA competitions==== :Statistics correct as of 15 February 2022. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Bernard Lama 23 2 Lionel Letizi 18 3 Mickaël Landreau 12 4 Salvatore Sirigu 9 5 Keylor Navas 7 Apoula Edel 7 Kevin Trapp 6 8 Dominique Baratelli 5 Alphonse Areola 10 Christophe Revault 3 Nicolas Douchez 11 Gianluigi Donnarumma 2 ===Captaincy=== *Longest-serving captain: 7 years, 10 months, 3 days – Thiago Silva. *Youngest player to captain the club: 17 years, 8 months – Mamadou Sakho. *Youngest player to captain a club in Ligue 1: 17 years, 8 months – Mamadou Sakho. ====Captains==== {| class="wikitable alternance" style="text-align:center" 1 Jean Djorkaeff 1970–72 2 Camille Choquier 1972–73 3 Jean-Pierre Dogliani 1973–75 4 Humberto Coelho 1975–76 5 Mustapha Dahleb 1976–79 6 Dominique Bathenay 1979–85 7 Luis Fernandez 1985–86 8 Jean-Marc Pilorget 1986–87 9 Fabrice Poullain 1987–88 10 Oumar Sène 1988–89 11 Safet Sušić 1989–90 12 Joël Bats 1990–91 13 Bruno Germain 1991–92 14 Paul Le Guen 1992–94 15 David Ginola 1994 16 Alain Roche 1994–95 ====All-time most captaincies==== :Statistics correct as of 21 May 2023. Bold denotes an active player for the club. 1 Thiago Silva 293 2 Dominique Bathenay 227 3 Marquinhos 156 4 Claude Makélélé 115 5 Pauleta 114 6 Paul Le Guen 113 7 Frédéric Déhu 105 8 Jean- Pierre Dogliani 100 ==Transfers== :As of 12 August 2022. ===Most expensive arrivals=== 1 Neymar 2017 Barcelona €222m 2 Kylian Mbappé 2018 Monaco €180m 3 Achraf Hakimi 2021 Internazionale €66.5m 4 Edinson Cavani 2013 Napoli €64.5m 5 Ángel Di María 2015 Manchester United €63m 6 Mauro Icardi 2020 Internazionale €50m 7 David Luiz 2014 Chelsea €49.5m 8 Nuno Mendes 2022 Sporting CP €48.8m 9 Thiago Silva 2012 Milan €42m 10 Javier Pastore 2011 Palermo €42m ===Most expensive departures=== 1 Gonçalo Guedes 2018 Valencia €40m 2 David Luiz 2016 Chelsea €35m 3 Ronaldinho 2003 Barcelona €30m 4 Lucas Moura 2018 Tottenham Hotspur €28m 5 Arnaud Kalimuendo 2022 Rennes €25m 6 Serge Aurier 2017 Tottenham Hotspur €25m 7 Javier Pastore 2018 Roma €24.7m 8 Yuri Berchiche 2018 Athletic Bilbao €24m 9 Giovani Lo Celso 2019 Real Betis €22m 10 Blaise Matuidi 2017 Juventus €20m ==Award winners== ===France Football=== *Ballon d'Or (1) ** Lionel Messi – 2021. *Kopa Trophy (1) ** Kylian Mbappé – 2018. *Yashin Trophy (1) ** Gianluigi Donnarumma – 2021. *African Footballer of the Year (1) ** George Weah – 1994. ===FIFA=== *The Best FIFA Men's Player (1) ** Lionel Messi – 2022. ===Tuttosport=== *Golden Boy (1) ** Kylian Mbappé – 2017. ===UEFA Champions League=== * UEFA Champions League Top Scorer (1) ** George Weah in 1994–95. * UEFA Champions League Assist Leader (2) ** Zlatan Ibrahimović in 2012–13. ** Ángel Di María in 2019–20. ===Trophées UNFP du football=== * Ligue 1 Manager of the Season (4) ** Carlo Ancelotti in 2012–13. ** Laurent Blanc (2) in 2014–15, 2015–16. ** Unai Emery in 2017–18. * Ligue 1 Player of the Season (12) ** David Ginola in 1993–94. ** Vincent Guérin in 1994–95. ** Marco Simone in 1997–98. ** Zlatan Ibrahimović (3) in 2012–13, 2013–14, 2015–16. ** Edinson Cavani in 2016–17. ** Neymar in 2017–18. ** Kylian Mbappé (4) in 2018–19, 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23. * Ligue 1 Goalkeeper of the Season (4) ** Salvatore Sirigu (2) in 2012–13, 2013–14. ** Keylor Navas in 2020–21. ** Gianluigi Donnarumma in 2021–22. * Ligue 1 Young Player of the Season (5) ** Mamadou Sakho in 2010–11. ** Marco Verratti in 2013–14. ** Kylian Mbappé (2) in 2017–18, 2018–19. ** Nuno Mendes in 2022–23. * Ligue 1 Goal of the Season (2) ** Ronaldinho in 2002–03. ** Zlatan Ibrahimović in 2013–14. ===Ligue de Football Professionnel=== * Ligue 1 Golden Boot (14) ** Carlos Bianchi (2) in 1977–78, 1978–79. ** Pauleta (2) in 2005–06, 2006–07. ** Zlatan Ibrahimović (3) in 2012–13, 2013–14, 2015–16. ** Edinson Cavani (2) in 2016–17, 2017–18. ** Kylian Mbappé (5) in 2018–19, 2019–20, 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23. * Ligue 1 Playmaker of the Season (5) ** Ángel Di María (2) in 2015–16, 2019–20. ** Neymar in 2017–18. ** Kylian Mbappé in 2021–22. ** Lionel Messi in 2022–23. * Ligue 1 Golden Glove (5) ** Joël Bats in 1988–89. ** Bernard Lama in 1993–94. ** Salvatore Sirigu in 2012–13. ** Kevin Trapp in 2015–16. ** Alphonse Areola in 2017–18. ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== ;Official websites *PSG.FR - Site officiel du Paris Saint-Germain *Paris Saint-Germain - Ligue 1 *Paris Saint-Germain - UEFA.com Records and Statistics Paris Saint-Germain F.C. |
Sabbatarianism advocates the observation of the Sabbath in Christianity, in keeping with the Ten Commandments. The observance of Sunday as a day of worship and rest is a form of first-day Sabbatarianism, a view which was historically heralded by nonconformist denominations, such as Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Methodists, Moravians, Quakers and Baptists, as well many Episcopalians. Among Sunday Sabbatarians (First-day Sabbatarians), observance of the Lord's Day often takes the form of attending the Sunday morning service of worship, receiving catechesis through Sunday School, performing acts of mercy (such as evangelism, visiting prisoners in jails and seeing the sick at hospitals), and attending the Sunday evening service of worship, as well as refraining from Sunday shopping, servile work, playing sports, viewing the television, and dining at restaurants. The impact of first-day Sabbatarianism on Western culture is manifested by practices such as Sunday blue laws. Seventh-day Sabbatarianism is a movement that generally embraces a literal reading of the Sabbath commandment that provides for both worship and rest on Saturday, the seventh day of the week. Judaism has observed a sabbath on the seventh day since antiquity, following the creation account in Genesis 2 which unambiguously states that God blessed and sanctified the seventh-day, having rested on the seventh day from all his creation which God had made to do. Seventh Day Baptists leave most other Sabbath considerations of observance to individual conscience. The Sabbatarian Adventists (Seventh-day Adventist Church, Davidian Seventh-day Adventists, Church of God (Seventh Day), and others) have similar views, but maintain the original, scriptural duration as Friday sunset through Saturday sunset. The Orthodox Tewahedo Churches in Ethiopia and Eritrea observe the seventh-day Sabbath, as well as Sunday as the Lord's Day. Likewise, the Coptic Church, another Oriental Orthodox body, "stipulates that the seventh-day Sabbath, along with Sunday, be continuously regarded as a festal day for religious celebration." Its historical origins lie in early Christianity, later in the Eastern Church and Irish Church, and then in Puritan Sabbatarianism, which delineated precepts for keeping Sunday, the Lord's Day, holy in observance of Sabbath commandment principles. Non-Sabbatarianism is the view opposing all Sabbatarianism, declaring Christians to be free of mandates to follow such specific observances. It upholds the principle in Christian church doctrine that the church is not bound by such law or code, but is free to set in place and time such observances as uphold Sabbath principles according to its doctrine: to establish a day of rest, or not, and to establish a day of worship, or not, whether on Saturday or on Sunday or on some other day. It includes some nondenominational churches. == History == ===Theological background=== Most Christian Churches, including the Roman Catholic Church, Methodist Churches and Reformed Churches, have traditionally held that law in the Old Covenant has three components: ceremonial, moral, and civil. They teach that while the ceremonial and civil (judicial) laws have been abolished, the moral law as contained in the Ten Commandments still continues to bind Christian believers.Summa Theologica, I-II, q. 100 Among these Ten Commandments, which are believed by Jews and Christians to be written by the finger of God, is "Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy." However, Jews in the tradition of Maimonides posit that anthropomorphism in the Torah, such as the use of body part names, is completely metaphorical, as human bodies are based on potencies of God, not the other way around. According to the New Testament, after the resurrection of Jesus he appeared to his disciples on the first day of the week (, , , ), the Holy Spirit was sent to the Church on the first day of the week (Pentecost Sunday), the disciples celebrated the Eucharist and took up collections on the first day of the week (, ); in addition the first day of the week is referred to as the Lord's Day in —these findings, for Christians, served as the divine institution of the Lord's Day as a fulfillment of the Jewish Shabbat, a change that these Christians believed was foreshadowed in . The Apostolic Constitutions (ca. 380), in Section II, reveals that the early Church kept both the seventh-day Sabbath, observed on Saturday, as well as the Lord's Day, celebrated on the first-day (Sunday): "But keep the Sabbath, and the Lord’s day festival; because the former is the memorial of the creation, and the latter of the resurrection." Section VII reemphasizes this: In the Didache, the Twelve Apostles commanded believers to "Gather together each Sunday, break bread and give thanks, first confessing your sins, that your sacrifice may be pure." Until the Council of Laodicea, "the Sabbath had been kept in many Christian Churches." It was upheld in the fourth century by the ancient Church of the East, as well as in the sixth century by the Celtic Churches. Gregory of Nyssa, a fourth century Church Father, implored the faithful to observe both the seventh-day Sabbath and the Lord's Day: "With what eyes do you regard the Lord's Day, you who have desecrated the Sabbath? Do you know that these two days are related, that if you wrong one of them, you will stumble against the other?" Nevertheless, Johann Lorenz von Mosheim stated that the practice of observing both the Hebrew Sabbath and the Lord's Day was principally observed in those congregations that were made up of Jewish converts to Christianity and gradually faded away; on the other hand, the observance of the Lord's Day was characteristic of all Christian assemblies. ===Differences between Jewish and Christian observance=== In distinguishing the observances performed on the Christian Sabbath from those performed on the Jewish Sabbath, Jonathan Edwards wrote: ===Views of Church Fathers and Reformation leaders=== As early as the second century, Irenaeus, who was a disciple of Polycarp, himself a disciple of John the Apostle, "On the Lord’s day every one of us Christians keep the Sabbath, meditating on the law, and rejoicing in the works of God." Writing in the fourth century, the early Church Father, Eusebius, taught that for Christians, "the sabbath had been transferred to Sunday". This view held by Eusebius, particularly his "interpretation of Psalm 91 (ca. 320) greatly influenced the ultimate transfer of sabbath assertions and prohibitions to the first day of the week." In "the fourth and fifth centuries theologians in the Eastern church were teaching the practical identity of the Jewish sabbath and the Christian Sunday." Saint Cæsarius of Arles (470-543) reiterated the view that "the whole glory of the Jewish Sabbath had been transferred onto Sunday, so that Christians had to keep it holy in the same way as the Jews had their own day of rest." The Council of Elvira, in A.D. 300, declared that individuals who failed to attend church for three Sundays in a row should be excommunicated until they repented of their sin. Tendencies towards Sabbatarianism began to resurface very early in the Reformation (early 16th century), causing some of the first Protestants, Luther and Calvin among them, to deny the need for legal codes and accept the non-Sabbatarian principles long established in Christianity. ===Rejection of Saturday as the Sabbath in Western Christianity=== The Western Christian Church came to reject the observance of the Hebrew Sabbath on Saturday, calling its legalisms Judaizing; in the late 4th century, the 29th canon of the Council of Laodicea finally declared that Christians must not rest on the Jewish Sabbath, but must work on that day and if possible rest on the Lord's Day, and that any found to be Judaizers are anathema from Christ. ===Observance of Saturday Sabbath and the Lord's Day in Oriental and Seventh-day churches=== In Oriental Christianity, however, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, continues to observe a two-day Sabbath (Saturday and Sunday), and many Protestant denominations, such as the Presbyterian and Methodist Churches, observe Sunday as the Christian Sabbath; in addition, the Seventh-day Adventists and Seventh Day Baptists observe Saturday as the Sabbath. Nevertheless, in the Roman Catholic Church, other Church Councils and imperial edicts "sought to restrict various activities on this day Sunday, especially public amusements in the theater and circus." Abstention from sin, in the eyes of Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430), meant Sabbath rest from servile work on Sunday. ===Ethiopian Sabbatarian movement=== In the fourteenth century, "the monk Abba Ewostatewos founded a Sabbatarian movement" and fled, with his followers to "isolated parts of northwestern Ethiopia". In the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, "the Sabbatarian controversy divided the kingdom during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries." Zara Yaqob, the king, eventually "decreed that the Sabbatarian teaching of the northern monks become the position of the church". Later, the 'seventh-day Sabbatarians' (also known as 'Saturday Sabbatarians') sought to re-establish the Mosaic Law itself, along with Pharisaic interpretations and Hebrew Sabbath practices, including observances running from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset. Most identify with the early Jewish Christians, and consider early church condemnations of Judaizing to be the marks of a "Great Apostasy" in early Christianity, which they seek to rectify. ===Presbyterian Scottish observation of the Sabbath=== On the other hand, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which viewed the earlier Celtic Churches as its progenitor, promoted first-day Puritan Sabbatarian practices. In addition, first-day Sabbatarianism is historically heralded by nonconformist denominations, such as Congregationalists and Presbyterians, as well as Methodists and Baptists. ===Dominance of Sunday sabbath in Western Christianity=== The essence of first-day Sabbatarianism, named for the Sabbath, is that it upholds the idea that Christians are bound to keep a specific code of conduct in relation to the principal day of Christian worship, or a day of rest, or both. The first- day, Puritan Sabbatarians constructed their code from their understanding of moral obligations following from their interpretation of "natural law", first defined in writings of Thomas Aquinas. Not seeking to re-establish Mosaic Law or Hebrew Sabbath practices, their connection to Judaizing was limited to the use of a legal code by which Christians might be judged. With unwavering support by mainstream Christian denominations, Sabbatarian organizations were formed, such as the Lord's Day Alliance (founded as the American Sabbath Union) and the Sunday League of America, following the American Civil War, to preserve the importance of Sunday as the Christian Sabbath. Founded in 1888, the Lord's Day Alliance continues to state its mission as to "encourage all people to recognize and observe a day of Sabbath rest and to worship the risen Lord Jesus Christ, on the Lord’s Day, Sunday". The Board of Managers of the Lord's Day Alliance is composed of clergy and laity from Christian churches, including Baptist, Catholic, Episcopalian, Friends, Lutheran, Methodist, Non- Denominationalist, Orthodox, Presbyterian, and Reformed traditions. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union also supports first-day Sabbatarian views and worked to reflect these in the public sphere. In Canada, the Lord's Day Alliance (renamed the People for Sunday Association of Canada) was founded there and it lobbied successfully to pass in 1906 the Lord's Day Act, which was not repealed until 1985. A Roman Catholic Sunday league, the Ligue du Dimanche was formed in 1921 to promote first-day sabbatarian restrictions in Quebec, especially against movie theaters. Throughout their history, first-day Sabbatarian organizations, such as the Lord's Day Alliance, have mounted campaigns, with support in both Canada and Britain from labour unions, with the goals of preventing secular and commercial interests from hampering freedom of worship and preventing them from exploiting workers. In the present day, 'First-day Sabbatarian' or 'Sunday Sabbatarian' is applied to those, such as the Presbyterian Churches, who teach morning and evening Sunday worship, rest from servile labour, as well as honouring the Lord's Day by refraining from shopping on Sundays, as well as refraining from participating or viewing sporting events held on Sundays, in addition to performing works of mercy on the first day. Similarly, the common term "Christian Sabbath" is sometimes used to describe the fact that most Christians assemble in worship on Sunday, and may also consider it a day of rest, aligning with the Biblical norms of the Sabbath, and even the Puritans. The Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, makes a clear distinction or separation between the Sabbath and Sunday,Canon of Holy Saturday (Orthodox), Kontakion: "Exceeding blessed is this Sabbath, on which Christ has slumbered, to rise on the third day." arguing that the Christian observance of the Lord's Day respects the moral law of Ten Commandments as it is a fulfillment of the Hebrew Sabbath, with only the ceremonial law changing the weekly day of worship from Saturday to Sunday. In the Catholic Church, the 1917 Code of Canon Law ¶1248 stipulated that "On feast days of precept, Mass is to be heard; there is an abstinence from servile work, legal acts, and likewise, unless there is a special indult or legitimate customs provide otherwise, from public trade, shopping, and other public buying and selling." Examples of servile works forbidden under this injunction include "plowing, sowing, harvesting, sewing, cobbling, tailoring, printing, masonry works" and "all works in mines and factories"; commercial activity, such as "marketing, fairs, buying and selling, public auctions, shopping in stores" is prohibited as well. ==Sunday Sabbatarians== First-day Sabbatarian (Sunday Sabbatarian) practices include attending morning and evening church services on Sundays, receiving catechesis in Sunday School on the Lord's Day, taking the Lord's Day off from servile labour, not eating at restaurants on Sundays, not Sunday shopping, not using public transportation on the Lord's Day, not participating in sporting events that are held on Sundays, as well as not viewing television and the internet on Sundays; Christians who are Sunday Sabbatarians often engage in works of mercy on the Lord's Day, such as evangelism, as well as visiting prisoners at jails and the sick at hospitals and nursing homes. ===Reformed Churches=== The Puritans of England and Scotland brought a new rigour to the observance of the Christian Lord's Day, in reaction to the customary Sunday observance of the time, which they regarded as lax. They appealed to Sabbath ordinances with the idea that only the Bible can bind men's consciences in whether or how they will take a break from work, or to impose an obligation to meet at a particular time. Sunday Sabbatarianism is enshrined in its most mature expression, the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646), in the Calvinist theological tradition. Chapter 21, Of Religious Worship, and the Sabbath Day, sections 7-8 read: The confession holds that not only is work forbidden in Sunday, but also "works, words, and thoughts" about "worldly employments and recreations." Instead, the whole day should be taken up with "public and private exercises of [one's] worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy." This statement was adopted by the Congregationalist Churches, which are descended from the Puritans, in the Savoy Declaration. The Puritans' influential reasoning spread Sabbatarianism to other Protestant denominations, such as the Methodist Churches for example, during the 17th and 18th centuries, making its way beyond the British Isles to the European continent and the New World. It is primarily through their influence that "Sabbath" has become the colloquial equivalent of "Lord's Day" or "Sunday". Reformed Baptists, for example, uphold the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith, which advanced the same first-day Sabbatarian obligation of the Puritan Congregationalists' Savoy Declaration. Strict Sunday Sabbatarianism is sometimes called "Puritan Sabbath", and may be contrasted with "Continental Sabbath". The latter follows the continental reformed confessions, such as the Heidelberg Catechism, which emphasize rest and worship on the Lord's Day, but do not explicitly forbid recreational activities.Heidelberg Catechism, Q & A 103. However, in practice, many continental Reformed Christians also abstain from recreation on the Sabbath, following the admonition by the Heidelberg Catechism's author Zacharaias Ursinus that "To keep holy the Sabbath, is not to spend the day in slothfulness and idleness". The evangelical awakening in the 19th century led to a greater concern for strict Sunday observance. In 1831, the founding of the Lord's Day Observance Society was influenced by the teaching of Daniel Wilson. ===Methodist Churches=== Like the aforementioned Calvinist groups, the early Methodists, who were Arminian in theology, were known for "religiously keeping the Sabbath day". They regarded "keeping the Lord's Day as a duty, a delight, and a means of grace". The General Rules of the Methodist Church require "attending upon all the ordinances of God" including "the public worship of God" and prohibit "profaning the day of the Lord, either by doing ordinary work therein or by buying or selling". Methodism, however, teaches that "Christ made allowances for acts of mercy on the Lord's Day such as; nurses, doctors, etc. [Matt. 12:11; John 5:15-16]". The Sunday Sabbatarian practices of the earlier Wesleyan Methodist Church in Great Britain are described by Jonathan Crowther in A Portraiture of Methodism: In the past, individuals who engaged in buying and selling (with exception of medicine for the sick and necessaries for funerals) on the Christian Sabbath were to be excommunicated from the Wesleyan Methodist Church according to its Discipline. Wesleyan Methodists were also encouraged to neither to hire a barber on the Lord's Day, nor to employ one who conscientiously broke the Sabbath. Karen B. Westerfield Tucker, a United Methodist elder and theologian, writes that the Sampson Circuit of the Methodist Episcopal Church made a Sabbatarian resolution that "resounded throughout all spheres of Methodism": Similarly in 1921, the Methodist Episcopal Church, South heralded the Sunday Sabbath as a "day of worship, meditation and prayer". It proclaimed that the "tendency to commercialize the sabbath, making it a day of traffic, travel, business and pleasure is wrong and we want to sound a word of alarm and call our people to God's way of observance". As such, the Methodist Episcopal Church, South stated that it "oppose[s] the playing of baseball, golf, and like games on that day". The 2014 Discipline of the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches states, with regard to the Lord's Day: Reflecting the traditional Methodist standards regarding first-day Sabbabbatarianism, the 2018 Handbook for the Evangelical Wesleyan Bible Institute (EWBI), a seminary of the Evangelical Wesleyan Church, states: The Statement of Faith of the Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches teaches: ===Moravian Church=== The Moravian Covenant for Christian Living, which is the covenant taken by members of the Moravian Church, teaches: ===Schwarzenau Brethren Churches=== The Church Polity of the Dunkard Brethren Church, a Conservative Anabaptist denomination in the Schwarzenau Brethren tradition, teaches that "The First Day of the week is the Christian Sabbath and is to be kept as a day of rest and worship. (Matt. 28:1; Acts 20:7; John 20:1; Mark 16:2)" ===Baptist Churches=== First- day Sabbatarian views are embodied in the confessions of faith held by both General Baptists and Reformed Baptists. With respect to General Baptists, the Treatise on the Faith and Practice of the Free Will Baptists states: Similarly, the Liberty Association Articles of Faith (1824), as well as the General Association Articles of Faith of both 1870 and 1949 all state: With regard to the Particular Baptists, the Second London Baptist Confession advances first-day Sabbatarian views identical to the Westminster Confession, held by Presbyterians, and the Savoy Declaration, held by Congregationalists. Edward L. Smither explains that first-day Sabbatarianism is the normative view held by Baptists (both General and Reformed): Citing , Nathan Rose, a clergyman in the Southern Baptist Church, states with regard to the Lord's Day that "for every Christian, attendance at church gatherings is not optional." Similarly the Baptist Faith and Message, Article VIII, states "[t]he first day of the week is the Lord's Day" and that "[i]t is a Christian institution for religious observance" (though nothing forbids a congregation from holding services on Saturday evenings). ===Holiness Quakerism=== The Central Yearly Meeting of Friends in its Manual of Faith and Practice teaches: == Saturday and Sunday Sabbatarians == Keith A. Burton stated that "The church in Africa [recognized] that the resurrection of Christ in no way nullified the fact that 'in six days the Lord made heaven and earth.' ...Even though the power of the Western papal legacy has made some indelible indentations on the churches of Africa, to this day they have refused to fully succumb."Burton, Keith A. "Western European Imperialism and the Literary Suppression of the African Fidelity to the Biblical Sabbath." Sabbath in Africa Project, 1993. Holding the teaching of Gregory of Nyssa with esteem, the Oriental Orthodox Tewahedo Churches in Eritrea and Ethiopia practice two-day sabbatarianism, observing both Saturday and Sunday as the Sabbath, commemorating the days Jesus rested in His tomb and resurrected, respectively. Similarly, the Coptic Church, another Oriental Orthodox body, "stipulates that the seventh-day Sabbath, along with Sunday, be continuously regarded as a festal day for religious celebration." ==Saturday Sabbatarianism== === Messianic Judaism === ===Seventh Day Baptists=== Seventh Day Baptists are Christian Baptists who observe seventh-day Sabbath, as a holy day to God. They understand that observance is as a sign of obedience in a covenant relationship with God and not as a condition of salvation. They adopt a covenant Baptist theology, based on the concept of regenerated society, conscious baptism of believers by immersion, congregational government and the scriptural basis of opinion and practice. The first known Seventh Day Baptist Church was the Mill Yard Church established in London, where the first service took place in 1651, led by Peter Chamberlen. M.D. "the Third". The first records of church activities were destroyed in a fire; the second record book is in possession of the Seventh Day Baptist Historical Library and Archives, the local church continues its activities to this day. Immigration to the British colonies in North America also included Seventh Day Baptists, the couple Stephen and Anne Mumford were the first Seventh Day Baptists in the Americas and with five other Baptists who kept the Sabbath, establishing in 1672 the first Seventh Day Baptist Church in the Americas. A similar occurrence in Piscataway, New Jersey in 1705 led to the formation of a sister conference among the Germans in Ephrata, Pennsylvania in about 1728. The Seventh Day Baptist General Conference united them in 1802. The Ephrata community formed the German Religious Society of Seventh Day Baptists in 1814 and its site came to be known as the Ephrata Cloister. Its last surviving resident, Marie Kachel Bucher, died on July 27, 2008, at the age of 98, but its grounds are now owned by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and are open to public viewing. Embracing education where it had not yet become available to the public, the churches established schools, including three that became colleges in Alfred, New York, Milton, Wisconsin, and Salem, West Virginia. A seminary was added at Alfred University in 1871. Missionary activity in the 19th century led to expansion both in the U.S. and overseas into China, India, the Philippines, Oceania, and Africa. Today, its General Conference offices are located in Janesville, Wisconsin. United in a literal interpretation of the Sabbath commandment to keep the seventh day holy (in worship) and to rest, Seventh Day Baptists leave other observances largely to its individual members to interpret and follow for themselves. In this way it represents the least uniform and least rigorous type of Sabbatarianism. ===Seventh-day Adventism=== The Seventh-day Adventist Church is the largest modern seventh-day Sabbatarian denomination, with 20,008,779 members as of June 2018, and holds the sabbath as one of the Pillars of Adventism. Seventh-day Adventism grew out of the Millerite movement in the 1840s, and a few of its founders (Cyrus Farnsworth, Frederick Wheeler, a Methodist minister and Joseph Bates, a sea captain) were convinced in 1844–1845 of the importance of Sabbatarianism under the influence of Rachel Oakes Preston, a young Seventh Day Baptist laywoman living in Washington, New Hampshire and a published article in early 1845 on the topic by Thomas M. Preble, pastor of the Free Will Baptist congregation in Nashua, New Hampshire. Preble was the first Millerite to promote the sabbath in print form, through the February 28, 1845, issue of the Adventist Hope of Israel in Portland, Maine. In March he published his sabbath views in tract form as A Tract, Showing that the Seventh Day Should be Observed as the Sabbath, Instead of the First Day; "According to the Commandment". This tract led to the conversion of John Nevins Andrews and other Adventist families in Paris, Maine, as well as the 1845 conversion of Joseph Bates, who became the foremost proponent of the sabbath among this group. These men in turn convinced James Springer White, Ellen Harmon (later White), and Hiram Edson of New Hampshire.Light Bearers to the Remnant Preble is known to have kept seventh-day sabbath until mid-1847. He later repudiated the sabbath and opposed the Seventh-day Adventists, authoring The First-Day Sabbath. Bates proposed an 1846 meeting among the believers in New Hampshire and Port Gibson, New York, which took place at Edson's farm, where Edson and other Port Gibson believers readily accepted the sabbath message and forged an alliance with Bates, White, and Harmon. Between April 1848 and December 1850, 22 sabbath conferences in New York and New England allowed White, Bates, Edson, and Stephen Pierce to reach conclusions about doctrinal issues. Also in 1846, a pamphlet written by Bates created widespread interest in the sabbath. Bates, White, Harmon, Edson, Wheeler, and S. W. Rhodes led the promotion of the sabbath, partly through regular publications. Present Truth magazine was largely devoted to the sabbath at first. J. N. Andrews was the first Adventist to write a book-length defense of the sabbath, first published in 1861. Two of Andrews' books include Testimony of the Fathers of the First Three Centuries Concerning the Sabbath and the First Day and History of the Sabbath. , HTML Traditionally, Seventh-day Adventists teach that the Ten Commandments (including the fourth commandment concerning the sabbath) are part of the moral law of God, not abrogated by the teachings of Jesus, which apply equally to Christians. Seventh-day Adventists believe it is possible to maintain an antinomian position while at the same time faithfully observing the Ten Commandments. Adventists make a keen distinction between the "law of Moses" and the "law of God", with the former being the traditional levitical requirements intended to maintain the integrity of the ancient nation of Israel and their special role in sharing God with the rest of the world, and the latter being the universal moral code by which the universe is governed. In other words, Adventists have traditionally distinguished between "moral law" and "ceremonial law", arguing that the moral law (the Ten Commandments) continues to bind Christians, while events symbolized by the ceremonial law (the law of Moses) were fulfilled by Christ's death on the cross. Seventh-day Adventists observe the sabbath from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset. In places where the sun does not appear or does not set for several months, such as northern Scandinavia, the tendency is to regard an arbitrary time such as 6 p.m. as "sunset". During the sabbath, Adventists avoid secular work and business, although medical relief and humanitarian work is accepted. Though there are cultural variations, most Adventists also avoid activities such as shopping, sport, and certain forms of entertainment. Adventists typically gather for church services on Saturday morning. Some also gather on Friday evening to welcome in the sabbath hours (sometimes called "vespers" or "opening Sabbath"), and some similarly gather at "closing Sabbath". ====Eschatology==== The pioneers of the church have traditionally taught that the seventh-day Sabbath could be a test, leading to the sealing of God's people during the end times, though there is little consensus about how this will play out. The church has traditionally taught that there could be an international Sunday law enforced by a coalition of religious and secular authorities, and that all who do not observe it will be persecuted, imprisoned or martyred. This is taken from the church's interpretation, following Ellen G. White, of , , , , and . Some early Adventists were indeed jailed for working on Sunday, in violation of various local blue laws that legislated Sunday as a day of rest. It was speculated by Ellen G. White that a universal Sunday law would soon be enforced and would serve as a sign of the end times. ===Eastern Orthodoxy=== In Eastern Orthodoxy, the Sabbath is still considered to be on Saturday however, the day of worship is on Sunday (the Lord’s Day) which is considered to be a mini- Pascha celebration. Saturday is also considered to be a day of preparation for the Lord’s Day. Sunday worship is not considered to be a direct observance of the Sabbath. Despite that, more emphasis is put on the Lord’s Day. ===Modern Seventh-day Sabbatarian groups=== ; Sabbatarian Baptists * Seventh Day Baptists ; Sabbatarian Adventists * Adventist Church of Promise * Church of God (Seventh Day) * Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church * Sabbath Rest Advent Church * Seventh-day Adventist Church * Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement ** True and Free Seventh-day Adventists * Shepherd's Rod (Davidian Seventh-day Adventists) * United Sabbath-Day Adventist Church * United Seventh-Day Brethren ; Sabbatarian Pentecostalists * Nazareth Baptist Church * Soldiers of the Cross Church * True Jesus Church ; Sabbatarian British Israelites (Armstrongism) * Church of God International (United States) * Church of the Great God * Church of God Preparing for the Kingdom of God * Global Church of God * House of Yahweh * Intercontinental Church of God * Living Church of God * Philadelphia Church of God * Restored Church of God * United Church of God ; Judaizers * Assemblies of Yahweh * Black Hebrew Israelites ** African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem ** Church of God and Saints of Christ *** Church of God and Saints of Christ (Orthodox Christianity) ** Commandment Keepers * Hebrew Roots Movement * Makuya * Messianic Judaism, some Messianic Jews observe Shabbat on Saturdays * Sacred Name Movement ** Yahweh's Assembly in Yahshua * Subbotniks, the majority belonged to Rabbinic and Karaite Judaism, the minority to Christianity * Yehowists, a Russian Spiritual Christian millenarian movement founded in the 1840s ; Others * The Christ's Assembly * Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) * Jemaat Allah Global Indonesia (JAGI), internationally known as Unitarian Christian Church of Indonesia, headquartered in Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia * Logos Apostolic Church of God, in the UK, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Sudan * Remnant Fellowship, headquartered in Brentwood, Tennessee and founded in 1999 by Gwen Shamblin LaraRemnant Fellowship * The Seventh-day Remnant Church * World Mission Society Church of God ==See also== * High Sabbaths * Subbotniks == References == ==External links== *Lord's Day Alliance of the U.S. *Lord's Day Observance Society *Keep Sunday Special *The Sabbath: A Universal and Enduring Ordinance of God by James R. Hughes - Reformed Presbyterian Church *Remembering the Lord's Day by David J. Engelsma - Protestant Reformed Churches in America *The Perpetuity and Change of the Sabbath by Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) *Sundays are for Sabbath Rest: Explication of Westminster Confession of Faith and the LBC1689 *The Christian Week and Sabbath by Methodist theologian, Daniel D. Whedon *The Lord’s Day, the Christian Sabbath by James Chrystie - Reformed Presbyterian Church *From Sunday to Sabbath: The Puritan Origins of Modern Seventh-day Sabbatarianism Category:Christian terminology Category:Christian theological movements Category:Christianity and Judaism Category:Methodism Category:Mosaic law in Christian theology Category:Sabbath in Christianity |
Opinion polling for the 2013 Czech parliamentary election started immediately after the 2010 parliamentary election. ==Percentage== left|500px|thumb|Opininon polls (indications of smaller parties can be inaccurate as the average is counted only from surveys reporting those parties) Published Company ČSSD ODS TOP 09 STAN KSČM ÚSVIT (VV) KDU ČSL SPOZ HV SZ DSSS PIRÁTI ANO others turnout 29 May 2010 Previous election 22.08 20.22 16.70 11.27 10.88 4.39 4.33 3.67 2.44 1.14 0.80 - 2.85 62.6 10 September 2013 TNS Aisa 28.0 9.5 13.0 15.5 5.5 4.5 5.5 <2 5.0 2.0 7.0 4.5 11 September 2013 Médea 27.4 9.9 10.2 15.7 9.1 4.7 4.1 1.6 3.2 2.0 13.1 1.0 70.0 12 September 2013 Sanep 26.2 9.9 13.9 16.2 3.7 5.2 6.9 3.3 6.1 9.8 56.2 16 September 2013 STEM 30.0 11.0 12.0 15.0 2.3 5.5 7.4 1.0 2.7 1.3 7.7 3.3 59.0 19 September 2013 ppm factum 26.2 8.0 13.8 16.7 2.5 6.7 5.1 1.7 2.3 10.9 6.1 52.7 24 September 2013 CVVM 30.5 7.0 12.5 19.5 2.5 4.5 5.5 2.0 14.0 2.0 62.0 26 September 2013 TNS Aisa 29.0 9.0 10.5 14.5 5.0 5.5 4.0 3.0 11.0 8.0 27 September 2013 STEM 28.0 12.5 11.0 17.0 2.5 5.5 5.5 1.0 3.3 10.0 4.1 65.0 6 October 2013 TNS Aisa 29.0 8.5 9.5 11.0 4.5 6.5 5.0 3.5 13.0 9.5 13 October 2013 TNS Aisa 28.5 6.5 11.0 12.5 5.0 6.0 4.5 3.5 2.0 12.5 8.0 14 October 2013 ppm factum 22.8 7.2 13.2 17.1 3.7 5.9 4.7 <2 3.7 <2 <2 12.1 9.6 62.6 16 October 2013 Médea 22.2 5.5 9.6 11.8 8.2 6.2 3.7 2.9 2.3 3.1 16.9 7.7 71.0 18 October 2013 STEM 25.9 8.6 11.5 13.3 5.9 4.5 2.6 1.0 2.6 0.7 3.1 16.1 4.2 67.0 19 October 2013 Median 25.5 8.0 13.0 16.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 3.0 2.0 13.0 2.0 60.0 20 October 2013 TNS Aisa 23.0 7.0 10.5 14.0 6.0 6.0 4.0 3.0 2.5 16.0 8.0 21 October 2013 CVVM 26.0 6.5 9.0 18.0 5.0 5.0 3.5 2.0 2.5 16.5 6.0 63.0 21 October 2013 Sanep 23.8 7.5 11.9 16.9 5.3 5.7 5.2 3.5 3.1 11.6 5.5 59.3 26 October 2013 Election results 20.46 7.73 12.00 14.91 6.89 6.78 1.51 0.43 3.20 0.86 2.66 18.66 3.94 59.48 ===Previous polls=== left|500px|thumb|Opininon polls (indications of smaller parties can be inaccurate as the average is counted only from surveys reporting those parties) Published Company ČSSD LEV 21 ODS TOP 09 KSČM VV LIDEM KDU-ČSL SPOZ SBB SZ DSSS PIRÁTI SSO ANO 2011 Others Turnout 29 May 2010 Previous election 22.08 22.08 20.22 16.70 11.27 10.88 10.88 4.39 4.33 3.67 2.44 1.14 0.80 0.74 - 1.3 62.6 31 August 2010 Factum Invenio 20.8 20.8 20.1 19.6 13.4 7.9 7.9 4.4 3.1 3.9 7.7 62.3 21 September 2010 CVVM 27.0 27.0 23.5 16.5 12.5 14.0 14.0 2.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 60.0 22 September 2010 STEM * 27.1 27.1 19.3 15.4 13.9 10.8 10.8 3.7 1.9 2.6 3.0 2.3 29 September 2010 Factum Invenio 22.2 22.2 20.7 18.1 13.3 8.8 8.8 4.3 3.3 3.0 2.4 3.4 62.7 6 October 2010 Sanep 25.2 25.2 19.3 17.8 13.6 9.6 9.6 2.5 2.3 2.4 1.9 5.4 7 October 2010 Factum Invenio 22.9 22.9 20.2 16.3 13.5 9.6 9.6 5.8 2.3 2.5 6.3 62.7 18 October 2010 STEM * 29.9 29.9 18.6 14.9 14.1 8.1 8.1 3.0 2.3 2.3 2.8 4.0 25 October 2010 CVVM 31.0 31.0 20.5 15.0 12.5 10.0 10.0 4.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 59.0 5 November 2010 Factum Invenio 26.0 26.0 18.8 17.9 12.0 6.3 6.3 5.6 3.1 3.9 6.4 62.7 10 November 2010 Sanep 29.3 29.3 18.7 18.1 13.7 8.3 8.3 5.7 6.2 18 November 2010 STEM * 33.3 33.3 20.7 16.2 10.6 6.6 6.6 4.6 0.7 1.3 2.4 3.5 24 November 2010 CVVM 33.0 33.0 21.0 21.5 10.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 2.5 3.0 59.0 2 December 2010 Sanep 32.9 32.9 17.1 20.2 12.0 7.1 7.1 4.6 6.1 14 December 2010 STEM * 33.3 33.3 18.2 16.4 13.0 6.0 6.0 4.2 0.5 1.5 4.0 2.9 16 December 2010 CVVM 31.0 31.0 22.0 19.5 12.0 6.5 6.5 3.5 2.5 3.0 58.0 7 January 2011 Sanep 33.3 33.3 16.8 19.1 12.5 7.9 7.9 4.7 5.7 19 January 2011 STEM * 33.3 33.3 18.8 12.5 14.0 7.8 7.8 4.8 0.9 1.3 3.5 3.5 27 January 2011 CVVM 29.0 29.0 26.5 17.0 8.5 9.0 9.0 4.5 2.5 3.0 58.0 2 February 2011 Factum Invenio 24.3 24.3 20.1 17.1 13.8 7.3 7.3 7.5 1.6 2.0 2.8 3.5 60.0 3 February 2011 Sanep 34.1 34.1 16.5 18.3 11.8 8.1 8.1 3.9 7.3 14 February 2011 STEM * 32.9 32.9 19.3 14.3 11.2 10.5 10.5 4.0 1.2 1.4 3.1 2.2 25 February 2011 CVVM 31.0 31.0 22.0 17.0 13.0 8.0 8.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 60.0 2 March 2011 Factum Invenio 24.5 24.5 19.8 15.4 13.0 6.5 6.5 8.8 1.0 2.4 4.4 4.2 61.0 7 March 2011 Sanep 33.8 33.8 17.6 17.0 12.9 8.3 8.3 4.5 5.9 17 March 2011 STEM * 34.2 34.2 19.6 13.7 12.1 7.8 7.8 3.5 1.6 1.6 3.3 2.6 23 March 2011 CVVM 34.0 34.0 22.0 13.5 12.5 9.5 9.5 4.5 2.0 2.0 63.0 6 April 2011 Sanep 35.4 35.4 18.3 15.3 13.0 7.9 7.9 4.8 5.3 7 April 2011 Factum Invenio 28.4 28.4 19.2 13.9 13.6 6.7 6.7 5.9 0.5 3.0 4.3 4.5 59.1 18 April 2011 STEM * 36.7 36.7 18.5 12.5 12,5 7.0 7.0 3.0 1.5 1.8 3.0 3.5 21 April 2011 CVVM 35.0 35.0 22.0 15.5 12.0 5.5 5.5 3.5 3.0 3.5 61.0 29 April 2011 Factum Invenio 29.1 29.1 20.3 13.9 14.3 4.7 4.7 6.6 1.3 2.0 3.3 4.2 58.4 12 May 2011 Sanep 34.3 34.3 16.3 14.3 12.9 6.7 6.7 5.7 9.8 16 May 2011 STEM * 37.1 37.1 18.4 13.7 14.5 3.1 3.1 4.1 1.7 2.0 1.9 3.3 18 May 2011 CVVM 33.5 33.5 21.0 16.5 15.0 3.5 3.5 4.5 2.5 3.5 59.0 1 June 2011 Factum Invenio 29.8 29.8 20.2 15.4 14.3 3.0 3.0 6.0 2.1 1.3 4.4 3.5 55.8 9 June 2011 Sanep 35.3 35.3 16.3 15.4 13.3 3.9 3.9 5.7 10.1 20 June 2011 STEM * 34.7 34.7 19.1 13.7 14.4 3.8 3.8 4.3 1.1 1.4 3.5 3.8 23 June 2011 CVVM 33.5 33.5 21.0 16.0 15.5 3.5 3.5 5.5 2.5 2.5 58.0 12 July 2011 Sanep 34.5 34.5 17.8 16.3 13.0 3.4 3.4 5.3 9.7 29 July 2011 Factum Invenio 29.1 29.1 16.7 14.7 16.3 3.7 3.7 5.5 2.6 1.5 5.2 4.7 55.5 14 August 2011 Sanep 34.1 34.1 17.6 15.9 13.5 3.4 3.4 5.4 10.1 30 August 2011 Factum Invenio 28.9 28.9 18.7 13.6 15.5 3.7 3.7 6.5 2.4 1.4 4.0 5.3 55.6 13 September 2011 Sanep 33.2 33.2 18.0 14.2 14.3 3.3 3.3 5.6 11.4 21 September 2011 CVVM 35.0 35.0 21.5 13.5 16.5 3.5 3.5 5.0 2.5 2.5 55.0 23 September 2011 Factum Invenio 29.3 29.3 19.6 12.5 16.0 3.3 3.3 6.8 1.6 2.0 3.5 5.3 58.3 26 September 2011 STEM * 34.9 34.9 17.5 13.4 16.0 4.3 4.3 3.7 1.2 2.4 3.4 3.2 7 October 2011 Factum Invenio 27.3 27.3 20.0 12.5 16.0 3.6 3.6 6.0 1.9 2.1 4.9 5.3 58.0 14 October 2011 Sanep 30.5 30.5 18.8 13.6 14.8 3.9 3.9 5.8 3.0 9.6 19 October 2011 CVVM 32.0 32.0 23.5 14.0 15.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 2.5 4.0 60.0 24 October 2011 STEM * 32.9 32.9 20.4 12.1 14.5 2.6 2.6 4.3 1.6 2.1 4.2 5.6 4 November 2011 Factum Invenio 28.5 19.2 13.7 15.9 2.2 2.2 5.9 2.5 1.3 5.4 5.3 58.5 11 November 2011 Sanep 29.6 19.0 13.4 14.5 4.3 4.3 5.3 13.6 14 November 2011 STEM * 33.8 19.3 14.5 14.5 2.9 2.9 3.8 1.1 2.0 3.0 5.1 23 November 2011 CVVM 34.5 21.5 13.5 17.0 4.0 4.0 4.5 2.0 3.0 59.0 2 December 2011 Factum Invenio 26.1 18.8 16.0 15.8 2.5 2.5 5.4 2.9 1.4 4.0 7.1 57.8 16 December 2011 STEM * 31.1 17.3 12.6 15.8 2.5 2.5 5.1 1.9 3.0 4.4 6.2 16 December 2011 Sanep 28.3 1.4 19.2 13.4 14.5 4.3 4.3 5.3 13.6 21 December 2011 CVVM 34.0 18.5 17.5 17.0 1.5 1.5 4.0 2.5 5.0 54.0 13 January 2012 Sanep 29.4 19.0 13.1 14.7 4.7 4.7 5.4 13.7 17 January 2012 STEM * 30.8 18.4 13.5 14.0 4.3 4.3 4.8 2.1 2.5 3.7 6.2 25 January 2012 CVVM 34.0 23.5 15.0 12.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 2.5 4.0 60.0 10 February 2012 Sanep 30.1 21.7 14.1 13.9 5.1 5.1 5.3 3.0 6.8 13 February 2012 Factum Invenio 25.5 19.4 15.0 14.9 2.2 2.2 4.3 4.4 3.2 4.1 7.2 57.9 21 February 2012 CVVM 32.5 23.5 14.0 15.5 3.5 3.5 4.0 3.0 4.0 57.0 8 March 2012 Sanep 27.3 21.2 14.3 14.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 3.2 3.0 6.7 8 March 2012 Factum Invenio 26.1 18.4 13.3 14.4 2.3 2.3 4.2 4.7 3.5 3.9 3.6 5.8 59.4 9 March 2012 STEM * 36.1 19.7 11.3 15.1 2.9 2.9 4.8 2.2 1.4 2.5 3.9 21 March 2012 CVVM 35.0 20.0 14.0 16.5 3.0 3.0 4.5 2.0 2.0 3.0 59.0 5 April 2012 Factum Invenio 26.9 17.2 13.1 14.9 1.4 1.4 6.0 3.3 2.9 4.5 3.1 6.8 60.7 11 April 2012 STEM * 33.5 18.6 11.6 14.5 1.8 1.8 4.6 3.4 1.8 3.9 6.5 16 April 2012 Sanep 26.1 18.9 13.7 14.0 1.8 1.8 5.4 5.0 15.1 18 April 2012 CVVM 37.0 17.5 11.5 20.0 2.0 2.0 5.5 2.0 1.5 3.0 63.0 24 April 2012 Median 31.0 3.0 19.5 11.0 13.0 3.0 3.0 6.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 63.0 3 May 2012 Factum Invenio 27.3 2.0 16.4 10.7 17.6 1.2 1.2 7.2 3.4 2.7 5.1 3.1 3.4 61.4 9 May 2012 STEM * 35.3 16.1 9.2 18.9 1.2 1.2 4.2 3.0 1.5 3.4 7.3 11 May 2012 Sanep 26.9 15.6 10.9 16.8 0.9 0.9 5.8 5.1 3.0 3.1 11.9 21 May 2012 Sanep 22.3 14.7 8.7 19.8 0.7 0.7 7.9 5.4 3.7 3.2 13.6 22 May 2012 Median 32.5 2.5 20.5 11.5 14.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 3.5 62.0 23 May 2012 CVVM 36.5 17.0 10.5 21.5 1.5 5.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 58.0 28 May 2012 STEM * 31.6 19.1 10.4 17.8 1.4 5.0 2.8 1.4 4.2 6.4 29 May 2012 Factum Invenio 26.2 2.9 15.3 10.9 18.1 0.9 6.6 4.8 2.6 5.1 3.7 3.4 61.6 13 June 2012 Sanep 22.7 3.2 14.2 8.7 19.9 1.3 8.1 5.5 3.8 3.2 9.4 19 June 2012 STEM * 28.1 19.1 12.2 16.2 1.5 5.8 4.2 1.7 4.1 7.1 20 June 2012 CVVM 31.0 20.0 10.0 20.5 0.5 7.0 3.0 4.5 4.0 61.0 22 June 2012 Median 26.0 2.0 22.5 12.5 18.0 1.0 4.5 2.0 2.5 3.5 2.5 3.0 59.5 28 June 2012 Factum Invenio 22.7 3.1 16.6 13.0 17.1 1.1 6.2 5.5 2.9 4.0 3.1 3.6 61.4 11 July 2012 Sanep 23.1 3.3 14.8 7.9 19.5 1.2 8.3 5.6 4.0 3.4 8.9 27 July 2012 Factum Invenio 22.7 3.4 17.7 12.6 16.0 1.7 6.1 5.4 3.4 3.6 3.4 4.0 62.0 10 August 2012 Sanep 22.3 3.9 15.8 7.1 20.1 1.5 7.9 5.8 3.8 3.3 8.5 29 August 2012 Factum Invenio 21.0 2.3 17.3 11.9 15.7 0.9 5.6 7.6 2.3 3.7 2.5 9.2 58.5 11 September 2012 Sanep 20.5 4.1 14.8 7.5 20.2 1.0 7.9 7.1 3.9 3.8 3.0 6.2 12 September 2012 STEM * 29.5 16.2 10.3 18.1 2.6 3.9 5.8 1.3 3.6 8.6 20 September 2012 CVVM 31.5 20.5 8.5 21.0 0.5 1.0 6.0 3.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 4.0 61.0 24 September 2012 ppm Factum 21.5 2.2 17.1 10.3 16.5 2.0 5.2 7.6 2.8 3.8 2.9 2.8 5.5 61.5 25 September 2012 Median 25.5 3.5 21.0 10.5 17.5 2.0 4.0 4.0 3.5 2.0 2.0 4.5 63.5 13 October 2012 2012 Czech regional elections 23.58 0.50 12.28 6.63 20.43 0.24 - 5,82 (+3,01 in coalition) 3.41 1.15 1,75 (+2,87 in coalition) 1.24 2.19 1.48 - 36.89 15 October 2012 STEM * 30.1 16.8 10.9 15.8 1.8 4.3 4.4 1.9 3.8 10.2 22 October 2012 ppm Factum 22.8 1.9 17.1 11.7 16.4 1.5 5.6 6.4 2.9 3.1 2.2 2.7 5.8 60.4 22 October 2012 CVVM 33.0 16.5 8.5 22.5 1.0 5.0 3.5 1.5 3.5 1.5 3.5 58.0 24 October 2012 Median 28.5 2.0 20.0 10.5 16.5 1.5 4.5 4.0 2.5 3.0 7.0 65.0 8 November 2012 Sanep 22.3 3.8 14.1 5.8 20.1 1.2 7.8 6.7 3.1 3.5 11.6 14 November 2012 STEM * 31.9 17.4 8.1 15.6 0.6 5.7 4.2 0.9 3.6 1.6 1.6 8.7 15 November 2012 ppm Factum 25.1 1.3 15.3 11.8 16.5 1.1 6.3 5.3 2.5 3.2 1.3 2.5 7.9 (<1%) 59.7 23 November 2012 Median 27.5 21.0 11.5 17.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 2.0 2.5 6.5 (<2%) 64.5 28 November 2012 CVVM 39.0 16.0 10.0 19.0 0.5 <1 5.0 1.5 <1 3.0 1.5 <1 <1 4.5 (<1%) 58.0 10 December 2012 ppm Factum 25.6 1.2 15.7 10.5 16.3 1.2 6.4 5.7 1.8 3.7 1.8 3.4 2.4 4.4 (<1%) 59.9 13 December 2012 Sanep 25.8 <3 14.2 6.2 19.2 0.7 7.6 6.0 <3 3.5 16.8(<3%) 57.8 17 December 2012 STEM * 32.8 17.2 11.2 15.7 1.1 1.1 5.7 3.3 1.9 4.4 5.6 (<1%) 19 December 2012 CVVM 36.0 17.0 8.5 22.0 0.5 <1 6.0 1.5 <1 4.0 <1 <1 <1 4.5 (<1%) 57.0 23 December 2012 Median 29.0 22.5 10.5 16.0 2.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 7.0 (<2%) 67.0 12 January 2013 2013 Czech presidential election 16.11 - 2.46 23.40 - - - 4.95 24.21 2.39 3.23 - - - - 23.19 61.31 16 January 2013 ppm Factum 24.0 1.2 17.1 11.1 14.6 1.4 6.7 6.6 2.2 3.8 1.8 2.7 2.6 4.1 (<1%) 61.3 21 January 2013 STEM * 32.9 17.1 11.4 15.8 0.9 1.1 4.7 4.6 1.6 3.0 1.1 5.6 (<1%) 26 January 2013 2013 Czech presidential election - - - 45.2 - - - - 54.8 - - - - - - - 59.11 30 January 2013 CVVM 38.0 <1 13.0 16.0 17.5 0.5 3.5 3.5 2.0 <1 <1 <1 5.5 (<1%) 62.0 5 February 2013 ppm Factum 24.6 1.1 15.6 14.5 13.8 0.9 7.4 7.4 2.0 3.1 1.5 2.0 2.4 3.6 (<1%) 50.5 7 February 2013 Sanep 26.1 <3 11.8 10.9 +1.3 18.1 0.5 6.6 7.9 2.1 14.7(<3%) 57.8 20 February 2013 STEM * 33.0 14.0 17.1 13.6 1.0 4.8 6.3 2.1 3.0 4.1 (<1%) 59.0 21 February 2013 CVVM 41.0 <1 12.0 17.0 17.0 0.0 <1 3.5 3.5 <1 1.5 <1 <1 <1 <1 4.5 (<1%) 59.0 1 March 2013 Median 33.0 16.0 17.0 14.0 1.0 6.0 3.0 2.5 7.5 (<2%) 64.0 5 March 2013 ppm Factum 25.9 1.7 13.3 16.5 13.6 1.5 7.8 7.5 1.5 2.9 1.7 2.0 1.7 2.5 (<1%) 50.0 12 March 2013 Sanep 27.2 2.8 10.2 13.2 +1.1 17.3 0.8 0.1 5.9 8.3 2.5 10.6(<3%) 56.7 19 March 2013 STEM * 33.0 10.5 17.6 14.7 1.4 5.5 5.5 1.3 3.3 0.8 1.1 4.1 (<1%) 55.0 20 March 2013 CVVM 40.0 0 13.5 16.0 15.5 1.5 <1 3.5 3.5 <1 1.5 <1 0 0 <1 2.5 (<1%) 59.0 21 March 2013 Median 30.5 15.5 17.5 15.0 1.0 5.0 5.5 3.5 7.5 (<2%) 62.5 4 April 2013 ppm Factum 26.6 1.7 13.7 15.2 14.3 1.6 7.0 7.4 1.0 2.7 1.6 1.6 2.0 3.6 (<1%) 50.4 11 April 2013 Sanep 28.3 2.9 9.3 14.5 +1.1 17.4 0.5 0.1 6.1 8.4 2.4 9.O(<3%) 58.3 16 April 2013 STEM * 38.0 12.2 15.8 15.3 0.7 5.6 5.9 0.8 3.3 0.6 0.7 1.2 (<1%) 53.0 24 April 2013 CVVM 40.0 0 12.0 17.0 16.5 0 <1 3.5 5.0 <1 2.0 0 <1 0 <1 4.0 (<1%) 59.0 29 April 2013 Median 32.0 18.0 16.0 15.5 1.5 4.0 5.5 3.0 4.5 (<2%) 59.0 30 April 2013 ppm Factum 26.2 0.3 14.8 15.3 13.6 0.5 7.1 7.7 1.1 3.2 1.3 2.5 2.2 4.2 (<1%) 50.7 13 May 2013 Sanep 27.9 3.0 11.8 12.4 +1.2 17.1 0.4 0.3 6.3 7.6 2.8 9.2(<3%) 55.2 22 May 2013 CVVM 37.0 <1 14.5 14.5 17.0 0.5 <1 5.0 4.0 <1 3.0 <1 <1 <1 <1 4.5 (<1%) 60.0 27 May 2013 Median 32.0 18.5 15.0 15.5 2.0 5.0 4.0 2.5 5.5 (<2%) 61.0 29 May 2013 STEM * 32.0 16.0 15.0 14.0 1.4 0.5 5.5 4.7 1.3 4.4 0.5 4.7 (<1%) 51.0 31 May 2013 ppm Factum 24.9 0.5 14.5 16.2 13.1 0.5 7.7 7.2 1.7 3.3 1.4 2.5 2.0 4.3 (<1%) 50.8 13 June 2013 Sanep 28.5 2.9 13.4 11.7 +1.4 16.9 0.3 0.2 6.5 6.7 2.8 8.7(<3%) 57.4 18 June 2013 STEM * 31.0 16.0 16.0 12.0 2.3 5.0 5.1 0.6 4.5 0.6 5.4 (<1%) 56.0 21 June 2013 CVVM 35.0 <1 13.0 17.0 18.5 0.5 <1 5.5 3.5 <1 2.5 <1 <1 0 <1 4.0 (<1%) 61.0 21 June 2013 Sanep 29.7 3.1 9.1 8.9 +1.2 17.3 0.5 0.2 6.8 7.3 2.8 3.0 2.2 2.2 2.1 3.6(<2%) 53.8 21 June 2013 ppm Factum 29.3 1.8 8.0 15.0 16.1 1.0 1.7 7.5 6.6 1.1 3.5 2.8 1.5 1.3 2.1 2.8 (<1%) 50.5 24 June 2013 Median 32.5 16.0 17.0 16.5 3.0 4.0 3.0 2.5 5.5 (<2%) 61.5 11 July 2013 Sanep 27.2 2.9 8.0 11.0 17.5 0.3 0.1 7.1 7.0 2.1 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.0 3.4(<2%) 53.4 24 July 2013 Median 34.0 13.0 15.0 15.5 3.0 5.5 3.0 2.0 6.0 (<2%) 62.0 15 August 2013 Sanep 27.9 2.0 7.8 13.1 16.7 0.3 0.1 6.4 7.7 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.6 4.8(<2%) 55.2 19 August 2013 ppm Factum * 32.3 9.2 15.4 13.8 4.6 7.7 7.7 7.7 (<1%) 50.5 23 August 2013 Median 32.0 13.5 15.0 15.5 3.5 4.0 5.0 2.5 9.0 (<2%) 63.2 4 September 2013 TNS Aisa 25.4 10.8 9.7 13.7 2.1 4.5 3.7 4.0 2.6 12.0 2.8 70.0 29 May 2010 Previous election 22.08 22.08 20.22 16.70 11.27 10.88 10.88 4.39 4.33 3.67 2.44 1.14 0.80 0.74 - 1.24 62.6 Published Company Č S S D L E V 2 1 O D S T O P 0 9 K S Č M V V L I D E M K D U - Č S L S P O Z S B B S Z D S S S P I R Á T I S S O A N O 2 0 1 1 O t h e r s T u r n o u t *Note on varying poll methodology: STEM records all responses (including undecided, won't vote) to percentage. The figures in table are adjusted to correspond with other surveys excluding those undecided or abstaining. ==Seats== 101 seats needed for majority Published Company ČSSD ODS TOP 09 KSČM VV KDU-ČSL SZ SPOZ ANO 29 May 2010 Previous election 56 53 41 26 24 0 0 0 - 31 August 2010 Factum Invenio 53 50 47 33 17 22 September 2010 STEM 63 47 39 29 22 29 September 2010 Factum Invenio 57 52 43 31 17 6 October 2010 Sanep 59 45 42 32 22 7 October 2010 Factum Invenio 56 50 38 30 17 9 18 October 2010 STEM 74 44 35 31 16 5 November 2010 Factum Invenio 66 47 43 26 9 9 10 November 2010 Sanep 62 39 40 29 18 12 18 November 2010 STEM 81 48 37 23 11 2 December 2010 Sanep 74 38 45 27 16 14 December 2010 STEM 81 47 37 27 8 16 December 2010 Factum Invenio 61 47 41 29 10 12 7 January 2011 Sanep 74 37 43 28 18 19 January 2011 STEM 81 45 28 32 14 2 February 2011 Factum Invenio 57 47 40 28 15 13 3 February 2011 Sanep 77 37 41 27 18 14 February 2011 STEM 81 45 32 24 18 2 March 2011 Factum Invenio 61 47 36 28 11 17 7 March 2011 Sanep 75 39 38 29 19 17 March 2011 STEM 83 49 29 28 11 6 April 2011 Sanep 78 41 34 29 18 7 April 2011 Factum Invenio 72 46 31 31 11 9 18 April 2011 STEM 92 46 27 28 7 29 April 2011 Factum Invenio 74 48 33 33 12 12 May 2011 Sanep 76 36 32 29 15 12 16 May 2011 STEM 94 46 28 32 1 June 2011 Factum Invenio 74 48 37 31 10 9 June 2011 Sanep 82 38 36 31 13 20 June 2011 STEM 91 50 28 31 12 July 2011 Sanep 79 41 38 30 12 29 July 2011 Factum Invenio 73 39 33 39 9 7 14 August 2011 Sanep 79 41 37 31 12 30 August 2011 Factum Invenio 72 48 31 37 12 13 September 2011 Sanep 78 42 33 34 13 23 September 2011 Factum Invenio 72 48 30 38 12 26 September 2011 STEM 87 45 30 38 7 October 2011 Factum Invenio 72 49 30 39 10 14 October 2011 Sanep 73 45 33 35 14 24 October 2011 STEM 80 55 30 35 4 November 2011 Factum Invenio 73 46 31 35 9 6 11 November 2011 Sanep 71 46 33 36 14 14 November 2011 STEM 81 49 35 35 2 December 2011 Factum Invenio 68 46 40 38 8 16 December 2011 STEM 77 50 34 33 6 16 December 2011 Sanep 70 48 33 36 13 13 January 2012 Sanep 72 47 32 36 13 17 January 2012 STEM 80 55 30 35 10 February 2012 Sanep 67 48 31 31 11 12 13 February 2012 Factum Invenio 73 49 40 38 8 March 2012 Sanep 62 49 33 32 12 12 8 March 2012 Factum Invenio 75 49 37 39 9 March 2012 STEM 88 50 25 37 5 April 2012 Factum Invenio 73 46 32 38 11 11 April 2012 STEM 88 49 23 35 5 16 April 2012 Sanep 63 45 33 34 13 12 3 May 2012 Factum Invenio 72 41 24 42 14 7 9 May 2012 STEM 92 42 20 46 11 May 2012 Sanep 66 39 27 41 14 13 21 May 2012 Sanep 57 37 22 50 20 14 28 May 2012 STEM 81 48 23 42 6 29 May 2012 Factum Invenio 72 38 25 45 13 7 13 June 2012 Sanep 57 36 22 50 21 14 19 June 2012 STEM 74 50 26 41 9 28 June 2012 Factum Invenio 59 45 32 43 12 9 11 July 2012 Sanep 58 38 20 49 21 14 27 July 2012 Factum Invenio 59 47 31 41 13 9 10 August 2012 Sanep 56 40 18 51 20 15 29 August 2012 Factum Invenio 56 46 30 41 10 17 11 September 2012 Sanep 53 38 19 52 20 18 12 September 2012 STEM 79 42 23 47 9 24 September 2012 ppm Factum 60 47 24 42 10 17 15 October 2012 STEM 78 51 30 41 22 October 2012 ppm Factum 60 47 29 42 10 12 8 November 2012 Sanep 58 37 15 52 20 18 14 November 2012 STEM 87 46 18 39 10 15 November 2012 ppm Factum 69 39 29 42 13 8 10 December 2012 ppm Factum 70 41 24 42 14 9 13 December 2012 Sanep 65 36 16 49 19 15 17 December 2012 STEM 87 43 25 35 10 16 January 2013 ppm Factum 65 45 26 36 14 14 21 January 2013 STEM 84 42 29 36 9 5 February 2013 ppm Factum 64 40 33 33 14 16 7 February 2013 Sanep 64 29 27 45 16 19 20 February 2013 STEM 83 35 42 33 7 5 March 2013 ppm Factum 66 40 32 31 15 16 12 March 2013 Sanep 66 25 32 42 15 20 19 March 2013 STEM 84 22 34 36 8 6 4 April 2013 ppm Factum 68 33 36 34 14 15 11 April 2013 Sanep 67 22 35 41 15 20 16 April 2013 STEM 91 24 34 35 6 10 30 April 2013 ppm Factum 66 35 38 31 14 16 13 May 2013 Sanep 67 29 30 41 15 18 29 May 2013 STEM 83 40 35 34 8 31 May 2013 ppm Factum 65 35 41 29 15 15 13 June 2013 Sanep 68 32 28 40 16 16 18 June 2013 STEM 79 38 40 29 7 7 21 June 2013 ppm Factum 78 18 37 41 15 11 11 July 2013 Sanep 72 21 24 46 19 18 15 August 2013 Sanep 71 20 33 42 16 18 4 September 2013 Médea 67 26 22 36 18 31 12 September 2013 Sanep 63 21 33 39 12 17 15 16 September 2013 STEM 76 22 31 34 8 14 15 19 September 2013 ppm factum 68 17 32 39 13 7 24 27 September 2013 STEM 72 30 24 41 7 8 18 14 October 2013 ppm factum 62 18 35 44 12 29 18 October 2013 STEM 67 20 28 33 11 41 29 May 2010 Previous election 56 53 41 26 24 0 0 0 - Published Company ČSSD ODS TOP 09 KSČM ÚSVIT KDU-ČSL SZ SPOZ ANO 2011 ==References== 2013 Category:2013 Czech legislative election |
The following is a list of characters from the manga series Bungo Stray Dogs. ==Creation and design== The characters of Bungo Stray Dogs were created by Kafka Asagiri and designed by Sango Harukawa. Asagiri noted that in the making of the story, the character designs were developed first rather than their plot lines since the restrictions of the plot might cause the characters to become too flat. The manga originated from Asagiri's idea to gather multiple famous late authors and draw them as young adults and teenagers with supernatural powers, and in his hope that more people would find an interest in literature with the series. ==Armed Detective Agency== The is an ability user organization focused on solving crimes considered too violent or difficult for the metropolitan police to handle, often involving the supernatural or ability users. They are highly connected in the network of government agencies and military personnel, handling a large amount of classified work. The agency's licensed staff are granted police-like authority. ===Atsushi Nakajima=== ; : :Named after Atsushi Nakajima. An 18-year-old man who used to live at an orphanage before the caretakers threw him out. Their words condemning him as "worthless" have since left trauma on him and drive his will to fight in order to find a reason to live, slowly gaining confidence as the series progresses. His ability, , allows him to turn into a large white tiger with incredible strength, speed, regenerative capabilities and durability, although he has no control over it and retains no memory if he fully transforms (this lack of control is however repressed when he joins the Agency and the ability of the Agency's president causes Atsushi to regain control over the tiger). Later, he learns to change his limbs to that of a tiger to enhance his physical abilities. Despite his lack of confidence, he has a pure heart and fights hard to protect others. ===Osamu Dazai=== ; : : Named after Osamu Dazai. A member of the Armed Detective Agency who takes Atsushi under his wing and is known as a "suicide maniac" due to his constant suicide attempts and contemplations of a peaceful and non-painful death, preferably with a beautiful woman. Under his carefree and relaxed demeanor, however, Dazai is extremely cunning, intelligent, skilled and brutal, and a feared former executive of Port Mafia. His ability, , lets him completely nullify any supernatural ability by touch. ===Doppo Kunikida=== ; : :Named after Doppo Kunikida. Dazai's partner, known for his meticulous planning, organization and perfectionistic tendencies; due to this, he is easily riled by Dazai's pranks. He has a habit of writing and planning everything ahead in his signature notebook, with the front cover labeled "". This notebook is linked to his ability, , also sometimes translated as "Doppo Poet", and allows him to bring into existence any object he writes inside as long as it isn't larger than the notebook itself. ===Ranpo Edogawa=== ; : :Named after Ranpo Edogawa. The only Agency member without an ability and a self-proclaimed detective. Although he is one of the oldest in the office, he lacks basic everyday skills, preferring to focus his intelligence on solving cases instead. His prodigious observational and deduction skills are nicknamed by him, which are supposedly activated when he puts on his glasses. ===Jun'ichirō Tanizaki=== ; : : Named after Jun'ichirō Tanizaki. An 18-year- old assistant at the Agency who mainly focuses on gathering information as his ability, , allows him to project illusions within a certain area, which is not extremely suited for combat. He cohabits with his younger sister Naomi and treasures her dearly, despite finding some of her antics annoying. ===Kenji Miyazawa=== ; : : Named after Kenji Miyazawa. A 14-year-old optimistic and carefree boy hailing from the countryside, he is extremely popular among Yokohama residents due to his honesty and cheerful attitude. This makes him the Agency's primary data collector from eyewitnesses. His ability is called , which grants him superhuman strength when he's hungry. ===Akiko Yosano=== ; : : Named after Akiko Yosano. She is the medic of the Agency, feared for her torturous treatments. While her ability allows her to heal any wound, as long as the patient is on the verge of death; this often results in her injuring her patients thoroughly before healing them. ===Yukichi Fukuzawa=== ; : : Named after Yukichi Fukuzawa. He is the President of the Armed Detective Agency, as well as Kunikida's mentor. His ability, , allows him to control the abilities of his subordinates. This ability is especially useful for those who lack control over their abilities, like Atsushi and Kyōka. ===Kyōka Izumi=== ; : :Named after Kyōka Izumi. A 14-year-old orphan girl who was taken in by the Port Mafia and became their youngest assassin. Her ability, , materializes Demon Snow, a ruthless sword-wielding phantom that only follows orders coming from her mobile phone, which allowed Akutagawa to control her ability in the past. Her parents used to be assassins as well until an enemy attempted to use a body manipulation ability on them. Kyōka's mother, who at that time owned Demon Snow, killed her husband and subsequently herself as she was gradually succumbing to the ability, her last words ordering the phantom to protect her daughter and passing on this ability. However, this technique was incomplete, resulting in Demon Snow only listening to orders from the phone. ===Kirako Haruno=== ; : : Named after a character from Jun'ichirō Tanizaki's work Naomi (痴人の愛, Chijin no Ai, lit. A Fool's Love). A clerk working at the Armed Detective Agency. She has a cat named Mii-chan, who turns out to be Sōseki Natsume in cat form. ===Naomi Tanizaki=== ; : :Named after the main character from Jun'ichirō Tanizaki's work Naomi. Jun'ichirō's sister and a high school student who has a brother complex and frequently likes to tease him. Although she can be tiresome to her brother at times, she is a capable young woman. She only works part time at the agency, due to her young age. ===Katai Tayama=== ; : :Named after Katai Tayama. He is an information broker for the Agency with the ability Futon (蒲団, also translated "The Quilt") which allows him to control electronics within his sight as long as he is not touching them. He's good friends with Kunikida, having known him for ten years. He's easily stressed out and often unmotivated, which can complicate plans for the Agency. ==Port Mafia== The is an underground criminal organization. Also known as Yokohama's "Night Wardens", they have a "skilled business" permit, allowing them to conduct their criminal activities legally. They have dozens of enterprises within their control, exceeding politics and economics, and can its influence can be found in numerous places around Yokohama. The heart of the criminal underworld market, they specialize in organs, chemical weapons, criminal personnel, and illegal products for underhanded organizations. They have many international connections with other criminal organizations. ===Ryūnosuke Akutagawa=== ; : :Named after Ryūnosuke Akutagawa. A 20-year-old member of the Port Mafia. His ability, , consists of a black coat that transforms into a black beast which can tear anything apart, even space. A former apprentice of Dazai, he is very disdainful of his new subordinate Atsushi. Due to growing up in the slums, he's often very sickly and has a persistent cough. ===Chūya Nakahara=== ; : :Named after Chūya Nakahara. He is an executive member of the Port Mafia and Dazai's former partner as Double Black (双黒, Soukoku). His ability, , allows him to manipulate the gravity of objects as long as he is in contact with them. He's rather short and dislikes being reminded of it, especially by Dazai. Although rather hot-headed and ruthless, he is not impossible to reason with, and knows the importance of compromise and rationality. He is regarded as one of the strongest ability users. === Ichiyō Higuchi === ; : :Named after Ichiyō Higuchi. She is a member of the Port Mafia and a subordinate of Akutagawa, who she greatly admires. Although the nature of her ability is yet to be confirmed,https://twitter.com/kafkaasagiri/status/952823542608945152 she is shown to be physically capable and possesses formidable fighting skills. She is very skilled with firearms and prefers to wield a set of double pistols. ===Motojirō Kajī=== ; : : Named after Motojirō Kajii. A 28-year-old member of the Port Mafia and an infamous serial bomber. His ability, , prevents him from being harmed by lemon-shaped bombs he makes himself. Extremely eccentric, easily excitable, and driven by the ambition to make scientific discoveries, he views the concept of death as his "greatest experiment", fascinated with it and calling it the "apex of science". ===Hirotsu Ryūrō=== ; : : Named after Hirotsu Ryūrō. A sharply dressed man, he is the commander of the , the mafia's squad of hitmen. His ability, , sends objects flying with a powerful force. He's diligent in his work and dislikes unprofessional behavior. ===Michizō Tachihara=== ; : :Named after Michizō Tachihara. A cold leader of the Black Lizard battalion, he's never seen without his dual guns. Later on, he is revealed to be the fifth member of the Hunting Dogs, a special ability group tasked by the government to catch dangerous gifted. His ability, , grants him ferrokinesis, the ability to manipulate metal, allowing him to remotely control metal objects with great proficiency. He has been described by Teruko as "born to be a spy." ===Gin Akutagawa=== ; : :Named in reference to Ryūnosuke Akutagawa's work O-Gin. A very silent and stealthy commander of the Black Lizard group. Initially assumed male, Dazai reveals she's actually Ryūnosuke Akutagawa's younger sister. She can be cold, fearsome, and dangerous as her brother. Despite not having an ability, she fights fiercely with her knife as an assassin. :The cross on her choker may be an allusion the theme of Christianity in O-Gin. ===Ōgai Mori=== ; : :Named after Ōgai Mori. The leader of Port Mafia. Despite being a mafia boss, he acts like a gentleman, being polite to allies and enemies alike. As a former doctor, he can be very dangerous in a fight, and is ruthlessly pragmatic and mathematical in his reasoning, frequently quoting logicians and statisticians. His ability, , allows him to configure Elise's actions and mood, enabling her to act as a distraction or to protect him with superhuman feats such as flight or extreme speed. Mori is also Fukuzawa's former partner. ===Elise=== ; : :Named after the main character in The Dancing Girl (舞姫, Maihime). Elise is a young girl with blonde hair and blue eyes under the care of Ōgai Mori, whom she calls "Rintarō" as a reference to Ōgai Mori's birthname, Rintarō Mori. As a manifestation of Mori's ability, her existence as a human is unclear, though she considers the mafia to be her family. ===Kōyō Ozaki=== ; : :Named after Kōyō Ozaki. She is a Port Mafia executive with the ability , capable of conjuring a sword-wielding spirit like Kyōka's and commanding it at will. She cares deeply for Kyōka and wants her to have the happiness that she never got, although she frequently manipulates Kyōka into following her orders. When she was 19, Mori assigned her to be Chūya's caretaker. Although she holds herself with great dignity and grace, she does not hide her dark nature. ===Sakunosuke Oda=== ; : : Named after Sakunosuke Oda. A low-ranking member of Port Mafia and a friend of Dazai and Ango. His ability, , allows Oda to see 5-6 seconds into the future. His name is often shortened as 'Odasaku'. He wanted to eventually retire from the mafia and be a writer, but the terrorist André Gide killed the orphans under his care, provoking him into a fight to the death. His last words motivated Dazai to leave the mafia and join the Agency, to pursue work that saves lives instead of ending them. ===Kyūsaku Yumeno=== ; : : Named after Yumeno Kyūsaku. They are also known as "Q". Their ability, is a mind control curse. If someone has harmed them, either intentionally or unintentionally, they will fall under the curse when Yumeno splits open the doll they always carry with them. The curse itself makes people see illusions that turn them hostile, usually forcing them to attack friends and foes recklessly. After an incident where they used their curse on members of the Port Mafia, they were considered too dangerous and imprisoned by Dazai and Chūya. ===Ace=== ; : :Named after Alan Bennett (his name and ability name were changed to avoid copyright issues). Also known as "A", he was a Port Mafia executive who captured Fyodor Dostoyevsky. His ability, , based on The Madness of George III, allowed him to turn his subordinates' lives into jewels (provided they wore a collar Ace gave them), their worth depending on the target's lifespan. He was outwitted into committing suicide by Fyodor, after planning to betray the Port Mafia. ===Karma=== ; : :A young member of the Port Mafia and Ace's subordinate, killed by Fyodor in his escape. He was not shown to have possessed an ability. ===Paul Verlaine=== ; :Named after Paul Verlaine. He infiltrates the upper floor of the Port Mafia headquarters to steal the files on Chūya and take Rimbaud's hat. Later, he clarifies that he intends to take Chūya with him, referring to him as "younger brother". He possesses an unnamed ability very similar to Chūya's, with the ability to manipulate the gravity vector and magnitude of anything (or anyone) he comes into contact with. ==The Guild== The is a secret society of ability users from North America (primarily the United States). They have international influence, are granted diplomatic authority, and have extraterritorial rights (Japanese law enforcement cannot detain them). Most of them possess a significant amount of money. ===Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald=== ; : :Named after F. Scott Fitzgerald. He is the leader of the "Fellowship of The Guild". His ability, , based on The Great Gatsby, grants him an increase in strength at the expense of his money. Simply throwing currency off a balcony, for example, can trigger his power. His goal is eventually revealed to be the retrieval of "The Book", to revive his dead daughter. After his defeat to Akutagawa and Atsushi, he rebuilds his organization from the ground up with the help of Louisa May Alcott. ===Lucy Maud Montgomery=== ; : : Named after Lucy Maud Montgomery. A member of The Guild and Fitzgerald's subordinate. An orphan who suffered trauma from her caretakers like Atsushi, although she never recovered like he did. This resulted in Lucy developing a overbearing personality, while also developing a dependency on The Guild as she believes no one else is willing to accept her. Her ability, , based on Anne of Green Gables, allows her to create an alternate reality known as "Anne's Room", in which people are imprisoned if they get caught by a giant doll named Anne while playing tag. When the Guild collapses, she gets a job in the cafe below the agency, and eventually becomes their ally. ===Margaret Mitchell=== ; : : Named after Margaret Mitchell. A member of The Guild, partnered with Nathaniel Hawthorne. Margaret's temperament can only be described as arrogant, prone to looking down on anyone around her be they friend or foe. Her ability, , allows her to literally weather away any object caught in the wind. She is visually portrayed as an American Southern belle. ===Nathaniel Hawthorne=== ; : : Named after Nathaniel Hawthorne. A member of The Guild, partnered with Margaret Mitchell. A man of God who always carries a Bible with him, Nathaniel believes that it is his duty to punish the sinners of the world. As a result, he often comes off as arrogant when he "judges" people and is prone to getting into quarrels with Margaret. His ability, , allows him to convert his own blood into holy words, with offensive and defensive applications. He makes a deal with Fyodor after the fall of The Guild and serves him in a disturbed cognitive state. ===John Steinbeck=== ; : : Named after John Steinbeck. A member of The Guild and partner to H.P. Lovecraft. Steinbeck hails from a large family of farmers from North America, and joined the Guild in an effort to support them financially. Steinbeck's relaxed and friendly personality hides a fierce sadistic streak. His ability, allows him to sprout grapevines from his neck which he can graft to other plants. Any plant with a grafted grape branch can be freely controlled by Steinbeck as a part of his own body. He actually despises Fitzgerald, seeing his view on people and money as disgusting and cruel. After The Guild collapses, he becomes the leader of The Guild remnants, and resolves to crush Fitzgerald's new ventures. ===Howard Phillips Lovecraft=== ; : : Named after H. P. Lovecraft. A member of The Guild and partner to John Steinbeck. An eccentric, pessimistic, and often anxious man in his late twenties, Lovecraft is prone to be distracted by the most unusual things, such as wood grains. While never outright stated in the series, Lovecraft hints that his "ability", , is not an actual ability as Dazai is unable to nullify it. When fully activated, The Great Old Ones turns Lovecraft into a powerful tentacled eldritch monster that can only be damaged from the inside. He also is able to transform only certain parts of his body into tentacles, similar to Atsushi's ability to transform parts of his body into a tiger. After the defeat of Fitzgerald, Lovecraft claims his contract has become null, and bizarrely walks into the ocean, claiming to be "going to sleep". ===Mark Twain=== ; : :Named after Mark Twain. A member of The Guild. His ability, an ability that takes the forms of the dolls known as and . He serves as a sniper, and with the assistance of Huck and Tom, his aim is excellent. : :Named after Twain's character Huckleberry Finn. Part of Mark's ability. : :Named after Twain's character Tom Sawyer. Part of Mark's ability. ===Louisa May Alcott=== ; : : Named after Louisa May Alcott. A member of The Guild and their main tactician. Her ability, , allows her to slow time down to 1/8000th of regular speed when she is thinking in a private room. Her shy demeanor makes her work as a strategist. She has never used her ability for herself, and is completely devoted to Fitzgerald, helping him get back on his feet after The Guild's downfall. ===Herman Melville=== ; : :Named after Herman Melville. An elder member and former leader of The Guild whose ability, , also known as , takes the form of a gigantic white whale. Over the years, the whale has been transformed into a mechanical airship, to serve the Guild. ===Edgar Allan Poe=== ; : : Named after Edgar Allan Poe. The former master architect of The Guild and a detective from America. He has extreme social anxiety, but he is very determined and often obsessive. He is driven by his desire to "beat" Ranpo after suffering a loss in an investigation competition six years before the events of the series, devoting all his time to creating mysteries in the hope of stumping Ranpo and winning back his dignity. His ability, , allows Poe to transport readers into the setting of any novel that they are currently reading. === Karl === ; : : The pet raccoon of Edgar Allan Poe. He is speculated to have been named after Karl Marx, however this has not been confirmed. It is also possible that he is named after Poe's raccoon Carl in the 2012 movie The Raven. He is very affectionate and often playful. ==Rats in the House of the Dead== The are an underground terrorist organization, with the goal of obtaining the Book. ===Fyodor Dostoyevsky=== ; : : Named after Fyodor Dostoevsky. He is the head of the Rats in the House of the Dead. His ability, , has yet to be described, but is shown to be able to cause instant death on touch. He is also a member of the "Decay of Angels" group, under Kamui's leadership. ===Alexander Pushkin=== ; : :Named after Alexander Pushkin. He is a member of the Rats in the House of the Dead. His ability, , allows Pushkin to infect two given people with a special virus. The two infected are guaranteed to die, unless one of them is killed, which will end the other's illness. ===Ivan Goncharov=== ; : :Named after Ivan Goncharov. He is a member of the Rats in the House of the Dead. His ability, , grants him control over geological constructs. ===Mushitaro Oguri=== ; : (Japanese), Mick Lauer (English) :Named after Mushitaro Oguri. He is a member of the Rats in the House of the Dead. His ability, , allows him to erase all evidence of a given crime. ==The Decay of the Angel== is a terrorist organization specializing as a murder association, devoted to the destruction of all nations. ===Nikolai Gogol=== ; : :Named after Nikolai Gogol. Despite showing a sadistic personality, Nikolai often hints he suffers when hurting other people. His ability, , grants him the power to use his coat to manipulate spaces and what comes out of them, akin to a sort of portal. It is able to relocate and move objects. ===Sigma=== ;, : (Japanese), Cory Yee (English) :The general manager of the Sky Casino. While his ability has yet to be named, it is an information transfer ability that allows anybody in physical contact with Sigma to gain the information they most want to know in exchange for him learning what he most wants to know from them. Fyodor notes that Sigma's potential comes from the fact that he is a 'desperate man' who will do anything to protect the 'home' he finds in the casino. Atsushi believes that Sigma possesses a page of the supernatural Book that the Decay of Angels used to frame the Detective Agency for a murder case. ===Bram Stoker=== ; :Named after Bram Stoker. In the past, Bram was an earl in Northern Europe. Despite formerly being a human, his cells had been mutated due to an ability, which then resulted in him being transformed into a blood-sucking species and he became known as Dracula. Bram's ability name is currently unknown. However, it is an infection-type ability which turns whoever he bites into a vampire. It also makes the victim the next aggressor. ==Hunting Dogs== The are a military organization working for the government. They're a Grade-A squad built for special tactics and suppression duty, and the strongest military unit in the military police. ===Ōchi Fukuchi=== ; : :Named after Fukuchi Ōchi. The commander of the Hunting Dogs special units. However, in reality, he is the leader of the terrorist organization, the Decay of Angels, acting under the alias of Kamui. His ability, , allows him to strengthen the power of any weapon he holds by 100-fold. ===Saigiku Jōno=== ; : :Named after Saigiku Jōno. He is a member of the Hunting Dogs special unit. His ability, , allows him to disintegrate his body into atoms and then manipulate them. ===Teruko Ōkura=== ; : :Named after Teruko Ōkura. The vice-commander of the Hunting Dogs special unit. Her ability, , allows her to manipulate the age of anyone she touches. ===Tetchō Suehiro=== ; : :Named after Tetchō Suehiro. He is a member of the Hunting Dogs special unit. , allows him to increase properties of his sword, namely the size, shape, and length of it. ==Other characters (main storyline)== ===Ango Sakaguchi=== ; : :Named after Ango Sakaguchi. A government worker and the former Port Mafia's Intelligence Agent, but it was under the Government's orders to spy on the mafia's activities. During his time working as an intelligence agent under for the Port Mafia, he also became an agent for Mimic under Mori Ougai's orders. His ability, , allows him to read the memories of any object he touches. ===Santōka Taneda=== ; : :Named after Santōka Taneda. He is the director of the Special Ability Department. Not much is known about his past, though it's hinted that he helped on the creation of the Armed Detective Agency and was also the one who helped Osamu Dazai to find a job in the Agency after he left the Port Mafia. His ability, , allows him to immediately know the ability (and nature of said ability) of any ability user if their ability is activated near him. ===André Gide=== ; : :Named after André Gide. He was the leader of a criminal organization from Europe known as Mimic. Like Sakunosuke, his ability, allows him to see roughly 5 to 6 seconds into the future. A former soldier betrayed by his country, he wanted to have a glorious death and killed Oda's loved ones to drive him to despair. After a lengthy duel, they mutually killed each other. ===Aya Kōda=== ; : :Named after Aya Kōda. She is a civilian who assisted Kunikida with a case, a spirited girl who calls herself a warrior of justice and practices martial arts every day. Aya is stubborn, refusing to take no for an answer, and makes fun of Kunikida often. It has not yet been confirmed if she has an ability. ===Shōsaku Katsura=== ; : : Named after the main character of Doppo Kunikida's work . He is a bomber with a grudge against Kunikida's ideals and attempts to sabotage them. ===Agatha Christie=== ; : :Named after Agatha Christie. She is the Knight Commander of the Order of the Clock Tower. The details of her ability, , are currently unknown. ===Arthur Rimbaud=== ; : :Named after Arthur Rimbaud. He was an executive of the Port Mafia and has an extreme aversion to cold. First known under the alias of "Randō", he is later revealed to be a European spy, trying to find a god-like entity, Arahabaki, from within a military facility with his partner, Paul Verlaine. Following Paul's betrayal, he was forced to try and use Arahabaki to fight the military, but the failed attempt resulted in a massive explosion that destroyed the facility and Rimbaud's memories. His alias was taken from an incorrect pronunciation of his name that was written on his hat. His ability, , allows him to create a hyperspace under his control to the point which he can event disregard the rules of physics, rendering Chūya's powers useless and even withstanding Dazai's nullification to a limited degree. ===Natsume Sōseki=== ; : :Named after Natsume Sōseki. He is the former mentor of Yukichi Fukuzawa and Ōgai Mori. He is first briefly featured in the light novel Dark Era, and appears during the Cannibalism Arc to interrupt the fight between the Agency and Port Mafia. His ability, , allows him to turn into a calico cat. He is regarded throughout Yokohama as one of the strongest ability users. ===Nobuko Sasaki=== ; : :Named after Nobuko Sasaki, Doppo Kunikida's first wife. A lecturer at a university in Tokyo. She is the Azure Apostle and former accomplice to the Azure King, her lover, and attempts to ruin the Armed Detective Agency after her lover's death. == DEAD APPLE (film) == ===Tatsuhiko Shibusawa=== ; : : Named after Tatsuhiko Shibusawa. An original character created for the movie Dead Apple. His ability, , allows him to create a mysterious mist (known as "Dragon's Breath") that can separate abilities and their users. The separated abilities manifest as their own unique form, or they can manifest as a pitch-black, white-eyed mimic of its user. They are capable of communication. == Gaiden (light novel) == ===Mizuki Tsujimura=== ; : :Named after Mizuki Tsujimura. She is an agent of the Special Division for Unusual Powers and is assigned to Ayatsuji Yukito. Tsujimura's ability, , allows her to create "baby shadows" and control them. It also takes the appearance of a grim reaper with a scythe when it automatically activates. Just like Kyōka, her mother transferred her ability to her, and she does not have complete control over it. It will activate immediately when she wants to kill someone, and the reaper shadow will execute them before she can attack, making Tsujimura unable to kill anyone herself. ===Ayatsuji Yukito=== ; :Named after Yukito Ayatsuji. A detective and one of the main characters in the Gaiden novel. He is currently one of the top-ranked people on the Japanese government's list of dangerous ability users. His ability, , allows him to see through the criminal in a murder case. Once the criminal behind a murder is identified, the killer will face certain death via an "accident." == 55 Minutes (light novel) == ===Herbert George Wells=== ; :Named after Herbert George Wells. A character featured in the light novel Bungo Stray Dogs: 55 Minutes. Wells's ability, allows her to manipulate time itself. She can send an individual back in time with the use of her camera, but this is limited to 55 minutes or 3300 seconds. Also, she is only able to transport someone to the past once. Originally, Wells is only able to transport a person to the past limited to several minutes, but after being utilized by "Gab" for countless of times, it was extended to 55 minutes. ===Jules Gabriel Verne=== ; :Named after Jules Gabriel Verne. A character featured in the light novel Bungo Stray Dogs: 55 Minutes. He is one of the inhabitants of Standard Island, as the island itself is the form of his ability. Verne's ability, , allows him to absorb the abilities from any ability-user who dies on Standard Island. ==Reception== The characters of Bungo Stray Dogs have been popular in Japan with Crunchyroll noting that most of them appeared in a Newtype poll when the anime premiered in 2016. Manga.Tokyo enjoyed Osamu Dazai due to his appealing interactions with Doppo Kunikida while also enjoying Mamoru Miyano's performance as his voice actor. Atsushi's characterization has earned mixed responses The Fandom Post noted that his power of becoming a tiger gave him potential to make goods rather than the curse he fears. On the other hand, Reel Run Down considered Atsushi as one of the weakest characters due to his constant insecure thoughts despite having multiple achievements in the storyline. Otaku USA noted that while Atsushi becomes a hero during the story, he is overshadowed by others character he found more interesting. Nevertheless, Atsushi's and Akutagawa's rivalry has also resulted into positive reaction due to how each character balance the other in terms of personality and how they become allies for a short for one of the most entertaining fights in the series. Anime News Network still enjoyed the new bond he formed with former Guild member Lucy Maud Montgomery; the reviewer noted Lucy became attracted to him and thus expected a form romance or love triangle would be composed between these two characters as well as Kyoka as this character also formed a strong bond with Atsushi. Concluding this comment, the reviewer expected this would happen the story would be benefitted from this type of subplot since Bungo Stray Dogs barely handled romance. ==References== Bungo Stray Dogs |
A Panthera hybrid is a crossbreed between individuals of any of the five species of the genus Panthera: the tiger, lion, jaguar, leopard, and snow leopard. Most hybrids would not be perpetuated in the wild as the territories of the parental species do not overlap and the males are usually infertile. Mitochondrial genome research revealed that wild hybrids were also present in ancient times. The mitochondrial genomes of the snow leopard and the lion were more similar to each other than to other Panthera species, indicating that at some point in their history, the female progeny of male ancestors of modern snow leopards and female ancestors of modern lions interbred with male ancestors of modern snow leopards. == History == In theory, lions and tigers can be matched in the wild and give offspring, but in reality there may be no natural born tigon or liger in the world, because they are separated both geographically, by behavioral differences and lives in different places and do not mate together in the wild. In England, African lions and Asian tigresses have been successfully mated, and three lion-tiger hybrid cubs were born in Windsor in 1824, which is probably the earliest record, the three cubs were then presented to George IV. ==Table of names for hybrids== Below are some tables showing the many Panthera hybrids. Panthera hybrids are typically given a portmanteau name, varying by which species is the sire (male parent) and which is the dam (female parent). For example, a hybrid between a lion and a tigress is a liger, because the lion is the male parent and the tigress is the female parent. Tigress ♀ Lioness ♀ Jaguaress ♀ Leopardess ♀ Tiger ♂ Tiger ♂ Tigress ♀ Tigon ♂ Tigoness ♀ Tiguar ♂ Tiguaress ♀ Tipard ♂ Tipardess ♀ Lion ♂ Liger ♂ Ligress ♀ Lion ♂ Lioness ♀ Liguar ♂ Liguaress ♀ Lipard ♂ Lipardess ♀ Jaguar ♂ Jagger ♂ Jaggress ♀ Jaglion ♂ Jaglioness ♀ Jaguar ♂ Jaguaress ♀ Jagupard ♂ Jagupardess ♀ Leopard ♂ Leoger ♂ Leogress ♀ Leopon ♂ Leoponess ♀ Leguar ♂ Leguaress ♀ Leopard ♂ Leopardess ♀ ==Jaguar and leopard hybrids== A jagupard, jagulep or jagleop is the hybrid of a jaguar and a leopardess. A single rosetted female jagupard was produced at a zoo in Chicago (America). Jaguar-leopard hybrids bred at Hellbrun Zoo, Salzburg were described as jagupards, which conforms to the usual portmanteau naming convention.*H. Windischbauer, Hellbrun Zoo (1968) A leguar or lepjag is the hybrid of a male leopard and a female jaguar. The terms jagulep and lepjag are often used interchangeably, regardless of which animal was the sire. Numerous lepjags have been bred as animal actors, as they are more tractable than jaguars. A.D. Bartlett The Field no. 2887, April 25, 1908, Henry Scherren: "In a paper on the breeding of the larger Felidae in captivity (P.Z.S. [Proceedings of the Zoological Society], 1861, p. 140), stated: "I have, more than once, met with instances of the male jaguar (P. onca) breeding with a female leopard (P. pardus). These hybrids were also reared recently in Wombell's well-known travelling collection. I have seen some animals of this kind bred, between a male black jaguar and a female Indian leopard:-the young partook strongly of the male, being almost black." In Barnabos Menagerie (in Spain), a jaguar gave birth to two cubs from a union with a black leopard; one resembled the dam, but was somewhat darker, while the other was black with the rosettes of the dam showing.Zoolog. Gart., 1861, 7 Since melanism in the panther (leopard) is recessive, the jaguar would have had to have been black, or be a jaguar-black leopard hybrid itself, carrying the recessive gene. Scherren continued, "The same cross, but with the sexes reversed, was noted, by Professor Sacc (F) of Barcelona Zoo (Zoolog. Gart., 1863, 88). "The cub, a female, was grey. She is said to have produced two cubs to her sire; one like a jaguar, the other like the dam. Herr Rorig expressed his regret that the account of the last two cases mentioned lacked fullness and precision." Female jaguleps or lepjags are fertile, and when one is mated to a male lion, the offspring are referred to as lijaguleps. One such complex hybrid was exhibited in the early 1900s as a "Congolese spotted lion", hinting at some exotic African beast, rather than a man-made hybrid. ==Jaguar and lion hybrids== upright=1|thumb|Jaguar/lion hybrid, Rothschild Museum, Tring A jaglion or jaguon is the offspring between a male jaguar and a female lion (lioness). A mounted specimen is on display at the Walter Rothschild Zoological Museum, Hertfordshire, England. It has the lion's background color, brown, jaguar-like rosettes and the powerful build of the jaguar. On April 9, 2006, two jaglions were born at Bear Creek Wildlife Sanctuary, Barrie (north of Toronto), Ontario, Canada. Jahzara (female) and Tsunami (male) were the result of an unintended mating between a black jaguar called Diablo and a lioness called Lola, which had been hand-raised together and were inseparable. They were kept apart when Lola came into oestrus. Tsunami is spotted, but Jahzara is a melanistic jaglion due to inheriting the jaguar's dominant melanism gene. It was not previously known how the jaguar's dominant melanism gene would interact with lion coloration genes. A liguar is an offspring of a male lion and a female jaguar. When the fertile offspring of a male lion and female jaguar mates with a leopard, the resulting offspring is referred to as a leoliguar. ==Jaguar and tiger hybrids== A tiguar is an offspring of a male tiger and a jaguaress. Reportedly, at the Altiplano Zoo in the city of San Pablo Apetatlan (near Tlaxcala, México), the crossbreeding of a male Siberian tiger and a female jaguarBaker, Taxonomy, pp. 5–7. from the southern Chiapas Jungle produced a male tiguar named Mickey. Mickey is on exhibition at a 400 m2 habitat and as of June 2009, was two years old and weighed . Attempts to verify this report have been bolstered by recent images purported to show the adult Mickey (see External links section). There has been no report of the birth of a hybrid from a male jaguar and female tiger, which would be termed a "jagger". There is a claimed sighting of a lion × black jaguar cross (male) and a tiger × black jaguar cross (female) loose in Maui, Hawaii. There are no authenticated tiger/jaguar hybrids and the description matches that of a liger. The alleged tiger × black jaguar was large, relatively long-necked (probably due to lack of a ruff or mane) with both stripes and "jaguar-like" rosettes on its sides. The assertion of hybrid identity was due to the combination of black, dark brown, light brown, dark orange, dark yellow and beige markings and the tiger-like stripes radiating from its face. It is more likely to have been a released liger, since these are very large and have a mix of rosettes (lion juvenile markings) and stripes and can have a brindled mix of colors exactly as described (their markings are extremely variable). ==Leopard and lion hybrids== A leopon is the result of breeding a male leopard with a lioness. The head of the animal is similar to that of a lion, while the rest of the body carries similarities to leopards. Leopons are very rare. A lipard or liard is the proper term for a hybrid of a male lion with a leopardess. It is sometimes known as a reverse leopon. The size difference between a male lion and a leopardess usually makes their mating difficult. A lipard was born in Schoenbrunn Zoo, Vienna in 1951. Another lipard was born in Florence, Italy. It is often erroneously referred to as a leopon. The father was a two-year-old, 250-kg lion, 1.08 m tall at the shoulders and 1.8 m long (excluding the tail). The mother was a 3.5-year-old leopardess weighing only 38 kg. The female cub was born overnight on 26/27 August 1982 after an estimated 92–93 days of gestation. It was born on the grounds of a paper mill near Florence, to a lion and leopardess acquired from a Rome zoo. Their owner had two tigers, two lions and a leopardess as pets, and did not expect or intend them to breed. The lion/leopard hybrid cub came as a surprise to the owner, who originally thought the small, spotted creature in the cage was a stray domestic cat. The mother began to over-groom the underside of the cub's tail and later bit off its tail. The cub was then hand-reared. The parents mated again in November 1982, and the lion and leopardess were separated. They were brought together on Jan. 25, 1983 for photographs, but the lion immediately mounted the leopardess and they had to be separated again for fear of endangering her advanced pregnancy. The cub had the body conformation of a lion cub with a large head (a lion trait), but a receding forehead (a leopard trait), fawn fur and thick, brown spotting. When it reached five months old, the owner offered it for sale and set about trying to breed more. The male leopon is a fertile offspring of a male leopard and a female lion. The fertile female liguar, offspring of a male lion and female jaguar, is capable of fertilization by a leopon. Their mating, though rare, results in a leopliguar. ==Leopard and tiger hybrids== The name dogla is a native Indian name used for a supposedly natural hybrid offspring of a male leopard and a tigress, the combination designated leoger in the table above. Indian folklore claims that large male leopards sometimes mate with tigresses, and anecdotal evidence exists in India of offspring resulting from leopard to tigress matings. A supposed dogla was reported in the early 1900s. Many reports probably refer to large leopards with abdominal striping or other striped shoulders and bodies of a tiger. One account stated, "On examining it, I found it to be a very old male hybrid. Its head and tail were purely those of a panther Indian leopard, but with the body, shoulders, and neck ruff of a tiger. The pattern was a combination of rosettes and stripes; the stripes were black, broad and long, though somewhat blurred and tended to break up into rosettes. The head was spotted. The stripes predominated over the rosettes." The pelt of this hybrid, if it ever existed, was lost. It was supposedly larger than a leopard and, though male, it showed some feminization of features, which might be expected in a sterile male hybrid. K Sankhala's book Tiger refers to large, troublesome leopards as adhabaghera, which he translated as "bastard", and suggests a leopard/tiger hybrid (the reverse hybrid is unlikely to arise in the wild state, as a wild male tiger would probably kill rather than mate with a female leopard). Sankhala noted there was a belief amongst local people that leopards and tigers naturally hybridise. From "The Tiger, Symbol Of Freedom", edited by Nicholas Courtney: "Rare reports have been made of tigresses mating with leopards in the wild. There has even been an account of the sighting of rosettes; the stripes of the tiger being most prominent in the body. The animal was a male measuring a little over eight feet [2.44 m]." This is the same description as given by Hicks. The 1951 book Mammalian Hybrids reported tiger/leopard matings were infertile, producing spontaneously aborted "walnut- sized fetuses". A tigard is the hybrid offspring of a male tiger and a leopardess. The only known attempts to mate the two have produced stillborns. In 1900, Carl Hagenbeck crossed a female leopard with a Bengal tiger. The stillborn offspring had a mixture of spots, rosettes and stripes. Henry ScherrenIn The Field no. 2887, April 25, 1908, wrote, "A male tiger from Penang served two female Indian leopards, and twice with success. Details are not given and the story concludes somewhat lamely. 'The leopardess dropped her cubs prematurely, the embryos were in the first stage of development and were scarcely as big as young mice.' Of the second leopardess there is no mention." ==Tiger and lion hybrids== thumb|right|Liger thumb|right|Tiliger cross of (Panthera leo x Panthera tigris) x Panthera tigris The resulting hybrids that crossbreeding between lions and tigers are known as tigon (/ˈtaɪɡən/) and liger (/ˈlaɪɡə/). The second generation hybrids of liger or tigon are known as liliger, tiliger, litigon and titigon. The tigon (Panthera tigris X leo), also known as tiglon (/ˈtaɪɡlən/) is an offspring of a male tiger (Panthera tigris) and a female lion (Panthera leo). A liger is distinct from tigon (Panthera leo X tigris), as a hybrid of female tiger and male lion. In the case a fertile titigon has crossed between a female tigard, the hybrid is rare. Professor Valentine Bail conducted a long observation and recording of some lion-tiger hybrids, those lion-tiger are owned by Mr. Atkins and his zoo: Date of birth place of birth number of cubs amount of male cubs amount of female cubs longevity first record October 24, 1824 Windsor 3 2 1 1 year second record April 22, 1825 Clapham Common 3 not recorded not recorded short time third record December 31, 1826 Edinburgh 3 1 2 a few months fourth record October 2, 1828 Windsor 3 1 2 not recorded fifth record May, 1831 Kensington 3 not recorded not recorded not recorded sixth record July 19, 1833 Liverpool 3 1 2 10 years The early record lion-tiger hybrid was mainly tigons, in At Home In The Zoo (1961), Gerald Iles wrote "For the record I must say that I have never seen a liger, a hybrid obtained by crossing a lion with a tigress. They seem to be even rarer than tigons." ;Liger :A liger is the offspring between a lion and a tigress, which is larger than its parents because the lion has a growth maximizing gene and the tigress, unlike the lioness, has no growth inhibiting gene. ;Tigon :A tigon is the offspring of a tiger and a lioness. The tigon is not as common as the converse hybrid, the liger. Contrary to some beliefs, the tigon ends up smaller than either parent, because male tigers and lionesses have a growth inhibitor. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, tigons were more common than ligers. ;Liliger :A liliger is the offspring of a lion and a ligress. The first known liliger is a cub named Kiara. ;Litigon :Rudrani, a tigoness from the Alipore Zoo, mated with Debabrata, a male lion, and gave birth to three litigons. Only one litigon cub, named Cubanacan, survived. ;Tiliger :A tiliger is the offspring of a male tiger and a ligress. ;Titigon :A titigon is the offspring of a male tiger and a tigoness. === Growth and size === Typically, the size of a liger is more likely to be larger and heavier than all of other existing feline animals. Some biologists believe that the causes of its irregular large size, or 'gigantism', result from the lack of certain genes that limit the growth of lions. The male lion's genes tend to maximize the growth of its progeny, as the larger size represents greater competitiveness, so that the male lions could compete with other male lions. In order to control the size of the offspring within a certain range, the gene of the lioness will offset the growth-maximizing gene of the male lion. The genes of a female tiger, however, are not adapted to limiting growth, which allows ligers to grow extremely large—far more larger and heavier than its parent species. In general, most ligers grow more than in length and weigh more than . According to the Guinness World Records (through 2013), the largest feline was the adult male liger, Hercules, from Myrtle Beach Safari, a wildlife reserve in South Carolina, US. He was measured at , standing at the shoulder, and weighing . Hercules eats approximately of meat per day, and drinks several liters of water per day. Tigons too have growth dysplasia, however inversely. They are smaller than the members of the parents species and weigh less than . A tigon is approximately twice as light as liger. Unlike ligers, tigons are cross between a male tiger and a female lion, the presence of growth-minimizing genes from the lioness causing them to grow smaller. === Appearance === Ligers and tigons look just like their parents, only bigger or smaller. They have huge teeth, about two inches long. Their genes include the genetic components of tigers and lions, therefore, they may be very similar to tigers and lions, and can be difficult to identify. Their coloring ranges from gold to brown to white, and they may have or not have spots or stripes. An adult male liger usually has a smaller mane than a male lion. === Longevity === A liger called Samson died at the age of thirteen in 2006. Shasta, a female liger, was born in the Hogle Zoo in Salt Lake City in 1948, and died in 1972. She lived for 24 years. Many claim that ligers are short-lived, but according to the survey, such a conclusion is still uncertain. A male tigon owned by Atkins born on July 19, 1833, lived for 10 years. === Fertility === Guggisberg said liger and tigon were thought to be invariably sterile, which means they cannot have offspring. The first hybrid of a hybrid (that being a child of liger) was discovered at the Munich- Hellabrunn Zoo in 1943. The birth of the second generation of hybrids has proven that the biologists' knowledge of tigon and liger was wrong; it now seems that only male lion-tiger hybrids are invariably sterile; while female hybrids can give birth as other Panthera animals as well. == Zoo animals == By 2017 roughly more than 100 ligers were thought to exist, but only a few tigons still exist since they are more difficult to breed. Moreover, ligers are more likely to attract tourists, so zoos prefer to breed ligers as opposed to tigons. Some zoos claim they breed ligers or tigons for conservation, but opponents believe that it is meaningless to preserve a species that does not exist in the wild. ==See also== * Felid hybrid * Pumapard ==References== ==External links== *Hybrid Big Cats. *Detailed information on hybridisation in big cats. Includes tiglons, ligers, leopons and others. *Photograph of Mickey the Tiguar, along with images of other Panthera hybrids (in Spanish) *Karl Shuker's Tiguar site, containing what may be a video of Mickey the Tiguar Category:Panthera hybrids |
Boy is a 2010 New Zealand comedy-drama film, written and directed by Taika Waititi. The film stars James Rolleston, Te Aho Aho Eketone-Whitu, and Waititi. It is produced by Cliff Curtis, Ainsley Gardiner and Emanuel Michael and financed by the New Zealand Film Commission. In New Zealand, the film eclipsed previous records for a first week's box office takings for local production. Boy went on to become the highest-grossing New Zealand film at the local box office. The soundtrack to Boy features New Zealand artists such as The Phoenix Foundation, who previously provided music for Waititi's film Eagle vs Shark. ==Plot== In 1984, Alamein, known as Boy, is an 11-year-old living in Waihau Bay, in the Tairawhiti (Gisborne) region of New Zealand, on a small farm with his grandmother, younger brother Rocky, and several cousins. Boy spends his time dreaming of Michael Jackson, hanging out with his friends Dallas, Dynasty, and Falcon Crest (all siblings), trying to impress Chardonnay, a girl at his school, talking to his pet goat, and making up wild stories about his estranged father, Alamein. Rocky, meanwhile, is a quiet, odd child, who believes he has dangerous superpowers because his mother died giving birth to him. One day, Boy and Rocky's grandmother leaves for a funeral in Wellington, leaving Boy in charge of the house and taking care of the other children. Boy is then surprised to see his father and two other men arrive at the farm. Boy is overjoyed to see Alamein return, thinking that he has come to take the boys away to live with him, but Rocky is uncertain about their father's sudden reappearance. It seems at first that Alamein has finally come back to be in his sons' lives, but it's soon revealed that he is actually there to find a bag of money that he had buried on the farm before being arrested by the police, for armed robbery of a gas station. With his patched gang, the Crazy Horses (which is just him and two friends), Alamein begins digging up the field, searching for the money. Boy sees this and offers to help, thinking Alamein is digging for treasure, and Alamein soon decides to hang out with Boy and be a father. He cuts his son's hair to look like Michael Jackson (badly), and the two go on drives in Alamein's car and get revenge on Boy's school bullies by threatening them with a machete. Boy brings Alamein marijuana to sell from a crop grown by Dallas and Dynasty's father, a member of a local gang. Alamein, uncomfortable with being called 'Dad,' convinces Boy to call him Shogun instead. Boy begins to see himself as an adult and a Crazy Horse, growing distant from his friends. However, Alamein, unable to find the money, becomes frustrated and drives off, leaving Boy and his fellow crazy horses behind. Boy continues to dig for the money alone until he finally discovers it. Excited, Boy hides the moneybag in his goat's pen, then takes his father's Crazy Horses jacket and proudly treats his friends to ice blocks and lollies. When Alamein drives up, Boy goes to tell him that he has found the money, but Alamein hits Boy for stealing his jacket and angrily questions him about where he found the money for the ice blocks, leaving Boy humiliated. Alamein later apologizes, telling his son for the first time that he loves him, and refers to himself as "the incredible hulk", saying that sometimes he is a bad guy, but most of the time he is a good guy, and then Boy goes to retrieve the moneybag; only to find that it has been eaten by his goat. Alamein and Rocky continue to dig for the hidden money, making Boy uneasy. Boy decides to make up for losing the money by leading Alamein to the marijuana crop owned by Dallas and Dynasty's father, and Alamein gathers the entire crop. The group is spotted running away by Dynasty, who stares at Boy, betrayed. Later, Alamein takes his gang out to celebrate at the local pub. Whilst waiting in the car with Boy, Rocky tells his brother that he likes their father, and wants to get to know him better. Another car then drives up, and the local gang gets out. Boy sees Dynasty sitting in the front seat with a black eye. The gang approaches Alamein and the Crazy Horses, confronting them over stealing their marijuana. At first, Boy imagines his dad successfully fighting off the gang in a Michael Jackson dance sequence, but reality comes back to him, and he sees the gang beat Alamein, Chuppa and Juju. While driving home, Alamein accidentally hits and kills Boy's goat. The next day, Alamein is abandoned by his men, who steal the marijuana and the car. Enraged, Alamein trashes the house. Meanwhile, Boy visits his mother's grave, drinking alcohol and smoking marijuana, and finally comes to terms with the fact that all of his happy, early memories of his father are make-believe, and Alamein was in fact not even there when Rocky was born. Meanwhile, Alamein sits in the barn, depressed that he has been unable to find his money. Rocky comes up to him and attempts to comfort him with his 'powers,' telling Alamein that he is sorry he killed his mother by being born. Just then, Boy comes in and scatters the shredded money at Alamein's feet, then begins hitting his father, screaming to know why he wasn't there when Boy and Rocky's mother died. Boy tells Alamein that they are nothing alike, then returns to the house to take care of his cousins. The next morning, the children clean up the house, their grandmother returns home, and Alamein is gone. Boy tells Rocky that Alamein has gone to Japan to train as a samurai. He reconnects with his friends and apologizes to Dynasty, then goes with Rocky to visit their mother's grave. The two boys find Alamein sitting there. Quietly, they join him, before Rocky asks, "How was Japan?" The film ends with a mid-credits sequence of all the major characters dancing in a routine that is a mixture of haka and Michael Jackson's Thriller. ==Cast== * James Rolleston as Boy, a Māori kid who is a huge fan of Michael Jackson, Boy dreams of becoming rich and going to the city with his father, brother, and his pet goat. His real name is Alamein, like his father. * Te Aho Aho Eketone-Whitu as Rocky, Boy's shy younger brother who believes he has superpowers. * Taika Waititi as Alamein, Boy and Rocky's father; an ex-convict and former national serviceman who wants to be the leader of a biker gang, and comes back to Waihau Bay to find his lost money. * Moerangi Tihore as Dynasty, Dallas' sister and one of Boy's best friends. She is the daughter of a biker and seems to have feelings for Boy. * Cherilee Martin as Kelly, Boy's same-age cousin, who lives with him in the same house, with her three kid sisters. * RickyLee Waipuka-Russell as Chardonnay, a teenage girl that Boy has a crush on, and who totally ignores him. * Haze Reweti as Dallas, one of Boy's best friends. * Maakariini Butler as Murray, one of Boy's friends from school. * Rajvinder Eria as Tane, Boy's Indian friend, who is always alongside Murray and Dallas. * Manihera Rangiuaia as Kingi, a school bully who often bullies Boy. He wears a Michael Jackson "Thriller" jacket. * Darcy Ray Flavell-Hudson as Holden, Kingi's older brother, who also bullies Boy but comes to fear Boy's father Alamein and comes to admire him. * Rachel House as Aunty Gracey, the sister of Boy's deceased mother, who owns a store in front of the sea. * Waihoroi Shortland as Weirdo, a strange man who lives near the bridge, and appears to always be looking for something. He seems to be childish and inoffensive. * Cohen Holloway as Chuppa, a friend of Alamein, who is an ex- convict and very foolish, along with Juju. * Pana Hema Taylor as Juju, the other of Alamein's friends. Like Chuppa, he is always getting himself in trouble alongside the kids. * Craig Hall as Mr. Langston, the Pākehā school principal, who studied with Boy's parents. * Mavis Paenga as Nan, Boy's grandmother and Alamein's mother. She travels to someone's funeral for two weeks, leaving Boy in charge. She calls the children "My Mokos", which is short for mokopuna, the Māori word for grandchildren. ==Production== Waititi started developing Boy soon after finishing the short film Two Cars, One Night, and it first emerged as a film called Choice. The project was accepted into the Sundance Writer's Lab in 2005, where Waititi workshopped it with script writers Frank Pierson, Susan Shilliday, David Benioff and Naomi Foner Gyllenhaal. Instead of making Boy his first film as a director, Waititi went on to make oddball romance Eagle vs Shark, and continued to develop the screenplay over the next three years. Once the script was finally ready, there was a small window of opportunity in which to make it. Waititi dropped the title Choice because he felt it would not translate to international audiences, and the film was retitled The Volcano. "It was a big pain about this kid's potential to be bigger than he is or just blooms or explode," said Waititi. "So it was a character in the script as well. When we were shooting the film it was still called Volcano and during the editing. We ended up cutting a lot of the stuff out." Waititi wanted to shoot the film in the place where he partly grew up, Waihau Bay. The story was set in summer, but it was challenging to shoot in the height of summer due to the area's popularity as a fishing and holiday destination. The film features fields of maize, which is harvested starting in late April. James Rolleston was not initially cast in the lead role of Boy. Another actor was already in place when Rolleston turned up for a costume fitting as an extra. Waititi gave him an audition and after reviewing the film clips, Rolleston was offered the role two days before shooting began.Audio Commentary: Taika Waititi, director; Cliff Curtis, Ainsley Gardiner, Emanuel Michael, producers. Boy. 2010. DVD. Kino Lorber, 2013. Waititi raised $110,000 via the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to distribute the film in the United States. At the time, this was the most prominent example of crowdfunding in New Zealand. ==Soundtrack== * Hine e Hine – The Phoenix Foundation * Poi E – Pātea Māori Club * Pass the Dutchie – Musical Youth * One Million Rainbows – The Phoenix Foundation * French Letter – Herbs * Dragons & Demons – Herbs * Forget It – The Phoenix Foundation * Aku Raukura (Disco Mix) – Pātea Māori Club * Out on the Street – Alastair Riddell * Hine e Hine – St Josephs Maori Girls Choir * Here We Are – The Phoenix Foundation * Paki-o-Matariki – The Ratana Senior Concert Party * Mum – Prince Tui Teka * E Te Atua – St Josephs Maori Girls Choir * Karu – Prince Tui Teka * Flock of Hearts – The Phoenix Foundation ==Release== Boy premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival on 22 January 2010 and competed in the "World Cinema – Dramatic" category. It was theatrically released on 25 March 2010 in New Zealand, and screened at the Antipodean Film Festival in Saint Tropez, France, in October 2010. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray in 2011 by Paramount Home Media Distribution. ==Reception== ===Critical response=== Based on 65 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an overall approval rating from critics of 87%, with an average score of 7.3/10. Its critics consensus reads, "Boy possesses the offbeat charm associated with New Zealand film but is also fully capable of drawing the viewer in emotionally." Peter Calder of The New Zealand Herald gave the film five out of five stars. He praised the performances of the three main actors and said "it's hard to praise too highly the pitch-perfect tone of this movie." The film critic Clarisse Loughrey has identified it as her favourite film, along with The Apartment.https://www.kinosociety.com/podcast/clarisse-loughrey/ ===Box office=== On release in New Zealand, the film topped the box office receipts for the week, earning more on its opening day than any previous New Zealand film. The film grossed nearly $900,000 in its first seven days, beating Alice in Wonderland and homegrown pictures Whale Rider and The World's Fastest Indian. It also climbed above international animated-fantasy hit How to Train Your Dragon and mythical action flick Clash of the Titans. Boy become the highest grossing New Zealand film to date in the country, surpassing The World's Fastest Indian which had held the position for five years. ===Awards=== * AFI Fest Audience Award – Best International Feature Film – Taika Waititi – Won * Asia Pacific Screen Award – Best Children's Feature Film – Ainsley Gardiner, Cliff Curtis, Emanuel Michael and Merata Mita – Nominated * Berlin International Film Festival Deutsches Kinderhilfswerk Grand Prix – Best Feature Film – Taika Waititi – Won * Melbourne International Film Festival Most Popular Feature Film – Taika Waititi – Won * Sundance Film Festival Grand Jury Prize – World Cinema – Dramatic – Taika Waititi – Nominated * Sydney Film Festival Audience Award – Best Feature Film – Taika Waititi – Won * New Zealand Film and TV Awards – 13 nominations, seven wins including Best Feature Film, Best Director, and Best Screenplay ==Notes== :1. International television and home media distribution is handled by Kino Lorber. ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:2010 films Category:2010s coming-of-age comedy-drama films Category:2010s New Zealand films Category:2010 comedy films Category:2010 drama films Category:Films directed by Taika Waititi Category:Films with screenplays by Taika Waititi Category:Films set on farms Category:Films set in New Zealand Category:Films set in 1984 Category:Films shot in New Zealand Category:Kickstarter-funded films Category:Māori-language films Category:New Zealand coming-of-age comedy- drama films Category:Films about treasure hunting Category:Vertigo Films films Category:2010s English-language films |
The M62 is a Soviet-built diesel locomotive for heavy freight trains, exported to many Eastern Bloc countries as well as to Cuba, North Korea and Mongolia. Beside the single locomotive M62 also twin versions 2M62 and three-section versions 3M62 have been built. A total number of 7,164 single sections have been produced, which have been used to build 5,231 single-, twin- and three- section locomotives. ==History== According to the Comecon directives production of heavy diesel locomotives among Eastern Bloc countries was left exclusively to Romania and the Soviet Union. The M62 was developed by the Vorohsilovgrad Locomotive Factory (today: Luhansk Locomotive Factory) on order of Hungary. The M62 designation originates from the Hungarian order, as the Hungarian railways previously ordered Swedish locomotives called M61 in Hungary. The Soviets disliked this and forced Hungary to buy Soviet locomotives, but the USSR did not have suitable diesel locomotives at the time, spurring the development of the type. The first few prototypes of this heavy freight locomotive were ready in 1964 and the first buyer outside the Soviet Union was Hungary. A total number of 723 units were produced in the Soviet Union. ==Operators== ===Soviet Union M62=== thumb|left|First made M62-1 Between 1970 and 1976 the Soviet Union Railway (SZhD) received 723 M62 engines, further 13 M62U units have been delivered between 1989 and 1990. These engines were single 3M62U sections. For the Soviet military 154 locomotives named DM62 were built. These engines have been modified for pulling SS-24 Scalpel ballistic rocket launcher trains. For industrial railroads 39 engines of the version M62UP have been built. These engines had improved trucks, larger fuel tanks and modified exhaust silencers. ===Poland ST44=== thumb|left|ST44-133 In the early 1960s an urgent need appeared in Poland for a heavy freight diesel locomotive. The Polish industry at the time was not able to produce such a locomotive, so a decision was made to import a large number of M62 locomotives from the Soviet Union, which were already imported by Hungarian MÁV. In Poland those machines received ST44 designation During first-revision repairs all locomotives had front lights changed from small ones into standard, Polish large types. The decision is said to have been made after Poland had started to import ST43 locomotives from Romania and probably came directly from the Soviet Union. For political reasons, the Soviet Union simply forced Poland to buy Soviet instead of Romanian locomotives, as it preferred satellite countries not to export their products. The first four locomotives, produced by the Voroshilovgrad Locomotive Factory (in today's Luhansk, Ukraine), were delivered to Poland in September 1965. Deliveries continued until 1988, with 1,191 locomotives delivered in total (1,114 for PKP standard-gauge network, 68 broad-gauge units for LHS and 9 for the industry). One of the locomotives (ST44-1500 – producer's designation M63) had newer bogies and traction engines, allowing it to reach a higher top speed. The broad-gauge units, numbered from 2001 to 2068, imported to run on the LHS, were equipped with an automatic coupling system. There were several reasons for importing M62 locomotives to Poland, and today's views on this decision are quite ambiguous. The locomotive was more powerful than even the strongest of the Polish steam locomotives used for freight transport in those days, but it could not haul passenger trains due to it being not equipped to provide heating or power to carriages, it also caused extensive damage to railway tracks. Another important disadvantage of the M62 is its very high fuel consumption. The advantages of this machine though are a fairly simple construction coupled with a largely reliable diesel-electric transmission. Intensive electrification of Polish railways caused the relatively new ST44 locomotives to be mothballed into reserve stock. Many machines withdrawn from PKP found their place among industrial and private railways, where they only bore the producer's M62 designation. ====Present use==== thumb|left|ST44-1237 in 2013 Heavy fuel and oil consumption as well as heavy wear caused to the tracks has resulted in Polish State Railways reducing the use of the class. In 2007 many of them still remain in service with PKP for freight use, although most of them have now been stored. Some routes (e.g. Gdynia–Hel line) forbid the running of the ST44 class because this class's excessive weight causes serious damage to lightly built track work. The locomotives that are still in use in large numbers, are owned and operated by private railroad companies, as well as the LHS broad gauge line. Today around 50 of the class are located at Zamość depot, and it has been decided to mothball them for the moment. In 2005, two ST44 locomotives were completely rebuilt by Bumar-Fablok S.A. and delivered to the LHS line. Changes made included new Caterpillar 3516B HD Diesel Engines and Primary Alternators. These locomotives were designated as 3001 and 3002. thumb|right|311D by Newag, owned by PCC Rail Since 2007 Newag offers extensive modernisations of the M62 locomotives that involve the replacement of the prime mover and generator, fitting new drivers' cabs and new body. The modernised units bear the manufacturer's designation 311D (standard gauge) and 311Da (Russian gauge). The modernised locomotive develops , 331 kN tractive effort and has maximum speed of . Modernised units have been supplied to a number of operators in Poland, PKP Cargo classifies them as ST40 and PKP LHS – as ST40s. thumb|right|207E – electric M62 on show at Trako industry fair, Gdańsk, September 2017 In 2017 Polish train operator , in co- operation with VIS Systems, converted one ST44 to 3 kV DC electric. The new locomotive, designated 207E, uses the original's bogies and underframe; it develops power and has maximum speed of . The company has converted another unit since and plans to convert 12 locomotives altogether. ===North Korea K62=== thumb|Naeyŏn 706, a Soviet-built M62-type diesel locomotive obtained second-hand from Germany Because of its low maintenance requirements M62 locomotive is quite popular with the Korean State Railway of the North Korea, where they serve not only on non-electrified lines but on electrified ones as well. 64 locomotives of this type were imported from the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation between 1967 and 1995, numbered in the 내연6xx (Naeyŏn 6xx) series.Kokubu, Hayato, 将軍様の鉄道 (Shōgun-sama no Tetsudō), Between 1996 and 1998 31 locomotives were delivered from Deutsche Bahn. In 2000 six units were delivered from Slovak Railways and 13 units from Polish State Railways. None of the delivered locomotives were painted in standard North Korean livery (which is light blue over green) and they still bear the same livery as in previous service, except the former German ones, which were given a different, green livery. Those units acquired from Germany are numbered in the 내연7xx (Naeyŏn 7xx) series, while those acquired from Poland and Slovakia are numbered in the 내연8xx (Naeyŏn 8xx) series. thumb|Kŭmsŏng 8002, a North Korean- built copy of the M62. Locomotive Naeyŏn 602 has a special red tablet mounted on it that states that this machine was personally inspected by Kim Il-sung. Two copies were built in North Korea, numbers 8001 and 8002, and given the designation “Kŭmsŏng” (“Venus”). 8002 has been on display at the Museum of the Three Revolutions since its construction, while 8001 is in regular service. At least 15 North Korean M62 locomotives were converted to electric locomotives by Kim Chŏng-tae Electric Locomotive Works in 1998. This is presumed to be quite easy, as the overhead voltage in North Korea is 3000 V. Numbered 1.5-01 to 1.5-15, these are known as the Kanghaenggun-class (강행군, "Forced March"). ===Germany BR 120=== A total of 396 locomotives were sent to East Germany between 1966 and 1978, most of which ended up at the Deutsche Reichsbahn with some being delivered to East German industry. The Reichsbahn used the M62 locomotives at first under the designation V 200, while later reclassifying those units as BR 120\. After the reunification of Germany and subsequent merger of the Deutsche Reichsbahn into the Bundesbahn the class designation was changed to BR 220 for the Deutsche Bundesbahn, as the original class number was already in use for the electric BR 120, and class designation ranges 100-199 were reserved for electric locomotives under the Bundesbahn's scheme. However, they were quickly phased out and by the end of 1994 the class had all but disappeared, with 31 units from Germany having been sold to North Korea. ===Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic class 781=== thumb|Czech 781.600 locomotive in museum Between 1966 and 1979 a total of 599 locomotives were imported into Czechoslovakia where at first they were given a T679.1 designation for standard-gauge locomotives and T679.5 for broad-gauge machines. Later in 1988 those numbers were changed to 781 and 781.8 respectively. Those machines were working in the Czech Republic and Slovakia until 2002. ===Hungary M62=== thumb|Hungarian locomotive M62 271 From 1965 till 1978 the Hungarian State Railways MÁV received 294 locomotives named M62. The M62 001 was actually the first M62 ever built, and is still running. The M62 designation and creation of the type originates from the MÁV order, as the Hungarian railways previously ordered Swedish Nohab locomotives called class M61 in MÁV service. A program to replace the original, very outdated two- stroke Kolomna 14D40 power plants with a modern, more efficient engine was started in 1997, with the first locomotive, M62 301 debuting in early 2001. M62 301, 303 and 304 received MTU, the rest Caterpillar power plants. The program also included a thorough overhaul of the locomotives, including fitting better equipment for the driver, air conditioning, improved electrical system, etc. The 34 remotorized locomotives (M62 301–335) have been renamed M62.3 and received the nicknames "Remot-Szergej" for remotorized Szergej, "Csendes" meaning quiet, as well as "Csörgős" because of the rattling sound made by the engine. Between 1970 and 1978, MÁV purchased 15 locomotives M62.5 with bogies for the Russian broad gauge. Three more M62.5 have been rebuilt from standard gauge M62. The broad-gauge engines are used for operation near Zahony in the border region of the former Soviet Union (now Ukraine). In 2005 still seven M62.5 have been in use. 1972 also the Raab-Oedenburg-Ebenfurther Eisenbahn (Győr-Sopron-Ebenfurti Vasút, GySEV), an Austro-Hungarian joint venture, received six standard-gauge locomotives named M62.9. The locomotives were stationed in Sopron but were scrapped in 1996. ===Cuba class M-62K=== Twenty locomotives, named M-62K class were shipped to Cuba between 1974 and 1975 and subsequently used by the Ferrocarriles de Cuba. The "K" designation comes after the Russian spelling of the name Cuba, "Куба". Though most of these machines are no longer in service on the island, one of them, numbered 61602 is on display at the National Railroad Museum in Havana. This one was driven by Fidel Castro on the inauguration of a tram between Cumbre and Placetas in the center of the country. Other surviving M-62Ks have been spotted in the central city of Cienfuegos; these are numbered 61611 and 61605. (See photo here:) ===Mongolia M62=== From 1980 till 1990 MTZ received 13 single units M62UM and 66 twin units 2M62M. ==Technical data== ===Overview=== The M62 locomotive has a Co-Co wheel arrangement, running on two bogies with three axles on each bogie. Chassis and bogie frames are constructed out of box elements. The two-stroke diesel engine and the main alternator are mounted on a steel frame. The frame is fixed to the chassis with elastic supports. Electric traction motors are mounted on bogie frames with a tram system. M62 is equipped with electro-pneumatic multiple-unit controls; therefore it is possible to drive two locomotives from one cab. The locomotive had enough power to pull a freight train with a top speed of (on level track), while two coupled locomotives are able to pull trains up to . The top speed in such a case was . ===Comparison with M61=== In Hungarian service, the M62 proved inferior to the Swedish-American NOHAB M61, which, while 10 tons lighter and slightly less powerful, could haul 25% more weight with 50-60% of the Soviet engine's fuel consumption. The M62 was unable to run from Budapest to Nyíregyháza and back without refueling, which led to congestion and timetable problems when the NOHAB was replaced by the M62 on that route. ===Engines=== The M62's 14D40 V diesel engine was unreliable because it was developed in a short timeframe from scratch, without previous design experience. In the 1950s domestically built Soviet diesel locomotives, having the wider track base and taller tunnel clearances, used vertical opposed-piston engines.Locomotive Panorama Volume II. E.S. Cox. Ian Allan Publishing 1966 (Paperback Edition 1974). Pages 68 to 73 inclusive deal with Mr. Cox's visit to the Soviet Union. These (e.g. Kharkov 2D100/9D100/10D100) were based on the Fairbanks-Morse 38D8 design which was installed by F-M in their H15-44 Hood and H20-44 Hood road switcher locomotives, as well as the F-M 'Erie-Built' Passenger and Freight cab units. The Soviet opposed-piston engines, like their US counterparts, were simply too tall to fit in locomotives designed for the standard-gauge railways with the tighter tunnel allowances of Eastern Bloc satellite countries. After the fall of the Soviet Bloc, 31 units of MÁV's M62 fleet were rebuilt with Caterpillar engines in the 1990s, but lack of funds stopped further upgrades. ===No train heating=== The M62 was a dedicated freight mover and lacked any carriage heating or power supply equipment, even though most Soviet satellite- state customers needed to use them in dual cargo/passenger role regularly (Soviet trains of the era were heated with individual per-coach drum fireplaces). In cold times a dedicated heating wagon had to be added to MÁV's M62-drawn trains, producing steam from oil-fired boilers (1960-70s era), later on generating electricity for electric heating (1980s era). This proved to be a costly solution, in contrast to the M61 NOHAB, which could produce 750 kg of steam per hour using an internal water tank and engine waste heat, with minimal effects on fuel consumption. ==Nicknames== This locomotive has a certain cult following among railfans, and is referred to by several nicknames, usually derived from its Soviet provenance: * Gagarin in Poland – from the space flight pioneer * Iwan/Ivan or Siergiej/Sergej in Poland or Czechoslovakia – from two popular Russian names * Szergej in Hungary – from a popular Russian name * Taigatrommel (Taiga drum) in Germany – from the amount of noise and vibration the locomotive, the first locomotives was exported to the GDR without exhaust silencers. * Stalin's last revenge in Germany – for the same reason. * Mukha ( = fly) in Belarus. * Sinsŏng ( = Nova) in North Korea. * In the Soviet Union the locomotive had one widespread nickname – Mashka () (diminutive of Maria, a reference to the "M" designation). ==See also== * The Museum of the Moscow Railway, at Paveletsky Rail Terminal, Moscow * Rizhsky Rail Terminal, Moscow, Home of the Moscow Railway Museum * Varshavsky Rail Terminal, Saint Petersburg, Home of the Central Museum of Railway Transport, Russian Federation * History of rail transport in Russia == Resources == Category:Railway locomotives introduced in 1965 M62 M62 M62 Voroshilovgrad Luhansk locomotives Category:Diesel-electric locomotives of Hungary Category:Locomotives of North Korea Category:5 ft gauge locomotives Category:Standard gauge locomotives of Poland Category:Standard gauge locomotives of North Korea Category:Standard gauge locomotives of Hungary Category:Standard gauge locomotives of Germany Category:Standard gauge locomotives of Czechoslovakia Category:Standard gauge locomotives of the Czech Republic Category:Standard gauge locomotives of Cuba Category:Diesel-electric locomotives of Germany Category:Diesel-electric locomotives of the Czech Republic Category:Diesel-electric locomotives of Czechoslovakia Category:Co′Co′ locomotives Category:Freight locomotives cs:MÁV řada M62 hu:MÁV M62 |
The following is a list of notable non-Muslim authors on Islam.Many general and specific reference sources were used for the very wide variety of authors herein. The general sources employed include: Bearman, Bianquis, Bosworth, van Donzel, & Heinrichs (editors), Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition., 12 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960-2005); Brandon (editor), Dictionary of Comparative Religion (New York: Scribners 1970); Norman Daniel, Islam and the West (Edinburgh Univ. 1958); John L. Esposito, Oxford Dictionary of Islam (Oxford Univ. 2003); Gibb & Kramers (editors), Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: Brill 1953; Cyril Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam (San Francisco: HarperCollins 1989). ==Chronological by date of birth== ===622 to 1500=== *Sebeos (fl. 651), Armenian historian, documented in his History the rise of Muhammad and the early Muslim conquests. *Joannis Damasceni (c. 676–749), official of the Caliph at Damascus, later a Syrian monk, Doctor of the Church, his Peri Aireseon [Concerning Heresies] [t], its chapter 100 being "Heresy of the Ishmailites" (attribution questioned). *Du Huan, captured at 751 Battle of Talas, traveled in Muslim lands for ten years, his Jingxingji [Record of Travels] (c. 770) contains descriptions of Muslim life; book lost, but quoted by his uncle Du You in his Tongdian (766-801), an encyclopedia of China. *Sankara (c. 788–820) of Kerala, pivotal Hindu reformer; theologian of non- duality, the Advaita Vedanta: a unity of self (atman) and the whole (Brahman); unresolved is the claim that early notions of the Sufi wahdat al-wujud [Oneness of Being] was synthesized by Sankara. *Abd al-Masih ibn Ishaq al- Kindi, probably 8th/9th century Abbasid, pseudonym [Servant of the Messiah...] of an Arab Christian, author of the Risalah, a dialogue with a Muslim; later translated into Latin by Pedro de Toledo, this work Apology became very influential in Europe. *Nicetas Byzantius, his 9th century polemic Anatrope tes para tou Arabos... (P.G., v.105) picks at the Qur'an chapter by chapter. *Mardan-Farrukh of Iran, his late 9th century Sikand-Gumanik Vigar [Doubt- Dispelling Treatise] [t] (S.B.E., v.24) favorably compares his Zoroastrianism, especially its theodicy, with Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, whose doctrines and beliefs are discussed. *Petrus Venerabilis (c. 1092–1156), Abbot of Cluny (France), while in Hispania circa 1240, inspired a group led by Robert of Ketton (England), with Herman von Carinthia (Slovenia), Pierre de Poitiers (France), and the mozarab Pedro de Toledo to translate the Qur'an into Latin, hence the Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete (1143); it circulated only in manuscript copies until 1543. Often only a tinted paraphrase, later George Sales would say it "deserves not the name of translation" because of its inaccuracy. *Raimundo, Arzobispo de Toledo (r. 1125–1152) sponsored uncensored translations, at first by Domingo Gundisalvo a mozarab who rendered into Latin the Spanish translations from Arabic by the converso Juan Avendaut; later joined by European scholars, e.g., Gerardo da Cremona. From books found in al- Andalus, e.g., the pagan Aristotle (centuries earlier translated from ancient Greek into Arabic by Syrian Christians), and the Muslims Ibn Sina (Avicenna), al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd (Averroës); such translations led to controversy & the eventual "baptism" of Aristotle by Tomas d'Aquino at the University of Paris. *Mose ben Maimon (1135–1204), major Jewish theologian and talmudist who fled Al-Andalus for Morocco, then Cairo, his Dalalat al-Ha'rin [Guide of the Perplexed] (Fostat 1190) [in Arabic] [t], reconciles the Bible and the Talmud with Aristotle, discusses Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and the Muslim Kalam, especially the Mutakallimun, as well as the Mutazili; influenced by Ibn Rushd (Averroës). *Marco de Toledo (fl. 1193–1216) Castile, an improved Latin translation from Arabic of the Qur'an. *Francesco d'Assisi (1182–1226), Italian saint, as peaceful missionary to Muslims, preached before Al-Kamil, Kurdish Sultan of Egypt, in 1219 during the fifth crusade; his Regula non bullata (1221) [t], chapter XVI "Those who are going among the Saracens and other unbelievers" counsels not to enter disputes, but rather humility, proclaiming what will please God. *Frederick II (1194–1250), Hohenstaufen Emperor, at whose court in Palermo, Sicily, translations from Arabic into Latin continued. *Ibn Kammuna (c. 1215-c. 1285), Jewish scholar of Baghdad, his fair-minded though controversial Tanqih al-abhat li-l-milal al-talat [Examination of the Inquiries into the Three Faiths] (1280) [in Arabic] [t]. *Alfonso X el Sabio (1221–1284), Castile, his royal Scriptorium or Escuela de Traductores continued translations from Arabic (especially Greek scientific works and Islamic) into Latin, which then became widely known in Europe; many translators were Jewish. *Ramon Marti (d. c. 1286) Castilla, Dominican friar, Summa contra errores Alcoranorum (1260); Pugio fidei adversus mauros et judaeos (c. 1280); a traditional partisan, he refers to the Qur'an, Hadith, as well as al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd. *Tomás d'Aquino (c. 1225–1274) Italian Dominican, Doctor of the Church ("Angelicus"), his Summa contra Gentiles (c. 1261–64) [t], includes criticism of the Aristotelianism of Ibn Rushd (Averroës); also De Unitate Intellectus Contra Averroistas (Paris 1270) [t]. *Bar 'Ebraya [Abu-l-Farag] (1226–1286), Catholicos of the Syriac Orthodox Church, learned theologian, prolific author, his spiritual treatise in Syriac Kethabha dhe yauna [Book of the Dove], as well as his Ethikon said by Wensinck to show influence by al-Ghazali. *Ramon Llull [Raimundo Lulio] (1232–1316) Majorcan author and theologian, "Doctor Illuminatus", proponent of the "Ars Magna", fluent in Arabic, three times missionary to Tunis; his Llibre del Gentile e dels tres Savis (1274–76) [t], in which one learned in Hellenic philosophy hears three scholars, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim, whose views are shared with exquisite courtesy by reasoning over their mutual virtues, rather than by attack and defense. Lull infers a heterodox continuum between the natural & the revealed supernatural. *Riccoldo di Monte Croce (1243–1320) Italian (Firenze) Dominican, a missionary during the 1290s, lived in Baghdad, his Propugnaculum Fidei soon translated into Greek, later into German by Martin Luther; also polemic Contra Legum Serracenorum (Baghdad, c. 1290). *Ramananda (died 1410) Hindu egalitarian reformer of bhakti movement, origin as Brahmin in sect of Ramanuja; his popular synthesis of both Islamic and Hindu elements led also to inter-religious understanding; the Sant Mat poet Kabir was a disciple. *Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo (died 1412), ambassador of Enrique III of Castile to Timur at Samarkand, Embajada a Tamor Lán (1582) [t]. *Nicolaus Cusanus (1401–1464) German Cardinal, at cusp of renaissance; following the fall of Constantinople, his De pace fidei (1455) [t] sought common ground among the various religions, presenting fictitious short dialogues involving an Arab, an Indian, an Assyrian, a Jew, a Scythian, a Persian, a Syrian, a Turk, a Tartar, and various Christians; also his Cribratio Alcorani (1460). *Nanak (1469–1539) India, influenced by Muslim sufis and Hindu bhakti, became a teacher who traveled far to preach the unity of God; Sikhs revere him as their first Guru; opposed to caste divisions, and opposed to Hindu-Muslim rivalry/conflict. *Leo Africanus (c.1488-1554), originally Al Hassan, Muslim of Fez; traveled with his diplomat uncle to Timbuktu; later captured by Christian pirates & sold into slavery; freed by Pope Leo X and baptised; wrote Cosmographia Dell'Africa of his travels; returned to Islam. * => The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English. ===1500 to 1800=== *Enbaqom (c.1470-1565), Ethiopia, echage or abbot of Dabra Libanos, origin as trader from Yemen; his Anqasa Amin [Gateway of Faith] (c.1533), written in Ge'ez, defends Christianity contra Islam, citing the Qur'an, and is addressed to the Muslim invader Ahmad Gran. *Theodor Bibliander [Buchmann] (1506–1564), Swiss (Zurich) theologian, in 1543 published in Basle various documents (with a preface by Martin Luther), which included the Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete of 1143. *Luis de Marmol Carvajal (c. 1520-c. 1600), Spanish soldier in Africa twenty years, captured and enslaved seven years, travels in Guinea, North Africa, Egypt, and perhaps Ethiopia: Descripción general de África (1573, 1599). *Alonso del Castillo (1520s-c.1607), Spain, formative work in Arabic archives and inscriptions (his father once a Morisco of Granada). *Andre du Ryer (c. 1580-c. 1660) France, translation of the Qur'an: L'Alcoran de Mahomet translaté d'arabe en françois (Paris 1647) [t]. *Alexander Ross (1591–1654), Scotland, chaplain to Charles I, first English translation of the Qur'an (1649) from the French of du Ryer. *Ludovico Marracci (1612–1700) Italian priest, professor of Arabic, Latin translation of the Qur'an, Alcorani textus universus... (Padova 1698), publication delayed by Church censors, in two volumes: Prodromus contains a biography of Mohammad and summary of Islamic doctrine; Refutatio Alcorani contains the Qur'an in Arabic text, with Latin translation, annotated per partisan purposes (cf., Ottoman military proximity); cited by Edward Gibbon. Also, his earlier contributions translating the Bible into Arabic (1671). *Dara Shikuh (1615–1659), Mughal, elder brother of Aurangzeb; Muslim but included here because of his syncretism in the tradition of his great- grandfather Akbar; his Majma-ul-Bahrain [Mingling of Two Oceans] (1655) [t] finds parallels between Sufism and the monotheistic Vedanta of Hinduism, it was later translated into Sanskrit; also his own translation into Persian of the Upanishads. *Johann Heinrich Hottinger (1620–1667) Swiss philologist, theologian, Historia Orientalis (Tiguri 1651) in Latin. *Barthelemy d'Herbelot de Molainville (1625–1695) French philologist, Bibliothèque orientale (1697), based initially on the Turkish scholar Katip Celebi's Kashf al-Zunum which contains over 14,000 alphabetical entries. *Henry Stubbe (1632–1676) English author, his An Account of the rise and progress of Mahometanism: with the life of Mahomet and a vindication of him and his religion from the calumnies of the Christians, which evidently lay in manuscript several hundred years until edited by Mahmud Khan Shairani and published (London: Luzac 1911). *Jean Chardin (1643–1713) French merchant, Journal du Voyage.. de Chardin en Perse et aux Indes Orientales (1686, 1711) [t]. *Antoine Galland (1646–1715) France, first in the West to translate the Arabian Nights, Les Mille et Une Nuits (1704–1717). *Humphrey Prideaux (1648–1724) Anglican Dean, traditional partisan, The True Nature of Imposture fully display'd in the Life of Mahomet (London 1697), reprint 1798, Fairhaven, Vermont; this work follows earlier polemics, & also refutes European deists. *Abraham Hinckelmann (1652–1692), edited an Arabic text of the Qur'an, later published in Hamburg, Germany, in 1694. *Henri Comte de Boulainviller (1658–1722) French historian, his Vie de Mahomet (2nd ed., Amsterdam 1731) [t], praises what he saw as the instrumental rationalism of the prophet, portraying Islam in terms of a natural religion. *Liu Zhi (c.1660-c.1730) Chinese Muslim scholar writing in Chinese (Arabic "Han Kitab", Chinese books); during early Qing, presented Islam to Manchus as consonant with Confucianism, e.g., his Tianfang Dianli dealing with ritual, comparing li with Muslim practice. *Jean Gagnier (c. 1670–1740) Oxford Univ., De vita et rebus Mohammedis (1723), annotated Latin translation of chapters on Muhammad from Mukhtasar Ta'rikh a-Bashar by Abu 'l-Fida (1273–1331); also La Vie de Mahomet (Amsterdam 1748), biography in French. *Liu Chih (16wx-17yz) China, T'ien-fang Chih-sheng shi-lu ([1721-1724], 1779), ["True Annals of the Prophet of Arabia"]; I. Mason [t], The Arabian Prophet; A life of Mohammed from Chinese sources (Shanghai 1921).S. Munro-Hay, Aksum (Edinburgh Univ. 1991) at 92. *Simon Ochley (1678-1720) England, Cambridge Univ., his History of the Saracens (1708, 1718) praises Islam at arm's length. *Voltaire [Francois-Marie Arouet] (1694–1778) French author, critic, anti-cleric, deist, wealthy speculator; his play Mahomet le prophete ou le fanatisme (1741) [t], invents scurrilous legends & attacks hypocrisy, (also being a hidden attack on the French ancien régime). *George Sale (1697–1736), English lawyer, using Hinckelmann and Marracci, annotated and translated into English a well regarded The Koran (1734); member of the "Society for Promotion of Christian Knowledge", proofread its Arabic New Testament (S.P.C.K. 1726). *Miguel Casiri (1710-1780s), Syrian Maronite, Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis (2 volumes, Madrid 1760–1770). *Carsten Niebuhr (1733–1815) Germany, member of royal Danish expedition to Yemen, Beschreibung von Arabien (Kobenhavn 1772); Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Landern (3 volumes, Kobenhavn 1774, 1778, Hamburg 1837). *Silvestre de Sacy (1758–1838) Jewish French, his Grammaire arabe (2v., 1810); teacher of Champollion who read the Rosetta Stone. *José Antonio Conde (1765–1820) Historia de la dominacion de los arabes en Espana (Madrid 1820–1821), pioneer work now depreciated. *Ram Mohan Roy [Raja Ram Mohun Roy] (1772–1833), India (Kolkata, Bengal), early journalist, influential religious and social reformer, founder of Brahmo Samaj, his Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin [Gift of the Unitarians] (1803–1804), a book in Persian on, e.g., the unity of religions. *Washington Irving (1783–1859) U.S., author, Minister to Spain 1842–1846, Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829); Tales of the Alhambra (1832, 1851) where he lived several years; Mahomet and His Successors (New York City: Putnam 1849) a popular, fair-minded biography based on translations from Arabic and on western authors, since edited (Univ.of Wisconsin 1970). *Charles Mills (1788–1826) England, History of Mohammedanism (1818). *Garcin de Tassy (1794–1878) France, L'Islamisme d'apre le Coran (Paris 1874), the religion based on a reading of the Qur'an. *Yusuf Ma Dexin (1794–1874) Chinese (Yunnan) Muslim scholar and leader; first to translate the Qur'an into Chinese. *A. P. Caussin de Perceval (1795–1871) Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'Islamisme (Paris 1847–1849), Arabia before Muhammad. *=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English. ===1800 to 1900=== *Gustav Leberecht Flügel (1802–1870), Germany, Al-Qoran: Corani textus Arabicus (Leipzig 1834), Arabic text for academics. *Gustav Weil (1808–1889) Jewish German, Mohammed der Prophet (Stuttgart 1843); Biblische Legenden der Musel-manner (Frankfort 1845) [t]; Das Leben Mohammeds nach Mohammed ibn Ishak, bearbeitet von Abdel Malik ibn Hischam (Stuttgart 1864). *John Medows Rodwell (1808–1900), English translation of The Koran, using derived chronological sequence of Suras. *Pascual de Gayangos y Arce (1809–1897), Spanish Arabist, studied under de Sacy in Paris; translated al-Maqqari (d.1632) into English as History of the Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain (1840, 1843); Tratados de Legislación Musulmana (v.5, Mem.His.Esp. 1853). *Abraham Geiger (1810–1874) German rabbi and scholar, major founder of Reform Judaism, his Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen? (Bonn 1833) [t] restates and updates a perennial thesis (e.g., cf. L. Marracci). *Aloys Sprenger (1813–1893) Austria, Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad (2nd edition, 3 volumes, Berlin 1869). *Carl Paul Caspari (1814–1892) German, Christian convert from Judaism, Norwegian academic, Grammatica Arabica (1844–48), Latin. *William Muir (1819–1905), Scotland, government official in India, The Life of Mohamet (London, 1861). *Edward Rehatsek (1819–1891) Hungary, later India, first translation of Sirah Rasul Allah into English (deposited, 1898). *Reinhart Dozy (1820–1883) Netherlands, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne jusqu'a la Conquete de l'Andalousie par les Almoravides (Leiden, 1861), 4 volumes; Recherches sur l'Histoire et la Littérature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen âge (1881). *Richard Francis Burton (1821–1890) British, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Madinah and Mecca (2 vol., 1855). *Ernest Renan (1823–1892) French, Catholic apostate, Histoire generale et system compare des langues semitiques (Paris 1863). *Friedrich Max Müller (1823–1900) German philologist, comparative religion pioneer, Oxford Univ. professor, editor of 50 volume Sacred Books of the East, volumes 6 and 9 being the Qur'an translated by E. H. Palmer. *:es:Francisco Javier Simonet (1825-c.1897) Spanish Arabist, traditional partisan, Leyendas históricas árabes (Madrid 1858); Historia de los mozarabes de Espana (Madrid 1897–1903); controversial views, e.g., suggests that one-sided Muslim marriage law caused an insulation in the subject people that over generations fused their religious & lineage identities, hence focus put on limpio de sangre. *Ludolf Krehl (1825–1901) Beitrage zur Muhammedanischen Dogmatik (Leipzig 1885). *Alfred von Kremer (1828–1889) Austria, professor of Arabic at Wien, foreign service to Cairo, Egypt; Geschichte de herrschenden Ideen des Islams (Leipzig 1868); Culturgeschichte Streifzüge auf dem Gebiete des Islams (Leipzig 1873) [t]. *Girish Chandra Sen (1836–1910) India, translated Muslim works into Bengali, including the Qur'an (1886); professor of Islam for the Brahmo Samaj, universalist Hindu reform society founded in 1828 by Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833). *:es:Francisco Codera y Zaidín (1836–1917) Tratado numismática arábigo-español (Madrid 1879); founded Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana. *Michael Jan de Geoje (1836–1909) Dutch academic, led the editing of the Arabic text of Ta'rikh al-rasul wa'l muluk [History of Prophets and Kings] of the Persian al- Tabari (d. 923), in 14 volumes (Leiden: Brill 1879–1901). *Theodor Nöldeke (1836–1930) Germany, well regarded philologist and academic, Das Leben Mohammeds (1863); Zur Grammatik de klassische Arabisch (1896); with Friedrich Schwally Geschichte des Qorans (Leipzig, 1909–1919, 2 volumes). *Edward Henry Palmer (1840–1882), English; traveler in Arab lands; called to the bar in 1874; translated Qur'an for the S.B.E. (1880); killed in Egypt by desert ambush while with British military patrol. *Ignazio Guidi (1844–1935) Italy, L'Arabe anteislamique (Paris 1921). *Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918) Germany, Muhammed in Medina (Berlin 1882); Das Arabische Reich und sein Sturz (Berlin 1902); his Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels (Berlin 1878, 1882) [t] presents studies using the "higher criticism" of the Bible. *William Robertson Smith (1846–1894) Scotland, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (Cambridge 1885); Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1889), sought to locate ancient Judaism in its historical context; in his Old Testament studies influenced by Wellhausen. *Italo Pizzi (1849–1920) L'Islamismo (Milan 1905). *Ignaz Goldziher (1850–1921), Hungary, Die Zahiriten (Leipzig 1884); Muhammedanische Studien (2 volumes, Halle 1889–1890) [t] {vol.2 questions hadith}; Vorlesungen uber den Islam (Heidelberg 1910, 1925) [t]; Die Richtungen der islamischen Koranauslegung (Leiden 1920); well regarded Jewish scholar, admirer of Islam, e.g., writing that he felt fulfillment when praying with Muslims in a Cairo mosque. *Herbert Udny Weitbrecht (1851−1937), The Teaching of the Qur’an with an Account of Its Growth and a Subjekt Index, (1919) *Martijn Theodoor Houtsma (1851–1943) Netherlands, lead editor of Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: E.J.Brill 1913–1938), 9 volumes; eclipsed by a new edition (1954–2002) of 11 volumes with index and supplements. *Julián Ribera y Tarragó (1858–1934) Spain (Valencia), professor of Arabic, studies in mixed culture of al-Andalus (e.g., connections to the troubadours); El Cancionero de Abencuzmán (Madrid 1912); La musica de las Cantigas (Madrid 1922). *David Samuel Margoliouth (1858–1940), Anglican, his father a Jewish convert, Mohammed and the Rise of Islam (London 1905, 1923); Relations between Arabs and Israelites prior to the Rise of Islam (1924); Table-talk of a Mesopotamian judge (1921, 1922, 2v). *William St. Clair Tisdall (1859–1928) Anglican priest, linguist, traditional partisan, The Original Sources of the Quran (S.P.C.K. 1905). *Edward G. Browne (1862–1926) English, A Literary History of Persia (4 volumes, 1902–1924). *Henri Lammens (1862–1937) Flemish Jesuit, a modern partisan; Fatima et ls filles de Mahomet (Roma 1912); Le berceau de l'Islam (Roma 1914); L'Islam, croyances et institutions (Beyrouth 1926) [t]; L'Arabe Occidental avant l'Hegire (Beyrouth 1928). *Henri Pirenne (1862–1935) Belgian historian, Mahomet et Charlemagne (Paris 1937) [t], how the Arab conquests disrupted Mediterranean trade, isolating the European economies which declined. *Maurice Gaudefroy- Desmombynes (1862–1957) France, Le pelerinage a la Mekke (Paris 1923); Le monde musulman et byzantin jusqu'aux croisades (Paris 1931) with S.F.Platonov; Les institutions musulmanes (Paris 1946) [t]. *Duncan Black MacDonald (1863–1943) Scotland; Hartford Seminary in U.S.; Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory (New York 1903); The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam (Chicago 1909). *Friedrich Zacharias Schwally (1863–1919), Germany; student of Theodor Nöldeke; Ibraham ibn Muhammed el-Baihaqi Kitab el Mahdsin val Masdwi (Leipzig 1899–1902); Kitab al- mahasin vai-masavi (Gießen 1902). *Thomas Walker Arnold (1864–1930) England, professor in India associating with Shibli Nomani & Muhammad Iqbal, later at London S.O.A.S.; The Caliphate (Oxford 1924); Painting in Islam. A study of the place of pictorial art in Muslim culture (1928); The Preaching of Islam (1929); Legacy of Islam (Oxford 1931) editor with A. Guillaume. *Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936) Spain, philosopher; embraced Spanish connection to Berber North Africa but not to the Arabs.J. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship (1970) at 247-248, 251. *François Nau (1864–1913) Les chrétiens arabes en Mesopotamia et en Syrie au VIIe et VIIIe siècles (Paris 1933). *William Ambrose Shedd (1865–1918) U.S., Presbyterian, Islam and the Oriental Churches: Their historical relations (1904). *Marshall Broomhall (1866-1937) British, Protestant missionary to China, Islam in China. A neglected problem (1910). *Theodor Juynboll (1866–1948) Handbuch des islamischen Gesetzes (Leipzig: Brill Harrassowitz 1910) on Islamic law. *Samuel Marinus Zwemer (1867–1952) U.S., Dutch Reform missionary to Islam, later at Princeton, Islam. A Challenge to Faith (NY 1907); Law of Apostasy in Islam (1924). *Leon Walerian Ostroróg, Comte (1867–1932) Poland, The Angora Reform (London 1927), on the "Law of Fundamental Organization" (1921) of republican Turkey transferring power from the Sultan to the Assembly; Pour la réforme de la justice ottomane (Paris 1912). *Gertrude Bell (1868-1926) English, Persian Pictures (1894); Syria: The desert and the sown (1907); became a British political officer in Arab lands during World War I. *Reynold Nicholson (1868–1945) English, The Mystics of Islam (1914); A Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge Univ. 1930). *Carl Brockelmann (1868–1956) Geschichte der arabischen Literatur (5 vol., Weimar & Leiden, 1898–1942), Geschichte der islamischen Volker und Staaten (Munchen 1939) [t]. *Ramón Menéndez Pidal (1869-1968), Spain, elaborates Ribera and Asín. España, eslabón entre la cristiandad y el islam (1956) [t]. *Leone Caetani (1869–1935) Italian nobleman, Annali dell'Islam (10 volumes, 1904–1926) reprint 1972, contains early Arabic sources. *Mohandas Karamchand "Mahatma" Gandhi (1869–1948) spiritual and independence leader in India, opposed caste divisions; prolific writer, teacher of satyagraha worldwide, influencing Martin Luther King Jr.; his letter to Mohammad Ali Jinnah of Sept. 11, 1944, stated "My life mission has been Hindu-Muslim unity... not to be achieved without the foreign ruling power being ousted." Because of policies favorable to Islam, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu ultra-nationalist. Cf., McDonough, Gandhi's responses to Islam (New Delhi 1994). *Miguel Asín Palacios (1871–1944), Catholic priest, professor of Arabic, studied the mutuality of influence between Christian and Islamic spirituality (prompting vigorous response), Algazel (Zaragoza 1901); La escatologia musulmana en la Divina Comedia (Madrid 1923) ["t"] per influence on Dante of mi'raj literature; El Islam cristianizado. Estudio del sufismo a traves de las obras de Abenarabi de Murcia (Madrid 1931); Huellas del Islam (Madrid 1941) includes comparative articles on Tomas d'Aquino and Juan de las Cruz. *De Lacy O'Leary (1872–1957) Bristol Univ. Arabic Thought and Its Place in History (1922, 1939); Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages (1923); Arabia before Muhammad (1927); How Greek Science passed to the Arabs (1949). *Georg Graf (1875–1955) Germany, Geschichte der Christlichen Arabischen Literatur (Vatican 1944). *Richard Bell (1876–1952) British, Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment (Edinburgh Univ. 1925). *Arthur S. Tritton (1881–1973) The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects. A critical study of the Covenant of 'Umar (Oxford 1930). *Alphonse Mingana (1881–1937) Assyrian Christian (Iraq), former priest, religious historian, collected early Syriac and Arabic documents and books into the "Mingana Collection". *Julian Morgenstern (1881-1976) U.S., Rites of Birth, Marriage, Death and Kindred Occasions among the Semites (Cincinnati 1966). *Arent Jan Wensinck (1882–1939) Dutch, Mohammed en de Joden te Medina (Amsterdam 1908) [t]; La pensee de Ghazzali (Paris 1940); Handworterbuch des Islam (1941) [t] with J. H. Kramers; from Syriac, Bar Hebraeus's Book of the Dove (Leyden 1919). *Louis Massignon (1883–1962) France, influenced Catholic-Islamic understanding per the Nostra aetate of Vatican II (1962–1965); a married priest (Orthodox [Arabic rite]), Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (Paris 1922, 2nd ed. 1954) [t]; Passion de Husayn Ibn Mansur Hallaj (Paris 1973) [t]. *José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955) Spain, philosopher; like Unamuno opposed modern trend to incorporate into Spanish historiography the positive Islamic element. Abenjaldún nos revela el secreto (1934), about Ibn Khaldun.J. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship (1970) at 248-251. *Nicolas P. Aghnides (1883-19xx) Mohammedan Theories of Finance (Columbia Univ. 1916). *Margaret Smith (1884–1970) Rabi'a the mystic and her fellow saints in Islam (Cambridge Univ. 1928); Studies in Early Mysticism in the Near and Middle East (1931) development of early Christian mysticism, of Islamic re Sufism, and a comparison. *Seymour Gonne Vesey-FitzGerald (1884-1954), Muhammadan Law, an abridgement, according to its various schools (Oxford Univ. 1931); The Iraq Treaty, 1930 (London 1932). *Tor Andrae (1885–1947), Sweden, Univ.of Uppsala, history of religion, comparative religion; Mohammed. Sein Leben und Sein Glaube (Göttingen 1932) [t]; I myrtenträdgarden: Studier i tidig islamisk mystik (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Forlag 1947) [t]. *Américo Castro (1885-1972) Spain, reinterpreted Spanish history by integrating Muslim and Jewish contributions. España en su historia: Cristianos, moros y judíos (1948) [t]; Sobre el nombre y quién de los españoles: cómo llegaron a serlo (1973). *Philip Khuri Hitti (1886–1978) Lebanon, formative re Arabic studies in the U.S., Origins of the Islamic State (Columbia Univ. 1916) annotated translation of Kitab Futuh Al-Buldan of al-Baladhuri; History of Syria, including Lebanon and Palestine (1957). *Shūmei Ōkawa (1886–1957) Japanese author activist; pan- Asian modern partisan, pro-India since 1913 (criticized per China by Gandhi in 1930s); indicted at Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal for his "clash of civilizations" view; translation of Qur'an into Japanese (1950). *Giorgio Levi Della Vida (1886–1967) Jewish Italian, professor of semitic languages, Storia e religione nell'Oriente semitico (Roma 1924); Les Sémites et leur rôle das l'histoire religieuse (Paris 1938); anti-Fascist Italian politician in 1920s. *Gonzangue Ryckmans (1887–1969) Belgium, Catholic priest, Louvain professor, epigraphy of pre-Islamic South Arabia; Les Religions Arabes preislamiques (Louvain 1951). *Harry Austryn Wolfson (1887–1974) U.S., Harvard Univ., Philo. Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (1947); The Philosophy of the Kalam (1976); Repercussions of the Kalam in Jewish Philosophy (1979). *Alfred Guillaume (1888-1966) England, Life of Muhammad (Oxford 1955) annotated translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah, an early "biography" of the prophet (as transmitted by Ibn Hisham); Legacy of Islam (Oxford 1931) co-editor with T. W. Arnold. *:es:Ángel González Palencia (1889–1949) Spanish Arabist, História de la España musulmana (Barcelona 1925, 3rd ed 1932); História de la literatura arábigo-española (Barcelona 1928, 1945); Moros y cristianos in España medieval. Estudios históricos-literarios (1945). *Arthur Jeffery (1892–1959) American University at Cairo 1921–1938, Materials for the history of the text of the Quran (Leiden 1937–1951); Foreign Vocabulary in the Quran (Baroda 1938); A Reader on Islam (1962). *Barend ter Haar (1892–1941) Dutch, Beginselen en Stelsel van het Adatrecht (Groningen Batavia 1939) [t], on Adat law in Indonesia. *Olaf Caroe (1892-1981) a former governor of the area, The Pathans. 550 B.C. - A.D. 1957 (London 1958). *Freya Stark (1893-1993) English, Valley of the Assassins (1934) about NW Iran; The Southern Gates of Arabia. A journey in the Hadhramaut (1936); A winter in Arabia (1939). *Willi Heffening (1894-19xx) Germany, Das islamische fremdenrecht zu den islamisch-fränkischen staatsverträgen. Eine rechtshistorischen studie zum fiqh (Hanover 1925). *Évariste Lévi-Provençal (1894-1956) France, Histoire de l'Espagne musulmane, 711-1031 (3 volumes, Paris-Leiden 1950–1953). *E. A. Belyaev (1895–1964) Russia (USSR), Araby, Islam i arabskii Khalifat (Moskva, 2nd ed 1966) [t]. *Henri Terrasse (1895–1971) French Arabist, Histoire du Maroc (2 volumes, Casablanca 1949–1950) [t]; Islam d'Espagne (Paris 1958). *Morris S. Seale (1896-1993) Muslim Theology. A Study of Origins with Reference to the Church Fathers (London: Luzac 1964). *Gerald de Gaury (1897-1984) English soldier, Rulers of Mecca (New York, c.1950). *José López Ortiz (1898–1992) Spain, Arabist with interest in legal history; article on fatwas of Granada; Los Jurisconsultos Musulmanes (El Escorial, 1930); Derecho musulman (Barcelona, 1932); a Catholic priest, later made Bishop. *Enrico Cerulli (1898–1988) Italy, Documenti arabi per la storia nell' Etiopia (Roma 1931); his two works re Dante and Islam per M. Asín: Il "Libro della scala" e la question delle fonti arabo-spagnole della Divina commedia (Vatican 1949), Nuove ricerche sul "Libro della Scala" e la conoscenza dell'Islam in Occidente (Vatican 1972). *=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English. ===1900 to 1950s=== *Claude L. Pickens (1900–1985), professor of Chinese at Harvard University, Annotated Bibliography of Literature on Islam in China (Hankow: Society of Friends of the Moslems in China 1950). *Josef Schacht (1902–1969) France (Alsace), Islamic legal history, Der Islam (Tübingen 1931); Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford 1950) influential work, a legal historical critique (following, e.g., Goldziher) the early oral transmission of Hadith & founding jurists; Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford 1964); Legacy of Islam (2nd ed., Oxford 1974) edited with C. E. Bosworth. *J. Spencer Trimingham (1904-1987) English; Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford 1952), history and sociology; Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford 1971); Christianity among the Arabs in Pre-Islamic Times (Beirut 1990). *Erwin Rosenthal (1904-1991) German, Political Thought in Medieval Islam (1958); Judaism and Islam (1961). *Arthur John Arberry (1905–1969) English, The Koran Interpreted (1955), a translation that attempts to capture the medium of the original Arabic; various other translations; Sufism. An Account of the Mystics of Islam (1950). *Emilio García Gómez (1905–1995) Spain, Arabist, poet; Poemas arabigoandaluces (Madrid 1940); Poesia arabigoandaluza (Madrid 1952); his theories, e.g., on origins of the muwashshahat (popular medieval strophic verse); his admired translations from Arabic. *Henri Laoust (1905-1983) France, Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Taki-d-Din Ahmad Taimiya, cononiste 'anbalite (Le Caire 1939); Le traite de droit public d'Ibn Taimiya [al-Siyasah al-Shariyah] (Beirut 1948); Le politique de Gazali (Paris 1970). *Geo Widengren (1907-1996) Sweden, comparative religion; Muhammad, The Apostle of God, and His Ascension (Uppsala 1955). *Henry Corbin (1907–1978) France, associated with Eranos Institute (inspired by Carl Jung), an academic in history of religions; Les Motifs zoroastriens dans la philosophie de Suhrawardi (Tehran 1948); Avicenne et la recit vissionaire (Tehran 1954) [t]; L'imagination creatrice dans le soufisme d'Ibn 'Arabi (Zurich 1955–56, Paris 1958) [t]; Terre celeste et corps de resurrection: de l'Iran mazdeen a l'Iran shi'ite (Paris 1960) [t]. *Neal Robinson (1908-1983) academic, Christ in Islam and Christianity (SUNY 1991), study of Islamic commentaries and interpretations. *James Norman Dalrymple Anderson (1908–1994) U.K., Islamic law at S.O.A.S., Islamic Law in Africa (H.M.S.O., 1954); Islamic Law in the Modern World (New York University, 1959); Law Reform in the Muslim World (Athlone, 1976). *Abraham Katsh (1908–1998) US academic, Judaism in Islam. Biblical and Talmudic backgrounds of the Koran and its Commentators, Sura I & II (New York 1954), reprinted 1962 as Judaism and the Koran. *William Montgomery Watt (1909–2006) Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford 1953), Muhammad at Medina (Oxford, 1956); with P. Cachia A History of Islamic Spain (Edinburgh 1965); Formative Period of Islamic Thought (1998). *Claude Cahen (1909-1991) France, Introduction a l'histoire du monde musulman medieval, VIIe-XVIe siecle (Paris 1983). *Józef Bielawski (1910–1997) Uniwersytet Warszawski, former Polish diplomat to Turkey; Historia lieratury arabskiej: zarys (Wroclaw 1968); translation of Qur'an into Polish (Warszawa 1986), improving on that of J.M.T.Buczacki (1858). *Jacques Berque (1910 Algeria - 1995 France), pied-noir scholar who early favored Maghribi independence, he retained his ties to Africa; Moroccan Berber ethnology: Les structures sociales du Haut Atlas (1955); Arab renaissance: Les Arabes d'hier a demain (1960) [t]. *Geoffrey Parrinder (1910-2005) comparative religion, Jesus in the Qur'an (London 1965), reprint Oneworld 1995. *Wilfred Thesiger (1910–2003) England; Arabian Sands (New York 1959), on late 1940s explorations by camel of the "empty quarter" Ar-Rab' Al-Khali; The Marsh Arabs (London 1964), on the rural people of southern Iraq. *Ann K. S. Lambton (1912-2008) English, State and Government in medieval Islam (1981); Continuity and Change in medieval Persia. Aspects of administrative, economic and social history, 11th-14th century (1988). *Giulio Basetti-Sani (1912-2001) Italy, Mohammed et Saint François (Ottawa 1959); Per un dialogo cristiano-musulmano (Milano 1969). *Kenneth Cragg (1913-2012) U.S., The Call of the Minaret (Oxford 1956; 2d Orbis 1985); The Arab Christian (Westm./Knox 1991). *George Hourani (1913–1984) Lebanese English, Averroes. On the Harmony of Religion and Philosophy (London 1961) annotated translation of Kitab fasl al maqal of Ibn Rushd; Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics (Cambridge Univ. 1985); Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in ancient and medieval times (Princeton Univ. 1951, 1995). *Uriel Heyd [Heydt] (1913–1968) German, later Israeli, Studies in old Ottoman criminal Law (Oxford 1973). *Robert Charles Zaehner (1913–1974) religious studies at Oxford, The Comparison of Religions (London 1958); Hindu and Muslim Mysticism (London 1960); Concordant Discord: The Interdependence of Faiths (Oxford 1970). *Franz Rosenthal (1914-2003) Fortleben der Antike im Islam (Zurich 1965); Muslim intellectual and social history (Variorum 1990). *Toshihiko Izutsu (1914–1993) Japan, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur'an (1959, 1966); Sufism and Taoism (Berkeley 1984). *Igor Mikhailovich Diakonov (1914–1999) USSR/Russia, historian, linguistics, Semitokhamitskie iazyki [Semito-Hamitic languages] (Moskva 1965) [t]; Afraziiskie iazyki [Afrasian languages] (Moskva 1988) [t]; both on history and description of Afroasiatic languages. *Joseph Greenberg (1915–2001) U.S., Stanford Univ., linguistic anthropology; in historical linguistics use of his mass lexical comparison to establish language families; Languages of Africa (1966) coined "Afroasiatic" to replace "Hamito-Semitic" for it includes as equal branches Ancient Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, and Cushitic, as well as Semitic; also his recent book on Eurasiatic; cf. Nostratic. *Albert Hourani (1915–1993) UK, Minorities in the Arab World (Oxford 1947); Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 (1962) on the Arab nahda [revival]; Political Society in Lebanon (MIT 1986); A History of the Arab Peoples (1991, Harvard 2002); brother of George Hourani. *Maxime Rodinson (1915–2004) French Marxist, Mahomet (Paris 1961) [t] as understood with empathy by an atheist; Islam et capitalisme (Paris 1966) [t]; Israel et le refus arabe (Paris 1968). *Bernard Lewis (1916-2018) British- American, Arabs in History (1950); Muslim Discovery of Europe (1982, 2001); What went Wrong? The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (2002). *George Makdisi (1920–2002) U.S., Islamic studies, Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West (Edinburgh Univ. 1981); Rise of Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West (Edinburgh Univ. 1990). *Marshall Hodgson (1922–1968) U.S., The Venture of Islam (3 volumes, Univ.of Chicago [1958], 1961, 1974); The Order of the Assassins (The Hague: Mouton 1955); Rethinking World History. Essays on Europe, Islam... (Cambridge Univ. 1993). *Annemarie Schimmel (1922–2003) Germany, specialist in Sufism, Die Bildersprache Dschelaladdin Rumi (Walldorf 1949); Mevlana Celalettin Rumi'nin sark ve garpta tesirleri (Ankara 1963); Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Univ.of N.Carolina 1975). *Sabatino Moscati (1922-1997>) Italy, Semitic studies, Le antiche civiltà semitiche (Milano 1958) [t]; I Fenici e Cartagine (Torino 1972). *Bogumił Witalis Andrzejewski (1922–1994), Poland, linguistics at S.O.A.S. in London; Islamic literature in Somalia (Indiana Univ. 1983); formulator of Latin alphabet for Somali; also work in Oromo, another East Cushitic language, of the Afroasiatic language family. *Donald Leslie (1922-2004>) Australia, Islamic Literature in China, late Ming and early Ch'ing (1981); Islam in Traditional China (1986). *Ernest Gellner (1925–1995) London Sch.of Econ., Saints of the Atlas (London 1969); Muslim Society: Essays (Cambridge 1981). *Leonard Binder (1927->) Univ.of Chicago, Religion and Politics in Pakistan (Univ.of California 1961). *Francis E. Peters (1927->) U.S.; Aristotle Arabus (Leiden: Brill 1968); Jerusalem and Mecca (NYU 1986); Muhammad and the Origins of Islam (SUNY 1994); Arabs and Arabia on the Eve of Islam (Ashgate 1999). *John K. Cooley (1927-2008) U.S. journalist, long time coverage of Arab world, An Alliance against Babylon (Univ.of Michigan 2006); Unholy Wars. Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (2001); Baal, Christ, and Mohammed. Religion and Revolution in North Africa (1965); collaboration with E. W. Said (2002). *Fredrik Barth (1928-2016>) Political Leadership among the Swat Pathans (Univ.of London 1959). *Aram Ter-Ghevondyan (1928–1988), Armenian historian; The Arab Emirates in Bagratid Armenia (Yerevan, 1965) [t], historical, political, and social study on the Bagratuni Kingdom of Armenia (885-1045) and its relations with Byzantium and the Arab Emirates; Armenia and the Arab Caliphate (Армения и apaбcкий Халифат) (Yerevan, 1977). *Speros Vryonis (1928->) U.S., U.C.L.A., The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (Univ. California 1971); Studies on Byzantium, Seljuks and Ottomans (Malibu 1981). *John Wansbrough (1928–2002) U.S., Islamic studies at S.O.A.S., reinterpretation of Islamic origins, Quranic Studies (Oxford 1977), Sectarian Milieu (Oxford 1978). *Noel J. Coulson (1928–1986) U.K., Islamic law at S.O.A.S., History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh Univ. 1964); Conflict and Tensions in Islamic Jurisprudence (Univ.of Chicago 1969); Succession in the Muslim Family (Cambridge Univ. 1971); Commercial Law in the Gulf States: The Islamic Legal Tradition (Graham & Trotman 1984). *J. Hoeberichts (1929->) Dutch, Franciscus en de Islam (Assen: Van Gorcum 199x) [t]; formerly a theology professor in Karachi. *Wilferd Madelung (1930->) Germany, The Succession to Muhammad (Cambridge Univ. 1997); studies on the Shia. *Jacob Neusner (1932-2016>) U.S., Comparing Religions through Law: Judaism and Islam (1999) with T.Sonn; Judaism and Islam in Practice (1999) editor, with T.Sonn & J.E.Brockopp; Three Faiths, One God (2003) with B. Chilton & W. Graham. *Edward W. Said (1935–2003) Palestinian- American, academic, Columbia Univ.; Orientalism (New York 1978); collaborations with Christopher Hitchens (1988), Noam Chomsky (1999), John K. Cooley (2002). *William Chittick (c.1943->) U.S., collaborations with Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Allameh Tabatabaei in Iran; A Shi'ite Anthology (SUNY 1981); Sufi Path of Love (SUNY 1983) text and commentary on Rumi; Sufi Path of Knowledge (SUNY 1989) on Ibn Arabi; Imaginal Worlds. Ibn al-'Arabi and the Problem of Religious Diversity (SUNY 1994). *Sachiko Murata (c.1943->), Japan, Tao of Islam. A sourcebook on gender relationships in Islamic thought (SUNY 1992); Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light (SUNY 2000) with her translations from Chinese, and those from Persian by W. Chittick, her spouse. *Richard E. Rubenstein (1938->) U.S., professor of conflict resolution, Alchemists of Revolution. Terrorists in the modern world (1987); Aristotle's Children. How Christians, Muslims, & Jews rediscovered ancient wisdom & illuminated the Dark Ages (2003). *Robert Simon (1939->) Hungary, Meccan Trade and Islam. Problems of origin and structure (Budapest 1989); Qur'an translation (1987). *Michael Cook (1940->) English, Studies in the Origins of Early Islamic Culture and Tradition (2004); with P. Crone, Hagarism (1977). *Roy Parviz Mottahedeh (1940->) U.S., Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society (Princeton University Press 1980), :The Mantle of the Prophet (Simon and Schuster, 1985). *John L. Esposito (1940->) U.S., Islam. The Straight Path (Oxford 1988); editor-in-chief Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World (4 volumes, 1995); Islam and Civil Society (European Univ. Inst. 2000). *Malise Ruthven (1942->) Scotland, Islam in the World (Oxford Univ. 1984); Fury for God. Islamist attack on America (Granta 2002). *Mark R. Cohen (1943->) Princeton Univ., Jewish Self-Government in Medieval Egypt (1980); Under Crescent & Cross (1994). *William A. Graham (1943->) U.S., Harvard University, "Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam" (Mouton, 1977); "Beyond the Written Word" (Cambridge, 1986); "Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies" (Ashgate, 2010) *Gerald R. Hawting (1944->) with Wansbrough at S.O.A.S., The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750 (1986, 2000); The Idea of Idolatry and the Rise of Islam: From polemic to history (Cambridge Univ. 1999). *Karen Armstrong (1944->) English author; Muhammad, a Biography of the Prophet (San Francisco, 1993); Jerusalem: one city, three faiths (1997); A History of God (New York, 1999); "Islam: A Short History" (2002). *Fred M. Donner (1945->) U.S., Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writings (1998). *Patricia Crone (1945-2015) Denmark, professor in England & U.S., God's Rule : Government and Islam (New York 2004), on political thought; Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (1989); Roman, Provincial and Islamic Law (Cambridge Univ. 1987), as sources of Islamic jurisprudence; with M. Cook, Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge Univ. 1977) following Wansbrough, sets forth the thesis that a multivalent sect of Judaic dissenters predated Muhammad and contributed to the Qur'an. *Daniel Pipes (1949->) U.S., Hoover Inst., historian, political commentator; In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power (1983, 2002). *Norman Calder (1950–1998) Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence (Oxford 1993), analysis of early Islamic legal texts. *Carl W. Ernst (1950->) Islamic studies, Univ.of N.Carolina, Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center (1993); Shambhala Guide to Sufism (1997); Following Muhammad. Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world (2003). *Daniel Martin Varisco (1951->) U.S., Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science: The Almanac of a Yemeni Sultan (Univ.of Washington 1994). *François Déroche (1952->) France, Professor at the Collège de France, The Abbasid Tradition: Qur ̓ans of the 8th to 10th Centuries (1992); Scribes et manuscrits du Moyen-Orient (1997); Manuel de codicologie des manuscrits en écriture arabe (2000). *María Rosa Menocal (1953-1912) U.S., her The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History (Univ.of Pennsylvania 1987). *Kim Ho-dong (1954->) Korea, Holy War in China. Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia 1864-1877 (Stanford U., 2004). *=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English. ==Chronological by date of publication== *Austin Kennett England, Bedouin Justice. Law and Custom among the Egyptian Bedouin (Cambridge Univ. 1925). *David Santillana Italy, Istituzioni di Diritto musulmano malichita (Roma 1926, 1938), 2 volumes, on Islamic law, Maliki school. *Chin Chi-t'ang China, Chung-kuo hui-chiao shih yen-chiu [Studies in the History of Chinese Islam] (1935). *Ugo Monneret de Villard Italian academic, Lo Studio dell' Islam in Europa nel XII e nel XIII secolo (Vatican 1944). *José Muñoz Sendino Spanish academic, La Escala de Mahoma (Madrid 1949), on mi'raj literature re Dante and Islam per M. Asín. *Jacques Ryckmans Belgium, Leuven Univ. professor, L'institution monarchique en Arabie meridionale avant l'Islam (Louvain 1951); Textes du Yemen antique (Louvain-la-Neuve 1994); nephew of Gonzangue Ryckmans. *Miguel Cruz Hernandez, Univ.of Salamanca, Filosofia Hispano-musulmana (Madrid 1957), 2 volumes. *Joseph Chelhod Introduction a la Sociologie de l'Islam. De l'animisme a l'universalisme (Paris 1958). *Norman Daniel Islam and the West. The making of an image (Edinburgh Univ. 1960). *Jean Jacques Waardenburg L'Islam dans le miroir de l'Occident (Paris 1962), cultural review of various western scholars of Islam: Goldziher, Hurgronje, Becker, Macdonald, Massignon. *James T. Monroe U.S., Univ.of California at Berkeley; Islam and the Arabs in Spanish Scholarship (Leiden: E. J. Brill 1970, Reprint, Cambridge: ILEX Editions/Harvard UP 2021); Hispano-Arabic Poetry (Univ.of Calif. 1974, reprint Gorgias 2004); with Benjamin M. Liu, Ten Hispano-Arabic Strophic Songs (U.C. 1989). *Abraham L. Udovitch U.S., Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam (Princeton Univ. 1970). *Cristobal Cuevas El pensamiento del Islam. Contenido e Historia. Influencia en la Mistica espanola (Madrid 1972). *Nilo Geagea Lebanese priest, Maria nel messagio coranico (Roma 1973) [t], study of texts and of a meeting point between religions. *Victor Segesvary Swiss, L'Islam et la Reforme (Univ.de Genève 1973). *Federico Corriente Spain, Las mu'allaqat: antologia y panorama de Arabia preislamica (Madrid: Instituto Hispano-arabe de cultura 1974), annotated translation of well-known collection of popular poetry in Arabia prior to Muhammad. *Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, Hebrew Univ.of Jerusalem, her Studies in Al-Ghazzali (Jerusalem 1975); Intertwined Worlds. Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism (Princeton Univ. 1992); Islam-Yahadut: Yahadut-Islam (Tel Aviv 2003). *Bat Ye'or (Gisele Orebi Littman), British author, Jewish refugee (in 1958 thousands expelled by Egypt as reprisal for Lavon Affair); her Hebrew pen name "Daughter of the Nile"; modern partisan; Le Dhimmi (Genève 1980) [t]; Les Chretientes d'Orient entre Jihad et Dhimmitude (Paris 1991) [t]; Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis (2006). *G. W. Bowersock U.S., Princeton Univ., Roman Arabia (Harvard Univ. 1983), Nabataea (now Jordan) to 4th century. *William Chittick U.S., SUNY Stony Brook, Sufi Path of Love. Spiritual teachings of Rumi (1983); Sufi Path of Knowledge. Ibn Arabi's Metaphysics of Imagination (1989); with Sachiko Murata and Tu Weiming, The Sage Learning of Liu Zhi: Islamic Thought in Confucian Terms (2009). *Antoine El-Gemayel, Lebanon, The Lebanese Legal System 2 vol. (International Law Inst., Georgetown Univ. 1985), editor. *Luce López-Baralt Puerto Rico academic, her San Juan de la Cruz y el Islam (Colegio de Mexico, Univ.de Puerto Rico 1985; Madrid 1990); Huellas del Islam en la literatura espanola (Madrid 1985, 1989) [t]; influenced by Miguel Asín Palacios. *Joseph Cuoq France, L'Islam en Ethiopie des origines au XVIe siecle (Paris 1981); Islamisation de la Nubie Chretienne (Paris 1986). *George E. Irani Lebanon, U.S., The Papacy and the Middle East. The Role of the Holy See in the Arab- Israeli Conflict, 1962-1984 (Univ.of Notre Dame 1986), e.g., the effect of Vatican II on Church policy. *Lisa Anderson U.S. academic, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980 (Princeton Univ. 1986). *David Stephen Powers Studies in Qur'an and Hadith. The Formation of the Islamic Law of Inheritance (Univ.of California 1986). *David B. Burrell U.S., Knowing the Unknowable God: Ibn-Sina, Maimonides, Aquinas (Univ.of Notre Dame 1986). *Masataka Takeshita Japan, Ibn 'Arabi's Theory of the Perfect Man and its Place in the History of Islamic Thought (Tokyo 1987). *Heribert Busse, Univ.of Kiel, Theologischen Beziehungen des Islams zu Judentum und Christentum (Darmstadt 1988) [t], which discusses Muhammad, as well as the narratives found in the Qur'an about the Old Testament and the New Testament. *R. Stephen Humphreys U.S., Islamic History: a framework for inquiry (Minneapolis 1988); Tradition and innovation in the study of Islamic history. The evolution of North American scholarship since 1960 (Tokyo 1998). *Jean-François Breton, L'Arabie heureuse au temps de la reine de Saba: Viii-I siècles avant J.-C. (Paris 1988) [t]. *Claude Addas France, her Ibn 'Arabi ou La quete du Soufre Rouge (Paris: Editions Gallimard 1989) [t]. *Julian Baldick, Univ. of London, Mystical Islam (1989); Black God. Afroasiatic roots of Jewish, Christian, & Muslim religions (1998). *Harald Motzki Germany, Die Anfange der islamischen Jurisprudenz (Stuttgart 1991) [t], by his review of early legal texts, provides a moderate challenge to Schacht's criticism of Hadith & the origins of Islamic law. *Jacob Lassner, Northwestern Univ.; Demonizing the Queen of Sheba. Boundaries of gender and culture in postbiblical Judaism and medieval Islam (Univ.of Chicago 1993). *Haim Gerber Hebrew Univ.of Jerusalem, State, Society and Law in Islam. Ottoman Law in Comparative Perspective (SUNY 1994). *Brannon M. Wheeler (1965->) U.S., Applying the Canon in Islam. The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Hanafi Scholarship (SUNY 1996). *G. H. A. Juynboll Dutch, Studies on the Origin and Uses of Islamic Hadith ("Variorum" 1996). *Michael Dillon, China's Muslims (Oxford Univ. 1996); China's Muslim Hui Community. Migration, Settlement, and Sects (London 1999). *Robert G. Hoyland Oxford Univ., Seeing Islam as Others Saw It. A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian Writings on early Islam (Darwin 1997); Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam (Routledge 2001). *Christopher Melchert U.S., The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law (New York: Brill 1999); Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (2006), re Hanbali. *Christoph Luxenberg (a pseudonym), Die Syro-Aramäische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag zur Entschlüssenlung de Koransprache (Berlin 2000, 2007), employs historic Aramaic to elucidate the Arabic texts. *Herbert Berg, Univ.of N.Carolina, Philosophy & Religion, The Development of Exegesis in Early Islam. The Debate over authenticity of Muslim literature from the formative period (Routledge/Curzon 2000). *Knut S. Vikor, Univ.of Bergen, Norway; Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic Law (Oxford Univ. 2005), a fruitful synthesis of much resent scholarship; Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge (1995). *Benjamin Jokisch, Islamic Imperial Law. Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter 2007) restates early Islamic legal history re law reform by Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad, c.780-798), including reception of Roman law via Byzantine Empire, drafting a code, & centralized judiciary, followed by triumph of a vigorous opposition led by orthodox jurists & rise of legal theory; Islamisches Recht in Theorie und Praxis - Analyse einiger kaufrechtlicher Fatwas von Taqi'd-Din Ahmad b. Taymiyya (Berlin: K.Schwarz 1996). *=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English. ==Other and Incomplete: alphabetical== *Akbar [Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar] (1542–1605), Mughul emperor; based chiefly on Islam and Hinduism he founded a court religion Din-i-Ilahi, which did not flourish following the end of his reign. *Báb [Sayyid Ali Muhammad] (1819–1850), Iran; he proclaimed prophethood and, in succession to the three Abrahamic faiths including Islam, initiated a new religion which continues as the Baháʼí Faith. *Juan Cole, American, contemporary academic and commentator on Islam. *Mircea Eliade, Romania, U.S., late professor of comparative religions, University of Chicago. *Cornell Fleischer, U.S., Kanuni Suleyman Prof. of Ottoman & Mod. Turkish Studies, Dept. of Nr. E. Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago. *H. A. R. Gibb (1895-1971), British historian of the Arabs and Islam. *Betty Kelen, U.S., U.N. editor, author, Muhammad, The Messenger of God *Martin Kramer (1954->), Israel, modern partisan, Wash. Inst. for Near East Policy; Shalem Center; Harvard University. *Richard Landes, U.S., Boston University, modern partisan. *Franklin Lewis, U.S., Assoc. Prof. of Persian Lang. & Lit., Dept. of Near Eastern Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago. *Elijah Muhammad [Elijah Poole] (1897–1975), U.S., started the Nation of Islam movement and proclaimed prophethood. *Pai Shou-i, China, Chung-kuo I-ssu-lan shih kang-yao [Essentials of the History of Chinese Islam] (19xy). *Andrew Rippin, Britain, Canada, University of Victoria. *A. Holly Shissler, U.S., prof. of Ottoman & Early Turkish Republican History, Dept. of Nr. E. Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago. *Srđa Trifković, Serbian-American journalist, political analyst, modern partisan; author, The Sword of the Prophet. *John Woods, U.S., Prof. of Iranian & Central Asian History, Dept. of Near Eastern Lang. & Civil., Univ. of Chicago. *Ehsan Yar-Shater (1920->) Editor of encyclopedia Danishnamah-i Iran va Islam (10 volumes, Teheran 1976–1982); editor of History of al-Tabari [re the Ta'rikh al-rusul wa'l-muluk] (39 volumes, SUNY c1985-c1999); editor of Encyclopædia Iranica (Costa Mesa: Mazda 1992->); History of Medicine in Iran (New York 2004). *Irfan Shahid, (1926-2016>) Georgetown Univ., Dumbarton Oaks; Byzantium and the Arabs (1984–1995) multi- vol., pre-Islamic politics. *Sami Zubaida (1937->) Univ.of London, Islam, the People and the State (1993); Law and Power in the Islamic World (I.B.Taurus 2003). *Farhad Daftary (1938->) Inst. of Isma'ili Studies, London, The Isma'ilis: their history and doctrines (1990). *Farhadt J. Ziadeh, University of Washington, Lawyers, the rule of law & liberalism in modern Egypt (1968). *Mehrzad Boroujerdi U.S., Iranian Intellectuals and the West. The tormented triumph of nativism (Syracuse University 1996), includes clerical and lay religious thought, with critical profiles of several 20th-century academic writers. *Malika Zeghal western academic, Institut d'Etudes Politiques (Paris), Gardiens de l'Islam. Les oulemas d'al-Azhar dans l'Egypte contemporaine (Paris 1996); Les islamistes morocains: le defi a la monarchie (Paris 2005); currently at Univ.of Chicago. *Timur Kuran, Duke Univ., The Long Divergence. How Islamic law held back the Middle East (Princeton Univ. 2011); Islam and Mammon: The economic predicaments of Islamism (Princeton Univ. 2004). *Alfonse Javed, N.Y. Sch.of the Bible, The Muslim Next Door (ANM 2013); Muslim Pakistani and Indian Students in their New York School System Experience (Liberty Univ. 2011). * David S. Powers, Islamic Legal Interpretation. Muftis and their fatwas (1996); Dispensing Justice in Islam. Qadis and their judgments (2005). * Claudia Liebeskind, Three Sufi traditions in South Asia in modern times (1998). * Angelika Neuwirth, German Islamic studies scholar, Arabische Literatur. Postmodern (2004, t=2010); Scripture, Poetry and the Making of a Community (2015). * Adam Gaiser, medieval Islamic studies, esp. Oman, Muslims, Scholars, Soldiers. The origin and elaboration of Ibadi Imanate traditions (2010). * Rudolph Ware, The Walking Qur'an. Islamic education, embodied knowledge, and history in West Africa (2014). *=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English. ==Reference notes== ==See also== *Orientalism *Middle Eastern studies ==External links== *Booknotes interview with Karen Armstrong on Islam: A Short History, September 22, 2000. *Booknotes interview with Bernard Lewis on What Went Wrong?, December 30, 2001. *Booknotes interview with Caryle Murphy on Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East—The Egyptian Experience, November 3, 2002. *Booknotes interview with Stephen Schwartz on The Two Faces of Islam: The House of Sa'ud from Tradition to Terror, February 2, 2003. * Category:Islam and other religions |
Pub rock is a subgenre of rock music that emerged in the early to mid-1970s in the United Kingdom. A back-to-basics movement, which incorporated roots rock, pub rock was a reaction against the expensively-recorded and produced progressive rock and flashy glam rock scenes at the time. Although short- lived, pub rock was played live in small traditional venues like pubs and clubs. Since major labels showed no interest in pub rock groups, pub bands sought out independent record labels such as Stiff Records. Indie labels used relatively inexpensive recording processes, so they had a much lower break- even point for a record than a major label. With pub rock's emphasis on small venues, simple, fairly inexpensive recordings and indie record labels, it was the catalyst for the development of the British punk rock scene. Despite these shared elements, though, there was a difference between the genres: while pub rock harked back to early rock and roll and R&B;, punk was iconoclastic, and sought to break with the past musical traditions. == Characteristics == Pub rock was deliberately nasty, dirty and post-glam. Dress style was based around denim and checked shirts, tatty jeans and droopy hair. The figureheads of the movement, Dr. Feelgood, were noted for their frontman's filthy white suit.Atkinson, Mike. "Give pub rock another chance". The Guardian. 21 January 2010. Retrieved on 19 January 2011. Bands looked menacing and threatening, "like villains on The Sweeney".Savage (1991), p. 81. According to David Hepworth, Dr. Feelgood looked as if they had "come together in some unsavoury section of the army". Pub rock groups disdained any form of flashy presentation. Scene leaders like Dr. Feelgood, Kilburn and the High Roads and Ducks Deluxe played simple, "back to mono" rhythm and blues in the tradition of white British groups like The Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds, with fuzzy overdriven guitars and whiny vocals. Lesser known acts played funky soul (Kokomo, Clancy, Cado Belle) or country rock (The Kursaal Flyers, Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers).Carr, Roy. "Pub Rock". NME. 29 October 1977. While pub rockers did not have expensive stage shows, they took inspiration from early R&B; and increased the dynamism and intensity of their live shows.Laing, Dave. One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock. PM Press, 2015. p. 18 Pub rock allowed a variety of singers and musicians to perform, even if they did not adhere to a clearly defined musical genre. Major labels scouted pub rock acts, thinking they might find the next Beatles at a local pub; however A&R; representatives decided that pub rock did not have potential for mass market hits. With no interest from major labels, pub rockers put out their records through small independent record labels such as Stiff Records and Chiswick Records. By 1975, the standard for mainstream rock album recordings was expensive, lengthy studio recording processes overseen by highly-paid record producers, with the goal of creating highly polished end products, with overdubs, double-tracking and studio effects. Some mainstream bands spent months in the studio perfecting their recording, to achieve a meticulously crafted and perfect product. Pub rockers rejected this type of costly, complex recording process; instead, with pub rockers, the goal was simply to capture the band's "live" sound and feel in the studio. The difference between mainstream rock and pub rock recording approaches not only produced different sounds (polished vs. raw), it also had a significant impact on the economics of each rock genre. With mainstream rock, the costly sound recording process meant that the break-even point for the record label was around 20,000 records; with pub rock, the less expensive recording process meant that pub rock labels could break even with as few as 2,000 records.Laing, Dave. One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock. PM Press, 2015. p. 19 This means that pub rock labels could afford to put out records with a tenth of the sales of mainstream bands. The pub rock scene was primarily a live phenomenon. During the peak years of 1972 to 1975, there was just one solitary Top 20 single (Ace's "How Long"), and all the bands combined sold less than an estimated 150,000 albums. Many acts suffered in the transition from pub to studio recording and were unable to recapture their live sound. The genre's primary characteristic is, as the name suggests, the pub. By championing smaller venues, the bands reinvigorated a local club scene that had dwindled since the 1960s as bands priced themselves into big theatres and stadia. New aspiring bands could now find venues to play without needing to have a record company behind them. Pub rock was generally restricted to Greater London over spilling slightly into the home counties, although the central belt in Scotland also produced local bands such as The Cheetahs and The Plastic Flies. Pub rockers believed that mainstream stars who played at arenas had lost touch with their audiences. Instead, pub rock groups preferred intimate venues, which were essential to creating meaningful music and connecting with the audience.Laing, Dave. One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock. PM Press, 2015. p. 17 Pub rock's small venue approach increased the importance of good songwriting and well-written lyrics, in contrast to mainstream pop which had marginalised both elements.Laing, Dave. One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock. PM Press, 2015. p. 16 The UK pub rock scene wound down by 1976. The record industry was already looking into early punk, thinking it might be the next "big thing". In 1976, some pub rock labels were putting out both the harder-edged pub rock acts and early punk bands such as The Damned. == History == American country-rock band Eggs over Easy were the precursors of the movement when they broke the jazz-only policy of the "Tally Ho" pub in Kentish Town, in May 1971.Birch (2003), pp. 120–129 They were impressive enough to inspire local musicians such as Nick Lowe. They were soon joined by a handful of London acts such as Brinsley Schwarz who had been victims of the prevailing big-venue system. Along with Max Merritt and the Meteors who were originally from Australia and had moved to London, Kilburn and the High Roads, Bees Make Honey, Ace, Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers, Dr. Feelgood, Ducks Deluxe, Roogalator, and The Amber Squad. Most of the venues were in large Victorian pubs "north of Regents Park", where there were plenty of suitable establishments. One of the most notable venues was the Hope and Anchor pub on Islington's Upper Street, still a venue. Following the Tally Ho and the Hope and Anchor came the Cock, the Brecknock, the Lord Nelson, the Greyhound in Fulham, the Red Lion, the Rochester Castle, the Nashville in West Kensington, the Pegasus Pub on Green Lanes, The Torrington in North Finchley, Dingwalls and the Dublin Castle in Camden Town, the Pied Bull at Angel, Bull and Gate in Kentish Town, the Kensington near Olympia, the Newlands Tavern in Nunhead, the Cricketers at Kennington Oval, Half Moon in Putney and Half Moon in Herne Hill (south London outposts) and The Sir George Robey in Finsbury Park. Out of London, venues included the Dagenham Roundhouse, the Grand in Leigh on Sea and the Admiral Jellicoe on Canvey Island. This network of venues later formed a ready-made launch pad for the punk scene. In 1974, pub rock was the hottest scene in London.Savage (1991), p. 80. At that point it seemed that nearly every large pub in London was supplying live music, along with hot snacks and the occasional stripper. The figureheads were Essex-based R&B; outfit Dr. Feelgood.Savage (1991), p. 587. By Autumn 1975, they were joined by acts such as Hammersmith Gorillas, Joe Strummer's 101ers, Eddie and the Hot Rods, and The Count Bishops.Savage (1991), p. 107 & 124. Pub rock was rapidly overtaken by the UK punk explosion after spawning what are now seen as several proto-punk bands. Some artists were able to make the transition by jumping ship to new outfits, notably Joe Strummer, Ian Dury and Elvis Costello. A few stalwarts were later able to realise Top 40 chart success, but the moment was gone. Many of the actual pubs themselves survived as punk venues (especially the Nashville and The Hope & Anchor), but a range of notable pubs such as the George Robey and the Pied Bull have since been closed or demolished. The Newlands Tavern survived and is now called The Ivy House. == Legacy == According to Nostalgia Central, "Pub rock may have been killed by punk, but without it there might not have been any punk in Britain at all". The boundaries were originally blurred: at one point, the Hot Rods and the Sex Pistols were both considered rival kings of "street rock".Savage (1991), p. 151. The Pistols played support slots for the BlockheadsLydon (1995), p. 94. and the 101ers at the Nashville. Their big break was supporting Eddie and the Hot Rods at the Marquee in Feb 1976.Lydon (1995), p. 105. Dr. Feelgood played with the Ramones in New York. The word "punk" debuted on Top of the Pops on a T-shirt worn by a Hot Rod. Punk fanzine Sniffin' Glue reviewed the Dr. Feelgood album Stupidity as "the way rock should be". Apart from the ready- made live circuit, punk also inherited the energy of pub rock guitar heroes like Dr. Feelgood's Wilko Johnson, his violence and mean attitude. Dr. Feelgood have since been described as John the Baptist to punk's messiahs. In the gap between the music-press hype and vinyl releases of early punk, the rowdier Pub Rock bands even led the charge for those impatient for actual recorded music, but it was not to last. Punks such as Sex Pistols singer John Lydon eventually rejected the pub rock bands as "everything that was wrong with live music" because they had failed to fight the stadium scene and, as he saw it, preferred to narrow themselves into an exclusive pub clique.Lydon (1995), p. 106. The back-to-basics approach of pub rock apparently involved chord structures that were still too complicated for punk guitarists like the Sex Pistols' Steve Jones, who complained "if we had played those complicated chords we would have sounded like Dr. Feelgood or one of those pub rock bands".Lydon (1995), p. 87. By the time the Year Zero of punk (1976) was over, punks wanted nothing to do with pub rockers.Lydon (1995), p. 107. Bands like The Stranglers were shunned but they did not care.Savage (1991), p. 215. It was independent record label Stiff Records, formed from a £400 loan from Dr. Feelgood's Lee Brilleaux, who went on to release the first British punk single—The Damned's "New Rose". Stiff Records' early clientele consisted of a mix of pub rockers and punk rock acts for which they became known. ==See also== * British popular music * Garage rock * List of public house topics * Mod revival * New wave music * Power pop * Roots rock * Oi! * Pub rock (Australia) ==References== ==Sources== * Blaney, John (2011) – A Howlin' Wind: Pub Rock and the Birth of New Wave (London: Soundcheck Books). * Savage, Jon (1991). England's Dreaming: The Sex Pistols and Punk Rock (London: Faber and Faber). * Lydon, John (1995). Rotten: No Irish, No Blacks, No Dogs (New York: Picador). * Birch, Will (2003). No Sleep Till Canvey Island: The Great Pub Rock Revolution (1st ed. London: Virgin Books) . * Abad, Javier (2002) "Música y Cerveza" (Editorial Milenio. Spain) ==Suggested listening== * Goodbye Nashville Hello Camden Town: A Pub Rock Anthology (Castle Music, 2XCD compilation, 2007) * Pub Rock: Paving The Way For Punk (Beloved Recordings, compilation CD, 1998) * Surrender To The Rhythm: The London Pub Rock Scene Of The Seventies (Grapefruit Records, 3XCD compilation, 2020) * Saturday Night! The Best Of Pub Rock (Carlton Sounds,CD compilation, 1997) * No Contest (Thunderbolt, CD compilation, 2000) * A Pint Of Your Best Pub Rock, Please! (Nectar, CD compilation, 1997) * A Bunch Of Stiff Records (Stiff Records, LP, 1977) * Naughty Rhythms The Best Of Pub Rock (EMI Premier, 2XCD compilation 1996) ==Suggested viewing== * Punk Britannia Part 2 Pre-punk: 1972-1976 (2012, dir. Sam Bridges) - Documentary from a three-part TV series on the BBC ==External links== *Southend Music Venues by Southend Sites *Pub Rock at Nostalgia Central Category:20th-century music genres Category:English styles of music Category:Pubs in the United Kingdom Category:1970s in British music Category:British rock music genres |
The Sri Lanka Armoured Corps (SLAC) provides the armour capability of the Sri Lanka Army, with vehicles such as the T-55AM2, and type 80/88 main battle tanks; the BMP infantry fighting vehicle; and the BTR-80, and WZ551 armoured personnel carriers. It comprises six regular armoured regiments, a volunteer regiment, and a regimental band. It has an independent Armoured Brigade and is headquartered at Rock House Army Camp, Colombo. == History == === Formation === The Ceylon Army was established in 1949. Under Prime Minister Colonel Sir John Kotelawala, the Government of Ceylon decided on the need to add armor to support infantry elements of the newly established regular army. To this effect a cavalry arm was considered and the 1st Reconnaissance Squadron was established on 1 October 1955 under the command of Major D. S. Attygalle at the Echelon Barracks. Squadron moved to Ridiyagama for training with British Army advisers from the Queen's Dragoons Guards received four British Ferret unturreted scout cars along with twenty BSA M20 with side cars that were armed with Bren light machine gun. The squadron expanded its number of personal and increased its training. In 1957, the squadron moved to Ampara on flood relief duties and in December moved to Rock House Army Camp in Colombo, which became its regimental headquarters. In 1958, the squadron was deployed to counter the communal riots and on 15 December 1958 it was expanded to a formation reconnaissance regiment with two recce squadrons and had increased its fleet with BSA M21 motorcycles, eight Ferret Mk II Scout Cars and two Daimler Armoured Cars. The 1st Reconnaissance Regiment became allied to and inherited the traditions of Queen's Dragoons Guards and it became the Ceylon Armoured Corps.Michael K. Cecil - Sri Lanka’s Military: The Search For A Mission, . === 1971 Insurrection === The 1st Recce Regiment was deployed on several occasions in the 1950s and 1960s on flood relief and internal security operations. It was deployed for counter-insurgency operations in Kurunegala and Anuradhapura districts under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Cyril Ranatunga during the 1971 Insurrection against the JVP. In 1971, the regiment received twelve British Alvis Saladin armoured cars in May and ten Soviet BTR-152 armored personnel carriers (APCs) in November to supplement its counter-insurgency operations with a third squadron. When Sri Lanka became a republic in 1972, the CAC became the Sri Lanka Armoured Corps. Following the insurrection, the regiment deployed a saber squadron to provide security for the Criminal Justice Commission from 1973 to 1976. A forth squadron was raised in 1974. The first volunteer (reserve) unit of the SLAC, the 2nd (Volunteer) Regiment, Sri Lanka Armoured Corps was formed in 1979 under the command of Lt. Col Eustace Jayasekara with troops from the Ceylon National Guard. === Civil War === 220px|right|thumb|SLAC armour in a combat operation. thumb|Sri Lanka Army WZ551 APC thumb|Type 89 (YW534) Armored Fighting Vehicles With the escalation of the Sri Lankan civil war, three saber squadrons were deployed in the northern and eastern provinces of the country, to provide fire support for infantry and for the protection of road convoys. The forth squadron was deployed in Colombo for the defense of the capital. The Armoured Corps Training Centre (ACTC) was established on 1 January 1984 at Kalattewa, Anuradhapura. The regiment received several Alvis Stalwart amphibious vehicles in 1985 and thirty two Alvis Saracen APCs in 1986. With the Saracens the SLAC was able to allocate two Saracens per troop providing assault troops to provide close combat support in the form of mechanized infantry. In the 1980s the regiment supported all major military operations, notably Vadamarachchi Operation. Following the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in the North and East provinces, the regiment deployed a saber squadron each in Jaffna and Kilinochchi, while it deployed the remaining two squadrons in Colombo and Gampaha as the 1987–1989 JVP insurrection started in the south of the island. In November 1988, the 3rd Reconnaissance Regiment was raised with Saladins, Saracens, Ferrets and a Stalwart. On 15 December 1988, the Armoured Brigade was formed under the command of Brigadier Y. Balaretnarajah who became the first Armoured Brigade Commander bring under it the 1st, 3rd Reconnaissance Regiments and the ACTC. Its expansion was limited since the Government of Sri Lanka face difficulties in precuring spares and new military equipment from its traditional suppliers in the United Kingdom and Singapore due to pressure from Western countries. The US government approved the sale of Cadillac Gage armored cars without turrets and guns and the British government's refusal to supply spare parts for the Alvis Saladins and Ferret armoured cars. The SLAC received 10 Type 63 (YW531) APC from China in 1988. The 2nd (Volunteer) Regiment was transferred to the Sri Lanka Light Infantry as its 5th (Volunteer) battalion in 1989. Three saber squadrons from the two regiments were deployed for the first amphibious landings made by the army in Operation Balavegaya to break the siege on Elephant Pass. The siege on Elephant Pass made it clear that the civil war had shifted from an insurrection into a conventional war. The army looked for new sources of heavier weaponry and found it in China and Czechoslovakia. It looked for tracked vehicles for better cross country movements and larger caliber guns. In 1991, Sri Lanka Armoured Corps received from China twenty Type 85 light tanks, ten Type 90 APCs, command vehicles and a Type 86 armoured recovery vehicle which were assigned to the 3rd Reconnaissance Regiment replacing the British armoured cars. That year the SLAC introduced main battle tanks with the formation of its first tank regiment, the 4th Armoured Regiment at Clappenburg in Trincomalee equipped with T-55A medium tanks and T 55 ARVs brought down from the Czechoslovakia. In 1992, SLAC deployed twenty Type 86 infantry fighting vehicles. The two T-55A tanks of the 4th Armoured Regiment captured by the LTTE in the Battle of Pooneryn in November 1993. One of these destroyed by the air force and the other was re-captured at the end of the war. The 5th Regiment raised in 1994 as an infantry role and converted to an armored role as the 5th Reconnaissance Regiment with the arrival of Russian sixteen BMP-1 IFVs, followed by Chinese thirty Type 63 II APCs and a Czech T 54 AVLB bridge-layer. Many of the SLAC units deployed in the Operation Riviresa in 1995 and became the first units enter Jaffna. The 6th Regiment was raised in January 1997 and was initially deployed in an infantry role. In 1998, thirty three BTR-80 APCs and BTR-80 A IFVs were added to the 'A' vehicle fleet shared between the 1st, 3rd, 6th recce regiments and were used in Operation Jayasikurui. In May 1998, the 7th Battalion, Sri Lanka National Guard was transferred as the SLAC as the 7th (Volunteer) Regiment in an infantry role. In 1999, the 8th Regiment was raised as a reinforcement regiment in an infantry role. In 1998 the SLAC was presented with the President's Standard in recognition of the service it has rendered. In 2000, Czech T-55 AM II MBTs, BMP-2, BMP-3 IFVs were added followed by the BMP-2 command vehicles in 2002. The regiments under went reorganizing with new equipment, the 4th Armoured Regiment was reorganized in 2001 with three squadrons of T-55 AM II; 3rd Reconnaissance Regiment received one squadron of T-55A and the 1st Reconnaissance Regiment phased out its old British AFVs and was fully equipped with BTR 80s and BTR 80A. With the hostilities resuming in 2006, SLAC units deployed in offensive operations on all fronts. Its 4th Armoured Regiment lost six tanks in the key Battle of Jaffna. The 6th recce regiment was disbanded in February 2007 with its personal and equipment transferred to the newly formed Mechanized Infantry Regiment. In August 2007 a new 6th Reinforcement Regiment was raised followed by the 10th Reinforcement Regiment was raised in August 2008. In 2009 more Chinese WZ551 APCs were added and the 3rd Reconnaissance Regiment was re-designated as the 3rd Armoured Regiment as it was converted to a tank regiment. The army was negotiating the purchase of twenty Al Khalids from Pakistan when the war ended. Following end of the war, the 9th and 10th reinforcement regiments were disbanded and amalgamated with the 8th regiment in 2012. ==Units== === Operations and administration === * Armored Brigade * Regimental Center * SLAC regimental band ===Regular Army=== *1st Reconnaissance Regiment SLAC *3rd Armoured Regiment SLAC (Formed on 16 November 1988 at Rock House Camp, Colombo) *4th Armoured Regiment SLAC (Formed on 24 September 1991 at Rock House camp, first ever Tank Regiment of SLA) *5th Reconnaissance Regiment SLAC (Formed on 6 January 1994 at Rock House Camp) *6th (RFT) Regiment SLAC *8th (RFT) Regiment SLAC (Disbanded) (Formed on 30 July 1998 at Vasavilan) *9th (RFT) Regiment SLAC (Disbanded) (Formed on 21 January 2008 and disbanded on 1 April 2012) *10th (RFT) Regiment SLAC (Disbanded) (Formed on 28 August 2008 and disbanded on 1 April 2012) ===Volunteer Force=== *2nd(V) Regiment SLAC (Formed on 1 January 1979 and disbanded on 15 August 1987 to form 5 (V) Sri Lanka Light Infantry) *7th(V) Regiment SLAC (Converted from 7 Sri Lanka National Guard on 22 May 1998) === Armoured Corps Training Centre === The Armoured Corps Training Centre (ACTC) was established in 1984 at the army camp at Kalattewa, Anuradhapura to train tradesmen needed to operate its fleet of AFV. Its programs includes; * Young officers course * Recruit training course * Tank commanders/ Troop sergeants course * Basic tank drivers course * B Vehicle course * Gunner operators course * Clerks course * NCOs leadership course * BTR drivers course * Logistic course * MT Document course * Cpl to Sgt promotion course * T 55 Tank Driver intensive course * T 55 Tank Gnr/Opr intensive course * Class 1 diver course * Class 1 operator course ==Equipment== Main battle tanks * T-55AM2 * ZTZ88 Light tanks * Type 85 light tank Armoured recovery vehicles * VT-55 Armoured recovery vehicle * BMP-MTP Armoured recovery vehicle * BREM-K Armoured recovery vehicle Armoured vehicle- launched bridges * MT-55A Armoured vehicle-launched bridgeSaferworld's research project on arms and security in EU Associate Countries, Czech Republic Infantry fighting vehicles * BMP-3 Infantry fighting vehicle * BMP-2 Infantry fighting vehicle * BMP-1 Infantry fighting vehicle * Type 89 Armored fighting vehicle * Type 86 (WZ501) Armored fighting vehicles * Type 85 Armored fighting vehicle Armoured cars * Alvis Saladin (retired) * Daimler Armoured Cars (retired) * Ferret armoured cars (retired) Armoured personnel carriers * BTR-80 Armoured personnel carrier * Type 90/92 Armoured personnel carrier * Type 63 (YW531) Armoured personnel carriers * BTR-152 Armoured personnel carrier (retired) * Alvis Saracen (retired) thumb|Sri Lanka Army BTR80A thumb|Sri Lanka Army MT-55A Armored Vehicle-launched Bridge pulled by Tatra T815 Truck ==Notable members== *General Deshamanya D. S. Attygalle, LVO, SLAC - former Commander of the Army, Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Defence and father of the Sri Lanka Armoured Corps *General Cyril Ranatunga, VSV, SLAC - former GOC, Joint Operations Command and Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Defence *General Jagath Jayasuriya, VSV, USP, psc, SLAC - former Chief of the Defence Staff and Commander of the Army *General Rohan Daluwatte, RWP, RSP, VSV, USP, SLAC - Former Commander of the Army. *General Cecil Waidyaratne, VSV, USP, ndc, psc SLAC - Former Commander of the Army. *Lieutenant General Denzil Kobbekaduwa RWP, RSP, VSV, USP, rcds, psc, SLAC - Former General Officer Commanding Northern Sector & one of the greatest generals in modern Sri Lanka. *Major General Y. Balaretnarajah, VSV, USP, ndc, SLAC- Former Chief of Staff of the Army, Commandant Sri Lanka Army Volunteer Force, GOC, 1 Division and Commander, Security Forces, Jaffna. *Major General DVSY Kulathunge USP, RSP, ndc, psc, SLAC- Former Chief of Staff of the Army and Cammandant Sri Lanka Army Volunteer Force. *Major General G.A Chandrasiri RWP, USP, mdc, psc SLAC- Former Chief of Staff of the Army and Commander, Northern Command. *Major General C.H. Fernando, VSV, SLAC - former Director Operations, General Staff; GOC, 2 Division; Commandant, Army Training Centre; Commander, Northern Command. *Major General T Paranagama VSV, USP, SLAC - Former GOC, 1 Division, GOC, 3 Division; and Commander Security Forces Headquarters - Wanni (SF HQ (W)), *Major General T. N. De Silva, USP, psc, SLAC - former Commandant, Sri Lanka Army Volunteer Force; GOC, 21 Division, Brigade Commander Armoured Brigade and Director, National Cadet Corps. *Major General P.A Karunatilleke RWP- Former Deputy Overall Operations Commander and Commander Northern Command. *Major General D. Kalupahana, RSP, USP, psc, SLAC - former GOC, 3 Division; GOC, 2 Division; Director Operations, General Staff and Commandant, Sri Lanka Military Academy. *Major General N.A.Ranasinghe, RSP, VSV, USP, ndc, psc, Isc, SLAC - Former General Officer Commanding (GOC) 56 Division; Director Operations and Plans at the Joint Operations Headquarters, Commandant, Sri Lanka Military Academy, Commandant, Army Command and Staff College, Commandant, Defence Services Command and Staff College, First Commanding Officer of 5th Regiment, Sri Lanka Armoured Corps. *Major General Nandana Udawatta, RSP, USP, SLAC - former Security Forces Headquarters – Mullaitivu (SFHQ-MLT) and former GOC, 59 DivisionTwo Security Forces Headquarters established in Mullaitivu, Kilinochchi *Major General Milinda Peiris, RWP, RSP, USP, ndc, psc - Vice Chancellor of the General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU). * Major General Ubaya Madawela, USP, psc - Security Force Commander (West) and former Military Spokesman *Brigadier Dennis Hapugalle, VSV, psc, SLAC - former Chief of Civil Defence and Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Internal Security. *Brigadier M. H. Gunaratne, VSV, psc, SLAC - former Commander Security Forces Headquarters - East (SF HQ (E)), Commander, Task Force I and Task Force III and Commandant, Army Training Centre *Brigadier R. M. Jayasinghe, USP, psc, SLAC - former Director Armour; brigade commander, armored brigade; brigade commander, 212 Brigade and the first Military attaché, Sri Lankan Embassy, Washington DC. ==Alliances== * - 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards ==Order of precedence== ==See also== Sri Lanka Army ==References== ==External links and sources== * Sri Lanka Army * Sri Lanka Armoured Corps * Category:Cavalry regiments of Sri Lanka Category:Nationstate armoured warfare branches Category:Military units and formations established in 1955 Category:1955 establishments in Ceylon Category:Indian Peace Keeping Force |
The Hyatt Grand Central New York is a hotel located at 109 East 42nd Street, adjoining Grand Central Terminal, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It operated as the 2,000-room Commodore Hotel between 1919 and 1976. Hotel chain Hyatt and real estate developer Donald Trump converted the hotel to the 1,400-room Grand Hyatt New York between 1978 and 1980, encasing the facade in glass and renovating the interior. , the hotel is planned to be replaced with a skyscraper named Project Commodore after 2023. The New York Central Railroad had acquired the site in 1910 and started constructing the hotel in October 1916. The Commodore was designed by Warren & Wetmore, with the Fuller Company as the hotel's general contractor. The hotel was either 26 or 28 stories high and had an "H"-shaped floor plan and a brick-and-terracotta facade. It contained a large lobby designed in a manner resembling an Italian courtyard, as well as various dining rooms and ballrooms. The Commodore opened on January 28, 1919, and was originally operated by Bowman-Biltmore Hotels. Zeckendorf Hotels took over the Commodore's operation in 1958 before handing it to New York Central subsidiary Realty Hotels in 1966. Due to declining profits, the Commodore closed on May 18, 1976. Trump and Hyatt offered in 1975 to take over the Commodore and renovate it into the Grand Hyatt. After the city government granted a tax abatement for the renovation, Trump and Hyatt completely remodeled the hotel from June 1978 to September 1980, spending $100 million and removing almost all of the Commodore's original decorations. The renovated hotel includes a glass facade, a three-story atrium, a restaurant cantilevered over a sidewalk, and the Commodore's original ballroom. Trump and Hyatt's partnership deteriorated during the early 1990s, and the Pritzker family, which operated the Grand Hyatt, acquired Trump's stake in the hotel in 1996. Hyatt renovated the hotel in the late 1990s and again in the early 2010s. The Project Commodore skyscraper was announced for the site in 2019, and the Grand Hyatt closed in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. The hotel reopened in 2021 as the Hyatt Grand Central, although the hotel is scheduled to close permanently after 2023. == Site == The Hyatt Grand Central New York is at 109 East 42nd Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It occupies a rectangular site on the northwestern corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street, near Pershing Square Plaza, and abuts the Park Avenue Viaduct to the west. The land lot covers about , with a frontage of on Lexington Avenue and on 42nd Street. The hotel shares the city block with Grand Central Terminal to the west, the MetLife Building to the northwest, and the Graybar Building and 450 Lexington Avenue to the north. Other nearby buildings include the Pershing Square Building and Bowery Savings Bank Building to the southwest, the Chanin Building to the south, the Socony–Mobil Building to the southeast, and the Chrysler Building to the east. The New York City Subway's Grand Central–42nd Street station, serving the , is located directly underneath the Hyatt Grand Central, and the Lexington Avenue Line platforms cut diagonally underneath the hotel. There is a subway entrance at the base of the hotel on Lexington Avenue, with a stair and an elevator. The site was formerly occupied by the Hospital for Crippled Children. Before the hotel opened, the site occupied an entire city block, which was bounded by Depew Place to the west and 43rd Street to the north. The New York Central Railroad acquired the site in November 1910 as part of the construction of Grand Central Terminal. == Architecture == The Hyatt Grand Central New York was originally known as the Commodore and was designed by Warren & Wetmore. The Fuller Company was the hotel's general contractor, although the project also involved numerous other contractors and engineers. Donald Trump and Hyatt renovated the hotel in the 1970s to designs by Gruzen & Partners and Der Scutt. === Commodore Hotel === When the Commodore opened, it contained 2,000 rooms and was either 26 or 28 stories high. There were also five basement stories. Because of superstition surrounding the number 13, the hotel did not have a thirteenth floor, nor did it have any rooms, mailboxes, elevators, or other fixtures with the number 13. The Commodore's facade was largely made of buff-colored brick with architectural terracotta trim; the first three stories were clad in Indiana Limestone. The hotel's lowest three stories occupied the entire site. Above the third story, the hotel was shaped like a "H", with light courts to the north and south. At the top of the facade was a cornice with copper faces. The design of the nearby 245 Park Avenue was intended to complement not only the Commodore's original facade but also that of the nearby New York Biltmore Hotel, which was gutted in the early 1980s. The hotel contained large amounts of materials, including of steel, 4.256 million bricks, 1.653 million terracotta blocks, and of fireproof floor arches. The hotel's heating system included 4,400 radiators, supplied by a pair of boilers in the basement. The ventilation system contained 17 fans that were capable of supplying of air per minute. The Commodore contained ten passenger elevators, eight service elevators, one freight elevator, and two dumbwaiters. The hotel received water from the city's water supply system, with two intakes from 42nd Street and one from Lexington Avenue. The water- drainage system included two sewers to 42nd Street and one to Lexington Avenue, as well as sump pumps that drained water from the basements into the city's sewage system. The Commodore also contained a telautograph system with 75 stations, as well as a fire alarm system, which at the time of the hotel's opening was an uncommon feature. ==== Ground level ==== The hotel's main entrance was at 42nd Street, just east of Grand Central Terminal. At ground level was a vestibule, consisting of a central hallway flanked by wide stairways that ascended to the lobby. The central hallway continued to the grill room and to the Commodore Passageway at the rear of the ground level. At the rear of the vestibule was a grill room, used for supper and dancing; it was also known as the supper room. The grill room's entrance was on a terrace with stone walls and columns and a tiled floor. A short flight of steps descended to the main part of the grill room, which had chestnut walls with alcoves and leaded windows. On the ceiling were large beams painted by John B. Smeraldi, consisting of heraldic designs taken from illuminated manuscripts. The center of the grill room contained a dance floor measuring . At the north end of the ground story was the Commodore Passage, which still exists but was renamed the Lexington Passage after the Commodore closed. The passage leads directly to Grand Central Terminal and also connects to Lexington Avenue. This passageway also connects the hotel to the New York City Subway's Grand Central–42nd Street station via the terminal's corridors. Additional passageways connected with other buildings such as the Biltmore and Roosevelt hotels, the Yale Club Building, the Graybar Building, and the Chrysler Building. In the late 1990s, the passageway was redesigned as a shopping arcade with marble storefronts. ==== Lobby level ==== The lobby itself was designed in a manner resembling an Italian courtyard, surrounded by an arcade with a mezzanine above it. At the hotel's opening in 1919, architectural media described the Commodore's lobby as the largest hotel lobby in the world. The lobby had a metal-and-white-glass ceiling supported by light-colored stucco arches. There was a large palm tree in the middle of the lobby, which reached nearly to the ceiling. The lobby's walls were made of rough plaster above a wainscoting of soft Italian stone, and the paneling on the walls consisted of blue Italian tiles. The lobby also included vases with concealed lighting. At the center of the main lobby was a small retreat surrounded by palm trees. The lobby's mezzanine contained a lounge, which was accessed by a wide staircase on the west wall and smaller stairs along the lobby's perimeter. The mezzanine railing contained boxes with plants. The mezzanine gallery was designed in the Italian Renaissance style, with flowers and palms. The walls contained satin hangings in blue, red, and yellow with green stripes, which were intended to complement the design of the floor. The gallery also had period furniture, including chairs and vases; the chairs were covered with blue and gold satin and velvet. Leading off this gallery were various writing rooms, the barber shop, the manicure shop, and the Commodore Hotel's executive offices, as well as numerous small alcoves and retreats. Men's and women's rooms were positioned on opposite sides of the lobby. West of the lobby were offices, a stock-brokers' room, check rooms, a men's writing room, an English-style men's restaurant, telephones, telegraph services, and other business functions. On the lobby's west wall was a cafe with natural-oak wainscoting; a blue-and-gold carpet; Flemish oak chairs; and a ceiling with white-and-green plaster frescoes. East of the lobby, and a few steps above it, was the palm room, where after-dinner coffee and afternoon tea were served. The palm room was separated from the lobby by large majolica vases with palm trees. Behind the palm room was the main dining room, which contained a walnut wainscoting and a purple, green, and rose-colored vaulted ceiling in low relief. Next to the main dining room were the lobby supper room and the breakfast room, both designed in a similar manner to the main dining room. Stairs led from the dining room to the mezzanine, the hair-dressing parlor, and ladies' public rooms. The hotel's kitchen was on the same level as the men's restaurant and the main dining room; there were also stairs leading down to the street-level grill room. The kitchen was capable of serving 10,000 meals per day, including 4,000 meals for employees. The kitchen was divided into several departments. These included a main kitchen, measuring wide; a separate kitchen for banquets, measuring wide; and a "preparatory kitchen" above the main kitchen, which was used for food preparation. Paper slips with guests' orders were delivered to the kitchen via a series of pneumatic tubes, and dumbwaiters connected the kitchen with each guestroom floor. ==== Ballrooms and other spaces ==== When the hotel was built, the New-York Tribune called the main ballroom "the largest private ballroom of any hotel in the world". The space was described as being in the French Empire style. It covered and was originally decorated in white, purple, and gold, with green accents. The main ballroom could accommodate up to 3,000 guests for entertainments such as plays, and it could seat 2,000 guests during banquets. There were 56 boxes in the room, connected by a promenade and split across two tiers. This arrangement, inspired by the layout of seats in a Mexican bullring, was intended to maximize the number of boxes for sale during charity events, as well as provide sufficient space for a dance floor below. There was a roof garden above the ballroom for tea and luncheons. The ballroom was redecorated in coral and black during a 1937 renovation, with a yellow, blue, and tan carpet. Two smaller ballrooms opened off the main ballroom and could be used separately or in tandem. These ballrooms contained silk and satin tapestries in the Louis XV style, as well as black-and-green satin chairs. To the north of the main ballroom was a vestibule that spanned the entire width of the room. The vestibule's high ceiling had three chandeliers and was painted blue and white, and the marble floors were covered by a carpet. The western end of the vestibule contained a direct entrance from the Park Avenue Viaduct. The hotel also contained a vehicular elevator from 42nd Street, which ascended to the viaduct level and could carry up to . Another popular spot was the Century Room, which had its own orchestra. The Billboard magazine described the Century Room in 1947 as "one of the top name [orchestra] spots in the city". Major bands played at the Century Room from the 1930s to 1948, when the Century also started booking smaller bands. The shows in the Century Room were discontinued permanently in 1949 after the federal government imposed a 20 percent excise tax on such shows, and the Century Room became a luncheon room. Other amenities included a parking garage, which the Commodore shared with the Biltmore and the Hotel Manhattan, as well as a children's playroom. ==== Rooms ==== The hotel had 2,000 rooms when it opened. Each room faced either the street or a light court, and all guestrooms had bathrooms. Rooms on the light courts received more sunlight than rooms on the street, as the light courts were wider than any of the surrounding streets. Initially, approximately 1,000 rooms had rates of $2.50 a night, advertised as "a room and a bath for two and a half"; the remaining rooms cost $3 to $4 a night. Each guestroom floor contained its own "floor clerk", stationed outside the elevators. Floor clerks acted as concierges for their respective stories. The floor clerk coordinated room service, provided supplies, and obtained tickets and schedules for guests, among other tasks. When the Commodore opened, the corridors and rooms all had gray-and-black carpets above two layers of linings. The rooms had translucent curtains and shades that could be unhung, allowing each room to be ventilated during the summer and winter. Each bedroom typically contained a bed, a dressing table, two small chairs, a large armchair, and a small table with a telephone. The bedrooms contained ornate light fixtures on the ceiling, as well as small writing tables with lamps. Each bathroom had a cold-water tap, as well as a shower and an illuminated wall mirror, which were novel features at the time of the hotel's construction. === Grand Hyatt New York === The rebuilt hotel was 32 stories high with 1,400 rooms. The Grand Hyatt also had five restaurants that contained a combined 2,000 seats, as well as of retail space. If gambling in New York were legalized, the retail space was designed to be easily converted to a casino, but this conversion never happened. ==== Lobby ==== alt=View of the hotel's lobby in 2022|thumb|The lobby as seen in 2022 Trump had wanted to redesign the lobby as a "big atrium", but this was impossible because of the presence of the Commodore's original interior columns. Furthermore, the lobby had a relatively low ceiling because the original ballroom had to be preserved. The lobby covered , measured long, and was three stories high. A set of escalators led to the lobby from a street-level foyer one story below. The lobby was originally clad with Italian Paradiso marble and contained mirrored walls and large bronzed columns. The center of the lobby had a cascading fountain and a brass sculpture by Peter Lobello, which measured high. When the lobby was renovated in 2013, it was clad in stone and dark wood, and a carpet with gray stripes was installed. The ceiling was retrofitted with uplights that changed color depending on the time of the day. In addition, there were black leather chairs, as well as registration and concierge desks made of white quartz. The lobby's fountain was also reduced in size. During the early-2010s renovation, Jaume Plensa designed a pair of sculptures of female heads, for the lobby; known as Awilda and Chloe, the sculptures were intended to resemble moai heads. One of the sculptures was placed on an onyx wall, while the other was placed atop the fountain. On the lobby's rear wall was a blackened-steel archway that led to Market, a grab-and-go restaurant that operated 24 hours a day. Market contained concrete counters, glass displays, wooden floors, and tiled walls. ==== Amenity spaces ==== The renovated hotel includes a second- story restaurant, cantilevered over the 42nd Street sidewalk; the restaurant measures wide. Because the restaurant overhangs a public sidewalk, the New York City Board of Estimate had to approve plans for the restaurant, and the Grand Hyatt's operators had to pay an annual fee to the city government. The space was originally a cocktail lounge called the Sun Garden. In the early 2010s, the former lounge was converted into a restaurant called New York Central, which covers . As part of the renovation, the firm of Bentel & Bentel covered the lounge with white louvers. The renovated restaurant includes multiple tiers of seating that slope downward in the direction of the lobby, as well as a ceiling sculpture designed by Bentel & Bentel. In addition, the restaurant contains a lounge and a private dining area. Next to the restaurant was a wine gallery with white-quartz counters and gray-marble wall. The wine gallery included a glass artwork by Per Fronth, which depicted oceanic scenes. One of the service elevators, known as the "flying kitchen", was equipped with a telephone and was used for room service. The grand ballroom was one of the only parts of the Commodore Hotel to be preserved when it was renovated in the 1970s. The space, on the ballroom level (three stories above ground), was renamed the Empire State Ballroom and expanded to during the renovation. The ballroom retains its carved ceiling, which measures high. There are also metal grilles that resembled the large windows in Grand Central's Main Concourse, as well as chandeliers that consisted of 7,000 pieces of art glass. The Empire State Ballroom could be divided into five sections and could fit 100 to 1,500 guests. There are numerous smaller ballrooms on the mezzanine and conference levels. A event venue called the Gallery On Lex was added during the hotel's 2010s renovation. The event venue is on the ground floor near the Lexington Passage. It contains a foyer with artwork, stone floors, and leather furniture. This leads to an open-plan meeting space with stone counters, wooden floors, two wooden "pavilions", and a glass wall in the front. The ground floor also contains the Manhattan Ballroom and a foyer for that ballroom. ==== Rooms ==== There were originally 1,407 rooms, including 125 guestroom suites. These rooms were arranged in 38 different layouts because of site constraints. According to the New York Daily News, the rooms originally included 576 twin-sized beds and 549 king-sized beds, as well as "17 sitting suites, 88 junior suites, 30 VIP suites, 4 deluxe suites, 2 executive suites and just one presidential suite". GKR Design Consultants and Dale Keller & Associates designed the original furniture in the renovated Grand Hyatt. The decorations included brass-framed mirrors, curved wooden furniture, and upholstered seats. Guestrooms started on the sixth story above ground level, which at Trump's request was labeled as floor 14. Although the renovation architects opposed this floor numbering system, Hyatt endorsed Trump's decision. Looney & Associates redesigned most of the suites and rooms in the early 2010s; after this renovation, there were 1,306 rooms, including 51 suites. The renovated rooms contain Australian walnut furniture and various types of textiles. The rooms also include indirect lighting, and each of the beds contain a headboard designed by Fronth. In addition, Looney & Associates designed twenty VIP suites, themed as either lofts or modern residences. The loft suites contain walnut furniture and other "masculine" design features, while the residence suites carry a more neutral color palette. George Wong Design also designed four premier suites, which were inspired by pieds-à-terre and are themed to either uptown Manhattan townhouses or downtown Manhattan lofts. ==History== In the 19th century, New York Central Railroad lines north of Grand Central Depot in Midtown Manhattan were served exclusively by steam locomotives, and the rising traffic soon caused accumulations of smoke and soot in the Park Avenue Tunnel, the only approach to the depot. After a fatal crash in 1902, the New York state legislature passed a law to ban all steam trains in Manhattan by 1908. New York Central's vice president William J. Wilgus proposed electrifying the line and building a new electric-train terminal underground, a plan that was implemented almost in its entirety. The old Grand Central Depot was torn down in phases and replaced by the current Grand Central Terminal. Construction on Grand Central Terminal started in 1903, and the new terminal was opened on February 2, 1913. Passenger traffic on the commuter lines into Grand Central more than doubled in the years following the terminal's completion. The terminal spurred development in the surrounding area, particularly in Terminal City, a commercial and office district created above where the tracks were covered. Terminal City soon became Manhattan's most desirable commercial and office district. A 1920 New York Times article said, "With its hotels, office buildings, apartments and underground Streets it not only is a wonderful railroad terminal, but also a great civic centre." The Commodore was one of several hotels developed in Terminal City, along with other hostelries such as the Roosevelt, the Biltmore, and the Barclay. === Development === ==== Planning ==== thumb|View of the hotel in 1919 The New York Central acquired several lots on the west side of Lexington Avenue between 42nd and 43rd Streets in November 1910; the lots had formerly housed the site of the Hospital for Crippled Children. The railroad had already acquired multiple adjacent lots on the north side of 42nd Street several years prior. The following year, news media reported that the New York Central was considering erecting a hotel on the site. The New York Times also said that the railroad initially considered leasing the hotel to H. C. Griswold. When Grand Central Terminal opened in February 1913, the New York Central was already clearing the site of the old hospital. The hotel was to be named the Commodore after "Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt, the New York Central's founder. As part of the Dual Contracts, the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) was planning a subway station for the IRT Lexington Avenue Line at 42nd Street, which was to run diagonally from Park Avenue in the southwest to Lexington Avenue in the northeast. Because the station was partially located under the Children's Hospital site, the Public Service Commission had to acquire an easement from the New York Central, which would enable the commission to build part of the station under the proposed hotel. The commission was unwilling to pay the New York Central's asking price for the easement, so the IRT modified its plans in April 1913, avoiding the hospital site entirely. The Public Service Commission voted on the modification in June 1913, and the modified route was adopted that November. The commission voted in favor of the original diagonal route in February 1914. The commission subsequently acquired the easement in February 1915 for $902,500. ==== Construction ==== The New York State Realty and Terminal Company, a division of the New York Central, leased the hotel to John McEntee Bowman in January 1916. Bowman paid $175,000 a year for 21 years, with two renewal options. In addition, Bowman was obligated to pay 91 percent of the taxes and six percent of the total construction cost every year. The Commodore became part of the Bowman-Biltmore Hotels chain in 1918 after Bowman and rival hotel operator Benjamin L. M. Bates agreed to merge their respective companies. The New York Central filed plans with the New York City Department of Buildings in May 1916. The hotel, to be designed by Warren and Wetmore, was to rise 26 stories and cost $6 million. The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company gave the New York Central a $4.5 million loan for the site in September 1916. The Real Estate Record wrote at the time: "the release of such an enormous amount of money into a single building project is being regarded as highly significant inasmuch as there has been a marked tendency on the part of many builders to hold their projects in abeyance" during World War I. The excavations for the subway station had been completed by this point, and the George A. Fuller Company, the hotel's general contractor, took over the site. Construction commenced in October 1916; the project was expected to cost $6 million. Francis T. Gilling and several assistants spent six months creating a plaster model of the hotel, which was exhibited in several cities during 1917. Warren and Wetmore also drew up plans for a small airplane hangar north of the hotel. The project involved numerous extremely large material orders, including a contract for 159,000 pieces of silverware and of mesh reinforcement. The hotel's completion was delayed by supply-chain issues and steel shortages during World War I, although the hotel's managers had awarded almost all construction contracts before the beginning of the war. Most of the steel beams were delivered by truck, train, or barge, but in at least one case, a large girder was delivered by a pack of 18 horses. Even after the American Bridge Company had finished manufacturing steel beams for the hotel, these were sometimes delayed due to steel embargoes. There were also delays in delivering limestone, linen, and carpets. Some of the rivets used in the hotel's frame had to be mailed to the construction site. In addition, rising labor and material prices increased the hotel's cost. By early 1918, the hotel was expected to cost $7.5 million, of which the furnishings were to cost $2 million. The Commodore's steel frame topped out on July 25, 1918. === Commodore Hotel operation === thumb|The Commodore Hotel, 1921 ==== Opening and Biltmore-Bowman operation ==== The Commodore opened on January 28, 1919. The Commodore's managers mailed out 10,000 invitations for the hotel's opening, and hundreds of businesspeople from across the United States had reserved rooms for the hotel's opening day. A women's club opened within the hotel in March 1919. The Commodore's opening coincided with an increase in the number of passengers that used Grand Central Terminal, in part because the subway station under the hotel had opened one year prior, in 1918. During the hotel's first decade, it hosted such events as car shows, charity balls, a circus, fashion shows, and wrestling matches. The Commodore also hosted a party in 1924 to celebrate the removal of the Grand Central elevated station on 42nd Street, which had been directly above the hotel's main entrance. U.S. president Calvin Coolidge attended a large party at the Commodore in 1925 to celebrate the 100th anniversary of 42nd Street's opening. Bowman also hosted a circus in 1927, with an elephant in the grand ballroom, to impress visiting hoteliers. By 1930, the Commodore was the second-most valuable hotel in New York City (after the Savoy-Plaza Hotel), with an assessed value of $16.3 million. Bowman continued to operate the Commodore until he died in 1931, and David Mulligan took over as Bowman-Biltmore's president the next year. Frank J. Crohan began operating the Commodore after he became president of Bowman- Biltmore in 1934. The Commodore began serving alcoholic drinks in December 1933, after Prohibition in the United States was repealed, although patrons could initially order drinks from rolling carts. After New York state repealed a Prohibition-era ban on standing bars in May 1934, Bowman-Biltmore Hotels installed a bar in the Commodore. That October, the Commodore's managers opened an English-style grill room, decorated with recessed lighting and wooden panels. Biltmore-Bowman subsequently added a bar at the Commodore in 1936, hiring 25 bartenders. The hotel was renovated in 1937 for $750,000; according to Crohan, this was the first major renovation of the Commodore in its history. The project involved renovating three ballrooms and all 2,000 guest rooms; installing ten new elevators; and adding a new kitchen and grill room. The renovations were completed by 1939. Crohan died in 1940, and Martin Sweeny was appointed as the Commodore's general manager. The hotel's guests during this time included Wendell Willkie, Republican nominee for the 1940 United States presidential election, who opened his personal headquarters there. The Officers Service Committee also took up some space in the hotel during World War II; at the end of the war, the committee's space became a bureau for United Nations delegations. An air-conditioning system was installed in the Century Room in 1946, allowing the room to operate during the summer, and the entire hotel was air-conditioned by the next year. Sweeny died in 1950, shortly after becoming chairman of the Commodore Hotel's board. The storefront at the corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street was leased by a drugstore in 1954 and was extensively remodeled at a cost of $200,000. ==== Zeckendorf and Realty Hotels operation ==== Webb and Knapp, led by developer William Zeckendorf, offered to buy all of the Commodore Hotel's outstanding common stock in October 1957 for $18 per share. At the time, Webb and Knapp wished to control 8,000 hotel rooms in New York City. Zeckendorf Hotels, took over the Commodore in September 1958, acquiring 96 percent of the stock. As part of a leaseback agreement, Zeckendorf immediately sold the lease on the land to Joseph I. Lubin for $6 million, subleasing the site from Lubin for three years. Zeckendorf also began looking to sell his lease of the hotel building itself in early 1960, although he would continue to operate the hotel. Claude Philippe was hired as the hotel's general manager in June 1960, but Philippe resigned seven months later to work for the nearby Summit Hotel. The Glickman Corporation (renamed the Franchard Corporation in 1963) bought the land lease from Lubin in November 1960. Glickman's lease ran until the end of December 1967, after which control of the hotel would revert to the New York Central. Around the same time, Zeckendorf contemplated selling his leases of the Astor, Commodore, and Manhattan hotels to raise money for the Freedomland U.S.A. amusement park in the Bronx, in which Zeckendorf also owned a majority stake. This plan was approved in June 1961, and Freedomland U.S.A., assumed the leases on the three hotels. The hotel was renovated the same year. As part of the project, a cocktail lounge and two large obelisks were installed in the lobby, and two ballrooms were also refurbished. In 1962, amid competition from other hotels, the Biltmore, Commodore, and Roosevelt hotels formed an alliance to attract conventions with 1,500 to 5,000 guests. The alliance allowed the three hotels to host a single convention across 4,000 guestrooms, 90 meeting rooms, 15 restaurants, and of exhibit space. The 78013 Corporation, the subsidiary of Webb and Knapp that operated the hotel, owed over $850,000 in back rent by February 1964. Amid continued rent disputes, Franchard evicted Webb and Knapp as the hotel's operator in May 1964 and began managing the Commodore directly. This prompted a dispute between Franchard and several companies that had supplied materials for the hotel, which were collectively owed $590,000. As a result, in September 1964, a creditors' committee was established to resolve the dispute. Realty Hotels, a subsidiary of the New York Central, agreed in November 1966 to take over the Commodore from Franchard, effective January 1, 1968. The chain formally acquired the hotel's leasehold in June 1967, several months ahead of schedule. Realty Hotels immediately announced plans to spend $6 million renovating the Commodore. During the 1960s, Realty Hotels replaced about half of the manually operated elevators at the Barclay, Biltmore, Commodore, and Roosevelt, and it renovated these hotels as part of a $22 million modernization program. Realty Hotels' president said the renovations had helped attract new and returning customers to the hotels. ===Conversion into Grand Hyatt=== The New York Central had experienced financial decline during the 1960s, merging with the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1968 to form the Penn Central Railroad. Penn Central continued to face financial issues and failed to make mortgage payments. By late 1970, the Commodore Hotel was facing foreclosure, as were several other buildings that Penn Central owned around Grand Central Terminal. After Penn Central went bankrupt that year, the company sought to sell its properties, including the land below the Commodore Hotel. The buildings were placed for auction in October 1971, but the proceedings were delayed for several years. Penn Central, which had placed all of Realty Hotels' properties for sale, subsequently withdrew its offer to sell the hotels. Both Penn Central and the Commodore continued to struggle financially, and the hotel recorded a 49 percent occupancy rate in 1974. Penn Central, which had not paid taxes on the site since June 1970, owed over $10 million in back taxes by the beginning of 1976. The Commodore could not be converted to an apartment building because of its large size and inefficient room layouts. Even razing the hotel would cost $7 million. ==== Trump offer and closure ==== Donald Trump's Trump Organization and the Pritzker family's Hyatt hotel chain entered a formal agreement in May 1975, making a joint offer to purchase the Commodore. Trump planned to buy the hotel for $10 million and convert it into a hotel called the Hyatt Regency, spending $70 million on renovations. Trump had one year to purchase the hotel and another 18 months to conduct renovations, after which Hyatt would take over the hotel. Trump planned to re-clad the hotel with a glass facade and expand its public rooms, providing additional space for conventions. The project would create 1,500 jobs, boosting the city's struggling tourism industry, and would be one of Donald Trump's first major projects. One unidentified real-estate expert said that, if Trump succeeded in redeveloping the Commodore, "you could call him 'the William Zeckendorf of Bad Times'". Trump wanted to buy an option from Penn Central, allowing him to purchase the Commodore at a later date, but he did not have $250,000 on hand to pay for the option. City officials asked Trump to supply a copy of his agreement with Penn Central, but Trump sent the option agreement paperwork without signatures. Penn Central spent $1 million on renovations in 1975, remodeling the Commodore's bar and renaming it the "New York, New York". In early May 1976, Penn Central asset manager Victor Palmieri announced that the Commodore would be closed the next week, having lost $1.3 million in 1975. By then, the hotel's occupancy rate had decreased to 33 percent, and hotel officials said the Commodore was projected to lose $4.6 million that year. Trump was still negotiating to buy the option. The hotel closed on May 18, 1976, and Penn Central laid off all of the hotel's 500 employees. The Commodore hosted 19 guests and four small events on its last day of operation; the very last guest had not been notified of the hotel's closure until the day before. ==== Tax abatement and financing ==== Then-mayor Abraham Beame had proposed a tax abatement in January 1976 to encourage commercial and industrial development in New York City. Beame and Trump's father Fred Trump had a longtime political connection, and Beame's deputy mayor Stanley Friedman championed the tax-abatement program, even as the city experienced the worst fiscal crisis in its history. Trump formally requested a tax abatement from city officials in March 1976; he was the first developer to request a tax abatement under Beame's program. Hyman B. Cantor of the Carter Hotels Corporation made another offer for the Commodore in April 1976, while city officials continued to discuss the tax abatement. Although Beame had originally planned to give the hotel a 50-year tax abatement, he subsequently proposed reducing the tax abatement to 35 years, to which Trump objected. By then, several members of the New York City Council had expressed concerns about the proposed abatement, as did rival developers and hotel operators. Opponents said the city government would forfeit $4 million a year in tax revenue if the abatement was approved. The New York City Board of Estimate approved the Commodore's tax abatement two days after the hotel closed. To receive the abatement, Trump would pay Penn Central $10 million and resell the hotel for $1 to the Urban Development Corporation (UDC), a New York state government agency, which would lease back the hotel to Trump Organization subsidiary Wembley Realty Inc. for 99 years. Trump would make payments in lieu of taxes during the hotel's renovation. The hotel's rent would be discounted for 40 years, and the rent payments would increase gradually to $2.27 million after 40 years. The tax abatement would allow Trump and Hyatt to save $56 million over forty years. If the hotel earned more than $5.5 million per year, the city government would receive half of the hotel's profits. Law professor Leon Wein filed a lawsuit, alleging that the tax abatement violated the Constitution of New York, but the New York Court of Appeals (the highest court in New York state) ruled in December 1977 that the tax abatement was constitutional. The Commodore remained largely empty after its closure, except for some stores that continued to operate at ground level. One apparel-store owner at the Commodore's base refused to vacate the site and ultimately signed a long-term lease with Trump. Penn Central agreed in September 1976 to pay the city government $5 million after it sold the hotel to Trump, and the UDC agreed to buy the hotel from Trump the same month. Trump exercised his option for the hotel in January 1977, placing a down payment of $250,000. Penn Central's trustees next asked a federal district court for permission to sell the Commodore, as the railroad was bankrupt and could not sell the hotel by itself. In December 1977, the Bowery Savings Bank agreed to lend Trump and Hyatt $45 million for the Commodore's redevelopment, and the Equitable Life Assurance Society agreed to lend $35 million. Trump and Hyatt were to provide the remaining $20 million. Ultimately, Trump received $140 million in long- term financing and short-term loans for the Hyatt Regency's renovation. ==== Renovation ==== In preparation for the hotel's renovation, National Content Liquidators started auctioning off about one million furnishings and decorations in January 1978. Thousands of people visited the hotel on the first day of the auction. Trump announced in May 1978 that he would start renovating the hotel. He wanted the hotel to reopen in time for the completion of Javits Center, a convention center on Manhattan's west side. HRH Construction, a division of the Starrett Housing Corporation, received the general contract for the Commodore's renovation. The firm of Gruzen & Partners was hired to redesign the hotel, and architect Der Scutt (who later designed Trump Tower) was hired as a design consultant. Trump hired Barbara Greene of GKR Design Consultants, as well as Dale Keller & Associates, to design the interiors. A groundbreaking ceremony for the Hyatt Regency took place on June 28, 1978, with Beame, mayor Ed Koch, and governor Hugh Carey in attendance. The Hyatt Regency was one of several hotels in midtown Manhattan to be developed during the late 1970s. The hotel's renovation was temporarily delayed by a labor strike in August 1978. The city government originally planned a sales tax on construction materials to fund other improvements in the area, including $2 million for a cleaning of Grand Central Terminal's facade. The city waived the sales tax after Trump agreed to fund the facade- restoration project directly. As part of the project, a mezzanine was constructed between the Hyatt hotel and the terminal. The project had become known as the Grand Hyatt New York by early 1979. The Commodore was gutted almost entirely to its steel frame, although the Trump Organization salvaged 200 copper faces on the original facade's cornice. The Hyatt's new facade was being installed by the end of 1979. Hotel officials began conducting job interviews in mid-1980, and they hired Fred Alexander as the hotel's first general manager. The renovation ultimately cost $100 million. This amounted to approximately $80,000 per room, although Trump estimated that a new hotel on the same site would have cost twice as much. === Hyatt operation === ==== Reopening and early years ==== The hotel officially reopened in September 1980 as the Grand Hyatt New York. The Grand Hyatt was one of 13 large hotels, with a combined 9,000 rooms, that had opened in New York City during the early 1980s. The Grand Hyatt's opening coincided with the revival of the surrounding area, although there was disagreement over whether the hotel's renovation impacted the neighborhood's revival. At the time of its reopening, all of the rooms had been booked, but an unidentified hospitality-industry expert estimated the next year that as many as 40 percent of the hotel's rooms were empty. Nonetheless, the Sun Garden bar quickly became popular with nearby office workers. The Grand Hyatt began hosting Major League Baseball teams during World Series games, accommodating all visiting MLB teams. A restaurant called Trumpets opened within the hotel's base in early 1981. The same year, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) announced that they planned to use eminent domain to acquire of the Grand Hyatt's basement and reconstruct a subway entrance there. Regional newspaper Newsday estimated that, in the first five years of the hotel's operation, the tax abatement saved Trump and Hyatt $5.5 million annually. Local civic group Grand Central Partnership installed floodlights on the hotel's facade in 1989, both for illuminating Grand Central Terminal and discouraging crime on nearby streets. The terminal's operators also proposed constructing a loading dock and garbage-collection facility next to the Grand Hyatt, but Trump opposed these plans. This loading dock, which separated the Grand Hyatt from the Graybar Building, was replaced in the 1990s with a pedestrian passageway. ==== Financial troubles and decline of partnership ==== In late 1989, state officials ordered the hotel to pay the city government $2.9 million in back rent, which the hotel had withheld in 1986 after changing its accounting procedures. An investigation by city auditors found that the hotel was missing basic financial records and was using procedures that violated Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Mayor Koch asked the UDC to collect the rent from Trump, but the UDC declined to do so. New York City's auditor general had been investigating the case, but Koch's successor David Dinkins subsequently disbanded the auditor general's office. Several of Trump's companies were struggling financially by 1990, and he considered selling his stake in the Grand Hyatt to pay off outstanding debt. That June, Trump offered his stake in the Grand Hyatt as collateral for a $65 million syndicated loan from several banks. At the time, the hotel had a relatively high net operating income of $15.7 million; real-estate experts estimated that Trump's stake was worth between $157 million and $186 million. By the following year, Trump was negotiating to sell most of his stake in the Grand Hyatt to one of his lenders, Bankers Trust. Trump and Hyatt's partnership deteriorated during the early 1990s. Trump sued several members of the Pritzker family in 1993, accusing them of racketeering; he sought full control of the hotel and $500 million in damages. Trump claimed that Hyatt wanted to force him out of the partnership because their agreement prevented the chain from operating other Hyatt-branded convention hotels in New York City. Due to a non-compete clause, Hyatt could not advertise the nearby UN Plaza Hotel as being part of the chain. Hyatt also wished to renovate the hotel for $35.7 million, funded equally by Trump and the Pritzkers, so the Grand Hyatt could "remain competitive" with other hotels. Trump initially agreed to pay for his half of the renovation, but he later reneged, claiming the repairs were too extravagant. When the Pritzkers opened arbitration proceedings to force Trump to pay for the renovations, the New York Supreme Court's Appellate Division granted a stay of proceedings in late 1993, blocking the arbitration proceedings. The Pritzkers countersued in March 1994, alleging that Trump had violated their partnership by failing to remain solvent, using his share as collateral for loans, and refusing to fund his portion of the renovation. The Pritzkers also sued Bankers Trust and Chemical Bank, claiming that Trump had diluted the partnership by conveying his financial interest to his lenders while retaining veto power. Trump and the Pritzkers agreed to a settlement in mid-1995, and Trump and Hyatt announced in March 1996 that they would renovate the hotel for $25 million. Hughes Design Associates designed the renovation, which included updated furnishings and a new fitness center. The hotel continued to undergo renovations through mid-1997. ==== Pritzker family control ==== The Pritzkers bought Trump's share in the hotel for $140 million in October 1996, which lifted the non-compete clause against the UN Plaza. Following the acquisition, Hyatt owned a 99 percent stake in the hotel, while the Pritzker Family Philanthropic Fund owned the remaining share. By the early 2000s, the hotel's lobby was a popular place for informal meetings. Hyatt agreed to replace the hotel's cooling system in 2003 after over a thousand workers went on strike. The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA), which operated Grand Central, repaired a steam room under the Grand Hyatt in 2005; the steam room supplied the terminal and had partially collapsed during the preceding decade. By 2007, the Grand Hyatt was the fourth-most valuable hotel in New York City, having been appraised at $300.9 million. Hyatt announced in mid-2009 that it would spend $12 million renovating the Empire Ballroom. The next year, Hyatt commenced a wider-ranging renovation of the hotel for $130 million. The hotel remained open during the renovation, and only a few floors were closed at any given time. Carol and Paul Bentel of the firm Bentel & Bentel were hired to renovate the public spaces, while Looney & Associates redesigned most of the suites and rooms. During the renovation, a restaurant called New York Central opened next to the hotel's lobby in late 2010. In addition, Hyatt added the Market, a food market where customers could select what they wanted instead of waiting for room service. At the time, only about 50 daily guests ordered room service, while other guests chose to leave the hotel to eat. After the Market opened, Hyatt cut back its room-service hours. The Grand Hyatt installed several green building features in early 2016, including a new exhaust-control system, LED lighting, and an updated HVAC system. In addition, as part of the development of the nearby One Vanderbilt skyscraper, the subway station under the hotel was renovated in the late 2010s. The project involved relocating several of the hotel's support columns, demolishing 40 percent of the Hyatt's basement to expand the subway mezzanine, and expanding a subway entrance within the hotel's base. ===Project Commodore=== The New York City government enacted the Midtown East rezoning in the 2010s; this allowed developers to transfer unused air rights from Grand Central Terminal to neighboring sites, enabling the construction of high-rise buildings on these sites. Developers expressed interest in redeveloping several sites around the terminal, including the Grand Hyatt. In February 2019, the media reported that TF Cornerstone, MSD Partners, and RXR Realty planned to redevelop the Grand Hyatt site. A new mixed-use structure with office and retail space, as well as a smaller hotel, would be built on the site. The proposal required approval from the state and city governments of New York, though no final agreement had been signed. Before the developers could construct the skyscraper, they had to buy out Hyatt's lease, which ran through 2077. At the time, the developers planned to close the hotel permanently after the end of 2020. In November 2020, preliminary plans for an 83-story mixed-use tower on the site, known as Project Commodore, were revealed. The tower, designed by T. J. Gottesdiener of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, would be tall, making it the second-tallest in New York City if completed. The structure would contain office space on the 7th through 63rd floors and a 500-room Grand Hyatt hotel on the 65th through 83rd floors. The basement, first, and second floors would contain retail, and the first floor would also connect to the adjacent railroad terminal and subway station. A public plaza and a stair to the Park Avenue Viaduct would also be built. If the project were approved, the demolition process would take 18 months, and the construction process would take 47 months with a preliminary completion date in 2030. Preliminary renderings were released in February 2021, and the New York City Council approved the plans that December. The developers still planned to demolish the hotel in 2023. ==== Temporary closure and reopening ==== The Grand Hyatt New York was closed indefinitely in early 2020 following the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. The hotel was supposed to have been closed permanently, but Hyatt officials decided to reopen the Grand Hyatt after the New York City Council passed legislation in September 2021. The legislation required hotels that closed due to the pandemic to pay severance to their employees if they did not reopen with at least 25 percent of their pre-pandemic staff. The hotel reopened on November 1, 2021, and was rebranded as Hyatt Grand Central New York. Upon its reopening, the Hyatt Grand Central largely served visitors from Europe, particularly those from the United Kingdom. The Hyatt Grand Central offered limited services, as its meeting facilities/function rooms, restaurants and bars remained closed. The hotel's permanent closure date was postponed to at least 2023. == Critical reception == === Original hotel === When the original Commodore Hotel opened, multiple media sources described the Commodore as one of the world's largest hotels. The American Architect magazine wrote that the Commodore "adds a very important architectural feature to a location that is bound to become one of New York's busiest civic centers". The New-York Tribune said the hotel "undoubtedly adds strength and decorum to the group of high- class hotels in the vicinity of Grand Central Terminal", while The New York Times wrote that the Commodore's completion made the surrounding area "the greatest hotel centre in the world". The Washington Post considered it to be "equal from the standpoint of architectural design" to the nearby Hotel Pennsylvania, which had opened the same week. === Grand Hyatt === Before the renovation of the Grand Hyatt New York began, Paul Goldberger of The New York Times said, "it is too bad that there was no willingness to consider a design in some material other than glass." Nonetheless, Goldberger praised some elements of the design, including the cantilevered restaurant, the large lobby, and an expanded ballroom. By the time the renovation was complete, Goldberger wrote: "It is the sort of flashy hotel one would expect in Atlanta or Houston, but certainly not in New York." The Architectural Guidebook to New York City referred to the facade as a "mirror box" and an "utter and inexcusable outrage". The Guidebook continued:Conversely, Ada Louise Huxtable wrote that the Grand Hyatt's atrium had been adapted to the existing steel frame "with ingenuity and elegance, and the result is not only a vast improvement over the spiritless interior court that has become an overreaching cliche, but also—give or take a few details—one of the handsomest public spaces in New York." The Atlanta Constitution wrote that the atrium "seems vast" despite being only three stories high, while The New York Times said the lobby was a place for "sitting and watching the custom that flows back and forth before the eyes". Joseph Giovannini of the Times wrote that the lobby "exemplifies many of the architectural ideas of the 1970's and 80's, along with some of its cliches". Shortly after the hotel reopened, reporters for Newsweek said that the "glistening mass of reflecting glass" seemed to be "a world apart from that grubby cluster of porn shops and X-rated movie theaters" along the section of 42nd Street within Times Square. A writer for The Washington Post said the Grand Hyatt "reaches for the present and future", in contrast to the Helmsley Palace Hotel, which had opened the same year but had "tried to embrace the past" by incorporating the historical Villard Houses. ==See also== *List of hotels in New York City ==References== ===Notes=== === Citations === === Sources === * * * * * ==External links== * Category:1919 establishments in New York City Category:42nd Street (Manhattan) Category:Bowman-Biltmore Hotels Category:Grand Central Terminal Category:Hotel buildings completed in 1919 Category:Hotels established in 1919 Category:Hotels established in 1980 Category:Hotels in Manhattan Category:Hyatt Hotels and Resorts Category:Lexington Avenue |
right|frameless|200px The following is a list of fictional characters from Disney's 2014 feature film adaptation of Big Hero 6, as well as its follow-up television shows Big Hero 6: The Series and Baymax! and its subsequent comic book adaptation through IDW Publishing, based on characters created by Steven T. Seagle and Duncan Rouleau (credited to Man of Action) and published by Marvel Comics. While the titular characters originated from Marvel Comics, their characterizations and supporting cast were newly invented by Disney, making their appearance a radical departure from the source material. ==Film introductions== ===Hiro Hamada=== Hiro Hamada is a 14-year-old technology prodigy who initially planned to use his mental brilliance to con others through back alley bot fighting. Through the advice and swaying of his older brother Tadashi, Hiro decided to join San Fransokyo Institute of Technology and put his brain to work. However, tragedy struck when Tadashi perished in a fire. From this, Hiro decided to use his smarts to form a team with his friends and lead Big Hero 6. Hiro is loosely based on Hiro Takachiho and is voiced by Ryan Potter in all forms of media. ===Baymax=== Baymax is an inflatable health care robot that was created by Tadashi Hamada. Baymax's only function has been to help people not just physically, but mentally and emotionally as well. After Tadashi's death, Baymax felt that his purpose is now to help Tadashi's younger brother Hiro. Equipped with "10,000 different medical procedures", various forms of martial arts, but a loose grasp of common thinking, Baymax does all he can to rescue people in more ways than one. Baymax is loosely based on the character of the same name and is voiced by Scott Adsit in all forms of media. ===Honey Lemon=== Honey Lemon is a chemist who enjoys what she does. While somewhat maniacal and eccentric, she deeply cares for her friends and does everything she can to bring optimism to the group. She does not necessarily think violence is the answer to everything, but she will throw herself into the fight when needed. Honey Lemon is loosely based on Aiko Miyazaki and is voiced by Genesis Rodriguez in all forms of media. ===Go Go Tomago=== Ethel "Go Go" Tomago is a sarcastic adrenaline junkie who prefers working with electromagnets. She is really a team player. When fighting, she comes off as the most experienced due to her background, but prefers to fight alongside her team. Go Go is loosely based on Leiko Tanaka and is voiced by Jamie Chung in all forms of media. ===Wasabi=== Wasabi is an expert in laser technology, but is an OCD neat freak who prefers to have systems and order in favor of chaos and spontaneity. While he is apparently cowardly, he pulls through for his friends and occasionally shows a flare for the heroic life much to everyone's and his own shock. Wasabi is loosely based on Wasabi-No-Ginger and is voiced by Damon Wayans Jr. in the film and Khary Payton in other forms of media. ===Fred=== Frederick Flamarian "Fred" Frederickson IV is a total comic book nerd who, despite being the son of a billionaire, spends his time as a sign flipping school mascot who is a "science enthusiast". Armed with a kaiju costume dubbed "Fredzilla" and his knowledge of comic book lore, his antics amuse, annoy and aid his friends on the team. Fred is loosely based on the character of the same name and is voiced by T.J. Miller in the film and Kingdom Hearts III and Brooks Wheelan in the series. ===Tadashi Hamada=== Tadashi Hamada was the older brother to Hiro and, just like him, displayed a knack for understanding and building various forms of technology. He built Baymax for the sole purpose of helping people, but was unable to see this to fruition due to his early death. His death sets in motion a series of events that would lead Hiro to forming the Big Hero 6. Tadashi is voiced by Daniel Henney in all forms of media. ===Aunt Cass=== Aunt Cass is Hiro and Tadashi's aunt and guardian, who was granted custody of them after the death of her sister and brother-in-law, and owner of the Lucky Cat Café. Cass continued to care and love them as if they were her own children though like any other parent she would feel concern and anger whenever they got into any trouble. She bailed them out of jail after an incident involving bot fighting and regretted the fact that she never picked up a book on parenting. She is present when Hiro presents his microbots at the SFIT showcase and expressed joy at seeing him succeed. Cass planned on an after party for her nephews and friends, but Tadashi is killed in a fire, devastating her and Hiro. Weeks later, Cass tries to cheer Hiro up and get him out of the house, leading into a series of events involving Hiro, Baymax and his friends becoming Big Hero 6, all while Cass remains blissfully unaware. Hiro eventually begins attending SFIT much to Cass' happiness and support. The television series expands on her character, depicting her as not only being unaware of her nephew's heroics, but displaying some eccentricities when it comes to cooking and food. This is further shown in the episode "Food Fight" where she not only is shown mastering many uncommon dishes with a variety of unfamiliar ingredients, but she is shown to love doing so to challenge herself. Cass also displays a ditsy personality that sometimes hinges on ignorance. Though once she does become aware she takes her situation seriously. She also has never dated or gotten married prior to the events of "Aunt Cass Goes Out" and while she did find Alistair Krei interesting and romantic, she ultimately saw his flaws enough for her to dump him. In season two, she starts dating Chief Diego Cruz, whom she had known since high school. It is later implied that the relationship does not last. In season three, she displays some athletic ability; revealing that she used to play softball when she was in college, and is also very good at singing. Despite being Hiro's aunt, she acts more like a mother; setting him up to have a date with a girl his age and taking pictures of them when they are going to a dance. She is also shown to be heavily oblivious to major events happening throughout the city, usually due to Hiro and his friends stopping her from seeing anything major happening. At the end of the series, she adopts Noodle Burger Boy and his robot family as her staff. They in turn, affectionately call her "mom", which she admits is weird. In Baymax!, Cass confides in the titular robot that her attachment to the café is the result of her fearing the loss of her family, as the customers are like family members to her and she is afraid of them leaving her for another establishment. She adds that she "made a promise" to look after her family; implying that she took over the café from Hiro and Tadashi's parents. ===Alistair Krei=== Alistair Krei is the self-made CEO of Krei Tech. Considered an influential man, Krei is always searching for the next best thing and found it in Hiro Hamada's microbots at SFIT. He is heavily impressed with Hiro's microbot project and ask that his tech be bought by his company, but he is turned down after a stern talking to by Professor Robert Callaghan with whom he had a rough past with. It is soon revealed that Krei had helped develop a special teleportation device for the government of which Callaghan's daughter, Abigail, was a test pilot to. The test went wrong and Abigail was thought lost somewhere in the unknown and since then Krei has been blamed. Despite this, he has continued in his illustrious career as if nothing happened revealing a morally dubious side. Krei is soon attacked by a vengeful Callaghan, but is rescued by Hiro and his friends who became the Big Hero 6 superhero team. After Callaghan's defeat and Abigail's rescue, Krei went back to business now somewhat more aware of his actions. The series continues to display his morally ambiguous personality. While not evil, he is manipulative and seems to hold absolutely no concern for anything. He outright decides to copy Hiro's microbot transmitter, something his assistant outright confirms and rushes production on a defense drone that he failed to run diagnostic checks on. When he realizes this, he demands that the Big Hero 6 fix the problem or else he will blow their identities. He presents a charming facade when he meets Hiro's Aunt Cass which she falls for, but after revealing his true self, even she found him despicable. While he considers the Big Hero 6 as allies, he prefers that they not visit him often as shown in "Killer App" where after explaining the original plans for Noodle Burger Boy to them, he politely, yet hurriedly, told them to leave. He initially held a minor grudge against Globby for stealing his wallet, but later hires him to be a spokesperson. He accepts Hiro as an intern at his company so as to compete with Liv Amara whom he has a one sided rivalry with. In "Muira-Horror!", Krei finally reveals an honorable, sentimental and even intuitive side. He reveals that when he was a child he did not have any friends, so when he went to summer camp he would train himself to know the wilds as much as possible, making him surprisingly knowledgeable about nature. He also jumped into action when Go Go was in trouble, something that surprised her and Hiro. He initially disliked Christmas due to not being able to celebrate it while at boarding school, but immediately changed his mind after Hiro had Baymax dress up as Santa for him. He also wanted to have a bunny when he was younger, but his parents forbade him to have any "weak" pets. Despite constantly covering for Big Hero 6, he works with Chief Cruz in trying to capture the team. It was later revealed that he was taken advantage of by Trina. Following the shut down of Sycorax, Krei purchases the building, presumably out of spite. ===Yokai=== Yokai (Professor Robert Callaghan) is a supervillain who was once a kind and respectable Professor and dean at SFIT. Coming from a military background, Professor Robert Callaghan is a pioneer in developing many cutting edge tech inventions including the Callaghan-Catmull Spline. He had a daughter that he loved dearly named Abigail who grew up to become a test pilot for Krei Tech. When a teleportation accident left her test pod lost in an abyss, Callaghan angrily blamed Krei and swore revenge. He taught many students at SFIT and met Hiro Hamada the younger brother of his star student Tadashi. Callaghan was impressed with Hiro's invention: Microbots that are controlled by a head transmitter. Seeing this as an opportunity to get back at Krei, Callaghan seemingly started a fire and stole Hiro's microbots, but unintentionally killed Tadashi. Nevertheless, he continued his quest under the name Yokai and stole many parts to recreate the teleportation machine in an effort to destroy Krei Tech's new building and Krei himself. He is thwarted by the arrival of the Big Hero 6 who manage to stop him and are able to retrieve Abigail from the portal. When Callaghan is carted away by police, he sees his still living daughter being tended to and could only put his head down in shame for the crimes he had and was about to commit. Callaghan returns in the episode "Mini-Max" where it is shown that he is being kept in a high-level security prison serving life in prison without parole. He reveals that he has worked with Professor Granville in the past as she was one of the best teachers working at SFIT and that she had initially resigned due to an accident. Callaghan admits that he is very remorseful of his actions, especially towards causing the death of Tadashi, and that he understands that his apology is not enough for Hiro to forgive him. He briefly returns in "Hiro the Villain", where Chief Cruz interviews him about Big Hero 6, but he defends them and warns him that his belief of considering them criminals is wrong. ===Mr. Yama=== Mr. Yama is a notorious Japanese gangster who runs much of the underground illegal activities in San Fransokyo which includes bot fighting. He owns his own bot dubbed "Little Yama" which he prides himself on using due to its violent attacks. However, he is outsmarted by Hiro Hamada whose simpler bot managed to overpower and destroy his own. Not wanting to be outdone, Yama asked his men to "teach [Hiro] a lesson". He gives chase when Hiro is rescued by Tadashi, but after the whole commotion, Yama, Hiro, Tadashi as well as everyone participating in the illegal bot fighting are arrested. Sometime later, he got out of prison and has gone back to doing illegal work. In the premiere episode of Big Hero 6: The Series, "Baymax Returns", Yama has started to work for the mysterious Obake of whom he himself is afraid of. The series further shows that despite his large overweight appearance, he does display some technical knowhow as he was able to replicate and mass produce Baymax's skeleton after having him for a limited amount of time. He is nevertheless defeated by Hiro once again along with his friends. Yama is also shown to not be very good at working with or controlling others such as in "Food Fight" he was easily outsmarted by Momakase who paralyzed and stole back a device she initially stole for him. In "Small Hiro One", Yama is also revealed to have a giant variant of Little Yama called "Mega Yama" which he had attempted to upgrade. In that same episode, he is shown to be unaware that Hiro and his Big Hero 6 alter ego are one and the same. Despite his criminal occupation, Yama takes samba classes on the side. ==Television introductions== ===Professor Granville=== Professor Grace Granville is the new dean of SFIT after Professor Callaghan is arrested. Granville came to replacing him the day Hiro started his first day at school. Despite finding Hiro unfocused and selfish, she saw great potential in him due to being related to Tadashi whom she found to be an exceptional student. She continued to question Hiro's motivations and is shown to dislike direct physical contact with people. Later on, she realizes how important it was for Hiro to remember his brother and opted to give him his lab in the hopes that it will keep him focused. Granville shows concern for all if not most of her students including the envious Karmi. Granville gave off the impression that Hiro needed to socialize more and paired him up with Karmi, seemingly unaware of the fact that she disliked Hiro. However, it becomes apparent that Granville intended for Karmi to take a lesson from their brief gathering implying that she is well aware of her moody personality. When Hiro attempted to give up on a project, Granville refused for him to quit, showing that despite her prior perceptions of him, she still considers him a genius. Granville has shown a comically eccentric side as well. In "Rivalry Weak", she is shown to take the pranks between SFIT and San Fransokyo Art Institute seriously by forcing Wasabi and Fred to act as guards to the cafe, which is the source of SFAI's pranking. It is revealed in "Small Hiro One" that she had taught at SFIT twenty years prior, something that she had apparently never brought up to Hiro with some of her students including Trevor Trengrove and Wendy Wower. "Mini-Max" and "Countdown to Catastrophe" reveal Granville was also a mentor to Bob Aken (Obake) whom she considered enough of a genius to give him free rein in his research. But Aken injured himself as a result in an accident caused by his research, with Granville taking the fall while resigning. She returned years later, but with the intent of keeping her students under control as she feels that "students need limits, even geniuses" while attempting not to make the same mistake with Hiro. She is later comforted by the fact that Hiro is genuinely a good person. Evidently, it is revealed that she is well aware of Hiro and his friends' efforts as Big Hero 6. In season two, she begins taking a mentor like role and in "The Present" showed a very nurturing side when she comforted Hiro on his first Christmas without Tadashi. In season three, it is revealed that Granville owns three dogs, all of whom have varying needs. She also possesses a powerful singing voice. ===Obake=== Obake (Bob Aken) is a mysterious villain and former SFIT student with a strange fascination towards Hiro, extending to the Big Hero 6 since before they officially decided on being superheroes. He has control over many other villains including Mr. Yama. Through Yama, he also worked with Momakase. In the episodes "Mini-Max" and "Countdown to Catastrophe", Obake was revealed to be Granville's student whom she allowed free rein in his research. This resulted in him suffering injuries caused by an explosion from his attempt of creating an energy amplifier, severely affecting his temporoparietal junction which greatly warped his sense of morality, making him psychotic, and is gradually worsening; despite being given awareness from Baymax, he refuses treatment, finding the condition "liberating". Out of this insanity and his obsessions, Obake masterminded various events in the first season from Globby stealing one of Lenore Shimamoto's paintings for her energy amplifier blueprint to pointlessly learning of Big Hero 6's identities through hacking Krei's personal files and Burger Noodle Boy's prediction algorithm. Obake finally reveals himself while acquiring the notes he needed from Shimamoto's journal, furthering his goals by help in Steamer's capture and acquiring a super magnet by subjecting the team to their fears. In the three- part season one finale "Countdown to Catastrophe", acquiring the power amplifier Hiro made while hijacking Baymax, Obake reveals his goal to recreate the Great Catastrophe and remake San Fransokyo in his image with Hiro as his apprentice. But the Big Hero 6 circumvent the disaster, with Obake resigning himself as his underwater base crumbles from the shockwave with his fate left ambiguous. ===Karmi=== Karmi is an intellectually gifted biology student at SFIT and Hiro's academic rival. Karmi was initially the youngest student attending SFIT, a fact that she was inherently proud of. She was considered anti-social by many and did not have any friends, considering the germs and microbes that she studied as her friends and treated almost as pets. When Hiro Hamada began seriously attending SFIT, Karmi felt threatened and showed an egotistical, cynical and boastful side. She cared very little for Hiro and hated working with a student that she felt "stole her thing" as the youngest student at SFIT. Ironically, Karmi has a huge crush on Hiro's superhero alter ego of which she was completely unaware was the same person. She is also under the assumption that Hiro has a crush on her of which she mocks him for. She prefers seeing Hiro fail to the point that she will record and upload his failures online, though it has been proven that he is smarter than her to a certain degree. Despite this, her invention gets funded by billionaire Liv Amara. She can be purposefully manipulative to those around her such as in "Kentucky Kaiju" when she convinced other students that Hiro's accidental mishaps were done on purpose. Karmi has shown some concern for the health of others and criticized Hiro for not considering his own health and those around him when he was sick. She later gained his sympathy when famed scientist Trevor Trengrove kicked her out of his lecture and thanked Hiro for understanding, though they were both mutually disgusted by this afterwards. Karmi also writes fan fiction about herself and the Big Hero 6 with Hiro (whom she calls "Captain Cutie") depicted as her boyfriend. She incorporates her own scientific thoughts into her stories as they end up inspiring the heroes to use their powers in new and interesting ways. In season two she gets an internship at Sycorax. It is also slowly revealed that she does consider Hiro one of her only true friends and shows actual concern about him. She later develops a bond of sorts with Honey Lemon due to their similar fields of study, but is oblivious when she points out how similar she is to Hiro. She finally bonds with him in "City of Monsters" and reveals that she admired Tadashi for his genius. She is later transformed into a monster by Amara named herself Phoenomblina, but Hiro manages to get through to her by admitting that he cares about her. The real Liv Amara turns her back to normal. Later, Karmi leaves SFIT and San Fransokyo, at the behest of her parents, following the events without saying goodbye to Hiro, but continues to write her fan fiction about Big Hero 6 and herself as Lab Lady. In "Legacies", she streams Hiro's graduation speech about Tadashi; clearly showing support for him. Since moving away, Karmi has become a success as a webseries creator for her series Big Chibi 6. She reconnects with Hiro where it is heavily implied that she has developed feelings for him which he might reciprocate. Because of this, she is no longer attracted to "Captain Cutie", still unaware that they are one and the same. She has also taught herself about programming, again implied to have been inspired by Hiro, and uses her new ability to aid the team. She also displays a calmer and more sincere personality. ===Richardson Mole=== Richardson Mole is a fanboy, comic book nerd and Fred's arch-nemesis. Self- described as "San Fransokyo's most eligible eleven year old", Mole is a short, selfish, overweight, spoiled, and borderline sociopathic rich snob who is the antithesis to Fred. He owns his own comic book store and does everything he can to outsmart and humiliate his much older rival. He fancies himself as a ladies' man and pursues Go Go whom he affectionately calls "dream girl". However, the only thing the two seem to have in common is their mutual feeling of annoyance from Fred, though in Go Go's case it is only mild bemusement while Mole outright dislikes him. He owns a whole arcade dedicated to his hatred to Fred with a Whac-A-Mole variant being his favorite. Fred only gets favors from him as a last resort which Mole is happy to oblige simply to show his superior collection compared to Fred's. Ironically, he praises Fred's alter ego, whom he calls "Lizard Guy", and is completely disinterested in Go Go's alter ego. His mother Binky Mole appears to not like her son's hobby, which does not seem to bother him, but he does hate it when people comment on his hygiene which is terrible. He is further shown to be selfish, manipulative and even downright sinister as shown in "Big Hero 7". When he found out about the Big Hero 6's identities, he did not feel concern for the potential harm it could bring to others all because he could make money off of it. By the end of the episode, however, a major static shock to him by High Voltage's orb caused him to forget their identities. In "Supersonic Sue", it is revealed that Mole does not have any friends, considering the action figures that he has as his only "real" friends. While he boasts a big collection, he has no one to show it to. He continues to taunt Fred as he purchased the entire Mech-Wrestling League, despite the fact that he does not like wrestling and only did it to annoy Fred. In season three, Mole is shown to be fully capable of converting to villainy; teaming up with the likes of Supersonic Sue and Supersonic Stu just so he can get back at Big Hero 6 for ignoring him, which ironically was his own fault to begin with for abusing their Halp phone for his own selfish needs just to hang out with them, essentially a "boy who cried wolf" situation. However, he manages to find some way to weasel himself out of any capital punishment, but his reputation is essentially ruined. In "Better Off Fred", he is revealed to have a cousin named Olivia whom he manipulates into disliking Fred by telling her that he was a jerk. However, she sees passed his machinations. He is also still afraid of the Supersonics. Furthermore, Mole is bothered at the thought that someone other than him can make Fred feel miserable; believing that it is his duty to do so. He adopts Nega-Globby after he is given a brain as the two end up sharing the same know-it-all personality and enjoy correcting each other. ===Globby=== Globby (Dibs) is a minor thief who was transformed into a super-powered villain. Dibs lived in the more harsher parts of San Fransokyo where he partook in his favorite pastime: taking part in petty crime by stealing purses. He was a terrible at his "job" as he always found himself losing whatever it was he tried to steal. Once even losing Mr. Yama’s money and was nearly dropped off a roof by him. He was finally successful in stealing Honey Lemon's chem-purse, thinking it was a regular purse, and hid in a warehouse belonging to Alistair Krei. Krei created a neuro-transmitter headband based on Hiro's design, with Dibs deciding to steal it after realizing it was worth something. But Dibs accidentally destroys the chem-purse while fleeing with the transmitter, the unstable chemical mix turning him into a blob-like humanoid mutant with the neuro- transmitter fused to his skull. Taking the name Globby which Fred made up, he had decided to become a career supervillain, though he prefers humiliation over killing people. In "Failure Mode", Globby learns that he can use the transmitter to alter his composition into any form of matter he can think off, allowing him to actually defeat Big Hero 6 while becoming the first of Obake's lackeys. Globby eventually sees the error of his ways once learning Obake's plans to destroy the city (explaining that he was aware of Obake's insanity but "thought it was a 'fun' crazy"), and eventually reforms by helping the Big Hero 6 stop his plan. He apparently considers Felony Carl his only true friend. He had Honey Lemon and Karmi create a serum to turn him back to normal after realizing that he could not get a job. He ends up missing his powers and gets them back while also saving the city, earning the adoration of the public. He still hangs out with Felony Carl. Following the events of "The Globby Within", Globby has gone back to being viewed as a criminal due to Nega-Globby's influence. While it managed to get removed, Globby has been forced to go into hiding which, fortunately for him, he is capable of doing by transforming his appearance. He is later presumably cleared of any wrongdoing when he helps Big Hero 6 defeat Trina and her robot uprising. In "Krei-oke Night", he and Felony Carl are shown to be much closer and, as confirmed by the series' crew, are implied to be a couple. ===Felony Carl=== Felony Carl is a former criminal in San Fransokyo. Carl was given his nickname by his own mother, which he does not seem to mind as it is technically an accurate name. He gave up a life of crime, but continued to live in the rougher neighborhoods in San Fransokyo. He is shown to be positive about his own masculinity, as he admitted that he liked having his motorcycle colored glitter-pink. Carl is somewhat friends with Dibs, though he looked down on his attempts to be a criminal and told him to give up. After Dibs transformed into Globby, he still continued to criticize him though the two still seemed to be okay with him. Despite his huge and intimidating appearance, he is shown to be a very insightful person and very good at analyzing certain things and people. He nevertheless manages to find work as a bouncer for various places including the underground Food Fight competition and for various clubs throughout the San Fransokyo night life. Carl is also a self-described "hopeless romantic" and is shown trying to pursue a love life. He apparently also has a good relationship with his father as he seems to remember his birthday. He maintains information on criminal life despite putting it all behind him and apparently likes to be around Baymax due to his huggable appearance. According to Globby, he used to be known as "Delinquent Carl". Carl is shown to truly value his friendship with Globby as he was concerned for his safety after being framed by Nega-Globby. He is apparently employed at the Pizza Party- torium along with a fully reformed Mr. Sparkles. He and Globby were believed to have become a couple. ===Noodle Burger Boy=== Noodle Burger Boy is the robotic mascot to Noodle Burger. He is known for his prediction algorithm which allows him to guess his customers' choices. His designs were originally for the military and designed by Krei Tech, but abandoned. He was reused to become the "ultimate nostalgic robot boy mascot", but without the weapons. Obake used his technical capabilities to turn him back into a weapon and proceeds to cause trouble all across San Fransokyo. He is able to predict the Big Hero 6's abilities, but is defeated by Hiro and Wasabi when they switch costumes and abilities. He returns in "Kentucky Kaiju" where he takes over the titular monster to battle the Big Hero 6, but is once again defeated and escapes. He eventually moves in with Obake full time and aids him in attempting to blow up the city, though he fails. He completely turns his back on the Noodle Burger franchise and starts working alongside Trina whom he calls "big sis" and becomes openly affectionate to her. He spends much of season two aiding Trina and becoming something of a sidekick for her in an effort to continue Obake's plans. He attempts to bring the plan to fruition, but their plan fails and Noodle Burger Boy escapes while Trina is presumably incarcerated. In the season three premiere, Noodle Burger Boy is by himself and openly misses Trina and Obake and sets out to make a new family consisting of mini A.I.'s such as himself. He succeeds in "recruiting" Hyper-Potamus, Hangry Panda and Crushroom, all of whom he refers to as "sis". In "Mini Noodle Burger Max", he is shown to retain some sensibility as not only was he willing to team up with Baymax and Mini-Max to rescue their respective teams, but he also sympathized with wanting to save what they considered family and shared his power when they were low on it. He and his family are ultimately defeated through the combined forces of Big Hero 6, Mini-Max and Momakase. He begins working for Aunt Cass as a greeter to the Lucky Cat Café. ===Mini-Max=== Mini- Max is a miniature sized version of Baymax. He was created by Hiro to act as a babysitter of sorts for Fred when the team realized that he was incapable of being kept out of trouble. However, Fred takes to him like a sidekick and openly treats him like one, declaring that he was the funny one compared to his "serious" demeanor, though it is plainly obvious that Fred displays absolutely no serious traits while Mini-Max possessed a more determined spirit. He is designed to be overly heroic and displays excellent martial arts skills despite his size. He eventually heads out to fight alongside the team, dressed in a small dark blue armor variant of Baymax's suit. He plays a big role in helping to defeat Obake in "Countdown to Catastrophe". In season two, Mini-Max becomes a more prominent character and frequently dons his armor to aid the heroes. He gets involved with the numerous shenanigans that the team take part in and displays numerous skills such as cooking. In "Mini-Maximum Trouble", Mini-Max is doused with water, causing him to short circuit. However, this causes him to glitch and he briefly turns evil, displaying that same amount of enthusiasm he had when he was a hero. Luckily, the team manage to switch him off and reprogram him back to his old self while also waterproofing him. He once again aids the team against Trina and Noodle Burger Boy when they attempted to obliterate San Fransokyo. In the season three episode "Trading Chips", it is revealed that Mini-Max is slightly self- conscious about his size, but he learns to overcome them. He is integral in defeating Noodle Burger Boy and his family and even sympathizes with them. ===Di Amara=== Diane "Di" Amara is an evil clone of Liv Amara, the 23 year old billionaire CEO of Sycorax, one of the biggest corporations in San Fransokyo. While posing as her birth clone, she was considered an idol in the technology world and is always looking for the next best thing. Everyone loves her except for rival Alistair Krei whom she does not pay much attention to. While initially interested in Baymax, she was quick to turn Hiro away when she learned that he did not actually build him and thus did not think that Hiro was worthy of her company. She ultimately chose Karmi after finding her nano- receptors more interesting. Over time the two develop a close bond over similar interests and begin to collaborate over projects. She eventually takes her in as an intern for her company. Her villainous side is revealed when she begins offering her services to the likes of Momakase (aka Vicaneris), High Voltage (aka Eelectora and Tactirella) and being the one who transformed Orso Knox into a monster named Siranus through her own technology. Di displays a benevolent appearance, but is in reality a conniving and clever individual. In "Lie Detector", she is revealed to be keeping the real Liv Amara in a cryo- stasis for her condition. Di states that she "would do anything" to help her, explaining her motivation. She later turns on Karmi by transforming her into a monster named Phoenomblina and then kidnaps Hiro and Baymax in an attempt to remove the anti-viruses that were actually killing Liv. Despite succeeding, she wanted to continue her plans for creating monsters. She was stopped by Liv once she regained consciousness and promptly arrested along with her assistant Chris soon afterwards. ===Trina=== Trina Aken is a Hiro's ex-girlfriend and the gynoid "daughter" created by Obake for the sole purpose of enticing Hiro into becoming part of his planned empire. She first appears posing as young bot-fighter who teams up with Hiro in the underground bot fighting circuit. It is soon revealed that she had been hacking into other competitors' robots to rob banks. Despite Hiro gaining a crush on her, he turns against Trina forcing her to flee back to Obake. Trina later reveals her robotic origin to Hiro while also casually flirting with him. Following Obake's defeat, she fled. She becomes a full time villain by giving herself a haircut and upgraded robot body. She works alongside Noodle Burger Boy whom she calls "little brother" and seems to show genuine concern for him. Trina spends much of season 2 trying to concoct her own plan for revenge against Big Hero 6. In "Something Fluffy", she and Noodle Burger Boy proceed to dig through garbage looking for parts for some kind of device. She openly voices her distaste for the other villains' recent monster transformations; calling them "losers". It is later revealed that her plan involves using what coding is left of her "father" Obake. Her plan finally comes to fruition in "Legacies" where she worked under Krei to create the Buddy Guardians. Now made to look much older and sporting a hairstyle similar to her creator, Trina, along with Noodle Burger Boy, attempted to use thermonuclear reactors, disguised as garbage trucks, to obliterate San Fransokyo; believing that she would continue her father's legacy. She is ultimately defeated and is implied to have been incarcerated. ===Megan Cruz=== Megan Amelia Isabella Cruz is a girl who is the same age as Hiro who recently moved to San Fransokyo with her father, Diego Cruz, who is the chief of police. She is first introduced by Cass who wanted to set Hiro up with her as a potential date for him. Despite having only been with each other for a short time, the two get along really well with one another. Megan begins treating Hiro to regular teenage customs such as going to the prom. The two have since grown fond of one another and, as revealed by Fred, have apparently been "dating" for quite sometime. She wishes to become a journalist so she can learn Big Hero 6's identities. Not knowing that Hiro is, in fact, the leader of the team, she is unaware of his attempt to deter her from seeking the truth and simply mistakes Hiro's cover ups to him being weird. In "Hiro the Villain", she begins to double down on her researching when she hits a roadblock and quickly discovers that Big Hero 6 have mostly been spotted at places such as Krei Tech and SFIT. She tries to interview Krei and Granville, but she sees through their defensive interviewing maneuvers. When she learns about Tadashi's death at SFIT and Callaghan's involvement, Megan finally surmises that all Big Hero 6 related events tie back to Hiro. She confronts Hiro on her information and threatens to tell her father about them, but after being allowed to shadow the group and witnessing Hiro's heroic acts, changes her mind and decides to keep their secret. She becomes more active in "Legacies" where she aids Hiro in finding out where the Buddy Guardians came from. Following her father's revelation that Big Hero 6 are good and that Hiro is their leader, her relationship with her father improves. She is not seen again afterwards, but she is mentioned in "Big Chibi 6" by both Cass and Baymax. When Hiro begins showing romantic interest in Karmi, both inquire "What about Megan?", implying that two of them are no longer seeing each other, though it can be assumed that they are still friends. ===Chief Cruz=== Chief Diego Cruz is the newly elected chief of police of San Fransokyo. He has known Aunt Cass for years and left the city to pursue his career in law enforcement. When he came back, he had sired a daughter named Megan and had chosen to stay permanently. He considers Big Hero 6 a problem to the city and wishes his new position will allow him to double down on quelling vigilantism. Like most typical fathers, he is very protective of his daughter. Even though he is close to Aunt Cass, he is slightly suspicious of Hiro, primarily due to his closeness with Megan. Nevertheless, he supports her journalistic endeavors, especially since she is launching a project to discover the identities of Big Hero 6 which would make his job easier. Cruz has a crush on Cass to the point that he is willing to down coffee, a drink he dislikes, in her presence and insists that she call him by his first name. He begins his war against the Big Hero 6 in "The Globby Within" when Globby's powers start acting up (a side effect of devouring Nega-Globby). He puts a warrant out for his arrest and anyone aiding him. When he discovers Big Hero 6's effort in doing so, he puts a warrant out for them. He proudly claims that Big Hero 6's presence is what causes all the villains to show up. Despite this, Hardlight appears demanding to face them and kidnaps Cruz. Even though the heroes rescue him, he still holds a strong prejudice. It was later revealed in "Fred the Fugitive" that his attempt to quell vigilantism was mainly because his father sacrificed his life to a villain to save his son and Boss Awesome arrived too late. In "Legacies", Cruz finally sees the error of his ways when Megan is kidnapped by Trina and calls upon Big Hero 6 to help find and rescue her. Afterward, he learns their identities. ==Other characters== ===Film=== * Sergeant Gerson (voiced by Dan Gerson) is the police sergeant of the local San Fransokyo precinct. He appears uninterested in his job or really anything around him. He did offer his tape to Baymax when he was deflating and later perked up when they gave him more tape. * Heathcliff / Mongoose (voiced by David Shaughnessy) is Fred's family butler who appears really close to him. Nothing phases him and he takes his job seriously. He is revealed to be an expert driver; pulling a variety of impossible maneuvers in a limo. He was once a secret agent nicknamed Mongoose due to having an arch-nemesis, fittingly named Cobra. Boss Awesome aided him in defeating her once and in return, he decided to stay with the Fredericksons as their personal butler. * Judy (voiced by Laura Silverman) is Krei's assistant. She was a silent character in the film, but in the series she speaks for the first time. She is sarcastic and bluntly talks about her boss and his company. Her name was not revealed until the second season, admitting that no one ever really asks. She apparently lives with her Nana. * Mochi (voiced by Brock Powell) is Hiro and Aunt Cass' overweight calico cat. They care deeply for their pet cat, though he can occasionally be a nuisance. He hates going to the veterinarian. * Ringleader (voiced by Charlotte Gulezian) is an eye-patch wearing Asian woman who heads the bot-fights in San Fransokyo. She works under Mr. Yama. In the series, she is credited as Yama's Assistant. She is physically based on the Fujitas, who are canceled villains from the film. * Abigail Callaghan (voiced by Katie Lowes) is Robert Callaghan's daughter. She wanted to be a bot- fighter, but grew up to be a pilot for Krei Tech. An accident left her lost in between dimensions and in suspension. Abigail is rescued by Hiro and Baymax and hospitalized. * Frederick Frederickson III / Boss Awesome (voiced by Stan Lee) is Fred's father and a billionaire. Mr. Frederickson was once a superhero named Boss Awesome, but settled and had Fred whom he let into his past secret by the post-credits scene. He travels the world on exotic exhibitions and appears to possess super strength. Despite his old age, he is still vigorous and was able to handle his two old school villains Baron Von Steamer and Supersonic Sue. He owns a shipping company, explaining his lavish wealth. Frederick Frederickson III is modeled after his voice actor Stan Lee. ===Big Hero 6: The Series=== ====Introduced in season 1==== * Mrs. Frederickson (née Flamaria') / Major Blast (voiced by Susan Sullivan) is Fred's wealthy socialite mother who is embarrassed by her son's antics, but loves him nonetheless. She was initially embarrassed by how people perceived her and her family, but later learns to deal with it. In season two, she is revealed to not only know of her son's double life with Big Hero 6, but she also posed as a villain named Major Blast whose sole function was to test to see if her husband was capable of protecting himself. She donned the suit again to test Fred. * Bluff Dunder (voiced by Bader) is a news reporter for San Fransokyo. Known for his somewhat pompous delivery. Despite his lack of empathy for most things, he considers the Big Hero 6 to be true heroes and was shocked by the SFPD's warrant to arrest them. He has a pet pig named Noodles and his father Duff (also voiced by Bader) was a news reporter as well. * High Voltage is the electricity and pop music powered, mother/daughter duo Barb (voiced by Katy Mixon) and Juniper (voiced by Sophie Reynolds). They have dreams of becoming stars and rob places as they feel that stars "should not have to audition". They get their power from an electricity orb, but also have wristbands that are powered by a special cell battery. They attempted to go straight, but were given electric eel implants by Amara and gained the ability to create electricity internally and transform into eels and she names them Eelectora and Tactirella. They are both returned to normal by Bessie in "City of Monsters". In season 3, they are doing community service to pay for their crimes. * Beverly Samantha "Binky" Mole is Richardson Mole's wealthy socialite mother who looks down on the Fredericksons. She never speaks and is always disappointed with something including her own son. * Baron Von Steamer (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is a steampunk based villain and arch-enemy of Boss Awesome. According to Mr. Frederickson, he was old back when he fought him. He is offended that not a lot of people remember him and is apparently behind on the times. He is also not that smart as he thought Wasabi was Fred. He also doesn't seem to realize that Boss Awesome has moved on, though he does end up fighting him again and loses miserably. * Momakase (voiced by Naoko Mori) is a professional thief and sushi chef who uses graphene bladed knives and katana as weapons. She considers herself the best chef and wanted to take down Cass when she was winning the cooking competitions. She is mostly out for herself and tends to sever ties with her employers. In "Fan Friction", she begins working for Obake. Following Obake's defeat, Momakase goes back to being a lone criminal. She makes a deal with Amara and receives implants that grant her claws and an animalistic appearance named Vicarenis. She is returned to normal by Bessie in "City of Monsters". In "Hiro the Villain", she is revealed to have a special pair of swords that have been integral to her family for generations and displays a sense of honor as she helped Big Hero 6 escape the police after Hiro helped her regain her swords from Yama, who's gangsters had forced Momakase's father to give up his blades in return for Momakase and her family's safety. She aids Big Hero 6 in the finale with defeating Noodle Burger Boy and his family and according to Fred is "nicer" now. * Bolton Gramercy (voiced by Gordon Ramsay) is an arrogant chef and Cass' idol turned rival. He later learns humility after being defeated by Cass in an underground cooking competition as seen in "Food Fight." By the end of the episode, he asks for his knives back from Cass. * Yum Labouché (voiced by Alton Brown) is a famous chef and judge in the underground cooking competition as seen in "Food Fight." * Ned Ludd / Hibagon (voiced by Jon Rudnitsky) is a former real estate developer who turned against technology when an electromagnetic meteorite crashed in front of him and now lives in the Muirahara Woods which he named Bessie. He distrusts technology to the point that he considers Baymax a menace. He is attacked by Amara and transformed into the Hibagon, a legendary creature that he initially pretended to be to keep people out of the woods. He turns back to normal, but loses his prized possession Bessie. He returns to the city to reclaim the monster Bessie back as his own. * Bessie (voiced by Fred Tatasciore) is a simple electromagnetic meteorite that landed the Muirahara Woods. "Her" powers are capable of dampening anything electric. She was stolen from Ned Ludd by Di Amara and transformed into a bear monster hybrid. Ludd eventually tamed his newly-mutated pet and brought her back to the woods. In "Fred the Fugitive", it is revealed that she had given birth to three cubs who exhibit the same traits. * Dr. Mel Meyers (voiced by John Ross Bowie) is a scientist working under Krei and who also despises him for misusing his creation the Buddy-Drone, a bodyguard robot that he had built to be used for surprise parties. He is socially awkward and apparently has a slight crush on Cass after briefly meeting her. * Mad Jacks are a team of high-octane black ops mercenaries whose members are all named in some variation of Jack, these include their leader Jack, real name Greg (voiced by Rob Riggle), Jack (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) and Jaq (voiced by Kerri Kenney). They are adrenaline junkies known for their catchphrase "Jack Attack!" and have their own website and theme song. In season 3 it is revealed that they have apparently retired from being mercenaries and instead host a television show called Bright Lights, Loud Noises. * Mr. Frank Sparkles (voiced by Patton Oswalt) is a maniacal and egotistical game show host who prefers his own fame over anyone else's. He kidnaps Hiro and Cass' cat Mochi after his unexpected internet fame and decides to commit into a full time supervillain. He uses his resources to entertain the wealthy though underneath, he uses the money he earns for his nefarious schemes. He is mostly looking for attention as he tried to claim that he was responsible for the monster outbreaks and becomes mutated by Amara, giving him plant-like qualities and the ability to telepathically control Mayois named Zyeroxelides, plant-based creatures also created by Amara. He is returned to normal by Bessie in "City of Monsters". In "A Fresh Sparkles", Mr. Sparkles, going by his real name Frank, has reformed and now works at the Pizza Party-torium. Mr. Sparkles is based on an abandoned character from the film. * Sara (voiced by Lewis) is the manager at Noodle Burger. She appears to be friendly especially to Fred, one of her loyal customers, but can be overly dramatic especially when Noodle Burger Boy disappeared. She is further devastated upon learning the fate of her beloved mascot. In the season 3 premiere, she has gotten a new job at the Hyper-Potamus Pizza-Party-Torium, only for that new mascot to suffer the same fate. She has once again tried to move on and even hired Mr. Sparkles and Felony Carl as employees. * Dr. Trevor Trengrove (voiced by Andy Daly) is a prolific scientist who seems more concerned about his image. It is revealed that he is a phony, having stolen his thesis from former partner Wendy Wower and was forced by Yama to create a powerful robot. * Dr. Wendy Wower (voiced by Riki Lindhome) is a children's entertainment scientist who used to work with Trevor Trengrove. She does not have any hard feelings on her former partner and forgives him when he admits his theft. She is shown to be just as intrigued about Baymax as Hiro was when he first met him. She claims to have based her personae on Granville. Wendy also hosts her own television show. * Weird Little Boy (voiced by Kari Wahlgren) is an unnamed child who appears to be a fan of Wendy Wower. He has spiky blond hair and wears three pairs of goggles on his head. He is shown to be observant and seems to love chaos. He is later revealed to be very shy and wants to grow up to be like Wendy, but had trouble expressing this. * Lenore Shimamoto (voiced by Jeanne Sakata) is a famous artist who hid a brilliant scientific mind. She lived around 1906 and kept a diary of her scientific discoveries while furthering her career as an artist. She is later revealed to have caused the Great Catastrophe of San Fransokyo as the result of her attempt of building an energy amplifier, leaving a phonograph cylinder and a painting concealing the blueprints to confess her actions while hoping none would repeat her work. * Orso Knox (voiced by Tatasciore) is a Shakespeare-loving scientist who somehow transformed himself into a hideous monster named Siranus that Fred and Alistair described as being "a whale, a dinosaur, and a piece of hair thrown into a blender." He seems to have a connection to the Fredericksons, Krei, and Amara. He is later "cured" of his transformations, but was actually under the control of Amara. He is later freed from his control by Bessie in "City of Monsters". ====Introduced in season 2==== * Chris (voiced by Ben Feldman) is Di Amara's personal assistant who is eagerly happy and friendly to everyone. He likes going by the nickname of being Liv's "Chrisistant". He appears to have enhanced strength and other skills that make him efficient. He is revealed to be a creation of Amara's and has some dog and gorilla DNA in him. He gets arrested along with Di. * Nega-Globby (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, later Richter) is a sentient glob mass created by Amara after having her assistant stole a sample of Globby. It has a single eye taken from a living plant in her lab. It is mindless and only knows destruction. After being absorbed by Globby, it tried to take control of him, but was removed and encased in a special vacuum created by Big Hero 6. He was later released and given a brain that made him more humane, but also pompous and arrogant. The team eventually let him stay with Richardson Mole after it becomes apparent that they have similar personalities. * Mayoi (voiced by Baker) \- Small adorable fluffy plant-based creatures. They become a huge hit with the people of San Fransokyo, but are in reality are unstable creatures that grow giant sized. They were created by Amara, but are controlled by Mr. Sparkles aka Zyetoxelides. Honey Lemon later adopts one of them when they successfully defeat Di Amara. * Supersonic Sue (voiced by Jane Lynch) is an old school rollerskating villain. She turned to a life of crime due to using "performance enhancing skates" in competitive rollerblading tournaments. Much like Steamer, she considers herself Boss Awesome's nemesis. She claims that seeing Go Go convinced her to return to crime. Her catchphrase is "Supersonic Sue me, why don't ya?" * Liv Amara (voiced by Wilson) is the 23 year old billionaire CEO of Sycorax who was kept in stasis by her clone Diane "Di" Amara after she attempted to create an "immortality project" where she developed symbiotic organisms designed to guard against disease and extend life expectancy. Her project was rejected however, and with no one willing to support her, Liv had to test the organisms on herself. The organisms unexpectedly evolved to destroy human cells and as a result, Liv's health began to decline rapidly, resulting in creating a clone to help her and being kept in stasis by her clone. Hiro and Baymax destroy the anti-virus and upon awakening from her cryostasis turns her clone and Chris in to the police following the revelation of her evil nature. While not shown, it is assumed that she willingly sold her company's former base property to Alistair Krei, most likely to make up for her past mistakes. * El Fuego (voiced by Horatio Sanz) is a mech-wrestler who is boastful and the bad guy of the league. He considers himself better than anyone else and wished to challenge Baymax due to his size. His armor allows for limited flight and powerful punches along with a flame thrower attachment, hence the name El Fuego (Spanish for "The Fire"). * Uncle Samurai (voiced by Eric Bauza) is El Fuego's arch enemy in the ring. He is considered the hero in mech-wrestling and is patriotic. * Ian / Hardlight (voiced by Will Friedle) is Keri's nerdy employee. He is a tech expert who is always called "Ethan" by his boss. He leads a double life as a criminal named Hardlight who has the ability to create solid light constructs themed after video games he plays. His speech and mannerisms are composed of game related sayings. He is a fan of Karmi's Big Chibi 6 series and fought Big Hero 6 and her. He was defeated and arrested; getting outed in the process to Judy, Krei's assistant. * Roderick "Roddy" Blair (voiced by John DiMaggio) is an old friend of Mr. Frederickson's who helped build the Boss Awesome base. He aids the team in rebuilding the interior of the Frederickson chocolate factory into an effective headquarters. Despite his good ol' boy personality, he openly finds Fred annoying and intrusive. Despite this, he does offer helpful advice to the young heroes. He used to design for villain lairs, but stopped after a villain named Dark Volt refused to pay him in full. * Detective Kato (voiced by Bauza) is a member of the San Fransokyo Police Department. Unlike Chief Cruz, he believes that Big Hero 6 are helpful to the city. * Basemax (voiced by Zehra Fazal) is the voice activated and artificial intelligence service to the Big Hero 6 Headquarters. Unlike the other Max's which were all built by Hiro, Basemax was created by Roddy. She has a strange "relationship" with Baymax as both practically perform the same function and have a habit of speaking at the same time, yet the two are civil enough to work out their programming. * Celine Simard / Sirque (voiced by Jessica Paré) is a French accented acrobat/physicist/thief who traveled all over the world with her circus troupe; stealing things on the side. She stole Krei's Silent Sparrow project to make stealing easier. Despite being a criminal, she does seem to have her own set of morals. * Supersonic Stu (voiced by Timothy Simons) is Supersonic Sue's grandson who, much like his grandmother, is a villain imbued with special skates who, in his case, allows him to turn into a speed ball. He is not very bright and is very childish. He is easily distracted by cookies and being soothed by his grandmother's hugs. He admits that he is not smart and watches Wendy Wower so that he will be one day. * Buddy Guardians (voiced by Bauza) are giant robots created by Trina, through Krei Tech, to be used by the SFPD. They were used to destroy San Fransokyo, but were later given copies of Tadashi's medical chips. One of them has apparently developed a personality of its own and has taken an interest in magic. ====Introduced in season 3==== * Hyper-Potamus (voiced by Wahlgren) is an excitable "state of the art" animatronic hippo that can fly. She was created for the Hyper-Potamus Pizza-Party-Torium, but was taken over by Noodle Burger Boy as part of his new "family" She is returned to normal by the series' end and begins working for Aunt Cass as a server. * Hangry Panda (voiced by Nicole Sullivan) is a robotic panda with a movable mouth that can make juice. She was created for the San Fransokyo Zoo where she offered drinks to the guests while speaking in a constantly tempered mood. She was the first one to be turned evil by Noodle Burger Boy. She is returned to normal by the series' end and begins working for Aunt Cass as an order taker. * Crushroom (voiced by Cree Summer) is a large armed mushroom like animatronic that is strong and mostly speak in third person. She mostly performed pizza deliveries on her own personal scooter before getting taken over by Noodle Burger Boy for his new "family". She is returned to normal by the series' end and begins working for Aunt Cass as busboy. *Mayor Saito (voiced by Sakata) is the mayor of San Fransokyo. Every year, she holds a "Mayor for a Day" event where people bid to be mayor for a day while she takes a break. She does not trust any of Alistair Krei's tech, but she has no other tech group to rely on at the moment. *Curie (voiced by Tatasciore) is Granville's Old English Sheepdog, who loves to bite and nibble on everything. Named after Marie Curie. *Fermi (voiced by Tatasciore) is Granville's Rottweiler, who is cocky and prone to being disobedient until he has Mr. Pip, his squeeze toy crab. Named after Enrico Fermi. *Oppenheimer (voiced by Bennett) is Granville's Chihuahua, who is always bringing random things back ten times his size. Named after J. Robert Oppenheimer. *Sergeant Suction is a small vacuum like robot whose primary function is to suck up waste. Noodle Burger Boy attempted to recruit it into his "family", despite it showing no concept of self awareness. It is destroyed after getting crushed. It later reappears, possibly another model, where it is once again employed to aid Noodle Burger Boy with one of his nefarious schemes. *Krei Shuttle (voiced by Rodriguez) is a sentient A.I. shuttle created by Hiro and Honey Lemon for Krei's transit system. It resembles a bunny and has ears that are powered by positivity, giving it a perky personality similar to Homey Lemon. If fed negative emotions, she becomes gloomy and gives negative talk. *Cobra (voiced by Kirby Howell- Baptiste) is an enemy from Heathcliff's past when he used to be a spy named Mongoose and was defeated by him when Heathcliff called help from Boss Awesome and fell into a volcano but survived and seeks revenge against him. She is a mysterious woman who steals technology. At some point, she copied Hiro's transmitter to control an army of robotic cobras that secrete paralyzing venom. She used to use real cobras. *Olivia Mole (voiced by Nichole Bloom) is a comic book geek with a similar passion to Fred. She initially disliked him because her cousin, Richardson, told her he was a jerk. She realizes that he was lying and ends up liking Fred and begins to date him. *4 2 Sing are a popular K-Pop boy band consisting of two sets of twins Dae and Hyun-Ki (voiced by Nichkhun) and Kwang-Sun and Ye Joon (voiced by Jae Park). They are flashy and pompous, though very talented. They wanted to be superheroes to distinguish themselves from other groups, but are incredibly incompetent and do not know how to fight, and take credit for every successful win Big Hero 6 takes, showing up only at the last minute to take pictures with the press. They eventually come to their senses. *Queen of Spamivia (voiced by Fazal) is an email virus that took over Basemax briefly. She acts almost like a sentient A.I. and speaks in medieval terms, even going so far as to "knight" Baymax and Mini-Max onto her side in starting her robot uprising. *Rishi Patel (voiced by Julian Zane) is an eleven-year-old hacking prodigy who is selected as a potential student for SFIT. He turns out to be just as disruptive and rude as Hiro was when he first joined. He begins to appreciate the school when he learns that supervillains attack it and teams up with Hiro to defend it. Granville has him become Hiro's protégé for the fall semester, much to his delight. ===Baymax!=== *Kiko Tanaka (voiced by Emily Kuroda) is an elderly woman who disliked swimming because it brought up the painful memory of not being able to join her husband for a swim before he passed away. She had a very grumpy exterior before Baymax came and helped her face her fears. *Sofia (voiced by Lilimar) is a pre-teen girl who experiences her first period. While angry and upset as she feels that her childhood is ending, Baymax manages to help her by making her realize that she is still young and has her whole life ahead of her. She is very talented with yo-yos. *Ali (voiced by Zeno Robinson) is a pre-teen boy and Sofia's best friend who is talented with yo-yos. *Mbita (voiced by Jaboukie Young-White) is a man who runs a food truck called "Just Fish Soup". He discovers that he has a fish allergy, thus ruining his business and scaring him about the future. With Baymax's help, he learns to embrace change and even manages to ask his crush out, Yukio. *Yukio (voiced by Brian Tee) is a man who runs a food vendor selling apples. He is friendly with Mbita and later agrees to go out on a date with him. *Yachi is a feisty orange cat that accidentally gets an earbud stuck in her throat. She actually wishes to have a loving home. It is implied that she gets adopted by Kiko. ===Comics=== *Professor Kameela is a teacher at SFIT who runs the Baryonic Dark Matter research team. Wasabi apparently looks up to her and desires to be a part of her team. *Alex Miromoto is a famous tech lecturer who found a way to create solidified holograms for communication purposes. He started using the technology himself to rob places with his assistant. He can only project through the use of a cell phone. *Olivia Vega / Mechadama is a fellow student at SFIT who idolized Go Go. Unaware that she and her superhero persona were the same, she decided to improve on the tech by using photon energy. She began committing crimes to aid her ailing grandmother. After getting caught, Go Go and Granville got the victims to drop the charges so that they can help her. ==References== Big Hero 6 Big Hero 6 characters, List of Category:Teenage characters in television Big Hero 6 characters, List of |
The Common Turkic alphabet (; ; ; ) is a project of a single Latin alphabet for all Turkic languages based on a slightly modernized Turkish alphabet. The old system was developed in the Soviet Union and used in the 1920-1930s; the current system is an alphabet with 34 letters recognised by the Organization of Turkic States.Türk Keneş ve Türk Dünyasının 34 Harfli Ortak Alfabe Sistemi - Abdülvahap Kara Its letters are as follows: Common Turkic alphabet Upper Case A Ä B C Ç D E F G Ğ H I İ J K L M N Ñ O Ö P Q R S Ş T U Ü V W X Y Z ʼ Lower Case a ä b c ç d e f g ğ h ı i j k l m n ñ o ö p q r s ş t u ü v w x y z ʼ IPA * Long forms of vowels are shown with a Circumflex (in Turkish): Â, Ê, Î, Ô, Û. == History == In connection with the collapse of the USSR, in the newly formed republics in which the Turkic languages were the main ones, the ideas of Pan-Turkism became popular again, and, as a consequence, so did the movement for the restoration of the Latin alphabet. In order to unify, and at the initiative of Turkey in November 1991, an international scientific symposium was held in Istanbul on the development of a unified alphabet for the Turkic languages. It was completely based on the Turkish alphabet, but with the addition of some missing letters: ä, ñ, q, w, x. As a result, the alphabet consisted of 34 letters, 29 of which were taken from Turkish. Azerbaijan was the first to adopt this alphabet in December 1991 and Uzbekistan proposed its adoption in September 1993, while continuing using Cyrillic. In September 1993, at a regular conference in Ankara, representatives of Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan officially announced the transition to the new alphabet. However, already in 1992, Azerbaijan was reforming its alphabet and replacing the letter ä with ə, taken from old Cyrillic and Yañalif. Starting from 2000, the government decreed that Azerbaijani publications and media should use the Latin script only, officially discontinuing the Cyrillic alphabet in the country. In May 1995, the government of Uzbekistan replaced this alphabet in favor of a different one, based only on the standard 26-letter Latin alphabet. The same version is accepted for the Karakalpak language. Although Turkmenistan committed itself to adopt the original alphabet, it officially adopted a different proposal in 1993 with some unusual characters as letters such as the pound sign (£), the cent sign (¢) and the dollar sign ($). This was later replaced by a different alphabet in 1999, which is only partially similar to the general Turkic one, but differs from it in a number of letters. Due to this uncertainty with the Latin alphabet proposals employed by the government, opposition political forces continue to employ the Turkmen Cyrillic alphabet. As a result, only Azerbaijani (1991, with one letter changed in 1992), Gagauz (1996), Crimean Tatar (1992, officially since 1997), Tatar in the Tatar Wikipedia (since 2013) and some mass media have used the common Turkic alphabet with minor changes (since 1999). The Tatar Latin script, introduced in September 1999 and canceled in January 2005, used a slightly different set of additional letters (ŋ instead of ñ, ə instead of ä), and the letter ɵ instead of Turkish ö. Since December 24, 2012, the common Turkic alphabet has been officially used as a means of transliterating the Tatar Cyrillic alphabet. In 2019, an updated version of the Uzbek Latin alphabet was revealed by the Uzbek government, with five letters being updated; it was proposed to represent the sounds "ts", "sh", "ch", "oʻ" and "gʻ" by the letters "c", "ş", "ç", "ó" and "ǵ", respectively. This reverses a 1995 reform, and brings the orthography closer to that of Turkish and also of Turkmen, Karakalpak, Kazakh (2018 version) and Azerbaijani.Uzbekistan to switch to Latin alphabet in 2023, Anadolu Agency, Bahtiyar Abdulkerimov, 07.04.2021 In April 2021, a revised version of the Kazakh Latin alphabet was presented, introducing the letters Ä ä (Ə ə), Ö ö (Ө ө), Ü ü (Ү ү), Ğ ğ (Ғ ғ), Ū ū (Ұ ұ), Ñ ñ (Ң ң), and Ş ş (Ш ш). This version will be officially implemented starting 2023. ==Grapheme-phoneme correspondences== The orthographies of Turkic languages are largely phonetic, meaning that the pronunciation of a word can usually be determined from its spelling. This rule excludes recent loanwords such as proper names. The letters representing vowel sounds in Turkic dialects are, in alphabetical order, , and , , , , , , . Primary graphemes of Turkic languages in alphabets based on the modern Common Turkic alphabet (CTA) Common A Ä B C Ç D D Ḑ E F G Ğ Ģ H Ħ I İ J K L Ļ M N Ņ Ñ O Ö P Q R S S Ś Ş T T Ț U Ü V W X Y Z Z Ź Turkish A - B C Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - - O Ö P - R S S - Ş T T - U Ü V - - Y Z Z - Azerbaijani A Ə B C Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - - O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T - U Ü V - X Y Z Z - Turkmen A Ä B J Ç D D - E F G - - H - Y I Ž K L - M N - Ň O Ö P - R - - S Ş T T - U Ü W - - Ý - - Z Gagauz A Ä B C Ç D D - E F G - - H - I İ J K L - M N - - O Ö P - R S S - Ş T T Ţ U Ü V - - Y Z Z - Crimean Tatar A - B C Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - Ñ O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T - U Ü V - - Y Z Z - Tatar A Ä B C Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - Ñ O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T - U Ü V W X Y Z Z - Bashkir A Ä B - Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - Ñ O Ö P Q R S S Ś Ş T T - U Ü V W X Y Z Z Ź Kumyk A Ä B C Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - Ñ O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T Č, Ţ U Ü - W X Y Z Z - Karachay-Balkar A - B C Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - Ñ O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T Ţ U Ü V W - Y Z Z - Karaim A E B DŽ Č D D DZ Ė F D' G - H - Y I Ž T' L L' M N Ń - O Ö P K R S Ś - Š T T C U Ü V - CH J Z Ź - Kazakh A Ä B DJ TŞ D D - E F G Ğ - H - Y I J K L - M N - Ñ O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T TS U/Ū Ü V U H İ Z Z - Karakalpak A Á B DJ CH D D - E F G Ǵ - H - Í I J K L - M N - Ń O Ó P Q R S S - SH T T C U Ú V W X Y Z Z - Nogai A Ä B C Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - Ñ O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T Ţ U Ü - W - Y Z Z - Kyrgyz A - B DJ Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - Ŋ O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T C U Ü V W H Y Z Z - Uzbek A - B DJ CH D D - E F G Gʻ - H - - I J K L - M N - NG O Oʻ P Q R S S - SH T T TS U - V - X Y Z Z - Uzbek (2021) A - B J Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - - I - K L - M N - Ñ O Õ P Q R S S - Ş T T C U - V - X Y Z Z - Uyghur (ULY) A E B J CH D D - Ë F G GH - H - - I ZH K L - M N - NG O Ö P Q R S S - SH T T - U Ü V - X Y Z Z - Salar (TB30) A E B C Ç D D - E F G Ğ - H - I İ J K L - M N - Ñ O Ö P Q R S S - Ş T T - U Ü V V X Y Z Z - Salar (UYY) A E B J/ZH Q/CH D D - E F G G - H - I I R K L - M N - NG O Ö P K R S S - X/SH T T - U Ü V W H Y Z Z - Arabic script آ, ٵ ـَ ب ج چ ط د ڏ اې ف گ غ ع ھ ح اۍ ای ژ ك ل ڵ م ن ڬ ڭ ۆ ۆ پ ق ر ص س ث ش ط ت ڞ او اۊ ۋ و خ ي ظ ز ذ Uyghur Arabic alphabet ا،ئا ە،ئە ب ج چ د ې،ئې ف گ غ ھ ى،ئى ژ ك ل م ن ڭ و،ئو ۆ،ئۆ پ ق ر س ش ت ۇ،ئۇ ۈ،ئۈ ۋ ۋ خ ي،ئي ز Cyrillic script А Ә Б Җ, Ҹ, Ӌ Ч Д Д Ѕ Е Ф Г Ғ, Ҕ Һ Ҳ, Ћ Ы И Ж К Л Љ М Н Њ Ң О Ө П Ҡ, Қ Р С Ҫ Ш Т Т Ц У Ү В Ў Х Й З З́ Ҙ IPA /dˠ/ /s/ # Ää=Əə=Эə # Č=J # Ś=[Þ]]/θ and Ź=Đ # Ț=T+S and Ḑ=D+Z # Ṡ=ص and Ḋ=ض # Ṫ=ط and Ż=ظ # Long: Â, Ê, Î, Ô, Û. # Soft: Ă, Ĕ, Ĭ, Ŏ, Ŭ. # Thin: Grave (ˋ) - Consonant letters # /ɒ/ in Uzbek * Semi-vowels (Glottal Letters) are shown with a breve (or caron in Chuvash): Ă, Ĕ, Ĭ, Ŏ, Ŭ. * The phoneme (Latin Š or Ť, Arabic ث, Cyrillic Ҫ) is only present in the Bashkir language. * The phoneme (Latin Ž or Ď, Arabic ذ, Cyrillic Ҙ) is only present in the Bashkir language. * Ä is sometimes written as Əə or Ǝǝ (Latin glyphs).ИЗ ИСТОРИИ ПИСЬМА АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНСКИХ ТЮРКОВ, Мансур Рахбари (Южный Азербайджан, Иран), Bextiyartuncay. Э(ə) harfi için örnek - "э(ə)СРи : леорард ( Китаб аль – Идрак ли – Лисан аль – Атрак ), тигр (Махмуд Кашгари)"Eesti Keele Instituut / Institute of the Estonian Language KNAB: Kohanimeandmebaas / Place Names Database, Taadi / Tat / Жугьури Džuhuri latinisatsioon / romanization: KNAB 2012-09-30 - Notes-2: "In the earlier Azerbaijani Cyrillic there were variations: ə (= э)." * The phonemes (Ț) and (Ḑ) are represented in the Lipka Tatars Belarusian Arabic alphabet.Ilya Yevlampiev, Karl Pentzlin and Nurlan Joomagueldinov, N4072 Revised Proposal to encode Arabic characters used for Bashkir, Belarusian, Crimean Tatar, and Tatar languages, ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 20 May 2011. Janka Stankievic. Mova rukapisu Al Kitab. Casc I. Fonetyka. New York 1954Вольскі В. Асноўныя прынцыпы арабскай транскрыпцыі беларускага тэксту ў "Кітабах". "Узвышша" 1927. №6 * Some handwritten letters have variant forms. For example: Čč=Jj, Ķķ=Ⱪⱪ, and Ḩḩ=Ⱨⱨ.Lorna A. Priest, Proposal to Encode Additional Latin Orthographic Characters for Uighur Latin alphabet, 2005 * The Cyrillic Ѕ, Љ, and Њ may be written as Ӡ, Ԡ, and Ԣ respectively. *ٯ = ق (representing ) or ڨ (representing ). *Ṡ (ص), Ż (ظ), and Ṫ (ط) are used to represent the front and back variants of the letters S, Z, and T/D respectively. They are commonly found at the beginning of words to indicate all following vowels will be back vowels. If the sounds S, Z, T, or D occur in the middle of a word with exclusively back vowels, they may appear in their "soft" or neutral forms of S (س), Z (ز), T (ت) or D (د). (The letter Ṫ (ط) can represent the back vowel variants of T and D). Unlike Turkish, Arabic does not have vowel-dependent placement rules for these letters; they appear wherever emphatic consonants occur and can thus be seen in any part of the word. Some examples include Ṡahib, Ṡabun, Huṡuṡ, Ṡabr, etc. === Non-Turkic (Cyrillic or Arabic) Letters === * Ţ (T-cedilla, ) is a letter originating as part of the Romanian alphabet, used to represent the Romanian and Moldovan phoneme , the voiceless alveolar affricate (like ts in bolts).Marinella Lörinczi Angioni, "Coscienza nazionale romanza e ortografia: il romeno tra alfabeto cirillico e alfabeto latino ", La Ricerca Folklorica, No. 5, La scrittura: funzioni e ideologie. (Apr., 1982), pp. 75–85. It is written as the letter T with a small comma below and it has both lower-case and the upper-case variants. It is also a part of the Gagauz alphabet and the Livonian alphabet.Ulutaş, İsmail. 2004. Relative clauses in Gagauz syntax. Istanbul: Isis Press. The letter corresponds to Cyrillic Tse (Ц) in the romanisation of Cyrillic Turkic alphabets. * Ḑ (D-cedilla, ) is a letter originating as part of the old Romanian alphabet, used to represent the old Romanian and Moldovan sound , the voiced alveolar affricate.Negruzzi, Constantin, Studii asupra limbei române, in vol. "Alexandru Lăpuşneanul", Ed. Pentru Literatură, Bucharest, 1969. It is written as the letter D with a small comma below, and it has both lower-case and the upper-case variants. It is also a part of the Livonian alphabet. The letter corresponds to Cyrillic Dze (Ѕ) in the romanisation of Cyrillic Turkic alphabets. *Ḋ (ض) is only used for Arabic transcriptions; the emphatic consonant it represents does not exist in Turkic languages. For example: Ramaḋan, Kaḋı, Kaḋa, Ḋarb, Ḋarbe, Arḋ, etc. * The Latin letter Ë (E-umlaut) has no relation to the Cyrillic letter Ё (Yo). The Latin letter Ë represents the sound sequence and thus corresponds to the Cyrillic letter Є in Ukrainian or Е in Russian. * The Cyrillic Ѕ, Љ and Њ all originate in the Serbian and Macedonian alphabets and represent the same phonemes as in the CTA. ==In the USSR== The New Turkic alphabet (Jaꞑalif, 'Yañalif') was a Latin alphabet used by non-Slavic peoples of the USSR in the 1920-1930s. The new alphabet utilised the basic Latin letters excluding "w", as well as some additional letters, with a number of them being based on Cyrillic letterforms. The correspondences between the Soviet Yañalif and modern CTA are given below. Yañalif CTA Yañalif CTA Yañalif CTA A a A a I i İ i R r R r B ʙ B b J j Y y S s S s C c Ç ç K k K k Ş ş Ş ş Ç ç C c L l L l T t T t D d D d M m M m U u U u E e E e N n N n V v V v Ə ə Ä ä Ꞑ ꞑ Ñ ñ V v W w F f F f O o O o Y y Ü ü G g G g Ɵ ɵ Ö ö Z z Z z Ƣ ƣ Ğ ğ P p P p Ƶ ƶ J j H h H h Q q Q q Ь ь I ı ==Keyboard layout== The standard Turkish keyboard layout for personal computers is as follows: ::540px|Turkish keyboard layout == Bibliography == * Heinz F. Wendt: Fischer Lexikon Sprachen, 1961 () * Bilal N. Şimşir: Türk Yazi Devrimi, Ankara 1992, S. 119 * Helmut Glück (Hrsg.): Metzler Lexikon Sprache, 2005 [S. 417] () * Proceedings of the International Symposium of Contemporary Turkish Alphabet (Milletlerarası Çağdaş Türk Alfabeleri Sempozyumu Bildirisi), 1991, İstanbul, M.Ü. Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, 1992 . * Zentrum für Türkeistudien, Essen: Aktuelle Situation in den Turkrepubliken – Innenpolitik, Sicherheitspolitik, Wirtschaft, Umwelt, Bevölkerung (Working Paper 14, 1994) * FSP Entwicklungssoziologie, Bielefeld: Formen der Transvergesellschaftung als gegenläufige Prozesse zur Nationsbildung in Usbekistan (Working Paper 334, 2000) * Der Fischer Welt Almanach '94 – Zahlen, Daten, Fakten, 1993 (S. 846) * Mehmet Tütüncü: Alphabets for the Turkic languages * Herbert W. Duda: Die neue türkische Lateinschrift. I. Historisches. In: Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 1929, Spalten 441–453. – II. Linguistisches. In: Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 1930, Spalten 399–413. * F.H. Weißbach: Die türkische Lateinschrift. In: Archiv für Schreib- und Buchwesen 1930, S. 125–138. * Yakovlev N.F. "Development and succeeding problems in Latinizing alphabets", No 2, 1936, pp. 25–38 (In Russian) Н.Ф. Революция и письменность * Луначарский. Латинизация русской письменности * Статья «Новый алфавит» в Литературной энциклопедии * Nevzat Özkan, Gagavuz Türkçesi Grameri, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları, 1996 * Jaŋalif/Яңалиф". Tatar Encyclopedia. (2002). Kazan: Tatarstan Republic Academy of Sciences Institution of the Tatar Encyclopaedia * Закиев. Тюрко-татарское письмо. История, состояние, перспективы. Москва, "Инсан", 2005 * G.A Gaydarci, E.K Koltsa, L.A.Pokrovskaya B.P.Tukan, Gagauz Türkçesinin Sözlüğü, TC Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları *Nevzat Özkan, Gagauz Destanları, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları * Prof. Dr. Mustafa Argunşah-Âdem Terzi-Abdullah Durkun, Gagauz Türkçesi Araştırmaları Bilgi Şöleni, Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları *Gagauzum Bucaktır Yerim, Tatura Anamut Ocak Yayınları * Yakovlev N.F. "Development and succeeding problems in Latinizing alphabets", "Revolution and script" No 2, 1936, pp. 25-38 (In Russian) Н.Ф. ЯКОВЛЕВ: «О развитии и очередных проблемах латинизации алфавитов», Революция и письменность, № 2, 1936, стр. 25-38 * Minglang Zhou (2003). Multilingualism in China: the politics of writing reforms for minority languages, 1949–2002. Volume 89 of Contributions to the sociology of language (illustrated ed.). Published Walter de Gruyter. p. 174\. . Retrieved 2011-01-01. ==Notes== ==References== == External links == * Kitabs, the unique highlight of the Belarusian language ==See also== *Latinisation (USSR) Category:Latin alphabets Category:Turkic alphabets Category:1930s in the Soviet Union Category:Alphabets used by Turkic languages |
The Ohio State University abuse scandal centered on allegations of sexual abuse that occurred between 1978 and 1998, while Richard Strauss was employed as a physician by the Ohio State University (OSU) in the Athletics Department and in the Student Health Center. An independent investigation into the allegations was announced in April 2018 and conducted by the law firm Perkins Coie. In July 2018, several former wrestlers accused former head coach Russ Hellickson and U.S. representative Jim Jordan, who was an assistant coach at OSU between 1987 and 1994, of knowing about Strauss' alleged abuse but failing to take action to stop it. Jordan has denied that he had any student-athlete report sexual abuse to him. The report, released in May 2019, concluded that Strauss abused at least 177 male student-patients and that OSU was aware of the abuse as early as 1979, but the abuse was not widely known outside of Athletics or Student Health until 1996, when he was suspended from his duties. Strauss continued to abuse OSU students at an off-campus clinic until his retirement from the university in 1998. OSU was faulted in the report for failing to report Strauss's conduct to law enforcement. In May 2020, the university entered into a settlement and agreed to pay $40.9 million to the sexual abuse survivors. ==Background== Richard Strauss (1938-2005) received his medical degree from the University of Chicago in 1964, and interned at the associated hospital system until June 1965. Afterward, he served as a lieutenant in the Medical Corps of the United States Navy from 1966 through 1968, and received an honorable discharge. He then took a two-year post- doctoral fellowship at the School of Medicine at the University of Washington until 1970, and then worked as an assistant professor of physiology at both the University of Pennsylvania (1970–1972) and the University of Hawaii (1972–74). After Hawaii, Strauss worked as a medical resident at Rutgers University (1974–1975) and as a research fellow at Harvard Medical School (1975–1978). Hawaii found no records of any complaints filed against Strauss during his time there. Strauss was hired as an assistant professor in the OSU College of Medicine in September 1978; shortly afterward, he began volunteering as a team physician at Larkins Hall, OSU's physical education building. He was appointed to a position in the Athletics Department in 1981, and to Student Health in 1994. In Athletics, Strauss served as a team physician for multiple teams, including men's wrestling, gymnastics, fencing, lacrosse, and swimming and diving; he additionally treated students on the hockey, cheerleading, volleyball, soccer, track, golf, baseball, tennis, water polo, and football teams. Strauss was not formally appointed to a position at Student Health until 1994, but was known to have started performing treatments there as early as 1978. By 1979, Athletics Department officials knew that Strauss conducted unusually prolonged genital examinations on male athletes, and that athletics staff were not permitted to be present during these examinations. In addition, Strauss was known to shower alongside male students at Larkins Hall, a behavior which was unique to Strauss among team physicians. Between 1979 and 1996, multiple students complained about Strauss's excessive and unnecessary genital examinations, but no action was taken by OSU until January 1996, when he was placed on administrative leave in response to patient complaints. Larkins Hall, which served OSU as its physical education facility and natatorium, was perceived as a sexualized environment, and multiple witnesses reported that voyeurism and public sex acts occurred there from the early 1980s to the late 1990s. Thirty wrestlers and gymnasts reported voyeurs were routinely present at Larkins Hall in the locker room, shower, and sauna areas, ranging from college age to approximately 60 years old; the "leering" voyeurs would ogle student-athletes that were using the facilities and some would masturbate. Sources familiar with then-head coach Russ Hellickson's actions at the time said that the situation was so egregious that Hellickson would occasionally have to physically drag the voyeurs out of the building, and that he also pleaded with the university to move their athletes to a private facility. Strauss was counted among the voyeurs; former OSU students stated that Strauss would shower among athletes multiple times per day or stare into the shower while seated on a stool. In addition, peepholes were found in bathroom stalls and shower walls. The building was completed in 1932, named for retired OSU Athletic Director Dick Larkins in 1976, expanded in 1977, and demolished in 2005. After a closed-door hearing on June 5, 1996, Strauss was terminated from his position with the Athletics Department at the end of July 1996, and terminated from Student Health on August 5, 1996. However, Strauss opened a private off-campus clinic and continued to abuse male patients there. Former employees of the off-campus Men's Clinics of America recalled Strauss placing advertisements in the student newspaper promising student discounts and prompt treatment of genital issues. He also continued as a tenured faculty member in the School of Public Health until his voluntary retirement on March 1, 1998, upon which he gained emeritus status. Strauss died by suicide in August 2005. According to his suicide note, he had been suffering from "significant escalating medical and pain problems since January 2002". In 2019, OSU published its annual campus safety report, which reflected that Strauss committed 1,430 instances of fondling and 47 rapes during his tenure. ==Investigation== Mike DiSabato was one of the first to report that Strauss had groped him during medical exams. He first requested information about Strauss in January 2018 via a letter to the university; after failing to get a timely response, he approached The Columbus Dispatch with the allegations of abuse in April. DiSabato, who wrestled at Ohio State from 1987 to 1991, added that his first examination with Strauss occurred at the age of 14, when Strauss was conducting research on the body fat of high school wrestlers; the body fat testing included an unnecessary genital exam. At the time, DiSabato did not recognize Strauss's behavior as sexual abuse and that it was considered an "open secret" amongst the wrestling team. In response, the Ohio State University announced that an investigation had been launched into the long-term sexual abuse in April 2018, asking former students and coaches to come forward with any information that might help the investigation. At the time, the independent investigation was being led by Bricker & Eckler. After the Ohio Attorney General's office appointed Porter Wright Morris & Arthur as the university's legal counsel, Porter Wright commissioned Perkins Coie to lead the independent investigation. OSU President Michael Drake sent an email in May 2018 to more than 100,000 alumni asking them to contact Perkins Coie with any allegations of abuse. Based on the evidence uncovered, Perkins Coie expanded the scope of the investigation to include Strauss's examinations of high school students in June 2018. The investigation was estimated to have cost $6.2 million by the time the report was released in May 2019. Strauss's son, Scott Strauss, released a statement in July 2018 expressing that the Strauss family was "shocked and saddened" by the allegations against Richard Strauss. The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) of the United States Department of Education announced it had opened a separate investigation into the university's response in August 2018. Several advocacy groups had sent a letter to OCR earlier in August, alleging that OSU's actions violated Title IX regulations. The Ohio State Medical Board confirmed that it had received complaints about Strauss and had turned over confidential records to OSU lawyers in December 2018. However, because the records were confidential, the investigators were not allowed to access them. The board had investigated Strauss in 1996 but never disciplined him. Details of the investigation were made public in the report by Perkins Coie; specific identifying details were redacted. In May 2019, after the redacted report was released, the State Medical Board voted to release the records of its 1996 investigation if the alleged victims agreed to waive their confidentiality. Ohio Governor Mike DeWine created a review group via executive order in May 2019. The group's charter was to review the actions that were taken by the State Medical Board in response to the complaints about Strauss. The investigators conducted interviews with 177 students who provided evidence that Strauss had committed sexual abuse; although not all of the students felt his behavior was abusive, consultation with independent medical doctors confirmed they were not appropriate patient–doctor interactions. The majority of abuse (143 victims) was categorized as genital fondling associated with medically unnecessary genital or rectal examinations. Of the 177, 153 were student-athletes, of which a plurality (48) were members of the men's wrestling team. ==Civil lawsuits and subsequent developments== Several civil lawsuits have been filed against the Ohio State University in conjunction with the abuse committed by Strauss. Three federal lawsuits had been filed by July 2018; the third lawsuit named several OSU administrators including ex-Athletic Director Andy Geiger as having knowledge of Strauss's abuse. By September 2018, the university had filed motions to dismiss the first three lawsuits based on associated statutes of limitations. Two of the suits were merged in October 2018. In total, more than 20 school officials and staff were named as knowing of complaints about Strauss's abuse but failing to stop him. In July 2018, former members of the OSU men's wrestling team reported that then- coaches Russ Hellickson (head coach, 1986–2006) and Jim Jordan (assistant coach, 1987–1995) were aware of the abuse by Strauss but failed to put a stop to it. Jordan denied that any student-athlete had reported any abuse to him. Jordan said the timing of the allegations that he knew of the abuse were "interesting ... in light of things that are going on in Washington", referring to Jordan's role as a founder of the Freedom Caucus and his potential candidacy for Speaker of the House. Speaker Paul Ryan defended Jordan as "a man of honesty, a man of integrity" and discouraged an investigation by the House Ethics Committee, as the abuse had occurred before Jordan's election to the House of Representatives. Other ex-wrestlers defended Jordan, who was interviewed by Perkins Coie later in July. In May 2019, DiSabato filed a Title IX lawsuit against OSU. In one count of the court papers, DiSabato claimed that a second cousin of Jordan's attempted to "intimidate and retaliate" against DiSabato. In 2019, DiSabato shared text messages with NBC News that were corroborated by another former wrestler indicating that Jim Jordan, Russ Hellickson, and high school wrestling coach Jeff Jordan (Jim Jordan's younger brother) conspired to engage in witness tampering and intimidation when they called former OSU wrestler Mark Coleman and his parents to pressure him to recant his earlier accusation that Jordan was aware of the abuse. Coleman had shared a room with Jordan while traveling to several wrestling meets. In November 2019, a retired wrestling referee filed a lawsuit alleging that he had warned Jordan and Hellickson about Strauss's misconduct but they had dismissed his warning. Jordan dismissed the referee as "another person making a false statement". In February 2020, Adam DiSabatothe brother of Mike DiSabatotestified under oath that Jordan telephoned him "crying, groveling...begging me to go against my brother.... That's the kind of cover-up that's going on there", described Jordan as a "coward" and accused Hellickson of "abandon[ing]" the wrestlers who came forward with allegations about Strauss. In February 2021, The Hollywood Reporter reported that George Clooney's film production company Smokehouse Pictures would be teaming with Sports Illustrated Studios and 101 Studios to produce a docuseries about the scandal, and that the series would be based on an October 2020 Sports Illustrated article by Jon Wertheim detailing Strauss's abuse. ===2020 settlement=== Following an independent 2019 investigation which found that Richard Strauss had sexually abused at least 177 students from 1979 to 1997, Ohio State University agreed to pay $40.9 million to settle the lawsuits of 162 men who alleged sexual abuse during the former university team doctor's tenure. Other lawsuits remain outstanding. ==See also== * Penn State child sex abuse scandal, in which assistant coach Jerry Sandusky molested multiple children * USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal, in which team doctor Larry Nassar sexually abused hundreds of female gymnasts. * George Tyndall, a former gynecologist at the University of Southern California student health center who sexually abused student patients ==References== ==External links== * * Category:2018 in American law Category:2018 in Ohio Category:2018 scandals Category:Campus sexual assault Category:Crimes in Ohio Category:Institutional abuse Category:Ohio State University Category:Sexual abuse cover-ups Category:Sexual assaults in the United States Category:Violence against men in North America Category:Sexual assault in sports Category:Sex scandals in the United States |
Khuzestan province is located in southwestern Iran. Its history extends from the pre-Aryan ancient Elamite civilization to the modern day Islamic Republic. ==Prehistory== Susiana plain, centered around Susa in the north of Khuzestan province, has been the subject of the longest and the most extensive archaeological research in Iran. Just to the northwest in Ilam province, there's also the Deh Luran plain, that was culturally very similar. === Susiana plain === Unlike southern Mesopotamia, early settled life in Susiana was dominated by a single site: Chogha Mish. It was abandoned around 4800 BCE, perhaps because of increased activity of nomadic pastoralist groups in the lowlands. For several centuries afterward there was a transitional phase during which Chogha Do Sar, 9km to the southwest, was the largest settlement in the region. Susa was founded around 4400 BCE as a cluster of several hamlets that later merged to become a single larger town. It may have competed with Chogha Do Sar for a while before ultimately becoming the main settlement in the region. === Zohreh River plain === From 2015 to 2020 the Zohreh Prehistoric Project has been directed by Abbas Moghaddam. In the Zohreh River plain, they have discovered a very large site of Chega Sofla dating from 4,700 to 3,700 BC.Moghaddam, A. (2016). A fifth-millennium BC cemetery in the north Persian Gulf: The Zohreh Prehistoric Project. Antiquity, 90(353), E3. It is located close to Sardasht, Khuzestan, in the proximity to Makran coast.map of local sites These peoples used bricks in the construction of their tombs. Here we find the oldest example of using bricks in tomb construction so far found. These tombs are built with mud bricks and baked bricks, which is quite unusual for that time, as well as in stone. Large quantities of luxurious pottery and a big variety of copper tools and other copper objects have been found. Many cultural similarities with Susa, in the lower Zagros Mountains, Iran, have been identified.Ritual Landscape of Chega Sofla (2021) unesco.org A discovery of 71 unusual conical-shaped stelae had been announced at Tall Chegah-e Sofla in 2020. These stelae are dating from the late fifth-millennium BC.7,000-year- old carved stelae discovered at Tall Chegah-e Sofla in southern Iran. Archaeology News Network (4/24/2020) The height of the stelae varies between 81cm and 32.5cm. Some of the stelae have no carvings, but most of them are carved with various figures, such as of humans, goats, and eyes. These carved eyes can be oval or circular. Many stelae also carry some simple geometrical designs. Originally they were set upright, but were found as all stacked together as a group.7,000-year-old carved stelae discovered at Tall Chegah-e Sofla in southern Iran. Archaeology News Network (4/24/2020) Twenty samples of metal objects, whitish beads and rock fragments were discovered at Chega Sofla, and investigated by scientists. They identified the earliest man-made enstatite beads in Iran, as well as the silver objects that may be some of the world's most ancient. The copper-based artifacts found were also analyzed. Besides copper, they contained arsenic, antimony, nickel, as well as lead. Authors determined that most of the raw materials at the site were imported from farther distances, such as from the central or northwest Iran.Nima Nezafati, Abbas Moghaddam (2021), The First Record of the Earliest Silver, Enstatite Bead, and Metal Relics From the 5th-4th Millenia BCE Site of Tol-e Chega Sofla, Southwest Iran. ==Elam== Khuzestan was once inhabited by a people known as the Elamites, who spoke neither Indo-European languages (like the Medes and Persians of the Iranian plateau) nor Semitic languages (like the peoples of the Mesopotamian city-states). The Elamite language was not related to any Iranian languages, but may have been part of a larger group known as Elamo-Dravidian. Archaeologists and historians have documented various Elamite dynasties ranging from approximately 2700 BCE to 644 BCE. The boundaries of Elam shifted throughout history, but Elam usually included present-day Khuzestan and areas of the Iranian plateau now part of the Iranian province of Fars. Elamite kings sometimes ruled as far afield as Babylon; sometimes they were completely subjugated by the Babylonians and Assyrians, and vice versa, as was the case for numerous dynasties that ruled Iran. The core region of Elam appears to have been the rugged mountainous area in the Zagros mountains. The lowlands of Susiana in the west and the southeastern Zagros around Kerman province, with sites such as Tepe Sialk, Tepe Yahya, Tall-i Iblis, and Shahdad, were more on the periphery. In the eastern region, there was also an indigenous population. The main economy of Elam was based on agriculture and nomadic pastoralism, while trade with lowland Mesopotamia (especially in metals, timber, and precious stones) also played a role from the 4th millennium BCE onwards. During the Proto-Elamite period, Susa was the lone major settlement in Susiana. In the following Old Elamite period, during the late 3rd millennium BCE, Tepe Musian (14 hectares) on the Deh Loran plain was the only other large town in Khuzestan. Then, early in the 2nd millennium BCE, Susa expanded to a size of 85 hectares and became a major political, commercial, and cultural city. Houses were built of mud brick and arranged around courtyards, and in many cases the dead were buried in tombs underneath the courtyard or the floors. Tombs like these continued to be made in Susan houses until the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. At the same time, towns and villages appeared in the lowlands as well as in the valleys in the neighboring highlands. This, combined with texts from Susa, suggests that there was a high level of agricultural development in the region then, with canals for irrigation. During the Middle Elamite period, the Elamite kings successfully invaded Mesopotamia, and the increased use of the Elamite language in documents and inscriptions along with new artistic and architectural forms indicates their power at this time. Finds at the major sites in Khuzestan from this period attest to royal sponsorship of metalworking and other technologies. There was a growing interregional trade to accommodate the demand for luxury objects at royal courts and religious sanctuaries. Increased populations in major cities may indicate a contraction in settled agriculture, with pastoralism, trade, and plunder playing a more important role in the economy. The main archaeological site from the first part of this period is Haft Tepe, 25km southeast of Susa. Known as Kabnak, this site includes a funerary temple complex with vaulted underground tombs and two mud-brick terraces that may represent the eroded bases of ziggurats. A fragmentary stele indicates that the complex was maintained by the 16th-century BCE king Tepti- ahar. Adjoining the larger terrace was a workshop area including a double- chambered kiln. This area made objects from metal, bone, shell, and mosaic. Ceramics were also made here, including painted clay funerary heads which first appear here and then continue to appear throughout the period. thumb|A reconstruction of the ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil The main site during the second part of the Middle Elamite period is Chogha Zanbil, which was anciently known as Āl Untaš Napiriša or Dūr Untaš. It had a ziggurat and several surrounding temples, which may have been used as a sanctuary for deities throughout the realm. There was also a royal quarter with three monumental palaces, each with large courts surrounded by long halls and storerooms. The site of Chogha Zanbil may not have been extensively inhabited. Terracotta figurines are characteristic of Elamite art during the late 2nd millennium BCE, suggesting a possible continuity of religious beliefs during this time. Sculptures of beds and nude women supporting their breasts with their hands are common during this period but do not appear to have remained common after around 1000 BCE. Sculptures of hump-backed bulls are also found at several sites, including Susa, Haft Tepe, and Chogha Zanbil. Rock-cut sanctuaries in the highlands, such as Kūl-e Fara and Šekāfta Salmān near Izeh in eastern Khuzestan, also suggest continuity of religious beliefs. Both sanctuaries have later inscriptions indicating that the area was ruled by a king named Hanni, who ruled over a state named Aapir. Susa went into a rapid decline at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. Famines appear to have had "disastrous effects" on the surrounding rural population at that time. Elamite groups may have been pushed to the valleys of eastern Khuzestan from the west by new ethnic groups (or already-present ones that had previously been subordinate). Eastern Khuzestan appears to have increased in both importance and population during this period. The only excavated site in this area is Tall-i Ghazir near Ramhormoz, surrounded by the Bakhtiari mountains. Around the late 8th century BCE, Susa appears to have recovered and enjoyed a period of renewed prosperity. By this time, at least two other cities, Madaktu and Khidalu, had come to play important political roles. Historians differ as to whether the Elamites could be considered "Iranian". On the one hand, the Elamites spoke a non-Iranian language and were culturally closer to the established civilizations of Sumer and Akkad than they were to the tribes of the Iranian plateau. On the other hand, the Elamites linked the old civilizations of Mesopotamia and the new peoples of the plateau, and their version of Mesopotamian civilization was a formative influence on the first indisputably Persian empire of the Achaemenids. Elam was one of the first conquests of the new Persian empire; Elamite scribes kept the Persians' records, writing them down in Elamite cuneiform. Hence one contemporary historian, Elton Daniel, states that the Elamites are "the founders of the first Iranian empire in the geographic sense". (The History of Iran, 2001, p. 26). If the Elamites are considered proto-Persians, then Khuzestan would have been one of the cradles of Persian civilization. Many experts such as Sir Percy Sykes in fact called the Elamites "the earliest civilization of Persia" (A History of Persia, p38), and Ibn Nadeem in his book al-Fehrest ("الفهرست"), mentions that all the Median and Persian lands of antiquity spoke one language. In his book, which is the most accredited account of spoken languages of Iran during the early Islamic era, Ibn Nadeem quotes the 8th century scholar Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa as having counted Khuzi among the Iranian languages and for having identified it as the unofficial language of the royalty of Iran. In 644 BCE, the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal conquered Elam and destroyed their capital at Susa. For a time, the area was ruled from northern Mesopotamia. The area then seems to have re-established its independence. It was known as Susiana and ruled from Susa. It managed to remain independent of the burgeoning Median Empire. ==The Achaemenid Empire== * In 538 BCE Cyrus the Great conquers the Median Empire, then Susiana, then Assyria. The city of Susa is rebuilt as an Achaemenid capital. Over the succeeding two centuries, Persian civilization established itself in Khuzestan, though the Elamite language is said to have survived for another thousand years, until the 5th century CE. ==Alexander and the Seleucids== :Main articles: Alexander of Macedon, Seleucid Empire * In 331 BCE, Alexander of Macedon defeats the Achaemenids at the Battle of Gaugamela and establishes the largest empire yet known. Alexander dies young and his empire is split between his successors. * From 305 BCE to 60 BCE, the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty, rules from Seleucia on the Tigris. They repeatedly clash with the Parthian empire and eventually fall to the Parthians, in 129 BCE. ==The Parthians== * 300 BCE to 224 CE, The Parthian empire conquers much of present-day Iran and contests Mesopotamia and Khuzestan with the Seleucids and then the Roman Empire. ==The Sassanids== * 224 to 621 CE, The area was subject to Sassanid dynasty. The area is known as Xuzestan during this period. During the early years of the reign of Shapur II (309-379), Arabs crossed the Persian Gulf from Bahrain to "Ardashir-Khora" of Fars and raided the interior. In retaliation, Shapur II led an expedition through Bahrain, defeated the combined forces of the Arab tribes of Taghleb, Bakr bin Wael, and Abd Al-Qays and advanced temporarily into Yamama in central Najd. The Sassanids resettled these tribes in Kerman and Ahvaz. Arabs named Shapur II, as Shabur Dhul-aktāf (he who owns shoulders because either he pierced or dislocated captured Arabs shoulders or he had wide shoulders) after this battle. (p. 202, Encyclopædia Iranica). It should be pointed out that the Arab presence in Iran, did not begin with the Arab conquest of the Sassanid Empire. Mutual infiltration into and out of Iran, began before the Muslim conquests and continued as a result of joint exertions of the civilized Arabs (ahl al-madar) as well as the desert Arabs (ahl al-wabar). There were tribesmen of Bakr bin Wael and Tamim(Thamim) in Khuzestan and Fars prior to the arrival of the Arab Muslim Armies. Some of these Arab groups were sedentary while others were nomadic. Some fought on behalf of the Sassanid Empire (Taghleb, Eyad), while others (Lakhmid, Shayban, Bakr bin Wael) began struggling against the Sassanids. These latter group had already won a celebrated, if limited, victory at Du Qar around 604 CE Some local Arabs led by Al-Motanna bin Hareta Al-Shaybani helped to direct the attention of the nascent Muslim state toward Iran by converting to Islam and negotiating with Medina for support in their anti-Sassanid moves. (p. 210-211 Encyclopædia Iranica ). ==Early Muslim dynasties== * 630 CE The Arabs, united by their new faith of Islam, expand into Mesopotamia and a few years later into Khuzestan. For several centuries, Khuzestan was part of the province of Mesopotamia and ruled by distant caliphs. Over time, most of the inhabitants adopted Islam. The Persian language absorbed thousands of Arabic loanwords and some Arabic syntax. The Persians in their turn had a deep influence on their Arab conquerors. Khuzestan was a rich part of a thriving empire. The Karun river was dammed, and sugar-cane plantations spread over reclaimed scrublands or marshlands. Many noted Muslim scholars, scientists, artists, poets, and musicians were Khuzestanis. * 661 - Umayyad caliphs rule from Damascus. * 750 - Abbasid caliphs rule from Baghdad or Samarra. * 946 - 1258 The Abbasid caliphs become mere figureheads. Various Buwayhid and Seljuk Turk chieftains rule in the caliph's name, or compete to do so. The political situation was extremely fluid and the boundaries of the various emirates and sultanates tended to disappear quickly. In the Umayyad period, large tribes of nomads from the Hanifa, Tamim, and Abd al-Qays tribes crossed the Persian Gulf and occupied some of the richest Basran territories around Ahvaz and in Fars during the second Islamic civil war in 661-665/680-684 (Encyclopædia Iranica, p. 215, under Arab Tribes of Iran). During the Abbasid period, in the second half of the 10th century, the Assad tribe, taking advantage of quarrels under the Buwayhids, penetrated into Khuzestan, where the Tamim tribe had been inhabiting since pre-Islamic times. However, following the fall of the Abbasid dynasty, the flow of Arab immigrants into Persia gradually diminished, but it nonetheless continued. After the decline of the Saffarid dynasty in the late 9th century, Baghdad maintained a strong centralized control of Khuzestan until the local Baridi dynasty became relatively independent around 927. The Buyids reasserted control from Baghdad on and off from 941 until the Seljuqs gained power in 1055. During the medieval period, one of the main economic activities in Khuzestan was the manufacturing of luxury textiles: silks, brocades, silk-wool blends, and tiraz fabric. The tiraz factories were a state monopoly and thus controlling them held political significance. This is a continuation of the earlier Sassanid trend where luxury goods were produced in imperial workshops; the Sassanids had developed a silk industry in Khuzestan, setting up workshops in Tustar, Jundi-Sabur, and Susa. During the middle ages, Tustar in particular seems to have consistently been one of the most important textile producers in the region, as it is today. Its economic importance is indicated by the fact that it was allowed to produce the Kiswah (the embroidered covering for the Kaaba) in 321 AH/933 CE — an act with enormous political importance. Almost all the cloth-producing cities of medieval Khuzestan were located on rivers. These rivers provided a source of irrigation for the cotton, flax, and mulberry crops used in the production of textiles, and they were also used to power water mills for processing the raw materials. They also functioned as a means of transportation and supported commerce as well. Khuzestan was also noted as a producer of sugar during this period. Contemporary accounts indicate the presence of two places with sugar refineries: Sus and Jundisabur. Al-Maqdisi wrote that Jundisabur "provided all the sugar consumed in Khorasan and Jibal", indicating that it was very important economically. Cultivation of date palms was also very widespread in Khuzestan; especially in the southern regions that are saltier and less irrigated. Despite being a political capital of the region, Ahvaz was not a major producer of either food products or manufactured goods. Its primary function then, as now, was mostly administration and redistribution. ==The Mongol invasion== From 1219 to 1335, Mongols under Genghis Khan and then his grandson Hulegu invaded from the steppes to the east of the Iranian plateau, reaching Palestine before they were stopped. Baghdad, the rich and fabled capital of the Abbasid caliphs, fell in 1258. The Middle Eastern Mongol Ilkhanate sustained itself for a century and then disintegrated. Much of Khuzestan was destroyed and left in ruins. ==Safavid era== In 1393 Khuzestan was conquered by Tamerlane and afterwards seems to have been ruled by his successors, the Timurids. As the Timurid rule decayed, Khuzestan was taken over by the Msha'sha'iya, a Shi'a millenarian sect who dominated the western region of the province from the middle of the 15th century to the 19th century. According to most sources, their descendants were still to be found in the 19th century, as powerful local rulers in the city of Hoveizeh, their original center. In 1510 Khuzestan was conquered by the Safavid dynasty. The western part of Khuzestan was called Arabistan from this point on, due to the increasing Arab population. The eastern part of Khuzestan was known as Khuzestan and was mostly inhabited by Lurs people thus sometimes incorporated into Greater Lur. It was often contested between the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire, which held the neighboring town of Basra on the other side of the Shatt al-Arab river in modern-day Iraq. In the latter part of the 16th century, the Bani Kaab, from Kuwait, settled in Khuzestan. (see J.R. Perry, "The Banu Ka'b: An Amphibious Brigand State in Khuzestan", Le Monde Iranien et L'Islam I, 1971, p133) And during the succeeding centuries, many more Arab tribes moved from southern Iraq to the western part of Khuzestan. For several centuries Khuzestan, as with many other Iranian provinces prior to the era of the Pahlavi dynasty, had been a semi-autonomous part of Persia under the control of an Imperial Governor-Generalate appointed by the Shah. The Zagros mountains separated the province from the central Iranian plateau. The governor-general, who resided part of the year in the cool highlands at Shushtar or Dezful, often left real exercise of power to local leaders who bid and quarrelled amongst each other for the position of tax farmer. Of these factions, the Muhaisin clan, led by Sheikh Jabir al-Kaabi, became the strongest and under his leadership the Bani Kaab were reunified under a single authority, the capital of the tribe being moved from the village of Fallahiyah to the flourishing port city of Mohammerah. Unlike previous leaders of the Bani Kaab, Jabir maintained law and order, and established Mohammerah as a free port and sheikhdom, of which he was Sheikh. Jabir also became the Imperial-appointed governor-general of the province. ==British and Russian interventions== Throughout the 19th century, Russia and Britain contended for control of Persia. Both attempted to influence or intimidate the Qajar Shahs. Russia dominated the northern parts of Iran while Britain dominated the south. Khuzestan was an area of particular interest to Britain, originally because of its strategic location, and later due its vast oilfields. For more than a century, Britain was a dominant influence in the area. * 1856-1857 Anglo- Persian War Following a trivial dispute between the British ambassador to Persian and the Shah's prime minister, Britain declares war and sends troops up through the Persian Gulf. They march through Khuzestan and up the Karun River as far as Ahvaz. The Persian government concedes and at the Treaty of Paris, Persia surrenders Herat and surrounding territories to Afghanistan. British troops withdraw from Khuzestan. * 1870 End of construction for the Indo-European telegraph line from Calcutta to London. The line passes through Iran. * 1878 The British establish a consulate at Bushehr, just down the Persian Gulf coast from Khuzestan. * 1888 The British firm of Lynch Brothers is granted a concession to run a line of steamers on the Karun River, as far to Ahvaz. * 1908 Oil discovered in Khuzestan. * 1909 The Anglo-Persian Oil Company is founded. The company constructs drill rigs, refineries, large industrial facilities, and British-style housing for overseers. The Arab character of the western region of the province is diluted by immigration from other parts of Iran. The area becomes one of the more prosperous areas of Persia. The oil company pays royalties to the Qajar Shah as well as to the provincial governor-general, Sheikh Khaz'al Khan of Mohammarah. * 1914-1918 During World War I, Britain lands troops in Khuzestan, using it as a staging area for an invasion of Ottoman territories in what is now Iraq. * 1921 British officials support a coup mounted by Colonel Reza Khan, which overthrows the Qajar dynasty and eventually establishes the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925. The British believed that Reza Khan would be more effective at holding the country together and resisting Russian (now Bolshevik) incursions from the north. * 1925 Reza Khan is crowned the new Shah and has Sheikh Khaz'al deposed, who is held under house arrest in Tehran. Reza Shah attempts to forcibly settle the tribal groups of Khuzestan and impose strict central government control. * 1929 The Trans-Iranian Railway is built across the Karun River at Ahvaz. * 1936 Sheikh Khazal dies in Tehran. The province is renamed Khuzestan, a return to the name of the province before the Safavid era. (see origin of the name Khuzestan). * 1939-1945 During World War II, Britain again wishes to use Khuzestan for military purposes. The Persian government objects. In 1941, Britain participated in Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran which overthrowed Reza Shah and replaces him with his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. A British military base is again established in Khuzestan. ==Modernization and turmoil== * 1951-1954 Under the democratically elected Prime Minister, Mohammed Mossadegh, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company is nationalized. Mosaddegh is ousted in a joint CIA/MI6-organized coup (dubbed Operation Ajax), which installs the formerly exiled Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to the throne as the de facto dictator, and the oil companies resume control. However, they now pay higher royalties to the Iranian government. * 1946-1979 As with his father before him, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi attempts to modernize Iran by imposing strict central government control and limiting local autonomy and culture. Minority languages are suppressed and not allowed to be taught in schools. The government seized the settled tribal lands of the Arabs and Lurs for the oil industry or government purposes. Ethnic discontent simmered during Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's reign. However, overt expression of unhappiness was limited, as the state energetically suppressed dissent. ==The Iranian Revolution== Rampant corruption, oppressive secret police, and autocratic rule made the Pahlavi shah less and less popular. His attempts to modernize Iran and break the power of the Shi'a clergy antagonized religious leaders and devout Iranians. In 1979, a loose alliance of students, parties from both the left and the right, and Shi'a Islamists forced the Shah from power. The Shi'a clergy eventually seize power and establish the theocratic Islamic Republic. Following the revolution, there were several regional uprisings. Khuzestan was hit by a wave of unrest led by Arabs demanding both autonomy and an end to discrimination. The uprising was suppressed by Iranian security forces, with more than a hundred dead on both sides. ==The Iran–Iraq War== Disruption in the central government made various Iranian regional separatists bolder. In 1980, six Khuzestani Arab separatists temporarily seized the Iranian embassy in London (see Iranian Embassy Siege). Saddam Hussein, the Iraqi dictator, supported the separatists. Initially, it emerged they wanted autonomy for Khuzestan. Later they demanded the release of 91 of their comrades held in Ayatollah Khomeini's jails. Only after the incident was over did it emerge that Iraq had trained and armed the gunmen to embarrass Iran, and it would become a prelude to the Iran–Iraq War. Soon after the embassy drama in 1980, Iraqi troops invaded Khuzestan. They expected that the Arab inhabitants would welcome them as liberators, and that the Iranian army would be too weak to resist them. Both expectations were delusory. After initial gains, the Iraqis were repulsed and pushed back to the old borders. The war ended in 1988. ===Aftermath=== Khuzestan was devastated by the war. What used to be Iran's largest refinery at Abadan was destroyed, never to fully recover. Many of the famous palm plantations were annihilated, cities were destroyed, and historical sites were demolished. Many of the inhabitants were forced to flee into neighboring provinces, which struggled to cope with the influx of refugees. Not all of the refugees have been able to return to their former homes. The central government has made some repairs in major urban centers and rebuilt a few tourist attractions, such as Shush Castle. There is a new steelworks in Ahvaz, and a new dam on the Karun River. However, some sites, such as the city of Khorramshahr, are still desolate ruins. Khuzestanis have protested, claiming that oil revenues from their province are used elsewhere and they are left to cope with the aftermath of the war as best they can. There has been much unrest among Arabic-speaking and Arab-heritage Khuzestanis, who claim that they face discrimination. Riots and mass arrests made international news in 2005. == See also == * Ahvaz * Ai-Toghdï * History of Iran * Arabs of Khuzestan * Origin of the name Khuzestan * Occupation of Khuzestan by Muslims * Politics of Khuzestan ==References and further reading== * History of Persia (2 volumes), Sir Percy Sykes (1915) * Tarikh-e Pahnsad Saal-e Khuzestan (Five Hundred Year History of Khuzestan) by Ahmad Kasravi * Jang-e Iran va Britannia dar Mohammerah (The Iran-British War in Mohammerah) by Ahmad Kasravi * Tarikh-e Bist Saal-e Iran (Twenty Year History of Iran) by Hossein Maki (Tehran, 1945–47) * Hayat-e Yahya (The Life of Yahya) by Yahya Dolatabadi (Tehran, 1948–52) * Tarikh-e Ejtemai va Edari Doreieh Qajarieh (The Administrative and Social History of the Qajar Era) by Abdollah Mostofi (Tehran, 1945–49) (for the English translation) * Amin al-Rayhani, Muluk al- Arab, aw Rihlah fi al-bilad al-Arabiah (in two volumes, 1924–25), Vol 2, part 6 on Kuwait. * Ansari, Mostafa -- The History of Khuzistan, 1878-1925, unpublished PhD. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1974 * *Khuzestan: The First Front in the War on Iran? by Zoltan Grossman ==External links== * Letters of Gertrude Bell, in two volumes |
Arnold Bogumil Ehrlich (15 January 1848 in Volodovka, Brest-Litovsk - November 1919 in New Rochelle, New York) was a scholar of bible and rabbinics whose work spanned the latter part of the 19th and the early 20th century. A formidable scholar, he is said to have possessed perfect recall, with an outstanding knowledge of Bible and Talmud, and to have spoken 39 languages. He is best known for his book Mikra Kiphshuto (The Bible according to its Literal Meaning) in three Hebrew volumes published from 1899–1901, in which he sought to bring the results of modern textual criticism of the Bible to a wider Hebrew audience, emphasising the Torah to be a document made by humans complete with scribal and copying errors, not a perfect work dictated to Moses at Sinai; and as a formative intellectual influence on the young Mordecai Kaplan. Ehrlich earned a living as a private tutor, and teaching at the Hebrew Preparatory School of the Temple Emanu-El Theological School of New York. However, he was never considered for a professorial post at Hebrew Union College, apparently because in his early twenties he had helped the German Lutheran theologian Franz Delitzsch revise his Hebrew translation of the New Testament, a work used to proselytize Jewish converts to Christianity. Ehrlich's exegetical work is an important contribution to modern biblical exegesis. Ehrlich's work was highly influential on the Jewish translation produced by the Jewish Publication Society in 1917 and its successor of 1962–82. == Life == Born Jewish in Volodovka, near Brest-Litovsk, now Belarus. At an early age he studied German in his village, and had read the Bible in the Moses Mendelssohn translation. Ehrlich was married at fourteen and had one son named Mark. At seventeen, Ehrlich came to the conclusion that he could no longer abide the stringencies of his environment and he sought association with the wider fields of knowledge he hoped to find in Germany. His wife did not agree with the move or his liberal views, and she and their son did not go with him to Germany. He then went on his own and he entered school there to learn arithmetic, geography, and other elementary school subjects alongside boys of ten. Such subjects were simple for a lad who started learning the German language at the age of five years. He also worked as a librarian in the Semitics department of the Berlin Royal Library. It was at this time in Germany that Ehrlich somehow came to the attention of Professor Franz Delitzsch, who engaged him as his amanuensis. They both worked in the missionary Institutum Judaicum and this association would turn into an evil spectre later in his life. At Delitzsch's insistence Ehrlich revised the Hebrew translation of the New Testament (10th Edition) which was to be utilized for proselytization among Jews. During this time he encountered the work of Julius Wellhausen, Kuehnen, and the whole school of Biblical criticism which fascinated him. This in turn made him accept the theory that the Bible was constructed of a patchwork quilt of documents, but his later work was a revolt against the destructiveness of the "higher criticism." The Hebrew language was bred into his bones, and it became his conviction that the Bible could be understood only as one devoted oneself to its language and to an understanding of the Hebrew idiom through its cognates. There are rumors that Ehrlich was baptized in Germany, but there is no proof or evidence of this. Had it been true, the officers at the Temple Emanu-El would never had considered him for a place as a teacher (not professor) in the Emanu-El Theological School of New York where he taught after he immigrated to Manhattan, New York from Hamburg, Germany in 1874. His Naturalization date is July 11, 1881, and he lists his occupation as "Teacher of Languages." Ehrlich wrote in fluent English and spoke it fluently and flawlessly, though with a slight accent. He was a close student of many languages, and was both a philologist and a student of the Hebrew Bible. He knew 39 tongues, which included all the Semitic languages, all the languages of Western Europe except Finnish, all the Slavic language dialects, as well as Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek. He explained the relationship that Israelite and Canaanite civilizations bear to that of the Greeks upon the basis of language similarities and idiomatic likeness. In his "leisure" he had written what was practically a Randglossen to both the Iliad and the Odyssey. He was a lover of the Greek classics and had a great comprehension of classic civilizations. He had a special love for Arabic. He enjoyed it as a language and he enjoyed its literature and its poetry. Many of those who taught Arabic in the Semitics departments of universities came to Ehrlich for instruction, and among them was Professor Richard J. H. Gottheil of Columbia University, son of Gustav Gottheil, who claimed that Ehrlich had admitted to changing his faith to Christianity in Germany and was remorseful for it. This declaration was never signed by Ehrlich, but only by witnesses "claiming" this event took place in the late 19th century. During his years in the United States, Jewish scholars and students sought him out, but Ehrlich surely paid a frightful price for that New Testament translation he did at a young age with Delitzsch. Many regard this translation as a beautiful piece of modern Hebrew composition, but it cost him and he was to pay for it throughout his life. He was sorely resentful of the fact that, despite general recognition of his status as a scholar, he had not been chosen Professor of Bible at the Hebrew Union College. He was never invited to teach in either of the major rabbinical seminaries and among the Orthodox he was disliked. No one wanted to appoint a man with a background of engaging in a New Testament translation, who would invite criticism from all conservative quarters. He also insisted upon "mister" with his pupils because no university had ever granted him a higher academic degree. He is the author of a biblical commentary called Mik'ra Kiph'shuto ("The Plain Meaning of the Bible"). It embodies his main point of view that the Bible itself is the best source for the knowledge of Hebrew as a language and for the ancient Hebraic ideas, even though the cross references of comparative passages or words might be separated in widely disparate ages. He felt that somehow original meanings persisted and that the cross references or parallel passages often shed light upon obscure sentences as well as upon mistakes in the original Bible text. Modern archaeology has opened new vistas through the centuries, but Ehrlich had no knowledge, in his time, of what the future would bring into this realm. He had a strong influence on the young Mordecai Kaplan. Ehrlich's strongest affection was for Louis Ginzberg of the Jewish Theological Seminary. He admired Dr. Ginzberg's thoroughness, his vast and comprehensive knowledge, and the originality of his mind. He also had a high regard for Professors Malter and Margolis of the Dropsie College. But Ehrlich had no doubts as to his own status, for he was convinced of his own superiority in his chosen area of research. Ehrlich was antisocial in his life in that he felt uncomfortable and uneasy in ordinary human relationships. But he was completely social in his outlook, in his passion for justice, in his desire for the self-realization of all people regardless of race, color or creed. He was totally removed from people and came alive only when he discussed his philological interests. He was an avid reader in all fields, particularly in philosophy, and maintained a steady correspondence with Hermann Cohen until his death one year before Ehrlich. As a matter of self- discipline, he required himself to read through Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason every year. Ehrlich's one diversion was to attend the movies of the early 20th century. He adored Westerns and historic presentations. The great scholar could watch these films and find complete "escape." He preferred this to spending time with people, whom he avoided. He was entranced by the new sociology, despite his personal social discomfort, and was intrigued by the new Freudian psychology emerging upon the scene in his latter years. Not long before he died, Richard M. Stern (who prepared for the rabbinate under him) recalls Ehrlich saying, if he could relive his years, he would like to give greater attention to psychology so as to understand why some human beings are driven perforce into defined areas of activity and why others are willing to remain "contented cows!!!" Ehrlich was sought after by many non-Jews who wanted to study under him. Two of his well-known Christian pupils were Dr. Charles Fagnani and Dr. Julius Bewer, both members of the Union Theological Seminary Faculty. He was especially interested in Bewer because he exhibited an unusual aptitude in reading and understanding rabbinic literature. Ehrlich was unhappy that Christian scholarship had not cultivated the area with greater assiduity. He felt he found the perfect Christian disciple who would devote himself to rabbinics, but this did not happen. Bewer chose the field of biblical criticism in the tradition of Wellhausen and his coterie. Ehrlich had no love for this group and thoroughly disliked the "Higher Anti-Semitism." A few years prior to 1917 he discovered that he had not been included in the committee appointed by the Jewish Publication Society and the Central Conference of American Rabbis to prepare a new translation of the Hebrew Bible. When the work was published in 1917, he was furious that the committee used his name as a consultant. Ehrlich was an occasional attendant at religious services and synagogues where he hoped to find preachers who could use the biblical text with the related midrashic or other rabbinic commentaries. He disliked the Union Prayer Book, primarily because he felt that its reform of the liturgy had not gone far enough. He felt that all the passages which belittled human dignity should be revised or eliminated. He believed that a modern Jewish prayer book should, of course, be rooted in traditional forms, but that prayers which involved a servile humility were unbecoming to modern man and should be rewritten. Many of the older generation rabbis studied under him at one time or another, either at Emanu-El or as private pupils. Among them were Samuel Schulman, Leon Harrison, Bernard Drachman, Stephen S. Wise, and George Alexander Kohut whose father was Alexander Kohut. Another of his mature students was Isaac S. Moses, rabbi of the Central Synagogue. Ehrlich was married twice. His son Mark, from his first wife, was born in Poland and arrived in Manhattan, New York in 1885 without his mother. His second wife, Pauline (October 13, 1858-?), of Austrian descent, gave birth to a daughter named Olga born 1881 in Manhattan, New York. He had four grandchildren. Mark had Rose (1891), Joseph (1897) and Helen (1902) Ehrlich in Manhattan. Olga married Dr. Julius Auerbach and had a son named Arnold (1912). Arnold M. Auerbach became a distinguished playwright, essayist, humorist, critic, and an American Emmy-Award winning screenwriter. Rose Ehrlich was an accomplished pianist who was written about in a lost book for her talent. According to the January 10, 1920 Nation News Archive: > The death of Arnold B. Ehrlich, which occurred in the city of New York a > short time ago, has deprived the world of Biblical scholarship of one of its > most brilliant exponents. Ehrlich was not officially connected with any > institution of learning; his name is little known outside of the narrow > circle of professional Bible students, and is possibly not sufficiently > known even among them. Yet, his life work, represented by eleven substantial > volumes dedicated to the elucidation of the Scriptures, merits the grateful > appreciation of all those to whom the Bible is an integral part of human > civilization.A Great Bible Scholar (The Nation, January 10, 1920) at > www.thenation.com Ehrlich's exegetical work is an important contribution to modern biblical exegesis. Ehrlich's work was highly influential on the Jewish translation produced by the Jewish Publication Society in 1917 and its successor of 1962–82. == Works == His best known works are, * Mik'ra Kiph'shuto (מקרא כפשוטו) [The Bible Literally]. Leipzig: 3 vols, 1899–1901; reprinted New York: Ktav, 1969. * Randglossen zur Hebräischen Bibel; textkritisches, sprachliches und sachliches [Notes on the Hebrew Bible]. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs. 7 vols, 1908–14; reprinted Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1968. . His most substantial work, which took six years to complete and which was funded by Jacob H. Schiff and Dr. Isaac Adler. He also prepared textbooks to introduce students to rabbinic literature and prepared an anthology of aggadic passages representative of material that students might later have to study at the Emanu-El Theological School that he taught at. His poetic German translation of the Psalms had wide acclaim in its day, but this volume is now out of print and may be found only in large university libraries. His scholarly work is written in German because, prior to World War I, German was regarded as the language of Jewish scholarship. Unpublished notebooks can be found at the New York library of the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion. These notebooks are the addenda to the Randglossen. ==References== ==Further reading== * American Jewish Archives; vol. xxiii; no. 1; April, 1971 * The teshuva of Arnold Ehrlich on Ehrlich's apostasy and return to his faith [url no longer supports images] * Judaism Faces the Twentieth Century on Mordecai Kaplan's relationship with Ehrlich. * "Ehrlich's Monumental Work on the Old Testament" review of Randglossen zur hebraischen Bibel, textkritisches, sprachliches und sachliches by Arnold B. Ehrlich. Review by Julius A. Bewer The American Journal of Theology, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 1916), pp. 274–275 * "Some Hitherto Unrecognized Meanings of the Verb Shub" by Robert Gordis Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 52, No. 2/3 (Jun. - Sep., 1933), pp. 153–162 "The starting point for our inquiry is the acute observation of that master of Biblical Hebrew, Arnold B. Ehrlich." * "Arnold B. Ehrlich: A Personal Recollection" by R M Stern, available on http://americanjewisharchives.org/journal/PDF/1971_23_01_00_stern.pdf == External links == * Mik'ra Kiph'shutah by Arnold Ehrlich (Shabbatei ben Yom Tov ibn Boded) is available here. Category:1848 births Category:1919 deaths Category:19th-century Polish rabbis Category:Talmudists Category:19th-century Jewish biblical scholars Category:Translators of the Bible into German Category:American people of German-Jewish descent Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent Category:People from New Rochelle, New York Category:Jewish translators of the Bible Category:19th-century translators Category:20th-century Jewish biblical scholars Category:Polish biblical scholars Category:American biblical scholars Category:American humanists Category:Jewish humanists Category:American male writers Category:American religious writers Category:Jewish religious writers Category:American translators Category:Polish translators Category:Jewish translators Category:Jewish American writers Category:Jewish philosophers Category:Jewish skeptics Category:American Hebraists Category:Polish Hebraists Category:American orientalists Category:Jewish orientalists Category:Polish orientalists Category:Bible commentators Category:Jewish theologians Category:Jewish linguists Category:Linguists from the United States Category:Linguists from Poland |
thumb|Military operators of the Su-25: This list is of all operators of the Sukhoi Su-25. == Current operators == thumb|Belarusian Air Force Su-25 thumb|Czechoslovak Air Force Sukhoi Su-25K at Royal International Air Tattoo 1992 thumb|Kazakhstan Air Force Su-25 thumb|Macedonian Air Force Sukhoi Su-25 thumb|Peruvian Air Force Su-25 thumb|Russian Air Force Su-25SM thumb|Sudanese Air Force Sukhoi Su-25s thumb|Turkmen Su-25 thumb|Ukrainian Su-25UB ; :* National Air Force of Angola. An agreement was reached at the beginning of 1988 between the Soviet Union and Angola that arranged for the delivery of a squadron of Su-25s. The Angolan export agreement comprised 12 single-seat Su-25Ks and two Su-25UBK trainers. Later, these aircraft were augmented by further deliveries comprising at least three two-seater aircraft.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 89–92. As of 2021, 12 aircraft were reportedly still operational. ; :* Armenian Air Force. Following the break-up of the Soviet Union, Armenia had no Su-25s in its inventory. In 1992-1993, six Su-25Ks and two Su-25UBKs were delivered clandestinely from Russia as military aid. A new Su-25K was also stolen from the Georgian Air Force on 15 November 1993 by Georgian Captain Sergey Zhitnikov and flown to Armenia. Armenia operated five Su-25s, nine Su-25Ks and one Su-25UBK as of January 2009."World Military Aircraft Inventory". Aerospace Source Book 2009. Aviation Week & Space Technology, 26 January 2009. According to a report by Russia-based think-tank, the Center for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies, Armenia shot down at least four of its own Su-25s during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war. As of 2021, a total of 13 aircraft were reportedly still operational. ; :* Azerbaijan Air Force. Like Armenia, Azerbaijan did not inherit any Su-25s after the collapse of the USSR, but a single aircraft was obtained in April 1992 when a pilot defected from the Russian Air Force base at Sital-Chai. Following the incident, Azerbaijan acquired at least five Su-25s through unofficial channels, and one more aircraft has been obtained as the result of yet another defection, this time from the Georgian Air Force. Other aircraft are believed to have been acquired later, as a 2001 inventory of Azerbaijani aircraft revealed that the Azerbaijan Air Force had three Su-25s in its inventory, after the reported loss of four aircraft in combat operations relating to the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region. As of 2021, 11 aircraft were reportedly operational. ; :* Belarus Air Force. After the break-up of the Soviet Union, Belarus was the second member state of the CIS, after Russia, to have a significant number of Su-25s. Seventy Su-25s and six Su-25UBs were reported to be operational and were mostly concentrated at Lida air base by 2004.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 93–96. As of 2021, 67 Su-25s were reportedly in use. In 2022, Russian president Vladimir Putin announced a plan to make Belarusian jets nuclear capable. ; :* Bulgarian Air Force. Bulgaria was the second Warsaw Pact country to obtain the Su-25, acquiring its first examples of both Su-25Ks and Su-25UBKs in 1985. The aircraft were intended to replace the obsolete Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17F which had been the backbone of the Bulgarian Air Force fighter-bomber fleet for many years. Twenty Su-25Ks and three Su-25UBKs were commissioned and were operational at Bezmer Air Base by 2004. As of 2021 only 14 are in active service. Eight of them were modernized in Belarus, and it is expected that all of them will be modernized at some point. In mid-2022 reports began appearing that some of Bulgaria's Sukhoi Su-25s had been purchased by other states that acted as intermediaries, and delivered to the Ukrainian Air Force. In a June 9, 2022, Facebook post, three aircraft were shown in Bulgarian markings, side numbers 002, 240, and 095. ; :* The Chadian Air Force took delivery of six aircraft (four Su-25s and two Su-25UBs) from Ukraine between 2008 and 2010. Four additional aircraft were delivered from Ukraine in 2013. ; :* Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 1999-2000, four factory-fresh Su-25s were delivered by Tbilisi Aircraft Manufacturing to the DR Congo. These aircraft were used in combat during the Second Congo War until 2003Tom Cooper, "Great Lakes Conflagration: The Second Congo War, 1998-2003," Helion, 2013, p44. and possibly afterwards. One aircraft crashed in December 2006 during a routine flight, while another crashed on 30 June 2007, during a Congolese independence day display. Reuters, 30 June 2007. Retrieved: 17 June 2008. Two additional aircraft were delivered from Ukraine in 2013. As of 2021, four aircraft were operational. In 2023, one aircraft was damaged in a missile attack. ; :* In 2005, four Su-25s including two Su-25UB combat trainers were delivered to the Equatorial Guinea Air Corps. They were still operational as of 2021. ; :* Ethiopian Air Force. A pair of Su-25Ts and two Su-25UB combat trainers were ordered by Ethiopia in 1999, and delivered in January 2000. All four were former Russian Air Force aircraft. They were overhauled before delivery, and received the designations Su-25TK and Su-25UBK respectively. These aircraft were used in combat during the Eritrean-Ethiopian War, and one was written off in an accident. After only one year in service, they were withdrawn and placed into storage. Around 2010, a decision was made to reactivate the three remaining aircraft, and they were shown in 2013 after being overhauled locally. ; :*Georgian Air Force. Georgia, home to Tbilisi Aircraft Manufacturing which produced scores of single-seat Su-25s during the Soviet era, was left with virtually no aircraft following the break-up of the Soviet Union. Only a small number of single-seat Su-25s were actually brought into the inventory of the newly formed Georgian Air Force (now army air force), these aircraft having been left in the factory at the time of Georgian independence. Georgia had nine Su-25s of different variants, with eight of them being "Scorpion"s (an upgraded variant of the Su-25 designed in collaboration with Israel) as of 2004.Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 97. The current Su-25 fleet is undergoing a refurbishment and modernisation process by Tbilisi Aircraft Manufacturing, and as of 2021 four Su-25s were completely restored and fitted with state-of-the-art electronics. That year, 10 aircraft were cited as operational. ; :* Gambian Army – operated one Su-25 as of 2008."World Military Aircraft Inventory", 2007 Aerospace Source Book. Aviation Week & Space Technology, 15 January 2007."Directory: World Air Forces". Flight International, 11–17 November 2008. ; :* Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps Air Force. On 21 January 1991, seven Iraqi Su-25s were flown to Iran in an effort to find a temporary safe haven from Operation Desert Storm attacks on major Iraqi airfields. These aircraft were considered by Iran to be a gift from its former adversary, and were seized by the Iranian military. However, as a result of a lack of spare parts, documentation, and pilot training, these aircraft were not flown by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force. Iran has added at least six new examples to its inventory and has since likely restored ex-Iraqi Su-25s to flight status as well.. Jane's Defence Weekly, 13 September 2006. Reports indicate that all of the IRGCAF aircraft have been sell to Iraq in July 2014, to increase the latter's CAS and COIN capabilities. ; :* Iraqi Air Force. During the course of the early phase of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraq approached the Soviet Union with a request to purchase a wide variety of military equipment. As a result, Iraq became the first non- Warsaw Pact country to obtain Su-25Ks and Su-25UBK combat trainers. It is believed that Iraq received a total of 73 examples, of which four were Su-25UBKs. In January 1998, the Iraqi Air Force still possessed 12 Su-25s, and at least three Su-25Ks were seen in a demonstration over Baghdad in December 2002. However, the remaining Su-25s were phased out immediately after the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. In 2014, the IQAF signed a deal with Russia and Belarus for the purchase of new examples, with the first five arriving on 28 June 2014. Reports indicate that a further seven were delivered from Iran on 1 July 2014, all of which were ex-Iraqi examples from the 1991 Gulf War. ; :* Kazakh Air Defense Forces – received 12 single-seat Su-25s and two Su-25UB trainers in December 1995 as compensatory payment for the return of the Tu-95MS strategic bombers which had been rapidly flown out of the republic at the time of the collapse of the USSR. The Kazakh Su-25s are located at Chimkent air base in the south of the country. 14 aircraft were reportedly still operational as of 2021. ; :* Niger Air Force – two Su-25s delivered from Ukraine in 2013, still operational as of 2021. ; :* North Korean Air Force – In the 1950s, the North Korean Air Force had accumulated experience operating the Su-25's piston- engined predecessor, the Ilyushin Il-10. In the period from the end of 1987 until 1989, the DPRK acquired a total of 32 single-seat Su-25Ks and four Su-25UBKs. The aircraft are based at Sunchon Airport (20 km from Pyongyang), which features heavily fortified natural hangars equipped with blast-proof doors capable of protecting the aircraft from conventional and nuclear explosions.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 100–102. ; :* Peruvian Air Force. Peru received 18 Su-25s in late 1998 from Belarus, which refurbished them prior to delivery. Their acquisition came at a time of tensions with neighboring Ecuador, in the aftermath of the 1995 Cenepa War. The shipment comprised 10 single-seat and eight dual-seat Su-25UB aircraft. The aircraft were all built just before the collapse of the Soviet Union and thus represented the final versions of the Soviet Su-25. It is believed that between 1998 and December 2005, at least 25 light aircraft transporting cocaine have been shot down by the Peruvian Su-25s. As of February 2013, 18 Su-25s were in service, with only four aircraft operational.Spain offers Eurofighters to Peru – Flightglobal.com, 4 February 2013 A project aiming to overhaul and return to service a total of six single-seat and four two-seat Su-25s is ongoing, with the first overhauled aircraft having been delivered in 2018. As of July 2022, the delivery of the fifth aircraft was expected in the near future. ; :* Russian Aerospace Forces – Russia's reduced fleet of Su-25s is operated by assault aviation (штурмовой авиационный, literally ground-attack aviation) regiments. The major variants used are the single-seat Su-25, the twin-seat Su-25UB, and the Su-25BM target-towing version. In addition, the Russian Air Force received a small number of the Su-25T anti-tank variant, which has been tested under combat conditions in Chechnya. Overall, 286 Su-25s were in service with the Russian Air Force as of 2008."Russian Military Analysis on Su-25". warfare.ru. Retrieved: 18 June 2007. A modernisation programme of single-seat Su-25s to the Su-25SM variant is underway. The first modernised Su-25SM was delivered in August 2001."Force report: Russian Air Force." Air Forces Monthly, July 2007, pp. 78–86. By March 2013, over 60 Su-25SMs were scheduled to be delivered. The modernisation programme is to conclude in 2020 with over 80 examples upgraded. As of 2021, 192 Su-25s were operational with the Russian Aerospace Forces, and four with the Naval Aviation. ::*18th Guards Assault Aviation Regiment, 11th Air and Air Defence Forces Army, Eastern Military District ::*368th Assault Aviation Regiment, 4th Air and Air Defence Forces Army, Southern Military District ::*899th Assault Aviation Regiment, 16th Air Army, Moscow Military District (disbanded 2009) ::*960th Assault Aviation Regiment, Primorsko-Akhtarsk, 4th Air and Air Defence Forces Army, Southern Military District ::*999th Aviation Base, Kant, Kyrgyzstan :* Russian Naval Aviation – the Russian Navy operates an adapted version of the Su-25UB two-seat trainer, the Su-25UTG. This is a carrier-capable version used to carry out deck-landing training aboard the Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov. :* Wagner PMC ; :* Sudanese Air Force – 14 former Belarusian Air Force Su-25s delivered in 2008-2009, with 10 more acquired in 2013 from the same source. ; :* Turkmen Air Force – Following the downfall of the Soviet Union, the newly independent Republic of Turkmenistan was given 46 Su-25s which had been disassembled for storage in Turkmenistan at that time. In accordance with an agreement between Georgia and Turkmenistan in 1999, the Tbilisi Aircraft Manufacturing corporation refurbished 45 of these aircraft for use by the Turkmenistan Air Force as payment for the delivery of natural gas. The refurbished aircraft were relocated at Ak-Tepe air base, and a total of 18 operational Su-25s were known to be based there by 2004. 20 aircraft were operational as of 2021. ; :* Ukrainian Air Force. Ukraine obtained 92 Su-25s of different variants following the country's independence in the wake of the break-up of the USSR. As of 2004, the Ukrainian Air Force operated approximately 60 Su-25s, Su-25UBs and Su-25UTGs, with the 299th Independent Assault Regiment (299 OShAP) based at Kulbakino Air Base, Mykolaiv Oblast, and the 456th Assault Regiment (456 ShAP) at Chortkiv Air Base. Up to 30 Su-25s were reportedly stored at the 4070th Reserve Base. Evidently, the three Su-25s sold to Macedonia came from this reserve pool. Ukraine's two carrier-capable Su-25UTGs were retired in 2007: one was given to Russia in exchange for a standard Su-25UB, while the other was sold to China. Some of the Ukrainian Air Force's aircraft have been modernized: the modernized single-seaters are designated Su-25M1, and the two-seat trainers Su-25UBM1. The first three upgraded aircraft were delivered in 2010. At the outbreak of the war in Donbas, the Ukrainian Air Force had a fleet of around 70 Su-25s, but only about 15 were considered flyable. During the first two months of the conflict, between six and ten more Su-25s were made airworthy. In 2022,14 Su-25 have reportedly been received indirectly from a third party with the aircraft originating from the Bulgarian Air force. As of 2022, 31 aircraft were operational. ::*299th Tactical Aviation Brigade :* Ukrainian Naval Aviation - Former operator. ; :* Until 1990, a Soviet Air Force pilot training centre equipped with around 20 Su-25, Su-25UB, and Su-25BM variants was located at Chirchik air base in Uzbekistan. In 1991, a small number of Su-25s were also located at Dzhizak air base, but after 1991, all Su-25s in Uzbekistan were concentrated at Chirchik, operated by the 59th Fighter-Bomber Aviation Regiment (59 APIB) of the Soviet Air Force. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, all the Su-25s on the territory of the now-independent republic became the property of the new government. 20 aircraft were operational as of 2021. ==Possible operators== ; :* Malian Air Force – at least one Su-25 delivered by Russia in August 2022.A Malian SU-25 crashed on 4 October 2022. == Former operators == thumb|right|Czech Republic Su-24K in 1994. ; :* Czechoslovakian Air Force. Passed aircraft on to successor states, in the ratio of 2:1 in favour of the Czech Republic. ; :* Czech Air Force. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic inherited twenty-four Su-25Ks and one Su-25UBK. In December 2000, the Czech Su-25s were retired from service."Czech Su-25s.", Scramble (magazine). Retrieved 26 July 2011. 12 of the withdrawn Su-25s were sold to Georgia in the early 2000s. ; :* Air Force of Ivory Coast. Four aircraft, including two trainers, were purchased from Belarus in 2004. In November, nine French soldiers were killed and 23 wounded when two Ivorian Su-25s bombed French positions in Bouaké."Nine French soldiers killed in Cote d'Ivoire." People's Daily Online, 8 November 2004. As a result, French soldiers destroyed the Su-25s on the ground at Yamoussoukro air base."France attacks Ivorian airbase." BBC News, 6 November 2004. ; :* Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps Air Force. On 21 January 1991, seven Iraqi Su-25s were flown to Iran in an effort to find a temporary safe haven from Operation Desert Storm attacks on major Iraqi airfields. These aircraft were considered by Iran to be a gift from its former adversary, and were seized by the Iranian military. However, as a result of a lack of spare parts, documentation, and pilot training, these aircraft were not flown by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force. Iran has added at least six new examples to its inventory and has since likely restored ex-Iraqi Su-25s to flight status as well.. Jane's Defence Weekly, 13 September 2006. Reports indicate that all of the IRGCAF aircraft have been sold to Iraq in July 2014, to increase the latter's for CAS and COIN for fighting against ISIS capabilities. ; :* North Macedonia Air Brigade. The Republic of Macedonia purchased three single-seat Su-25s and one Su-25UB following incursions and attacks by Albanian insurgents. The aircraft were supplied by Ukraine after having been withdrawn from Ukrainian Air Force service.Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 99. The aircraft were retired in 2004. In 2023 all four Su-25s returned to Ukraine after they were donated by North Macedonia. ; :* The Slovak Air Force received 12 Su-25Ks and one Su-25UBK following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The aircraft were based at the Slovak 33rd Air Base in Malacky-Kuchyna. 10 Su-25Ks and one Su-25UBK were sold to Armenia in 2004. ; :* Soviet Air Force. Passed aircraft on to successor states. == Evaluation-only operators == ; :* Bought one carrier-capable Su-25UTG from Ukraine in 2007. == Unrecognised operators == \- 1 plane in Luhansk state aviation museum * Separatist forces of the war in Donbass. == References == ===Notes=== ===Bibliography=== *Gordon, Yefim and Alan Dawes. Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot: Close Air Support Aircraft. London: Airlife, 2004. . * * * Category:Sukhoi Su-25 |
The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (also known as the NMDA receptor or NMDAR), is a glutamate receptor and ion channel found in neurons. The NMDA receptor is one of three types of ionotropic glutamate receptors, the other two being AMPA and kainate receptors. Depending on its subunit composition, its ligands are glutamate and glycine (or D-serine). However, the binding of the ligands is typically not sufficient to open the channel as it may be blocked by Mg2+ ions which are only removed when the neuron is sufficiently depolarized. Thus, the channel acts as a “coincidence detector” and only once both of these conditions are met, the channel opens and it allows positively charged ions (cations) to flow through the cell membrane. The NMDA receptor is thought to be very important for controlling synaptic plasticity and mediating learning and memory functions. The NMDA receptor is ionotropic, meaning it is a protein which allows the passage of ions through the cell membrane. The NMDA receptor is so named because the agonist molecule N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) binds selectively to it, and not to other glutamate receptors. Activation of NMDA receptors results in the opening of the ion channel that is nonselective to cations, with a combined reversal potential near 0 mV. While the opening and closing of the ion channel is primarily gated by ligand binding, the current flow through the ion channel is voltage-dependent. Specifically located on the receptor, extracellular magnesium (Mg2+) and zinc (Zn2+) ions can bind and prevent other cations from flowing through the open ion channel. A voltage- dependent flow of sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+), and potassium (K+) ions into and out of the cell is made possible by the depolarization of the cell, which displaces and repels the Mg2+ and Zn2+ ions from the pore. Ca2+ flux through NMDA receptors in particular is thought to be critical in synaptic plasticity, a cellular mechanism for learning and memory, due to proteins which bind to and are activated by Ca2+ ions. Activity of the NMDA receptor is blocked by many psychoactive drugs such as phencyclidine (PCP), alcohol (ethanol) and dextromethorphan (DXM). The anaesthetic and analgesic effects of the drugs ketamine and nitrous oxide are also partially due to their effects at blocking NMDA receptor activity. In contrast, overactivation of NMDAR by NMDA agonists increases the cytosolic concentrations of calcium and zinc, which significantly contributes to neural death, an effect known to be prevented by cannabinoids, mediated by activation of the CB1 receptor, which leads HINT1 protein to counteract the toxic effects of NMDAR-mediated NO production and zinc release. As well as preventing methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity via inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) expression and astrocyte activation, is seen to reduce methamphetamine induced brain damage through a CB1-dependent and independent mechanisms, respectively, and inhibition of methamphetamine induced astrogliosis is likely to occur through a CB2 receptor dependent mechanism for THC. Since 1989, memantine has been recognized to be an uncompetitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor, entering the channel of the receptor after it has been activated and thereby blocking the flow of ions. Overactivation of the receptor, causing excessive influx of Ca2+ can lead to excitotoxicity which is implied to be involved in some neurodegenerative disorders. Blocking of NMDA receptors could therefore, in theory, be useful in treating such diseases. However, hypofunction of NMDA receptors (due to glutathione deficiency or other causes) may be involved in impairment of synaptic plasticity and could have other negative repercussions. The main problem with the utilization of NMDA receptor antagonists for neuroprotection is that the physiological actions of the NMDA receptor are essential for normal neuronal function. To be clinically useful NMDA antagonists need to block excessive activation without interfering with normal functions. Memantine has this property. == History == The discovery of NMDA receptors was followed by the synthesis and study of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) in the 1960s by Jeff Watkins and colleagues. In the early 1980s, NMDA receptors were shown to be involved in several central synaptic pathways. Receptor subunit selectivity was discovered in the early 1990s, which led to recognition of a new class of compounds that selectively inhibit the NR2B subunit. These findings led to vigorous campaign in the pharmaceutical industry. From this it was considered that NMDA receptors were associated with a variety of neurological disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, Huntington's and other CNS disorders. In 2002, it was discovered by Hilmar Bading and co-workers that the cellular consequences of NMDA receptor stimulation depend on the receptor's location on the neuronal cell surface. Synaptic NMDA receptors promote gene expression, plasticity-related events, and acquired neuroprotection. Extrasynaptic NMDA receptors promote death signaling; they cause transcriptional shut-off, mitochondrial dysfunction, and structural disintegration. This pathological triad of extrasynaptic NMDA receptor signaling represents a common conversion point in the etiology of several acute and chronic neurodegenerative conditions. The molecular basis for toxic extrasynaptic NMDA receptor signaling was uncovered by Hilmar Bading and co-workers in 2020. Extrasynaptic NMDA receptors form a death signaling complex with TRPM4. NMDAR/TRPM4 interaction interface inhibitors (also known as interface inhibitors) disrupt the NMDAR/TRPM4 complex and detoxify extrasynaptic NMDA receptors. A fortuitous finding was made in 1968 when a woman was taking amantadine as flu medicine and experienced remarkable remission of her Parkinson's symptoms. This finding, reported by Scawab et al., was the beginning of medicinal chemistry of adamantane derivatives in the context of diseases affecting the CNS. Before this finding, memantine, another adamantane derivative, had been synthesized by Eli Lilly and Company in 1963. The purpose was to develop a hypoglycemic drug, but it showed no such efficacy. It was not until 1972 that a possible therapeutic importance of memantine for treating neurodegenerative disorders was discovered. From 1989 memantine has been recognized to be an uncompetitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. == Structure == right|thumb|Cartoon representation the human NMDA receptor. Each subunit is individually rainbow colored. Functional NMDA receptors are heterotetramers composed of two GluN1 and typically two GluN2 subunits. There is one GluN1, four GluN2, and two GluN3 subunit encoding genes, and each gene may produce more than one splice variant. * GluN1 – GRIN1 * GluN2 ** GluN2A – GRIN2A ** GluN2B – GRIN2B ** GluN2C – GRIN2C ** GluN2D – GRIN2D * GluN3 ** GluN3A – GRIN3A ** GluN3B – GRIN3B == Gating == thumb|400px|Figure 1: NR1/NR2 NMDA receptor The NMDA receptor is a glutamate and ion channel protein receptor that is activated when glycine and glutamate bind to it. The receptor is a highly complex and dynamic heteromeric protein that interacts with a multitude of intracellular proteins via three distinct subunits, namely GluN1, GluN2, and GluN3. The GluN1 subunit, which is encoded by the GRIN1 gene, exhibits eight distinct isoforms owing to alternative splicing. On the other hand, the GluN2 subunit, of which there are four different types (A-D), as well as the GluN3 subunit, of which there are two types (A and B), are each encoded by six separate genes. This intricate molecular structure and genetic diversity enable the receptor to carry out a wide range of physiological functions within the nervous system. All the subunits share a common membrane topology that is dominated by a large extracellular N-terminus, a membrane region comprising three transmembrane segments, a re-entrant pore loop, an extracellular loop between the transmembrane segments that are structurally not well known, and an intracellular C-terminus, which are different in size depending on the subunit and provide multiple sites of interaction with many intracellular proteins. Figure 1 shows a basic structure of GluN1/GluN2 subunits that forms the binding site for memantine, Mg2+ and ketamine. thumb|270px|Figure 2: Transmembrane region of NR1 (left) and NR2B (right) subunits of NMDA receptor.|left Mg2+ blocks the NMDA receptor channel in a voltage-dependent manner. The channels are also highly permeable to Ca2+. Activation of the receptor depends on glutamate binding, D-serine or glycine binding at its GluN1-linked binding site and AMPA receptor-mediated depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, which relieves the voltage-dependent channel block by Mg2+. Activation and opening of the receptor channel thus allows the flow of K+, Na+ and Ca2+ ions, and the influx of Ca2+ triggers intracellular signaling pathways.Maher, T.J. (2013). Anesthetic agents: General and local anesthetics. In: T.L. Lemke & D.A. Williams (editors). Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry. (Chapter 16). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Allosteric receptor binding sites for zinc, proteins and the polyamines spermidine and spermine are also modulators for the NMDA receptor channels. The GluN2B subunit has been involved in modulating activity such as learning, memory, processing and feeding behaviors, as well as being implicated in number of human derangements. The basic structure and functions associated with the NMDA receptor can be attributed to the GluN2B subunit. For example, the glutamate binding site and the control of the Mg2+ block are formed by the GluN2B subunit. The high affinity sites for glycine antagonist are also exclusively displayed by the GluN1/GluN2B receptor. GluN1/GluN2B transmembrane segments are considered to be the part of the receptor that forms the binding pockets for uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists, but the transmembrane segments structures are not fully known as stated above. It is claimed that three binding sites within the receptor, A644 on the GluNB subunit and A645 and N616 on the GluN1 subunit, are important for binding of memantine and related compounds as seen in figure 2. The NMDA receptor forms a heterotetramer between two GluN1 and two GluN2 subunits (the subunits were previously denoted as GluN1 and GluN2), two obligatory GluN1 subunits and two regionally localized GluN2 subunits. A related gene family of GluN3 A and B subunits have an inhibitory effect on receptor activity. Multiple receptor isoforms with distinct brain distributions and functional properties arise by selective splicing of the GluN1 transcripts and differential expression of the GluN2 subunits. Each receptor subunit has modular design and each structural module, also represents a functional unit: * The extracellular domain contains two globular structures: a modulatory domain and a ligand-binding domain. GluN1 subunits bind the co-agonist glycine and GluN2 subunits bind the neurotransmitter glutamate. * The agonist-binding module links to a membrane domain, which consists of three transmembrane segments and a re-entrant loop reminiscent of the selectivity filter of potassium channels. * The membrane domain contributes residues to the channel pore and is responsible for the receptor's high-unitary conductance, high-calcium permeability, and voltage- dependent magnesium block. * Each subunit has an extensive cytoplasmic domain, which contain residues that can be directly modified by a series of protein kinases and protein phosphatases, as well as residues that interact with a large number of structural, adaptor, and scaffolding proteins. The glycine- binding modules of the GluN1 and GluN3 subunits and the glutamate-binding module of the GluN2A subunit have been expressed as soluble proteins, and their three-dimensional structure has been solved at atomic resolution by x-ray crystallography. This has revealed a common fold with amino acid-binding bacterial proteins and with the glutamate-binding module of AMPA-receptors and kainate-receptors. == Mechanism of action == NMDA receptors are a crucial part of the development of the central nervous system. The processes of learning, memory, and neuroplasticity rely on the mechanism of NMDA receptors. NMDA receptors are glutamate-gated cation channels that allow for an increase of calcium permeability. Channel activation of NMDA receptors is a result of the binding of two co agonists, glycine and glutamate. Overactivation of NMDA receptors, causing excessive influx of Ca2+ can lead to excitotoxicity. Excitotoxicity is implied to be involved in some neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. Blocking of NMDA receptors could therefore, in theory, be useful in treating such diseases. It is, however, important to preserve physiological NMDA receptor activity while trying to block its excessive, excitotoxic activity. This can possibly be achieved by uncompetitive antagonists, blocking the receptors ion channel when excessively open. Uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists, or channel blockers, enter the channel of the NMDA receptor after it has been activated and thereby block the flow of ions. MK-801, ketamine, amantadine and memantine are examples of such antagonists, see figure 1. The off-rate of an antagonist from the receptors channel is an important factor as too slow off-rate can interfere with normal function of the receptor and too fast off-rate may give ineffective blockade of an excessively open receptor. Memantine is an example of an uncompetitive channel blocker of the NMDA receptor, with a relatively rapid off-rate and low affinity. At physiological pH its amine group is positively charged and its receptor antagonism is voltage-dependent. It thereby mimics the physiological function of Mg2+ as channel blocker. Memantine only blocks NMDA receptor associated channels during prolonged activation of the receptor, as it occurs under excitotoxic conditions, by replacing magnesium at the binding site. During normal receptor activity the channels only stay open for several milliseconds and under those circumstances memantine is unable to bind within the channels and therefore doesn't interfere with normal synaptic activity. ==Variants== ===GluN1=== There are eight variants of the GluN1 subunit produced by alternative splicing of GRIN1: * GluN1-1a, GluN1-1b; GluN1-1a is the most abundantly expressed form. * GluN1-2a, GluN1-2b; * GluN1-3a, GluN1-3b; * GluN1-4a, GluN1-4b; ===GluN2=== thumb|NR2 subunit in vertebrates (left) and invertebrates (right). Ryan et al., 2008 While a single GluN2 subunit is found in invertebrate organisms, four distinct isoforms of the GluN2 subunit are expressed in vertebrates and are referred to with the nomenclature GluN2A through GluN2D (encoded by GRIN2A, GRIN2B, GRIN2C, GRIN2D). Strong evidence shows that the genes encoding the GluN2 subunits in vertebrates have undergone at least two rounds of gene duplication. They contain the binding-site for glutamate. More importantly, each GluN2 subunit has a different intracellular C-terminal domain that can interact with different sets of signalling molecules. Unlike GluN1 subunits, GluN2 subunits are expressed differentially across various cell types and developmental timepoints and control the electrophysiological properties of the NMDA receptor. In classic circuits, GluN2B is mainly present in immature neurons and in extrasynaptic locations such as growth cones, and contains the binding-site for the selective inhibitor ifenprodil. However, in pyramidal cell synapses in the newly evolved primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, GluN2B are exclusively within the postsynaptic density, and mediate higher cognitive operations such as working memory. This is consistent with the expansion in GluN2B actions and expression across the cortical hierarchy in monkeys and humans and across primate cortex evolution. ===GluN2B to GluN2A switch=== thumb|The timecourse of GluN2B-GluN2A switch in human cerebellum. Bar-Shira et al., 2015 While GluN2B is predominant in the early postnatal brain, the number of GluN2A subunits increases during early development; eventually, GluN2A subunits become more numerous than GluN2B. This is called the GluN2B-GluN2A developmental switch, and is notable because of the different kinetics each GluN2 subunit contributes to receptor function. For instance, greater ratios of the GluN2B subunit leads to NMDA receptors which remain open longer compared to those with more GluN2A. This may in part account for greater memory abilities in the immediate postnatal period compared to late in life, which is the principle behind genetically altered 'doogie mice'. The detailed time course of this switch in the human cerebellum has been estimated using expression microarray and RNA seq and is shown in the figure on the right. There are three hypothetical models to describe this switch mechanism: * Increase in synaptic GluN2A along with decrease in GluN2B * Extrasynaptic displacement of GluN2B away from the synapse with increase in GluN2A * Increase of GluN2A diluting the number of GluN2B without the decrease of the latter. The GluN2B and GluN2A subunits also have differential roles in mediating excitotoxic neuronal death. The developmental switch in subunit composition is thought to explain the developmental changes in NMDA neurotoxicity. Homozygous disruption of the gene for GluN2B in mice causes perinatal lethality, whereas disruption of the GluN2A gene produces viable mice, although with impaired hippocampal plasticity. One study suggests that reelin may play a role in the NMDA receptor maturation by increasing the GluN2B subunit mobility. ===GluN2B to GluN2C switch=== Granule cell precursors (GCPs) of the cerebellum, after undergoing symmetric cell division in the external granule-cell layer (EGL), migrate into the internal granule-cell layer (IGL) where they down-regulate GluN2B and activate GluN2C, a process that is independent of neuregulin beta signaling through ErbB2 and ErbB4 receptors. ==Role in excitotoxicity== NMDA receptors have been implicated by a number of studies to be strongly involved with excitotoxicity. Because NMDA receptors play an important role in the health and function of neurons, there has been much discussion on how these receptors can affect both cell survival and cell death. Recent evidence supports the hypothesis that overstimulation of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors has more to do with excitotoxicity than stimulation of their synaptic counterparts. In addition, while stimulation of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors appear to contribute to cell death, there is evidence to suggest that stimulation of synaptic NMDA receptors contributes to the health and longevity of the cell. There is ample evidence to support the dual nature of NMDA receptors based on location, and the hypothesis explaining the two differing mechanisms is known as the "localization hypothesis". ===Differing cascade pathways=== In order to support the localization hypothesis, it would be necessary to show differing cellular signaling pathways are activated by NMDA receptors based on its location within the cell membrane. Experiments have been designed to stimulate either synaptic or non- synaptic NMDA receptors exclusively. These types of experiments have shown that different pathways are being activated or regulated depending on the location of the signal origin. Many of these pathways use the same protein signals, but are regulated oppositely by NMDARs depending on its location. For example, synaptic NMDA excitation caused a decrease in the intracellular concentration of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK). Extrasynaptic stimulation NMDARs regulated p38MAPK in the opposite fashion, causing an increase in intracellular concentration. Experiments of this type have since been repeated with the results indicating these differences stretch across many pathways linked to cell survival and excitotoxicity. Two specific proteins have been identified as a major pathway responsible for these different cellular responses ERK1/2, and Jacob. ERK1/2 is responsible for phosphorylation of Jacob when excited by synaptic NMDARs. This information is then transported to the nucleus. Phosphorylation of Jacob does not take place with extrasynaptic NMDA stimulation. This allows the transcription factors in the nucleus to respond differently based in the phosphorylation state of Jacob. ===Neural plasticity=== NMDA receptors (NMDARs) critically influence the induction of synaptic plasticity. NMDARs trigger both long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) via fast synaptic transmission. Experimental data suggest that extrasynaptic NMDA receptors inhibit LTP while producing LTD. Inhibition of LTP can be prevented with the introduction of a NMDA antagonist. A theta burst stimulation that usually induces LTP with synaptic NMDARs, when applied selectively to extrasynaptic NMDARs produces a LTD. Experimentation also indicates that extrasynaptic activity is not required for the formation of LTP. In addition, both synaptic and extrasynaptic activity are involved in expressing a full LTD. ===Role of differing subunits=== Another factor that seems to affect NMDAR induced toxicity is the observed variation in subunit makeup. NMDA receptors are heterotetramers with two GluN1 subunits and two variable subunits. Two of these variable subunits, GluN2A and GluN2B, have been shown to preferentially lead to cell survival and cell death cascades respectively. Although both subunits are found in synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDARs there is some evidence to suggest that the GluN2B subunit occurs more frequently in extrasynaptic receptors. This observation could help explain the dualistic role that NMDA receptors play in excitotoxicity. Despite the compelling evidence and the relative simplicity of these two theories working in tandem, there is still disagreement about the significance of these claims. Some problems in proving these theories arise with the difficulty of using pharmacological means to determine the subtypes of specific NMDARs. In addition, the theory of subunit variation does not explain how this effect might predominate, as it is widely held that the most common tetramer, made from two GluN1 subunits and one of each subunit GluN2A and GluN2B, makes up a high percentage of the NMDARs. ===Excitotoxicity in a clinical setting=== Excitotoxicity has been thought to play a role in the degenerative properties of neurodegenerative conditions since the late 1950s. NMDA receptors seem to play an important role in many of these degenerative diseases affecting the brain. Most notably, excitotoxic events involving NMDA receptors have been linked to Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease, as well as with other medical conditions such as strokes and epilepsy. Treating these conditions with one of the many known NMDA receptor antagonists, however, leads to a variety of unwanted side effects, some of which can be severe. These side effects are, in part, observed because the NMDA receptors do not just signal for cell death but also play an important role in its vitality. Treatment for these conditions might be found in blocking NMDA receptors not found at the synapse. One class of excitotoxicity in disease includes gain-of-function mutations in GRIN2B and GRIN1 associated with cortical malformations, such as polymicrogyria. ==Ligands== ===Agonists=== Activation of NMDA receptors requires binding of glutamate or aspartate (aspartate does not stimulate the receptors as strongly). In addition, NMDARs also require the binding of the co-agonist glycine for the efficient opening of the ion channel, which is a part of this receptor. D-Serine has also been found to co-agonize the NMDA receptor with even greater potency than glycine. It is produced by serine racemase, and is enriched in the same areas as NMDA receptors. Removal of D-serine can block NMDA-mediated excitatory neurotransmission in many areas. Recently, it has been shown that D-serine can be released both by neurons and astrocytes to regulate NMDA receptors. NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated currents are directly related to membrane depolarization. NMDA agonists therefore exhibit fast Mg2+ unbinding kinetics, increasing channel open probability with depolarization. This property is fundamental to the role of the NMDA receptor in memory and learning, and it has been suggested that this channel is a biochemical substrate of Hebbian learning, where it can act as a coincidence detector for membrane depolarization and synaptic transmission. ====Examples==== Some known NMDA receptor agonists include: * Amino acids and amino acid derivatives ** Aspartic acid (aspartate) (D-aspartic acid, L-aspartic acid) – endogenous glutamate site agonist. The word N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) is partially derived from D-Aspartate. ** Glutamic acid (glutamate) – endogenous glutamate site agonist *** Tetrazolylglycine – synthetic glutamate site agonist *** Homocysteic acid – endogenous glutamate site agonist *** Ibotenic acid – naturally occurring glutamate site agonist found in Amanita muscaria *** Quinolinic acid (quinolinate) – endogenous glutamate site agonist ** Glycine – endogenous glycine site agonist *** Alanine (D-alanine, L-alanine) – endogenous glycine site agonist *** Milacemide – synthetic glycine site agonist; prodrug of glycine *** Sarcosine (monomethylglycine) – endogenous glycine site agonist *** Serine (D-serine, L-serine) – endogenous glycine site agonist * Positive allosteric modulators ** Cerebrosterol – endogenous weak positive allosteric modulator ** Cholesterol – endogenous weak positive allosteric modulator ** Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) – endogenous weak positive allosteric modulator ** Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) – endogenous weak positive allosteric modulator ** Nebostinel (neboglamine) – synthetic positive allosteric modulator of the glycine site ** Pregnenolone sulfate – endogenous weak positive allosteric modulator * Polyamines ** Spermidine – endogenous polyamine site agonist ** Spermine – endogenous polyamine site agonist ==== Neramexane ==== thumb|right|Figure 6: Chemical structure of neramexane, second generation memantine derivative. An example of memantine derivative is neramexane which was discovered by studying number of aminoalkyl cyclohexanes, with memantine as the template, as NMDA receptor antagonists. Neramexane binds to the same site as memantine within the NMDA receptor associated channel and with comparable affinity. It does also show very similar bioavailability and blocking kinetics in vivo as memantine. Neramexane went to clinical trials for four indications, including Alzheimer's disease. ===Partial agonists=== N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA), which the NMDA receptor was named after, is a partial agonist of the active or glutamate recognition site. 3,5-Dibromo-L-phenylalanine, a naturally occurring halogenated derivative of L-phenylalanine, is a weak partial NMDA receptor agonist acting on the glycine site. 3,5-Dibromo-L-phenylalanine has been proposed a novel therapeutic drug candidate for treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders and diseases such as schizophrenia, and neurological disorders such as ischemic stroke and epileptic seizures. Other partial agonists of the NMDA receptor acting on novel sites such as rapastinel (GLYX-13) and apimostinel (NRX-1074) are now viewed for the development of new drugs with antidepressant and analgesic effects without obvious psychotomimetic activities.J. Moskal, D. Leander, R. Burch (2010). Unlocking the Therapeutic Potential of the NMDA Receptor. Drug Discovery & Development News. Retrieved 19 December 2013. ====Examples==== * Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic acid (ACC) – synthetic glycine site partial agonist * Cycloserine (D-cycloserine) – naturally occurring glycine site partial agonist found in Streptomyces orchidaceus * HA-966 – synthetic glycine site weak partial agonist * Homoquinolinic acid – synthetic glutamate site partial agonist * N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) – synthetic glutamate site partial agonist Positive allosteric modulators include: * Zelquistinel (AGN-241751) - synthetic novel site partial agonist * Apimostinel (NRX-1074) – synthetic novel site partial agonist * Rapastinel (GLYX-13) – synthetic novel site partial agonist ===Antagonists=== Antagonists of the NMDA receptor are used as anesthetics for animals and sometimes humans, and are often used as recreational drugs due to their hallucinogenic properties, in addition to their unique effects at elevated dosages such as dissociation. When certain NMDA receptor antagonists are given to rodents in large doses, they can cause a form of brain damage called Olney's lesions. NMDA receptor antagonists that have been shown to induce Olney's lesions include ketamine, phencyclidine, and dextrorphan (a metabolite of dextromethorphan), as well as some NMDA receptor antagonists used only in research environments. So far, the published research on Olney's lesions is inconclusive in its occurrence upon human or monkey brain tissues with respect to an increase in the presence of NMDA receptor antagonists. Most NMDAR antagonists are uncompetitive or noncompetitive blockers of the channel pore or are antagonists of the glycine co-regulatory site rather than antagonists of the active/glutamate site. ====Examples==== Common agents in which NMDA receptor antagonism is the primary or a major mechanism of action: * 4-Chlorokynurenine (AV-101) – glycine site antagonist; prodrug of 7-chlorokynurenic acid * 7-Chlorokynurenic acid – glycine site antagonist * Agmatine – endogenous polyamine site antagonist * Argiotoxin-636 – naturally occurring dizocilpine or related site antagonist found in Argiope venom * AP5 – glutamate site antagonist * AP7 – glutamate site antagonist * CGP-37849 – glutamate site antagonist * Delucemine (NPS-1506) – dizocilpine or related site antagonist; derived from argiotoxin-636 * Dextromethorphan (DXM) – dizocilpine site antagonist; prodrug of dextrorphan * Dextrorphan (DXO) – dizocilpine site antagonist * Dexanabinol – dizocilpine-related site antagonist * Diethyl ether – unknown site antagonist * Diphenidine – dizocilpine site antagonist * Dizocilpine (MK-801) – dizocilpine site antagonist * Eliprodil – ifenprodil site antagonist * Esketamine – dizocilpine site antagonist * Hodgkinsine – undefined site antagonist * Ifenprodil – ifenprodil site antagonist * Kaitocephalin – naturally occurring glutamate site antagonist found in Eupenicillium shearii * Ketamine – dizocilpine site antagonist * Kynurenic acid – endogenous glycine site antagonist * Lanicemine – low-trapping dizocilpine site antagonist * LY-235959 – glutamate site antagonist * Memantine – low-trapping dizocilpine site antagonist * Methoxetamine – dizocilpine site antagonist * Midafotel – glutamate site antagonist * Nitrous oxide (N2O) – undefined site antagonist * PEAQX – glutamate site antagonist * Perzinfotel – glutamate site antagonist * Phencyclidine (PCP) – dizocilpine site antagonist * Phenylalanine - a naturally occurring amino acid, glycine site antagonist * Psychotridine – undefined site antagonist * Selfotel – glutamate site antagonist * Tiletamine – dizocilpine site antagonist * Traxoprodil – ifenprodil site antagonist * Xenon – unknown site antagonist Some common agents in which weak NMDA receptor antagonism is a secondary or additional action include: * Amantadine – an antiviral and antiparkinsonian drug; low-trapping dizocilpine site antagonist * Atomoxetine – a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor used to treat * Dextropropoxyphene – an opioid analgesic * Ethanol (alcohol) – a euphoriant, sedative, and anxiolytic used recreationally; unknown site antagonist * Guaifenesin – an expectorant * Huperzine A – a naturally occurring acetylcholinesterase inhibitor and potential antidementia agent * Ibogaine – a naturally occurring hallucinogen and antiaddictive agent * Ketobemidone – an opioid analgesic * Methadone – an opioid analgesic * Minocycline – an antibiotic * Tramadol – an atypical opioid analgesic and serotonin releasing agent ==== Nitromemantine ==== The NMDA receptor is regulated via nitrosylation and aminoadamantane can be used as a target-directed shuttle to bring nitrogen oxide (NO) close to the site within the NMDA receptor where it can nitrosylate and regulate the ion channel conductivity. A NO donor that can be used to decrease NMDA receptor activity is the alkyl nitrate nitroglycerin. Unlike many other NO donors, alkyl nitrates do not have potential NO associated neurotoxic effects. Alkyl nitrates donate NO in the form of a nitro group as seen in figure 7, -NO2-, which is a safe donor that avoids neurotoxicity. The nitro group must be targeted to the NMDA receptor, otherwise other effects of NO such as dilatation of blood vessels and consequent hypotension could result. Nitromemantine is a second-generation derivative of memantine, it reduces excitotoxicity mediated by overactivation of the glutamatergic system by blocking NMDA receptor without sacrificing safety. Provisional studies in animal models show that nitromemantines are more effective than memantine as neuroprotectants, both in vitro and in vivo. Memantine and newer derivatives could become very important weapons in the fight against neuronal damage. thumb|center|450px|Figure 7: Nitroglycerin donate ONO2 group that leads to second generation memantine analog, nitromemantine. Negative allosteric modulators include: * 25-Hydroxycholesterol – endogenous weak negative allosteric modulator * Conantokins – naturally occurring negative allosteric modulators of the polyamine site found in Conus geographus ===Modulators=== ====Examples==== The NMDA receptor is modulated by a number of endogenous and exogenous compounds: * Aminoglycosides have been shown to have a similar effect to polyamines, and this may explain their neurotoxic effect. * CDK5 regulates the amount of NR2B-containing NMDA receptors on the synaptic membrane, thus affecting synaptic plasticity. * Polyamines do not directly activate NMDA receptors, but instead act to potentiate or inhibit glutamate-mediated responses. * Reelin modulates NMDA function through Src family kinases and DAB1. significantly enhancing LTP in the hippocampus. * Src kinase enhances NMDA receptor currents. * Na+, K+ and Ca2+ not only pass through the NMDA receptor channel but also modulate the activity of NMDA receptors. * Zn2+ and Cu2+ generally block NMDA current activity in a noncompetitive and a voltage-independent manner. However zinc may potentiate or inhibit the current depending on the neural activity. * Pb2+ is a potent NMDAR antagonist. Presynaptic deficits resulting from Pb2+ exposure during synaptogenesis are mediated by disruption of NMDAR-dependent BDNF signaling. * Proteins of the major histocompatibility complex class I are endogenous negative regulators of NMDAR-mediated currents in the adult hippocampus, and are required for appropriate NMDAR-induced changes in AMPAR trafficking and NMDAR-dependent synaptic plasticity and learning and memory. * The activity of NMDA receptors is also strikingly sensitive to the changes in pH, and partially inhibited by the ambient concentration of H+ under physiological conditions. The level of inhibition by H+ is greatly reduced in receptors containing the NR1a subtype, which contains the positively charged insert Exon 5. The effect of this insert may be mimicked by positively charged polyamines and aminoglycosides, explaining their mode of action. * NMDA receptor function is also strongly regulated by chemical reduction and oxidation, via the so-called "redox modulatory site." Through this site, reductants dramatically enhance NMDA channel activity, whereas oxidants either reverse the effects of reductants or depress native responses. It is generally believed that NMDA receptors are modulated by endogenous redox agents such as glutathione, lipoic acid, and the essential nutrient pyrroloquinoline quinone. === Development of NMDA receptor antagonists === The main problem with the development of NMDA antagonists for neuroprotection is that physiological NMDA receptor activity is essential for normal neuronal function. Complete blockade of all NMDA receptor activity results in side effects such as hallucinations, agitation and anesthesia. To be clinically relevant, an NMDA receptor antagonist must limit its action to blockade of excessive activation, without limiting normal function of the receptor. ==== Competitive NMDA receptor antagonists ==== Competitive NMDA receptor antagonists, which were developed first, are not a good option because they compete and bind to the same site (NR2 subunit) on the receptor as the agonist, glutamate, and therefore block normal function also. They will block healthy areas of the brain prior to having an impact on pathological areas, because healthy areas contain lower levels of agonist than pathological areas. These antagonists can be displaced from the receptor by high concentration of glutamate which can exist under excitotoxic circumstances. ==== Noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists ==== thumb|right|200px|Figure 4: The chemical structures of MK-801, phencyclidine and ketamine, high affinity uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists. Uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists block within the ion channel at the Mg2+ site (pore region) and prevent excessive influx of Ca2+. Noncompetitive antagonism refers to a type of block that an increased concentration of glutamate cannot overcome, and is dependent upon prior activation of the receptor by the agonist, i.e. it only enters the channel when it is opened by agonist. ==== Memantine and related compounds ==== thumb|right|300px|Figure 5: Chemical structures of memantine (right) and amantadine (left). Because of these adverse side effects of high affinity blockers, the search for clinically successful NMDA receptor antagonists for neurodegenerative diseases continued and focused on developing low affinity blockers. However the affinity could not be too low and dwell time not too short (as seen with Mg2+) where membrane depolarization relieves the block. The discovery was thereby development of uncompetitive antagonist with longer dwell time than Mg2+ in the channel but shorter than MK-801. That way the drug obtained would only block excessively open NMDA receptor associated channels but not normal neurotransmission. Memantine is that drug. It is a derivative of amantadine which was first an anti-influenza agent but was later discovered by coincidence to have efficacy in Parkinson's disease. Chemical structures of memantine and amantadine can be seen in figure 5. The compound was first thought to be dopaminergic or anticholinergic but was later found to be an NMDA receptor antagonist. Memantine is the first drug approved for treatment of severe and more advanced Alzheimer's disease, which for example anticholinergic drugs do not do much good for. It helps recovery of synaptic function and in that way improves impaired memory and learning. In 2015 memantine is also in trials for therapeutic importance in additional neurological disorders. Many second-generation memantine derivatives have been in development that may show even better neuroprotective effects, where the main thought is to use other safe but effective modulatory sites on the NMDA receptor in addition to its associated ion channel. === Structure activity relationship (SAR) === thumb|right|300px|Figure 8: Structure activity relationship (SAR) of amantadine and related compounds Memantine (1-amino-3,5-dimethyladamantane) is an aminoalkyl cyclohexane derivative and an atypical drug compound with non-planar, three dimensional tricyclic structure. Figure 8 shows SAR for aminoalkyl cyclohexane derivative. Memantine has several important features in its structure for its effectiveness: *Three- ring structure with a bridgehead amine, -NH2 *The -NH2 group is protonated under physiological pH of the body to carry a positive charge, -NH3+ *Two methyl (CH3) side groups which serve to prolong the dwell time and increase stability as well as affinity for the NMDA receptor channel compared with amantadine (1-adamantanamine). Despite the small structural difference between memantine and amantadine, two adamantane derivatives, the affinity for the binding site of NR1/NR2B subunit is much greater for memantine. In patch-clamp measurements memantine has an IC50 of (2.3+0.3) μM while amantadine has an IC50 of (71.0+11.1) μM. The binding site with the highest affinity is called the dominant binding site. It involves a connection between the amine group of memantine and the NR1-N161 binding pocket of the NR1/NR2B subunit. The methyl side groups play an important role in increasing the affinity to the open NMDA receptor channels and making it a much better neuroprotective drug than amantadine. The binding pockets for the methyl groups are considered to be at the NR1-A645 and NR2B-A644 of the NR1/NR2B. The binding pockets are shown in figure 2. Memantine binds at or near to the Mg2+ site inside the NMDA receptor associated channel. The -NH2 group on memantine, which is protonated under physiological pH of the body, represents the region that binds at or near to the Mg2+ site. Adding two methyl groups to the -N on the memantine structure has shown to decrease affinity, giving an IC50 value of (28.4+1.4) μM. ==== Second generation derivative of memantine; nitromemantine ==== Several derivatives of Nitromemantine, a second-generation derivative of memantine, have been synthesized in order to perform a detailed structure activity relationship (SAR) of these novel drugs. One class, containing a nitro (NO2) group opposite to the bridgehead amine (NH2), showed a promising outcome. Nitromemantine utilizes memantine binding site on the NMDA receptor to target the NOx (X= 1 or 2) group for interaction with the S- nitrosylation/redox site external to the memantine binding site. Lengthening the side chains of memantine compensates for the worse drug affinity in the channel associated with the addition of the –ONO2 group === Therapeutic application === Excitotoxicity is implied to be involved in some neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Blocking of NMDA receptors could therefore, in theory, be useful in treating such diseases. It is, however, important to preserve physiological NMDA receptor activity while trying to block its excessive, excitotoxic activity. This can possibly be achieved by uncompetitive antagonists, blocking the receptors ion channel when excessively open Memantine is an example of uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist that has approved indication for the neurodegenerative disease Alzheimer's disease. In 2015 memantine is still in clinical trials for additional neurological diseases. ==Receptor modulation== The NMDA receptor is a non-specific cation channel that can allow the passage of Ca2+ and Na+ into the cell and K+ out of the cell. The excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) produced by activation of an NMDA receptor increases the concentration of Ca2+ in the cell. The Ca2+ can in turn function as a second messenger in various signaling pathways. However, the NMDA receptor cation channel is blocked by Mg2+ at resting membrane potential. Magnesium unblock is not instantaneous, to unblock all available channels, the postsynaptic cell must be depolarized for a sufficiently long period of time (in the scale of milliseconds). Therefore, the NMDA receptor functions as a "molecular coincidence detector". Its ion channel opens only when the following two conditions are met: glutamate is bound to the receptor, and the postsynaptic cell is depolarized (which removes the Mg2+ blocking the channel). This property of the NMDA receptor explains many aspects of long-term potentiation (LTP) and synaptic plasticity. In a resting-membrane potential, the NMDA receptor pore is opened allowing for an influx of external magnesium ions binding to prevent further ion permeation. External magnesium ions are in a millimolar range while intracellular magnesium ions are at a micromolar range to result in negative membrane potential. NMDA receptors are modulated by a number of endogenous and exogenous compounds and play a key role in a wide range of physiological (e.g., memory) and pathological processes (e.g., excitotoxicity). Magnesium works to potentiate NMDA-induced responses at positive membrane potentials while blocking the NMDA channel. The use of calcium, potassium, and sodium are used to modulate the activity of NMDARs passing through the NMDA membrane. Changes in H+ concentration can partially inhibit the activity of NMDA receptors in different physiological conditions. ==Clinical significance== NMDAR antagonists like ketamine, esketamine, tiletamine, phencyclidine, nitrous oxide, and xenon are used as general anesthetics. These and similar drugs like dextromethorphan and methoxetamine also produce dissociative, hallucinogenic, and euphoriant effects and are used as recreational drugs. NMDAR-targeted compounds, including ketamine, esketamine (JNJ-54135419), rapastinel (GLYX-13), apimostinel (NRX-1074), zelquistinel (AGN-241751), 4-chlorokynurenine (AV-101), and rislenemdaz (CERC-301, MK-0657), are under development for the treatment of mood disorders, including major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. In addition, ketamine is already employed for this purpose as an off-label therapy in some clinics. Research suggests that tianeptine produces antidepressant effects through indirect alteration and inhibition of glutamate receptor activity and release of , in turn affecting neural plasticity. Tianeptine also acts on the NMDA and AMPA receptors. In animal models, tianeptine inhibits the pathological stress- induced changes in glutamatergic neurotransmission in the amygdala and hippocampus. Memantine, a low-trapping NMDAR antagonist, is approved in the United States and Europe for the treatment of moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease, and has now received a limited recommendation by the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence for patients who fail other treatment options.NICE technology appraisal January 18, 2011 Azheimer's disease - donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine and memantine (review): final appraisal determination Cochlear NMDARs are the target of intense research to find pharmacological solutions to treat tinnitus. NMDARs are associated with a rare autoimmune disease, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis (also known as NMDAR encephalitisTodd A Hardy, Reddel, Barnett, Palace, Lucchinetti, Weinshenker, Atypical inflammatory demyelinating syndromes of the CNS, The lancet neurology, Volume 15, Issue 9, August 2016, Pages 967-981, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30043-6, available at ), that usually occurs due to cross-reactivity of antibodies produced by the immune system against ectopic brain tissues, such as those found in teratoma. These are known as anti-glutamate receptor antibodies. Compared to dopaminergic stimulants like methamphetamine, the NMDAR antagonist phencyclidine can produce a wider range of symptoms that resemble schizophrenia in healthy volunteers, in what has led to the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia. Experiments in which rodents are treated with NMDA receptor antagonist are today the most common model when it comes to testing of novel schizophrenia therapies or exploring the exact mechanism of drugs already approved for treatment of schizophrenia. NMDAR antagonists, for instance eliprodil, gavestinel, licostinel, and selfotel have been extensively investigated for the treatment of excitotoxicity-mediated neurotoxicity in situations like ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury, but were unsuccessful in clinical trials used in small doses to avoid sedation, but NMDAR antagonists can block Spreading Depolarizations in animals and in patients with brain injury. This use have not been tested in clinical trials yet. == See also == * Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases == References == == External links == * * NMDA receptor pharmacology * Motor Discoordination Results from Combined Gene Disruption of the NMDA Receptor NR2A and NR2C Subunits, But Not from Single Disruption of the NR2A or NR2C Subunit * A schematic diagram summarizes three potential models for the switching of NR2A and NR2B subunits at developing synapses * Drosophila NMDA receptor 1 - The Interactive Fly Category:Cell signaling Category:Glutamate (neurotransmitter) Category:Ion channels Category:Ionotropic glutamate receptors Category:Molecular neuroscience Memantine and related compounds Category:NMDA receptor antagonists |
Sociological, psychological, and anthropological theories about religion generally attempt to explain the origin and function of religion. These theories define what they present as universal characteristics of religious belief and practice. ==History== From presocratic times, ancient authors advanced prescientific theories about religion.Segal 2005, p. 49 Herodotus (484 – 425 BCE) saw the gods of Greece as the same as the gods of Egypt. Euhemerus (about 330 – 264 BCE) regarded gods as excellent historical persons whom admirers eventually came to worship. Scientific theories, inferred and tested by the comparative method, emerged after data from tribes and peoples all over the world became available in the 18th and 19th centuries. Max Müller (1823-1900) has the reputation of having founded the scientific study of religion; he advocated a comparative method that developed into comparative religion. Subsequently, Clifford Geertz (1926-2006) and others questioned the validity of abstracting a general theory of all religions. ==Classification== Theories of religion can be classified into: * Substantive (or essentialist) theories that focus on the contents of religions and the meaning the contents have for people. This approach asserts that people have faith because beliefs make sense insofar as they hold value and are comprehensible. The theories by Tylor and Frazer (focusing on the explanatory value of religion for its adherents), by Rudolf Otto (focusing on the importance of religious experience, more specifically experiences that are both fascinating and terrifying) and by Mircea Eliade (focusing on the longing for otherworldly perfection, the quest for meaning, and the search for patterns in mythology in various religions) offer examples of substantive theories. * Functional theories that focus on the social or psychological functions that religion has for a group or a person. In simple terms, the functional approach sees religion as "performing certain functions for society" Theories by Karl Marx (role of religion in capitalist and pre-capitalist societies), Sigmund Freud (psychological origin of religious beliefs), Émile Durkheim (social function of religions), and the theory by Stark and Bainbridge exemplify functional theories. This approach tends to be static, with the exception of Marx' theory, and unlike e.g. Weber's approach, which treats of the interaction and dynamic processes between religions and the rest of societies. * Social relational theories of religion that focus on the nature or social form of the beliefs and practices. Here, Charles Taylor's book The Secular Age is exemplary,Charles Taylor, A Secular Age, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2007, as is the work of Clifford Geertz. The approach is expressed in Paul James's argument that religion is a 'relatively bounded system of beliefs, symbols and practices that addresses the nature of existence through communion with others and Otherness, lived as both taking in and spiritually transcending socially grounded ontologies of time, space, embodiment and knowing'. This avoids the dichotomy between the immanent and transcendental. Other dichotomies according to which theories or descriptions of religions can be classified include: * "insider" versus "outsider" perspectives (roughly corresponding to emic versus etic descriptions) * individualist versus social views * evolutionist versus relativist views ==Methodologies== Early essentialists, such as Tylor and Frazer, looked for similar beliefs and practices in all societies, especially the more primitive ones, more or less regardless of time and place. They relied heavily on reports made by missionaries, discoverers, and colonial civil servants. These were all investigators who had a religious background themselves, thus they looked at religion from the inside. Typically they did not practice investigative field work, but used the accidental reports of others. This method left them open to criticism for lack of universality, which many freely admitted. The theories could be updated, however, by considering new reports, which Robert Ranulph Marett (1866-1943) did for Tylor's theory of the evolution of religion. Field workers deliberately sent out by universities and other institutions to collect specific cultural data made available a much greater database than random reports. For example, the anthropologist E. E. Evans-Pritchard (1902-1973) preferred detailed ethnographical study of tribal religion as more reliable. He criticised the work of his predecessors, Müller, Tylor, and Durkheim, as untestable speculation. He called them "armchair anthropologists". A second methodology, functionalism, seeks explanations of religion that are outside of religion; i.e., the theorists are generally (but not necessarily) atheists or agnostics themselves. As did the essentialists, the functionalists proceeded from reports to investigative studies. Their fundamental assumptions, however, are quite different; notably, they apply methodological naturalism. When explaining religion they reject divine or supernatural explanations for the status or origins of religions because they are not scientifically testable. In fact, theorists such as Marett (an Anglican) excluded scientific results altogether, defining religion as the domain of the unpredictable and unexplainable; that is, comparative religion is the rational (and scientific) study of the irrational. The dichotomy between the two classifications is not bridgeable, even though they have the same methods, because each excludes the data of the other. The functionalists and some of the later essentialists (among others E. E. Evans-Pritchard) have criticized the substantive view as neglecting social aspects of religion. Such critics go so far as to brand Tylor's and Frazer's views on the origin of religion as unverifiable speculation. The view of monotheism as more evolved than polytheism represents a mere preconception, they assert. There is evidence that monotheism is more prevalent in hunter societies than in agricultural societies. The view of a uniform progression in folkways is criticized as unverifiable, as the writer Andrew Lang (1844–1912) and E. E. Evans-Pritchard assert. The latter criticism presumes that the evolutionary views of the early cultural anthropologists envisaged a uniform cultural evolution. Another criticism supposes that Tylor and Frazer were individualists (unscientific). However, some support that supposed approach as worthwhile, among others the anthropologist Robin Horton. The dichotomy between the two fundamental presumptions - and the question of what data can be considered valid - continues. ==Substantive theories== ===Evolutionary theories=== Evolutionary theories view religion as either an adaptation or a byproduct. Adaptationist theories view religion as being of adaptive value to the survival of Pleistocene humans. Byproduct theories view religion as a spandrel. ===Edward Burnett Tylor=== thumb|250px|Edward Burnett Tylor The anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917) defined religion as belief in spiritual beings and stated that this belief originated as explanations of natural phenomena. Belief in spirits grew out of attempts to explain life and death. Primitive people used human dreams in which spirits seemed to appear as an indication that the human mind could exist independent of a body. They used this by extension to explain life and death, and belief in the after life. Myths and deities to explain natural phenomena originated by analogy and an extension of these explanations. His theory assumed that the psyches of all peoples of all times are more or less the same and that explanations in cultures and religions tend to grow more sophisticated via monotheist religions, such as Christianity and eventually to science. Tylor saw practices and beliefs in modern societies that were similar to those of primitive societies as survivals, but he did not explain why they survived. ===James George Frazer=== James George Frazer (1854–1941) followed Tylor's theories to a great extent in his book The Golden Bough, but he distinguished between magic and religion. Magic is used to influence the natural world in the primitive man's struggle for survival. He asserted that magic relied on an uncritical belief of primitive people in contact and imitation. For example, precipitation may be invoked by the primitive man by sprinkling water on the ground. He asserted that according to them magic worked through laws. In contrast religion is faith that the natural world is ruled by one or more deities with personal characteristics with whom can be pleaded, not by laws. ===Rudolf Otto=== The theologian Rudolf Otto (1869–1937) focused on religious experience, more specifically moments that he called numinous which means "Wholly Other". He described it as mysterium tremendum (terrifying mystery) and mysterium fascinans (awe inspiring, fascinating mystery). He saw religion as emerging from these experiences. He asserted that these experiences arise from a special, non-rational faculty of the human mind, largely unrelated to other faculties, so religion cannot be reduced to culture or society. Some of his views, among others that the experience of the numinous was caused by a transcendental reality, are untestable and hence unscientific. His ideas strongly influenced phenomenologists and Mircea Eliade. ===Mircea Eliade=== thumb|250px|Mircea Eliade Mircea Eliade's (1907–1986) approach grew out of the phenomenology of religion. Like Otto, he saw religion as something special and autonomous, that cannot be reduced to the social, economical or psychological alone. Like Durkheim, he saw the sacred as central to religion, but differing from Durkheim, he views the sacred as often dealing with the supernatural, not with the clan or society. The daily life of an ordinary person is connected to the sacred by the appearance of the sacred, called hierophany. Theophany (an appearance of a god) is a special case of it. In The Myth of the Eternal Return Eliade wrote that archaic men wish to participate in the sacred, and that they long to return to lost paradise outside the historic time to escape meaninglessness. The primitive man could not endure that his struggle to survive had no meaning. According to Eliade, man had a nostalgia (longing) for an otherworldly perfection. Archaic man wishes to escape the terror of time and saw time as cyclic. Historical religions like Christianity and Judaism revolted against this older concept of cyclic time. They provided meaning and contact with the sacred in history through the god of Israel. Eliade sought and found patterns in myth in various cultures, e.g. sky gods such as Zeus. Eliade's methodology was studying comparative religion of various cultures and societies more or less regardless of other aspects of these societies, often relying on second hand reports. He also used some personal knowledge of other societies and cultures for his theories, among others his knowledge of Hindu folk religion. He has been criticized for vagueness in defining his key concepts. Like Frazer and Tylor he has also been accused of out-of-context comparisons of religious beliefs of very different societies and cultures. He has also been accused of having a pro-religious bias (Christian and Hindu), though this bias does not seem essential for his theory. ===E. E. Evans- Pritchard=== thumb|250px|Bust of E. E. Evans-Pritchard in the Social and Cultural Anthropology Library, Oxford The anthropologist Edward Evan Evans- Pritchard (1902–1973) did extensive ethnographic studies among the Azande and Nuer peoples who were considered "primitive" by society and earlier scholars. Evans-Pritchard saw these people as different, but not primitive. Unlike the previous scholars, Evans-Pritchard did not propose a grand universal theory and he did extensive long-term fieldwork among "primitive" peoples, studying their culture and religion, among other among the Azande. Not just passing contact, like Eliade. He argued that the religion of the Azande (witchcraft and oracles) can not be understood without the social context and its social function. Witchcraft and oracles played a great role in solving disputes among the Azande. In this respect he agreed with Durkheim, though he acknowledged that Frazer and Tylor were right that their religion also had an intellectual explanatory aspect. The Azande's faith in witchcraft and oracles was quite logical and consistent once some fundamental tenets were accepted. Loss of faith in the fundamental tenets could not be endured because of its social importance and hence they had an elaborate system of explanations (or excuses) against disproving evidence. Besides an alternative system of terms or school of thought did not exist. He was heavily critical about earlier theorists of primitive religion with the exception of Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, asserting that they made statements about primitive people without having enough inside knowledge to make more than a guess. In spite of his praise of Bruhl's works, Evans-Pritchard disagreed with Bruhl's statement that a member of a "primitive" tribe saying "I am the moon" is prelogical, but that this statement makes perfect sense within their culture if understood metaphorically. Apart from the Azande, Evans-Pritchard, also studied the neighbouring, but very different Nuer people. The Nuer had had an abstract monotheistic faith, somewhat similar to Christianity and Judaism, though it included lesser spirits. They had also totemism, but this was a minor aspect of their religion and hence a corrective to Durkheim's generalizations should be made. Evans-Pritchard did not propose a theory of religions, but only a theory of the Nuer religion. ===Clifford Geertz=== The anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1926–2006) made several studies in Javanese villages. He avoided the subjective and vague concept of group attitude as used by Ruth Benedict by using the analysis of society as proposed by Talcott Parsons who in turn had adapted it from Max Weber. Parsons' adaptation distinguished all human groups on three levels i.e. 1. an individual level that is controlled by 2. a social system that is in turn controlled by 3. a cultural system. Geertz followed Weber when he wrote that "man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun and the analysis of it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but an interpretive one in search of meaning". Geertz held the view that mere explanations to describe religions and cultures are not sufficient: interpretations are needed too. He advocated what he called thick descriptions to interpret symbols by observing them in use, and for this work, he was known as a founder of symbolic anthropology. Geertz saw religion as one of the cultural systems of a society. He defined religion as :(1) a system of symbols :(2) which acts to establish powerful, pervasive and long- lasting moods and motivations in men :(3) by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and :(4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that :(5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic. With symbols Geertz meant a carrier that embodies a conception, because he saw religion and culture as systems of communication. This definition emphasizes the mutual reinforcement between world view and ethos. Though he used more or less the same methodology as Evans-Pritchard, he did not share Evans-Pritchard's hope that a theory of religion could ever be found. Geertz proposed methodology was not the scientific method of the natural science, but the method of historians studying history. ==Functional theories== ===Karl Marx=== The social philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883) held a materialist worldview. According to Marx, the dynamics of society were determined by the relations of production, that is, the relations that its members needed to enter into to produce their means of survival. Developing on the ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach, he saw religion as a product of alienation that was functional to relieving people's immediate suffering, and as an ideology that masked the real nature of social relations. He deemed it a contingent part of human culture, that would have disappeared after the abolition of class society. These claims were limited, however, to his analysis of the historical relationship between European cultures, political institutions, and their Christian religious traditions. Marxist views strongly influenced individuals' comprehension and conclusions about society, among others the anthropological school of cultural materialism. Marx' explanations for all religions, always, in all forms, and everywhere have never been taken seriously by many experts in the field, though a substantial fraction accept that Marx' views possibly explain some aspects of religions. Some recent work has suggested that, while the standard account of Marx's analysis of religion is true, it is also only one side of a dialectical account, which takes seriously the disruptive, as well as the pacifying moments of religion ===Sigmund Freud=== thumb|200px|Sigmund Freud, 1885 Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) saw religion as an illusion, a belief that people very much wanted to be true. Unlike Tylor and Frazer, Freud attempted to explain why religion persists in spite of the lack of evidence for its tenets. Freud asserted that religion is a largely unconscious neurotic response to repression. By repression Freud meant that civilized society demands that we not fulfill all our desires immediately, but that they have to be repressed. Rational arguments to a person holding a religious conviction will not change the neurotic response of a person. This is in contrast to Tylor and Frazer, who saw religion as a rational and conscious, though primitive and mistaken, attempt to explain the natural world. In his 1913 book Totem and Taboo he developed a speculative story about how all monotheist religions originated and developed. In the book he asserted that monotheistic religions grew out of a homicide in a clan of a father by his sons. This incident was subconsciously remembered in human societies. In Moses and Monotheism, Freud proposed that Moses had been a priest of Akhenaten who fled Egypt after the pharaoh's death and perpetuated monotheism through a different religion. Freud's view on religion was embedded in his larger theory of psychoanalysis, which has been criticized as unscientific. Although Freud's attempt to explain the historical origins of religions have not been accepted, his generalized view that all religions originate from unfulfilled psychological needs is still seen as offering a credible explanation in some cases. ===Émile Durkheim=== Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) saw the concept of the sacred as the defining characteristic of religion, not faith in the supernatural. He saw religion as a reflection of the concern for society. He based his view on recent research regarding totemism among the Australian aboriginals. With totemism he meant that each of the many clans had a different object, plant, or animal that they held sacred and that symbolizes the clan. Durkheim saw totemism as the original and simplest form of religion. According to Durkheim, the analysis of this simple form of religion could provide the building blocks for more complex religions. He asserted that moralism cannot be separated from religion. The sacred i.e. religion reinforces group interest that clash very often with individual interests. Durkheim held the view that the function of religion is group cohesion often performed by collectively attended rituals. He asserted that these group meeting provided a special kind of energy, which he called effervescence, that made group members lose their individuality and to feel united with the gods and thus with the group. Differing from Tylor and Frazer, he saw magic not as religious, but as an individual instrument to achieve something. Durkheim's proposed method for progress and refinement is first to carefully study religion in its simplest form in one contemporary society and then the same in another society and compare the religions then and only between societies that are the same. The empirical basis for Durkheim's view has been severely criticized when more detailed studies of the Australian aboriginals surfaced. More specifically, the definition of religion as dealing with the sacred only, regardless of the supernatural, is not supported by studies of these aboriginals. The view that religion has a social aspect, at the very least, introduced in a generalized very strong form by Durkheim has become influential and uncontested. Durkheim's approach gave rise to functionalist school in sociology and anthropology Functionalism is a sociological paradigm that originally attempted to explain social institutions as collective means to fill individual biological needs, focusing on the ways in which social institutions fill social needs, especially social stability. Thus because Durkheim viewed society as an "organismic analogy of the body, wherein all the parts work together to maintain the equilibrium of the whole, religion was understood to be the glue that held society together.". ===Bronisław Malinowski=== The anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942) was strongly influenced by the functionalist school and argued that religion originated from coping with death. He saw science as practical knowledge that every society needs abundantly to survive and magic as related to this practical knowledge, but generally dealing with phenomena that humans cannot control. ===Max Weber=== Max Weber (1864–1920) thought that the truth claims of religious movement were irrelevant for the scientific study of the movements. He portrayed each religion as rational and consistent in their respective societies. Weber acknowledged that religion had a strong social component, but diverged from Durkheim by arguing, for example in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism that religion can be a force of change in society. In the book Weber wrote that modern capitalism spread quickly partially due to the Protestant worldly ascetic morale. Weber's main focus was not on developing a theory of religion but on the interaction between society and religion, while introducing concepts that are still widely used in the sociology of religion. These concept include * Church sect typology, Weber distinguished between sects and churches by stating that membership of a sect is a personal choice and church membership is determined by birth. The typology later developed more extensively by his friend Ernst Troeltsch and others. According to the typology, churches, ecclesia, denomination, and sects form a continuum with decreasing influence on society. Sects are protest break away groups and tend to be in tension with society. * Ideal type, a hypothetical "pure" or "clear" form, used in typologies * Charismatic authority Weber saw charisma as a volatile form or authority that depends on the acceptance of unique quality of a person by this person's followers. Charisma can be a revolutionary force and the authority can either be routinized (change into other forms of authority) or disappear upon the death of the charismatic person. Somewhat differing from Marx, Weber dealt with status groups, not with class. In status groups the primary motivation is prestige and social cohesion. Status groups have differing levels of access to power and prestige and indirectly to economic resources. In his 1920 treatment of the religion in China he saw Confucianism as helping a certain status group, i.e. the educated elite to maintain access to prestige and power. He asserted that Confucianism opposition against both extravagance and thrift made it unlikely that capitalism could have originated in China. He used the concept of Verstehen (German for "understanding") to describe his method of interpretation of the intention and context of human action. ===Rational choice theory=== The rational choice theory has been applied to religions, among others by the sociologists Rodney Stark (1934 – 2022) and William Sims Bainbridge (1940 – ). They see religions as systems of "compensators", and view human beings as "rational actors, making choices that she or he thinks best, calculating costs and benefits".The quote is from Compensators are a body of language and practices that compensate for some physical lack or frustrated goal. They can be divided into specific compensators (compensators for the failure to achieve specific goals), and general compensators (compensators for failure to achieve any goal). They define religion as a system of compensation that relies on the supernatural. The main reasoning behind this theory is that the compensation is what controls the choice, or in other words the choices which the "rational actors" make are "rational in the sense that they are centered on the satisfaction of wants". It has been observed that social or political movements that fail to achieve their goals will often transform into religions. As it becomes clear that the goals of the movement will not be achieved by natural means (at least within their lifetimes), members of the movement will look to the supernatural to achieve what cannot be achieved naturally. The new religious beliefs are compensators for the failure to achieve the original goals. Examples of this include the counterculture movement in America: the early counterculture movement was intent on changing society and removing its injustice and boredom; but as members of the movement proved unable to achieve these goals they turned to Eastern and new religions as compensators. Most religions start out their lives as cults or sects, i.e. groups in high tension with the surrounding society, containing different views and beliefs contrary to the societal norm. Over time, they tend to either die out, or become more established, mainstream and in less tension with society. Cults are new groups with a new novel theology, while sects are attempts to return mainstream religions to (what the sect views as) their original purity. Mainstream established groups are called denominations. The comments below about cult formation apply equally well to sect formation. There are four models of cult formation: the Psychopathological Model, the Entrepreneurial Model, the Social Model and the Normal Revelations model. *Psychopathological model: religions are founded during a period of severe stress in the life of the founder. The founder suffers from psychological problems, which they resolve through the founding of the religion. (The development of the religion is for them a form of self- therapy, or self-medication.) *Entrepreneurial model: founders of religions act like entrepreneurs, developing new products (religions) to sell to consumers (to convert people to). According to this model, most founders of new religions already have experience in several religious groups before they begin their own. They take ideas from the pre-existing religions, and try to improve on them to make them more popular. *Social model: religions are founded by means of social implosions. Members of the religious group spend less and less time with people outside the group, and more and more time with each other within it. The level of affection and emotional bonding between members of a group increases, and their emotional bonds to members outside the group diminish. According to the social model, when a social implosion occurs, the group will naturally develop a new theology and rituals to accompany it. *Normal revelations: religions are founded when the founder interprets ordinary natural phenomena as supernatural; for instance, ascribing his or her own creativity in inventing the religion to that of the deity. Some religions are better described by one model than another, though all apply to differing degrees to all religions. Once a cult or sect has been founded, the next problem for the founder is to convert new members to it. Prime candidates for religious conversion are those with an openness to religion, but who do not belong or fit well in any existing religious group. Those with no religion or no interest in religion are difficult to convert, especially since the cult and sect beliefs are so extreme by the standards of the surrounding society. But those already happy members of a religious group are difficult to convert as well, since they have strong social links to their preexisting religion and are unlikely to want to sever them in order to join a new one. The best candidates for religious conversion are those who are members of or have been associated with religious groups (thereby showing an interest or openness to religion), yet exist on the fringe of these groups, without strong social ties to prevent them from joining a new group. Potential converts vary in their level of social connection. New religions best spread through pre-existing friendship networks. Converts who are marginal with few friends are easy to convert, but having few friends to convert they cannot add much to the further growth of the organization. Converts with a large social network are harder to convert, since they tend to have more invested in mainstream society; but once converted they yield many new followers through their friendship network. Cults initially can have quite high growth rates; but as the social networks that initially feed them are exhausted, their growth rate falls quickly. On the other hand, the rate of growth is exponential (ignoring the limited supply of potential converts): the more converts you have, the more missionaries you can have out looking for new converts. But nonetheless it can take a very long time for religions to grow to a large size by natural growth. This often leads to cult leaders giving up after several decades, and withdrawing the cult from the world. It is difficult for cults and sects to maintain their initial enthusiasm for more than about a generation. As children are born into the cult or sect, members begin to demand a more stable life. When this happens, cults tend to lose or de-emphasise many of their more radical beliefs, and become more open to the surrounding society; they then become denominations. The theory of religious economy sees different religious organizations competing for followers in a religious economy, much like the way businesses compete for consumers in a commercial economy. Theorists assert that a true religious economy is the result of religious pluralism, giving the population a wider variety of choices in religion. According to the theory, the more religions there are, the more likely the population is to be religious and hereby contradicting the secularization thesis. ==See also== * Anthropology of religion * Archaeology of religion and ritual * Definition of religion * Emic and etic * Evolutionary origins of religion * History of religion * Jungian interpretation of religion * Magic and religion * Magical thinking * Philosophy of religion * Psychology of religion * Religious studies * Sociology of religion * Terror management theory * The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life * The Idea of the Holy * The Varieties of Religious Experience ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * * * * * * * ==External links== * Category:Anthropology of religion Category:Sociology of religion Category:Religious studies |
Weng Chun Kung Fu () is a Southern-style Chinese Martial Art.Werner Lind: Das Lexikon der Kampfkünste. Sportverlag Berlin, 2001, , page. 530 Weng Chun is considered a "soft" style martial art in that it utilizes the energy of the opponent to break structure rather than trying to match their energy. The main focus is on combining physical fitness with the health of both the body and mind. This is achieved through a combination of hard physical training and a deep underlying philosophy of understanding one's body movements and how and why they are employed. The ultimate goal in Weng Chun is complete mastery of both the body and the mind. == History == thumb|Grandmaster Chu Chung Man is identified the most senior Weng Chun practitioner in the art's modern documented history. There are many interpretations of the history of Weng Chun Kung Fu. The chronological history according to Grandmaster Andreas Hoffmann is detailed on the main Weng Chun website. Other accounts have been documented by others including an extensive history of Weng Chun by Benny Meng and Jeremy Roadruck from the museum. According to the oral tradition, the origins of Weng Chun Kung Fu lie in the Shaolin temples in southern China.Chu, Ritchie & Wu 2015, p. 90 The most well-documented and historically important modern grandmaster of Weng Chun is identified as Chu Chung Man.Chu, Robert; Ritchie, Rene; Wu, Y. (2015). The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun's History and Tradition. Tuttle Publishing. , pg.90-99 He was born in Foshan at the beginning of the 20th century and studied with teachers of various Kung Fu styles for many years, including Weng Chun Kung Fu.Leung Ting: Roots of Wing Tsun. Leung's Publications, Hongkong 2000, page 371 Chu Chung Man was also a good friend of Yip Man.Leung Ting: Roots of Wing Tsun. Leung's Publications, Hongkong 2000, pages 47–48 Chu Chung Man worked as a practicing doctor in Macau during the Second World War, and from 1953 as a doctor in a hospital in Hong Kong. He is considered a fifth generation student of Weng Chun Kung Fu after the alleged founder Chi Sim. When Chu Chung Man moved to Hong Kong in 1953, he met other Weng Chun Kung Fu grandmasters who taught a comparatively large number of students, including Grand Masters Tang Yik and Wai Yan. Wai Yan was the managing director of a poultry wholesaler in Kowloon and temporarily converted the department store into a training hall in which the Weng Chun grandmasters met for a long time to exchange ideas.Leung Ting: Roots of Wing Tsun. Leung's Publications, Hongkong 2000, p. 371 The name of the wholesaler Dai Tak Lan was also the name for the training hall, which was to acquire a certain significance for Weng Chun Kung Fu in the post-war period.Chu, Robert; Ritchie, Rene; Wu, Y. (2015). The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun's History and Tradition. Tuttle Publishing. , pg.90-99 The grandmasters themselves and their descendants had and still have various students who did not come from China.Chu, Ritchie & Wu 2015, p. 90 They made Weng Chun Kung Fu known outside of China and founded various martial arts schools and associations. As with Wing Chun Kung Fu, aspects of trademark law led to different names for the schools. In addition, the grandmasters of the Dai Tak Lan Center always taught slightly different variants of Weng Chun Kung Fu as part of their family tradition. Nevertheless, all of the schools mentioned refer to the Dai Tak Lan Center and the families of the grandmasters, especially Wai Yan, Tang Yik and Chu Chung Man. ===Present=== Weng Chun in its present form is being preserved by many, including Andreas Hoffman, the successor of the art following late Grand Master Wai Yan. == Philosophy == The philosophy of Weng Chun Kung Fu, like many martial arts relates to a way of life that goes much deeper than just fighting. Indeed, the traditional philosophy of kung fu relates to how to live one's life, rather than discovering truth in reality. Weng Chun Kung Fu reflects this path in five levels of wisdom stretching for the basic understanding of physical moves such as how to throw a punch all the way to complete mastery of the body and mind, where the philosophy of kung fu extends to all aspects of the practitioner's life. The basic level is known as Ying, which teaches basic forms and shapes. Ying can be considered the study of "what" techniques there are in combat, such as how to punch, or kick. The student achieves a deeper understanding of how to make these moves at the next level, known as Yi, where the principles used in Weng Chun are learned. Yi teaches the bridges and techniques employed in combat, focusing on the 18 Kiu Sao concepts. The third level, Lei then considers the shapes and forms employed in Ying and Yi and internalises these into an instinctive system, helped by mastering the forms through repetition. The student's skills developed in fighting can then be extended into other aspects of their lives, where discipline, self-control and other qualities can be employed into a philosophy of living the kung fu life. The next level is known as Faat (in Buddhism Dharma) which explores the methods, or ways of understanding reality. In Shaolin Weng Chun reality is expressed in space/time (heaven), energy (human) and gravity/identity (earth). Finally Seut, meaning skill and showmanship relates to the expression of Weng Chun in our everyday lives where discipline, respect and the correct interaction with others is realized. The practitioner has at this point achieved mastery and all their actions are reflected in the kung fu life.Adapted from an article authored by Benny Meng in" Kung Fu & Tai Chi mag", February 2005 == Understanding distances and vectors == Three main distances are recognised in Weng Chun: Heaven (far), Earth (near, or close) and Man (contact). Each distance involves employing different strategies. Heaven and earth distances require the practitioner to bridge the gap between opponents whereby circling is employed as a basis for movements such as forwards/backwards (tan/to), or tiu (to sink) for example. There are 18 bridges in Kiu Sao (bridging arm) to achieve this and six vectors including forwards/backwards, left/right and up/down, all used in combination. == Principles == thumb|right|300px|Weng Chun throws There are two sets of principles employed in Weng Chun: The seven principles developed from the pole form (often referred to as the 6 1/2 principles) and the more advanced 18 principles employed in Kui Sao (bridging hands). === The 6 1/2 principles === The basic seven principles employed in Weng Chun Kung Fu are described by Grandmaster Andreas Hoffman in Budo International magazine (PDF) page 20., although they are often referred to as the six and half principles. These stem from the Luk Dim Boon Kwun long pole form, which is practiced in both Weng Chun and Wing Chun. Grandmaster Andreas Hoffmann has developed a further form known as Luk Dim Boon Kuen to teach these principles without need for the long pole. Together they form the basis of Weng Chun and include: # Tai (to raise). This principle deploys any upward movement and is primarily used to destroy the balance of the attacker. # Lan (to lock, or control). Lan is used to close down the attacker and enables the practitioner to counterattack. # Dim (point shock). Dim is used, for example, when striking; it focuses the attack on a point in order to shock the attacker. # Kit (tear and open up). Effectively a two-part principle, kit involves closing down an attack and creating an opening in its place. # Got (half circle downwards). Got is used, for example, to stop or block an opponent's strike # Wun (circle). Circling is a central principle in Weng Chun and encompasses a ranging of moves that employ a circling movement # Lau (flow). The last principle of flowing is considered a half principle in Weng Chun, but is perhaps the most important as when combined with the other principles it brings Weng Chun to life. === The 18 principles in Kui Sao === Kui Sao enables the fighter to adopt a position, or perfect their timing to have the greatest effect with the least use of force, which enables them to easily deal with their opponent. The more advanced 18 bridging (kiu) principles as described by Grandmaster Andreas Hoffman in Budo International, issue 55 are taught in nine matching (yin & yang) pairs, which include: # Tiu - But: Sideways movement of the arms or legs in a windscreen-wiper motion, used to control the attacker # Da - Pun: Strike and fold # Jaau - Lai: Push and pull # See - Che: Shock by puling and striking # Kam - Na: Catch and control by locking # Fung Bai: Trap, or stop and build a barrier # Bik - Hip: Cornering and overrunning the opponent # Tun - Tuo: Swallow and spit by absorbing and striking # Bok - Saat: Guide and surf opponent then attack A short video demonstrating the 18 Kui Sao can be seen here: GM Andreas Hoffman explaining Kui Sao == Weng Chun Forms == All Weng Chun forms consist of standardized movements, with which the basic principles of Weng Chun are internalized. Regular training internalizes the movements into the mind and body, so that they can be called up spontaneously in self-defense. The forms offer the advantage that one can train at any time and any place, either alone or in groups. Weng chun forms include: Weng Chun Kuen (Perpetual Spring Fist) The Weng Chun (Sap Yat) Kuen is the core set of Weng Chun, a basic practice form consisting of 11 sections, which is applied in Chi Sao. In fact, it could also be termed more of a "theory" than a "form" --a set of methods for optimizing the free use of the body to win over a strong attacker introducing the 18 Kiu Sao of Weng Chun. Fa Kuen (Flower Fist) The flower is the symbol of the Sim (Chan/Zen) philosophy . The body work of Weng Chun Kuen and Fa Kuen were made famous by Grandmaster Chu Chung Man. This set teaches how to use the entire body for both long and short distance fighting. In the Weng Chun family there are different versions of Fa Kuen: short versions, long versions and even different sets with the name Fa Kuen. Luk Dim Boon Kuen (Six and a Half Point principle form) This form teaches the feeling and understanding of the 6½ principles and concepts as originally taught in the Six and a Half Point Pole form (Luk Dim Boon Kwun), as detailed below. Like many of the concepts used in Weng Chun, this develops principles originally used with weapons and applies them to the unarmed practitioner. Saam Pai Fat (Three Bows to Buddha) According to the Lo family, Saam Pai Fat is the advanced Weng Chun set of Sun Gam (Dai Fa Min Gam) of the Red Boat Opera. Like its matching set, Weng Chun Kuen, Saam Pai Fat consists of eleven sections. Its focus is to expand the ability of the Weng Chun Kuen practitioner to cover all of space and time through the concept of bowing to Heaven, Earth, and Man. A video clip of GM Andreas Hoffman demonstrating Saam Pai Fat can be seen here. Jong Kuen (Structure Fist) Jong Kuen (also known as Siong Kung Jong Kuen because in the final Weng Chun teaching it melds internal and external power), combines fast, agile steps in all directions with whole body movement. The set includes all concepts and principles from the long pole, wooden dummy, etc. In appearance, this last, traditional Weng Chun set looks similar to a combination of Taijiquan, Xingyiquan, and Baguazhang. Ng Jong Hei Gung (Five Posture Qi Gong) Ng Jong Hei Gong teaches five postures for the cultivation of Hei (Qi), and the development of strong, Weng Chun Kuen body structure. It opens the small and the Large Heaven Qi circles and balances the Qi of the inner organs. Muk Yan Jong (Wooden Dummy) The Muk Yan Jong contains three sets: Tien Pun (Heaven), Dei Pun (Earth), and Yan Pun (Human). In them are contained the fighting methods of the Muk Yan Hong, the Wooden Dummy Hall of the Southern Shaolin Temple. The Wooden Dummy is not used just to strengthen forearms or shins, but with the sensitivity found in Chi Sao. Luk Dim Boon Kwun (Six and a Half Point Pole) The pole is the heart of Weng Chun Kuen. With it comes the feeling and understanding of the 6½ principles and concepts used in all types of fighting. The set begins with Hei Gung that teaches to control space through "spring" footwork, and continues on to challenge practitioners to make use of their whole bodies. Kwun Jong (Pole Dummy) The long range wooden dummy was, in times past, the secret of Weng Chun Kuen. It is the fourth and final dummy from the Muk Yan Hong (Wooden Dummy Hall) of the Southern Shaolin Temple. It teaches to close the gap over and over again. Fu Mo Siong Dao (Father & Mother Double Knives) The Father & Mother Double Knives gives a practical fighting system with sharp weapons and introduces the concept of Yum Yeung (Yin and Yang). The transfer of pole principles to sharp, double-handed weapons also increases fighting spirit. ==Difference between Weng Chun and Wing Chun== Weng Chun is often confused with another Southern Kung Fu style known as Wing Chun. Weng Chun and Wing Chun are two different Kung Fu styles, and is assumed so by martial arts scholars, Frank Paetzold: "Das Wing Tsun Buch", page. 41, Books on Demand GmbH (2005)Robert Hill, "World Of Martial Arts!: The History of Martial Arts", Benjamin N. Judkins, Jon Nielson: "The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese Martial Arts", State University of New York (2015) including Ip Man.Leung Ting: Roots of Wing Tsun. Leung's Publications, Hongkong 2000, page. 48 Weng Chun is considered a sister martial art to Wing Chun, as both styles contains notable similarities and differences: ===Name=== In Cantonese, the characters 永 (wing5 in the Jyutping system) and 咏 (wing6 in the Jyutping system) are pronounced very similarly. For people who do not speak Cantonese, the slight difference in pronunciation is barely noticeable. The character 咏 is assigned to the Kung Fu style Wing Chun (咏 春), which roughly means "spring song". In standard Chinese, the identical pronunciation Yǒng (yong3 in the Pinyin system) is used for the characters 永 and 咏; so they are homophones. Confusion between the two is very common due to this. ===Origins=== Both martial arts have lineages that attribute the creator to be Shaolin Monk Chi Sim.Leung, Ting (2000). Roots and Branches of Wing Tsun, Second edition (January 1, 2000). Leung Ting Co ,Hong Kong. ISBN 9627284238, pg. 53, 90-99Chu, Robert; Ritchie, Rene; Wu, Y. (2015). The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun's History and Tradition. Tuttle Publishing. , pg.90-99 Sometimes the Weng Chun is also referred to as Chi Sim Wing Chun or Siu Lam Wing Chun by martial arts scholars.Robert Chu, Rene Ritchi, Y. Wu: Complete Wing Chun: The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun's History and Traditions. Tuttle Publishing. , pg.90 Here one refers to the legend of the Buddhist monk Chi Sim from the Siu Lam temple (better known under the transfer of the characters 少林 in the Mandarin pronunciation as "Shaolin"), who is considered to be an important forefather of several Kung Fu styles. These include Weng Chun (aka "Jee Shim Wing Chun"), Hung Kuen and Wing Chun.Robert Chu, Rene Ritchi, Y. Wu: Complete Wing Chun: The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun's History and Traditions. Tuttle Publishing. , pg.90 One particular difference between the two is that while Wing Chun mainly perpetuated amongst Red Boat Opera Company, Weng Chun perpetuated outside of it. ===Technical differences=== Despite similarities in etymology, Weng Chun bears more similarity to another Southern Chinese Kung Fu style known as Hung Gar. It is believed that this style bears more similarity to Weng Chun than Wing Chun does.Robert Chu, Rene Ritchi, Y. Wu: Complete Wing Chun: The Definitive Guide to Wing Chun's History and Traditions. Tuttle Publishing. , pg.90 ==References== Category:Chinese martial arts Category:Guangdong Nanquan Category:Buddhist martial arts |
The following are the national records in athletics in Morocco maintained by Moroccan Royal Athletics Federation: Fédération Royale Marocaine d’Athlétisme (FRMA). ==Outdoor== Key to tables: \+ = en route to a longer distance h = hand timing # = not ratified by FRMA or/and by IAAF X = annulled due to doping violation ===Men=== Event Record Athlete Date Meet Place Ref 100 m 10.09 (+0.8 m/s) Aziz Ouhadi 28 May 2011 Meeting Grand Prix IAAF de Dakar Dakar, Senegal 100 m 10.07 (+0.6 m/s) Aziz Ouhadi 27 April 2015 Arab Championships Manama, Bahrain 200 m 20.50 (+0.2 m/s) Aziz Ouhadi 10 June 2012 CAA Meet Brazzaville, Congo 300 m 32.58 Benyounés Lahlou 20 July 1992 Narbonne, France 400 m 45.03 Benyounes Lahlou 9 September 1992 Latakia, Syria 600 m 1:15.84 Mostafa Smaili 12 May 2023 Meeting National Toulon, France 800 m 1:43.25 Amine Laalou 14 July 2006 Golden Gala Rome, Italy 1000 m 2:14.69 Mahjoub Haïda 12 July 1995 Nice, France 1500 m 3:26.00 Hicham El Guerrouj 14 July 1998 Golden Gala Rome, Italy Mile 3:43.13 Hicham El Guerrouj 7 July 1999 Golden Gala Rome, Italy 2000 m 4:44.79 Hicham El Guerrouj 7 September 1999 ISTAF Berlin, Germany 3000 m 7:23.09 Hicham El Guerrouj 3 September 1999 Memorial Van Damme Brussels, Belgium Two miles 8:10.98 Khalid Boulami 6 July 1996 Hechtel, Belgium 5000 m 12:49.28 Brahim Lahlafi 25 August 2000 Memorial Van Damme Brussels, Belgium 5 km (road) 13:20 Abdalaati Iguider 31 December 2020 BOclassic Bolzano, Italy 10000 m 26:38.08 Salah Hissou 23 August 1996 Memorial Van Damme Brussels, Belgium 10 km (road) 27:24 Hicham Amghar 3 September 2022 Birell 10k Race 2022 Prague, Czech Republic 10 km (road) 26:56 Hicham Amghar 7 April 2023 NAS Sports Tournament 10K Dubai, United Arab Emirates 15 km (road) 42:25 Aziz Lahbabi 2 March 2014 Roma-Ostia Half Marathon Rome-Ostia, Italy 10 miles (road) 45:24 Brahim Lahlafi 20 September 1998 Dam tot Damloop Amsterdam-Zaandam, Netherlands 20 km (road) 57:37 Khalid Khannouchi 7 September 1998 New Haven, United States Half marathon 59:25 Aziz Lahbabi 2 March 2014 Roma-Ostia Half Marathon Rome-Ostia, Italy One hour 20189 m El Hassan El Ahmadi 1 July 1995 Noisy-le-Grand, France 25 km (road) 1:14:03 Othmane El Goumri 19 March 2023 Barcelona Marathon Barcelona, Spain 30 km (road) 1:29:07 Othmane El Goumri 19 March 2023 Barcelona Marathon Barcelona, Spain Marathon 2:05:26 El Mahjoub Dazza 2 December 2018 Valencia Marathon Valencia, Spain Marathon 2:05:12 Othmane El Goumri 19 March 2023 Barcelona Marathon Barcelona, Spain 110 m hurdles 13.63 (+1.5 m/s) Mohamed Koussi 6 May 2018 French Club Championships Franconville, France 400 m hurdles 48.96 Mustapha Sdad 7 August 2001 World Championships Edmonton, Canada 2000 m steeplechase 5:14.06 Soufiane El Bakkali 11 September 2022 Hanžeković Memorial Zagreb, Croatia 3000 m steeplechase 7:55.28 Brahim Boulami 24 August 2001 Memorial Van Damme Brussels, Belgium 3000 m steeplechase 7:53.17 X Brahim Boulami 16 August 2002 Weltklasse Zürich Zürich, Switzerland High jump 2.17 m Mohamed Aghlal 14 July 1984 Rabat, Morocco Pole vault 5.45 m Mohamed Karbib 12 June 2005 Rabat, Morocco Long jump 8.40 m (+1.0 m/s) Yahya Berrabah 2 October 2009 Jeux de la Fracophonie Beirut, Lebanon Triple jump 17.37 m (+2.0 m/s) Tarik Bouguetaïb 14 July 2007 Khémisset, Morocco Shot put 20.45 m Lahcen Sam- Sam Akka 6 May 1972 San Jose, United States Discus throw 59.37 m Nabil Kiram 24 June 2007 Oujda, Morocco Hammer throw 70.73 m Driss Barid 1 June 2013 Rabat, Morocco Javelin throw 76.45 m Bilal Nouali 20 May 2017 Zaragoza, Spain Decathlon 7359 pts Hakim Moulay Rachid Alaoui 7–8 July 2004 Meknes, Morocco Decathlon 10.9 (100 m), 7.34 m (long jump), 10.92 m (shot put), 2.03 m (high jump), 51.2 (400 m) / 14.6 (110 m hurdles), 39.45 m (discus), 4.10 m (pole vault), 53.80 m (javelin), 4:37.6 (1500 m) 10.9 (100 m), 7.34 m (long jump), 10.92 m (shot put), 2.03 m (high jump), 51.2 (400 m) / 14.6 (110 m hurdles), 39.45 m (discus), 4.10 m (pole vault), 53.80 m (javelin), 4:37.6 (1500 m) 10.9 (100 m), 7.34 m (long jump), 10.92 m (shot put), 2.03 m (high jump), 51.2 (400 m) / 14.6 (110 m hurdles), 39.45 m (discus), 4.10 m (pole vault), 53.80 m (javelin), 4:37.6 (1500 m) 10.9 (100 m), 7.34 m (long jump), 10.92 m (shot put), 2.03 m (high jump), 51.2 (400 m) / 14.6 (110 m hurdles), 39.45 m (discus), 4.10 m (pole vault), 53.80 m (javelin), 4:37.6 (1500 m) 10.9 (100 m), 7.34 m (long jump), 10.92 m (shot put), 2.03 m (high jump), 51.2 (400 m) / 14.6 (110 m hurdles), 39.45 m (discus), 4.10 m (pole vault), 53.80 m (javelin), 4:37.6 (1500 m) 5000 m walk (track) 19:56.13 Ali Daghiri 9 May 2015 Rabat, Morocco 5 km walk (road) 19:35.8 Nacer Hasnaoui 17 February 1991 Rabat, Morocco 10000 m walk (track) 42:33.54 Ali Daghiri 26 April 2014 Tangier, Morocco 10 km walk (road) 43:03 Mohamed Maimouni 2 February 1992 Casablanca, Morocco 20 km walk (road) 1:31:06 Ali Daghiri 30 May 2015 Casablanca, Morocco 50 km walk (road) 4:57:29 Hassan Kouchaoui 21 April 1984 Albi, France 4 × 100 m relay 39.61 Mohamed Kandoussi Mohamed Moudamane Driss Bensaddou Abdelkader Boukhari 7 September 1992 Latakia, Syria 4 × 400 m relay 3:02.11 Abdelali Kasbane Ali Dahane Bouchaib Belkaid Benyounes Lahlou 31 August 1991 World Championships Tokyo, Japan Distance medley relay 9:17.48 Mohammed Moustaoui 2:48.54 (1200m) Marouan Maadadi 46.36 (400m) Mohammed Laâlou 1:49.51 (800m) Amine Laâlou 3:53.09 (1600 m) 30 April 2011 Penn Relays Philadelphia, United States Ekiden relay 1:57:56 / 5 km / 10 km / 5 km / 10 km / 5 km / 7.195 km 17 April 1994 Litochoro, Greece ===Women=== Event Record Athlete Date Meet Place Ref 100 m 11.45 (+0.1 m/s) Assia Raziki 22 June 2016 African Championships Durban, South Africa 200 m 23.29 (+0.9 m/s) Nezha Bidouane 30 August 1998 IAAF Grand Prix Rieti, Italy 200 m 23.0 Nezha Bidouane 6 August 2000 Rabat, Morocco 300 m 37.42 Assia Raziki 30 June 2019 ABES Topmeeting Edegem, Belgium 400 m 51.67 Nezha Bidouane 1 September 1998 ISTAF Berlin, Germany 600 m 1:24.62 Assia Raziki 19 June 2022 Rabat, Morocco 800 m 1:56.43 Hasna Benhassi 23 August 2004 Olympic Games Athens, Greece 1000 m 2:33.15 Hasna Benhassi 17 July 1999 Nice, France 1500 m 3:58.84 Rababe Arafi 16 June 2019 Diamond League Rabat, Morocco 1500 m 3:58.35 Btissam Lakhouad 8 July 2010 Diamond League Lausanne, Switzerland 1500 m 3:56.15 X Mariem Alaoui Selsouli 6 July 2012 Meeting Areva Paris, France Mile 4:18.42 Rababe Arafi 12 July 2019 Diamond League Fontvieille, Monaco 2000 m 5:47.93 Siham Hilali 4 September 2009 Memorial Van Damme Brussels, Belgium 3000 m 8:26.48 Zahra Ouaziz 11 August 1999 Weltklasse Zürich Zürich, Switzerland Two miles 9:38.44 Fatima Aouam 13 September 1987 Padua, Italy 5000 m 14:32.08 Zahra Ouaziz 1 September 1998 ISTAF Berlin, Germany 5 km 15:06 Asmae Leghzaoui 15 September 2002 Providence, United States 10000 m 31:16.94 Asmae Leghzaoui 12 September 2001 Tunis, Tunisia 10 km (road) 30:28.6 Asmae Leghzaoui 8 June 2002 New York Mini 10K New York, United States 15 km (road) 50:12 Fatiha Benchatki 16 April 2017 Bouznika, Morocco 10 miles (road) 52:21 Asmae Leghzaoui 24 August 2002 Crim Festival of Races Flint, United States 20 km (road) 1:07:42 Rakiya Maraoui 15 October 1995 Paris, France Half marathon 1:08:34 Asmae Leghzaoui 31 January 1999 Marrakesh, Morocco Marathon 2:25:35 Koutar Boulaid 25 February 2018 Seville Marathon Seville, Spain 100 m hurdles 13.55 Nezha Bidouane 12 August 1990 Maia, Portugal 400 m hurdles 52.90 Nezha Bidouane 25 August 1999 World Championships Seville, Spain 2000 m steeplechase 6:20.23 Bouchra Chaâbi 1 June 2005 Grand Prix Regione Lombardia Milan, Italy 3000 m steeplechase 9:20.64 Salima El Ouali Alami 17 July 2015 Herculis Fontvieille, Monaco High jump 1.80 m Rhizlane Siba 30 March 2013 Warri, Nigeria High jump 1.80 m Rhizlane Siba 5 May 2013 Reims, France High jump 1.80 m Rhizlane Siba 19 May 2013 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France Pole vault 4.05 m Nisrine Dinar 16 July 2006 Rabat, Morocco Long jump 6.53 m (+1.2 m/s) Jamaa Chnaik 1 May 2010 Meknès, Morocco Triple jump 13.76 m Jamaa Chnaik 6 June 2010 Rabat, Morocco Triple jump 13.75 m (+2.0 m/s) Jamaa Chnaik 1 July 2012 African Championships Porto- Novo, Benin Shot put 16.60 m Souad Maloussi 28 September 1985 Melbourne, Australia Discus throw 56.94 m Zoubida Laayouni 20 March 1994 Meknès, Morocco Hammer throw 68.28 m Soukaina Zakkour 2 August 2018 African Championships Asaba, Nigeria Javelin throw 46.06 m Rizlaine Amdaa 16 February 2013 Maisons- Laffitte, France Javelin throw 49.46 m Rkia Ramoudi 11 July 1994 Bondoufle, France Heptathlon 5305 pts Cherifa Meskaoui 6–7 August 1985 Casablanca, Morocco Heptathlon 14.28 (100 m hurdles), 1.55 m (high jump), 13.71 m (shot put), 25.58 (200 m) / 5.42 m (long jump), 39.66 m (javelin), 2:26.25 (800 m) 14.28 (100 m hurdles), 1.55 m (high jump), 13.71 m (shot put), 25.58 (200 m) / 5.42 m (long jump), 39.66 m (javelin), 2:26.25 (800 m) 14.28 (100 m hurdles), 1.55 m (high jump), 13.71 m (shot put), 25.58 (200 m) / 5.42 m (long jump), 39.66 m (javelin), 2:26.25 (800 m) 14.28 (100 m hurdles), 1.55 m (high jump), 13.71 m (shot put), 25.58 (200 m) / 5.42 m (long jump), 39.66 m (javelin), 2:26.25 (800 m) 14.28 (100 m hurdles), 1.55 m (high jump), 13.71 m (shot put), 25.58 (200 m) / 5.42 m (long jump), 39.66 m (javelin), 2:26.25 (800 m) 3 km walk (road) 14:47.5 Meriem Kouch 14 April 1993 Rabat, Morocco 5 km walk (road) 24:29 Nazha Ezzhani 30 May 2010 Moroccan Race Walking Championships Rabat, Morocco 10 km walk (road) 50:32.8 Nazha Ezzhani 27 June 2009 Casablanca, Morocco 20 km walk (road) 1:52:50 Nazha Ezzhani 2 April 2011 Algeria 50 km walk (road) 4 × 100 m relay 46.05 Nezha Bidouane Hasna Ati Allah Latifa Lahcen Nadia Zetouani 11 July 1991 Mediterranean Games Athens, Greece 4 × 400 m relay 3:37.48 Hasna Grioui Hayat Lambarki Lamiae Lhabze Malika Akkaoui 14 September 2013 Jeux de la Fracophonie Nice, France 4 × 400 m relay 3:35.86 Sara El Hachimi Soukaina Hajji Noura Ennadi Assia Raziki 12 August 2022 Islamic Solidarity Games Konya, Turkey ===Mixed=== Event Record Athlete Date Meet Place Ref 4 × 400 m relay 3:20.29 Rachid M’Hamdi Sara El Hachimi Hamza Dair Assia Raziki 11 August 2022 Islamic Solidarity Games Konya, Turkey ==Indoor== ===Men=== Event Record Athlete Date Meet Place Ref 60 m 6.68 Aziz Ouhadi 10 March 2012 World Championships Istanbul, Turkey 200 m 21.19 Aziz Ouhadi 8 February 2011 Meeting Pas de Calais Liévin, France 400 m 46.81 Benyounés Lahlou 12 March 1993 World Championships Toronto, Canada 500 m 1:02.25 Faouzi Lahbi 3 February 1985 Karlsruhe, West Germany 800 m 1:45.76 Mahjoub Haida 9 March 1997 World Championships Paris, France 1000 m 2:17.17 Mahjoub Haida 25 February 1996 Stockholm, Sweden 1500 m 3:31.18 Hicham El Guerrouj 2 February 1997 Sparkassen Cup Stuttgart, Germany Mile 3:48.45 Hicham El Guerrouj 12 February 1997 Indoor Flanders Meeting Ghent, Belgium 2000 m 4:58.56 Adil Kaouch 5 February 1999 Budapest, Hungary 3000 m 7:33.73 Hicham El Guerrouj 23 February 2003 Meeting Pas de Calais Liévin, France Two miles 8:06.61 Hicham El Guerrouj 23 February 2003 Meeting Pas de Calais Liévin, France 5000 m 13:10.60 Soufiane El Bakkali 18 February 2017 Birmingham Indoor Grand Prix Birmingham, United Kingdom 10000 m 27:52.62 Abderrahim Goumri 10 February 2002 Indoor Flanders Meeting Ghent, Belgium 60 m hurdles 7.69 Mohamed Koussi 31 January 2018 Meeting National des Sacres Reims, France 400 m hurdles 52.82 Elamine Badr 6 February 2010 Meeting National Val-de-Reuil, France High jump 2.00 m Mohamed Aghlal 18 January 1985 World Indoor Games Paris, France Pole vault 5.20 m Taoufik Lacheeb 8 February 1992 Paris, France Long jump 8.02 m Younés Moudrik 1 February 2002 Erfurt, Germany Long jump 8.02 m Younés Moudrik 1 February 2002 Erfurt, Germany Long jump 8.02 m Yahya Berrabah 13 February 2010 Reunión Internacional de Atletismo Valencia, Spain Long jump 8.02 m Younés Moudrik 2 February 2001 Erfurt, Germany Long jump 8.02 m Younés Moudrik 14 March 2001 Madrid, Spain Triple jump 16.82 m Tarek Bougtaib 24 February 2008 Indoor Flanders Meeting Ghent, Belgium Shot put 18.14 m Lahcen Samsam Akka 13 February 1971 Oakland, United States Heptathlon 5044 pts Tarik Chakri 4–5 February 1995 Nogent-sur-Oise, France Heptathlon 7.44 (60 m), 6.19 m (long jump), 11.59 m (shot put), 1.92 m (high jump) / 8.90 (60 m hurdles), 4.50 m (pole vault), 2:42.80 (1000 m) 7.44 (60 m), 6.19 m (long jump), 11.59 m (shot put), 1.92 m (high jump) / 8.90 (60 m hurdles), 4.50 m (pole vault), 2:42.80 (1000 m) 7.44 (60 m), 6.19 m (long jump), 11.59 m (shot put), 1.92 m (high jump) / 8.90 (60 m hurdles), 4.50 m (pole vault), 2:42.80 (1000 m) 7.44 (60 m), 6.19 m (long jump), 11.59 m (shot put), 1.92 m (high jump) / 8.90 (60 m hurdles), 4.50 m (pole vault), 2:42.80 (1000 m) 7.44 (60 m), 6.19 m (long jump), 11.59 m (shot put), 1.92 m (high jump) / 8.90 (60 m hurdles), 4.50 m (pole vault), 2:42.80 (1000 m) 5000 m walk 26:52.18 Oussama Farah 25 January 2014 Bordeaux, France 4 × 400 m relay ===Women=== Event Record Athlete Date Meet Place Ref 60 m 7.50 Salima Jamali 12 February 2011 Eaubonne, France 200 m 24.19 Salima Jamali 6 February 2011 Aubière, France 400 m 53.54 Nezha Bidouane 7 March 1997 World Championships Paris, France 800 m 1:59.01 Malika Akkaoui 14 February 2012 Meeting Pas de Calais Liévin, France 1000 m 2:36.01 Seltana Aït Hammou 20 February 2004 Norwich Union Indoor Grand Prix Birmingham, United Kingdom 1500 m 4:02.46 Rababe Arafi 8 February 2020 Copernicus Cup Toruń, Poland Mile 4:29.74 Rababe Arafi 16 February 2019 Birmingham Indoor Grand Prix Birmingham, United Kingdom 2000 m 5:40.0 Mariem Alaoui Selsouli 9 February 2008 Valencia, Spain 3000 m 8:35.86 Mariem Alaoui Selsouli 9 February 2008 Reunión Internacional de Atletismo Valencia, Spain 5000 m 15:11.15 Zhara Ouaziz 31 January 2004 Sparkassen Cup Stuttgart, Germany 60 m hurdles 8.67 Sanae Zouine 1 February 2014 Valencia, Spain 400 m hurdles 58.66 Haissat Lambarki 29 January 2012 Bordeaux, France High jump 1.75 m Hind Bounouail 3 February 2001 Paris, France High jump 1.81 m Rhizlane Siba 13 December 2014 Kansas State Winter Invitational Manhattan, United States High jump 1.82 m Rhizlane Siba 6 January 2018 Wildcat Invitational Manhattan, United States Pole vault 3.17 m Zakia El Hassouni 13 January 1996 Cercy-la-Tour, France Long jump 5.97 m Fatima Zahra Dkouk 28 February 2004 Valladolid, Spain Triple jump 12.08 m Aziza Amari 1992 France Shot put 13.03 m Salima Ben Hamou 5 February 1989 Grenoble, France Pentathlon 3642 pts Sanae Zouine 8 February 2014 Antequera, Spain Pentathlon 8.78 (60 m hurdles), 1.53 m (high jump), 9.36 m (shot put), 5.88 m (long jump), 2:27.11 (800 m) 8.78 (60 m hurdles), 1.53 m (high jump), 9.36 m (shot put), 5.88 m (long jump), 2:27.11 (800 m) 8.78 (60 m hurdles), 1.53 m (high jump), 9.36 m (shot put), 5.88 m (long jump), 2:27.11 (800 m) 8.78 (60 m hurdles), 1.53 m (high jump), 9.36 m (shot put), 5.88 m (long jump), 2:27.11 (800 m) 8.78 (60 m hurdles), 1.53 m (high jump), 9.36 m (shot put), 5.88 m (long jump), 2:27.11 (800 m) 3000 m walk 17:32.90 Rakia Chachoui 18 March 2008 Aubière, France 4 × 400 m relay ==Notes== ==References== ;General *World Athletics Statistic Handbook 2022: National Outdoor Records *World Athletics Statistic Handbook 2022: National Indoor Records ;Specific ==External links== * FRMA web site Morocco Records Athletics Athletics |
Pichon-Parat was a French carrosserie based in the commune of Sens, in the department of Yonne. Established in 1952, it was known for producing custom cabriolet, coupé, estate car, and shooting brake conversions of established models from major automakers, and for building their own distinctive sporting models with completely original bodywork. ==History== The company was founded by Bernard Pichon and André Parat. Pichon was born on 28 April 1923, and Parat eleven days later on 9 May 1923. Both families settled in Sens and the two boys became close friends while still very young. Pichon, whose family was wealthier, began drawing cars while still in school. Later he trained as a lathe-operator before buying a truck and working in transportation, then decided to pursue automobile design full time in 1950. Parat trained as a boilermaker and obtained his welder's ticket. The two men started working on automobile conversions together. Some of their earliest work involved converting large American cars into utility vehicles. In 1949 the pair designed and built a custom coupé version of the Ford Vedette sedan. They booked a booth at the 1951 Paris Salon de l'Auto to display their conversions. In 1952 the two partners formally established their carrosserie in Sens. Originally located at 73 rue du Général Leclerc, the company later moved to 39 rue Mocquesouris, where their factory was a rustic collection of buildings around a central courtyard where chickens roamed. The name of the company was Pichon & Parat, although the hyphenated form Pichon-Parat was commonly used, and some badging reads Pichon Parat Sens. The company was also at times referred to by its location as Sens or Sénonais, in the same way that Citroën was known as Quai de Javel, and Panhard as Porte d’Ivry. After being selected by Raymond Loewy to build his design for a custom bodied BMW 507, the company went on to do several projects with the Franco-American designer, producing bodywork for Loewy designs based on cars from Cadillac, Jaguar, and Studebaker. Pichon left the company in 1960. For a time he worked for Antonio Lago, and by 1962 had become an inspector in Fiat's public works division. Parat continued to run the carrosserie himself, while Pichon remained in touch and would send work to his former partner. The two men continued to collaborate on some projects, including their original four-headlamp conversion for the Citroën DS/ID that appeared in 1964 — three years ahead of Citroën's own "Nouveau visage" restyling of the car. In the mid-1960s, Panhard encouraged Parat to merge with Monopole Poissy, and move to the engine parts supplier's larger facilities in Poissy, but this merger never took place. Parat also turned down an offer from Loewy to move to the US, and an overture from Enzo Ferrari to become the Italian's East France division and workshop, preferring in all cases to maintain his independence. The company did become a distributor of Sterckeman caravans. Coachbuilding activities from this point on almost ceased, making the resumption of estate car building in the late 1970s noteworthy. On 1 January 1971, Parat relocated operations to Route de Lyon in Sens. Two years later he stopped building coachwork to concentrate exclusively on boiler-making and auto repairs. On 19 June 1979 Bernard Pichon died at the Ambroise Paré Hospital in Boulogne Billancourt. The Pichon & Parat company was removed from French corporate registers on 30 November 1983. André Parat was killed in a road accident on 24 November 1995. ==Projects== ===Bugatti=== Shortly after the end of World War II (WWII) Pichon-Parat created a body for a Bugatti Type 49 Roadster (chassis 49481) built in the Gangloff style. A Bugatti Type 57 Stelvio, chassis number 57314, was bought new in 1935 by a Monsieur Dettwiller. Fifteen years later Detwiller inquired about buying a Type 101, but was told that the new model was not yet available. Dettwiller and Pierre Marco of Bugatti came to an agreement whereby Detwiller's Type 57 would receive a new chassis frame (#57314-2) and a Type 101 engine, while the original body would be retained but updated with, among other changes, a Type 101 radiator grille. Pichon-Parat handled the revisions to the bodywork. In 1987 owner C. Richards had the car restored by Barry Price, who returned the car to its original appearance, undoing the changes made by Pichon-Parat. ===Ford Vedette=== In a special October 1950 show issue of the magazine L'Action Automobile et Touristique (AAT), a coupé conversion of a Ford Vedette sedan by Pichon-Parat was featured alongside work from other coachbuilders, including Franay, Guilloré, Saoutchik and Figoni Falaschi. The change converted the two-box factory sedan into a three-box shape. A revised version of the Vedette coupé with a panoramic backlite appeared on their stand at the 1951 Salon de l'Auto in Paris. Eventually the company would produce just short of 300 Vedette conversions, with body styles that included variations on the original coupé as well as estate cars, convertibles and modified sedans, including a convertible sedan. ===Renault 4CV=== Also on the Pichon-Parat stand at the Grand Palais in 1951 was a coupé based on the Renault 4CV Grand Luxe. ===Renault Frégate=== In 1952 Pichon-Parat became the first carrosserie to build and show a 2-door convertible version of the Renault Frégate. The first iteration of the design, seen early in 1952, was a simple roofless conversion of the hardtop sedan with a horizontal bar grille and an air intake added to the hood. A later version displayed in October replaced the earlier wide grille with a narrower chrome escutcheon and added extensive chrome detailing along the car's sides. Pichon-Parat did not pursue production of this project, instead turning their attention to modified Panhards. ===Citroën 15/6=== In 1952 Pichon-Parat built a customized Citroën Traction Avant, based on a 1949 six-cylinder 15/6 model. Changes to the interior included adding a gear change on the steering wheel and a radio. On the exterior, only the original roof and rear door panels were retained. The headlamps were integrated into the front wings and air vents were added. The new rear fenders were very similar to those of the Renault Frégate. ===Peugeot 203=== The carrosserie built a special lightweight Peugeot 203, with body panels of duralumin, that Parat personally drove in the 1953 Liège–Rome–Liège rallye. ===Dyna Junior=== After observing the performance of the Panhard Dyna's during the Liège–Rome–Liège rallye, Parat and company began building what would eventually be a run of about thirty copies of a fixed-head coupé version of the Panhard Dyna Junior beginning in 1953. The mechanical aspects were carried over from the Panhard and, apart from the roof, the carrosserie's coupé followed the original's appearance closely. ===Pichon-Parat Dolomite=== As a follow-on to their Dyna Junior coupés, in 1954 the company unveiled a new berlinette model, called the Dolomite, with a more streamlined body. While one car was built on a DB chassis, the rest of the Dolomites were built on chassis from either a Panhard Dyna X or Junior, new or used, depending on the customer's wishes. Power came from a Panhard flat-twin of either or . About 60 of these cars were built starting in 1954 and continuing until 1956. Dolomites were raced at several major events, including the Bol d’Or in 1954, the Tour de Corse in 1955 and 1956, the Mille Miglia in 1956 and 1957, as well as at Mont Ventoux, Lyon-Charbonnières and others. The cars achieved some class wins. The original berlinette was followed by a cabriolet in 1956. ===Salmson 2300S=== During the years 1953 and 1954 Pichon-Parat built three cars (some references say just two) based on the Salmson 2300S. The second and third car in the series were named Pichon-Parat Salmson 2300GS. The Salmson came with a aluminium DOHC straight-four engine fed by a Solex 35/40 double barrel carburetor, and producing . Transmission options included a Cotal preselector gearbox or an optional ZF manual transmission. The front suspension was independent with upper and lower wishbones, longitudinal torsion bars, telescopic dampers, and hydraulic drum brakes. In the rear was a live axle suspended on semi-elliptic leaf springs with telescopic dampers. Steering was by either rack-and-pinion or worm-and-sector. The first Pichon-Parat Salmson car, which is not always included in the histories, was similar in appearance to a larger version of the Panhard Dolomite coupés. The second car was shown at the 1954 Paris Motor Show. With a berlinette body made of aluminium, it weighed just , less than the original Salmson. The wide original front air intake was later reshaped to deal with cooling problems encountered by owner René Cotton. Cotton raced the car, registered as 1265 DL 75, at Monte Carlo, the Coupe des Alpes, the Liège-Rome-Liège, and the Lyon Charbonnières. The car was eventually abandoned and later scrapped. The third Salmson bodied by the Sens carrosserie was also a berlinette, but one whose wheelbase had been reduced from the original to . Other features of this car included an aluminium body painted Ile de France blue, a competition Borgward 4-speed gearbox, and Rudge wheels and brake drums. It was sold to an owner only known as "Vincent" for 7500 New Francs. Rediscovered in 1956, the car disappeared again by the end of the 1950s. ===Guépard=== André Delacourt's Société d'Etude et de Recherches (S.E.R.) commissioned the construction of two Renault-powered specials that appeared in 1954. The first car was built for René Paris, and the second for Paul Bobet. Power came from a Renault 4 CV Type 662-2 engine block with a big-valve R1063 cylinder head, Solex carburettor, and sports exhaust. The rear wheels were driven through a 5-speed gearbox from André- Georges Claude. Pichon-Parat produced the original aluminium barquette bodies. The cars were homologated as Guépards (Cheetahs). Both cars appeared at the 1954 Bol d'Or, numbered 76 and 77 respectively. The car driven by Paris did not finish, while Bobet's finished twenty-second out of twenty-six classified. Bobet later had his car rebodied with an extremely aerodynamic shape designed by Marcel Riffard and fabricated by Heuliez. This restyled car was renamed the Riffard-Renault in 1956. ===Delage D6 3 Litre=== In 1955 Pichon-Parat rebodied a Delage D6 3 Litre racing car. The Delage D6 3L was powered by a supercharged inline six cylinder engine. Fed by three Solex carburettors, it produced at 5300 rpm. The ladder chassis had a wheelbase of , and was suspended on upper and lower wishbones and transverse leaf springs in front, and a live axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs in back. Friction dampers were used at all four corners. Five cars were built. One car, Chassis 880004, was bought new in 1947 by Henri Louveau, and from 1948 to 1950 it appeared in several endurance racing events, taking second place at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Spa 24 Hours, and the 12 Hours of Paris. In 1953 the car was bought by Jacques Nollé, who commissioned Pichon-Parat to rebody the car as a coupé. The body that resulted was a long-nosed coupé with short, sharply peaked tailfins. Shortly after buying the car in 1995, new owner Peter Mullin had it restored it to its original 1947 racing configuration by Auto Classique Touraine of Tours, France. ===Pichon-Parat Izoard 4CV=== The Col d'Izoard is a mountain pass in the Alps. In 1955 Pichon-Parat unveiled the Izoard Pichon-Parat 4CV; a sports car with a body designed by Pichon and built on the Renault 4CV platform. The original two-door berlinette had gullwing doors and aluminium bodywork. The car was raced in various rallies and appeared in the 1956 Mille Miglia. In 1956 a cabriolet version was launched. ===Lancia Aurelia B20 GT=== In early 1956 Pichon-Parat presented a styling exercise built on the unibody chassis of a Lancia Aurelia B20 GT. Reaction to the two-door berlinette with its quad- headlamp nose was mixed. ===Talbot-Lago=== In an effort to revive the fortunes of his struggling Talbot-Lago company, Antonio Lago commissioned the construction of a new barquette for Le Mans. For the 1956 race two cars were built on the Talbot-Lago T14 LS chassis. Power for the cars came from the same Maserati inline six used in the Maserati 250F. Bore and stroke were for a total displacement of . Pichon-Parat provided the bodywork. The two barquettes were entered for Le Mans in 1956, with one car driven by the team of Louis Rosier and Jean Behra, and the other by Geoffredo Zehender and Jean Lucas. Neither car finished. In 1957 the cars were entered with Franco Bordoni and Georges Burggraff listed as drivers in one and Bruce Halford and Franco Bordoni in the other. The Bordoni/Burggraff car did not start, and the Halford/Bordoni car retired with gearbox trouble. A collection of Talbot-Lago parts, including six T14 chassis, bodies, and parts for Talbot's BMW V8-powered America models, were bought by racing driver George Grignard. In 1979 this collection was sold to Dominique Dupont, who built one Le Mans 2500 replica for himself and sold the other five chassis off to be built by their new owners. These cars became known as the Dupont Barquettes. ===Simca Aronde=== In 1956 a new coupé from the Sénonais carrosserie was on their stand at Paris. This car was based on the Simca Aronde platform. The car had a panoramic windshield and concave rear lines. It was featured on the cover of the December 1956 issue of l'Automobile magazine. The project did not get any support from Simca, who would later release their "Plein Ciel" model built by Facel Metallon. The show car was believed to have been destroyed in a road accident. ===BMW 507=== Raymond Loewy saw the 4CV-based cabriolet and Aronde- based coupé on the Pichon-Parat stand in 1956, and asked Pichon if he could produce a body for a car to his exact specifications. This meeting led to Pichon-Parat being hired to build a body designed by Loewy on the base of a V8-powered BMW 507, chassis number 70.024. Some features of the two-seat coupé that resulted foreshadowed Loewy's later work, including the Studebaker Avanti. ===Peugeot 403=== At the Paris Salon de l'Auto in 1957, Pichon-Parat displayed a Peugeot 403 coupé. This car had a lowered roof, and a panoramic windscreen and backlite. The coachworks had also removed the B pillars, which were structural and the absence of which resulted in increased chassis flex that caused the side doors to jam. The car was destroyed after the show. ===Pichon-Parat Pipat-kart=== Something that Pichon encountered during his time in the US, and that he brought back home with him, was Kart racing, which was then unknown in France. The first Pichon-Parat kart appeared in 1957. It was made using a tubular steel chassis, Vespa wheels and an engine from a chainsaw. Development proceeded quickly, and soon the karts from Sens were using two-stroke engines from tillers or even motorcycles. Pichon-Parat's Pipat-karts were sold, with or without an engine, throughout France. ===Panhard Dyna Z=== As early as 1953 Pichon-Parat released a coupé version of the Panhard Dyna Z sedan. The company developed an estate car conversion for the Panhard Dyna Z that was first seen in 1956, then revised in 1957 and again in 1958. The rear end and tailgate were sourced from the Peugeot 403 Familiale. Another car on the company's stand at the 1958 Paris Auto Show was a Panhard Dyna convertible dubbed "Bordeaux". This car was distinguished by shrouded headlamps and a mesh grille that stretched the full width of the nose and curved up and over a stylized version of the original Panhard Dyna air intake. This car was the result of a joint venture between Pichon-Parat and the Bordeaux-based coachbuilder Vivez. Designed by Bernard Pichon, ten copies of the "Bordeaux" were to have been produced in under license by Vivez. ===Cadillac Coupe de Ville=== Another Pichon-Parat project for Raymond Loewy was a 1959 Cadillac Coupe de Ville, VIN 59J088977. The car was bought new. Pichon and staff spent a weekend at Loewy's country house in the Chevreuse valley, where Loewy indicated his desired changes by having the car wrapped in paper and writing on it with a felt-tip pen. Shipped to Sens, the car was ready in just a few weeks. After its completion the Cadillac was shown at the 1959 Paris Auto Show. Loewy and his family drove the car in Europe, then shipped it back to California. Loewy sold the car in 1970. ===Vespa 400=== The same year that Pichon-Parat completed Loewy's Cadillac project, they released a design on the opposite end of the automotive size scale; the Vespa 400 Esterel of 1959. Six or seven of this tiny beach car are said to have been built. The Esterel is powered by a rear mounted 2-stroke engine developing . Suspension is fully independent. The interior uses water-resistance rattan or plastic upholstery, with sun protection provided by a removable canopy. ===Cabriolet Pichon-Parat Tigre=== At the 1960 Paris Auto Show the company showed a small cabriolet based on the Panhard PL 17 and built on the same shortened chassis as the Tigre Z Sports. The car had no engine or electrical system, and would remain unfinished and in storage at the factory for thirty years, until it was bought by an enthusiast, who installed a Panhard Tigre engine. ===Oldsmobile 98=== The coachbuilder was commissioned by Robert Dhéry to create a customized car to be the title character in the 1961 movie "La Belle Américaine". Although in the movie it is referred to as a "Cadillac", the movie car is a modified 1959 Oldsmobile 98 convertible. Apart from the bodywork, several special gadgets were added to the car for use in the movie. ===Citroën DS/ID=== In late 1964, Pichon-Parat presented a DS with a quad headlamp conversion, three years ahead of Citroën. The conversion consisted of new front wings reshaped to accept the Cibié headlamp assemblies used on the Panhard 24, and only required one day's work by the coachbuilder. About 300 of these conversions were done. The company then went on to apply this new front end to a short wheelbase DS/ID coupé they developed and released in 1965. Although not a major success in sales, Citroën's competition department later had Pichon-Parat build them shortened, two-door versions of the DS for racing. The carrosserie also considered producing a model with a shortened ID chassis powered by a Panhard flat twin engine, but the launch of Panhard's own 24CT eliminated the market window for this design. ===Studebaker=== Following the success of Loewy's Avanti coupé, Studebaker commissioned his firm to create new designs for four-door models. Loewy sent designers John Ebstein and Bob Andrews to France to produce the new shapes. In six weeks they had produced two proposals; a notchback and a fastback. On 12 April 1962 approval was given for both to be produced as prototypes, with the fastback scheduled to be delivered in October that same year. Pichon-Parat built the bodies for both using stock Studebaker chassis, running gear, and drivetrains. The cars were displayed at Studebaker's South Bend, Indiana location, and then moved when the company relocated to Youngstown, Ohio. After that the cars' location was unclear until they were rediscovered in 2010. ===Jaguar E-Type=== Pichon-Parat were involved in modifying at least two Jaguar E-Type coupés. The first was a 1966 Jaguar 4.2 Litre Series 1, chassis no. 1E30635, that became Loewy's personal car. Work started in 1965. Changes to the bodywork, executed by Pichon-Parat, included shortening the nose by and the tail by , adding quad headlamps and a new, larger, oval grille opening, replacing the original Jaguar taillamps with Frenched in units from the Chevrolet Corvair, and adding a transparent spoiler across the trailing edge of the roof. The second E-Type was a car whose changes consisted mainly of having its nose extended by . It was featured in the 1968 movie "Le Petit Baigneur". ===Matra MS620=== In 1966 Matra unveiled their first Group 6 car and second ever racing sports car — the Matra MS620. The car featured a 1.9 litre BRM V8 engine capable of producing at 9,000 RPM. The tubular steel chassis was designed by Bernard Boyer, formerly of Alpine, and the berlinette bodywork by Pichon-Parat. Four cars were built. The cars first appeared at the Le Mans test in 1966. Their best finish was a win at Magny-Cours and a second at the Coup-de-Paris. Their last appearance was at the 1967 Le Mans test. ===Ligier JS2=== French industrialist and racing car driver Guy Ligier established Ligier Automobiles to build the kind of car that he and late driving partner Jo Schlesser had planned together. Ligier's first car was the Ligier JS1, a two-seat mid-engined coupé with a body styled by Pietro Frua. The car was named to honour Schlesser. The JS2 was a follow-on to the JS1, with a new Maserati-built DOHC V6 shared with the Citroën SM. Pichon-Parat updated Frua's design for the JS1, revising the nose, reshaping the luggage space, and changing the taillamps. They also had to make changes to accommodate the Maserati engine. ===Peugeot 604=== In a 1977 return to activity the coachbuilder presented a Peugeot 604 station wagon, only two of which were built. One was used by driver Bernard Consten. ===BMW 1800/2000=== Shortly after establishing their French operation in Brumath near Strasbourg, BMW contracted Pichon-Parat to produce a limited series of estate cars built on the Munich manufacturer's BMW 1800 or 2000 base. At twice the price of a Peugeot 404 Super Luxe station wagon, few were sold." ===Other conversions=== Pichon-Parat continued to offer estate car conversions as late as 1980 on models such as the Renault 30 TS and the BMW 7 Series. ==References== ==Further reading== * * ==External links== * * Category:Coachbuilders of France Category:French racecar constructors Category:Sports car manufacturers Category:French companies established in 1952 Category:Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of France |
Brent Harvey (born 14 May 1978), often known by his nickname "Boomer", is a former Australian rules footballer who played for the North Melbourne Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). He holds the record for most matches played by an individual in VFL/AFL history, breaking Michael Tuck's previous VFL/AFL record in 2016 with a total of 432 games played. ==Career== Drafted by the North Melbourne Football Club in the third round of the 1995 AFL Draft, Harvey played in his only premiership side in 1999 after earning an E. J. Whitten Medal for being judged as the best player afield playing Victoria in the State of Origin series; it was the last time this medal was awarded, as the State of Origin series was put on indefinite hiatus at the end of the year. He won the Syd Barker Medal in 2003 as well as the Jim Stynes Medal in the International rules series, captaining the Australian team in the 2008 International Rules Series.Brent Harvey to rule roost against Irish A highlight of his 2003 season was against Carlton at the Telstra Dome in Round 22. Playing in his 150th game, Harvey kicked three goals in the Roos' record- breaking 124-point victory. He was the only North Melbourne player to have played every game at Manuka Oval during North Melbourne's nine-year stint at the venue. In 2007, Harvey polled 22 votes in the Brownlow Medal, finishing equal second, and in 2008 Harvey polled 17 votes to finish in eighth place despite being one of the favourites to win the award in both years.Bookies sweat on Harvey In 2010, the week after a career-low five-possession game against St Kilda, Harvey led North Melbourne to a 25-point win over West Coast Eagles with a career-best 44 disposals, along with 11 marks, six goal-scoring assists, and one goal. Harvey also almost kicked a candidate for goal of the year, taking seven bounces of the ball in a run from defence before hitting the post with his shot at goal. Incidentally, Harvey holds the record for most career bounces, with 1,055. He is the only player to have crossed the thousand-bounce threshold. In 2011, playing his 312th game, he broke Glenn Archer's all-time club record for games played. Harvey's grandfather Bill Harvey played two games for North Melbourne in 1948. His brother, Shane Harvey, played 14 games for Essendon and North Melbourne from 2002 to 2004. ==Late career== In Round 17 of the 2015 AFL season, Harvey played his 400th career game, becoming the first North Melbourne player to do so and fourth overall. He kicked two goals in a performance that suggested his career was far from over. In Round 19 of the 2016 AFL season, Harvey broke Michael Tuck's record for most VFL/AFL matches by a player. In honor of Tuck's record, the Kangaroos wore the number 427 applied to the vertical royal-blue bars of their guernseys, and the number 50 on the 50-metre arc was replaced by 29, the number Harvey had worn for his entire AFL career. In August, North Melbourne announced they would not renew his contract for the 2017 season. On Friday 7 October 2016 at the 2016 Syd Barker Medal night, Brent Harvey announced his retirement from AFL football. He was the last-remaining VFL/AFL player born in the 1970s, and the last who had played in the 1990s. In 2022, he was inducted into the AFL Hall Of Fame in his first year of eligibility. At the time of the announcement, he was the AFL/VFL all-time leader in games played, with 432. Only four other players have achieved the feat of playing 400 AFL games: Tuck, Essendon's Dustin Fletcher, Richmond's Kevin Bartlett, and Port Adelaide and Hawthorn's Shaun Burgoyne. In elite Australian rules football (the VFL/AFL, SANFL and WAFL), Harvey is one of seven players (Harvey and the other four VFL/AFL players being joined by Craig Bradley and Peter Carey) to have played 400 career premiership matches (home-and-away and finals matches), and is ranked third for most career premiership matches played behind Bradley (464, including 89 SANFL matches for Port Adelaide) and Burgoyne (433, including 26 SANFL matches for Port Adelaide) as of 2022. ===Other matches=== Harvey also played two matches for Victoria in State of Origin football, and 46 matches in pre-season/night series competition for North Melbourne (which are counted as senior in the SANFL and WAFL but not the VFL/AFL). If these are included, Harvey played a total of 480 career senior matches. The AFL record Harvey's total as 445 career senior games, excluding his pre-season/night series matches but including 11 International Rules matches, which are counted as senior by the AFL. If his pre-season/night series matches are included here, Harvey played an overall total of 491 senior career matches. Depending on the viewpoint taken, Harvey broke Tuck's elite Victorian football record in Round 16 of 2016 (using the AFL's total), in Round 10 of 2016 (excluding International rules matches), or in the first pre-season round of 2016 (including International Rules matches). As of 2022, Harvey's total of 445 senior career matches (using the AFL's total) ranks fifth behind Bradley (501), Peter Carey (467), Greg Phillips (447) and Russell Ebert (446), while if his pre-season/night series matches are included, Harvey's total of 480 or 491 senior career matches (depending on whether or not his International Rules matches are included) ranks second behind Bradley (519 or 528). In 2023, Harvey broke his leg playing for North Heidelberg. AFL icon Brent Harvey rushed to hospital with sickening injury ==Statistics== : |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1996 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 1.0 || 1.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1997 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 17 || 10 || 8 || 105 || 54 || 159 || 26 || 9 || 0.6 || 0.5 || 6.2 || 3.2 || 9.4 || 1.5 || 0.5 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 1998 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 23 || 32 || 20 || 209 || 89 || 298 || 44 || 31 || 1.4 || 0.9 || 9.1 || 3.9 || 13.0 || 1.9 || 1.3 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 1999 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 23 || 24 || 14 || 273 || 112 || 385 || 66 || 28 || 1.0 || 0.6 || 11.9 || 4.9 || 16.7 || 2.9 || 1.2 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2000 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 25 || 35 || 32 || 375 || 160 || 535 || 107 || 50 || 1.4 || 1.3 || 15.0 || 6.4 || 21.4 || 4.3 || 2.0 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2001 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 20 || 17 || 19 || 338 || 172 || 510 || 75 || 29 || 0.9 || 1.0 || 16.9 || 8.6 || 25.5 || 3.8 || 1.5 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2002 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 20 || 30 || 12 || 296 || 133 || 429 || 65 || 45 || 1.5 || 0.6 || 14.8 || 6.7 || 21.5 || 3.3 || 2.3 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2003 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 21 || 28 || 20 || 314 || 137 || 451 || 94 || 38 || 1.3 || 1.0 || 15.0 || 6.5 || 21.5 || 4.5 || 1.8 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2004 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 21 || 30 || 13 || 218 || 117 || 335 || 71 || 37 || 1.4 || 0.6 || 10.4 || 5.6 || 16.0 || 3.4 || 1.8 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2005 | style="text- align:center;" | | 29 || 23 || 23 || 17 || 325 || 188 || 513 || 108 || 49 || 1.0 || 0.7 || 14.1 || 8.2 || 22.3 || 4.7 || 2.1 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2006 | style="text- align:center;" | | 29 || 22 || 17 || 11 || 335 || 195 || 530 || 121 || 46 || 0.8 || 0.5 || 15.2 || 8.9 || 24.1 || 5.5 || 2.1 |- ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2007 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 25 || 36 || 17 || 351 || 243 || 594 || 116 || 53 || 1.4 || 0.7 || 14.0 || 9.7 || 23.8 || 4.6 || 2.1 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2008 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 23 || 25 || 19 || 339 || 230 || 569 || 110 || 54 || 1.1 || 0.8 || 14.7 || 10.0 || 24.7 || 4.8 || 2.3 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2009 | style="text- align:center;" | | 29 || 15 || 12 || 8 || 193 || 142 || 335 || 62 || 31 || 0.8 || 0.5 || 12.9 || 9.5 || 22.3 || 4.1 || 2.1 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2010 | style="text- align:center;" | | 29 || 22 || 25 || 22 || 313 || 234 || 547 || 92 || 63 || 1.1 || 1.0 || 14.2 || 10.6 || 24.9 || 4.2 || 2.9 |- ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2011 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 22 || 31 || 25 || 304 || 188 || 492 || 80 || 59 || 1.4 || 1.1 || 13.8 || 8.5 || 22.4 || 3.6 || 2.7 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2012 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 23 || 35 || 9 || 285 || 235 || 520 || 99 || 47 || 1.5 || 0.4 || 12.4 || 10.2 || 22.6 || 4.3 || 2.0 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2013 | style="text- align:center;" | | 29 || 16 || 19 || 9 || 210 || 175 || 385 || 75 || 43 || 1.2 || 0.6 || 13.1 || 10.9 || 24.1 || 4.7 || 2.7 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2014 | style="text- align:center;" | | 29 || 22 || 29 || 20 || 310 || 249 || 559 || 106 || 66 || 1.3 || 0.9 || 14.1 || 11.3 || 25.4 || 4.8 || 3.0 |- ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2015 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 25 || 24 || 15 || 304 || 266 || 570 || 74 || 53 || 1.0 || 0.6 || 12.2 || 10.6 || 22.8 || 3.0 || 2.1 |- style="background-color: #EAEAEA" ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2016 | style="text-align:center;" | | 29 || 23 || 36 || 24 || 290 || 206 || 496 || 98 || 56 || 1.6 || 0.7 || 12.6 || 9.0 || 21.6 || 4.3 || 2.4 |- class="sortbottom" ! colspan=3 | Career ! 432 ! 518 ! 334 ! 5687 ! 3526 ! 9213 ! 1689 ! 887 ! 1.2 ! 0.7 ! 13.1 ! 8.1 ! 21.3 ! 3.9 ! 2.0 |} ==Honours and achievements== Brownlow Medal votes Season Votes 1996 0 1997 0 1998 4 1999 6 2000 14 2001 16 2002 10 2003 16 2004 3 2005 11 2006 6 2007 22 2008 17 2009 9 2010 13 2011 8 2012 4 2013 9 2014 15 2015 4 2016 4 Total 191 Key: Key: Red / Italics = Ineligible Red / Italics = Ineligible * Team ** AFL Premiership (): 1999 ** McClelland Trophy (): 1998 ** NAB Cup (): 1998 ** AFL Reserves Premiership (): 1996 * Individual ** E. J. Whitten Medal: 1999 ** Syd Barker Medal: 2003, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010 (tied with Brady Rawlings) ** All- Australian: 2000, 2005, 2007, 2008 ** Australian Representative Honours in International Rules Football: 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2008 (C) ** Jim Stynes Medal: 2003 ** Lou Richards Medal: 2007, 2008 ** Herald Sun Player of the Year: 2008 ** Archer–Hird Medal: 2009, 2011 ** North Melbourne F.C. Team of the Century ** AFL Hall Of Fame (2022 Class) ** Most senior AFL games: 432 ==See also== * List of VFL/AFL players to have played 300 games * List of VFL/AFL records ==References== ==External links== * * * Footywire profile Category:1978 births Category:Living people Category:North Melbourne Football Club players Category:North Melbourne Football Club Premiership players Category:Syd Barker Medal winners Category:All-Australians (AFL) Category:Victorian State of Origin players Category:Australian rules footballers from Melbourne Category:Northern Knights players Category:E. J. Whitten Medal winners Category:Australia international rules football team players Category:One-time VFL/AFL Premiership players Category:People from Preston, Victoria |
Larry Gunselman (born December 1, 1960)Larry Gunselman Career Statistics is an American former stock car racing driver and team owner. He was the owner of Max Q Motorsports, which fielded the No. 37 Chevrolet in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series from 2009 to 2012. ==Career== Gunselman began racing in various West Coast series before moving to the Winston West Series, where he won the Most Popular Driver award in 1996. That same year, he made his NASCAR debut in the Winston Cup Series at Sonoma. He qualified 43rd and finished 36th in the No. 35 Race Stuff/Olson Technology Ford Thunderbird. He would qualify the next year, picking up sponsorship from Caterpillar, Inc. after David Green's entry failed to qualify. Gunselman attempted two races in Cup in 1998 in the No. 37 and No. 58 cars, but failed to qualify for both of them. Gunselman also was invited to compete in Japan's Suzuka Thunder 100 in both 1996 and 1997. He would return to competition in 2000 driving for Brevak Racing in the Craftsman Truck Series. He crashed out of his debut at Cicero, and had two twenty-sixth- place finishes in the next two races. In 2001, he joined MB Motorsports and picked up sponsorship from Waterloo Tool Storage. He drove seventeen races that season with a best finish of 16th at Kansas Speedway, as well as including an additional start at Texas Motor Speedway for Troxell Racing. He started out 2002 with MB, but was released after three starts due to sponsor conflicts between Waterloo Tool Storage and Sears Craftsman brand as Waterloo builds the Craftsman tool box brand. This opened the opportunity for Carl Edwards to join the Mittler Brothers team. Gunselman then took his sponsorship to DF2 Motorsports. After making a few Busch Series starts for Brian Weber, Gunselman hooked up with DF2 Motorsports and ran fourteen races with the team, his best finish a 16th at Talladega Superspeedway. He would move to Day Enterprise Racing the following season, and qualified for every race. He had an eighteenth-place finish at Talladega and finished 21st in points at season's end. Gunselman began 2004 by running the first two races of the season for MacDonald Motorsports, Gunselman and Chris Edwards formed Mach 1 Motorsports and started competition in the 3rd Cup race of the year at Las Vegas. Mach 1 went on to attempt all the remaining Cup races that year. Gunselman remained out of the drivers seat until the middle of the year, when he ran five races for Mach 1 Racing in the Lucas Oil Ford Taurus, where he failed to finish higher than 33rd. Gunselman sold his interest in Mach 1 to Edwards at the end of 2004. He attempted to qualify for the 2005 and 2006 Daytona 500 for Ware Racing Enterprises, but did not make either race. After spending 2007 out of the sport, he returned to the Nationwide Series in 2008 when he was hired as the driver of the No. 91 Chevy for MSRP Motorsports, but was released after ten races. Shortly afterwards, he was hired by Derrike Cope to drive his No. 74 Dodge Ram in the Truck Series, and later by Johnny Davis to drive the No. 0 Chevrolet Monte Carlo in the Nationwide Series. Following the 2008 season, he formed Gunselman Motorsports, which fielded the start-and- park No. 64 Toyota Camry in the Sprint Cup Series for parts of three seasons. After the 2011 Daytona 500, Gunselman partnered with Front Row Motorsports to purchase the No. 37 and No. 64 teams he owned. Under Gunselman the 37 team attempted every event in 2004 with 39th-place finish in the owners standings. In 2012, Gunselman fielded the No. 37 with the intent of Timmy Hill going for Rookie of the Year honors, but parked the team after one crash and five DNQs. Max Q reformed the No. 37 in July 2012 fielding Chevrolets for J. J. Yeley through a technical alliance with Tommy Baldwin Racing. ==Motorsports career results== ===NASCAR=== (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) ====Nextel Cup Series==== NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results NASCAR Nextel Cup Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Pts Ref 1996 Race Stuff Motorsports 35 Ford DAY CAR RCH ATL DAR BRI NWS MAR TAL SON 36 CLT DOV POC MCH DAY NHA POC TAL IND GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH DOV MAR NWS CLT CAR PHO DNQ ATL 62nd 55 1997 Race Stuff Motorsports 35 Ford DAY CAR RCH ATL DAR TEX BRI MAR SON 38 TAL CLT DOV POC MCH CAL DAY NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH NHA DOV MAR CLT TAL CAR PHO ATL 67th 49 1998 Gunselman Racing 37 Ford DAY CAR LVS DNQ ATL DAR BRI TEX MAR TAL CAL CLT DOV RCH MCH POC SON NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI NHA DAR RCH DOV MAR CLT TAL DAY PHO CAR ATL NA - 2000 LJ Racing 91 Chevy DAY CAR LVS ATL DAR BRI TEX MAR TAL CAL RCH CLT DOV MCH POC SON DAY NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI DAR RCH NHA DOV MAR CLT DNQ TAL CAR PHO HOM ATL NA - 2004 Mach 1 Motorsports 98 Ford DAY CAR LVS DNQ ATL DAR BRI TEX MAR TAL CAL RCH CLT DOV DNQ POC MCH GLN 43 MCH BRI CAL RCH NHA DOV TAL 33 KAN 42 CLT MAR ATL PHO DAR HOM 59th 248 2004 Mach 1 Motorsports 98 Dodge SON 37 59th 248 2004 Mach 1 Motorsports 96 Ford DAY 34 CHI NHA POC IND 59th 248 2005 Rick Ware Racing 52 Ford DAY DNQ CAL LVS ATL BRI MAR TEX PHO TAL DAR RCH CLT DOV POC MCH SON DAY CHI NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI CAL RCH NHA DOV TAL KAN CLT MAR ATL TEX PHO HOM NA - 2006 Rick Ware Racing 52 Dodge DAY DNQ CAL LVS ATL BRI MAR TEX PHO TAL RCH DAR CLT DOV POC MCH SON DAY CHI NHA POC IND GLN MCH BRI CAL RCH NHA DOV KAN TAL CLT MAR ATL TEX PHO HOM NA - =====Daytona 500===== Year Team Manufacturer Start Finish 2005 Rick Ware Racing Ford DNQ DNQ 2006 Rick Ware Racing Dodge DNQ DNQ ====Nationwide Series==== NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results NASCAR Nationwide Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Pts Ref 2002 Weber Racing 84 Chevy DAY CAR LVS DAR BRI TEX NSH TAL 16 CAL RCH NHA CLT DNQ DOV NSH DAY 23 41st 1094 2002 Weber Racing 8 Chevy NZH 41 41st 1094 2002 PF2 Motorsports 94 Chevy KEN 33 MLW CHI 37 GTY 25 PPR 31 IRP 26 MCH 28 BRI 35 DAR 35 RCH DOV 34 KAN 36 CLT DNQ MEM 33 ATL 31 CAR 43 PHO 42 HOM DNQ 41st 1094 2003 Day Enterprises Racing 16 Chevy DAY 35 CAR 33 LVS 28 DAR 37 BRI 28 TEX 39 NSH 34 RCH 26 GTY 22 NZH 23 NSH 32 KEN 23 MLW 34 DAY 32 CHI 38 NHA 20 PPR 30 IRP 32 MCH 38 DAR 26 RCH 23 DOV 32 KAN 23 CLT 33 MEM 22 ATL 39 PHO 32 CAR 42 HOM 40 21st 2371 2003 Day Enterprises Racing 16 Pontiac TAL 18 CAL 30 CLT 42 DOV 32 BRI 39 21st 2371 2004 MacDonald Motorsports 72 Chevy DAY 22 CAR 31 LVS DNQ DAR BRI TEX NSH TAL CAL GTY RCH NZH CLT DOV NSH KEN MLW DAY CHI NHA PPR IRP MCH BRI CAL RCH DOV KAN CLT MEM ATL PHO DAR HOM 99th 167 2008 MSRP Motorsports 91 Ford DAY DNQ TAL 43 RCH DAR CLT DOV NSH 55th 737 2008 MSRP Motorsports 91 Chevy CAL 42 LVS 38 ATL 39 BRI 39 NSH 42 TEX 41 PHO 39 MXC 41 55th 737 2008 CFK Motorsports 73 Dodge KEN 41 MLW NHA DAY 55th 737 2008 JD Motorsports 0 Chevy CHI 43 GTY 42 IRP 42 CGV GLN DNQ MCH DNQ BRI 38 CAL 36 RCH DNQ DOV 36 KAN DNQ CLT DNQ MEM DNQ TEX 55th 737 2008 JD Motorsports 01 Chevy PHO 36 HOM 55th 737 ====Craftsman Truck Series==== NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Pts Ref 2000 Brevak Racing 31 Ford DAY HOM PHO MMR MAR PIR GTY MEM PPR EVG TEX KEN GLN MLW NHA NZH MCH IRP NSV CIC 32 RCH 26 DOV DNQ TEX 26 CAL 61st 286 2001 MB Motorsports 63 Ford DAY 18 HOM 36 MMR 26 MAR 17 GTY 23 MLW 19 KAN 16 KEN 22 NHA 31 IRP 31 NSH CIC 24 TEX 35 LVS 33 PHO CAL 29 23rd 1461 2001 MB Motorsports 63 Chevy DAR 36 PPR 32 DOV NZH 33 RCH SBO 23rd 1461 2001 Troxell Racing 93 Dodge TEX 30 MEM 23rd 1461 2002 MB Motorsports 63 Ford DAY 31 DAR 32 MAR GTY 30 PPR 54th 298 2002 Troxell Racing 93 Chevy DOV 25 TEX MEM MLW KAN KEN NHA MCH IRP NSH RCH TEX SBO LVS CAL PHO HOM 54th 298 2008 Derrike Cope Inc. 74 Dodge DAY CAL ATL MAR KAN CLT MFD DOV 34 TEX 35 MCH 109th 61 2008 Derrike Cope Inc. 73 Dodge MLW 34 MEM KEN IRP NSH BRI GTW NHA LVS TAL MAR ATL TEX PHO HOM 109th 61 ====Winston West Series==== NASCAR Winston West Series results Year Team No. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Pts Ref 1990 Gunselman Racing 07 Pontiac MMR SON SGS POR EVG RAS TCR 11 MMR PHO 40th 130 1991 Gunselman Racing 60 Pontiac EVG 6 MMR 19 SON SGS POR EVG 36 SSS MMR PHO 27th 311 1992 Gunselman Racing 60 Pontiac MMR SGS SON SHA POR 9 EVG 18 SSS CAJ TWS MMR PHO 25th 247 1993 Gunselman Racing 60 Pontiac TWS MMR SGS SON TUS SHA EVG 17 POR 7 CBS 9 SSS 5 CAJ TCR 13 MMR PHO 18th 675 1994 Gunselman Racing 60 Pontiac MMR 19 TUS 20 SON SGS YAK 8 MMR POR 16 IND CAJ TCR 11 LVS 7 MMR 3 PHO TUS 15 12th 1025 1995 Gunselman Racing 60 Pontiac TUS MMR SON CNS MMR POR SGS TUS AMP MAD POR 21 LVS 12 SON MMR PHO 37th 227 1996 Race Stuff Motorsports 37 Ford TUS 16 AMP 7 MMR 1 MAD 3 POR 2 TUS 13 EVG 3 CNS 3 MAD 6 MMR 4 SON 14 MMR 5 PHO DNQ LVS 4 3rd 2070 1996 Race Stuff Motorsports 35 Ford SON 36 3rd 2070 1997 Race Stuff Motorsports 37 Ford TUS 5 AMP 11 TUS 6 MMR 6 LVS 18 CAL 19 EVG 6 POR 4 PPR 20 AMP 2 SON 21 MMR 2* LVS 24 4th 1833 1997 Race Stuff Motorsports 35 Ford SON 38 4th 1833 1998 Race Stuff Motorsports 37 Ford TUS 19 LVS 28 PHO CAL 13 HPT MMR AMP POR CAL PPR EVG SON MMR LVS 42nd 309 ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:Living people Category:1960 births Category:NASCAR drivers Category:NASCAR team owners Category:People from Snohomish, Washington Category:Sportspeople from Snohomish County, Washington Category:Racing drivers from Washington (state) |
Australian cuisine is the food and cooking practices of Australia and its inhabitants. Australia has absorbed culinary contributions and adaptations from various cultures around the world, including British, European, Asian and Middle Eastern. Indigenous Australians have occupied Australia for some 65,000 years, during which they developed a unique hunter-gatherer diet, known as bush tucker, drawn from regional Australian plants and animals. Australia became a collection of British colonies from 1788 to 1900, during which time culinary tastes were strongly influenced by British and Irish migrants, with agricultural products such as beef cattle, sheep and wheat becoming staples in the local diet. The Australian gold rushes introduced more varied immigrants and cuisines, mainly Chinese, whilst post-war immigration programs led to a large-scale diversification of local food, mainly due to the influence of migrants from the Mediterranean, East Asia and South Asia. Australian cuisine in the 21st century reflects the influence of globalisation, with many fast- food restaurants and international trends becoming influential. Organic and biodynamic foods have also become widely available alongside a revival of interest in bush tucker.Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Australia's food & nutrition 2012, 2012, p. 73 Australia exports many agricultural products, including cattle, sheep, poultry, milk, vegetables, fruit, nuts, wheat, barley and canola. Australia also produces wine, beer and soft drinks. While fast food chains are abundant, Australia's metropolitan areas have restaurants that offer both local and international foods. Restaurants which include contemporary adaptations, interpretations or fusions of exotic influences are frequently termed Modern Australian. ==History== ===Indigenous Australian bush food=== Indigenous Australians have lived off native flora and fauna of the Australian bush for over 60,000 years. In modern times, this collection of foods and customs has become known as bush tucker. It is understood that up to 5,000 species of Australian flora and fauna were eaten by Indigenous Australians. Hunting of kangaroo, wallaby and emu was common, with other foods widely consumed including bogong moths, witchetty grubs, lizards and snakes. Bush berries, fruits, and nuts were also used, including the now widely cultivated macadamia nut, and wild honeys were also exploited. Fish were caught using tools such as spears, hooks and traps; in some areas, the construction of complex weir systems allowed the development of forms of aquaculture. Resource availability and dietary make-up varied from region to region and scientific theories of bush tucker plants being spread by hand have recently emerged. Food preparation techniques also varied, however a common cooking technique was for the carcass to be thrown directly on a campfire to be roasted. Native food sources were used to supplement the colonists' diet following the arrival of the First Fleet in Botany Bay in 1788. ===Development of modern Australian cuisine=== left|thumb|Tea and damper - Alfred Martin Ebsworth (1883) Following the pre-colonial period, European colonisers began arriving with the First Fleet at Sydney harbour in 1788. The diet consisted of "bread, salted meat and tea with lashings of rum (initially from the West Indies but later made from the waste cane of the sugar industry in Queensland)."R. Haden, Food Culture in the Pacific Islands, 2009, p. 46 The British found familiar game in Australia including swan, goose, pigeon and fish, but the new settlers often had difficulty adjusting to the prospect of native fauna as a staple diet. Meat constituted a large proportion of the Australian diet during the colonial era and into the 20th Century. After initial difficulties, Australian agriculture became a major global producer and supplied fresh produce for the local market. Stock grazing (mostly sheep and cattle) is prevalent throughout the continent. Queensland and New South Wales became Australia's main beef cattle producers, while dairy cattle farming is found in the southern states, predominantly in Victoria. Wheat and other grain crops are spread fairly evenly throughout the mainland states. Sugar cane is also a major crop in Queensland and New South Wales. Fruit and vegetables are grown throughout Australia and wheat is a main component of the Australian diet. Today there are over 85,681 farm businesses in Australia, 99 percent of which are locally owned and operated. Barbecued meat is almost synonymous with Modern Australian cuisine, though it is estimated that more than 10% of Australians are now vegetarian. After World War II, subsequent waves of multicultural immigration, with a majority drawn from Asia and the Mediterranean region, and the strong, sophisticated food cultures these ethnic communities have brought with them influenced the development of Australian cuisine. Arguably the first Modern Australian restaurant was Sydney's Bayswater Brasserie (est. 1982), which offered Mediterranean dishes with Asian and Middle Eastern influences and "showed Sydney [...] that food can be adventurous without being expensive". The term itself was first used in print in the 1993 edition of the Sydney Morning Herald Good Food Guide, which placed 34 restaurants under this heading, and was quickly adopted to describe the burgeoning food scene in Sydney in the 1990s. Leading exponents of the style include Tetsuya Wakuda, Neil Perry and Peter Gilmore. As of 2014, the term is considered somewhat dated, with many restaurants preferring to call their style "contemporary Australian cuisine" instead. ==Fruit and vegetables== ===Fruit=== There are many species of Australian native fruits, such as quandong (native peach), wattleseed, muntries/munthari berry, Illawarra plums, riberry, native raspberries, lilli pillies, as well as a range of native citrus species including the desert lime and finger lime. These usually fall under the category of bush tucker, which is used in some restaurants and in commercial preserves and pickles but not generally well known among Australians due to its low availability. Australia also has large fruit- growing regions in most states for tropical fruits in the north, and stone fruits and temperate fruits in the south which has a mediterranean or temperate climate. The Granny Smith variety of apples originated in Sydney in 1868. Another well-known Australian apple variety is the Cripps Pink, known locally and internationally as "Pink Lady" apples, which was first cultivated in 1973. Fruits cultivated and consumed in Australia include apples, banana, kiwifruit, oranges and other citrus, mangoes (seasonally), mandarin, stonefruit, avocado, watermelons, rockmelons, lychees, pears, nectarines, plums, apricots, grapes, melons, papaya (also called pawpaw), pineapple, passionfruit and berries (strawberries, raspberries etc.). ===Vegetables=== In the temperate regions of Australia vegetables are traditionally eaten seasonally, especially in regional areas, although in urban areas there is large-scale importation of fresh produce sourced from around the world by supermarkets and wholesalers for grocery stores, to meet demands for year- round availability. Spring vegetables include artichoke, asparagus, bean shoots, beetroot, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, leek, lettuce, mushrooms, peas, rhubarb, and spinach; summer vegetables include capsicum, cucumber, eggplant, squash, tomato, and zucchini. Popular dishes include zucchini slice. ==Meat and poultry== Chicken is the most commonly consumed of all meats or poultry by weight, with approximately 47 kg of chicken consumed by the average Australian per year. Australians ate around 25 kg of beef per person with beef having a 35% share of fresh meat sales by value, the highest of any fresh meat in 2018–19. Lamb is very popular in Australia, with roasting cuts (legs and shoulders), chops, and shanks being the most common cuts. Lamb will often form part of either a Sunday roast or a barbecue. It is also commonly found as an ingredient in gyros and doner kebabs, brought by Greek and Turkish immigrants in the 1960s and 1970s. Australia consumes more lamb and mutton than any other country listed by the OECD-FAO (with Kazakhstan in second place). In 2017, Australians consumed an average of per person. By way of comparison, New Zealanders average and Americans just .Meat consumption, OECD Data. Retrieved 6 December 2016. Lunch at an Australian pub is called a counter lunch, while the term counter meal is used for either lunch or dinner. Common dishes served at counter lunches and counter meals are steak and chips, chicken parmigiana and chips, a mixed grill (an assortment of grilled meats), and roast lamb or beef with roast vegetables. === Game=== Kangaroo meat is available as game in Australia, although it is not among the most commonly eaten meats. In colonial-era recipes, kangaroo was treated much like ox tail, and braised until tender forming a rich gravy. It is available today in various cuts and sausages. Kangaroo is, however, a common commercial dog food in Australia. Other less commonly eaten forms of game are emu and crocodile. ==Fish and seafood== Seafood consumption is increasing, but it is less common in the Australian diet than poultry and beef. Australian cuisine features Australian seafood such as southern bluefin tuna, King George whiting, Moreton Bay bugs, mud crab, jewfish, dhufish (Western Australia) and yabby. Australia is one of the largest producers of abalone and rock lobster. Fish and chips is a take-away food that originated in the United Kingdom and remains popular in Australia. It generally consists of battered deep-fried fish with deep-fried chipped (slab-cut) potatoes. Rather than cod which is more common in the UK, the most popular fish at Australian fish and chips shops, at least in southern Australian states, is flake, a fillet of gummy shark (Mustelus antarcticus). Flathead is also a popular sport and table fish found in all parts of Australia. Barramundi is a fish found in northern Australian river systems. Bay lobsters, better known in Australia as Moreton Bay bugs, are common in seafood restaurants, or may be served with steak as "surf and turf". The most common species of the aquaculture industry are salmon, tuna, oysters, and prawns. Other food species include abalone, freshwater finfish (such as barramundi, Murray cod, silver perch), brackish water or marine finfish (such as barramundi, snapper, yellowtail kingfish, mulloway, groupers), mussels, mud crabs and sea cucumbers. While inland river and lake systems are relatively sparse, they nevertheless provide freshwater game fish and crustacea suitable for dining. Fishing and aquaculture constitute Australia's fifth most valuable agricultural industry after wool, beef, wheat and dairy. Approximately 600 varieties of marine and freshwater seafood species are caught and sold in Australia for both local and overseas consumption. European carp, common in the Murray River as an invasive species, is not considered edible by most Australians despite being common in cuisines across Europe. ==Dairy== Ever since the first British settlement of 1788, Australia has had a dairy industry. Today, the Australian dairy industry produces a wide variety of milk, cream, butter, cheese and yoghurt products. Australians are high consumers of dairy products, consuming on average some of milk per person a year, of cheese, of butter (a small reduction from previous year, largely for dietary purposes) and of yoghurt products. ==Beverages== ===Tea=== For most of Australia's history following the arrival of British settlers, black tea was the most commonly consumed hot beverage; however, in recent years, coffee has overtaken tea in popularity. Since the 19th Century, billy tea was a staple drink for those out in the Australian bush, such as those working on the land or travelling overland. Boiling water for tea in a billy over a camp fire and adding a gum leaf for flavouring remains an iconic traditional Australian method for preparing tea. Famously, it was prepared by the ill-fated swagman in the renowned Australian folksong "Waltzing Matilda". Tea and biscuits or freshly home-baked scones are common for afternoon tea between friends and family. ===Coffee=== Today's Australia has a distinct coffee culture. The coffee industry has grown from independent cafes since the early 20th century. The flat white first became popular in Australia, and its invention is claimed by a Sydneysider. The iconic Greek cafés of Sydney and Melbourne were the first to introduce locally roasted coffees in 1910. In 1952, the first espresso machines began to appear in Australia and a plethora of fine Italian coffee houses were emerging in Melbourne and Sydney. Pellegrini's Espresso Bar and Legend Café often lay claim to being Melbourne's first 'real' espresso bars, opening their doors in 1954 and 1956 respectively. This decade also saw the establishment of one of Australia's most iconic coffee brands, Vittoria, which remains the country's largest coffee maker and distributor. The brand has existed in Australia since 1958, well before it moved to the US. To this day, international coffee chains such as Starbucks have very little market share in Australia, with Australia's long established independent cafés existing along with homegrown franchises such as The Coffee Club, Michel's Patisserie, Dôme in WA, and Zarraffas Coffee in Queensland. One reason for this is that unlike with the United States and Asia, Australia for many decades had already had an established culture of independent cafés before coffee chains tried to enter the market. ===Other hot beverages=== The chocolate and malt powder Milo, which was developed by Thomas Mayne in Sydney in 1934 in response to the Great Depression, is mixed with cold or hot milk to produce a popular beverage. In recent years, Milo has been exported and is also commonly consumed in Southeast Asia even becoming a major ingredient in some desserts produced in the region. ===Alcohol=== Beer in Australia has been popular since colonial times. James Squire is considered to have founded Australia's first commercial brewery in 1798 and the Cascade Brewery in Hobart, Tasmania, has been operating since the early 19th century. Since the 1970s, Australian beers have become increasingly popular globally – with Foster's Lager being an iconic export brand. However, Fosters is not a large seller on the local market, with alternatives such as Victoria Bitter and Carlton Draught outselling the popular export. Craft beer is popular, as well as distinctive products from smaller breweries such as Coopers and Little Creatures. The Australian wine industry is the fifth largest exporter of wine around the world, with 760 million litres a year to a large international export market and contributes $5.5 billion per annum to the nation's economy. Australians consume over 530 million litres annually with a per capita consumption of about 30 litres – 50% white table wine, 35% red table wine. Wine is produced in every state, with more than 60 designated wine regions totalling approximately 160,000 hectares. Australia's wine regions are mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country, in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia. Amongst the most famous wine districts are the Barossa Valley, Hunter Valley, Margaret River and Yarra Valley, and among the best known wine producers are Lindeman's, Penfolds, Rosemount Estate, Wynns Coonawarra Estate. In Australia's tropical regions, wine is produced from exotic fruits such as mango, passion fruit and lychees. In modern times, South Australia has also become renowned for its growing number of premium spirits producers, with the South Australian Spirits industry quickly emerging as a world leader with producers being recognised globally such as Seppeltsfield Road Distillers, Never Never Distilling, Adelaide Hills Distilling and many more. Rum served as a currency during the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Australia when metallic currency was in short supply.L. Allen, The Encyclopedia of Money, 2009, p. 268 == Take-away and convenience foods == thumb|A fish and chip shop, The traditional places to buy take-away food in Australia has long been at a local milk bar, fish and chip shop, or bakery, though these have met with stiff competition from fast food chains and convenience stores in recent decades. Iconic Australian take- away food (i.e. fast food) includes meat pies, sausage rolls, pasties, Chiko Rolls, and dim sims. Meat pies, sausage rolls, and pasties are often found at milk bars, bakeries, and petrol stations, often kept hot in a pie warmer or needing to be microwaved; meat pies are also a staple at AFL football matches. Chiko rolls, dim sims and other foods needing to be deep fried, are to be found at fish and chip shops, which have the necessary deep fryers in which to cook them. The Australian hamburgers and steak sandwiches are also found at fish and chip shops. Australian hamburgers consist of a fried beef patty, served with shredded lettuce and sliced tomato in a (usually toasted) round bread roll or bun. Tomato sauce (similar to ketchup but made with less sugar and slightly less viscous) or barbecue sauce are almost always included. Bacon, cheese and fried onions are also common additions, as is a slice of beetroot and/or a fried egg, with other options including sliced pineapple. Pickles are rarely included, except in burgers from American chains. Steak sandwiches come with the same options, but instead of a beef patty they consist of a thin steak and are served in two slices of toast, not buns. Commonly found at community and fundraising events are sausage sizzle stalls – a stall with a barbecue hot plate on which sausages are cooked. At a sausage sizzle the sausage is served in a slice of white bread, with or without tomato sauce and with the option of adding fried onions, and eaten as a snack or as a light lunch. A sausage sizzle at a polling station on any Australian state or Federal election day has humorously become known as a Democracy sausage. The Halal Snack Pack, ("HSP", also known in South Australia as an AB) originated in Australia as a fusion of Middle Eastern and European flavours, common at kebab shops around Australia. It consists of doner kebab meat served over hot chips and covered in sauces (such as chilli, garlic, or barbecue sauce). == Baked goods and desserts == Damper is a traditional Australian bread prepared by swagmen, drovers and other travellers. It is a wheat flour based bread, traditionally baked in the coals of a campfire. Toast is commonly eaten at breakfast. An iconic commercial spread is Vegemite – this is a salty, B vitamin-rich savoury spread made from brewers yeast eaten on buttered toast, commonly at breakfast, or in sandwiches. A common children's treat dating back to the 1920s is fairy bread, "Meanings and origins of Australian words and idioms", Australian National University. Retrieved 12 August 2016. appearing around the same time as the boston bun. A classic Australian biscuit is the ANZAC biscuit, which are often homemade and so-called as they were sent by families and friends to Australian soldiers fighting in Europe and the Dardanelles in the First World War. A popular commercial brand of biscuit are Arnott's Tim Tams. A classic Australian cake is the lamington, made from two squares of butter cake or sponge cake coated in an outer layer of chocolate sauce and rolled in desiccated coconut. Another popular cake and dessert dish is the pavlova, a meringue-based dessert, however the origins of this are contested as New Zealand also lays claim to its invention. The mango pancake, a stable of Yum Cha restaurants in Sydney and elsewhere in Australia, is believed to have originated in Sydney in the late 1980s and early 1990s. ===Regional foods=== As well as national icons there are many regional iconic foods. South Australia has FruChocs, King George whiting, and a range of foods of German origin including mettwurst, Bienenstich (beesting), streuselkuchen (German cake) and fritz. The state has its own iconic brands such as Farmers Union Iced Coffee, YoYo biscuits and Balfours frog cakes. Jubilee cake is a specialty of South Australia. In Adelaide, a variant on the meat pie is the pie floater, which is a meat pie served in a bowl of pea soup. Victoria is famous for its home-grown Melbourne invention, the dim sim. Melbourne is also the home of the hot jam donut. Tasmania has leatherwood honey, abalone, and savoury toast. Queensland has Weis Fruit Bar and claims the lamington. ==Cities== ===Brisbane=== The cuisine of Brisbane derives from mainstream Australian cuisine, as well as many cuisines of international origin. Major native foods of the Brisbane region and commonly used in local cuisine include; the macadamia, lemon-scented myrtle, Australian finger lime, bunya nut, and Moreton Bay bug. The city's cuisine culture is often described as casual with an emphasis on outdoor dining. Roof-top dining has become an iconic part of the culinary landscape, as well as a large street food scene with food trucks and pop-up bars common. Brisbane also lays claim to several foods including "smashed avo"; although popularised in Sydney in the 1990s, smashed avocado was a common dish in Brisbane and Queensland dating back to the 1920s. Brisbane also claims the Lamington and the Conut. ==See also== *List of Australian and New Zealand dishes * Australian wine *Australian whisky * Chinese restaurants in Australia * Culture of Australia * Modern Australian cuisine * Bush tucker * Cuisine of Brisbane * Australian Aboriginal sweet foods ==References== ==Further reading== * Newling, J., 2015. Eat Your History: Stories and Recipes from the Australian Kitchen. Sydney Living Museums. * O'Brien, C., 2016. The Colonial Kitchen: Australia 1788–1901. Rowman & Littlefield. * O'Connell, J., 2017. A Timeline of Australian Food: From Mutton to Masterchef. NewSouth Publishing. * Santich, B., 2006. "The high and the low: Australian cuisine in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries". Journal of Australian studies, 30 (87), pp. 37–49. ==External links== *Australian food and drink – Native Australians and early settlers *Australian Flavour – Recipes verified as having been cooked in Australian in the late 1800s and 1900s plus others considered iconic |
'Robert Burns's Interleaved Scots Musical Museum' or the 'Interleaved Glenriddell Manuscript' is a set of four octavo volumes of James Johnson's The Scots Musical Museum in which Robert Burns provided additional material to the original publication on interleaved sheets and which he eventually gifted to Captain Robert Riddell (1755–94) of Friars Carse, Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. ==The Scots Musical Museum== thumb|250px|left|Cromek's Strictures by Robert Burns. Burns started collecting song material from 1787 to send to James Johnson's The Scots Musical Museum. This new project was one of his greatest achievement as a songwriter and collector. He is considered to have contributed a third (220) of his own compositions to the Museum of 600 songs. Burns collected these songs from a wide variety of sources, often revising or expanding them, including much of his own work. The term Museum here made reference to the Muse of song or Euterpe, inspiration for the lyrics of this, the greatest collection of Scots songs ever produced. Burns expended considerable energy on the project and whilst preparing for the 1792 expanded edition of his poems he still was able to supply 50 songs for the 'Museum' between 1790 and August 1792 as well as being credited with writing the Preface for the fourth volume issued on 13 August 1792. Johnson had probably met Burns through their joint membership of the Crochallan Fencibles club however his first volume was already at the press at the time, but Burns still contributed four songs. The work, planned as a two volume set, eventually became six volumes after considerable encouragement from Burns and was published between 1787 and after Burns's death, volume six was issued in 1803. Acting as the effective editor Burns also collected and 'restored' around fifty songs for the publication. The combination of innovation and his penchant for antiquarianism gave the work a lasting feeling of living tradition. thumb|250px|Audio file of 'Ae Fond Kiss Although, as stated, Burns was effectively the editor, Johnson was the official editor, engraver, printer and publisher; Stephen Clarke (1735–97) was the musical editor and William Clarke was the musical editor for Volume VI. Burns accepted no payment and much of this time-consuming project relates to his early years in the Excise when he had included the supervision of twelve parishes and around 200 miles of travel on horseback each week. A 1794 copy of a letter from Burns to James Johnson was enclosed in the first volume "In In the meantime at your leisure give a copy of the "Museum" to my worthy friend, Mr Peter Hill, Bookseller, to bind for me, interleaved with blank leaves, exactly as he did the Laird of Glenriddel's that I may insert every anecdote I can learn together with my criticisms and remarks on the songs. A copy of this I shall leave with you, the editor, to publish at some after period by way of making the Museum a book famous to the end of time and you renowned forever." ===Previous song manuscripts=== In 1786 he had already provided a 'parcel of songs' to Mrs Catherine Stewart of Stair, the Stair Manuscript and again in 1791, the Afton Lodge Manuscript. Additionally the so-called 'Geddes Burns' of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (Edinburgh Edition) contains holograph insertions on the end pages of twelve new songs thirteen and poems.Riddell's notes reveal that he had stimulated Burns to not only recover, mend or add to old fragments, but also to examine them as a scholar. The new works in this volume show that Burns's time in the area was highly productive in terms of his imaginative inspirations and resultant songs and poems. ===Robert Riddell's interleaved volumes=== thumb|upright|Title page of 'Reliques of Robert Burns'. From 1788, Captain Robert Riddell, Burns's Ellisland Farm neighbour at the Friars Carse estate, increasingly became a mentor. After making up an interleaved set of the first four of The Scots Musical Museum in late 1792, Burns provided additional songs and annotative material and made a present of this set to his neighbour. Mackay records that Robert Riddell first supplied Burns with the interleaved volumes as he had done for the poet when he wrote the Glenriddell Manuscripts. These first four volumes had been published between 1787 and 1790. The notes written on the interleaved sheets of The Scots Musical Museum consist of interleaved sheets with some 140 pages of Burns's explanatory notes on the 160 to 184 songs that he contributed. The notes are by Burns and also some by Riddell himself. Upon Robert Riddell's death the 'Interleaved Museum' became the property of his wife and passed from her to Miss Eliza Bayley of Manchester, her niece, who gave the biographer Robert Hartley Cromek full access to it. A London bookseller, John Salkeld, acquired it in 1871 as part of a job lot, advertised in his catalogue for £110 and it was purchased by H. F. Nicols, a book collector. Nicols left his library to Miss Oakshott who had been his housekeeper. J.C.Dick located the volumes in this lady's possession and it was then sold at Sotheby's on October 30, 1903 to Mr. Quaritch of Piccadilly, who in turn sold them to Mr. George C. Thomas, of Philadelphia. The 'Interleaved Museum' was in John Gribbel's possession before 1913, the date when he purchased the Glenriddell Manuscripts.Burns Chronicle XXIII January 1914 When John Gribbel died in 1936 his estate was broken up and his collection was sold at auction. In 1964 the Rabinowitz Library in America held the volumes and via Bernard Quaritch Ltd the trustees of the Burns Monument were contacted with view to a sale that was settled on £5500, a then record sum for a Burns work.Burns Chronicle. Volume XIV, Third Series. pages 86 Cromek had published Burn's and Riddell's notes in 1808, with an 1813 second edition. In 1902, as stated, J.C.Dick discovered them and in 1906 he published Notes on Scottish Song by Robert Burns, distinguishing between Burns's notes from those added by Riddell and in addition categorizing some as spurious. David Cuthbertson in 1922 was researching in the Laing Collection at Edinburgh University library when he stumbled upon a manuscript of twelve folio pages in Burns's handwriting. This manuscript contained most of what until then had been considered as doubtful material in Cromek's work. The announcement of the discovery was published in the Kilmarnock Standard. Together with J.C.Dick's "Songs of Robert Burns" and Davidson Cook's annotations thereon, it was re-issued in 1962 as a single volume by Folklore Associates, Hatboro, Pennsylvania. ===The notes=== left|thumb|250px|Friars' Carse circa 1800 Burns wrote numerous notes or strictures on the songs, some of which are very brief and even terse. He rarely commented on his own verses other than to apologise for them, his emphasis being on the sources for the songs and his reasons for altering them, such as adding political content. Riddell's own notes reveal that he had stimulated Burns to not only recover, mend or add to old fragments, but also to examine them as a scholar. Burns used a system of signature letters to indicate the extent to which he had altered, restored, etc. the songs, such as S, R, X, and Z. In a letter to Frances Dunlop he revealed that Those marked, Z, I have given to the world as old verses to their respective tunes; but in fact, of a good many of them, little more than the Chorus is ancient. R.H.Cromek, as stated, was able to examine the volumes owned by Eliza Bayley and pages 187 to 306 of his Reliques of Robert Burns, published in 1808, carry a transcript of the Notes. Editors of Burns had relied on the accuracy of the information but considerable and somewhat justifiable doubts existed as to their veracity. When the Interleaved Museum was 'rediscovered' after an absence of nearly a century a comparison with Cromek's Reliques was possible and it was found that out of 173 Notes printed by Cromek only 127 were verbatim copies; eighteen were garbled or imperfect, four differing entirely from the manuscript. Another four were written partly by Burns and partly by Robert Riddell; fourteen were written entirely by Riddell or by someone other than Burns; finally, fourteen were never in the manuscript, and the leaves of four had been cut out and are missing. Famously, when David Cuthbertson discovered the twelve folio manuscripts in Edinburgh the crucial page carrying the note on The Highland Lassie O was not one of them. Cromek's reputation having been somewhat repaired the veracity of this story (see ix below) has been strengthened. ===Examples of Notes from Cromek's Reliques=== i. Auld lang syne - Ramsay here, as usual with him, has taken the idea of the song, and the first line, from the old fragment, which may be seen in "the museum", vol.v. ii. Wllie brew'd a Peck o' Maut - This air is Masterton's; the song mine. The occasion of it was this. Mr. Wm. Nicol, of the High School, Edinburgh, during the autumn vacation being at Moffat, honest Allan, who was at the time on a visit to Dalswinton, and I went to pay Nicol a visit. We had such a joyous meeting that Mr. Masterton and I agreed, each in our own way, that we should celebrate the business. thumb|upright|The title page of The Scots Musical Museum. iii. I love my Jean - This air is by Marshal; the song I composed out of compliment to Mrs. Burns. N.B. It was during the honey-moon. iv. Ca' the Ewes to the Knowes - This beautiful song is the true old Scotch taste, yet I do not know that either air, or words, were in print before. v. The Braes o' Ballochmyle - This air is the composition of my friend Allan Masterton, in Edinburgh. I composed the verses on the amiable and excellent family of Whitefoord's leaving Ballochmyle, when Sir John's misfortunes had obliged him to sell the estate. vi. The bonie Banks of Ayr - I composed this song as I convoyed my chest as far on the road to Greenock, where I was to embark in a few days for Jamaica. I meant it as my farewel Dirge to my native land. vii. Galloway Tam - I have seen an interlude (acted as a wedding) to this tune, called "The Wooing of the Maiden." These entertainments are now much worn out in this part of Scotland. Two are still retained in Nithsdale, viz. Jilly Pure Auld Glenae, and this one, "The Wooing of the Maiden". viii. The Beds of sweet Roses - This song, as far as I know, for the first time appears here in print --- When I was a boy, it was a very popular song in Ayrshire, I remember to have heard those fanatics, the Buchanites, sing some of their nonsensical rhymes, which they dignify with the name of hymns, to this air. ix. The Highland Lassie O - This was a composition of mine in very early life, before I was known at all in the world. My Highland lassie was a warm-hearted, charming young creature as ever blessed a man with generous love. After a pretty long tract of the most ardent reciprocal attachment, we met by appointment, on the second Sunday of May, in a sequestered spot by the Banks of Ayr, where we spent the day in taking a farewel, before she should embark for the West-Highlands, to arrange matters among her friends for our projected change of life. At the close of Autumn following she crossed the sea to meet me at Greenock, where she had scarce landed when she was seized with a malignant fever, which hurried my dear girl to the grave in a few days, before I could even hear of her illness.. x. My Jo, Janet - Johnson, the publisher, with a foolish delicacy, refused to insert the last stanza of this humorous ballad. xi. O'er the Moor among the Heather - This song is the composition of a Jean Glover, a girl who was not only a whore, but also a thief; and in one or other character has visited most of the Correction Houses in the West. She was born I believe in Kilmarnock, I took the song down from her singing as she was strolling through the country, with a slight-of-hand blackguard. ==Legacy== Burns's notes have provided a good number of insights into his personality, literary style, influences, etc., however the one to one communication on a friendship based 'correspondence' is not as revealing as his business style letters with George Thomson in particular, editor of A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs for the Voice to which Burns contributed 100 songs. == See also == * A Manual of Religious Belief * Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (Edinburgh Edition) * Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (Second Edinburgh Edition) * Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (London Edition) * Glenriddell Manuscripts * Robert Burns's Commonplace Book 1783–1785 * The Geddes Burns * Robert Burns World Federation * Burns Clubs ==References== ==Further reading== # Brown, Hilton (1949). There was a Lad. London : Hamish Hamilton. # Douglas, William Scott (Edit.) 1938. The Kilmarnock Edition of the Poetical Works of Robert Burns. Glasgow : The Scottish Daily Express. # Hecht, Hans (1936). Robert Burns. The Man and His Work. London : William Hodge. # Hill, John C. Rev. (1961). The Love Songs and Heroines of Robert Burns. London : J. M. Dent. # Mackay, James (2004). Burns. A Biography of Robert Burns. Darvel : Alloway Publishing. . # McIntyre, Ian (2001). Robert Burns. A Life. New York : Welcome Rain Publishers. . # McQueen, Colin Hunter (2008). Hunter's Illustrated History of the Family, Friends and Contemporaries of Robert Burns. Messsrs Hunter McQueen & Hunter. # Pittock, Murray (2018). The Oxford Edition of the Works of Robert Burns. Volumes II and III: The Scots Musical Museum.. # Purdie, David, McCue & Carruthers, G (2013). Maurice Lindsay's The Burns Encyclopaedia. London : Robert Hale. ==External links== *Full text of "Annotations of Scottish songs by Burns: an essential supplement to Cromek and Dick" *The Scots musical museum. *Researching the Life and Times of Robert Burns Club Researcher's site. *Researcher's Guide to Local History Terminology. Category:Robert Burns Category:Scottish literature |
Heath Shaw (born 27 November 1985) is a former Australian rules footballer who played for the Collingwood Football Club and the Greater Western Sydney Giants in the Australian Football League (AFL). Heath grew up in Diamond Creek and played junior sport for Diamond Creek Football Club and Diamond Creek Cricket Club. ==AFL career== After being drafted under the father–son rule in the 2003 AFL Draft at pick 48 to , Shaw made his AFL debut in 2005 against St Kilda at the Telstra Dome. He was a solid contributor since making his debut, with his best game being his first. A running defender, Heath has pace and good ball skills which can make him into a good footballer. He played all possible remaining 6 games of the season and kicked his first goal against Adelaide in Round 21. ===Collingwood (2006–2013)=== Shaw had a stunning 2006 season, being quickly noted for his ball-winning ability out of the back-line and his consistency and reliability which was a key to the success of the Magpies. He played 22 games, with his first being in Round 2 against Hawthorn after being a late replacement for Scott Burns. Shaw had played for VFL affiliate Williamstown, where he had 30 touches in wet and windy conditions, only 24 hours before his call up. Shaw kept his spot for the rest of the season, building game-time each week early on to becoming a valuable player to the side. In Round 4 on ANZAC Day against Essendon he had 23 touches and 10 marks, and in the following week, he won an AFL Rising Star nomination. Shaw had 16 games with 18 or more disposals during the season, which showed his consistency. He somewhat tailed off at the end of the season, but still was effective with his one percenters. Shaws ended up having 448 disposals (313 kicks, 135 handballs) at an average of more than 20 touches a game. His best game being against where he had 27 kicks, six handballs, 11 marks and kicked a fantastic goal in a thriller at AAMI Stadium. Heath also had 160 marks and accumulated 2210 Champion Data ranking points at an average of 100, and was ranked inside the top 10 in a game on 13 occasions, including two no.1 game rankings. Shaw played in his first final against the Western Bulldogs, but Collingwood lost. Shaw also came third in the 2006 AFL Rising Star behind Danyle Pearce of and Andrew Raines of . Shaw also polled six votes in the 2006 Brownlow Medal, including a game-high of three votes in the Round 12 game against the Sydney Swans. Shaw also placed fourth in the 2006 Copeland Trophy. In 2007, Shaw started the season in great fashion. He would have a solid pre- season and then become one of the players of the first quarter of the year; leading the league in kicks (114 @ 19.0) after round 6. He had an extraordinary opening game of the season, where he had 27 disposals, and collected two Brownlow votes despite giving away five free kicks, including a 50-metre penalty in the final minutes of the game, which resulted in a Shannon Grant controversial miss. On Anzac Day, Shaw would put on a show of courage and determination in where he won the Anzac Day Medal, racking up 23 kicks, nine handballs and 13 marks against the Bombers. Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy labelled the Shaw boys as trouble and a pair that needed to be stopped. Heath would be on notice by opposition coaches for the majority of the season, with taggers Kane Cornes and Kane Johnson to name a few would be told to restrict his run off half-back. Shaw's All-Australian form would deteriorate with the extra attention, as well as a corked thigh/quad he encountered against Fremantle in round ten. He would be heavily bandaged on his left leg for the rest of the season. Shaw played an exciting brand of football late in the season, including a good finals series. He would have 25 disposals in the losing preliminary final in which the club lost to the eventual premiers, Geelong by five points. Shaw would poll seven votes in the Brownlow Medal, as well as finish equal fourth (fifth on the new countback system) in the Copeland Trophy and was considered unlucky not to be selected in the All- Australian team. Shaw started 2008 well with a best-on-ground performance against , but found the going tough mid-season when opposition clubs finally discovered ways to curb his influence. Shaw and Alan Didak were suspended for the rest of the season by the club following a serious late-night indiscretion. Hamstring troubles and a suspension for contact with an umpire caused a slow start to 2009. He played only two of the first six matches before returning in round seven against St Kilda and did not miss a beat for the remainder of the year. Was one of the most consistent Magpies in the finals. Finished third in the Copeland Trophy and won the Bob Rose Trophy as the Best Finals Player. In 2010 he was one of Collingwood's best players across the two Grand Finals. He enshrined himself in Collingwood history in the replay by his freakish smother of Nick Riewoldt who meandered to the goal line. Shaw managed to knock the ball free from Riewoldt's hands before it could even touch his boot to save a certain goal and tip the momentum Collingwood's way. By mid-year 2011 he was a popularly tipped by most pundits to be a certain inclusion in the All-Australian team but after he was found to have laid a bet on teammate he was suspended for the rest of the season. In 2013, Shaw's on-field issues were highlighted again during Collingwood's loss to Port Adelaide in the Elimination Final where he played on Angus Monfries. During the game, Shaw gave away a crucial free kick in the goal square early in the second quarter and after the siren for half-time rang, he threw the ball at Monfries' head.Heath's move from Pies no Shaw thing At the end of the 2013 season, Collingwood agreed to trade Shaw despite signing a two-year contract extension in 2012.Heath Shaw signs long-term deal with Collingwood ===Greater Western Sydney (2014–2020)=== In October 2013, Shaw was traded to Greater Western Sydney in exchange for Taylor Adams. In 2015, he won the Kevin Sheedy Medal as Greater Western Sydney's best and fairest. Shaw was recognised for his defensive efforts by earning a place in the back-pocket in the 2015 All-Australian team. He was also selected in the 2016 All-Australian team, this time on the half-back line. ==Controversies== Shaw was involved in a late-season controversy in 2008 when he was charged with drink driving after crashing into a parked car and reportedly registering a blood alcohol reading of 0.144. On 4 August the Collingwood Football Club released a statement saying that Shaw had lied to them; teammate Alan Didak was his passenger when the accident happened, but Shaw and Didak denied this and the entire team fronted the media in a show of unity, where Shaw refused to divulge the identity of the passenger under media questioning. He was backed up by captain Scott Burns. However eyewitnesses identified Didak, and after the pair admitted to lying to their teammates and club officials, they were banned until the end of the season. Heath Shaw Charged With Drink Driving In Round 3, 2009, Shaw pushed umpire Michael Vozzo off-balance after he had paid a free kick to the opposition. This resulted in Shaw being suspended for one game and fined $1950.Collingwood's Heath Shaw fined and suspended for umpire contact Shaw was suspended by the AFL in July 2011 after it was found that he had paid $10 to a friend to bet on teammate Nick Maxwell to be the first goalscorer in Collingwood's Round 9 match against Adelaide. AFL integrity rules prohibit all players and club officials from participating in any form of betting on football matches. He was fined $20,000 and suspended for 8 weeks, as well as a six-week suspended sentence.Heath Shaw suspended for eight weeks for betting on Collingwood game During the 2014 off-season, Shaw was detained by Victorian police for drunken behaviour early on the morning of the AFL Grand Final, which his brother Rhyce was to take part in for the Sydney Swans. He was the second Giants player to fall foul of the law in 2014, after teammate Toby Greene was suspended for five matches earlier in the season also for drunken behaviour following the team's 111-point loss to in Round 8.GWS's Heath Shaw fined by police, The Roar, 29 September 2014 In round five, 2017, during the third quarter of the twelfth Sydney Derby, Shaw made an insensitive comment towards Sydney Swans player Tom Papley while being tackled. ==Education== Shaw attended Loyola College, Watsonia, in Melbourne's outer north-east suburbs. ==Personal life== Shaw is the son of former Collingwood captain Ray Shaw, and brother of Rhyce. He is also the nephew of premiership captain and Norm Smith Medallist, Tony Shaw and former Collingwood player Neville Shaw. His cousin Brayden (son of Tony) was drafted in the same year as Heath, but he failed to play a game before being delisted in 2005. ==Statistics== :Statistics are correct to the end of 2020Heath Shaw's player profile at AFL Tables |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2005 |style="text-align:center;"| | 39 || 6 || 1 || 0 || 66 || 24 || 90 || 40 || 11 || 0.2 || 0.0 || 11.0 || 4.0 || 15.0 || 6.7 || 1.8 || 0 |- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2006 |style="text-align:center;"| | 39 || 22 || 9 || 4 || 313 || 136 || 449 || 160 || 54 || 0.4 || 0.2 || 14.2 || 6.2 || 20.4 || 7.3 || 2.5 || 6 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2007 |style="text-align:center;"| | 39 || 25 || 2 || 4 || 361 || 126 || 487 || 164 || 68 || 0.1 || 0.2 || 14.4 || 5.0 || 19.5 || 6.6 || 2.7 || 7 |- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2008 |style="text-align:center;"| | 39 || 18 || 6 || 5 || 247 || 119 || 366 || 125 || 33 || 0.3 || 0.3 || 13.7 || 6.6 || 20.3 || 6.9 || 1.8 || 5 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2009 |style="text-align:center;"| | 39 || 21 || 2 || 3 || 295 || 187 || 482 || 118 || 43 || 0.1 || 0.1 || 14.0 || 8.9 || 23.0 || 5.6 || 2.0|| 5 |- style="background:#eaeaea;" | scope=row bgcolor=F0E68C | 2010# || | 39 || 23 || 5 || 3 || 345 || 144 || 489 || 129 || 53 || 0.2 || 0.1 || 15.0 || 6.3 || 21.3 || 5.6 || 2.3|| 5 |- ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2011 |style="text-align:center;"| | 39 || 17 || 2 || 2 || 282 || 95 || 377 || 116 || 60 || 0.1 || 0.1 || 16.6 || 5.6 || 22.2 || 6.8 || 3.5|| 3 |- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2012 |style="text-align:center;"| | 39 || 21 || 9 || 2 || 318 || 105 || 423 || 107 || 58 || 0.4 || 0.1 || 15.1 || 5.0 || 20.1 || 5.1 || 2.8|| 1 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2013 |style="text-align:center;"| | 39 || 20 || 1 || 6 || 278 || 113 || 391 || 114 || 60 || 0.1 || 0.3 || 13.9 || 5.7 || 19.6 || 5.7 || 3.0|| 0 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2014 |style="text-align:center;" style="white-space: nowrap;| || 23 | 17 || 0 || 3 || 275 || 82 || 357 || 83 || 30 || 0.0 || 0.2 || 16.2 || 4.8 || 21.0 || 4.9 || 1.8 || 0 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2015 |style="text- align:center;"| | 23 || 22 || 1 || 2 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 420† || 97 || 517 || 145 || 61 || 0.0 || 0.1 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 19.1† || 4.4 || 23.5 || 6.6 || 2.8 || 0 |- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2016 |style="text-align:center;"| | 23 || 24 || 1 || 0 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 503† || 77 || 580 || 183 || 61 || 0.0 || 0.0 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 21.0† || 3.2 || 24.2 || 7.6 || 2.5|| 2 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2017 |style="text-align:center;"| | 23 || 25 || 0 || 4 || 393 || 122 || 515 || 151 || 37 || 0.0 || 0.2 || 15.7 || 4.9 || 20.6 || 6.0 || 1.5|| 0 |- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2018 |style="text-align:center;"| | 23 || 20 || 0 || 2 || 361 || 84 || 445 || 115 || 53 || 0.0 || 0.1 || 18.1 || 4.2 || 22.3 || 5.8 || 2.7|| 0 |- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2019 |style="text-align:center;"| | 23 || 26 || 0 || 1 || 419 || 103 || 522 || 177 || 60 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 16.1 || 4.0 || 20.1 || 6.8 || 2.3|| 0 |- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text- align:center" | 2020 |style="text-align:center;"| | 23 || 17 || 3 || 1 || 162 || 47 || 209 || 78 || 38 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 9.5 || 2.8 || 12.3 || 4.6 || 2.2|| 0 |- class="sortbottom" ! colspan=3| Career ! 325 ! 42 ! 42 ! 5062 ! 1667 ! 6729 ! 2017 ! 781 ! 0.1 ! 0.1 ! 15.8 ! 5.2 ! 21.0 ! 6.3 ! 2.4 ! 34 |} Notes ==References== ==External links== * * Category:1985 births Category:Living people Category:Australian rules footballers from Melbourne Category:Collingwood Football Club players Category:Collingwood Football Club Premiership players Category:Greater Western Sydney Giants players Category:Northern Knights players Category:Kevin Sheedy Medal winners Category:All-Australians (AFL) Category:One-time VFL/AFL Premiership players Category:People educated at Loyola College Category:People from Diamond Creek, Victoria |
Hazen Shirley Cuyler (; August 30, 1898 – February 11, 1950), nicknamed Kiki, was an American professional baseball right fielder. He played in Major League Baseball for the Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, and Brooklyn Dodgers from 1921 until 1938. Cuyler led the National League (NL) in stolen bases four times, runs scored two times and had a batting average of over .350 on four occasions. His 26 triples in 1925 were the second most triples in any season after 1900. He compiled over 200 hits in three separate seasons and won the World Series in 1925 with the Pirates. A career .321 hitter, he was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1968 by the Veterans Committee.Corcoran, Dennis, pp. 91 ==Early life== Cuyler was born in Harrisville, Michigan, on August 30, 1898, to George and Anna Cuyler. George and Anna were born in Canada, where George played semi-professional baseball. His ancestors relocated there at the start of the Revolutionary War,Waldo, Ronald, pp. 5-6 then later moved to Michigan in the 1880s.Fleitz, David L., pp. 108 While in school, Cuyler excelled in baseball, football, basketball and athletics. He did not drink or smoke throughout school. After school Cuyler attended West Point for three months until he moved back to Michigan to work at a Buick Motors assembly plant in Flint.Fleitz, David L., pp. 109 He played for the Buick plant baseball team as well as in the Industrial League which had games in Flint and Detroit.Fleitz, David L., pp. 110 The Bay City Wolves, of the Michigan-Ontario League, signed Cuyler to a contract in 1920. In that season he had a batting average of .317 and compiled 16 triples. In September of that year his contract was purchased by the Pittsburgh Pirates. ==Career== ===Pittsburgh Pirates=== He appeared briefly in the major leagues with the Pittsburgh Pirates over the next three seasons, but still spent the majority of each season in the minor leagues. He hit .340 in 1923 for the Nashville Vols of the Southern Association.Parker, Clifton B., pp. 65 It was in Nashville that his nickname had taken hold with the fans. Two explanations have been given for the origin of Cuyler's nickname, "Kiki". In the first version, he had been known as "Cuy" since high school. When a fly ball was hit to the Nashville outfield and it was judged to be Cuyler's play, the shortstop would call out "Cuy" and this call would be echoed by the second baseman.Parker, Clifton B., pp. 66 The echoed name caught on with Nashville's fans. In the second explanation, "Kiki Cuyler" came from the player's stuttering problem and the way it sounded when Cuyler said his own last name. He was promoted to the Pirates for his first full major league season in 1924. He played a platoon outfield position, splitting time with Carson Bigbee. At the end of May he had batted .400 over his first 13 games and earned a spot as a starting outfielder. On August 9, 1924 he compiled six hits, three of which were doubles and one triple, in a 16–4 win over the Philadelphia Phillies. At the end of the season he had a batting average of .354, and scored 94 runs and stolen 32 bases in only 117 games played. Former Pittsburgh manager and Hall of Famer Fred Clarke said that "Cuyler might become a second [Ty] Cobb"Fleitz, David L., pp. 111 On June 4, 1925 Cuyler hit for the cycle, walked and stole a base in a 16–3 win over the Phillies. Later that year in August, Cuyler hit two inside-the-park home runs in a single game at Baker Bowl, the very compact baseball stadium in Philadelphia. From September 18–20, 1925 he tied the NL record by recording a hit in ten straight at bats.Waldo, Ronald, pp. 138 He hit eight inside-the-park home runs, and led the league with 144 runs scored and triples with 26, his .357 average was a career high and it was the second time he hit over .350 in his career. His 369 total bases in 1925 set a Pirates team record. The Pirates won the NL Pennant and faced the Washington Senators in the 1925 World Series. Cuyler only hit .269 in the World Series, but his two-run double in the bottom of the eighth inning of game seven scored the deciding runs,Fleitz, David L., pp. 112 the Pirates won Game 7 9–7. This was the only time Cuyler would win a World Series. Paul Waner joined the Pirates and took over the right field position in April 1926, forcing Cuyler to center and left field. The start of the 1926 season was strong for Cuyler, who by June 11 was batting .381, but finished poorly as he batted only .299 in the second half. The middle of the season was a turning point for Cuyler and the team, when on August 11, Babe Adams, Carson Bigbee and team captain and Hall of Famer Max Carey voted in a petition to remove vice president Fred Clarke from games. The result of the vote was 18–6 in favor of keeping Clarke, and all three players were released on August 13. The Pirates finished the rest of their season 23–24 and Cuyler batted only .288 after the incident. In his third full season Cuyler led the league in stolen bases, runs scored and finished with a .321 batting average. On May 28, 1927 Cuyler experienced the first of his many injuries he would suffer from in his career when he tore ligaments in his ankle and was sidelined for 3 weeks.Fleitz, David L., pp. 113 He had argued with first-year manager Donie Bush throughout the season and on August 6, when he did not break up a double play he was fined $50 ($ in current dollar terms) by manager Bush. After a missed cutoff throw, Bush benched Cuyler for the season. Cuyler appeared in 10 games for the rest of the season mainly as a pinch hitter. The Pirates made the World Series in 1927, but due to the dispute with Donie Bush, Cuyler did not play a single game in the series and remained on the bench despite fans wanting him to play.Corcoran, Dennis, pp. 92Skipper, John C, pp. 105 That November, Cuyler was traded to the Chicago Cubs for infielder Sparky Adams and outfielder Pete Scott.Skipper, John C, pp. 106 ===Chicago Cubs and later career=== With the Cubs, Cuyler played his natural position of right field, and batted third in the lineup. He suffered an ankle injury which caused him to only hit .285, although he did lead the league in stolen bases for the second time in his career. During the 1928 season, Cuyler formed a quartet with teammates Cliff Heathcote and Hall of Famers Gabby Hartnett and Hack Wilson. Johnny Pesky, who Cuyler coached with the 1949 Boston Red Sox, remarked "He had a beautiful voice, he'd sing all the time, sing in the showers, sing in the locker rooms..."Fleitz, David L., pp. 114 In 1929 he returned for a fully healthy season, and played in the most games since 1926. He led the league in stolen bases for the third time and hit .360 which marked the third time he batted over .350 in his career. Cuyler returned to the World Series, he hit .300 for the series, but the Cubs lost the series 1 game to 4.Fleitz, David L., pp. 115 In 1930 Cuyler set career highs in hits (228), runs scored (155), and RBI (134), and led the league in stolen bases for the fourth and final time in his career. With a career year from Hack Wilson, who set a major league record with 191 RBI, the Cubs could not manage to win the pennant and were behind the St. Louis Cardinals two games at the end of the season. The following year was also successful for Cuyler, he collected over 200 hits for the third time in his career and it would also be the last time he played in more than 150 games for the rest of his career. In early 1932 Cuyler fractured a toe on his left foot when he rounded first base and was out for six weeks.Fleitz, David L., pp. 117 On August 31, 1932 Cuyler had one of the best games of his career. In the bottom of the ninth inning, with two outs, down 5–4 against the Giants, Cuyler singled home the tying run, which raised his hit total to 4 for the game. The Giants scored 4 runs in the top of the tenth inning. After two straight outs to start the bottom of the tenth inning, teammate Mark Koenig hit a solo home run, this was followed by three straight singles. Cuyler came up to bat with two runners on, down 9–7 and hit a three-run game-winning home run. He finished the game going 5-for-6 with five runs batted in. Cuyler suffered another injury, this time during an exhibition game on March 29, 1933. He slid into a base during a steal attempt and fractured his right fibula, and was sidelined until July of that year. He hit .317 for his shortened season, but his speed was gone, in part due to age and his injury history. He stole 4 bases that year in 70 games. Cuyler was healthy the next season, he hit a league leading 42 doubles and hit .338 over 140 games. After a poor performance in the first half of the 1935 season, where he hit .268, he was released by the Cubs. As a free agent, he was signed by the Cincinnati Reds in July 1935. His first full year with the Reds was productive and he hit .326 in 1936 with 185 hits over 144 games. His 16 stolen bases that year were the most since he led the league in 1930 with 37. Another broken bone, this time his cheekbone, happened in spring training and his 1937 season was limited to 117 games,Fleitz, David L., pp. 118 where he did not record a home run for the first time since 1923 when he played 11 games. After being released by the Reds in October, he decided to retire from baseball at the end of the season. The next season he was signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers as the oldest player in the NL. He started 58 games in 1938 for the Dodgers, and was released on September 16 of that year. He was signed as a coach for the rest of the season. ==Later life and legacy== thumb|right|250px|Kiki Cuyler's family burial plot After the end of his playing career, Cuyler managed in the minor leagues, winning the regular-season Southern Association pennant in 1939 under Joe Engel with the Chattanooga Lookouts, with one of the only fan-owned franchises in the nation. He was a coach for the Cubs (1941–1943) and the Boston Red Sox (1949), and was in line to be the third base coach for Boston heading into the 1950 season.Waldo, Ronald, pp. 230 He suffered a heart attack while ice fishing in Glennie, Michigan, on February 2, 1950.Waldo, Ronald, pp. 231 While at the hospital he developed a blood clot in his leg, and when it worsened he was sent to a hospital in Ann Arbor, Michigan; he died en route on February 11, 1950. His remains are interred in Saint Anne Cemetery in Harrisville Township, Michigan.Waldo, Ronald, pp. 232 Cuyler finished his career with a .321 batting average, 1,305 runs, 2,299 hits, 394 doubles, 157 triples, 128 home runs, 1,065 RBI, 676 walks and 328 stolen bases. He collected over 200 hits in three separate seasons, and led the league in runs scored two times. Cuyler recorded one six-hit game, five five-hit games, and 31 four-hit games, ten of which were recorded in 1925. His 228 hits and 155 runs scored in 1930 were second most in Cubs history, and his 50 doubles that year set a team record. His .336 career average with the Pirates is third all time and his 220 hits in 1925 tied the single-season team record. He batted over .300 ten times in his major league career. Cuyler was known around the league as a polite, shy and kind player. Hall of Famer Joe Cronin said of Cuyler, "He was one of the finest and cleanest living fellows I ever met in baseball. Cuyler was an established star when I joined the Pirates in 1925 but he was always willing to help."Waldo, Ronald, pp. 233 The Sporting News stated that Cuyler was "a model on and off the field"Fleitz, David L., pp. 120 Cuyler was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1968. In Harrisville, Cuyler's son Harold opened a restaurant after his father's death, called Ki Cuyler's Bar & Grill, and he owned and operated it for a time.Waldo, Ronald, pp. 238 It operated until it burned down in December 2018. In 2008, State Highway M-72 within Alcona County was named the "Hazen Shirley 'Kiki' Cuyler Memorial Highway". ==See also== * List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders * List of Major League Baseball career triples leaders * List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders * List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders * List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders * List of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle * List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders * List of Major League Baseball annual stolen base leaders * List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders * List of Major League Baseball annual triples leaders * Major League Baseball titles leaders * List of Major League Baseball single-game hits leaders ==References== * * * * * * ==Further reading== * ==External links== * , or Retrosheet Category:National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees Category:National League All-Stars Category:National League stolen base champions Category:Brooklyn Dodgers players Category:Chattanooga Lookouts managers Category:Chicago Cubs players Category:Chicago Cubs coaches Category:Cincinnati Reds players Category:Pittsburgh Pirates players Category:Boston Red Sox coaches Category:Baseball players from Michigan Category:Major League Baseball right fielders Category:Atlanta Crackers managers Category:Charleston Pals players Category:Nashville Vols players Category:Chattanooga Lookouts players Category:Atlanta Crackers players Category:People from Alcona County, Michigan Category:Sportspeople from Pennsylvania Category:American people of Canadian descent Category:1898 births Category:1950 deaths |
Gordon Muir Campbell, (born January 12, 1948) is a retired Canadian diplomat and politician who was the 35th mayor of Vancouver from 1986 to 1993 and the 34th premier of British Columbia from 2001 to 2011. He was the leader of the British Columbia Liberal Party from 1993 to 2011. From 2011 to 2016, he served as Canadian High Commissioner to the United KingdomDiplomatic Appointments and Canada's representative to the Ismaili Imamat from 2014 to 2016.Diplomatic Appointments ==Early life== Campbell was born in Vancouver, British Columbia. His father, Charles Gordon (Chargo) Campbell, was a physician and an assistant dean of medicine at the University of British Columbia, until his suicide in 1961, when Gordon was 13. His mother Peg was a kindergarten assistant at University Hill Elementary School. The couple had four children. Gordon grew up in the West Point Grey neighbourhood of Vancouver and went to Stride Elementary, and University Hill Secondary School where he was student council president. Upon graduation from high school, Campbell was accepted by Dartmouth College, a well-known Ivy League university in New Hampshire; he had received a scholarship and a job offer so he could afford the fees and defray expenses. Campbell intended to study medicine but was persuaded by three English professors to shift his focus to English and urban management. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree with a major in English. At Dartmouth, in 1969, Campbell received a $1,500 Urban Studies Fellowship that made it possible for him to work in Vancouver's city government where he met Art Phillips, a TEAM city councilor who later became the 32nd mayor of Vancouver. == Early career == After graduating from university that year, Campbell and Nancy Chipperfield were married in New Westminster on July 4, 1970. Under the Canadian University Service Overseas (CUSO) program, they went to Nigeria to teach. There he coached basketball and track and field and launched literacy initiatives. Stanford accepted Campbell to pursue a master's degree in education, but the couple returned to Vancouver instead where Campbell entered law school at the University of British Columbia (UBC) and Nancy earned her education degree. Campbell's law school education was short-lived; as he soon returned to the City of Vancouver to work for Art Phillips on his mayoral campaign. When Phillips was elected in 1972, Campbell became his executive assistant, a job he held until 1976., source: Maclean's, 1999 At 28 years old, he left Mayor Phillips's office and went to work for Marathon Realty as a project manager. In 1976, Geoffrey, the Campbells' first child, was born. In 1978, the Campbells bought a house in Point Grey, which remained their home for the next 26 years. From 1975 to 1978, Campbell pursued a Master of Business Administration degree at Simon Fraser University's Beedie School of Business. In 1979, Nancy Campbell gave birth to their second child, Nicholas. In 1981, Campbell left Marathon Realty and started his own business, Citycore Development Corporation. Despite the economic slowdown that affected Canada that year, his company was successful and constructed several buildings in Vancouver. After a two-year absence from civic political activities, Campbell became involved in the mayoral campaign of May Brown and was an active supporter of the Downtown Stadium for Vancouver Committee. Although Brown was unsuccessful, Campbell and the committee continued promoting the stadium to revitalize False Creek, which at the time was polluted industrial land. The committee was eventually successful, as Premier Bill Bennett announced the Downtown Stadium project in 1980. ==Vancouver Councillor and Mayor== Campbell was elected to Vancouver City Council in 1984 as a member of the Non-Partisan Association. He was then elected as mayor of Vancouver for three successive terms from 1986 to 1993. Notable events in civic politics during that period included the development of the Expo Lands, the re-development of Yaletown, and the foundation of the Coal Harbour residential area. One of the most significant projects of his term was the construction of the new Vancouver Public Library. He also served as chair of the Greater Vancouver Regional District and president of the Union of British Columbia Municipalities. ==Liberal leader== Campbell became leader of the British Columbia Liberal Party in 1993 in a three-way race with Gordon Gibson, Jr. and Gordon Wilson, the incumbent party leader, who had lost the confidence of his party. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly the next year in a by-election in Vancouver-Quilchena. In the 1996 campaign, Campbell was elected to the Vancouver-Point Grey riding, which he held until 2010. The Liberals entered the election leading in the polls because of a fundraising scandal in the New Democratic Party (NDP). His party gained 16 seats and won a slight plurality of the popular vote, but the NDP retained enough seats to continue as the majority government. He stayed on as leader of the Opposition, opposing NDP premiers Glen Clark, Dan Miller and Ujjal Dosanjh. In May 2000, Campbell, along with Michael de Jong and Geoffrey Plant, brought a court case against the Nisga'a Nation, the Attorney General of Canada and the Attorney General of British Columbia, parties to the first modern day Aboriginal Treaty in British Columbia, known as the Nisga'a Final Agreement. He and the other plaintiffs claimed the treaty signed with the Nisga'a Nation was "in part inconsistent with the Constitution of Canada and therefore in part of no force and effect". However, Justice Williamson dismissed the application, judging that the enacting legislation did "establish a treaty as contemplated by Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. The legislation and the Treaty are constitutionally valid." Premier Glen Clark's government was beset by controversy, difficult economic and fiscal conditions, attacks on the NDP's building of the Fast Ferries and charges against Clark in relation to casino licensing, known as Casinogate. (Clark was eventually vindicated, though resigned his post because of the investigation.) In the BC election of 2001, Campbell's Liberals defeated the two-term NDP incumbents, taking 77 of 79 seats in the legislature. This was the largest majority of seats and the second-largest majority of the popular vote in BC history. ==Premier (2001−2011)== ===First term=== ====Tax==== In 2001, Campbell campaigned on a promise to reduce income taxes significantly to stimulate the economy. A day after taking office, he reduced personal income tax for all taxpayers by 25 per cent across every tax bracket. The government also introduced reductions in the corporate income tax, and eliminated the Corporation Capital Tax. ====Spending==== To finance the tax cuts and to balance the provincial budget, Campbell's first term was also noted for several measures of fiscal austerity such as reductions in welfare rolls and some social services, deregulation, sale of government assets (in particular the ferries built by the previous government during the Fast Ferry Scandal), reducing the size of the civil service, and closing government offices in certain areas. ==== BC Rail ==== In 2003, Campbell announced the sale of BC Rail, a publicly owned rail corporation, to the Canadian National Railway. This occurred even though he had made a campaign promise not to sell the company during the 2001 British Columbia election. In 1996, he had lost an election after promising to sell BC Rail, leading some to allege that he had hidden his true plans to get elected in 2001, and "went back to his original plan" after winning the election in 2001. This sale was condemned as unfair by the losing bidders, and triggered charges based in information found during police raids on cabinet offices in a drug-related investigation in what is known as the BC Legislature Raids. ====Education==== The Campbell government passed legislation in August 2001 declaring education as an essential service, therefore making it illegal for educators to go on strike. This fulfilled a platform promise made in the election campaign. The government embarked upon the largest expansion of BC's post-secondary education system since the foundation of Simon Fraser University in 1965. In 2004, the government announced that 25,000 new post- secondary places would be established between 2004 and 2010. The Campbell government also lifted the six-year-long tuition fee freeze that was placed on BC universities and colleges by the previous NDP government. In 2005 a tuition limit policy was put in place, capping increases at the rate of inflation. ====Environmental==== Campbell made significant changes, including new Environmental Assessment Legislation, as well as controversial new aquaculture policies on salmon farming. In November 2002, His government passed the Forest and Range Practices Act which reversed many of the regulations previously introduced by the former New Democrat government. ====First Nations==== During the 2001 election, the BC Liberals also campaigned on a promise to hold a consultative referendum seeking a mandate from the general public to negotiate treaties with First Nations. In the spring of 2002, the government held the referendum. The referendum, led by attorney general Geoff Plant, proposed eight questions that voters were asked to either support or oppose. Critics claimed the phrasing was flawed or biased toward a predetermined response. While some critics, especially First Nations and religious groups, called for a boycott of the referendum, by the May 15 deadline almost 800,000 British Columbians had cast their ballots. Critics called for a boycott of the referendum and First Nations groups collected as many ballots as possible so that they might be destroyed publicly. Of the ballots that were returned, over 80 per cent of participating voters agreed to all eight proposed principles. Treaty negotiations resumed. In the lead-up to the 2005 election, Campbell discussed opening up a New Relationship with Aboriginal People. This position was directly opposite to his view of aboriginal treaties pursued in the 2000 Nisga'a Final Treaty court case, discussed above. The "New Relationship" became the foundation for agreements in principle that were made during the second term, but ultimately rejected by the membership of the First Nations involved. ====Health care==== In 2004, Campbell imposed an unprecedented 15% pay cut to health care employees. Early in its first term, without consulting labour unions, his government passed legislation (Bill 29, the Health and Social Services Delivery Improvement Act) that unilaterally amended labour agreements and required health authorities to contract out positions when savings could be predicted. This led to the privatization of more than 8,000 healthcare jobs. These changes met resistance from many health care workers and resulted in a strike by some of them. A court order and amendments by the government to parts of the legislation ended the strike. The unions took the issue to the Supreme Court of Canada, which ruled in 2007 that the Act violated "good faith" requirements for collective bargaining. The Campbell government increased health funding by $3 billion during its first term in office to help meet the demand at hand and to increase wages for some health professionals. As well, they increased the number of new nurse training spaces by 2,500, an increase of 62 percent. At the same time, it nearly doubled the doctors in training and opened new medical training facilities in Victoria and Prince George. Wage rates for doctors and nurses increased in the Campbell government's first term. Nurses received a 23.5 percent raise while doctors received a 20.6 percent raise after arbitration. Doctors had threatened to go on strike because of the original Campbell plan to slash their fees, which was seen as a breach of contract, with the dispute being sent to arbitration. ====Impaired driving==== In January 2003, after visiting broadcaster Fred Latremouille, Campbell was arrested and pleaded no contest for driving under the influence of alcohol while vacationing in Hawaii. According to court records, Campbell's blood-alcohol level was more than twice the legal limit. In Hawaii, drunk driving is only a misdemeanour, whereas in Canada it is a Criminal Code offence. As is customary in the United States, Campbell's mugshot was provided to the media by Hawaii police. The image has proved to be a lasting personal embarrassment, frequently used by detractors and opponents. Campbell was fined $913 (US) and the court ordered him to take part in a substance abuse program, and to be assessed for alcoholism. A national anti- drinking and driving group, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) Canada called for Campbell to resign. Campbell refused. ====Minimum wage==== On November 1, 2001, the Campbell BC Liberals honoured the previous NDP government's legislation to increase the minimum wage to $8.00 per hour from $7.60, while at the same time authority was given so new entrants into the labour force could be paid $6 per hour, 25% lower than the minimum wage. In 2010, British Columbia had the lowest minimum wage amongst the 13 provinces and territories. Campbell's successor, Christy Clark, announced that the minimum wage would increase in three stages to begin on May 1, 2011. ====2010 Winter Olympics==== British Columbia won the right to host the 2010 Winter Olympics on July 2, 2003. This was a joint Winter Olympics bid by Vancouver and the ski resort of Whistler. Campbell attended the final presentations in Prague, the Czech Republic. On February 12, 2010, Campbell was in attendance at the opening ceremony for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and attended events during the games and was present at the closing ceremony. On April 23, 2010, Campbell received the Olympic Order from the Canadian Olympic Committee for being a dedicated proponent of the Olympic Movement. ===Second term=== In the May 17, 2005, election, Campbell and the BC Liberals won a second majority government with a reduced majority. ====Economy==== 430,000 new jobs had been created in B.C. since December 2001, the best job creation record in Canada at the time. In 2007, the economy created 70,800 more jobs, almost all full-time positions. By Spring 2007, unemployment had fallen to 4.0%, the lowest rate in 30 years. However, 40,300 jobs were lost in 2008, mostly in December (35,100), and the unemployment rates sat at 7.8% as of July 2009, the same level they were at in July 2001. ====Education==== On October 7, 2005, following the successive imposition of contracts on BC teachers, British Columbia's teachers began an indefinite walk-out. Campbell having made striking illegal for teachers, educators referred to this as an act of civil disobedience. Despite fines and contempt charges, the teachers' walk-out lasted two weeks, and threatened to culminate in a general strike across the province. ====Environmental==== In 2008, Premier Campbell's government developed and entrenched in law the Climate Action Plan. The Plan is claimed by the government to be one of the most progressive plans to address greenhouse gas emissions in North America, due in part to the revenue-neutral carbon tax. Gordon Campbell told Tim Flannery that he introduced the carbon tax in British Columbia after reading his book The Weather Makers (2005).Tim Flannery, Atmosphere of Hope. Solutions to the Climate Crisis, Penguin Books, 2015, page 5 (). ====First Nations==== The Campbell government attempted to negotiate treaties with a number of First Nations in its second term. Final agreements in principle were signed with the Tsawwassen First Nation, Maa-nulth Treaty Society, and Lheidli T’enneh First Nations. The Tsawwassen Treaty was passed by the band's membership in a heavily contested and divisive referendum but came into effect on April 3, 2009."Now and Everlasting", Terry Glavin, Vancouver Magazine, March 26, 2009 The Maa-nulth Treaty, which covers a group of Nuu-chah-nulth band governments, is pending ratification by the federal government while the Lheidli-T'enneh Treaty was rejected in the referendum held by that band. ====Health care==== The Campbell government launched the Conversation on Health, a province-wide consultation with British Columbians on their health care to lay the groundwork for changes to the principles of the Canada Health Act that were presented in the Fall of 2007. ===Third term=== thumb|Campbell in 2010 His government were re-elected in the May 12, 2009, election. Their share of total seats remained almost unchanged, as they won 49 seats in a new expanded 85-seat legislature. ====BC Rail e-mail controversy==== Some five years after the BC Legislature Raids, controversy arose when it was revealed that e-mails among Campbell, his staff, and other cabinet ministers may not have been deleted years ago as first claimed. An affidavit filed by Rosemarie Hayes, the B.C. government's manager in charge of information services, suggested that copies of the e-mails may have existed as recently as May 2009, but it was ordered that they be destroyed at that time. On July 20, 2009, the Supreme Court of British Columbia judge conducting the Basi-Virk trial, Madam Justice Elizabeth Bennett, ordered Campbell and other top officials to turn over their e-mail records to the court by August 17. These were never located nor surrendered to the Court. ====HST controversy==== On July 23, 2009, Campbell announced British Columbia would move towards a Harmonized Sales Tax, or HST. The new 12% sales tax would combine and replace the previous 5% Goods and Services Tax and 7% Provincial Sales Tax. The announcement was met with strong opposition from political opponents, news media, and opposition from most members of the public. However, the proposed tax received a positive reaction from the business community, strong supporters of the BC Liberals.> Much of the opposition stemmed from Campbell's perceived dishonesty about the HST as his government had said it was not on their radar prior to the election despite leaked emails revealing it was, and that it equated to a tax hike for several sectors. On August 24, representatives from the retail, resource, and film industries held a news conference to speak out in favour of harmonizing BC's sales taxes. In addition, sales tax harmonization has been hailed by the C.D. Howe Institute, a think tank, as being "crucial for B.C to maintain its economic competitiveness." David Docherty, a political science professor at Wilfrid Laurier University, noted that anti-HST sentiment was evident in left- wing populist groups who viewed it as "regressive" and those on the right who "hate all taxes". Polls consistently showed ...opposition to the HST in BC at "82 to 85 percent". "Shortly after the HST announcement, Ipsos Reid reported 85 percent opposition in British Columbia, dropping only slightly to 82 percent a few months later." On June 11, 2010, Blair Lekstrom resigned as BC's Minister of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, saying he was leaving both the cabinet and the caucus over a fundamental disagreement with the BC Liberals on the harmonized sales tax. He told The Canadian Press: "It was a tough decision but it had to be made. Fundamentally, the HST is it. The people I represent say ... we want you to put the brakes on the HST." His constituency bordered on Alberta, which had no provincial sales tax and businesses were concerned they would lose sales. A freedom of information request came to light on September 1, 2010, revealing that the BC Liberals had formed HST-related plans prior to the 2009 election—contrary to their statements on the subject. ===Resignation=== On November 3, 2010, Campbell made a televised address to the public announcing his intention to resign as Premier of British Columbia. The announcement was made after months of strong political opposition to the implementation of the HST, which saw Campbell's approval rating fall to only 9%, according to an Angus Reid poll, and led to rumours that he has lost support of some members of his cabinet. Another factor in his resignation was the ongoing BC Rail Scandal trial in which the Premier and other members of his cabinet and staff were due to face embarrassing cross-examination in relation to the Basi-Virk trial, which was called to a halt with plea bargain around the same time. On December 5, 2010, while answering questions from reporters, he "hinted strongly" that he will not stay on as an MLA after his successor as Liberal leader is chosen in February, according to Rod Mickleburgh of The Globe and Mail. Campbell resigned as premier on March 14, 2011; he was succeeded by Christy Clark. ==High Commissioner to the UK== In late June 2011 it was reported that Campbell was to be named Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom. On August 15, 2011, Campbell was formally announced to succeed the post. On September 15, 2011, Campbell officially became the Canadian High Commissioner in London. He represented Canadian interests throughout Britain until his term ended in 2016. Campbell was shortlisted for the Grassroot Diplomat Initiative Award in 2015 for his work on business partnership as the High Commissioner of Canada, and he remains in the directory of the Grassroot Diplomat Who's Who publication. In January 2019, a former High Commission employee, Judith Prins, filed a sexual assault complaint with Scotland Yard alleging that Campbell groped her in 2013. A spokesperson for Campbell denied the allegation, saying the complaint was investigated and dismissed at the time. In September 2020, details emerged of a civil suit filed by Prins naming Campbell and the Government of Canada as defendants. She is seeking damages for anxiety, stress and lost income. Campbell responded to this news saying: "This has been settled once before, more than five years ago now. It was dealt with fully." ==Honours== On September 2, 2011, it was announced that Campbell would receive the Order of British Columbia, the second Premier to be a recipient. Some believed his nomination contravened the legislation that prevented an elected official from being appointed while holding office. However, on September 7, 2011, Lance S. G. Finch, the Chief Justice of British Columbia and chair of the Order of BC Advisory Council declared that although his nomination package was received on March 10, 2011 (four days before his resignation as Premier), Campbell was appointed to the Order on September 2, 2011 at which time he was not an elected MLA. In 2014, Thompson Rivers University gave Campbell the Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws for his contributions to the founding of their newly opened law school. He was awarded the Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal in 2002 and the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal in 2012. ==Election results (partial)== ==References== ==External links== * Category:1948 births Category:20th-century Canadian businesspeople Category:20th-century Canadian politicians Category:21st-century Canadian businesspeople Category:21st-century Canadian politicians Category:British Columbia Liberal Party MLAs Category:Businesspeople from Vancouver Category:Canadian Anglicans Category:Canadian expatriates in Nigeria Category:Canadian real estate businesspeople Category:Canadian schoolteachers Category:Dartmouth College alumni Category:High Commissioners of Canada to the United Kingdom Category:Leaders of the British Columbia Liberal Party Category:Living people Category:Mayors of Vancouver Category:Members of the Executive Council of British Columbia Category:Members of the Order of British Columbia Category:Officers of the Order of Canada Category:Premiers of British Columbia Category:Simon Fraser University alumni |
Juggling practice has developed a wide range of patterns and forms which involve different types of manipulation, different props, numbers of props, and numbers of jugglers. The forms of juggling shown here are practiced by amateur, non-performing, hobby jugglers as well as by professional jugglers. The variations of juggling shown here are extensive but not exhaustive as juggling practice develops and creates new patterns on a regular basis. Jugglers do not consciously isolate their juggling into one of the categories shown; instead most jugglers will practice two or more forms, combining the varieties of juggling practice. Some forms are commonly mixed, for example: numbers and patterns with balls; while others are rarely mixed, for example: contact numbers passing. Many Western jugglers also practice other forms of object manipulation, such as diabolo, devil sticks, cigar box manipulation, fire-spinning, contact juggling, hat manipulation, poi, staff-spinning, balancing tricks, bar flair and general circus skills. == Solo juggling == ===Toss juggling=== Toss juggling is the form of juggling which is most recognisable as 'juggling'. Objects, typically balls, clubs or rings, are repeatedly thrown and caught in a variety of different patterns and styles. The term "toss juggling" is only used by a very small subset of jugglers to distinguish between "pure juggling" (throwing and catching juggling) and the wider range of circus skills usually associated with the term "juggling" like diabolo, devilstick, cigar boxes and more. ====Balls==== thumbnail|200px|Peter Bone juggling 9 balls For the purposes of record keeping and ease of communication, the terms balls and beanbags are generally interchangeable in the juggling world. =====Numbers===== Numbers juggling is the art and sport of keeping as many objects aloft as possible. 7 or more balls or rings, or 5 or more clubs is generally considered the threshold for numbers. Traditionally, the goal has been to "qualify" a number, that is, to get the pattern around twice such that each object has been thrown and caught twice. A newer generation of jugglers tends to value a "flash", which is to throw and catch each object only once. Since a flash is much less difficult than a qualifying run, there will be numbers flashed but not yet qualified. For example, the current world records are: Balls/Beanbags − 11 qualified, 14 flashed; Rings − 10 qualified, 13 flashed; and Clubs/Sticks − 8 clubs qualified, 9 sticks flashed, 9 clubs flashed. =====Pattern===== Jugglers who focus on juggling as many patterns as possible, many of them mathematically generated using Siteswap. Jugglers focus on aesthetic variations, and trying to juggle the longest patterns, the most complex patterns, or the patterns with the highest throws. They will also often juggle well known patterns like Mills Mess, Burke's Barrage, Rubenstein's Revenge with more than three balls. =====Trick===== Jugglers learn or make up as many tricks as they can and link them together in unique sequences. Usually the juggler focuses on: body throws, tricks with crossing arms, multiplexes (having more than one ball in the hand at the time of the throw), carrying balls around other balls and different styles of catching. Typically three, four or five balls are juggled. The juggler is generally stationary and only uses their hands. =====Technical===== Juggling is usually considered to be "technical" if the skills are of substantial difficulty. While many artistic jugglers are also technical, the term is usually used to refer to those jugglers who focus on doing harder moves, rather than making an artistic impression or performance. =====Full body===== The whole body can be used for controlling the objects being manipulated. These manipulations can be the forms from toss juggling such as throws and catches including catches with the head, arms, back, legs and feet and also include contact juggling moves such as head and arm rolls. A full body juggler may also use forms of body movement akin to dance altering their stance, posture and their orientation and using their body and the props in a choreographed performance. =====Bounce===== In bounce juggling, a form of tossing, silicone or rubber balls are allowed to bounce off a hard surface, typically the floor, before catching again. There are a few distinct tricks with bouncing balls, mixing up different rhythms, speeds and types of throws, but most popular is numbers bouncing. Bounce juggling may be "easier to accomplish than is toss juggling because the balls are grabbed at the top of their trajectories, when they are moving the slowest." ( ) =====Football===== Juggling footballs, basketballs, water polo balls or volleyballs. The most classic skills are spinning balls, then stacking the spinning balls, bouncing balls on the head, shoulder, feet or floor. Elements of contact juggling are often mixed in, rolling the larger balls around the body. ====Rings==== Rings are less popular than balls and clubs. The main reasons are: * they can be quite painful to catch, especially for beginners, as the very thin cross- section and hard plastic can act like blades; * they are affected by very light winds, meaning they are usually juggled inside; * rings are best thrown and caught with the hand above the elbow, unlike balls and clubs in which throws and catches are made lower and feel more natural; * due to their size, rings must be thrown fairly high, especially when compared to balls. However, when jugglers are comfortable with ring juggling, they can create an effective performance. Rings are about as impressive as clubs onstage, but are easier to juggle because they do not have to be spun as precisely. =====Numbers===== Rings lend themselves well to numbers juggling. Because of their light weight and aerodynamic structure they can be thrown high with less exertion than would be required when juggling balls or clubs. Generally numbers juggling with rings begins at 8 or more rings. Some jugglers attempt to set world records for most rings juggled and longest runs with increased numbers of rings. =====Tricks===== Few people use rings to create new tricks. Usually a juggler will do tricks that they have learned with balls or clubs, but using rings instead. Even so, inventing juggling tricks unique to rings is becoming more popular. =====Technical===== Technical ring jugglers concentrate on five to seven rings. They focus primarily on performance tricks such as pirouettes, juggling above the head and backcrosses. They also usually master collecting all the rings over their head at the end of a performance, which is called a pulldown. ====Clubs==== Clubs (sometimes incorrectly called "pins" by those new to juggling) are very popular with solo jugglers. Again, only the most popular forms of club juggling are listed. =====Numbers===== Most jugglers consider five or six clubs as the start of numbers clubs juggling. Due to clubs being larger and heavier than balls as well as needing to be spun correctly, numbers club juggling is much harder and therefore less popular than numbers juggling with balls. =====Tricks===== Many tricks are unique to clubs. The size and shape opens up possibilities with balances, rolls, flourishes, swings, slapbacks, wrong end catches and more. Most tricks are done with the juggler standing still and mostly using the hands and head. =====Technical===== Technical club juggling focuses on three to five clubs. There are many moves to do with clubs, among them being pirouettes, juggling above the head, backcrosses, shoulder throws, and kickups. Also juggling with a balance or head bounce. Many jugglers do Siteswap, although this is less common with clubs than with balls. ====Other objects==== Various other objects are often used for added showmanship. Tennis rackets, throwing knives, or lit torches may be used in place of clubs. Apples or raw eggs are sometimes used in place of balls. (The performer will typically take bites of the apple in the middle of the act.) Other more extreme examples might include chainsaws, bowling balls, or other heavy or unwieldy objects. These are of course, considerably more dangerous, and usually only used by the most experienced jugglers. Some performers will mix various objects of widely differing weights, sizes, and shapes, requiring them to adjust their throwing force for each object. ===Contact juggling=== Instead of throwing balls, a juggler may roll them over the hands and body. Usually “crystal” balls (actually acrylic or plastic) are used. There are two distinct forms. A. Rolling one or two balls all over the hands, arms and body. B. Controlling three to eight balls, revolving them in stacks in the palms of the hands. Both forms often use the idea of "isolation". The impression is given of one ball being fixed in space and the juggler, or the other balls, moving around this stationary ball. ===Club swinging=== Two clubs are swung about the body in different patterns, speeds, directions, planes and phases. Sometimes the clubs are thrown but are usually held all the time. Some toss jugglers don't consider club swinging to be "real juggling" as the props are not thrown and caught enough. Club swinging is also done with heavy wooden clubs as a form of exercise or fitness training. == Multiple person juggling == Instead of juggling on their own, jugglers can pass props between each other as a pair or group. === Passing === thumbnail|400px|Manuel and Christoph Mitasch, world record holding club passers. Two or more jugglers share a juggling pattern between them, usually facing each other. Passing has many forms, usually practiced with clubs. ====Numbers==== Popular with clubs, rings and bouncing balls, but not so much with balls. A team of two jugglers who work hard together can sometimes juggle more than twice as many clubs between them as each can juggle alone. Very few people do anything but numbers passing with rings and bouncing balls. ====Tricks==== Usually two jugglers concentrating on the unique trick opportunities presented while passing clubs. This is often based on a single pattern, like 6 club 2 count (throwing to someone else every two beats) or 4 count (passing every four beats), with the tricks thrown within the regular beats. The basic throws are things like tomahawks, shoulder throws, flats, early and late doubles, multiplexes, and many more. Also solo club juggling tricks can be mixed in between the passes. ====Groups==== For three people there is the feed. Typically there is one feeder (who passes to everyone else) and two or more feedees (who only pass to a feeder). This can be extended to include more jugglers by turning it from a V to an N, where there are two feedees, and to a W with 5. Popular formations are the triangle, the Y, the line, the square and the star. The juggling patterns are normally quite simple with complexity being added by jugglers turning or walking around within the group, changing from feedee to feeder and back again. The basic pattern for 5 or more people is the Feast, where everybody passes to everybody including themselves, turing in a clockwise direction. ====Patterns==== Keeping things interesting by working out ever more complex series of passes (throwing the club to someone else), selves (throwing to yourself), holds (not throwing the club at all) and zips (grabbing the club out of one hand with your other). These are set over varying number of beats and are repeated by each juggler. The most basic patterns are like pass-self-self-self. At the more complex end are patterns with four jugglers each doing something like pass-zip-self-pass- pass-self-zip-pass all out of phase with each other. Of course, with more than two jugglers involved they must also know whom they are passing to on each beat. ====Technical==== Based on the traditional skill set mentioned in the solo club section. Usually passing six to nine clubs either face to face or back-to-back. Technical passing is very difficult so sequences usually have to be choreographed in advance for the tricks to work, unlike regular passing tricks. === Other two-person forms of juggling === ====Sharing==== Also called half-juggling, buddy juggling or Siamese juggling. Two jugglers stand side-by- side and juggle patterns that one person would do on their own. The patterns juggled in this way are often symmetrical but can be asymmetrical. The range of sharing patterns and tricks from side-by-side numbers passing to very complex arm weaving patterns with only three balls. ====Stealing==== One person juggles a regular pattern. The other person steals all of the props and keeps the pattern going without a pause. Patterns can be stolen from in front, behind, above, below or from either side. This form of juggling is most popular with clubs and balls. ====Takeouts==== Takeouts involve one juggler stealing a single prop form another juggler and replacing it with another prop, or the same prop a few beats later. Confusingly this form can also be called stealing. ====Synch==== Popularized by juggler Thomas Dietz, this form of two person juggling involves two jugglers executing tricks simultaneously. This is visually impressive and difficult to do perfectly. ==References== Category:Juggling |
France sent a team of 323 athletes to the 2008 Summer Olympics."France preview: France stays low key towards Beijing Olympics", Xinhua, July 14, 2008 ==Medalists== Medal Name Sport Event Steeve Guénot Wrestling Men's Greco-Roman 66 kg Alain Bernard Swimming Men's 100 m freestyle Jérôme Jeannet Fabrice Jeannet Ulrich Robeiri Fencing Men's team épée Julien Pillet Boris Sanson Nicolas Lopez Fencing Men's team sabre Anne-Caroline Chausson Cycling Women's BMX Julien Absalon Cycling Men's cross-country France national men's handball team Handball Men's tournament Fabrice Jeannet Fencing Men's individual épée Benjamin Darbelet Judo Men's 66 kg Amaury Leveaux Fabien Gilot Frédérick Bousquet Alain Bernard Grégory Mallet Boris Steimetz Swimming Men's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay Fabien Lefèvre Canoeing Men's slalom K-1 Nicolas Lopez Fencing Men's sabre Lucie Décosse Judo Women's 63 kg Vencelas Dabaya Weightlifting Men's 69 kg Grégory Baugé Kévin Sireau Arnaud Tournant Cycling Men's team sprint Amaury Leveaux Swimming Men's 50 m freestyle Thomas Bouhail Gymnastics Men's vault Mahiedine Mekhissi-Benabbad Athletics Men's 3000 m steeplechase Julien Bontemps Sailing Men's RS:X Laëtitia Le Corguillé Cycling Women's BMX Jean-Christophe Péraud Cycling Men's cross-country Khedafi Djelkhir Boxing Featherweight Daouda Sow Boxing Lightweight Sophie Dodemont Virginie Arnold Bérengère Schuh Archery Women's team Hugues Duboscq Swimming Men's 100 m breaststroke Christophe Guénot Wrestling Men's Greco-Roman 74 kg Hugues Duboscq Swimming Men's 200 m breaststroke Benoît Caranobe Gymnastics Men's artistic individual all-around Stéphanie Possamaï Judo Women's 78 kg Teddy Riner Judo Men's +100 kg Alain Bernard Swimming Men's 50 m freestyle Anthony Terras Shooting Men's skeet Julien Desprès Benjamin Rondeau Germain Chardin Dorian Mortelette Rowing Men's coxless four Guillaume Florent Sailing Finn class Jonathan Coeffic Pierre-Jean Peltier Julien Bahain Cédric Berrest Rowing Men's quadruple sculls Nicolas Charbonnier Olivier Bausset Sailing Men's 470 class Mickaël Bourgain Cycling Men's sprint Alexis Vastine Boxing Light welterweight Gwladys Épangue Taekwondo Women's 67 kg Marie Delattre Anne-Laure Viard Canoeing Women's K-2 500 m Mehdi Baala Athletics Men's 1500 m Yannick Szczepaniak Wrestling Men's Greco-Roman 120 kg Manuela Montebrunhttp://www.ouest-france.fr/pays-de-la-loire/laval-53000/laval- manuela-montebrun-medaillee-olympique-neuf-ans-plus-tard-5188313 Athletics Women's hammer throw ==Archery== France will send archers to the Olympics for the twelfth time. France qualified a full team of three women by placing eighth in the women's team event at the 2007 World Outdoor Target Championships.FITA Olympic Qualification - Women The nation had no men qualify at the world tournament, but Romain Girouelle earned the nation one spot in the men's individual competition at the European qualifying tournament. ;Men Athlete Event Ranking round Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Score Seed Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Romain Girouille Individual 641 51 (14) L 110–112 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Jean-Charles Valladont Individual 656 35 (30) L 106–108 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ;Women Athlete Event Ranking round Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Score Seed Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Virginie Arnold Individual 626 39 (26) L 105–107 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Sophie Dodemont Individual 632 32 (33) L 106–107 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Bérengère Schuh Individual 645 14 (51) W 112–107 (46) W 112–100 (3) L 104–109 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Virginie Arnold Sophie Dodemont Bérengère Schuh Team 1903 5 colspan=2 (4) W 218–211 (1) L 213–184 (2) W 203–201 ==Athletics== The French athletics team, composed of 52 athletes, including 18 relay competitors, for 2008 Summer Olympics was announced on the July 28, 2008, following the French National Championships held in Albi. Frank Chevallier, the national technical director, believes that France has a better chance of winning two to four athletic medals. ;Men ;Track & road events Athlete Event Heat Quarterfinal Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Mehdi Baala 1500 m 3:35.87 1 Q colspan=2 3:37.47 2 Q 3:34.21 Samuel Coco-Viloin 110 m hurdles 13.60 4 Q 13.51 4 q 13.65 8 Did not advance Did not advance Yohann Diniz 50 km walk colspan=6 Leslie Djhone 400 m 45.12 1 Q colspan=2 44.79 SB 1 Q 45.11 5 Ladji Doucouré 110 m hurdles 13.52 2 Q 13.39 2 Q 13.22 SB 3 Q 13.24 4 Martial Mbandjock 100 m 10.26 2 Q 10.16 3 Q 10.18 8 Did not advance Did not advance Mahiedine Mekhissi-Benabbad 3000 m steeplechase 8:16.95 SB 2 Q colspan=4 8:10.49 PB Simon Munyutu Marathon colspan=6 2:25:50 57 Ronald Pognon 100 m 10.26 3 Q 10.21 5 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Eddy Riva 50 km walk colspan=6 4:00.49 28 Bouabdellah Tahri 3000 m steeplechase 8:23.42 1 Q colspan=4 8:14.79 5 Vincent Zouaoui-Dandrieux 3000 m steeplechase 8:27.91 7 colspan=4 Did not advance Did not advance David Alerte Christophe Lemaitre Martial Mbandjock Issa Aimé Nthépé Ronald Pognon Manuel Reynaert 4 × 100 m relay 39.53 6 colspan=4 Did not advance Did not advance Leslie Djhone Richard Maunier Ydrissa M'Barke Brice Panel Teddy Venel 4 × 400 m relay 3:03.19 8 colspan=4 Did not advance Did not advance ;Field events Athlete Event Qualification Final Distance Position Distance Position Jérôme Clavier Pole vault 5.65 3 q 5.60 7 Colomba Fofana Triple jump 16.42 29 Did not advance Did not advance Mickaël Hanany High jump 2.25 =14 Did not advance Did not advance Romain Mesnil Pole vault 5.55 =14 Did not advance Did not advance Yves Niaré Shot put 19.73 23 Did not advance Did not advance Salim Sdiri Long jump 7.81 21 Did not advance Did not advance ;Combined events – Decathlon Athlete Event 100 m 400 m 1500 m Final Rank Romain Barras Result 11.26 7.08 15.42 1.96 49.51 14.21 45.17 5.00 65.40 4:29.29 8253 SB 4 Romain Barras Points 804 833 816 767 837 948 770 910 819 749 8253 SB 4 ;Women ;Track & road events Athlete Event Heat Quarterfinal Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Result Rank Christine Arron 100 m 11.37 1 Q 11.36 4 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Christelle Daunay Marathon colspan=6 2:31:48 20 Sophie Duarte 3000 m steeplechase 9:38.08 7 colspan=4 Did not advance Did not advance Élodie Guégan 800 m 2:03.85 3 Q colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Muriel Hurtis-Houairi 200 m 22.72 2 Q 22.89 2 Q 22.71 5 Did not advance Did not advance Adriana Lamalle 100 m hurdles colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Reïna-Flor Okori 100 m hurdles 12.98 3 q colspan=2 13.05 6 Did not advance Did not advance Christine Arron Muriel Hurtis-Houairi Ayodelé Ikuesan Lina Jacques-Sebastien Carima Louami Myriam Soumaré 4 × 100 m relay colspan=4 Did not advance Did not advance Phara Anacharsis Solen Desert Élodie Guégan Aurore Kassambara Virginie Michanol Thélia Sigere 4 × 400 m relay 3:26.61 SB 5 colspan=4 Did not advance Did not advance ;Field events Athlete Event Qualification Final Distance Position Distance Position Vanessa Boslak Pole vault 4.50 SB 2 q 4.55 SB 9 Marion Buisson Pole vault 4.15 23 Did not advance Did not advance Stéphanie Falzon Hammer throw 68.94 14 Did not advance Did not advance Manuela Montebrun Hammer throw 72.81 4 Q 72.54 Teresa Nzola Meso Triple Jump 14.11 14 Did not advance Did not advance Amélie Perrin Hammer throw — Did not advance Did not advance Mélina Robert-Michon Discus throw 62.21 SB 5 Q 60.66 8 Melanie Skotnik High Jump 1.89 16 Did not advance Did not advance ;Combined events – Heptathlon Athlete Event 200 m 800 m Final Rank Marie Collonvillé Result 13.57 1.86 12.42 25.06 6.21 46.14 2:11.81 6302 SB 12* Marie Collonvillé Points 1040 1054 689 881 915 785 938 6302 SB 12* Antoinette Nana Djimou Ida Result 13.85 1.71 13.12 24.90 6.16 49.32 2:20.96 6055 18* Antoinette Nana Djimou Ida Points 1000 867 735 896 899 847 811 6055 18* * The athlete who finished in second place, Lyudmila Blonska of the Ukraine, tested positive for a banned substance. Both the A and the B tests were positive, therefore Blonska was stripped of her silver medal, and both French heptathletes moved up a position. ==Badminton== France is being represented by two athletes. Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Erwin Kehlhoffner Men's singles W 19–21, 22–20, 21–15 W 21–15, 21–17 L 10–21, 6–21 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Hongyan Pi Women's singles W 21–6, 21–9 W 21–12, 16–21, 21–6 L 8–21, 21–19, 19–21 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Boxing== France qualified nine boxers for the Olympic boxing tournament. Oubaali, Vastine, and M'Bumba qualified at the 2007 World Championships.World Boxing Championships Chicago 2007 Djelkhir became the fourth French qualifier at the first European qualifying tournament. Thomas, Hallab, Sow, and Chiguer joined the French Olympic team by qualifying at the 2nd continental qualifier.2nd AIBA European Olympic Boxing Qualifying Tournament Athlete Event Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Final Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Nordine Oubaali Light flyweight W 8–7 L 3–3+ Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Jérôme Thomas Flyweight L 6–10 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Ali Hallab Bantamweight L 5–12 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Khedafi Djelkhir Featherweight W 13–9 W 9–7 W 14–9 W L Daouda Sow Lightweight W 13–3 W 13–9 W 9–6 W 15–8 L 9–11 Alexis Vastine Light welterweight W 13–2 W 11–7 W 12–4 L 10–12 Did not advance Jaoid Chiguer Welterweight W 17–6 L 3–8 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Jean- Mickaël Raymond Middleweight L 2–8 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance John M'Bumba Heavyweight W 11–5 L 9–18 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance == Canoeing == ===Slalom=== Athlete Event Preliminary Semifinal Final Run 1 Rank Run 2 Rank Total Rank Time Rank Time Rank Total Rank Tony Estanguet Men's C-1 89.99 8 86.09 6 176.08 6 Q 93.92 9 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Fabien Lefèvre Men's K-1 85.66 9 84.70 2 168.06 2 Q 87.21 3 Q 86.09 2 173.30 Cédric Forgit Martin Braud Men's C-2 96.17 4 92.39 1 188.56 2 Q 102.76 5 Q 95.43 1 198.19 4 Émilie Fer Women's K-1 96.90 5 92.78 3 189.68 5 Q 98.50 2 Q 153.46 7 251.96 7 ===Sprint=== ;Men Athlete Event Heats Semifinals Final Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Mathieu Goubel C-1 500 m 1:49.527 3 QS 1:52.239 2 Q 1:49.056 4 Mathieu Goubel C-1 1000 m 3:56.972 2 QS 3:57.607 1 Q 3:57.889 7 Arnaud Hybois K-1 500 m 1:37.902 4 QS 1:43.559 5 Did not advance Did not advance Cyrille Carré Philippe Colin K-2 1000 m 3:18.968 3 QF colspan=2 3:16.532 6 Bertrand Hémonic William Tchamba C-2 500 m 1:43.453 6 QS 1:43.874 6 Did not advance Did not advance Bertrand Hémonic William Tchamba C-2 1000 m 3:46.431 5 QS 3:48.406 6 Did not advance Did not advance Sébastien Jouve Vincent Lecrubier K-2 500 m 1:29.805 2 QF colspan=2 1:31.312 7 ;Women Athlete Event Heats Semifinals Final Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Marie Delattre Anne-Laure Viard K-2 500 m 1.43.832 2 QF colspan=2 1.42.128 Qualification Legend: QS = Qualify to semi-final; QF = Qualify directly to final ==Cycling== ===Road=== ;Men Athlete Event Time Rank Cyril Dessel Road race Did not finish Did not finish Pierrick Fédrigo Road race Did not finish Did not finish Rémi Pauriol Road race 6:26:17 34 Jérôme Pineau Road race 6:24:11 14 Pierre Rolland Road race Did not finish Did not finish ;Women Athlete Event Time Rank Christel Ferrier-Bruneau Road race 3:32:45 13 Jeannie Longo-Ciprelli Road race 3:32:57 24 Jeannie Longo-Ciprelli Time trial 35:52.62 4 Maryline Salvetat Road race 3:32:45 14 Maryline Salvetat Time trial 38:09.72 20 ===Track=== ;Sprint Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Round 1 Round 2 Repechage 2 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Final Time Speed (km/h) Rank Opposition Time Speed (km/h) Opposition Time Speed (km/h) Opposition Time Speed (km/h) Opposition Time Speed (km/h) Opposition Time Speed (km/h) Opposition Time Speed (km/h) Rank Mickaël Bourgain Men's sprint 10.123 71.125 5 Q W 10.672 67.466 W 10.734 67.076 W 10.524, W 10.463 L, L W 11.047, L, W 10.560 Kévin Sireau Men's sprint 10.098 71.301 4 Q W 10.742 67.026 L W 10.570 68.117 L, L Did not advance 5th place final W 10.719 5 Grégory Baugé Kévin Sireau Arnaud Tournant Men's team sprint 43.541 62.010 2 Q W 43.656 61.847 colspan=4 L 43.651 61.854 Clara Sanchez Women's sprint 11.365 63.352 6 W 11.607 62.031 L, L Did not advance 5th place final W 12.264 5 ;Pursuit Athlete Event Qualification Semifinals Finals Time Rank Opponent Results Rank Opponent Results Rank Fabien Sanchez Men's individual pursuit 4:33.100 15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Damien Gaudin Matthieu Ladagnous Christophe Riblon Nicolas Rousseau Men's team pursuit 4:03.679 5 Q — Did not advance Did not advance ;Keirin Athlete Event 1st round Repechage 2nd round Finals Rank Rank Rank Rank Grégory Baugé Men's keirin 4 R 1 Q 5 7 Arnaud Tournant Men's keirin 4 R 1 Q 3 Q 6 ;Omnium Athlete Event Points Laps Rank Christophe Riblon Men's points race −17 −1 21 Pascale Jeuland Women's points race 8 0 7 Matthieu Ladagnous Jérôme Neuville Men's madison 12 –1 7 ===Mountain biking=== Athlete Event Time Rank Julien Absalon Men's cross-country 1:55:59 Jean-Christophe Péraud Men's cross-country 1:57:06 Cédric Ravanel Men's cross-country 2:01:38 14 Laurence Leboucher Women's cross-country 2:00:55 17 ===BMX=== Athlete Event Seeding Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Result Rank Points Rank Points Rank Result Rank Thomas Allier Men's BMX 36.649 19 16 6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Damien Godet Men's BMX 36.008 3 13 4 Q 14 4 Q 8 Anne- Caroline Chausson Women's BMX 36.660 1 colspan=2 4 1 Q 35.976 Laëtitia Le Corguillé Women's BMX 37.145 3 colspan=2 4 1 Q 38.042 ==Diving== ;Women Athlete Events Preliminaries Semifinals Final Points Rank Points Rank Points Rank Claire Febvay 10 m platform 255.30 25 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Audrey Labeau 10 m platform 289.95 21 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Equestrian== ===Dressage=== Athlete Horse Event Grand Prix Grand Prix Special Grand Prix Freestyle Overall Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Marc Boblet Whitini Star Individual 66.125 21 Q 65.640 21 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Julia Chevanne Calimucho Individual 63.250 32 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Hubert Perring Diabolo St Maurice Individual 66.833 20 Q 62.680 25 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Marc Boblet Julia Chevanne Hubert Perring See above Team 65.403 8 colspan=4 65.403 7 ===Eventing=== Athlete Horse Event Dressage Cross-country Jumping Total Qualifier Final Penalties Rank Penalties Total Rank Penalties Total Rank Penalties Total Rank Penalties Rank Jean Renaud Adde Haston d'Elpégère Individual 56.90 53 Eliminated Eliminated Eliminated Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Didier Dhennin Ismène du Temple Individual 42.80 17 14.00 56.80 7 3.00 59.80 11 Q 0.00 59.80 6 59.80 6 Nicolas Touzaint Galan de Sauvagère Individual Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Withdrew – Horse injury* Eric Vigeanel Coronado Prior Individual 53.00 44 26.00 79.00 30 0.00 79.00 23 Q 4.00 83.00 20 83.00 20 Didier Dhennin Eric Vigeanel Jean Renaud Adde See above Team 152.70 8 983.10 1135.80 11 3.00 1138.80 11 colspan=3 1138.80 11 * Nicolas Touzaint, a 2004 team gold medallist, had to withdraw just before the start of the competition because of an injury to his horse.Shock withdrawal of European champion, www.horsetalk.co.uk, Retrieved on 2008-08-31 His score was automatically set to 1000.00 for team purposes. When Jean Renaud Adde was later eliminated from the competition for falling off his horse on the cross-country course,http://fr.sports.yahoo.com/11082008/70/pekin-2008-une-journee- mitigee.html, Yahoo! Sport France (in French), Retrieved on 2008-08-31 the same happened to him, causing an astronomical team score for the cross-country ride. ==Fencing== ;Men Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Fabrice Jeannet Individual épée W 15–14 W 15–11 W 15–7 W 15–11 W 15–12 L 9–15 Jérôme Jeannet Individual épée W 15–14 L 9–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Ulrich Robeiri Individual épée W 15–11 L 11–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Fabrice Jeannet Jérôme Jeannet Jean-Michel Lucenay Ulrich Robeiri Team épée colspan=2 W 45–33 W 45–39 W 45-29 Brice Guyart Individual foil W 15–3 L 10–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Erwann Le Péchoux Individual foil W 15–10 L 9–10 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Nicolas Lopez Individual sabre W 15–6 W 15–8 W 15–11 W 15–10 W 15–13 L 9–15 Julien Pillet Individual sabre W 15–14 W 15–13 W 15–13 L 12–15 L 11–15 4 Boris Sanson Individual sabre W 15–12 L 7–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Vincent Anstett Nicolas Lopez Julien Pillet Boris Sanson Team sabre colspan=3 W 45–31 W 45–41 W 45–37 ;Women Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Laura Flessel-Colovic Individual épée W 15–8 W 13–11 L 10–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Hajnalka Kiraly Picot Individual épée W 15–7 L 13–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Corinne Maîtrejean Individual foil W 15–9 L 10–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Léonore Perrus Individual sabre L 11–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Anne-Lise Touya Individual sabre L 13–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Carole Vergne Individual sabre L 14–15 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Solenn Mary Léonore Perrus Anne-Lise Touya Carole Vergne Team sabre colspan=3 W 45–22 L 38–45 L 38–45 4 ==Gymnastics== ===Artistic=== ;Men ;Team Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Total Rank Thomas Bouhail Team 15.125 13.850 13.700 16.625 Q 14.675 14.575 88.550 27 Q 15.300 14.375 16.475 colspan=4 Benoît Caranobe Team 15.125 14.250 15.100 16.500 Q 15.275 14.675 90.925 10 Q 14.425 15.225 15.950 colspan=4 Yann Cucherat Team colspan=4 16.000 15.850 Q colspan=2 colspan=4 16.050 14.250 colspan=2 Dimitri Karbanenko Team 14.050 13.700 13.675 16.125 15.500 15.450 88.500 28 14.900 colspan=2 15.975 15.375 15.350 colspan=2 Danny Rodrigues Team 14.200 13.400 15.800 Q colspan=5 13.750 16.100 colspan=5 Hamilton Sabot Team 14.575 14.025 14.375 15.400 15.400 13.975 87.750 30 14.800 13.975 15.150 15.450 colspan=2 Total Team 59.025 55.825 58.975 64.650 62.175 60.550 361.200 7 Q 44.625 42.925 45.300 48.400 46.575 45.050 272.875 8 ;Individual finals Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Thomas Bouhail All-around 15.200 13.400 13.650 15.850 14.425 14.475 87.000 21 Thomas Bouhail Vault colspan=3 16.537 colspan=2 16.537 Benoît Caranobe All- around 15.350 14.875 15.175 16.600 15.050 14.875 91.925 Benoît Caranobe Vault colspan=3 16.062 colspan=2 16.062 5 Yann Cucherat Horizontal bar colspan=5 14.825 14.825 8 Danny Rodrigues Rings 16.225 colspan=4 16.225 5 Marks and ranks from vault qualification differ as two vaults are used to determine event finalists while only the first of those counts toward the all-around total. Thomas Bouhail qualified for the all-around final of the top 24 gymnasts because the number of finalists from the same nation is limited to two. Thus, three gymnasts ranked ahead of him were ineligible. ;Women ;Team Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Final Final Final Final Final Final Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Total Rank Total Rank Rose-Eliandre Bellemare Team 14.225 14.725 14.400 colspan=3 14.550 colspan=4 Marine Debauve Team 14.100 colspan=2 14.625 colspan=2 colspan=3 13.975 colspan=2 Laetitia Dugain Team 14.325 14.350 14.625 14.975 58.275 22 Q 13.925 14.725 14.750 colspan=2 Katheleen Lindor Team 14.900 14.700 14.575 colspan=2 14.825 14.775 colspan=3 Pauline Morel Team 14.625 14.350 14.625 14.975 57.450 29 14.625 14.675 colspan=3 Marine Petit Team 14.375 14.350 14.625 14.975 58.350 20 Q 14.775 14.675 15.000 colspan=2 Total Team 57.550 58.825 58.525 58.975 233.875 6 Q 43.325 44.050 44.175 43.725 175.275 7 ;Individual finals Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Laetitia Dugain All-around 14.000 14.275 14.275 15.225 56.775 23 Marine Petit All-around 14.575 14.725 14.400 14.275 57.975 19 ===Trampoline=== Athlete Event Qualification Final Score Rank Score Rank Gregoire Pennes Men's 68.70 12 Did not advance Did not advance ==Handball== ===Men's tournament=== ;Roster ;Group play ;Quarterfinal ;Semifinal ;Gold medal game ;Final rank ===Women's tournament=== ;Roster ;Group play ;Quarterfinal ;Classification semifinal ;5th–6th place ==Judo== ;Men Athlete Event Preliminary Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Repechage 3 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Dimitri Dragin −60 kg W 0101–0010 W 1000–0000 W 0002–0000 L 0000–1001 colspan=3 L 0000–0001 5 Benjamin Darbelet −66 kg W 1002–0000 W 0001–0000 W 1010–0010 W 0201–0001 colspan=3 L 0000–1000 Anthony Rodriguez −81 kg L 0001–0110 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Yves-Matthieu Dafreville −90 kg W 1000–0000 W 0010–0000 W 1011–0001 L 0000–0001 colspan=3 L 0000–0001 5 Frederic Demontfaucon −100 kg L 0001–0010 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Teddy Riner +100 kg W 0010–0000 W 1000–0000 L 0000–0001 Did not advance W 0020–0010 W 1000–0000 W 1011–0000 ;Women Athlete Event Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Repechage 3 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Frédérique Jossinet −48 kg L 0000–1000 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Audrey La Rizza −52 kg L 0000–0001 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Barbara Harel −57 kg W 0101–0010 L 0001–0010 Did not advance W 0001–0000 W 0110–0010 L 0101–1000 5 Lucie Décosse −63 kg W 1010–0000 W 0011–0000 W 1001–0001 W 0211–0000 colspan=3 L 0000–1000 Gévrise Émane −70 kg L 0000–0001 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Stéphanie Possamaï −78 kg W 0001–0000 W 1010–0012 L 0000–0030 Did not advance W 1010–0001 W 0200–0000 W 0100–0010 Anne-Sophie Mondiere +78 kg W 0200–0000 L 0001–1000 Did not advance Did not advance W 1010–0000 L 0000–1000 Did not advance Did not advance ==Modern pentathlon== Athlete Event Shooting (10 m air pistol) Shooting (10 m air pistol) Shooting (10 m air pistol) Fencing (épée one touch) Fencing (épée one touch) Fencing (épée one touch) Swimming (200 m freestyle) Swimming (200 m freestyle) Swimming (200 m freestyle) Riding (show jumping) Riding (show jumping) Riding (show jumping) Running (3000 m) Running (3000 m) Running (3000 m) Total points Final rank Points Rank MP Points Results Rank MP points Time Rank MP points Penalties Rank MP points Time Rank MP Points Total points Final rank Jean Maxence Berrou Men's 176 26 1048 10–25 36 640 2:04.52 14 1308 140 13 1060 9:21.71 15 1116 5172 23 John Zakrzewski Men's 168 33 952 19–16 10 856 2:04.23 12 1312 33 160 10:04.15 32 984 4264 34 Amelie Caze Women's 177 22 1060 22–13 5 928 2:11.29 2 1348 84 16 1116 10:59.82 22 1084 5536 9 ==Rowing== ;Men Athlete Event Heats Repechage Semifinals Final Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Laurent Cadot Erwan Peron Pair 6:46.57 1 SA/B colspan=2 6:44.29 5 FB 6:54.40 9 Adrien Hardy Jean-Baptiste Macquet Double sculls 6:21.92 2 SA/B colspan=2 6:18.86 1 FA 6:33.36 5 Frédéric Dufour Maxime Goisset Lightweight double sculls 6:20.17 2 SA/B colspan=2 6:41.18 5 FB 6:32.65 11 Germain Chardin Julien Desprès Dorian Mortelette Benjamin Rondeau Four 6:05.00 4 R 6:00.01 2 SA/B 5:56.73 3 FA 6:09.31 Julien Bahain Cedric Berrest Jonathan Coeffic Pierre-Jean Peltier Quadruple sculls 5:41.75 2 SA/B colspan=2 5:53.04 3 FA 5:44.34 Jean-Christophe Bette Guillaume Raineau Franck Solforosi Fabien Tilliet Lightweight four 5:51.68 2 SA/B colspan=2 6:07.26 2 FA 5:51.22 4 ;Women Athlete Event Heats Repechage Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Sophie Balmary Single sculls 7:47.37 3 QF colspan=2 7:37.01 2 SA/B 7:56.73 6 FB 7:58.88 12 Stephanie Dechand Inene Pascal-Pretre Pair 7:42.92 5 R 7:41.87 4 FB colspan=4 7:36.25 8 Qualification Legend: FA=Final A (medal); FB=Final B (non-medal); FC=Final C (non-medal); FD=Final D (non-medal); FE=Final E (non-medal); FF=Final F (non- medal); SA/B=Semifinals A/B; SC/D=Semifinals C/D; SE/F=Semifinals E/F; QF=Quarterfinals; R=Repechage ==Sailing == ;Men Athlete Event Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Net points Final rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M* Net points Final rank Julien Bontemps RS:X ~~13~~ 1 5 4 10 8 2 10 2 3 8 53 Jean-Baptiste Bernaz Laser 19 1 12 9 6 10 30 5 ~~34~~ CAN 12 104 8 Olivier Bausset Nicolas Charbonnier 470 6 3 8 1 6 18 3 14 7 ~~20~~ 12 78 Pascal Rambeau Xavier Rohart Star ~~12~~ 1 5 4 7 6 9 9 8 2 18 69 6 ;Women Athlete Event Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Net points Final rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M* Net points Final rank Faustine Merret RS:X 8 ~~28~~ 10 7 11 19 17 18 7 3 EL 100 11 Sarah Steyaert Laser Radial 11 1 21 3 ~~29 BFD~~ 1 3 10 11 CAN 16 77 5 Gwendolyn Lemaitre Ingrid Petitjean 470 1 11 16 8 ~~17~~ 9 9 9 13 9 EL 85 11 Julie Gerecht Anne Le Helley Catherine Lepesant Yngling 4 ~~15~~ 1 14 5 10 10 2 CAN CAN 10 56 5 ;Open Athlete Event Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Race Net points Final rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 M* Net points Final rank Guillaume Florent Finn 5 8 20 3 4 6 4 ~~21~~ CAN CAN colspan=5 8 58 Emmanuel Dyen Yann Rocherieux 49er 7 8 4 5 11 13 11 13 14 7 6 ~~17~~ CAN CAN CAN 10 109 10 Christophe Espagnon Xavier Revil Tornado 7 2 10 ~~16~~ 9 10 10 4 10 7 colspan=5 EL 69 11 M = Medal race; EL = Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race; CAN = Race cancelled ==Shooting== ;Men Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Final Final Points Rank Points Rank Stéphane Clamens Trap 112 25 Did not advance Did not advance Franck Dumoulin 10 m air pistol 576 25 Did not advance Did not advance Franck Dumoulin 50 m pistol 548 34 Did not advance Did not advance Josselin Henry 10 m air rifle 587 40 Did not advance Did not advance Josselin Henry 50 m rifle prone 592 23 Did not advance Did not advance Josselin Henry 50 m rifle 3 positions 1151 41 Did not advance Did not advance Walter Lapeyre 10 m air pistol 581 8 Q 680.3 6 Walter Lapeyre 50 m pistol 552 25 Did not advance Did not advance Valérian Sauveplane 50 m rifle prone 594 8 Q 698.8 6 Valérian Sauveplane 50 m rifle 3 positions 1172 6 Q 1267.1 7 Anthony Terras Skeet 120 3 Q 144 S/O 3 Yves Tronc Trap 115 17 Did not advance Did not advance ;Women Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Final Final Points Rank Points Rank Laurence Brize 10 m air rifle 394 19 Did not advance Did not advance Laurence Brize 50 m rifle 3 positions 579 13 Did not advance Did not advance Marie Laure Gigon 10 m air rifle 396 8 Q 497.3 7 Marie Laure Gigon 50 m rifle 3 positions 568 38 Did not advance Did not advance Veronique Girardet Skeet 63 16 Did not advance Did not advance Delphine Racinet Trap 62 13 Did not advance Did not advance Brigitte Roy 10 m air pistol 379 23 Did not advance Did not advance Brigitte Roy 25 m pistol 580 15 Did not advance Did not advance Stéphanie Tirode 10 m air pistol 377 33 Did not advance Did not advance Stéphanie Tirode 25 m pistol 577 22 Did not advance Did not advance ==Swimming== France sent a total of 35 swimmers to these Games, including Alain Bernard"French Olympic swimming team starts training in China's Dalian", Xinhua, July 30, 2008 and Laure Manaudou.Laure Manaudou, n°27 on Time's list of "100 Olympic Athletes To Watch" ;Men Athlete Event Heat Semifinal Final Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Alain Bernard 50 m freestyle 21.78 2 Q 21.54 1 Q 21.49 Alain Bernard 100 m freestyle 47.85 1 Q 47.20 1 Q 47.21 Frédérick Bousquet 100 m butterfly 51.83 11 Q 52.94 16 Did not advance Did not advance Hugues Duboscq 100 m breaststroke 59.67 3 Q 59.83 4 Q 59.37 Hugues Duboscq 200 m breaststroke 2:09.42 4 Q 2:09.97 8 Q 2:08.94 Simon Dufour 200 m backstroke 2:02.00 34 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Fabien Gilot 100 m freestyle 48.42 13 Q 49.00 15 Did not advance Did not advance Pierre Henri 400 m individual medley 4:22.41 22 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Christophe Lebon 100 m butterfly 52.56 31 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Christophe Lebon 200 m butterfly 1:56.63 17 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Amaury Leveaux 50 m freestyle 21.46 1 Q 21.76 4 Q 21.45 Amaury Leveaux 200 m freestyle 1:47.44 13 Q Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Withdrew Julien Nicolardot 200 m breaststroke 2:12.76 28 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Pierre Roger 200 m backstroke 1:59.01 17 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Gilles Rondy 10 km open water colspan=4 1:52:16.7 15 Nicolas Rostoucher 400 m freestyle 3:47.15 14 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Nicolas Rostoucher 1500 m freestyle 15:00.58 13 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Sébastien Rouault 400 m freestyle 3:48.84 23 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Sébastien Rouault 1500 m freestyle 15:21.14 27 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Benjamin Stasiulis 100 m backstroke 55.08 25 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Alain Bernard Frédérick Bousquet Fabien Gilot Amaury Leveaux Grégory Mallet* Boris Steimetz* 4 × 100 m freestyle relay 3:12.36 2 Q colspan=2 3:08.32 Sébastien Bodet Clément Lefert Amaury Leveaux Matthieu Madelaine 4 × 200 m freestyle relay 7:13.57 10 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Hugues Duboscq Fabien Gilot Christophe Lebon Benjamin Stasiulis 4 × 100 m medley relay 3:34.78 9 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance * Competed in the heats only ;Women Athlete Event Heat Semifinal Final Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Joanne Andraca 400 m individual medley 4:43.88 23 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Coralie Balmy 400 m freestyle 4:04.25 6 Q colspan=2 4:03.60 4 Coralie Balmy 800 m freestyle 8:28.34 12 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Alexianne Castel 100 m backstroke 1:01.44 23 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Alexianne Castel 200 m backstroke 2:09.37 9 Q 2:10.04 13 Did not advance Did not advance Céline Couderc 50 m freestyle 25.22 34 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Sophie de Ronchi 200 m breaststroke 2:30.93 30 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Ophélie-Cyrielle Étienne 200 m freestyle 1:57.93 11 Q 1:58.00 8 Q 1:57.83 7 Sophie Huber 800 m freestyle 8:33.76 19 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Laure Manaudou 400 m freestyle 4:04.93 8 Q colspan=2 4:11.26 8 Laure Manaudou 100 m backstroke 1:00.09 5 Q 1:00.19 8 Q 1:00.10 7 Laure Manaudou 200 m backstroke 2:09.39 8 Q 2:12.04 15 Did not advance Did not advance Malia Metella 50 m freestyle 24.95 10 Q 24.89 12 Did not advance Did not advance Malia Metella 100 m freestyle 54.12 11 Q 54.20 9 Did not advance Did not advance Aurore Mongel 200 m freestyle 1:58.11 15 Q 1:58.08 10 Did not advance Did not advance Aurore Mongel 100 m butterfly 58.30 10 Q 58.46 9 Did not advance Did not advance Aurore Mongel 200 m butterfly 2:06.49 2 Q 2:07.21 7 Q 2:07.36 6 Camille Muffat 200 m individual medley 2:12.16 7 Q 2:12.36 12 Did not advance Did not advance Camille Muffat 400 m individual medley 4:40.29 19 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance Aurélie Muller 10 km open water colspan=4 2:02:04.1 21 Alena Popchanka 100 m freestyle 54.86 18 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Alena Popchanka 100 m butterfly 58.40 14 Q 58.55 =10 Did not advance Did not advance Magali Rousseau 200 m butterfly 2:13.12 28 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Cylia Vabre 200 m individual medley 2:14.34 21 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Céline Couderc Ophélie-Cyrielle Étienne Malia Metella* Alena Popchanka Hanna Shcherba-Lorgeril 4 × 100 m freestyle relay 3:37.76 5 Q colspan=2 3:37.68 6 Coralie Balmy Céline Couderc* Ophélie-Cyrielle Étienne Aurore Mongel Camille Muffat Alena Popchanka* 4 × 200 m freestyle relay 7:50.37 1 Q colspan=2 7:50.66 5 Alexianne Castel Sophie de Ronchi Aurore Mongel Alena Popchanka 4 × 100 m medley relay 4:02.95 11 colspan=2 Did not advance Did not advance * Competed in the heats only ==Synchronized swimming== France will have two entrants in synchronized swimming, competing in the duet event. Athlete Event Technical routine Technical routine Free routine (preliminary) Free routine (preliminary) Free routine (preliminary) Free routine (final) Free routine (final) Free routine (final) Points Rank Points Total (technical + free) Rank Points Total (technical + free) Rank Apolline Dreyfuss Lila Meesseman-Bakir Duet 44.750 11 45.250 90.000 11 Q 45.583 90.333 11 ==Table tennis== Athlete Event Preliminary round Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Patrick Chila Men's singles L 3–4 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Damien Éloi Men's singles W 4–3 L 3–4 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Christophe Legoût Men's singles L 2–4 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Xian Yi Fang Women's singles W 4–3 L 1–4 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Taekwondo== Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage Bronze Medal Final Final Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Mickael Borot Men's +80 kg L 5–6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Gwladys Épangue Women's −67 kg W 3–0 W 1–1 L 1–2 W 4–1 Did not advance ==Tennis== ;Men Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Michaël Llodra Singles W 4–6, 7–6(7–5), 11–9 L 4–6, 6–3, 1–6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Paul-Henri Mathieu Singles W 7–6(7–4), 6–2 W 7–5, 6–3 W 6–3, 7–5 L 4–6, 4–6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Gaël Monfils Singles W 6–4, 3–6, 6–3 W 6–4, 7–6(7–5) W 6–4, 6–4 L 6–4, 1–6, 4–6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Gilles Simon Singles W 6–4, 6–4 W 7–5, 6–1 L 4–6, 2–6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Arnaud Clément Michaël Llodra Doubles W 6–4, 6–4 W 6–1, 6–3 W 6–2, 6–7(4–7), 6–4 L 6–7(6–8), 6–4, 17–19 L 6–3, 3–6, 4–6 4 Gaël Monfils Gilles Simon Doubles L 3–6, 3–6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ;Women Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Alizé Cornet Singles W 4–6, 6–1, 6–4 W 6–2, 6–2 L 6–3, 3–6, 4–6 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Tatiana Golovin Singles Withdrew from the singles tournament due to injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the singles tournament due to injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the singles tournament due to injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the singles tournament due to injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the singles tournament due to injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the singles tournament due to injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the singles tournament due to injury on 9 August 2008 Pauline Parmentier Singles L 1–6, 5–7 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Virginie Razzano Singles W 6–3, 6–3 L 4–6, 5–7 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Alizé Cornet Virginie Razzano Doubles L 6–7(2–7), 7–6(7–3), 5–7 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Tatiana Golovin Pauline Parmentier Doubles Withdrew from the doubles tournament due to Golovin's injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the doubles tournament due to Golovin's injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the doubles tournament due to Golovin's injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the doubles tournament due to Golovin's injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the doubles tournament due to Golovin's injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the doubles tournament due to Golovin's injury on 9 August 2008 Withdrew from the doubles tournament due to Golovin's injury on 9 August 2008 ==Triathlon== Athlete Event Swim (1.5 km) Trans 1 Bike (40 km) Trans 2 Run (10 km) Total Time Rank Frederic Belaubre Men's 18:03 0:28 59:11 0:30 31:48 1:50:00.30 10 Tony Moulai Men's 18:27 0:29 58:49 0:30 Did not finish Did not finish Did not finish Laurent Vidal Men's 18:49 0:29 58:24 0:29 34:51 1:53:02.79 36 Jessica Harrison Women's 19:56 0:30 1:04:14 0:32 36:19 2:01:31.74 12 Carole Péon Women's 20:22 0:31 1:06:41 0:35 37:55 2:06:04.28 34 ==Weightlifting== Athlete Event Snatch Clean & Jerk Total Rank Result Rank Result Rank Vencelas Dabaya Men's −69 kg 151 5 187 2 338 Giovanni Bardis Men's −77 kg 156 10 173 17 329 14 Benjamin Hennequin Men's −85 kg 162 10 205 3 367 6 Mélanie Noël Women's −48 kg 80 6 97 7 177 7 ==Wrestling == ;Men's freestyle Athlete Event Qualification Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Vincent Aka-Akesse −96 kg L 0–3 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance 18 ;Men's Greco-Roman Athlete Event Qualification Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Sébastien Hidalgo −60 kg L 1–3 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance 13 Steeve Guénot −66 kg W 3–1 W 3–1 W 3–1 W 3–1 colspan=2 W 3–1 Christophe Guénot −74 kg L 0–3 Did not advance Did not advance W 3–1 W 3–1 Mélonin Noumonvi −84 kg L 1–3 Did not advance Did not advance W 3–1 L 1–3 * 5 Yannick Szczepaniak −120 kg W 3–1 W 3–1 L 1–3 colspan=2 L 1–3 * Ara Abrahamian of Sweden, who beat Melonin Noumonvi for bronze in the 84 kg class, was stripped of his medal for violating the spirit of fair play. However, the medal was not handed to Noumonvi or any other wrestler. * Yannick Szczepaniak originally finished fifth, but in November 2016, he was promoted to bronze due to disqualification of Khasan Baroev. ;Women's freestyle Athlete Event Qualification Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Vanessa Boubryemm −48 kg W 3–0 W 3–1 L 1–3 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance 7 Lise Golliot-Legrand −63 kg W 3–0 W 3–1 L 1–3 colspan=2 L 1–3 5 Audrey Prieto −72 kg L 0–5 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance 14 ==See also== * France at the 2008 Summer Paralympics ==References== Category:Nations at the 2008 Summer Olympics 2008 Summer Olympics |
This is a summary of the cantos of the Kalevala. The Kalevala is considered the national epic of Finland. It was compiled and edited from the songs of numerous folk singers by Elias Lönnrot while he was a district health officer in eastern Finland, at that time under the governance of Russia as Grand Duchy of Finland. The Kalevala has been translated into about 48 languages and has been an important cultural inspiration for the Finnish people for many years. The poem consists of 50 cantos (runos) and 22,795 lines of poetry. The poem tells the story of a people, from the very beginning of the world to the introduction of Christianity. ==Cantos 1 – 10: First Väinämöinen Cycle== After a brief introduction to the poem and story by the singers in poetic form, the poem proper begins. Canto I. – Birth of Väinämöinen Ilmatar, the daughter of the air, descends to the sea and is fertilised; she becomes the Water-mother. She gestates for centuries to no avail and laments her lot. Time passes, and Sotka, a goldeneye floats over the water seeking a place to rest and make her nest. It sees the knee of the Water-mother rising above the waves and, confusing it for a grassy hill, decides to make its nest there. On the third day the Water-mother feels her knee is too hot and fears it is burning. She twitches her leg and the eggs fall into the water, crashing into fragments. The fragments of the eggs grow into the earth and heavens and sun and moon and stars and the final pieces into the clouds. Within the Water-mother's womb, Väinämöinen is growing and turning. He laments his situation and prays to the gods to release him from his dark prison. When the gods fail to give him freedom, he forces his own way into the world; he slips into the sea and floats for nine years until he hits ground. He turns himself over on this new land and beholds the moon and stars and sun for the first time. Canto II. – Sowing of Life Väinämöinen summons Sampsa Pellervoinen, the architect of the forests, to sow the land with trees. He sows many trees and in time they grow and flourish; however, the oak will not grow. The sea monster Iku-Turso rises and burns a haystack. Into the ashes arrived an acorn that began to grow. It grows taller than any other tree in the land, growing up to heaven and blocking out the sun and moon. Väinämöinen calls the Water-mother to send him someone who can fell the great tree. A man appears from the water clad in copper from head to toe, a man no taller than a man's thumb. Väinämöinen mocks the man, but the man grows so large his head in among the clouds. He swings his great copper axe, and the great oak is felled on the third stroke. The remains of the great oak tree bring great things to those who lay claim to it and all is well. Forests grow well and the birds and woodland creatures thrive. However, Väinämöinen notices his grains do not grow. He fells the forests, but he leaves a birch tree for the birds to rest upon. An eagle is grateful for this, so it strikes up fire and burns the wood of the felled forest. Väinämöinen takes his seeds once more and sows the land. In a matter of days the seeds are growing and the land is filled. Väinämöinen beholds the beauty of his fertile land. A cuckoo comes and sings in joy. Canto III. – Väinämöinen and Joukahainen The Lapland youth Joukahainen believes he can sing better songs than Väinämöinen. He informs his family he will defeat Väinämöinen in a battle of knowledge and song. His mother and father forbid him from such an unwise endeavour, but Joukahainen is young and arrogant and he does not listen. He sets out to do battle, and rides for three days solid. During the third day he and Väinämöinen collide, smashing both their sledges and causing a great mess. A contest of knowledge ensues. Väinämöinen is not impressed with Joukahainen's primitive and childish knowledge and warns him to yield, but the youth does not, and he proceeds to lie about his achievements, annoying Väinämöinen. Young Joukahainen then challenges Väinämöinen to battle with blades; he informs him that he is not afraid of his childish threats and Joukahainen then begins to throw insults at Väinämöinen. This greatly angers the old wizard and he begins to sing; he sings Joukahainen's possessions into nature and the youth himself into the earth all the way to his shoulders. Joukahainen panics. He offers all of his material possessions to Väinämöinen, but the old man is not interested. Then Joukahainen offers his sister Aino as his wife. Väinämöinen grows joyful and reverses his song-spell, releasing the young Joukahainen from the earth. Joukahainen returns to his home and weeps to his mother as he tells her the tale and his offer to Väinämöinen. His mother tells him not to sob. Aino overhears and weeps uncontrollably. Her mother tries to comfort her but to no avail, and Aino weeps for a long time. Canto IV. – Fate of Aino Aino goes to the forest to gather twigs and birch branches and meets with Väinämöinen, he asks her to be his and his alone and she responds with contempt, tearing her jewels and bangles from her person stating that she would rather wear the garb of a simple farm girl than be married to him, she runs home weeping. When she arrives home she receives little sympathy from her father, brother or sister and when she goes for consolation to her mother she tells her to stop weeping and to prepare for married life. Aino's mother tells her of her younger life when she was a virgin bride and tries to instruct her in married life, but Aino does not want to listen, instead she goes away weeping. Aino weeps for days, her mother once again tries to console her. Aino wanders to the storehouse and dresses in the finest clothes and jewels, she wanders through the countryside bewailing her lot, singing as she walks. She comes to a bay and over the water sees three maidens washing, she feels she should join then and throws her fine garments on the harsh rocks of the bay and proceeds to swim towards the rocky outcrop where the maidens are located. She reaches the rocky island and it sinks beneath her taking her form and soul with it. A hare sets out from the waters edge to take the message of her death to her family. When her mother hears the tragic news she bitterly laments: She then weeps for days, her tears forming three large rivers. Canto V. – Väinämöinen and the Fish Väinämöinen hears of Aino's death and laments throughout the days and nights, he prepares his boat and fishing tackle and sets out to the water. He catches a fish and draws it into his boat, he is amazed at the fish as it is unlike any fish he's ever seen before, he prepares to cut the fish and it slips from his fingers. The fish addresses him disdainfully, telling him that she is Aino in fish form come to be his companion and not to be cut to pieces, she leaves and tells him that he will never see her again. Väinämöinen tries to capture her again, he weaves a net and dredges the water but does not find the Aino-fish. Väinämöinen laments heavily at his stupidity and rashness, he calls to his long-dead mother, who advises him that he should seek a bride in Pohjola, a worthy bride of fair complexion and bright eyes. Canto VI. – Joukahainen's Revenge Väinämöinen sets out upon his journey to Pohja. Joukahainen however had not forgotten his loss in the singing competition and the loss of his sister and his humiliation, he held a deep rage against Väinämöinen and plotted to kill him, he created a frightening crossbow, its string the hair from the Moose of Hiisi. Joukahainen waits for Väinämöinen to pass by, he waits for a long time and one day he spies something on the horizon, confusing it for a cloud at first he soon realises it is the ancient wizard himself. He prepares his weapon, his mother asks him for whom he is preparing his mighty crossbow, when he tells her she pleads for him to reconsider, should Väinämöinen die the world will be plunged into sadness and stillness and the magical music will only be heard in the realms of Tuonela. Joukahainen does not heed his mothers pleas, he prepares his first arrow and shoots high, his second arrow shoots low and the third while not hitting Väinämöinen himself, hits his horse in the chest, plunging Väinämöinen into the rushing waters. Canto VII. – Väinämöinen Meets Louhi Väinämöinen drifts on the roaring sea for eight days, his body beaten and battered. On the eighth day an eagle from Lapland flies overhead and—remembering the great favour Väinämöinen did by leaving the birch tree—lifts him high and carries him to the dry land in Pohjola. Väinämöinen weeps for three days but a young girl hears his weeping and goes to fetch Louhi, the hostess of Pohjola. She meets with him and questions who he is and where he is from, although she seems to already know. She offers to return him to his homeland in return for him forging the magical mill, Sampo. He informs her that although he cannot do it, he will get the great smith Ilmarinen—the forger of the sky dome itself—to do it. Louhi promises her eldest and most magnificent maiden daughter to Ilmarinen if he forges a Sampo and she gives Väinämöinen a horse and sledge to get home, but warns him not to look skyward until he is home. Väinämöinen departs Pohjola. Canto VIII. – Väinämöinen's Wound Väinämöinen is speeding along on his journey when he hears something curious above his head and against the advice of Louhi he looks up and sees an enormous rainbow with a beauteous maiden at the end of it. He invites her to come to his sledge and be his wife. She acts coy and tells him she will come with him if he succeeds in numerous challenges the final and greatest being the creation and launching of a boat without touching or interfering with it. He works hard on the creation of the boat, for three days, on the third day Hiisi makes Väinämöinen's axe head turn to his knee, cleaving a mighty wound into it. Väinämöinen tries in vain to quell the bleeding, he rides hard along the road to find someone who can close his wound and stop his blood flowing, however nobody is capable, until he finds an old man in a small dwelling who says he is capable. Canto IX. – Origin of Iron The old man greets Väinämöinen and asks him, in amazement of the enormous loss of blood, who he is. He informs Väinämöinen that he can heal him, but he cannot quite remember the origin of iron, if he knew then the wound could be closed and the flow of blood stopped. Väinämöinen proceeds to tell of the origin of Iron, of the great daughters of creation and the breast milk spilled over the land which created streams of iron throughout the world. He tells of fire and fire's desire to consume iron and of the birth of the ancient smith Ilmarinen. Ilmarinen comforts the iron telling it that it will become beautiful when combined with fire. Väinämöinen tells of Ilmarinen's struggle to find the tempering agent and of the evil Hiisi's poisoning of the iron with venoms and acids causing the iron to grow bitter and evil, and to shout to its relatives to cut and slice flesh and blood in revenge of this poisoning. Now that the old man knew the origin of iron he could help Väinämöinen. He directs his young son to make an ointment to salve the wound. The boy gathers oak branches, grasses and herbs and boils the ointment for many days. After the ointment is prepared he tests it on an aspen tree and broken stones and then returns to the old man. The old man applies the ointment to Väinämöinen who struggles and thrashes in suffering, but the old man banishes the pain to the pain hill, he applies silken bandages to the wound. The old man informs Väinämöinen that it is the creator not himself doing the healing. Canto X. – Ilmarinen Forges the Sampo Väinämöinen rides away on a horse and after days of riding by the field of Osmo he conjures up a gigantic spruce with golden needles (leaves) and a flower top, and then the Moon to lit it by the top and Otava by the branches. He returns home and goes to the forge of Ilmarinen, tells the smith of his ordeal and asks him to go to Pohjola to marry the maiden in exchange for the forging of the Sampo. Ilmarinen says he will never go to the Northland. Väinämöinen instead tells him of the giant spruce in the field of Osmo with all of its wonders, which greatly intrigues Ilmarinen. Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen both go together to see the giant tree. Ilmarinen climbs it in an attempt to reach the Moon, at which point Väinämöinen sings up a storm that carries Ilmarinen off to Pohjola, over the Moon and under the Sun, by the shoulder of Otava. Ilmarinen meets Louhi, who asks him if he will forge the Sampo. She brings her daughter dressed in finest garments and jewels and offers her in exchange for the forging of the Sampo. Ilmarinen accepts and begins work on creating his forge. After the forge is created and the work begins, Ilmarinen works ceaselessly for four days and nights but nothing comes of his efforts but beautiful trinkets. He calls the wind to blow, to work his bellows, a wind blows from all direction, it blew for three days and at the end of the third day Ilmarinen checks his furnace and sees the wonderful Sampo forming, he works it with his hammer and anvil and finally completes the Sampo. The Sampo grinds all day, it grinds vats of grain, salt and gold one each for eating, for storing and for trading. Louhi grows delighted and takes the Sampo to the mountain of copper and locks it away behind nine heavy locks. Ilmarinen's task now completed, he goes to the daughter of Louhi and asks her to come with him. She tells him she cannot leave home yet. Ilmarinen becomes downhearted. He is consulted by Louhi who prepares him food and drink then sends him home. ==Cantos 11 – 15: First Lemminkäinen Cycle== Canto XI. – Lemminkäinen and Kyllikki Lemminkäinen was a handsome man, ruddy cheeked and tall, but he was a reckless man, fond of maidens and fighting. He desires the Flower of Saari, Kyllikki, the one desired by the sun and moon and stars themselves. The young Lemminkäinen tells his mother about his journey to woo the maiden, his mother tries to dissuade him, she tells him he will be mocked and humiliated but Lemminkäinen does not listen. Lemminkäinen sets out to the village where Kyllikki resides and as foretold by his mother the men of the village mock him and the women tease him. He takes employment as a herdsman and gains the favour of the maidens of the village; however, he still desires the favours of Kyllikki, she mocks him and refuses his advances. One day the maidens were dancing and rejoicing and at the head was Kyllikki; this is when Lemminkäinen took his chance; he stole the fair Kyllikki away and drove away on her sledge. He shouts to the assembled maidens to never speak a word or he will come back and crush the village and destroy the young men. Kyllikki protests heavily and tells Lemminkäinen that she has lost her life to a vicious warrior soul. Lemminkäinen then promises to never ride to war again if Kyllikki will promise never to go to the village and dance with the village men; to this she agrees and they return to Lemminkäinen's home. Canto XII. – Lemminkäinen Departs Lemminkäinen and Kyllikki lived happily for a while until one day Lemminkäinen did not return from fishing as soon as he should. Kyllikki, growing bored decided to visit the village and dance with the men of the village. Ainikki, Lemminkäinen's sister spies Kyllikki and informs young Lemminkäinen of his gadabout wife. Lemminkäinen is furious, he decides to leave for Pohjola, to win the maiden of the north's heart, he prepares for battle. His mother and Kyllikki try and dissuade him, they tell him of the dangers that face him and of the happiness he has at home, but he does not listen, his mother warns him he will be enchanted and killed but he does not listen. Lemminkäinen throws his hair brush down and warns his mother to look out for it because when blood flows from it he has met with his doom. Lemminkäinen leaves his happy home and the love of his mother and his beautiful wife and sets out for battle. He rides for days and finally approaches his destination, he casts a spell to Hiisi to silence the dogs of Pohjola and proceeds to enchant all the men of Pohjola out of the homestead, he only neglects to enchant one wretched cowherd called Märkähattu ("Soppy Hat") as he feels it would be a waste of his efforts. Canto XIII. – Moose of Hiisi Lemminkäinen, full of bravado, seeks the mistress of Pohjola, Louhi, and demands her daughter. Louhi tells him that in order to woo her daughters he must first prove his worth by hunting the moose of Hiisi on skis. Lemminkäinen accepts and prepares for the hunt. He quickly makes his way to the workshop of Lyylikki, the famous ski maker, and asks him to make the finest skis for his task. Lemminkäinen then sets out on his journey. He chases the moose wherever it goes, and he catches it and pens it on a pen of oak, but the moose grows angry and breaks free. Lemminkäinen makes chase once more, but he breaks his left ski in a hole and the right against the ground and loses the moose. He laments his hubris and arrogance and vows never to chase the moose of Hiisi on skis again for it will only lead to the loss of good skis and fine poles. Canto XIV. – Lemminkäinen's Trials and Death Lemminkäinen thinks about his options; he chooses to continue the hunt. He calls to the great god Ukko and to Tapio and his household, and with their guidance and support he finally captures the moose of Hiisi and returns it to Pohjola. Louhi receives the moose, but further tasks Lemminkäinen with capturing and bridling the horse of Hiisi. Lemminkäinen takes a golden bridle and silver halter and leaves to find it. He searches for three days and on the third day finds the grand courser on the sand with a fiery mane and smoking nostrils. Lemminkäinen prays to Ukko, and hail falls down on the back of the horse allowing him to bridle, mount and return it to Louhi. I have reigned the mighty courser, brought the foal of Hiisi bridled. Louhi tasks Lemminkäinen again: this time he has to shoot a swan from the black river of Tuonela. Lemminkäinen sets off, crossbow in hand to complete this latest task. He reaches the river of Tuoni, but little did he know that the snubbed herdsman, Märkähattu, was waiting for his return. Märkähattu conjures up a sea serpent, which tears through Lemminkäinen's body. Lemminkäinen falls to the ground and dies. Märkähattu approaches the body and pushes it into the river, where further downstream it is cut into pieces by the son of Tuoni. Canto XV. – Resurrection of Lemminkäinen Kyllikki notices the comb of Lemminkäinen is oozing blood and shortly after so does his mother and she breaks down weeping. Lemminkäinen's mother sets off to Pohjola. When she arrives she demands of Louhi the location of her son. Louhi tells her several lies. Each time Lemminkäinen's mother replies with anger until Louhi tells her the truth. The aged mother searches for her son's body. She asks the trees, the path, and the moon, but none can help until she asks the sun, which tells her that her son perished on the banks of the Tuoni river. She hastens to the forge of Ilmarinen and gets him to build her a giant rake of copper and steel. Lemminkäinen's mother—after getting further help from the sun—dredges the river and recovers the remains of her son. The aged mother reassembles her son and reconnects all of the parts into a complete man. She asks a tiny bee to bring her honey from heaven with which she salves her son and coaxes him back to life. After a brief talk, she manages to dissuade him from continuing his ridiculous quest, and they return home. ==Cantos 16 – 18: Second Väinämöinen Cycle== Canto XVI. – Väinämöinen's Shipbuilding Väinämöinen sets to building the ship the maiden of Pohjola tasked him to. He summons Sampsa Pellervoinen to find him wood suited to such a fine vessel. He searches hard and asks many trees if they are suitable but finds none that are until he comes across the mighty oak tree, which he fells and makes into suitable planks for the ship. Pellervoinen brings the wood to Väinämöinen, who proceeds to cast spells to form the ship, but he lacks three vital words. He laments heavily and slaughters numerous animals to perform extispicy but does not find the words he needs. Väinämöinen goes to Tuonela to find the words. Tuonetar, the daughter of Tuoni, is washing her clothes by the river and asks Väinämöinen why he wishes to travel to Tuonela. He lies at first but finally tells the truth. Tuonetar warns him that he is foolish and advises him to return home, but Väinämöinen does not. Then old Väinämöinen slips into death's domain and witnesses horror and sadness like none other. Through magic he manages to escape and warns all never to go willingly to Tuonela. Canto XVII. – Väinämöinen and Antero Vipunen Väinämöinen, on his return, visits the ancient smith Ilmarinen to find where the old giant Antero Vipunen is. Ilmarinen tells him the giant is long since dead, but Väinämöinen goes looking anyway. Väinämöinen finds the location of Vipunen, although he is now covered in trees and other plant life. He forces his strong steel stake into Vipunen's mouth, which wakes him and Väinämöinen is swallowed whole by the giant. Väinämöinen crafts a skiff and sails end to end in Vipunen's body and, finding no way out, begins to work metal in the stomach of the giant. Vipunen grows concerned and tries his best magic to rid his body of Väinämöinen but the ancient wizard will only leave when he has the ancient words he requires. Vipunen recites ancient spells and incantations from the dawn of the world, and, when he finishes, Väinämöinen leaves Vipunen's body and continues home. He completes his grand ship with no assistance from hammer or saw. Canto XVIII. – Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen, Rival Suitors Väinämöinen sets off to Pohjola to woo the beauteous Northland maiden. On his way he comes across Annikki—Ilmarinen's sister—who asks him where he is going. He tells her many lies but in the end tells her of his purpose. She rushes off to her brother to tell him that a rival suitor is heading to the Northland maiden. Annikki reaches her brother and informs him of the news. He is gripped with worry and hurries off to prepare for his journey and his wooing. He adorns his sledge with sweet songbirds and prepares for departure with the finest horse in his possession in the harness. He prays to Ukko to clear his path and make for him an easy journey, and he sets off on his journey. Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen meet each other along the journey. They shout over the waters and snowfields and agree to a friendly pact and to be happy for whoever wins the hand of the beautiful Pohjola maiden. As the two suitors grow closer, the dogs of Pohjola start barking and the master of Pohja goes to see what the fuss is about. He sees a red boat approaching the Lovers bay and a magnificently decorated sledge approaching along the bay of Sima. He rushes home and asks the pyromancer Suovakko why they are coming. She throws logs on the fire, and they flow with honey. She says that the approaching men are suitors and not warriors. Louhi quickly runs to the yards to see who is coming. She realises that it is Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen and advises her daughter to choose the aged wizard, for he is rich and magnificent. The daughter has other ideas however, and when Väinämöinen is the first to arrive she tells him that she will not be his wife. ==Cantos 19 – 25: Ilmarinen's Wedding== Canto XIX. – Ilmarinen's Trials and Betrothal Ilmarinen enters the halls of Pohjola and demands to see his betrothed, but Louhi demands several tasks be completed before he can marry her daughter. The first task is to plough a field of vipers. Ilmarinen is distressed and goes to the maiden who advises him on how to complete the task; he crafts a plough of gold and silver and greaves of iron and completes the task. The next task is to capture the Bear and Wolf of Tuoni. Again he goes distressed to the maiden, who advises him. He completes the task with steel bits and muzzles of iron. The third and final task is to capture the giant pike without aid of net or rod. Once more he goes to his betrothed, and she advises him. He sets off and casts a mighty fiery eagle with iron talons and wings made of the sides of a boat. The eagle tries numerous times to capture the pike and finally manages it, but it eats the body of the giant fish, leaving only the head. Ilmarinen curses the bird, and it flies off beyond heaven. Ilmarinen returns to Louhi with the pike head. She is annoyed that he didn't bring the whole pike but agrees to allow the marriage. Väinämöinen returns home and warns the older men never to woo a maiden as rival to a younger man, as it can only lead to torment. Canto XX. – Brewing of the Beer An ox as tall as the clouds is brought from Karelia to Pohja intended for the great wedding feast, but no one can be found to slaughter it. One day an old man—small enough to fit under a wooden bowl—rises from the sea and slaughters the animal. Louhi wonders how to make a worthy beer and an old man relates to her how it is done. He tells of the growing of hops and barley, of the magic squirrel of Osmotar and the pine cones he brings. He tells of the magic marten of Osmotar and the magic bear spittle to use as a leavening agent. He tells of the bee of Osmotar and the honey he brings. He tells of the grand wooden barrels with copper bands used to store the feisty beer. Louhi then resolves to make beer, and places it in wooden barrels with copper hoops. Louhi sends messengers into the land to invite guests and inform them of the great feast and carousal. She warns not to invite Lemminkäinen because of his violent and trouble-causing nature. Väinämöinen is asked to be the minstrel of the wedding. Canto XXI. – Ilmarinen's Wedding Feast Ilmarinen and his entourage arrive at Pohjola and are greeted with the greatest respect, their mounts attended to in the greatest care, and the finest place at the banquet table set for the bridegroom himself. The feast begins, and the guests are given the finest of Northlands viands, the finest butters, creams, salmon, pork, and breads. Then the ale is served and revelled by the great Väinämöinen, who sings to the guests on the happy occasion. Canto XXII. – Tormenting of the Bride When the wedding feast was over the preparations for the departure of the bride and her husband are made and the bride is told of her sacrifices she is making to leave her place of birth and go to her husband's home. The bride, although aware of the sacrifices, is still distressed and even though she has wanted to be a wife still has doubts and worries. She is brought to weeping by the older women. She weeps hard but is told that she is not being taken like a lamb to slaughter. She is taken to a home by a worthy man, to a man who will do her love justice, to a home that has all she has in her parents' home; she has reached womanhood and must not lament. Canto XXIII. – Osmotar Advises the Bride Osmotar, the most beautiful of Kalevala's people and an experienced woman, must instruct the bride in her duties. She instructs the bride in household duties, tells her that she must always be polite even if she is not received well by her in-laws. She instructs the bride on how to care for the livestock and young of the household and how to keep her husband satisfied. She tells the bride how to prepare sauna and firewood and how to greet strangers into the home. The bride is told never to speak ill of anyone in the household when she visits the village. After the instruction, an old poor woman relates a tale of her married life and the disapproval of her husband's family and of the eventual separation of her and her husband. She relates the story of her unhappy search for her kin and the mistreatment by her sister-in- law and of how even now she is not thought of kindly. Canto XXIV. – Departure of the Bride and Bridegroom Ilmarinen is instructed on how to treat his bride. He is told to allow her freedoms and not unnecessarily cause her sadness and weeping. He is told to not treat her like a slave or servant and to allow her total roam of the house. Ilmarinen is instructed never to speak with contempt to her and to treat her equally. He is told never to whip her like a slave or animal and not to allow his family to chastise her. He is told to only whip her if she is continually disobedient and never to do it in the presence of others so as to not cause her humiliation. An old man relates his story of how he could not instruct his wife and how she mistreated him because he spoiled her. He also tells of how he gained her respect and love. The time has now come for the departure and the bride. Realising this is the last time she will see her birth home, she gets tears in her eyes and tells her woes. Ilmarinen then carries her off to his sledge and they depart Pohjola for Kalevala. They journey for three days and on the third they arrive. Canto XXV. – Homecoming of the Bride and Bridegroom Ilmarinen and his wife arrive to a great reception. His mother and sister relate the tales of their waiting and of rumour that Ilmarinen's wooing was unsuccessful. An infant speaks ill against the bride, but Ilmarinen's mother reassures the bride that she will be treated well and with respect. She is told that she is lucky to be there, and she will not have to work the mills or fields. Another feast is laid out, and the ancient sagely wizard Väinämöinen sings songs of praise to the bride and bridegroom, to the mistress, the master, the houses, and the guests. Väinämöinen sets off home singing and making merry. On the way he damages his sledge. He asks if any of the young can go to Tuonela and fetch what he needs to repair his sledge but none can, so he makes his second trip to Tuonela and brings back what he requires and repairs his sledge and heads back home. ==Cantos 26 – 30: Second Lemminkäinen Cycle== Canto XXVI. – Lemminkäinen's Journey to Pohjola One day Lemminkäinen hears shouts and revelling coming from the village and realises that there is a wedding in Pohjola and is angry that he was not invited. He calls to his mother to prepare his things for battle again. She tries to dissuade him, but he has none of it. Lemminkäinen's old and loving mother warns him of many deaths waiting for him. She warns him of the fiery river with a fiery island and the eagle of fire. She warns him of the trench of fire filled with the remains of a thousand heroes who have tried to pass. She warns him of the narrow gate of Pohjola, where a wolf will rush him and a bear will crush him. She warns him that when he enters Pohjola more death awaits him. She warns him of the heaven-high fence of snakes and of the men who will defeat him by song or blade. Lemminkäinen does not listen and he sets off on his journey and meets with all the deaths his mother mentioned and manages to defeat all of them. Canto XXVII. – Duel at Pohjola Young Lemminkäinen arrives in Pohjola and walks into the great hall, where the master of Pohjola sits at the head of the table. They exchange words, and Lemminkäinen demands service. He is told the feast is over, which makes him very angry. He shouts his anger at not being invited and demands a drink. Louhi gets her maid to bring a mug of beer, which is filled with serpents. Lemminkäinen removes and kills the serpents and drinks the foul beer. He demands more beer be brought for which he will pay. The master of Pohjola grows furious, and a magical contest begins that Lemminkäinen wins. The master of Pohjola is still angry and challenges Lemminkäinen to a duel with blades. They measure up and, as the master of Pohjola has the greater blade, Lemminkäinen allows him to take the first thrust and thus a great battle begins in which the master of Pohjola loses his head to Lemminkäinen's blade. Louhi grows livid and summons up a thousand soldiers of Pohjola to march against Lemminkäinen and his kind. Lemminkäinen flees Pohjola. Canto XXVIII. – Lemminkäinen's Mother Lemminkäinen rushes home in the form of an eagle. He arrives home and is greeted by his mother, whom he informs of his trouble; she scolds him heavily for not heeding her warnings. Lemminkäinen's old mother makes him vow never to go to battle again and tells him of an island where his father hid when he returned from battle once before. She tells him to hide for three years. Canto XXIX. – Isle of Refuge Lemminkäinen sets sail for Saari, the island of refuge and sails for three days. When he reaches the island he asks the women of the island if there is room for him there, and they allow him refuge. He asks if there is a house for him to stay and proceeds to sing to the women of the island and wins their hearts. He is in favor with all but one of the women of the island. The lonely woman curses him. The men folk of the island return from war and proceed to group against him, so Lemminkäinen is forced to leave. He sails on but his boat is ruined in a storm. He lands on a small island and is given food and a new boat by the mistress. He sails home and reaches familiar shores, but he perceives a problem. When he lands and heads for home he finds his lands and home destroyed, and he weeps for the loss of his home but most of all for his dear mother. Lemminkäinen notices a path leading to the inner forest, and he follows it and finds his mother in hiding. She tells him of the destruction wrought on his people by the soldiers of Pohjola. He tells her that they will build new homes and that Pohjola will have deadly war raged upon them. He then proceeds to tell his mother about his adventures on the island and of his forceful eviction. Canto XXX. – Lemminkäinen and Tiera Lemminkäinen resolves to go back to Pohjola and seek revenge for the attack on his people. He goes to his old comrade Tiera and asks him to join him. They set sail for battle. The mistress of Pohjola sends a frost to the waters to freeze the boat and its occupants. Lemminkäinen confronts Pakkanen, the personification of frost, and tells of his origin, which subdues the frost. Lemminkäinen and Tiera leave the ship and head over the ice. They struggle on for days lamenting their situation. Lemminkäinen offers a charm against enchantment and fashions two powerful steeds and the companions ride home together. ==Cantos 31 – 36: Kullervo Cycle== Canto XXXI. – Untamo and Kalervo Three brothers are carried to various parts of the world. Of the brothers, Kalervo is carried to Karelia, and Untamo is left where he is. The brothers never get along, with Untamo always taking things from Kalervo. After a while Untamo begins threatening Kalervo, and they go to war. Kalervo's people are wiped out bar one, a pregnant woman, who gives birth to a boy she names Kullervo. Kullervo grows quickly and after three months vows to avenge the destruction of his father and his people. Untamo, naturally worried, tries to destroy Kullervo by drowning, burning, and hanging but none work, so he puts Kullervo to work. Kullervo is tasked to care for an infant, but he kills him. He is tasked to cut trees, so he levels the forest and renders the land barren. He is tasked to build a fence, so he builds it sky high so none can pass. Untamo finally sells Kullervo as a slave to the great smith of Kalevala, Ilmarinen. Canto XXXII. – Kullervo as a Shepherd Kullervo goes to Ilmarinen's wife in search of work. She tasks him as a cowherd and bakes him a loaf of bread for his lunch but cruelly bakes a stone into it. She utters magic charms for their protection, for the healthy production of milk, for safe passage and protection against animals. She then sends the cattle out into the fields to be watched by Kullervo. Canto XXXIII. – Death of Ilmarinen's Wife Kullervo goes about his job as herdsman, lamenting his lowly status and dry bread meal and his master's luxury. He prays to Ukko to shine the sun on him and not Ilmarinen and his family. In the late afternoon he settles down to eat his loaf. He cuts into the loaf and his knife is broken on the stone; this he laments heavily and vows revenge on Ilmarinen's wife as the knife was the only keepsake of his lost people. Kullervo sends the cattle into the mouths of wolves and bears and by magic gives the bears the appearance of cattle. He makes a pipe from the bone of a cow and brings the cattle home. Ilmarinen's wife hears the homecoming and goes out to inspect the herd and perform her milking. As she bends down and begins to pull on a teat, the wolves and bears bear down on her and tear her to shreds. She pleads to Kullervo to come to her aid, but he refuses and she dies. Canto XXXIV. – Kullervo Finds his Family Kullervo flees from the homestead of Ilmarinen and wanders through the forest. He calls to Ukko never to allow one so wretched and unfortunate as he be born again. He meets the Maiden of the Forest, who tells him that his family are not all dead—they are alive and well on Lapland's borders. Kullervo walks for three days and finally finds his family's homestead. His mother greets him and informs him that his sister has vanished and probably died. Canto XXXV. – Kullervo Finds his Sister Kullervo attempts to do chores around his family farm but proves to be hopeless at everything. His father sends him to pay taxes and on his way back he meets a young maiden. He drags her into his sleigh and seduces her with rich fabrics and jewels. They sleep together and wake the following morning. Kullervo and the maiden tell of their clans. They realize they are siblings, and the maiden jumps in shame from the sleigh and to her death. Kullervo weeps with sadness and shame. He discards his sleigh and rides home to tell his mother. He tells her he will kill himself, but she pleads against it. Kullervo promises to go to Untamo and avenge the destruction of his people. Canto XXXVI. – Kullervo's Victory and Death Kullervo prepares to do battle with the destroyer of his people, Untamo. His mother begs him to remain, but he refuses, saying it is noble to fall in battle. His mother asks him who will care for his family, but he dismisses her pleas. Kullervo asks his family who will weep for his death, but only his mother says she will. He sets off for battle. On his way to battle several messengers come to inform him of tragedy at his home, but he does not stop and carries on to Untamola. When he arrives he lays waste to Untamo's entire tribe and destroys all of the buildings, leaving nothing standing. On Kullervo's return home he finds the homestead deserted and cold with only Musti, his mother's little black dog as company, he retires to the forest and, turning his sword's point to his chest, thrusts himself to his death. ==Cantos 37 – 38: Second Ilmarinen Cycle== Canto XXXVII. – Ilmarinen's Bride of Gold Ilmarinen grieves for his lost wife for a long time. When he finally overcomes his grief, he decides to make himself a bride of gold and silver. He toils with his workers at the bellows, but they do not work well; Ilmarinen fails many times until finally he takes control of the bellows himself and produces the bride he desired. At night Ilmarinen lies down with his golden bride and sleeps. He wakes up to find his bride cold as ice and realizes that this is most unpleasant. He decides to take the bride to Väinämöinen for his enjoyment. Väinämöinen is shocked and annoyed that Ilmarinen would create such an atrocity. He instructs Ilmarinen to destroy it and create nicer things from it or take it to places where gold is revered over life. Canto XXXVIII. – Ilmarinen's Fruitless Wooing Ilmarinen sets out to Pohjola in search for another bride. He is met by Louhi, who asks him for tidings of her daughter. Ilmarinen responds with the sad news and asks for her second daughter; this Louhi refuses. When Ilmarinen charges into the house and demands the second daughter of Louhi, she herself refuses his advances. He grasps her and drags her to his sledge and sets off for Kalevala. The maiden laments and struggles. She threatens to smash his sledge, but he tells her it is made of iron. She makes several other threats, but Ilmarinen has none of it. The daughter of Louhi continues to insult and annoy Ilmarinen until he decides to rest. As he does so another man makes the maiden laugh. On waking, Ilmarinen is so angered he sings the maiden into a sea gull and continues home alone. When he returns home he consults Väinämöinen and informs him of Pohjola's prosperity because of the Sampo. He also tells him of the fate of Louhi's second daughter. ==Cantos 39 – 44: Theft of the Sampo== Canto XXXIX. – Expedition Against Pohjola Väinämöinen says to Ilmarinen that they will go to Pohjola and seize the Sampo, to which Ilmarinen tells him of the secure nature of the Sampo's hiding place and of the nine locks and of its roots deep in the earth. Väinämöinen is not downcast though and says that they will go and recover the Sampo. Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen debate how to get to Pohjola and decide to go by sea. Ilmarinen forges a new sword for Väinämöinen. The two men set out along the shore on fine horses and on the way hear a weeping. They investigate and find it is a warship lamenting its being stuck in the bay. Väinämöinen consoles the ship and pushes it out to water, and they proceed to Pohjola aboard the mighty warship with Ilmarinen at the oar and Väinämöinen at the tiller. They pass by the home of Lemminkäinen, who asks to join them on their journey. They agree and the three heroes of the Kalevala sail to Pohjola. Canto XL. – The Pike and The Kantele Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, and Lemminkäinen continue in their ship to Pohjola. On their way they are greeted by many maidens. Lemminkäinen remembers that a great waterfall is in their path and proceeds to pray to the gods to calm the cataract and allow them safe passage. Väinämöinen guides the great ship through the rapids and over the waterfall without a scratch on the vessel. However, the ship runs aground on the back of a giant pike. Väinämöinen instructs Lemminkäinen to kill the pike, but he fails. Ilmarinen mocks Lemminkäinen, but he himself fails and his sword is broken to pieces. Belittling them both, Väinämöinen plunges his own sword into the fish. He raises it up from the water as it splits apart with the tail sinking. Väinämöinen cuts the headpiece into pieces they then cook to eat. From its jawbone, and from the hair of horse of Hiisi, Väinämöinen fashions a magnificent kantele. After the kantele's construction is complete, Väinämöinen summons a worthy player. Many try to play, but none can do the magnificent instrument justice. Canto XLI. – Väinämöinen's Play Väinämöinen himself sits down to play the kantele. He calls to all peoples of Northland to listen and revel in his play. On hearing Väinämöinen's play all the creatures of the world—be they from air, earth, or water—come to hear the beautiful music. Väinämöinen's play is so beautiful even the gods themselves come to hear it. All of Väinämöinen's audience begin weeping for the music, and soon Väinämöinen himself weeps. His giant tears fall and flow to the water where they become magnificent blue pearls, more wonderful then anything on earth. Väinämöinen summons a worthy collector for his tear-drops. He calls to a raven, but the bird is unable to gather them; he calls to a duck who is able to gather the pearls and present them to Väinämöinen. Canto XLII. – Recovery of the Sampo They land at Pohjola and are met by the hostess Louhi, who asks them why they are there. Väinämöinen tells her that the people of Kalevala wish to have the Sampo. She responds by saying that it cannot be shared among all the heroes and as it brings great prosperity to Pohjola it will not be surrendered. Väinämöinen then says they will take it forcefully, which angers Louhi and she summons soldiers to vanquish Väinämöinen and his people. Väinämöinen plays his kantele, which pacifies the people of Pohjola and causes them to fall into a deep sleep. Väinämöinen's group then searches for the Sampo. They reach the copper mountain, and Ilmarinen anoints the hinges and bolts of the chamber and the bolts unlatch and the doors fly open. Lemminkäinen enters the chamber and with swelling ego praises himself until he sees the beauteous Sampo. He tries with all his might to move it, but the roots of the mountain have firmly secured its place. Lemminkäinen then captures and harnesses a great ox, which he uses to plough the roots and free the Sampo. Väinämöinen and the heroes carry the Sampo back to their ship and proceed to leave Pohjola and return home. They agree to leave the Sampo in safety on a fir-covered island. Väinämöinen prays for a safe, swift, and easy journey back to Kalevala. Lemminkäinen longs for food and song, but Väinämöinen warns him that feasting and singing will prolong the journey. Lemminkäinen nevertheless sings his songs, but his singing is so foul that a crane flies away in pain, flies over Pohjola, and wakes the people of the Northland with its crying. Louhi wakes and checks her domain frantically and, finding nothing awry, she then checks the copper mountain and finds the Sampo missing. She calls to the sea-fog to cover the waters and to Iku-Turso to devour the heroes of Kalevala and return the Sampo. She calls to Ukko to raise a giant storm and blow them off course. Väinämöinen and the others are caught in the thick fog for days until Väinämöinen in desperation cleaves the sea with his magic sword, releasing them from their captivity. Suddenly Iku-Turso comes toward them in great anger. Ilmarinen and Lemminkäinen are both filled with dread but Väinämöinen seizes the monster and asks him why he approaches in anger. He refuses to answer and Väinämöinen asks him again. Iku-Turso tells Väinämöinen of his instructions and promises to leave if he is released. A short time passes and Ukko raises a great wind against the heroes, causing the sea to fume with white waves and Väinämöinen to lose his pike kantele, which Väinämöinen laments heavily. Ilmarinen weeps and believes all is lost, however Väinämöinen recovers his composure and warns against weeping over the past. He commands the gods to stop the waves and calm the sea. Lemminkäinen calls to the birds to help save the sinking ship, and with the aid of the men of the vessel and Väinämöinen's magic the ship is saved. Canto XLIII. – Loss of the Sampo Louhi, filled with rage, prepares her army for battle. She loads a great warship and sets sail to find and take the Sampo. Väinämöinen asks Lemminkäinen to climb the mast of the ship and check for anything out of the ordinary. Lemminkäinen sees nothing but a dark horizon behind the ship to the north. Väinämöinen asks again for Lemminkäinen to check the situation. He reports of a vast forest to the north and an island to the south. Väinämöinen says there is no forest to the north and asks Lemminkäinen to check again. This time he spies a ship making chase. Väinämöinen orders Ilmarinen and Lemminkäinen to row with the other oarsmen as hard as they can to escape their pursuers, but to no avail. Väinämöinen utters words of magic with reagents thrown into the sea to create a shoal. The ship of Pohjola crashes into the shoal, breaking the ship apart. Louhi however changes her form into a giant eagle, with scythes as the nails of her talons and the remains of the ship as her wings and tail. A large number of her men climb on her back as she takes flight and continues the pursuit of Väinämöinen and his heroes. Louhi lands on the highest mast of Väinämöinen's ship. Ilmarinen prays to Ukko for help and protection while Väinämöinen asks Louhi once again if she will share the Sampo. Again she refuses. She then attacks and swoops down to steal the Sampo in her talons, but Lemminkäinen draws his sword and injures her. She scolds him for breaking his promise to his mother not to fight. Väinämöinen, fearing the worst may happen, tears the rudder from the ship and strikes Louhi, striking her army from her back and causing her to fall. She takes one more grab at the Sampo and drops it into the sea where it sinks and breaks into pieces. Louhi, still furious, warns Väinämöinen that she will steal the sun and moon from the sky and send nine diseases to his people. Väinämöinen answers that she cannot do this as only a god has that ability. Louhi flies away weeping, to return to Pohjola. Väinämöinen rejoices when he returns home. He takes the pieces of the Sampo that washed up on his beaches and prays to Ukko to always protect his people from evil and famine and disease and to protect them from Louhi and her armies. Canto XLIV. – Birth of the Second Kantele Väinämöinen wishes to sing again but laments that his kantele is lost to the kingdom of Vellamo. He goes to Ilmarinen and asks him to forge a giant rake to dredge the seabed. Väinämöinen goes to a boat shed and addresses the younger of the two boats housed there. He commands the young boat to go to the place where his kantele was lost. He begins to search for his lost kantele, but to no avail. Väinämöinen makes his way home and meets a weeping birch tree. He asks why it is weeping, and the birch says that it is sad because it is treated badly by the people. It is stripped of its bark and leaves and never feels safe to settle. Väinämöinen proceeds to make a new kantele from the wood of the sacred birch and strings of golden hair from a joyful maiden. Väinämöinen plays the new kantele, which sounds so beautiful it causes the people of Kalevala to leave whatever they are doing and come to hear, old and young, male and female. They all listen and weep with joy. The same happens with the folk of Northland. The music is so fantastic even the animals themselves come to hear. Väinämöinen plays for three solid days. ==Cantos 45 – 49: Louhi's Revenge on Kalevala== Canto XLV. – Louhi's Pestilence on Kalevala Louhi, growing angry at the prosperity of Kalevala, calls to Loviatar, one of Tuoni's daughters, to bring upon the people of Kalevala disease and pestilence. Loviatar births her children of disease and tends to them: Louhi banishes the children of Loviatar to Kalevala, causing the people to fall sick. Väinämöinen comes to his people's aid. He fires up healing saunas, sends prayers and magic words to Ukko to deliver his people from peril, and uses healing balms on the ill. Väinämöinen then calls to Ukko to send a healing balm by rain and successfully saves his people from destruction. Canto XLVI. – Otso, the Bear. Louhi, on hearing the eradication of the disease, sends the great bear Otso to destroy the cattle and people of Kalevala. Väinämöinen instructs Ilmarinen to build him a spear to kill the bear. He heads out on the hunt, offering spoken charms to the lord of the forest and to the bear. Väinämöinen approaches the bear, which slips from its resting place and is killed in the fall. Väinämöinen comforts the bear. On his return a feast is held in the halls of Kalevala. Väinämöinen tells of the origin of the bear and sings songs wishing for peace and prosperity for his people. Canto XLVII. – Robbery of the Sun, Moon, and Fire Väinämöinen's singing brings the sun and moon to the earth in joy. However, Louhi steals them away and conceals them in Pohjola; she then steals the fire from the homes of Kalevala. Ukko, confused as to the lack of sun and moon, strikes up a new fire, conceals it in a golden purse and tasks a maiden of the air to nurture it, however she fails and the new fire falls to the earth and is spotted by Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen, they go to hunt for it. They meet Ilmatar and she tells them that the fire has caused many a mischief and was finally swallowed by a fish in Lake Alue. Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen lay nets for the Fire-fish to no avail. Canto XLVIII. – Capture of the Fire-fish Väinämöinen asks his people to make him flaxen net to catch the fire-fish. His people go to work ploughing the land and sowing the seeds. When the flax grows, they harvest, thresh, and weave it into threads. They then prepare the fishing net. When the net is complete, the young folk go to catch the fish, but they do not succeed, so Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen go to fish for the pike themselves. Their attempts fail, and they enlarge the net and try again. On their second failing Väinämöinen calls to Vellamo and Ahto for assistance. A man of very small stature rises from the water and offers his help to drive the fire-fish to the nets, which Väinämöinen happily accepts. Väinämöinen draws his net in and discovers many fish have been caught, including the fire-fish. Väinämöinen dares not touch the fire-fish and wonders how he will recover the fire. Panu, the son of the Sun, hears and tells Väinämöinen he will open up the fish. He calls to the heavens for a magical fish knife, which he is supplied with. Panu cuts into the pike and finds the fire. Väinämöinen wonders how to return it to Kalevala. Suddenly the fire grows angry and flies over the lake, burning Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen during its escape. The fire scorches many lands including Pohjola and Kalevala. Väinämöinen tracks the fire and finds it hiding. He offers a charm to coax the fire into obedience and places it in a tinderbox and returns it to his people. Ilmarinen tries to soothe his burnt fingers by placing them in the water, but this does not help. He calls to the children of the cold dark north to bring him icy slush and to Ukko to bring snow and ice to help him soothe his pains. In time Ilmarinen attains his former health and vigour. Canto XLIX. – Restoration of the Sun and Moon Even though the fire has been restored to Kalevala, the animals start to die and the people grow weak because of the lack of sun and moon. One day Ilmarinen is asked to forge another sun and moon, which he agrees to do, but Väinämöinen tells him it is fruitless. Ilmarinen continues to forge the false sun and moon and when they are complete mounts them high in trees but they fail to shine. Väinämöinen cuts chips from an alder tree to divine the location of the sun and moon. His divination tells him they are locked away in the mountains of Pohjola. Väinämöinen sets off to recover them. He gets within sight of the gates of Pohjola and calls for a boat to carry him across the river, but nobody hears him, so he makes a brushwood fire and lets the smoke drift into the heavens. Louhi sends a messenger to bring her news of the origin of the smoke. Väinämöinen asks the messenger to bring him a boat, but the messenger tells him to swim across the river himself. At this Väinämöinen turns himself into a pike and swims across the river. Väinämöinen makes his way to the halls of Pohjola and is met by armed men who ask him his intentions, he tells them that he is here to recover the sun and moon. The men of Pohjola and Väinämöinen engage in combat and Väinämöinen is victorious, lopping the heads off the men like turnip roots. Väinämöinen runs toward the mountain prison of the sun and moon and finds an enormous stone atop a rock with the light of the sun shining out of it. He cleaves the stone in three and discovers serpents drinking ale. He kills them, but when he tries to free the sun and moon he finds his magic lacking, so he returns home and tells of his adventure and his inability to rescue the sun and moon. Väinämöinen goes to Ilmarinen and asks him to make spears, axes, and keys. Louhi, at the loss of her men, senses her peril. She takes the form of an eagle and talks to Ilmarinen. He tells her of his making implements to imprison her and render her in iron bondage for eternity. Louhi grows fearful and flies back to Pohjola. She lets free the sun and moon and releases them to the sky. Louhi then takes the form of a dove and returns to Kalevala to speak with Ilmarinen again. The Louhi-dove tells Ilmarinen that the sun and moon are now free. Ilmarinen goes to investigate and he sees that it is indeed true, and he tells Väinämöinen. Väinämöinen is joyful at the sight of the sun and moon and pleads with them to stay where they are and continue to illuminate and nourish his people for eternity. ==Canto 50: Marjatta== Canto L. – Marjatta Marjatta lives a life of respectability and virtue. One day, when she is shepherding her flock, she laments her maidenhood and wishes for a husband. She hears a cowberry crying that no one would pluck it, and she reaches for the berry and it places itself in her mouth and is eaten. Marjatta grows pregnant and hangs around the house. Her parents wonder what is wrong. The time comes for Marjatta to give birth and she pleads with her parents to give her a place to go and rest and bathe, but she is met with disdain and anger. Marjatta goes to her trusty maid-servant, Piltti, to seek her some place she can rest and give birth to her child. Piltti goes to the house of Ruotus, but he is insulting and his wife only offers a cold old stable for her. Marjatta goes seeking the stable on her own and when her birth begins prays to Ukko for assistance and protection. On arrival at the stable Marjatta asks the horse to keep her warm and supply her with steam for a bath. The child is born and cared for well, but one day the child vanishes and Marjatta weeps uncontrollably. She goes in search of her child and asks a star and the moon for assistance, but they offer no advice. Finally the sun tells her that the child is in the swamp and Marjatta recovers him. The child was to be baptised by Virokannas. Virokannas refuses until the child is proven worthy, however Väinämöinen tells him that the child is not and advises the child be killed. On this the child speaks openly to Väinämöinen and chastises him for his rash judgement and former foul deeds. Virokannas baptises him the rightful ruler of Karelia. Väinämöinen grows angry and recognises that he is weakening and his influence and importance failing, so he sings up a magic boat and sails away from Kalevala, with these parting words and his magic, songs and sacred kantele as a gift to his noble people. Epilogue The poem ends with a sung farewell by the singers. ==See also== * Finnish mythology * List of Kalevala translations ==Notes== ==References== ===Page references=== ===Translation references=== * * * Synopses |
Richard Tauber (16 May 1891 – 8 January 1948) was an Austrian tenor and film actor. ==Early life== Richard Tauber was born in Linz, Austria, to Elisabeth Seifferth (née Denemy), a widow and an actress who played soubrette roles at the local theatre, and Richard Anton Tauber, an actor; his parents were not married and his father was reportedly unaware of the birth as he was touring North America at the time. The child was given the name Richard Denemy; he was sometimes known as [Carl] Richard Tauber, and also used his mother's married name, Seiffert; but the claim by the Encyclopædia Britannica that he was ever known as Ernst Seiffert has no support from any of the 12 published books and monographs about him listed in Daniel O'Hara's comprehensive Richard Tauber Chronology. After he was adopted by his father in 1913, his legal name became Richard Denemy-Tauber. Tauber accompanied his mother on tour to theatres, but she found it increasingly difficult to cope, and left him with foster-parents in Urfahr, now a suburb of Linz. In 1897–98 he was sent to school in Linz, and then his father took over his upbringing, moving him to Graz, Prague, Berlin, Salzburg and finally Wiesbaden. His father, who was born Jewish, but had converted to Roman Catholicism, hoped that young Tauber would become a priest. The boy missed the excitement of the theatre and instead joined his father in Prague and, subsequently, in 1903 at the theatre in Wiesbaden. Tauber hoped to become a singer but failed to impress any of the teachers he auditioned for, probably because he chose to sing Wagner, for which his voice was not suited. His father entered him at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt to study piano, composition and conducting. He made rapid progress but he still hoped to become a singer. ==Early career== After an intense period of vocal training under Carl Beines, he made his public debut at a concert at Freiburg on 17 May 1912. That year his father was appointed Intendant of the Municipal Theatre in Chemnitz and was therefore in a position to arrange for Tauber to appear as Tamino in The Magic Flute on 2 March 1913. Some weeks later, on 16 April, he played Max in Der Freischütz, a performance which was attended by of the Dresden Opera who had already offered Tauber a five-year contract, commencing on 1 August. The Count encouraged Tauber to take small roles with other companies to broaden his experience. During his years in Dresden, Tauber acquired his reputation as a remarkably quick student: he learned Gounod's Faust in 48 hours, Bacchus in Richard Strauss's Ariadne auf Naxos overnight, to the amazement of the composer, who conducted the performance (in Berlin). People started to call him "the SOS Tenor". He saved the German premiere of Puccini's Turandot in 1926 at the Staatsoper Dresden, learning the role of Calaf in three days when tenor Curt Taucher fell ill."Tauber, Richard", Großes Sängerlexikon, Walter de Gruyter (2004), p. 4658, Following some guest appearances at the Wiener Volksoper in 1920, he made his Vienna State Opera debut on 16 June in La bohème, substituting for an indisposed Alfred Piccaver. In 1922, Tauber signed a five-year contract with the Vienna State Opera and appearances with the Berlin State Opera followed; for many years he appeared with both companies – four months with each, leaving four months for concerts and guest appearances with other companies and touring abroad. He sang the tenor role in many operas, including Don Giovanni, The Bartered Bride, Tosca, Mignon, Faust, Carmen and Die Fledermaus, as well as newer works such as Erich Korngold's Die tote Stadt and Wilhelm Kienzl's Der Evangelimann. Daniel O'Hara's Tauber Chronology lists 100 roles in opera and operetta that he performed on stage. It was in June 1919 that he made the first of over seven hundred gramophone records. All his vocal recordings were made for the Odeon Records label, and after 1933 for the associated Parlophone label. Tauber had a lyrical, flexible tenor voice, and he sang with a warm, elegant legato. His excellent breath control gave him a wonderful head voice and messa di voce with a superb pianissimo. He was elegant in appearance too – although he had a slight squint in his right eye; he disguised it by wearing a monocle which, when accompanied by a top hat, added to the elegant effect. Tauber first performed in an operetta by Franz Lehár at the Volksbühne in Berlin in 1920. This was Zigeunerliebe, in which he also appeared in Linz and Salzburg in 1921. In 1922 he was offered the role of Armand in Lehár's at the Theater an der Wien, and the experience was a resounding success. This excursion into operetta was looked down on by some, but did Tauber no harm. It gave him a new audience. It revived Lehár's flagging career as a composer of operetta. In the future, Lehár composed a number of operettas with roles written specifically for Richard Tauber, including Paganini (1925, although he was unavailable for the Vienna premiere, and first sang it in Berlin in 1926), Der Zarewitsch (1927), Friederike (1928), The Land of Smiles (1929) with the famous aria "Dein ist mein ganzes Herz", Schön ist die Welt (1930), and Giuditta (1934). The hit songs usually occurred in the second act and were informally known as Tauberlieder. Tauber appeared in a number of films, both in Germany and later in England. He provided a 'voice-over', singing the title song in the otherwise silent film I Kiss Your Hand, Madame (1929). thumb|upright|Richard Tauber and Carlotta Vanconti, c. 1928 When in Vienna, Tauber also conducted at the Theater an der Wien, and it was here in 1924 that he met the soprano Carlotta Vanconti who soon divorced her Italian husband and married Tauber on 18 March 1926. They separated in 1928 and divorced later the same year in Berlin. The divorce was recognised, however, only in Germany. In 1929 he met Mary Losseff at Rudolf Nelson's review in Berlin. They lived together for about five years. Losseff became his muse; it was for her that he wrote Der singende Traum. Losseff's career ended when she became an alcoholic, but Tauber remained her lifelong friend and supported her until his death. In 1931, Tauber made his London debut in operetta, and London appearances became a regular event; he also toured the United States in this year. In 1933, Tauber was assaulted in the street by a group of Nazi Brownshirts because of his Jewish ancestry, and he decided to leave Germany for his native Austria, where he continued to sing at the Vienna State Opera right up to the Anschluss in March 1938. In the mid-1930s, he made several musical films in England, and at the premiere of her film Mimi in April 1935, he met the English actress Diana Napier (1905–1982); they were married on 20 June 1936, only after protracted legal proceedings to secure an Austrian divorce from Vanconti. Napier appeared in three of his British films: Heart's Desire (1935), Land Without Music and Pagliacci (both 1936). ==Later career== In 1938, he made his London operatic debut in Die Zauberflöte under Sir Thomas Beecham. Earlier that year, the Nazi government of Germany annexed Austria and Tauber left for good. In response, the Nazis withdrew the Taubers' passports and right of abode; because this left the couple technically stateless, Tauber applied for British citizenship. He was touring South Africa when World War II broke out, and returned to Switzerland until receiving the papers allowing him to enter the UK in March 1940. Despite receiving lucrative offers from the United States, he remained in the UK for the entire war. There was little opera staged in wartime Britain so he made a living by singing, conducting and making gramophone records and radio broadcasts. He even composed English operettas, together with the lyric writer Fred S. Tysh, from one of which, Old Chelsea, the song "My Heart and I" became one of his most popular English recordings. It was only these English records that brought him any royalties; for his earlier recordings he had been paid for each performance and he had been compelled to leave his savings behind in Austria. By now he was so crippled by arthritis that he could no longer move into and away from the microphone for softer and louder notes. A small trolley was built on rubber wheels so the engineers could silently roll him back and forth while recording. In 1946, Tauber appeared in a Broadway adaptation of The Land of Smiles (Yours is my Heart) which flopped, leaving him with huge personal losses and in debt to the backers. He was thus forced to tour the United States, Canada, Central and South America for six months to recoup losses, with Arpad Sandor and George Schick serving as his accompanists, and Neil Chotem as assisting artist. In April 1947, Tauber returned to London and sought medical attention for a persistent cough. He was eventually diagnosed with lung cancer: one lung was already useless and the other nearly so. thumb|Gravestone, Brompton Cemetery, London The Vienna State Opera was in London for a short season at the Royal Opera House - their first visit since the war - and they invited Tauber to sing one performance with his old company. On 27 September 1947 he sang the role of Don Ottavio in Don Giovanni, not a large part but with two difficult arias that demand good breath control to bring off well. Those in the audience say that he sang wonderfully and to loud applause. Live excerpts of these two arias from this performance survive, and they reveal a tone of undiminished focus and steadiness, a good line, and somewhat shortened phrasing. ==Death== Three days after his last performance, Tauber entered Guy's Hospital on October 1, 1947, to have his left lung removed to treat the cancer. Nonetheless, he died of complications on January 8, 1948, in the London Clinic, Devonshire Place. His Requiem Mass was at St. James' Church, Spanish Place. He was interred in Brompton Cemetery in London. ==Selected discography== Tauber made over 720 vocal recordings for the Odeon/Parlophone companies, plus several as an orchestral conductor, mainly of his own works, but also of music by Grieg and Johann Strauss, Jr. Of the 120 acoustic recordings, the most important are of arias by Mozart, Tchaikovsky and Kienzl, and songs by Schumann, Richard Strauss and Grieg. There are also five duets with Elisabeth Rethberg, arias by Verdi, Puccini etc., and excerpts from Korngold's Die tote Stadt, including a duet with Lotte Lehmann. Among the electrical recordings, there are albums of German folksongs, and 12 songs from Schubert's Winterreise, accompanied by Mischa Spoliansky, and an album of folksongs by Franz Gabriel and Hermann Löns. Perhaps most prized are the four Mozart arias recorded in 1938 and 1939, and the aria from Der Freischütz made in 1946. Among his last recordings are two songs by Richard Strauss, accompanied at the piano by Percy Kahn. In his lifetime, his many recordings of music by Franz Lehár, much of it written for him, and his own songs from the operetta Old Chelsea (1942) were best sellers, along with a huge range of lighter and popular music in German and English. A number of his broadcasts have been preserved, including a series of General Motors Concerts from America in 1937, a Radio Hilversum concert of 1939, and excerpts from his three series of weekly programmes for the BBC (1945–47). ==Selected filmography== * Reise-Abenteuer (1925) [short silent] * Achtung! Aufnahme! (1927) [short silent] * I Kiss Your Hand, Madame (1929) * Never Trust a Woman (1930, Ich glaub' nie mehr an eine Frau) * End of the Rainbow (1930, Das lockende Ziel) * The Land of Smiles (1930) * The Big Attraction (1931, Die große Attraktion) * Melody of Love (1932, Melodie der Liebe) * Blossom Time (1934) * Heart's Desire (1935) * Land Without Music (1936) * Pagliacci (1936) * Waltz Time (1945) * Lisbon Story (1946) ==References== ==External links== * * * *Das Richard Tauber Archiv This site also hosts a regularly updated chronology in English by Daniel O'Hara. *Greatest Singer? *Richard Tauber: A Brief Appreciation *Richard Tauber in Australia *Photographs of Richard Tauber * * "History of the Tenor": Richard Tauber, sound clips and narration, Sydney R. Barker Category:1891 births Category:1948 deaths Category:Musicians from Linz Category:Jewish emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss to the United Kingdom Category:Austrian operatic tenors Category:Jewish opera singers Category:Burials at Brompton Cemetery Category:Hoch Conservatory alumni Category:Fonotipia Records artists Category:Austrian Roman Catholics Category:Deaths from lung cancer in England Category:20th-century Austrian male opera singers |
Alan Oppenheimer (born April 23, 1930) is an American actor. He has performed numerous roles on live action television since the 1960s, and he has had an active career doing voice work since the 1970s. ==Early life== Oppenheimer was born in New York City on April 23, 1930, to Louis and Irene Oppenheimer. His father worked as a stockbroker. ==Career== ===Character roles=== As a character actor, Oppenheimer has had diverse roles in popular American television programming, from playing a Nazi in Hogan's Heroes, to playing an Israeli secret agent as well as a double-agent KAOS scientist on Get Smart, to being the second actor to play Dr. Rudy Wells in The Six Million Dollar Man (Martin Balsam played the role in the pilot film). Oppenheimer took over as Rudy starting with the second film, "Wine, Women and War" up until the introduction of the bionic woman in 1975, whereupon Martin E. Brooks took over as Wells until cancellation). He was the original Mickey Malph (Ralph Malph's dad) on Happy Days. He played a recurring role during the first two seasons of St. Elsewhere as Helen Rosenthal's husband, Ira. He had a recurring role as Mayor Alvin B. Tutwiller on Mama's Family. He then continued in science fiction genre in the 1973 cult classic Westworld, where he played the head IT technician. He has also appeared in three Star Trek series, always playing a different character. He appeared in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Rightful Heir" as a Klingon cleric, Koroth, a primary instigator of the cloning of Kahless; on Deep Space Nine as a Starfleet Captain Declan Keogh in command of the USS Odyssey; and as an alien ambassador in Voyager. Oppenheimer also appeared as film director Cecil B. DeMille in the 1994 Broadway production of Andrew Lloyd Webber's Sunset Blvd.Sunset Boulevard entry, broadwaymusicalhome.com; accessed May 9, 2015. ===Voice acting=== Oppenheimer has voiced many characters, often for Filmation in the 1970s and 1980s, such as Oil Can Harry, Swifty and the narrator on The New Adventures of Mighty Mouse and Heckle & Jeckle, Ming the Merciless on Flash Gordon, the Overlord on BlackStar, Skeletor, Man-At-Arms and Mer-Man from Filmation's 1980s cartoon He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, and the voice of Prime Evil in the 1986 TV series, Filmation's Ghostbusters. Other notable voice roles include Thundarr the Barbarian, Vanity on The Smurfs, Rhinokey and Crock from The Wuzzles and Falkor, Gmork, Rockbiter, and the Narrator from 1984's The NeverEnding Story. In the early 1990s, Oppenheimer was the voice of Merlin in The Legend of Prince Valiant. He also provided the voice of Barkerville in the Pound Puppies TV special. He also voiced Fraidy Cat on Fraidy Cat in 1975 and provided additional voices on Battle of the Planets in 1978. Oppenheimer worked on The Transformers, most notably as two contrasting characters, the pacifist Beachcomber and the bellicose Warpath. His rendition of Seaspray was remarkably similar to Mer-Man, including the gurgling effects. He took over the voice of Roger Smith's butler Norman Burg in the English dub of the second season of The Big O. He was the voice of the unseen Alistair Crane on the soap opera Passions up until 2004, when the character was made fully visible and played by David Bailey. More recently, he provided the voice of the Scientist for the 2009 film 9 and Batman's butler Alfred Pennyworth in Superman/Batman: Public Enemies. Oppenheimer's repertoire also includes video games, voicing Dr. Piotr Ivanovich in Soldier of Fortune II: Double Helix, Prometheus in God of War II and Jandor the Airship Captain in Nox. In Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel, he spoke the part of Harold, an ancient mutated survivor of nuclear holocaust who has appeared in four of the Fallout series games, and played the roles of The Chariot Master and Dyntos, God of the Forge, in Kid Icarus: Uprising. Oppenheimer also voiced the parts of a non-player character Soldier and the Wasteland Trader, and the NPC 'enemies' Cult Ghoul Thug and Kamikaze in Fallout: BoS. Also, in the English TG-16 port of Ys Book I and II, Oppenheimer voiced the roles of the Narrator, and the game's lead antagonist, Darm. In 2019 he guest-starred on the animated series Tigtone and in Toy Story 4 as Old Timer. ==Personal life== Oppenheimer married costume designer Marianna Elliott in 1958 and together they had three children. The couple divorced, but wed again in 1992 and remained married until her death in 2003. In 1984, he wed professional tennis player Marilyn Greenwood. They divorced in 1990. ==Filmography== ===Films=== Year Title Role Notes 1963 Office of Special Investigation U.S.A.F. instructor Uncredited 1966 Gammera the Invincible Dr. Contrare 1967 Gunn Whiteside Credited as Allan Oppenheimer 1967 In the Heat of the Night Ted Appleton Uncredited 1968 How to Save a Marriage and Ruin Your Life Everett Bauer 1968 Star! Andre Charlot, Producer 1968 Up Tight! Unctuous Man in Arcade 1969 The Maltese Bippy Adolph Springer 1970 Little Big Man Major 1972 The Groundstar Conspiracy General Hackett 1973 The Thief Who Came to Dinner Insurance Man 1973 Westworld Chief Supervisor 1975 Win, Place or Steal Lt. Mannite 1975 The Lives of Jenny Dolan Springfield 1975 The Hindenburg Albert Breslau 1976 Helter Skelter Aaron Stovitz 1976 Freaky Friday Mr. Joffert 1978 Record City Blind Man 1979 A Pleasure Doing Business Marvin 1980 Private Benjamin Rabbi 1981 Macbeth Duncan 1982 Mighty Mouse in the Great Space Chase Mighty Mouse Voice 1984 The NeverEnding Story Falkor, Gmork, Rockbiter Voice, uncredited 1985 The Secret of the Sword Skeletor, Man-At- Arms, Cringer / Battle Cat, Bald Rebel, Chef Alan Voice 1985 He-Man & She-Ra: A Christmas Special Skeletor, Man-At-Arms, Zipper Voice 1988 BraveStarr: The Movie Handlebar, Outlaw Scuzz, Stampede Voice 1988 Moving Mr. Cadell 1989 Little Nemo: Adventures in Slumberland Oomp 1992 Love Field Announcer 1993 Invisible: The Chronicles of Benjamin Knight Dr. Knox 1994 Trancers 5: Sudden Deth Farr 1997 Culture 2008 Juan Frances: Live Mr. French 2009 The Secret Life of Bees Additional voices 2009 9 The Scientist Voice 2009 Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Alfred Pennyworth Voice 2014 Foxcatcher Du Point Dynasty Narrator Voice 2017 Best Fiends: Boot Camp King Slug 2019 Toy Story 4 Old Timer Voice 2022 Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers He-Man, Skeletor Voice ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1964 The Defenders Dr. Frick 1966 The Felony Squad Ed Clark 1966 The F.B.I. Ludovic Krols 1966–1967 I Spy Colonel Benkovsky 1967 It's About Time Pettijohn 1967 He & She Murray Mouse 1967 Judd for the Defense District Attorney Tom Rogers 1967 Get Smart Agent 498 1967–1969 Hogan's Heroes Colonel Sitzer, Herman Freitag, Major Byron Buckles, Wilhelm 1968 The Andy Griffith Show Mr. Ruskin 1968 The Name of the Game Harvey 1968 Here Come the Brides Benet 1968–1971 The Mod Squad Bob Ross, Phil Norval 1969 Lancer Dan'l Drew 1969 The Queen and I H.R. Martin 1969 My Friend Tony Dr. Mink 1969 The Bill Cosby Show Dwight McDevitt 1969 Ironside Arnold Cane 1969 The Mod Squad Phil Norval 1969–1970 That Girl Dr. Globe, Morgan Jerome, Mr. Katz, Stewart Hurly 1969–1970 Here Come the Brides Benet, Victor 1970 I Dream of Jeannie Congressman Farragut 1970 Hastings Corner Dr. Byron Dorman 1970 My World and Welcome to It The Principal 1970 Three for Tahiti Cecil Barrett 1970 The Governor & J.J. Mr. Federenko 1970 The High Chaparral Sweets 1970 The Bold Ones: The Lawyers George Hartnell 1971 The Partridge Family Wink Burgess 1971 Love, American Style Captain Blodgett 1971 Inside O.U.T. Edgar Winston 1971 The Good Life Rolls Royce manager 1971 McCloud Mervin Simmons 1971 The Jimmy Stewart Show Prof. Lokacs 1971 Nichols Averrel 1971–1972 The Courtship of Eddie's Father Sy Freeman 1971–1972 Bonanza Darius Dalrymple, Ernesto, Wentworth 1971–1972 Insight Marty, Sergeant Varron 1971–1972 The Doris Day Show Marvin Patterson, The Doctor 1972 The Paul Lynde Show Fletcher Lyons 1972 Bewitched Blades Buckholtzer 1972 Here's Lucy Dr. Parker, Herb Hinkley 1973 Butch Cassidy Additional voices 1973 Goober and the Ghost Chasers Additional voices 1973 Speed Buggy Additional voices 1973 The New Scooby-Doo Movies Windmaker #4 Voice 1973 Inch High, Private Eye Additional voices 1973 Wait Till Your Father Gets Home Additional voices 1973–1974 The Six Million Dollar Man Dr. Rudy Wells 1974, 1979 ABC Afterschool Special First Cadet, de Brigny, John Hocker Voice, 2 episodes 1974 Valley of the Dinosaurs Gorok Voice 1974 Hong Kong Phooey Additional voices 1975 Uncle Croc's Block Fraidy Cat, Tinker, Dog Voice 1975 The Tom and Jerry Show Ringmaster, Sapstone Voice, 2 episodes 1975 Fraidy Cat Fraidy Cat, Tinker, Dog Voice 1976–1978 The Scooby-Doo Show Jim Rivets, Mr. Collins, Tarlof, Officer Oldfield, Squire Marley, Jean Pierre Baptiste, Chin Wong Sing Voice 1976–1979 Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle Tomos, Orbin, Phobeg Voice 1977 Washington: Behind Closed Doors Simon Cappell 1977 CB Bears Sidney Merciless Voice 1977 Scooby's All-Star Laff-A-Lympics Additional voices 1977 Space Sentinels Man-Wolf, Morpheus Voice, 2 episodes 1977 Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels Additional voices Episode: "The Mystery Mansion Mix-Up" 1977 The All New Superfriends Hour Dr. Cranum (in "The Brain Machine"), (in "The Secret Four"), Hydronoid #2 (in "Invasion of the Hydronoids"), Doctor Fright (in "Doctor Fright"), Wolfman (in "The Man Beasts of Xra"), The Marsh Monster (in "The Marsh Monster"), Captain Shark (in "The Protector"), Gentleman Ghost (in "The Ghost"), Scientist (in "The Ghost") Voice, 7 episodes 1977 Hawaii Five-O Bernie Fryer Episode: "The Friends of Joey Kalima" 1978 The Ghost of Flight 401 Barton 1978 Peeping Times Miles Rathbourne 1978 Battle of the Planets Additional voices 1978–1979 Fabulous Funnies Captain Katzenjammer, King Guzzle, Irwin, Grelber, Tumbleweeds Voice 1978–1979 Fangface Additional voices 1979 ABC Weekend Special Additional voices 2 episodes 1979 Blind Ambition George Simonson 1979–1980 The New Adventures of Mighty Mouse and Heckle & Jeckle Mighty Mouse, Oil Can Harry, Swifty, Narrator 1979–1981 The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show Toyman, Half-Ape Voice 1979–1982 The New Adventures of Flash Gordon Ming the Merciless, Hans Zarkov, Gundar the Desert Hawk Voice 1980 Drak Pack Count Dracula Voice 1980 The Lone Ranger Additional voices 1980–1981 Thundarr the Barbarian Mindok the Mind Menace, Muragg, Old Wizard Voice, 2 episodes 1980–1981 The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang Controller, Krolack Voice, episode: "Science Friction"; uncredited 1980–1982 Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo Additional voices 1981 Blackstar Carpo, Overlord Voice 1981–1982 The Kid Super Power Hour with Shazam! Uncle Marvel, Doctor Sivana, Tawky Tawny, Shazam Voice 1981–1982 Trollkins Sheriff Pudge Trollism Voice 1981–1982 Hero High Narrator, Mr. Sampson Voice 1981–1989 The Smurfs Vanity Smurf, Homnibus, Father Time Voice 1982 My Smurfy Valentine Vanity Smurf Voice, television film 1982 Mama's Family Mayor Tutweller 1982 The Scooby & Scrappy-Doo/Puppy Hour Additional voices 1982 Richie Rich Additional voices 1982 The Smurfs Christmas Special Vanity Smurf Voice, television film 1982–1985 Knight Rider General Duncton, Joe Lewis 1983 The Smurfic Games Vanity Smurf Voice, television film 1983–1985 He-Man and the Masters of the Universe Skeletor, Mer-Man, Man-At-Arms, Cringer / Battle Cat, Roboto Voice 1985 Challenge of the GoBots Mobius Voice, episode: "Genius and Son" 1985–1986 The Transformers Beachcomber, Breakdown, Seaspray, Warpath Voice 1985 The Wuzzles Rhinokey, Crocosaur, Mr. Packcat Voice 1985 The 13 Ghosts of Scooby-Doo Mirror Demon, Professor Fantazmo Voice, 2 episodes 1985 Sesame Street Octopus Voice 1985–1987 She-Ra: Princess of Power Skeletor, Cringer / Battle Cat, Man-At-Arms Voice 1986 Ghostbusters Prime Evil, Fangster, Long John Scarechrome Voice 1986 The Centurions Dr. Gates Voice 1986 Rambo: The Force of Freedom Sam Trautman Voice 1986 Karate Kommandos President Voice 1986 Strong Medicine Dr. Townsend 1987 Bionic Six Professor Amadeus Sharp, Metalhand Voice 1987 Tis The Season To Be Smurfy Vanity Smurf Voice, television film 1987–1988 BraveStarr Handlebar, Outlaw Scuzz, Stampede Voice 1987–1988 Snorks Additional voices 4 episodes 1987–1990 DuckTales Colonel Beaureguard DuBark, All My Ducklings Actor, Von Doghausen Voice, 3 episodes 1988 A Pup Named Scooby-Doo Additional voices Season 1 1988 Scooby-Doo! and the Reluctant Werewolf Mummy, Swamp Thing Voice, television film 1988 The New Yogi Bear Show Additional voices 1988 Superman Jonathan Kent Voice 1988 Matlock Dr. Linder Episode: "The Heiress" 1988–1989 Slimer! and the Real Ghostbusters Goolem, Morris P. Grout Voice 1988–1989 Fantastic Max Additional voices 1989 Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers Plato, Aldrin Klordane, Captain Kernel Voice 1989 X-Men: Pryde of the X-Men Blob, Colonel Chaffey Voice, television film 1989 TUGS Top Hat, O.J.,Hercules Voice, test US dub 1990 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Dr. Polidorius Voice, episode: "Rebel Without a Fin" 1990 The Wizard of Oz Wizard Voice 1991 TaleSpin Principal Ed Pomeroy Voice, episode: "Sheepskin Deep" 1991 Captain Planet and the Planeteers Dr. Borzon Voice, episode: "Meltdown Syndrome" 1991 Where's Waldo? Additional voices 1991 James Bond Jr. The Chameleon Voice 1991 Lucy & Desi: Before the Laughter Arthur Lyons 1991–1993 The Legend of Prince Valiant Merlin Voice 1992 Fish Police Additional voices Episode: "The Two Gils" 1992 Tom & Jerry Kids Additional voices 3 episodes 1992 The Little Mermaid Additional voices Episode: "The Evil Manta" 1993 Bonkers Additional voices 2 episodes 1993 I Yabba-Dabba Do! Additional voices Television film 1993 Star Trek: The Next Generation Koroth 1994 Star Trek: Deep Space Nine Captain Keogh 1994 Batman: The Animated Series Auctioneer Voice, episode: "Time Out of Joint" 1994 Fantastic Four Watcher, Firelord Voice, episode: "The Silver Surfer and the Coming of Galactus" 1994–1995 Phantom 2040 Professor Jack Archer Voice 1997 Star Trek: Voyager Nezu Ambassador 1997–1998 The New Adventures of Zorro Additional voices 1998 Diagnosis: Murder Leonard Gould 1998 Invasion America Additional voices 3 episodes 1998 Jumanji Ludwig Von Ritcher Voice, 2 episodes 2000 Rocket Power Television Announcer Voice, 2 episodes 2001–2004 Passions Alistair Crane 2003 The Big O Norman Burg Voice, English dub 2003, 2006 The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy Father Time, Mighty Moe Voice, 5 episodes 2004 Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex Laoban Voice, episode: "Red Data" 2005 Clifford's Puppy Days Mr. Solomon Voice, 2 episodes 2007 'Til Death Mr. Wallach Episode: "Performance Anxiety" 2014 Adventure Time Darren the Ancient Sleeper, Sun Voice, episode: "Something Big" 2019 Tigtone Beautiful Horse Head Voice, episode: "Tigtone and the Beautiful War" 2019 Forky Asks a Question Old Timer Voice, episode: "What is Time?" 2020 JJ Villard's Fairy Tales Mirror Max, Roach, Flea Circus Voice, episode: "Snow White" 2021 Masters of the Universe: Revelation Moss-Man Voice 2022 He-Man and the Masters of the Universe King Grayskull Voice ===Video games=== * 1990 – Ys I & II – Narrator, Darm * 1999 – T'ai Fu: Wrath of the Tiger – Leopard Master * 1999 – Revenant – Ogrok, Urgg * 2000 – Nox – Captain, Necromancer 1, Lewis * 2000 – Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn – Guardian Telwyn, Sir Sarles, Mornmaster Thaddin Dawnhunter * 2000 – Star Trek: Starfleet Command II: Empires at War – Additional voices * 2000 – Invictus – Additional voices * 2001 – Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel – Harold, Cult Ghoul Thug, Cult Ghoul Soldier * 2002 – Earth & Beyond – Memnon * 2002 – Soldier of Fortune II: Double Helix – Dr. Piotr Ivanovich * 2003 – Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader – Additional voices * 2004 – Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel – Harold, Cult Ghoul Thug,Soldier * 2004 – Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance II – Additional voices * 2004 – Law & Order: Justice Is Served – Charles Northcutt * 2004 – The Bard's Tale – Additional voices * 2007 – God of War II – Prometheus * 2008 – Robert Ludlum's The Bourne Conspiracy – Additional voices * 2008 – Tom Clancy's EndWar – Additional voices * 2012 – Kid Icarus: Uprising – Chariot Master, Dyntos (English dub) * 2015 – Fallout 4 – Paladin Brandis ==Awards and nominations== * 1991 – Nominated – Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series as Eugene Kinsella in Murphy Brown ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:1930 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American male actors Category:21st-century American male actors Category:American male film actors Category:American male stage actors Category:American male television actors Category:American male video game actors Category:American male voice actors Category:American people of German- Jewish descent Category:Filmation people Category:Jewish American male actors |
The Roanoke Maroons are the athletic teams that represent Roanoke College, located in Salem, Virginia, a suburban independent city adjacent to Roanoke, Virginia. Roanoke is an NCAA Division III member competing in the Old Dominion Athletic Conference; the Maroons were a founding member of the conference in 1976. The college fields teams in 12 men's and 11 women's sports. ==History== Roanoke athletics began in 1870 when the college fielded its first baseball team. In 1900, Roanoke helped serve as a founding member of the Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Association, but quickly left the association. Roanoke later re-joined as a non-football member from 1915 to 1918. The men's basketball program, added in 1911, received national recognition in 1939 when the team finished third in the National Invitational Tournament, the premiere postseason tournament of that era; and with more than 1,300 wins (almost 2,000 games played; better than 60% winning percentage over more than 90 years) is among the most successful in the nation. The "Five Smart Boys" of the 1937 through 1939 seasons were Guard John Wagner; 'Bounding' Bob Lieb; Forwards Paul Rice; Gene Studebaker and Center Bob Sheffield.Berman, Mark. 2018. "Kings of the Court: The Five Smart Boys." Roanoke Times. Discover History & Heritage. 2018. Pages 92-97. Frankie Allen, arguably the greatest men's basketball player in Virginia college sports (2,780 points and 1,758 rebounds), graduated from Roanoke in 1971. thumb|Roanoke students cheering. Men's lacrosse and men's basketball are the school's most popular, and historically most successful sports at the college. However, a number of other teams have made significant NCAA tournament runs and claimed ODAC titles in recent years. Most notably, the school's baseball team in 2017, who entered the ODAC Tournament as the conference's 6th seed, went on a run to win the title before sweeping the South Region and making an appearance in the Division III College World Series in Appleton, Wisconsin. The team finished the season #3 in the national rankings. With the addition of men's volleyball, a sport not sponsored by the ODAC, Roanoke joined the Continental Volleyball Conference: a Division III men's volleyball conference that two fellow ODAC members call home for their men's volleyball programs (Eastern Mennonite and Randolph-Macon). In November of 2022, Scott Allison announced that he will retire at the end of the 2022-23 academic year. Coach Allison contributed 37 total years of service to the college serving as Head Men's Lacrosse Coach in the 1987 and 1988 seasons, the Head Women's Tennis Coach in the 1989 season and most notably as the Head Men's Soccer Coach from 1986-2012 and the school's director of athletics from 1993 until his retirement in 2023. In late May 2023, then Morehouse College athletic director Curtis Campbell was named the next director of athletics at Roanoke College. ===Conference and National Championships=== Roanoke teams have won two national championships: * 1972 NCAA Division II men's basketball championship: Salem native Hal Johnston led the Maroons to the national title in Evansville, Indiana. Roanoke defeated the George Gervin-led Eastern Michigan Eagles in the semifinals before dispatching the Akron Zips in the championship game by a score of 84–72. Johnston was subsequently named tournament MVP. * 1978 NCAA Division II Lacrosse Championship: The men's lacrosse team won the national championship by defeating the Hobart Statesmen who were two-time defending national champions at the time 14–13 in Geneva, New York. The school also boasts two individual national championships: * 2001: Roanoke athlete Casey Smith won an individual national championship in the Division III women's 10,000m track and field event. * 2009: Robin Yerkes secured an individual national championship for Roanoke when she won the Division III women's 400m track and field event. Yerkes is the most decorated athlete ever to graduate from Roanoke, earning 12 All-American honors in multiple events. As of May 2013, teams at Roanoke College have won 101 conference championships (47 in men's sports, 54 in women's sports) since the college joined the ODAC as a founding member in 1976.Roanoke College Athletics – Athletic Department Currently, Roanoke owns more conference championships than any other school in the ODAC in men's lacrosse with 18 titles and women's basketball with 13 titles. Roanoke, Hampden-Sydney, and Randolph-Macon are tied for the most conference championships in men's basketball with 10 titles each. ==Varsity teams== ===List of teams=== Men's sports * Baseball * Basketball * Cross Country * Football (Fall 2024) * Golf * Lacrosse * Soccer * Swimming * Tennis * Track & Field (Indoor & Outdoor) * Volleyball * Wrestling Women's sports * Basketball * Cheerleading (Fall 2024) * Cross Country * Field Hockey * Lacrosse * Soccer * Softball * Swimming * Tennis * Track & Field (Indoor & Outdoor) * Volleyball ===Football=== Roanoke's football program was discontinued during World War II after more than 60 years of competition.A Guide to Historical Salem | Vol. 3 No. 3 Initially a club sport, the first varsity game occurred in 1892 against Allegheny Institute. The college's final game was played against Catawba College on November 13, 1942, which resulted in a 42–0 loss. In 1985, the Salem city government constructed an 8,000-seat stadium, Salem Stadium adjacent to Roanoke's Elizabeth Campus, two miles from the main campus, location of athletic fields and residence halls.Salem Stadium Constructed for the football team at nearby Salem High School where many hoped the college would revive its football program and that the team would play in the stadium, but the college declined. The stadium has hosted the Amos Alonzo Stagg Bowl game from 1993 to 2017. In the spring of 2023, Roanoke College raised $1.3 Million to reinstate football which is slated to return as a club sport in Fall 2024 and begin varsity competition in Fall 2025. In addition to reinstating football, Roanoke will add varsity cheerleading to its athletic department and a marching band program. ===Rivalries=== Roanoke College and Washington and Lee University have been rivals for nearly 150 years. The rivalry, strongest in men's lacrosse, is fueled by a long history of competition; the schools have competed against each other since the 1870s. The rivalry is also influenced by conference affiliation and geography; the schools are both charter members of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference and are located about 50 miles from each other on Interstate 81. Both schools historically have had nationally ranked men's lacrosse teams and have been ranked in the top twenty when meeting late in the season. In addition to Washington and Lee, matches against the University of Lynchburg, Hampden- Sydney College, Randolph-Macon College, and Bridgewater College tend to draw the most interest; all of which are members of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference. Roanoke and Virginia Tech were rivals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when Virginia Tech was a small college. In 1877, the schools competed in Virginia Tech's first intercollegiate baseball game (Virginia Tech won 53–13), and in 1896, Virginia Tech first wore its current athletic colors – Chicago Maroon and Burnt Orange – in a football game against Roanoke. In 1895, Roanoke and Virginia Tech were charter members of the now defunct Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Association along with Randolph-Macon College, the University of Richmond, and the College of William and Mary, and in 1926, Roanoke and Virginia Tech played the inaugural football game at Virginia Tech's Miles Stadium. ===School colors=== Roanoke has two sets of school colors, blue and gold for academic use and maroon and gray for athletic use. This dates to 1907 when the baseball team needed new uniforms, but could not obtain any in blue and gold. Maroon and gray uniforms were purchased as a substitute. Within a few years, maroon and gray were adopted as Roanoke's official athletic colors. The college athletic nickname became Maroons as well. In recent years, black has been added as an accent color so Roanoke athletic uniforms are often maroon, gray, black, and white on some occasions. ===Nickname and mascot=== Roanoke's athletic nickname is the Maroons and the mascot is Rooney, a maroon-tailed hawk. The mascot was revealed on April 17, 2009, during the annual alumni weekend festivities.Roanoke College's new mascot lands on campus – Roanoke.com Roanoke has competed as the Maroons for over a century, but it was only a color without a mascot to represent the college. ==Facilities== After beginning their history in the tiny, on-campus Alumni Gymnasium, the men's and women's basketball teams began playing their home games in the 6,820-seat Salem Civic Center arena in 1968. While the team had a great deal of success there and won the program's only national title while calling the Salem Civic Center home, its large size and off-campus location hindered it. In the 1980s, the school opened the 2,000-seat Bast Center located on-campus where the men's and women's basketball and volleyball teams played until 2016, when the state-of-the-art Cregger Center opened on- campus. The new arena seats 2,500 spectators and sits on a hill with magnificent views of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The baseball team formerly played at Kiwanis Field near Elizabeth Campus, but now plays at Haley Toyota Field, home stadium of the Salem Red Sox, Carolina League affiliate of the Boston Red Sox. The softball team plays at the nearby James I. Moyer Sports Complex, which notably has hosted the NCAA Division III Women's College World Series on multiple occasions. Roanoke has qualified for this event several times with their most recent appearance being in 2012. Home Competition Facilities: *Cregger Center (2,500): Basketball, Volleyball, Wrestling *Cregger Field House: Indoor Track & Field *Donald J. Kerr Stadium (3,000): Field Hockey, Lacrosse, Soccer *Haley Toyota Field at Salem Memorial Ballpark (6,300): Baseball *James I. Moyer Sports Complex (1,000): Softball *Elizabeth Campus Complex: Tennis *Salem Family YMCA: Swimming *C. Homer Bast Track/Alumni Field: Outdoor Track & Field Training and Supplemental Facilities: *Alumni Gym *Belk Fitness Center *C. Homer Bast Center *Jim Buriak Athletic Training Clinic ==Individual sports== ===Achievements=== 2011–2012 On January 28, 2012, the men's basketball team defeated Eastern Mennonite University to win the 1,300th game in program history.Roanoke College Athletics - Men's Basketball Roanoke is one of only 20 NCAA Division III schools with that many victories. With the win, Head Coach Page Moir achieved 375 victories; he is the winningest coach in ODAC history.Roanoke College Athletics - Men's Basketball Roanoke completed the 2011–12 academic year with two ODAC championships: women's outdoor track and field and softball.Roanoke College Athletics - Women's Track and FieldRoanoke College Athletics – Softball The softball championship was Roanoke's eighth in the sport, the most of any school in conference history. Roanoke finished second in the conference in golf and women's lacrosse.Roanoke College Athletics – GolfRoanoke College Athletics - Women's Lacrosse The softball team defeated Christopher Newport University to win the NCAA Division III Regional Championship in Newport News, Virginia and advanced to the NCAA Division III World Series. Roanoke ended the season ranked fourth in the nation after losses to Montclair State University and Linfield College.Roanoke College Athletics – Softball Roanoke athletes won the top ODAC scholar-athlete of the year awards; golfer Brandon Ketron won the men's award, track athlete Sarah Witt won the women's award.Roanoke College Athletics – Golf Roanoke and Washington and Lee University are the only schools to win both awards in the same year. In addition, 91 Roanoke student- athletes were named to the ODAC All-Academic team.Roanoke College Athletics – Athletic Department Shelley Olds, a 2003 graduate of Roanoke College, finished seventh in the women's road race at the 2012 Olympic Games in London, the best result for an American cyclist since 1992.Olds’ seventh place is best Olympic women’s road race finish by American in 20 years - Roanoke College - Salem, Virginia Olds served as captain of the women's soccer team at Roanoke; she is a three-time national champion in two cycling disciplines, road and track. 2012–2013 Scott Allison retired as the head men's soccer coach in 2012 after 27 seasons at the helm of the program; in his final season, the Maroons won the ODAC championship and advanced to the opening round of the NCAA Division III tournament.Roanoke College Athletics - Men's Soccer Allison was named South Atlantic Regional Coach of the Year and Virginia College Division Coach of the Year; he continued to serve as Roanoke's director of athletics until his retirement in 2023.Roanoke College Athletics - Men's Soccer Roanoke won a total of four ODAC championships during the 2012–13 academic year: men's soccer, women's indoor track and field, women's outdoor track and field, and men's lacrosse.Roanoke College Athletics - Women's Indoor TrackRoanoke College AthleticsRoanoke College Athletics - Men's Lacrosse The men's soccer team advanced to the NCAA Division III tournament; the team was defeated by Emory University. The men's lacrosse team advanced to the NCAA Division III tournament as well, defeating Centre College before losing to Lynchburg College. The softball team advanced to the NCAA Division III tournament as an at-large seed; the team was defeated by Christopher Newport University and Emory University. Roanoke placed 111 student-athletes on the 2012–13 ODAC All- Academic team, the most in college history at the time.Roanoke College Athletics – Athletic Department ==References== ==External links== * |
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