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by eliminating Section 230, imposing cash penalties, and passing stricter product liability
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FCC, or the FTC, might provide the most robust oversight.... [T]he Fordham law professor
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External links
| 69 | 69 | wikipedia3.pdf |
Lyon
Liyon (Arpitan)
Prefecture and commune
Skyline of Lyon in La Part-Dieu
Basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière
Place des Terreauxwith the FontaineBartholdi
Parc de la Tête d'or
Confluence District
Vieux Lyon
Pont Lafayette
Flag
Coat of arms
Motto(s): Avant, avant, Lion le melhor(old Franco-Provençal for "Forward, forward,
Lyon the best")[a]
Virtute duce, comite fortuna("With virtue as guide and fortune as
companion")[b]
Location of Lyon
Lyon
Lyon[c] (Franco-Provençal: Liyon) is the second-largest city in France
by urban area and the third largest by city limits.[14] It is located at the
confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of the
French Alps, 391 km (243 mi) southeast of Paris, 278 km (173 mi) north
of Marseille, 113 km (70 mi) southwest of Geneva, Switzerland, 58 km
(36 mi) northeast of Saint-Étienne.
The City of Lyon had a population of 522,250 at the Jan. 2021 census
within its small municipal territory of 48 km2 (19 sq mi),[15] but
together with its suburbs and exurbs the Lyon metropolitan area had a
population of 2,308,818 that same year,[7] the second most populated in
France. Lyon and 58 suburban municipalities have formed since 2015
the Metropolis of Lyon, a directly elected metropolitan authority now in
charge of most urban issues, with a population of 1,424,069 in 2021.[16]
Lyon is the prefecture of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region and seat of
the Departmental Council of Rhône (whose jurisdiction, however, no
longer extends over the Metropolis of Lyon since 2015).
The capital of the Gauls during the Roman Empire, Lyon is the seat of
an archbishopric whose holder bears the title of Primate of the Gauls.
Lyon became a major economic hub during the Renaissance. The city is
recognised for its cuisine and gastronomy, as well as historical and
architectural landmarks; as such, the districts of Old Lyon, the Fourvière
hill, the Presqu'île and the slopes of the Croix-Rousse are inscribed on
the UNESCO World Heritage List. Lyon was historically an important
area for the production and weaving of silk. Lyon played a significant
role in the history of cinema since Auguste and Louis Lumière invented
the cinematograph there. The city is also known for its light festival, the
Fête des lumières, which begins every 8 December and lasts for four
days, earning Lyon the title of "Capital of Lights".
Economically, Lyon is a major centre for banking, chemical,
pharmaceutical and biotech industries. The city contains a significant
software industry with a particular focus on video games; in recent years
it has fostered a growing local start-up sector.[17] The home of renowned
universities and higher education schools, Lyon is the second-largest
student city in France, with a university population of nearly 200,000
students within the Metropolis of Lyon.[18] Lyon hosts the international
headquarters of Interpol, the International Agency for Research on
Cancer, as well as Euronews. According to the Globalization and World
Rankings Research Institute, Lyon is considered a Beta city, as of
2018.[19] It ranked second in France and 40th globally in Mercer's 2019
liveability rankings.[20]
History
Toponymy | 0 | 0 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Coordinates: 45°46′N 4°50′E
Country France
Region Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Metropolis Lyon Metropolis
Arrondissement Lyon
Subdivisions 9 arrondissements
Government
• Mayor (2020–2026) Grégory Doucet[2]
(EELV)
Area1 47.87 km2 (18.48 sq mi)
• Urban (2020[3]) 1,141.4 km2
(440.7 sq mi)
• Metro (2020[4]) 4,605.8 km2
(1,778.3 sq mi)
Population (2022)[5] 520,774
• Rank 3rd in France
• Density 11,000/km2
(28,000/sq mi)
• Urban (Jan.
2021[6])
1,702,921
• Urban density 1,500/km2 (3,900/sq mi)
• Metro (Jan.
2021[7])
2,308,818
The name of the city has taken the forms Lugdon, Luon, and since the
13th century, Lyon. The Gallic Lugdun or Lugdunon that was Latinized
in Roman as Lugdunum is composed of two words. The first may be the
name of the Celtic god Lug (in charge of order and law), or the derived
word lugon, meaning "crow" (the crow being the messenger of Lug), but
might also be another word lug, meaning "light". The second is dunos
('fortress', 'hill'). The name thus may designate the hill of Fourvière, on
which the ancient city of Lyon is founded, but could mean "hill of the
god Lug", "hill of the crows" or "shining hill".[21] [22]
Alternatively Julius Pokorny associates the first part of the word with
the Indo-European radical *lūg ('dark, black, swamp'), the basis of the
toponyms Ludza in Latvia, Lusatia in Germany (from Sorbian Łužica),
and several places in the Czech Republic named Lužice;[23] it could then
also be compared to Luze in Franche-Comté and various hydronyms
such as Louge.
Further down, in the current Saint-Vincent district, was the Gallic
village of Condate, probably a simple hamlet of sailors or fishermen
living on the banks of the Saône. Condate is a Gallic word meaning
"confluence", from which the Confluence district gets its name.
In Roman times the city was called Caput Galliæ, meaning "capital of
the Gauls". As an homage to this title, the Archbishop of Lyon is still
called the Primate of Gaul.
During the revolutionary period, Lyon was renamed Commune-
Affranchie ("Emancipated Commune") on 12 October 1793 by a decree
of the Convention Nationale. It resumed its name in 1794, after the end
of the Terror.
Lyon is called Liyon in Franco-Provençal.[24]
According to the historian Dio Cassius, in 43 BC, the Roman Senate
ordered the creation of a settlement for Roman refugees of war with the
Allobroges. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne and were
now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers. The
foundation was built on Fourvière hill and officially called Colonia
Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity and the blessing of the
gods. The city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum (and
occasionally Lugudunum[25]).[26] The earliest translation of this Gaulish
place-name as "Desired Mountain" is offered by the 9th-century
Endlicher Glossary.[27] In contrast, some modern scholars have
proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lug[o]dunon, after the Celtic god
Lugus (cognate with Old Irish Lugh, Modern Irish Lú), and dúnon (hill-
fort).
The Romans recognised that Lugdunum's strategic location at the
convergence of two navigable rivers made it a natural communications
hub. The city became the starting point of main Roman roads in the
area, and it quickly became the capital of the province, Gallia
Lugdunensis. Two Emperors were born in this city: Claudius, whose
speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the
nomination of Gallic Senators, and Caracalla.
Lyon
Lyon
Ancient Lyon | 1 | 1 | wikipedia4.pdf |
• Metro density 500/km2 (1,300/sq mi)
Time zone UTC+01:00 (CET)
• Summer (DST) UTC+02:00 (CEST)
INSEE/Postal code 69123 (https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=COM-69123)/69001-69009
Elevation 162–349 m (531–1,145 ft)
Website lyon.fr (https://www.lyon.fr/)
1 French Land Register data, which excludes
lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or247 acres) and river estuaries.
Timeline of Lyon
Historical affiliations
Roman Empire (Gallia Lugdunensis), 43
BC-286
Western Roman Empire (Gallia
Lugdunensis), 286-411
Kingdom of the Burgundians, 411–534
Francia, 534–843
Middle Francia, 843–855
Lotharingia, 855–879
Lower Burgundy, 879-933
Kingdom of Arles, 933–1312
Kingdom of France (Lyonnais), 1312–
1792
French First Republic, 1792–1793
Counter-revolutionary, 1793
French First Republic, 1793–1804
First French Empire, 1804–1814
Kingdom of France, 1814–1815
First French Empire, 1815
Kingdom of France, 1815–1830
Kingdom of France, 1830–1848
French Second Republic, 1848–1852
Second French Empire, 1852–1870
French Third Republic, 1870–1940
Vichy France, 1940–1944
French Fourth Republic, 1944–1958
France, 1958–present
The Roman-era Theatre on the
Fourvière Hill
Lyon under siege in 1793
Early Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns
of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and
Septimius Severus.[28] Local saints from this period include Blandina,
Pothinus, and Epipodius, among others. The Greek Irenaeus was the
second bishop of Lyon during the latter part of the second century.[29]
To this day, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as "Primat des
Gaules".[30]
Burgundians fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were
re-settled in eastern Gaul. In 443 the Romans established the Kingdom
of the Burgundians, and Lugdunum became its capital in 461. In 843,
under the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon went to the Holy Roman Emperor
Lothair I. It later was made part of the Kingdom of Arles which was
incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1033. Lyon did not come
under French control until the
14th century.
Fernand Braudel remarked,
"Historians of Lyon are not
sufficiently aware of the bi-
polarity between Paris and Lyon,
which is a constant structure in
French development...from the
late Middle Ages to the Industrial
Revolution".[31] In the late 15th century, the fairs introduced by Italian
merchants made Lyon the economic counting house of France. Even the
Bourse (treasury), built in 1749, resembled a public bazaar where
accounts were settled in the open air. When international banking moved
to Genoa, then Amsterdam, Lyon remained the banking centre of
France.
During the Renaissance, the city's development was driven by the silk
trade, which strengthened its ties to Italy. Italian influence on Lyon's
architecture is still visible among historic buildings.[32] In the late 1400s
and 1500s Lyon was also a key centre of literary activity and book
publishing, both of French writers (such as Maurice Scève, Antoine
Heroet, and Louise Labé) and of Italians in exile (such as Luigi
Alamanni and Gian Giorgio Trissino).
In 1572, Lyon was a scene of mass violence by Catholics against
Protestant Huguenots in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Two
centuries later, Lyon was again convulsed by violence during the French
Revolution, when the citizenry rose up against the National Convention
and supported the Girondins. The city was besieged by Revolutionary armies for over
two months before it surrendered in October 1793. Many buildings were destroyed,
especially around the Place Bellecour, and Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois and Joseph
Fouché administered the execution of more than 2,000 people. The Convention
ordered that its name be changed to "Liberated City", and a plaque was erected that
proclaimed "Lyons made war on Liberty; Lyons no longer exists". A decade later,
Napoleon ordered the reconstruction of all the buildings demolished during that
period.
Modern Lyon | 2 | 2 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Massacre during the Canut rebellion
of 1834
The Saône-Rhône confluence
The convention was not the only target within Lyon during the French Revolution.
After the Convention faded into history, the French Directory appeared and days after
the 4 September 1797 Coup of 18 Fructidor, a Directory's commissioner was
assassinated in Lyon.
The city became an important industrial town in the 19th century. In 1831 and 1834,
the canuts (silk workers) of Lyon staged two major uprisings for better working
conditions and pay. In 1862, the first of Lyon's extensive network of funicular
railways began operation.
During World War II, Lyon was a centre for the occupying Nazi forces, including
Klaus Barbie, the infamous "Butcher of Lyon". However, the city was also a
stronghold of the French Resistance, the many secret passages known as traboules, enabled people to escape Gestapo raids.
On 3 September 1944, Lyon was liberated by the 1st Free French Division and the Forces Françaises de l'Intérieur. The city
is now home to a Resistance museum.[33][34]
The Rhône and Saône converge to the south of the historic city centre, forming a
peninsula – the "Presqu'île" – bounded by two large hills to the west and north and a
large plain eastward. Place Bellecour is located on the Presqu'île between the two
rivers and is the third-largest public square in France. The broad, pedestrian-only Rue
de la République leads north from Place Bellecour.
The northern hill is La Croix-Rousse, known as "the hill that works" because it is
traditionally home to many small silk workshops, an industry for which the city has
long been renowned.[35]
The western hill is Fourvière, known as "the hill that prays" because it is the location
for Basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière, several convents, and Archbishop residence. The district, Vieux Lyon, also hosts
the Tour métallique (a highly visible TV tower, replicating the last stage of the Eiffel Tower) and one of the city's
railways.[36] Fourvière, along with portions of the Presqu'île and much of La Croix-Rousse, is designated as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.[37]
East of the Rhône from the Presqu'île is a large flat area upon which sits much of modern Lyon and contains most of the
city's population. Situated in this area is La Part-Dieu urban centre, which clusters the landmark structures Tour Incity, Tour
Part-Dieu, Tour Oxygène, and Tour Swiss Life, as well as the city's primary railway station, Gare de Lyon-Part-Dieu.
North of this district lays the sixth arrondissement, which is home to one of Europe's largest urban parks, the Parc de la Tête
d'or, as well as Lycée du Parc and Interpol's world headquarters.
Geography | 3 | 3 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Ice on the Saône, 2012
Panorama of the inner city of Lyon, taken from the basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière's roof
Lyon has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa), bordering an oceanic climate
(Köppen: Cfb, Trewartha: Do).[38] The mean temperature in Lyon in the coldest month
is 4.1 °C (39.4 °F) in January and in the warmest month in July is 22.6 °C (72.7 °F).
Precipitation is adequate year-round, at an average of 820 mm (32.3 in), the winter
months are the driest. The highest recorded temperature was 40.5 °C (104.9 °F) on 13
August 2003 while the lowest recorded temperature was −24.6 °C (−12.3 °F) on 22
December 1938.[39]
Climate | 4 | 4 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Climate data for Lyon (LYN), elevation: 197 m (646 ft), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1920–present
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high°C (°F) 19.1(66.4) 21.9(71.4) 26.0(78.8) 30.1(86.2) 34.2(93.6) 38.4(101.1) 40.4(104.7) 41.4(106.5) 35.8(96.4) 28.4(83.1) 23.0(73.4) 20.2(68.4) 41.4(106.5)
Mean dailymaximum°C (°F)
7.1(44.8) 9.0(48.2) 13.8(56.8) 17.4(63.3) 21.5(70.7) 25.6(78.1) 28.2(82.8) 28.0(82.4) 23.1(73.6) 17.7(63.9) 11.4(52.5) 7.7(45.9) 17.5(63.5)
Daily mean°C (°F) 4.1(39.4) 5.2(41.4) 9.0(48.2) 12.3(54.1) 16.3(61.3) 20.3(68.5) 22.6(72.7) 22.3(72.1) 17.9(64.2) 13.7(56.7) 8.1(46.6) 4.8(40.6) 13.0(55.4)
Mean dailyminimum °C(°F)
1.1(34.0) 1.4(34.5) 4.2(39.6) 7.2(45.0) 11.2(52.2) 15.0(59.0) 17.0(62.6) 16.6(61.9) 12.8(55.0) 9.6(49.3) 4.9(40.8) 2.0(35.6) 8.6(47.5)
Record low°C (°F) −23.0(−9.4) −22.5(−8.5) −10.5(13.1) −4.4(24.1) −3.8(25.2) 2.3(36.1) 6.1(43.0) 4.6(40.3) 0.2(32.4) −4.5(23.9) −9.4(15.1) −24.6(−12.3) −24.6(−12.3)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches)
49.8(1.96) 41.6(1.64) 49.4(1.94) 68.9(2.71) 80.9(3.19) 74.1(2.92) 67.4(2.65) 65.5(2.58) 82.5(3.25) 99.8(3.93) 87.2(3.43) 53.7(2.11) 820.8(32.31)
Averageprecipitationdays
(≥ 1.0 mm)
8.1 7.9 8.4 9.0 10.3 8.5 7.5 7.2 7.3 9.9 9.4 9.2 102.8
Meanmonthlysunshinehours
71.1 102.4 173.7 197.7 223.8 256.5 288.1 263.1 204.1 131.4 78.9 58.7 2,049.5
Source 1: Meteo France[40]
Source 2: Meteo Lyon[41] | 5 | 5 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Climate data for Lyon (LYN), elevation: 201 m, 1961-1990 normals and extremes
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high°C (°F) 16.3(61.3) 21.4(70.5) 25.7(78.3) 28.0(82.4) 29.4(84.9) 34.4(93.9) 39.8(103.6) 37.1(98.8) 33.8(92.8) 28.4(83.1) 22.6(72.7) 20.2(68.4) 39.8(103.6)
Meanmaximum °C(°F)
10.2(50.4) 14.4(57.9) 15.9(60.6) 18.6(65.5) 23.1(73.6) 28.8(83.8) 32.8(91.0) 28.1(82.6) 27.3(81.1) 19.7(67.5) 14.1(57.4) 9.5(49.1) 32.8(91.0)
Mean dailymaximum °C(°F)
6.1(43.0) 8.2(46.8) 11.6(52.9) 15.2(59.4) 19.1(66.4) 22.9(73.2) 26.1(79.0) 26.0(78.8) 22.4(72.3) 17.1(62.8) 10.0(50.0) 6.4(43.5) 15.9(60.7)
Daily mean °C(°F) 3.0(37.4) 4.9(40.8) 7.4(45.3) 10.2(50.4) 14.0(57.2) 17.6(63.7) 20.6(69.1) 20.0(68.0) 17.1(62.8) 12.7(54.9) 6.7(44.1) 3.9(39.0) 11.5(52.7)
Mean dailyminimum °C(°F)
0.2(32.4) 1.4(34.5) 2.9(37.2) 5.2(41.4) 9.1(48.4) 12.5(54.5) 14.8(58.6) 14.4(57.9) 11.7(53.1) 8.3(46.9) 3.5(38.3) 0.7(33.3) 7.1(44.7)
Meanminimum °C(°F)
−7.0(19.4) −4.7(23.5) −1.4(29.5) 3.2(37.8) 7.6(45.7) 10.9(51.6) 13.1(55.6) 12.9(55.2) 8.1(46.6) 4.5(40.1) 1.0(33.8) −4.7(23.5) −7.0(19.4)
Record low °C(°F) −23.0(−9.4) −19.3(−2.7) −10.5(13.1) −3.2(26.2) −0.3(31.5) 3.6(38.5) 6.1(43.0) 5.2(41.4) 1.9(35.4) −3.2(26.2) −7.1(19.2) −16.0(3.2) −23.0(−9.4)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches)
54.0(2.13) 53.8(2.12) 72.2(2.84) 56.1(2.21) 72.6(2.86) 73.2(2.88) 54.5(2.15) 71.6(2.82) 53.2(2.09) 56.2(2.21) 68.0(2.68) 55.8(2.20) 741.2(29.19)
Averageprecipitationdays
(≥ 1.0 mm)
10.4 9.3 9.7 9.6 10.9 8.2 6.8 8.2 7.3 8.5 8.9 9.8 107.6
Averagesnowy days 5.5 3.9 2.5 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.6 19.6
Averagerelativehumidity (%) 84 80 74 71 72 70 65 70 76 82 84 86 76
Mean monthlysunshinehours 62.6 89.8 147.5 184.2 215.9 250.9 292.6 259.0 208.1 134.3 75.3 55.4 1,975.6
Percentpossiblesunshine 23 31 41 46 47 54 62 60 56 40 27 21 42
Source 1: NOAA[42]
Source 2: Infoclimat.fr (humidity)[43]
Like Paris and Marseille, the commune (municipality) of Lyon is divided into a number of municipal arrondissements, each
of which is identified by a number and has its own council and town hall. Five arrondissements were originally created in
1852, when three neighbouring communes (La Croix-Rousse, La Guillotière, and Vaise) were annexed by Lyon. Between
1867 and 1959, the third arrondissement (which originally covered the whole of the Left Bank of the Rhône) was split three
times, creating a new arrondissement in each case. Then, in 1963, the commune of Saint-Rambert-l'Île-Barbe was annexed to
Lyon's fifth arrondissement. A year later, in 1964, the fifth was split to create Lyon's 9th – and, to date, final –
arrondissement. Within each arrondissement, the recognisable quartiers or neighbourhoods are:
1st arrondissement: Slopes of La Croix-Rousse, Terreaux, Martinière/St-Vincent
Administration
Commune | 6 | 6 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Map of the City of Lyon
divided into 9
arrondissements
The lion, symbol of the city, on
display at Maison des avocats
2nd arrondissement: Cordeliers, Bellecour, Ainay, Perrache, Confluence, Sainte-Blandine
3rd arrondissement: Guillotière (north), Préfecture, Part-Dieu, Villette,Dauphiné/Sans Souci, Montchat, Grange Blanche (north), Monplaisir (north)
4th arrondissement: Plateau de la Croix-Rousse, Serin
5th arrondissement: Vieux Lyon (Saint-Paul, Saint-Jean, Saint-Georges), Saint-Just,
Saint-Irénée,[44] Fourvière, Point du Jour, Ménival, Battières, Champvert (south)
6th arrondissement: Brotteaux, Bellecombe, Parc de la Tête d'or, Cité Internationale
7th arrondissement: Guillotière (south), Jean Macé, Gerland
8th arrondissement: Monplaisir (south), Bachut, États-Unis, Grand Trou/Moulin àVent, Grange Blanche (south), Laënnec, Mermoz, Monplaisir-la-Plaine
9th arrondissement: Vaise, Duchère, Rochecardon, St-Rambert-l'Île-Barbe, Gorgede Loup, Observance, Champvert (north)
Geographically, Lyon's two main rivers, the Saône and the Rhône, divide the arrondissements into three groups:
To the west of the Saône, the fifth arrondissement covers the old city of Vieux Lyon, Fourvière hill and theplateau beyond. The 9th is immediately to the north, and stretches from Gorge de Loup, through Vaise to theneighbouring suburbs of Écully, Champagne-au-Mont-d'Or, Saint-Didier-au-Mont-d'Or, Saint-Cyr-au-Mont-d'Orand Collonges-au-Mont-d'Or.
Between the two rivers, on the Presqu'île, are the second, first, and fourth arrondissements. The secondincludes most of the city centre, Bellecour and Perrache railway station, and reaches as far as the confluenceof the two rivers. The first is directly to the north of the second and covers part of the city centre (including theHôtel de Ville) and the slopes of La Croix-Rousse. To the north of the Boulevard is the fourth arrondissement,which covers the Plateau of La Croix-Rousse, up to its boundary with the commune of Caluire-et-Cuire.
To the east of the Rhône, are the third, sixth, seventh, and eighth arrondissements.
This is a list of mayors of the commune of Lyon since the end of the 19th century.
Mayors | 7 | 7 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Map of the Metropolis of
Lyon and its 59
communes (the
commune of Lyon is in
red)
Mayor Term start Term end Party
Antoine Gailleton 1881 1900
Victor Augagneur 1900 30 October 1905 PRS
Édouard Herriot 30 October 1905 20 September 1940 Radical
Georges Cohendy 20 September 1940 1941 Nominated and dismissed by Vichy
Georges Villiers 1941 1942 Nominated and dismissed by Vichy
Pierre-Louis-André Bertrand 1942 1944 Nominated by Vichy
Justin Godart 1944 18 May 1945 Radical
Édouard Herriot 18 May 1945 26 March 1957 Radical
Pierre Montel, ad interim 26 March 1957 14 April 1957 Radical
Louis Pradel 14 April 1957 27 November 1976 DVD
Armand Tapernoux, ad interim 27 November 1976 5 December 1976 DVD
Francisque Collomb 5 December 1976 24 March 1989 DVD
Michel Noir 24 March 1989 25 June 1995 RPR
Raymond Barre 25 June 1995 25 March 2001 DVD
Gérard Collomb 25 March 2001 17 July 2017 PS
Georges Képénékian 17 July 2017 5 November 2018 LREM
Gérard Collomb 5 November 2018 4 July 2020 LREM
Grégory Doucet 4 July 2020 Incumbent EELV
Since 2015, the commune of Lyon (48 km2 (19 sq mi) in land area) and 58 suburban communes
have formed the Metropolis of Lyon (534 km2 (206 sq mi) in land area), a directly elected
metropolitan authority now in charge of most urban issues. The Metropolis of Lyon is the only
metropolitan authority in France which is a territorial collectivity, on par with French communes
and departments. Its metropolitan council was for the first time directly elected by universal
suffrage in 2020 within 14 electoral wards, the only directly elected metropolitan council in
France.
The 14 electoral wards are the following (see map for location):
Lônes et coteaux
Lyon-Centre (Lyon-Centre)
Lyon-Est (Lyon-East)
Lyon-Nord (Lyon-North)
Lyon-Ouest
Lyon-Sud
Lyon-Sud-Est
Ouest
Plateau Nord-Caluire
Porte des Alpes
Portes du Sud
Rhône Amont
Val de Saône
Villeurbanne
The six wards with names starting with "Lyon" are all located within the commune of Lyon. The Villeurbanne ward is
coterminous with the namesake commune. All other seven wards each group various suburban communes.
Metropolis | 8 | 8 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Map showing the 14
electoral wards of the
Metropolis of Lyon
The division of the Metropolis of Lyon in large electoral wards often grouping various
communes and dividing the commune of Lyon into six wards was criticized by the suburban
mayors, as it ended the rule of 'one commune, one metropolitan councilor'. The goal of this
electoral division of the metropolis was to focus metropolitan elections more on metropolitan
issues than parochial communal issues, and ensure the 'one person, one vote' rule be respected,
by creating electoral wards of more homogeneous population sizes. Opponents said it diluted the
voice of the small suburban communes, which are now part of large electoral wards and do not
each possess a representative in the metropolitan council anymore.
The two first presidents of the Metropolis of Lyon's metropolitan council were chosen by
indirectly elected metropolitan councilors. The current president since July 2020 was elected by
new metropolitan councilors following their election by universal suffrage in March (1st round)
and June (2nd round) 2020, the first direct election of a metropolitan council in France.
President of the Metropolitan Council Term start Term end Party
Gérard Collomb 1 January 2015 10 July 2017 PS
David Kimelfeld 10 July 2017 2 July 2020 LREM
Bruno Bernard 2 July 2020 Incumbent EELV
The Roman ruins on the hillside near the Fourvière Basilica, with the Ancient Theatre of Fourvière, the Odeonof Lyon and the accompanying Gallo-Roman museum
Amphitheatre of the Three Gauls – ruins of a Roman amphitheatre.
Ancient Theatre of Fourvière
Odeon of Lyon
Amphitheatre of the Three Gauls
Cathedral of St. John, a medieval church with architectural elements of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, alsothe principal religious structure in the city and the seat of the Archbishop of Lyon
Basilica of St-Martin-d'Ainay, one of the rare surviving Romanesque basilica-style churches in Lyon
Église Saint-Paul, Romanesque (12th and 13th century) and Gothic (15th–16th century) church
Église Saint-Bonaventure, 14th- and 15th-century Gothic church
Église Saint-Nizier, Gothic church from the 15th century, having a doorway carved in the 16th century byPhilibert Delorme
Vieux Lyon (English: Old Lyon) area, Medieval and Renaissance quarter of the town, with shops, dining andcobbled streets
The many Renaissance hôtels particuliers of the Old Lyon quarter, such as the Hôtel de Bullioud, were alsobuilt by Philibert Delorme
Presidents of the Metropolitan Council
Main sights
Antiquity
Middle Ages and Renaissance | 9 | 9 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Lyon Cathedral
Maison du Crible
(16th C.) in the
Vieux Lyon
Saint-Nizier
Church
Église Saint-Paul
Église Saint-Bonaventure
Church of Saint-Just, Lyon
Basilica of Saint-Martin
d'Ainay
Manécanterie, Lyon
City Hall on the Place des Terreaux, built by architects Jules Hardouin-Mansart and Robert de Cotte
Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon, fine arts museum housed in a former convent of the 17th century, includingthe Baroque chapelle Saint-Pierre
Hôtel-Dieu de Lyon (17th and 18th century), historical hospital with a baroque chapel
Temple du Change (17th and 18th century), former stock exchange of Lyon, Protestant temple since the 18thcentury
Place Bellecour, one of the largest town squares in Europe
Chapelle de la Trinité (1622), the first Baroque chapel built in Lyon, and part of the former École de la Trinité,now Collège-lycée Ampère
Église Saint-Polycarpe (1665–1670), Classical church
Église Saint-Just (16th to 18th century), Classical church
Saint-Bruno des Chartreux (17th and 18th century), church, masterpiece of Baroque architecture
Église Notre Dame Saint-Vincent (18th century), Neo-classical church
17th and 18th centuries | 10 | 10 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Hôtel de Ville, Lyon
Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon
Hôtel-Dieu de Lyon
Place Bellecour
Église Notre Dame Saint-Vincent
Temple du Change
Church of Saint-Bruno des
Chartreux
Église Saint-Polycarpe
Opéra Nouvel (1831), renovated in 1993 by Jean Nouvel
Théâtre des Célestins (1877), designed by Gaspard André
Basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière, large 19th-century basilica on the top of Fourvière Hill
Tour métallique de Fourvière (1894)
Vacherie du Parc (1904-1905), designed by Tony Garnier.
La Mouche Cattle Market and Abattoir (1914, 1928), also by Garnier
19th century and modern city | 11 | 11 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Sainte Marie de La Tourette monastery (1960) designed by Le Corbusier
Saint-Exupéry International Airport (formerly Satolas Airport), designed by Guillaume Gillet
Gare de Lyon Saint-Exupéry (1994) by Santiago Calatrava
Palais des congrès de Lyon (1998), designed by Renzo Piano and a group of buildings for various functions
Tour du Crédit Lyonnais
Tour Oxygène
Tour Incity
Great mosque of Lyon
Palais de la Bourse, Lyon
Basilica of Notre-Dame de Fourvière
Metallic tower of Fourvière
Fountain, place
des Jacobins
Palais de justice historique de Lyon
Arch-epsicopal
palace of Lyon
(5th district public
library)
Théâtre des Célestins
Museum of Institut Lumière
Grande mosquée de Lyon
Musée des beaux-arts de Lyon (Fine Arts Museum), main museum of the city and one of the larger artgalleries in France. Housed in the Palais Saint Pierre, a former 17th-century convent, it displays a majorcollection of paintings by artists (including Tintoretto; Paolo Veronese; Nicolas Poussin; Rubens; Rembrandt;Zurbaran; Canaletto; Delacroix; Monet; Gauguin; Van Gogh; Cézanne; Matisse; Picasso; Francis Bacon...);collections of sculptures, drawings and printings, decorative arts, Roman and Greek antiquities; the secondlargest collection of Egyptian antiquities in France after that of the Louvre; and a medal cabinet of 50.000medals and coins.
Museums | 12 | 12 | wikipedia4.pdf |
The Musée des Confluences from
the Raymond Barre bridge
The lake in the Parc de la Tête d'or
La Part-Dieu, the city's central
business district
The Gallo-Roman Museum displaying many valuable objects and artworksfound on the site of Roman Lyon (Lugdunum) such as Circus GamesMosaic, Coligny calendar and the Taurobolic Altar
Centre d'histoire de la résistance et de la déportation
Musée des Confluences, new museum of sciences and anthropology,which opened its doors on 20 December 2014
La Sucrière, contemporary art centre
Hôtel-Dieu de Lyon houses the "Musée des Hospices Civils", a permanentexhibit tracing the history and practice of medicine from the Middle Ages tomodern times
Musée des Tissus et des Arts décoratifs, decorative arts and textilemuseum, which is one of the world's larger textile collections with 2.5million works
Musée d'art contemporain de Lyon, contemporary art museum
Musée de L'imprimerie, printing museum
Musée Gadagne, museum of the history of Lyon housed in a historic building in Vieux Lyon, which includes alarge collection of marionettes
Musée des Automates, museum of automated puppets in Vieux Lyon, open since 1991
Musée Miniature & Cinéma, museum featuring miniature movie sets, movie props, and special effects[45]
Parc de la Tête d'or, aka Golden Head Park, in central Lyon is the largesturban park in France at 117 hectares (290 acres). Located in the 6tharrondissement, it features a large lake on which boating takes placeduring the summer months.
Jardin botanique de Lyon (8 hectares (20 acres)), included in the Parc dela Tête d'Or, is a municipal botanical garden and is open weekdayswithout charge. The garden was established in 1857 as a successor toearlier botanical gardens dating to 1796, and now describes itself asFrance's largest municipal botanical garden.
Parc de Gerland, in the south of the city (80 hectares (200 acres))
Parc des hauteurs, in Fourvières
Parc de Miribel-Jonage (2,200 hectares (5,400 acres))
Parc de Lacroix-Laval (115 hectares (280 acres))
Parc de Parilly (178 hectares (440 acres))
The GDP of Lyon was 124 billion US dollars in 2019,[d][46] making it the second
richest city in France after Paris. Lyon and its region Rhône-Alpes represent one of
the most important economies in Europe and, according to Loughborough University,
can be compared to Philadelphia, Mumbai or Athens with regard to its international
position. The city of Lyon is working in partnership to more easily enable the
establishment of new headquarters in the territory (ADERLY, Chambre du commerce
et d'industrie, Grand Lyon...). High-tech industries such as biotechnology, software
development, video game (Arkane Studios, Ivory Tower, Eden Games, EA France,
Bandai Namco Entertainment Europe), and internet services are also growing. Other
important sectors include medical research and technology, non-profit institutions,
and universities. Lyon is home to the P4-Inserm–ean Merieux Laboratory which
conducts top-level vaccine research.[47]
The city is home to the headquarters of many large companies such as Groupe SEB, Sanofi Pasteur, Renault Trucks, Norbert
Dentressangle, LCL S.A., Descours & Cabaud, Merial, Point S, BioMérieux, Iveco Bus, Compagnie Nationale du Rhône, GL
Events, April Group, Boiron, Feu Vert, Panzani, Babolat, Lyon Airports, LVL Medical, and inter-governmental agencies
IARC and Interpol. The specialisation of some sectors of activities has led to the creation of many main business centres: La
Part-Dieu, located in the 3rd arrondissement is the second biggest business quarter after La Défense in Paris with over
Parks and gardens
Economy | 13 | 13 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Guignol, created in the early 19th
C., associated with the silk-workers
1,600,000 m2 (17,222,256.67 sq ft) of office space and services and more than 55,000 jobs.[48] Cité Internationale, created
by the architect Renzo Piano is located in the border of the Parc de la Tête d'Or in the 6th arrondissement. The worldwide
headquarters of Interpol is located there. The district of Confluence, in the south of the historic centre, is a new pole of
economical and cultural development.
Tourism is an important part of the Lyon economy, with one billion euros in 2007 and 3.5 million hotel-nights in 2006
provided by non-residents. Approximately 60% of tourists visit for business, with the rest for leisure. In January 2009, Lyon
ranked first in France for hostels business. The festivals most important for attracting tourists are the Fête des lumières, the
Nuits de Fourvière every summer, the Biennale d'art contemporain and the Nuits Sonores.
Since the Middle Ages, the region residents have spoken several dialects of Franco-
Provençal. The Lyonnais dialect was replaced by the French language as the
importance of the city grew. However some "frenchified" Franco-Provençal words
can also be heard in the French of the Lyonnais, who call their little boys and girls
"gones" and "fenottes" for example.[49]
The Lumière brothers pioneered cinema in the town in 1895. The InstitutLumière, built as Auguste Lumiere's house, and a fascinating piece ofarchitecture in its own right, holds many of their first inventions and otherearly cinematic and photographic artifacts.
8 December each year is marked by the Festival of Lights (la Fête deslumières), a celebration of thanks to the Virgin Mary, who purportedlysaved the city from a deadly plague in the Middle Ages. During the event,the local population places candles (luminions) at their windows and the city of Lyon organizes large-scalelight shows onto the sides of important Lyonnais monuments, such as the medieval Cathédrale St-Jean.
The Saint Francis of Sales church is famous for its large and unaltered Cavaillé-Coll pipe organ, attractingaudiences from around the world.
The Opéra Nouvel (New Opera House) is the home of the Opéra National de Lyon. The original opera housewas re-designed by the distinguished French architect Jean Nouvel between 1985 and 1993 and is namedafter him.
Lyon is also the French capital of "trompe l'œil" walls, a very ancient tradition. Many are to be seen around thecity. This old tradition is now finding a contemporary expression, for example in the art of Guillaume
Bottazzi.[50][51]
The Brothers of the Sacred Heart, a Roman Catholic congregation that operates schools in Europe and NorthAmerica, was founded in Lyon in 1821.
The African Museum of Lyon is one of the oldest museums situated in Lyon.[52]
The Museum of Resistance and Deportation looks at the various individuals prominent in the Resistancemovement in World War II. The building is strongly linked to Klaus Barbie. Lyon sees itself as the centre of theFrench resistance and many members were shot in Place Bellecour in the town centre. The exhibition islargely a series of , mini-biographies of those involved.
Lyon is a pilot city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission Intercultural cities program.
The historic site of Lyon was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998. In its designation, UNESCO cited the
"exceptional testimony to the continuity of urban settlement over more than two millennia on a site of great commercial and
strategic significance."[37] The specific regions comprising the historic site include the Roman district and Fourvière, the
Renaissance district (Vieux Lyon), the silk district (slopes of Croix-Rousse), and the Presqu'île, which features architecture
from the 12th century to modern times.[53]
Culture
UNESCO World Heritage Site | 14 | 14 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Passage de l'Argue
Île Barbe bakery at the Halles de
Lyon-Paul Bocuse
Parc Olympique Lyonnais
Both Vieux Lyon and the slopes of Croix-Rousse are known for their narrow
passageways (named traboules) that pass through buildings and link streets on either
side. The first examples of traboules are thought to have been built in Lyon in the 4th
century.[54] The traboules allowed the inhabitants to get from their homes to the Saône
quickly and allowed the canuts on the Croix-Rousse hill to get from their workshops
to the textile merchants at the foot of the hill.
Lyon has a long and chronicled culinary arts tradition. The noted food critic
Curnonsky referred to the city as "the gastronomic capital of the world",[55] a claim
repeated by later writers such as Bill Buford.[56] Renowned 3-star Michelin chefs
such as Marie Bourgeois[57] and Eugénie Brazier[58] developed Lyonnaise cuisine into
a national phenomenon favoured by the French elite; a tradition which Paul Bocuse
later turned into a worldwide success.[59] The bouchon is a traditional Lyonnais
restaurant that serves local fare such as sausages, duck pâté or roast pork, along with
local wines. Two of France's best known wine-growing regions are located near the
city: the Beaujolais region to the north and the Côtes du Rhône region to the south.
Another Lyon tradition is a type of brunch food called "mâchons", made of local
charcuterie and usually accompanied by Beaujolais red wine. Mâchons were the
customary meal of the canuts, the city's silk workers, who ate a late-morning meal
after they finished their shifts in the factories.[60]
Other traditional local dishes include coq au vin; quenelle; gras double; salade
lyonnaise (lettuce with bacon, croûtons and a poached egg); and the sausage-based
rosette lyonnaise and andouillette. Popular local confections include marron glacé and
coussin de Lyon. Cervelle de canut (literally, "silk worker's brains") is a cheese
spread/dip made of a base of fromage blanc, seasoned with chopped herbs, shallots,
salt, pepper, olive oil and vinegar.
More recently, the french tacos was invented in Lyon suburbs (Vaulx-en-Velin) (or Grenoble according to some theories), in
the early 2000s and is now famous worldwide.[61][62]
Lyon is home to the football club Olympique Lyonnais (OL), whose men's team plays
in Ligue 1 and has won the championship of that competition seven times, all
consecutively from 2002 to 2008.[63] OL played until December 2015 at the 43,000-
seat Stade de Gerland, which also hosted matches of the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Since
2016, the team has played at the Parc Olympique Lyonnais, a 59,000-seat stadium
located in the eastern suburb of Décines-Charpieu.[64] OL operates a women's team,
Olympique Lyonnais Féminin, which competes in and dominates Division 1
Féminine. They won fourteen consecutive top-flight championships (2007–2020), and
additionally claim the four titles won by the original incarnation of FC Lyon, a
women's football club that merged into OL in 2004 (the current FC Lyon was founded in 2009). The OL women have also
won the UEFA Women's Champions League eight times, including in five consecutive editions from 2016 to 2020. Lyon
hosted the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup semi-finals as well as the Final on 7 July at Stade de Lyon.
Lyon has a rugby union team, Lyon OU, in the Top 14, which moved into Stade de Gerland full-time in 2017–18. In addition,
Lyon has a rugby league side called Lyon Villeurbanne that plays in the French rugby league championship. The club's home
is the Stade Georges Lyvet in Villeurbanne.
Gastronomy
Sport | 15 | 15 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Stade de Gerland
Lyon is also home to the Lyon Hockey Club, an ice hockey team that competes in
France's national ice hockey league. The Patinoire Charlemagne is the seat of Club
des Sports de Glace de Lyon, the club of Olympic ice dancing champions Marina
Anissina and Gwendal Peizerat, and world champions Isabelle Delobel and Olivier
Shoenfelder.[65] Lyon-Villeurbanne also has a basketball team, ASVEL, that plays at
the Astroballe arena.
Since 2000, Birdy Kids, a group of graffiti artists from the city, has decorated several
random buildings and walls along the Lyon ring road. In 2012, the artist collective
was chosen to represent the city as its cultural ambassadors.[66]
The population of the city (commune) of Lyon proper was 522,250 at the January 2021 census.[15] As of 2011, 14% of its
population was born outside Metropolitan France.[67]
Population of Lyon (commune)
(within 2020 borders)
Year Pop. ±% p.a.
1801 101,760 — 1806 114,643 +2.41%1821 149,611 +1.79%1831 182,668 +2.02%1836 198,683 +1.60%
1841 206,670 +0.79%1846 238,466 +2.86%1851 259,220 +1.68%1856 293,743 +2.66%1861 320,326 +1.72%
1866 325,219 +0.30%1872 324,590 −0.03%
Year Pop. ±% p.a.
1876 344,513 +1.33%1881 378,581 +1.84%1886 404,172 +1.45%
1891 440,315 +1.78%1896 468,311 +1.25%1901 461,687 −0.29%1906 474,652 +0.56%1911 462,248 −0.53%
1921 462,446 +0.00%1926 463,125 +0.03%1931 463,647 +0.02%1936 463,061 −0.03%
Year Pop. ±% p.a.
1946 464,104 +0.02%
1954 475,343 +0.29%1962 535,746 +1.54%1968 527,800 −0.25%1975 456,716 −2.06%1982 413,095 −1.42%
1990 415,487 +0.07%1999 445,452 +0.78%2010 484,344 +0.78%2015 513,275 +1.17%2021 522,250 +0.29%
All figures come from population censuses. Figures from 1911 to 1936 (incl.) are the redressed figures calculated by INSEE tocorrect the overestimated population of Lyon published by the municipal authorities at the time (10,000s of false residents hadbeen added by the municipal authorities to artificially inflate the population figures and remain the 2nd largest city of France
ahead of Marseille).[68] The 1906 figure is the one published by the municipal authorities, probably already inflated, but notcorrected by INSEE because the overestimate was smaller than 10,000.
Source: EHESS[69] and INSEE[15]
The city of Lyon and 58 suburban municipalities have formed since 2015 the Metropolis of Lyon, a directly elected
metropolitan authority now in charge of most urban issues, with a population of 1,424,069 in 2021.[16]
Population of Lyon (metropolis)
(59 communes, within 2020 borders)
Year Pop. ±% p.a.
1861 418,515 — 1866 427,522 +0.43%1872 426,552 −0.04%1876 453,540 +1.37%1881 493,778 +1.66%
1886 527,621 +1.47%1891 566,115 +1.46%1896 600,881 +1.21%1901 608,856 +0.26%
Year Pop. ±% p.a.
1906 627,073 +0.60%
1911 629,931 +0.09%1921 659,007 +0.45%1926 691,446 +0.97%1931 743,297 +1.46%1936 738,220 −0.14%
1946 746,062 +0.11%1954 790,662 +0.71%1962 947,569 +2.34%
Year Pop. ±% p.a.
1968 1,077,794+2.17%1975 1,153,402+0.98%
1982 1,138,718−0.18%1990 1,166,797+0.30%1999 1,199,589+0.31%2010 1,296,166+0.72%2015 1,370,678+1.12%
2021 1,424,069+0.64%
Street art
Demographics | 16 | 16 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Foreign-born population in Lyon by
country of birth[72]
Country of birth Population (2020)
Algeria 14,779
Morocco 5,245
Tunisia 4,879
Italy 3,351
Portugal 3,068
Spain 2,064
DR Congo 1,520
China 1,429
Cameroon 1,364
Senegal 1,198
ENS Lyon: René Descartes
campus
Lyon 3: Manufacture des Tabacs
campus
All figures come from population censuses. Figures from 1911 to 1936 (incl.) are computed using the redressed figures for thecommune of Lyon calculated by INSEE to correct the overestimated population of Lyon published by the municipal authorities atthe time (10,000s of false residents had been added by the municipal authorities to artificially inflate the population figures and
remain the 2nd largest city of France ahead of Marseille).[68] The 1906 figure is computed using the figure for the commune ofLyon published by the municipal authorities, probably already inflated, but not corrected by INSEE because the overestimatewas smaller than 10,000.
Source: EHESS[70] and INSEE[71]
École Centrale de Lyon;
École Normale Supérieure de Lyon
EM Lyon (École de Management de Lyon);
ECE Lyon (École de Commerce Européenne de Lyon);
Institut d'études politiques de Lyon (Sciences Po Lyon);
CPE Lyon;
CNSMD (Conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse deLyon)
ECAM Lyon (École Catholique d'Arts et Métiers de Lyon);
EPITECH;
EPITA;
ENTPE (École Nationale des Travaux Publiques de l'État);
École nationale vétérinaire de Lyon (ENVL);
ESME-Sudria;
École des Beaux-Arts;
E-Artsup;
INSA Lyon (Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon);
Polytech Lyon;
Institut supérieur européen de gestion group;
ISARA (Institut Supérieur d'Agriculture Rhône Alpes);
Institution des Chartreux;
Institut polytechnique des sciences avancées;
Université Claude Bernard (Lyon 1);
Université Lumière (Lyon 2);
Université Jean Moulin (Lyon 3);
IAE (Institut d'Administration des Entreprises de Lyon);
Institut Sup'Biotech de Paris;
Catholic University of Lyon;
ESDES Business School;
IDRAC (International School of Management);
Wesford Graduate Business School;
IFAG (Business Management School);
Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action;
Le Lycée du Parc;
La Martinière Lyon;
Web@cademie;
CEESO (Centre Européen d'Enseignement Supérieur de l'Ostéopathie);
Foreign-born
Education
Universities and tertiary education | 17 | 17 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Lyon 3: Berges du Rhône campus
Lyon 2: Berges du Rhône campus
IPSA Lyon Campus
Platform I, Lyon-Part-Dieu train
station
T1 tramway on the Raymond Barre
bridge
Bellecour, Écoles D'Arts.
There are some international private schools in the Lyon area, including:
Cité Scolaire Internationale de Lyon or the Lycée de Gerland;
Includes the Section Japonaises ( リヨン‧ジェルラン補習授業校Riyon Jeruran Hoshū Jugyō Kō "Lyon Gerland JapaneseSupplementary School"), which the Japanese Ministry of Education
(MEXT) counts as a part-time Japanese supplementary school[73]
Ombrosa;
International School of Lyon in nearby Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon;
Montessori School of Lyon.
Other Japanese supplementary schools:
The Association Pour le Développement de la Langue et de la Culture
Japonaises (ADLCJ; リヨン補習授業校 Riyon Hoshū Jugyō Kō) is held in
the Maison Berty Albrecht in Villeurbanne, near Lyon.[73] It was formed in
1987.[74] It serves Japanese expatriate children who wish to continue theirJapanese education whilst abroad.
Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport, located east of Lyon, serves as a base for domestic and
international flights. It is a key transport facility for the entire Rhône-Alpes region,
with coach links to other cities in the area. The in-house train station Gare de Lyon
Saint-Exupéry connects the airport to the nationwide TGV network. The Rhônexpress
tram monopoly links the airport with the business quarter of La Part Dieu in less than
30 minutes, and offers connections with Underground A & B, Tramway T1, T3 & T4,
and bus lines. Lyon public transport Sytral offers a bus service, Route 47, that links
the airport to Meyzieu[75] where passengers can change onto Tram T3. The regular
price of public transport is €1.90, as opposed to €15 one way for the Rhonexpress. In
the suburb of Bron, the smaller Lyon-Bron Airport provides an alternative for
domestic aviation.
Lyon has two major railway stations: Lyon-Part-Dieu, which was built to
accommodate the TGV, and Lyon Perrache, an older station that now provides mostly
regional service. Smaller railway stations include Gorge-de-Loup, Vaise, Saint-Paul
and Jean Macé. Lyon was the first city to be connected to Paris by the TGV in
1981.[76] Since that time the TGV train network has expanded and links Lyon directly
to Perpignan, Toulouse, Nice, Marseille, Strasbourg, Nantes and Lille. International
trains operate directly to Madrid, Barcelona, Milan, Turin, Geneva, Frankfurt,
Luxembourg, Brussels and London.
The city is at the heart of a dense road network and is located at the meeting point of
several highways: A6 to Paris, A7 Marseille, A42 to Geneva, and A43 to Grenoble.
The city is now bypassed by the A46. A double motorway tunnel passes under
Fourvière, connecting the A6 and the A7 autoroutes, both forming the "Autoroute du
Soleil".
Primary and secondary schools
Supplementary education
Transport | 18 | 18 | wikipedia4.pdf |
C3 trolleybus in the third district
C3 trolleybus in Old Lyon
Velo'v, Ennemond Fousseret square
(Old Lyon)
Lyon is served by the Eurolines intercity coach organisation. Its Lyon terminal is
located at the city's Perrache railway station, which serves as an intermodal
transportation hub for tramways, local and regional trains and buses, the terminus of
Metro line A, of the Tramway T2, the bicycle service Vélo'v, and taxis.[77]
The Transports en commun lyonnais (TCL), Lyon's public transit system, consisting
of metro, tramways and buses, serves 62 communes of the Lyon metropolis.[78][79]
The metro network has four lines (A, B, C and D), 42 stations, and runs with a
frequency of up to a train every 2 minutes. There are eight Lyon tram lines since
november 2020: T1 from Debourg in the south to IUT-Feyssine in the north, Tram T2
from Hôtel de région Montrochet to Saint-Priest in the south-east, Tram T3 from Part-
Dieu to Meyzieu, Tram T4 from 'Hôptial Feyzin Venissieux' to La Doua Gaston
Berger. Tram T5 from Grange Blanche, in the south-east to Eurexpo in the south-west.
Tram T6 from Debourg, in the south to Hôpitaux Est-Pinel in the east. Tram T7 from
Vaux-en-Velin la soie, in the north-east to Décines – OL Vallée in the east.[79] And
Rhône Express tramline from Part-Dieu to Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport.[80][81] The
Lyon bus network consists of the Lyon trolleybus system, motorbuses, and coaches
for areas outside the centre. There are also two funicular lines from Vieux Lyon to
Saint-Just and Fourvière. The ticketing system is relatively simple as the city has only
one public transport operator, the SYTRAL.
The public transit system was complemented in 2005 by Vélo'v, a bicycle network
providing a low-cost bicycle-hire service made up of 340 stations throughout the city.
Borrowing a bicycle for less than 30 minutes is free. Free rental time can be extended
for another 30 minutes at any station. Lyon was the first city in France to introduce
this bicycle renting system. In 2011 the Auto'lib car rental service was introduced; it
works much the same way as the Velo'v but for cars.
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Lyon on a
weekday is 45 minutes. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station
for public transit is 11 min, while 17% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average
every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit
is 4.7 km, while 4% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.[82]
Network ofhighways aroundLyon
Public transport map
Lyon is a pilot city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission "Intercultural cities" program.[83] Lyon is
twinned with:[84]
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Bamako, Mali
Barcelona, Spain
Beersheba, Israel
Birmingham, England, United Kingdom
Boston, United States
Craiova, Romania
Curitiba, Brazil
Maps
International relations | 19 | 19 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Frankfurt, Germany, since 1960
Gothenburg, Sweden
Guangzhou, China, since 1988
Haute Matsiatra, Madagascar
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, since 1997
Jericho, Palestine
Leipzig, Germany, since 1981
Łódź, Poland, since 1991
Melbourne, Australia
Milan, Italy, since 1966
Montreal, Canada, since 1979
Oran, Algeria
Osaka, Japan, since 1984
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Porto-Novo, Benin
Rabat, Morocco
St. Louis, United States[85]
Saint Petersburg, Russia
Sétif, Algeria
Tinca, Romania
Turin, Italy
Yerevan, Armenia, since 1992
Yokohama, Japan, since 1959
Geography portal
Europe portal
European Unionportal
France portal
List of films set in Lyon
List of streets and squares in Lyon
Mères of France
Montchat
Occupation of Saint-Nizier church by Lyon prostitutes
a. A war cry from 1269, spelt in modern Franco-Provençal as Avant, Avant, Liyon lo mèlyor.
b. Quote from a letter of Cicero to Lucius Munatius Plancus, founder of the city.[1]
c. Pronunciation: UK: /ˈ li ː ɒ ̃ /,[8][9] US: /liˈ o ʊ n/ lee-OHN;[10][11] French: [lj ɔ ̃ ] ⓘ; formerly spelled in English as
Lyons (/ˈ la ɪ ə nz/ LY- ə nz).[11][12] Arpitan: Liyon [ ʎ j ɔ ̃ ]; Occitan: Lion, hist. Lionés.[13]
d. Constant PPP US dollars, base year 2015.
1. "Cicero" (http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/fam10.shtml#3). Epistulae ad familiares, X.3. Retrieved2 January 2020.
2. "Répertoire national des élus: les maires" (https://www.data.gouv.fr/fr/datasets/r/2876a346-d50c-4911-934e-19ee07b0e503) (in French). data.gouv.fr, Plateforme ouverte des données publiques françaises. 13 September2022.
3. "Comparateur de territoire - Unité urbaine 2020 de Lyon (00760)" (https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=UU2020-00760). INSEE. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
4. "Comparateur de territoire - Aire d'attraction des villes 2020 de Lyon (002)" (https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=AAV2020-002). INSEE. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
5. "Populations de référence 2022" (https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/8288323?geo=COM-69123) (in French).The National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies. 19 December 2024.
Notable people
See also
Notes
References | 20 | 20 | wikipedia4.pdf |
6. INSEE. "Statistiques locales - Lyon : Unité urbaine 2020 - Population municipale 2021" (https://statistiques-locales.insee.fr/#c=indicator&i=pop_depuis_1876.pop&s=2021&selcodgeo=00760&t=A01&view=map12).Retrieved 12 July 2024.
7. INSEE. "Statistiques locales - Lyon : Aire d'attraction des villes 2020 - Population municipale 2021" (https://statistiques-locales.insee.fr/#c=indicator&i=pop_depuis_1876.pop&s=2021&selcodgeo=002&t=A01&view=map13). Retrieved 12 July 2024.
8. Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
9. "Lyons" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200124144048/https://www.lexico.com/definition/lyons). Lexico UKEnglish Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original (http://www.lexico.com/definition/Lyons)on 24 January 2020.
10. Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English PronouncingDictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.
11. "Lyon" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Lyon). Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
12. "Lyons" (https://www.collinsdictionary.com/amp/english/lyons). Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins.Retrieved 8 August 2018.
13. "dicod'Òc - Recèrca" (https://locongres.org/oc/aplicacions/dicodoc-oc/dicodoc-recerca?option=com_dicodoc&view=search&Itemid=168&type=fr-oc&dic%5B%5D=BASIC&dic%5B%5D=RBVD&dic%5B%5D=ALPC&dic%5B%5D=ATAU&dic%5B%5D=PROV&dic%5B%5D=PNST&dic%5B%5D=OMLH&dic%5B%5D=LAUS&dic%5B%5D=LAGA&dic%5B%5D=LEMO&q=Lyon&q2=&submit=Cercar). locongres.org. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
14. https://about-france.com/tourism/main-towns-cities.htm
15. INSEE. "Statistiques locales - Lyon : Commune - Population municipale 2021" (https://statistiques-locales.insee.fr/#bbox=451689,5797789,171704,103837&c=indicator&i=pop_depuis_1876.pop&s=2021&selcodgeo=69123&t=A01&view=map1) (in French). Retrieved 12 July 2024.
16. "Statistiques locales - Métropole de Lyon : Intercommunalité 2021 - Population municipale 2021" (https://statistiques-locales.insee.fr/#bbox=451689,5797789,171704,103837&c=indicator&i=pop_depuis_1876.pop&s=2021&selcodgeo=200046977&t=A01&view=map4). INSEE. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
17. "Lyon entrepreneurship, Lyon company, Invest Lyon – Greater Lyon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100308131020/http://www.business.greaterlyon.com/city-business-support-lyon-entrepreneurship-system.85.0.html?&L=1). Business.greaterlyon.com. Archived from the original (http://www.business.greaterlyon.com/city-business-support-lyon-entrepreneurship-system.85.0.html?&L=1) on 8 March 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
18. "Classement 2019 des villes étudiantes les plus importantes en France" (https://www.investirlmnp.fr/actualites/classement-2019-des-villes-etudiantes-les-plus-importantes-en-france-146). www.investirlmnp.fr. Retrieved8 April 2022.
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23. Pokorny, Julius (1959). Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch (in German). French & EuropeanPublications, Inc.
24. Stich, Domenico (2003). Dictionnaire francoprovençal-français et français-francoprovençal (in French). LeCarré. p. 189. ISBN 978-2908150155.
25. Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 46: Lepidus and Lucius Plancus [...] founded the town called Lugudunum,now known as Lugdunum
26. Louis, Jaucourt de chevalier (1765). "Lyon". Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert - Collaborative TranslationProject. hdl:2027/spo.did2222.0000.159 (https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fspo.did2222.0000.159).
27. "Endlichers Glossar/Endlicher's Glossary" (http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/endlicher_glossary.html).www.maryjones.us. n.d. Retrieved 7 November 2021. "Lugduno – desiderato monte: dunum enim montemLugduno: "mountain of yearning"; dunum of course is mountain."www.maryjones.us/ctexts/endlicher_glossary.html
28. Patrick Boucheron, et al., eds. France in the World: A New Global History (2019) pp 63-68.
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31. Braudel 1984 p. 327
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39. "Données climatiques de la station de Lyon: Relevés de 2016 – Lyon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20161004055201/http://www.meteofrance.com/climat/france/lyon/69029001/releves) (in French). Meteo France.Archived from the original (http://www.meteofrance.com/climat/france/lyon/69029001/releves) on 4 October2016. Retrieved 2 October 2016.
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42. "Lyon–Bron (07480) - WMO Weather Station" (ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_VI/FR/07480.TXT). NOAA. Retrieved 8 February 2019. Archived (https://archive.org/details/19611990NormalsNOAALyonBron) 8 February 2019, at the Wayback Machine
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66. "Birdy Kids – cultural ambassador of Lyon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160305221701/http://www.lyon.fr/evenement/exposition/birdy-kids.html). lyon.fr. Archived from the original (http://www.lyon.fr/evenement/exposition/birdy-kids.html) on 5 March 2016.
67. "Le nouveau profil de la population active immigrée" (http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=8&ref_id=19297). Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques.
68. Bienfait, Jean (1968). "La population de Lyon à travers un quart de siècle de recensements douteux (1911-1936)" (https://www.persee.fr/doc/geoca_0035-113x_1968_num_43_1_2625). Géocarrefour. 43 (1). Revuede géographie de Lyon: 80. doi:10.3406/geoca.1968.2625 (https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fgeoca.1968.2625).Retrieved 16 October 2020.
69. Des villages de Cassini aux communes d'aujourd'hui: Commune data sheet Lyon (http://cassini.ehess.fr/fr/html/fiche.php?select_resultat=20464), EHESS (in French).
70. EHESS. "Des villages de Cassini aux communes d'aujourd'hui" (http://cassini.ehess.fr/fr/html/). Retrieved9 April 2022.
71. "Statistiques locales - Métropole de Lyon : Intercommunalité-Métropole - Population municipale (historiquedepuis 1876)" (https://statistiques-locales.insee.fr/#c=indicator&i=pop_depuis_1876.pop&s=2021&selcodgeo=200046977&t=A01&view=map4). INSEE. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
72. "IMG1B - Population immigrée par sexe, âge et pays de naissance en 2020 − Recensement de la population– Résultats pour toutes les communes, départements, régions, intercommunalités... −Étrangers - Immigrés en2020 | Insee" (https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/7633127?sommaire=7633727&geo=COM-69123).
73. "欧州の補習授業校⼀覧（平成 25 年 4 ⽉ 15 ⽇現在） (https://web.archive.org/web/20140330190146/http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/002/006/001/002/004.htm)" (Archive (https://web.archive.org/web/20071213144924/http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/002/006/001/002/004.htm)). Ministry of Education,Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Retrieved on 10 May 2014. Cite Scolaire: "Cité ScolaireInternationale, 2 place de Montréal,69361 LYON CEDEX 07 FRANCE" and Lyon: "Maison Berty Albrecht 14,Place Grandclement, 69100 Viueurbanne, FRANCE" | 23 | 23 | wikipedia4.pdf |
74. Home page (https://web.archive.org/web/20060512161815/http://membres.lycos.fr/adlcj/). Association Pour leDeveloppement de la Langue et de la Culture Japonaises. Retrieved on 12 May 2006.
75. "Bus 47 - Meyzieu ZI - Aéroport St Exupéry - St-Laurent de Maréchal Juin | TCL" (https://www.tcl.fr/lignes/bus-47). www.tcl.fr. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
76. Zeilinger, Stefan (July 2003). "On the Fast Track: French Railway Modernization and the Origins of the TGV,1944-1983 (review)" (https://muse.jhu.edu/article/46124). Technology and Culture. 44 (3): 613–614.doi:10.1353/tech.2003.0143 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2003.0143). ISSN 1097-3729 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1097-3729). S2CID 109613366 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109613366).
77. "Eurolines - Lyon Tourist Office" (https://en.visiterlyon.com/stay/access-come-and-move-in-lyon/transport-and-transfers/eurolines). en.visiterlyon.com. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
78. "Le réseau TCL | TCL" (https://www.tcl.fr/a-propos-de-tcl/le-reseau-tcl). www.tcl.fr. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
79. "Plan interactif - Carte de Lyon et ses environs | TCL" (https://www.tcl.fr/se-deplacer/plan-interactif).www.tcl.fr. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
80. "Discover the service | Rhônexpress" (https://www.rhonexpress.fr/en_GB/discover-the-service).www.rhonexpress.fr. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
81. "RhônExpress" (https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/rhonexpress/). Railway Technology. Retrieved28 January 2024.
82. "Lyon Public Transportation Statistics" (https://moovitapp.com/insights/en/Moovit_Insights_Public_Transit_Index_France_Lyon-3483). Global Public Transit Index by Moovit. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
Material wascopied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
83. Council of Europe (2011). "Intercultural city: Lyon, France" (http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/culture/Cities/lyon_en.asp). coe.int. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
84. "Jumelage" (http://www.economie.grandlyon.com/tous-les-partenariats-internationaux-villes.html).economie.grandlyon.com (in French). Grand Lyon économie. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
85. "World Trade Center Saint Louis" (https://worldtradecenter-stl.com/st-louis-sister-cities-program/lyon-france/).worldtradecenter-stl.com. World Trade Center Saint Louis. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
Official website (http://www.lyon.fr)(in French)
Visit Lyon, the official website for tourism in France (https://en.visiterlyon.com/)
Lyon’s English Language News and Information (https://thisislyon.fr/)
Rues de Lyon (https://www.ruesdelyon.net/) Streets, Places, Monuments (in French)
Old maps of Lyon (http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/france/lyon/lyon.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210116220537/http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/france/lyon/lyon.html) 16 January 2021 at the WaybackMachine, Historic cities site (http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/historic_cities.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220325051637/http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/historic_cities.html) 25 March 2022 at the WaybackMachine, The National Library of Israel
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lyon&oldid=1267625203"
External links
| 24 | 24 | wikipedia4.pdf |
Louis XIV
Portrait by Hyacinthe Rigaud , 1701
King of France (more...)
Reign 14 May 1643 – 1 September
1715
Coronation 7 June 1654
Reims Cathedral
Predecessor Louis XIII
Successor Louis XV
Regent Anne of Austria (1643–1651)
Chief ministersSee list
Cardinal Mazarin
(1643–1661)
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
(1661–1683)
The Marquis of Louvois
(1683–1691)
Born 5 September 1638
Château de Saint-Germain-
en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-
Laye, France
Died 1 September 1715 (aged 76)
Palace of Versailles,
Versailles, France
Burial 9 September 1715
Basilica of Saint-Denis
Spouses Maria Theresa of Spain (m. 1660; died 1683)
Françoise d'Aubigné,Marquise de Maintenon(private) (m. 1683)
Louis XIV
Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), also
known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi Soleil),
was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72
years and 110 days is the longest of any sovereign.[1][a] An emblematic
character of the Age of Absolutism in Europe,[3] Louis XIV's legacy is widely
characterized by French colonial expansion, the conclusion of Eighty Years'
War involving the Habsburgs, and his architectural bequest, marked by
commissioned works of art and buildings. His pageantry, opulent lifestyle and
ornate cultivated image earned him enduring admiration. Louis XIV raised
France to be the exemplar nation-state of the early modern period, and
established a cultural prestige which lasted through the subsequent centuries,
and continues today.
Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief
minister Cardinal Mazarin, when the King famously declared that he would
take over the job himself.[4] An adherent of the divine right of kings, Louiscontinued his predecessors' work of creating a centralised state governed from
the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts
of France; by compelling many members of the nobility to reside at his lavish
Palace of Versailles, he succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many of whom
had participated in the Fronde rebellions during his minority. He thus became
one of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of
absolute monarchy in France that endured until the French Revolution. Louis
also enforced uniformity of religion under the Catholic Church. His revocation
of the Edict of Nantes abolished the rights of the Huguenot Protestant minority
and subjected them to a wave of dragonnades, effectively forcing Huguenots to
emigrate or convert, virtually destroying the French Protestant community.
During Louis's long reign, France emerged as the leading European power and
regularly made war. A conflict with Spain marked his entire childhood, while
during his personal rule, Louis fought three major continental conflicts, each
against powerful foreign alliances: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years' War,
and the War of the Spanish Succession. In addition, France contested shorter
wars such as the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions. Warfare
defined Louis's foreign policy, impelled by his personal ambition for glory and
power: "a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique".[5] His wars strained France's
resources to the utmost, while in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for
the next war. He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and
strategic advantages for the French military.[6] Upon his death in 1715,
Louis XIV left his great-grandson and successor, Louis XV, a powerful but
war-weary kingdom, in major debt after the War of the Spanish Succession that
had raged on since 1701.
Some of his other notable achievements include the construction of the Canal
du Midi, the patronage of artists, and the founding of the French Academy of
Sciences.
Early years | 0 | 0 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Issue
more...
Louis, Grand Dauphin
Marie Thérèse, Madame
Royale
Philippe Charles, Duke of
Anjou
Illegitimate :
Marie Anne, Princess of Conti
Louis, Count of Vermandois
Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine
Louis César, Count of Vexin
Louise Françoise, Princess of
Condé
Louise Marie Anne,
Mademoiselle de Tours
Louise, Baroness of La
Queue
Françoise Marie, Duchess of
Orléans
Louis Alexandre, Count of
Toulouse
Names
Louis-Dieudonné de France
House Bourbon
Father Louis XIII
Mother Anne of Austria
Religion Catholicism
Signature
Louis XIV as a young child,
unknown painter
Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-
Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné
(Louis the God-given)[7] and bore the traditional title of French heirs apparent:
Dauphin.[8] At the time of his birth, his parents had been married for 23 years.
His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631. Leading
contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of
God.[9]
Louis's relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time.
Contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her
time with Louis.[10] Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is
highly likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship
with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by
excerpts in Louis's journal entries, such as:
"Nature was responsible for the first knots which tied me to my
mother. But attachments formed later by shared qualities of the
spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by
blood."[11]
It was his mother who gave Louis his belief in the absolute and divine power of
his monarchical rule.[12]
During his childhood, he was taken care of by the governesses Françoise de
Lansac and Marie-Catherine de Senecey. In 1646, Nicolas V de Villeroy
became the young king's tutor. Louis XIV became friends with Villeroy's young
children, particularly François de Villeroy, and divided his time between the
Palais-Royal and the nearby Hotel de Villeroy.
Sensing imminent death in the spring of 1643, King Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in
order for his four-year-old son Louis XIV. Not trusting the judgement of his Spanish wife
Queen Anne, who would normally have become the sole regent of France, the king
decreed that a regency council would rule on his son's behalf, with Anne at its head.[13]
Louis XIII died on 14 May 1643. On 18 May[14] Queen Anne had her husband's will
annulled by the Parlement de Paris, a judicial body of nobles and high-ranking clergy,[15]
and she became sole regent. She exiled her husband's ministers Chavigny and Bouthilier
and appointed the Count of Brienne as her minister of foreign affairs.[16] Anne kept thedirection of religious policy strongly in hand until her son's majority in 1661.
She appointed Cardinal Mazarin as chief minister, giving him the daily administration of
policy. She continued the policies of her late husband and Cardinal Richelieu, despite their
persecution of her, in order to win absolute authority in France and victory abroad for her
son. Anne protected Mazarin by exiling her followers the Duke of Beaufort and Marie de
Rohan, who conspired against him in 1643.[17]
The best example of Anne's loyalty to France was her treatment of one of Richelieu's men,
the Chancellor Pierre Séguier. Séguier had brusquely interrogated Anne in 1637 (like a
"common criminal", as she recalled) following the discovery that she was giving military secrets to her father in Spain, and Anne
was virtually under house arrest for years. By keeping the effective Séguier in his post, Anne sacrificed her own feelings for the
interests of France and her son Louis.
Minority and the Fronde
Accession | 1 | 1 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Baptismal certificate, 1638
Louis XIV, then Dauphin of France,
in 1642, one year before his
accession to the throne, by Philippe
de Champaigne
Louis XIV in 1643, by Claude Deruet
Europe after the Peace of
Westphalia in 1648
The Queen sought a lasting peace between Catholic nations, but only after a French victory over
her native Spain. She also gave a partial Catholic orientation to French foreign policy. This was
felt by the Netherlands, France's Protestant ally, which negotiated a separate peace with Spain in
1648.[18]
In 1648, Anne and Mazarin successfully negotiated the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the
Thirty Years' War.[19] Its terms ensured Dutch independence from Spain, awarded some autonomy
to the various German princes of the Holy Roman Empire, and granted Sweden seats on the
Imperial Diet and territories controlling the mouths of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser Rivers.[20]
France, however, profited most from the settlement. Austria, ruled by the Habsburg Emperor
Ferdinand III, ceded all Habsburg lands and claims in Alsace to France and acknowledged her de
facto sovereignty over the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Verdun, and Toul.[21] Moreover,
many petty German states sought French protection, eager to emancipate themselves from
Habsburg domination. This anticipated the formation of the 1658 League of the Rhine,
which further diminished Imperial power.
As the Thirty Years' War came to an end, a civil war known as the Fronde erupted in
France. It effectively checked France's ability to exploit the Peace of Westphalia. Anne and
Mazarin had largely pursued the policies of Cardinal Richelieu, augmenting the Crown's
power at the expense of the nobility and the Parlements. Anne was more concerned with
internal policy than foreign affairs; she was a very proud queen who insisted on the divine
rights of the King of France.[22]
All this led her to advocate a forceful policy in all matters relating to the King's authority,
in a manner that was much more radical than the one proposed by Mazarin. The Cardinal
depended totally on Anne's support and had to use all his influence on the Queen to temper
some of her radical actions. Anne imprisoned any aristocrat or member of parliament who
challenged her will; her main aim was to transfer to her son an absolute authority in the
matters of finance and justice. One of the leaders of the Parlement of Paris, whom she had
jailed, died in prison.[23]
The Frondeurs, political heirs of the disaffected feudal aristocracy, sought to protect their
traditional feudal privileges from the increasingly centralized royal government.
Furthermore, they believed their traditional influence and authority was being usurped by
the recently ennobled bureaucrats (the Noblesse de Robe, or "nobility of the robe"), who
administered the kingdom and on whom the monarchy increasingly began to rely. This
belief intensified the nobles' resentment.
In 1648, Anne and Mazarin attempted to tax members of the Parlement de Paris. The
members refused to comply and ordered all of the king's earlier financial edicts burned.
Buoyed by the victory of Louis, duc d'Enghien (later known as le Grand Condé) at the
Battle of Lens, Mazarin, on Queen Anne's insistence, arrested certain members in a show
of force.[24] The most important arrest, from Anne's point of view, concerned Pierre
Broussel, one of the most important leaders in the Parlement de Paris.
People in France were complaining about the expansion of royal authority, the high rate of
taxation, and the reduction of the authority of the Parlement de Paris and other regional
representative entities. Paris erupted in rioting as a result, and Anne was forced, under
intense pressure, to free Broussel. Moreover, on the night of 9–10 February 1651, when
Louis was twelve, a mob of angry Parisians broke into the royal palace and demanded to
see their king. Led into the royal bed-chamber, they gazed upon Louis, who was feigning
sleep, were appeased, and then quietly departed.[25] The threat to the royal familyprompted Anne to flee Paris with the king and his courtiers.
Shortly thereafter, the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia allowed Condé's army to
return to aid Louis and his court. Condé's family was close to Anne at that time, and he
agreed to help her attempt to restore the king's authority.[26] The queen's army, headed by
Early acts | 2 | 2 | wikipedia5.pdf |
1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of
the Fronde, portrayed as the god
Jupiter
Portrait by Justus van Egmont
between the years 1649–1652.
Condé, attacked the rebels in Paris; the rebels were under the political control of Anne's
old friend Marie de Rohan. Beaufort, who had escaped from the prison where Anne had
incarcerated him five years before, was the military leader in Paris, under the nominal
control of Conti. After a few battles, a political compromise was reached; the Peace of
Rueil was signed, and the court returned to Paris.
Unfortunately for Anne, her partial victory depended on Condé, who wanted to control the
queen and destroy Mazarin's influence. It was Condé's sister who pushed him to turn
against the queen. After striking a deal with her old friend Marie de Rohan, who was able
to impose the nomination of Charles de l'Aubespine, marquis de Châteauneuf as minister
of justice, Anne arrested Condé, his brother Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, and the
husband of their sister Anne Genevieve de Bourbon, duchess of Longueville. This situation
did not last long, and Mazarin's unpopularity led to the creation of a coalition headed
mainly by Marie de Rohan and the duchess of Longueville. This aristocratic coalition was
strong enough to liberate the princes, exile Mazarin, and impose a condition of virtual
house arrest on Queen Anne.
All these events were witnessed by Louis and
largely explained his later distrust of Paris and the higher aristocracy.[27] "In one sense,
Louis's childhood came to an end with the outbreak of the Fronde. It was not only that life
became insecure and unpleasant – a fate meted out to many children in all ages – but that
Louis had to be taken into the confidence of his mother and Mazarin on political and
military matters of which he could have no deep understanding".[28] "The family home
became at times a near-prison when Paris had to be abandoned, not in carefree outings to
other chateaux but in humiliating flights".[28] The royal family was driven out of Paris
twice in this manner, and at one point Louis XIV and Anne were held under virtual arrest
in the royal palace in Paris. The Fronde years planted in Louis a hatred of Paris and a
consequent determination to move out of the ancient capital as soon as possible, never to
return.[29]
Just as the first Fronde (the Fronde parlementaire of 1648–1649) ended, a second one (the
Fronde des princes of 1650–1653) began. Unlike that which preceded it, tales of sordid
intrigue and half-hearted warfare characterized this second phase of upper-class
insurrection. To the aristocracy, this rebellion represented a protest for the reversal of their
political demotion from vassals to courtiers. It was headed by the highest-ranking French
nobles, among them Louis's uncle Gaston, Duke of Orléans and first cousin Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Duchess of
Montpensier, known as la Grande Mademoiselle; Princes of the Blood such as Condé, his brother Armand de Bourbon, Prince of
Conti, and their sister the Duchess of Longueville; dukes of legitimised royal descent, such as Henri, Duke of Longueville, and
François, Duke of Beaufort; so-called "foreign princes" such as Frédéric Maurice, Duke of Bouillon, his brother Marshal Turenne,
and Marie de Rohan, Duchess of Chevreuse; and scions of France's oldest families, such as François de La Rochefoucauld.
Queen Anne played the most important role in defeating the Fronde because she wanted to transfer absolute authority to her son.
In addition, most of the princes refused to deal with Mazarin, who went into exile for a number of years. The Frondeurs claimed
to act on Louis's behalf, and in his real interest, against his mother and Mazarin.
Queen Anne had a very close relationship with the Cardinal, and many observers believed that Mazarin became Louis XIV's
stepfather by a secret marriage to Queen Anne.[30] However, Louis's coming-of-age and subsequent coronation deprived them ofthe Frondeurs' pretext for revolt. The Fronde thus gradually lost steam and ended in 1653, when Mazarin returned triumphantly
from exile. From that time until his death, Mazarin was in charge of foreign and financial policy without the daily supervision of
Anne, who was no longer regent.[31]
During this period, Louis fell in love with Mazarin's niece Marie Mancini, but Anne and Mazarin ended the king's infatuation by
sending Mancini away from court to be married in Italy. While Mazarin might have been tempted for a short time to marry his
niece to the King of France, Queen Anne was absolutely against this; she wanted to marry her son to the daughter of her brother,
Philip IV of Spain, for both dynastic and political reasons. Mazarin soon supported the Queen's position because he knew that her
support for his power and his foreign policy depended on making peace with Spain from a strong position and on the Spanish
marriage. Additionally, Mazarin's relations with Marie Mancini were not good, and he did not trust her to support his position. All
of Louis's tears and his supplications to his mother did not make her change her mind. The Spanish marriage would be very | 3 | 3 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Royal
Monogram
Members of the Académie des
sciences with Louis in 1667; in the
background appears the new Paris
Observatory.
important both for its role in ending the war between France and Spain, because many of the claims and objectives of Louis's
foreign policy for the next 50 years would be based upon this marriage, and because it was through this marriage that the Spanish
throne would ultimately be delivered to the House of Bourbon.[32]
Louis XIV was declared to have reached the age of majority on the 7th of September 1651. On the death of
Mazarin, in March 1661, Louis personally took the reins of government and astonished his court by declaring
that he would rule without a chief minister: "Up to this moment I have been pleased to entrust the government
of my affairs to the late Cardinal. It is now time that I govern them myself. You [secretaries and ministers]
will assist me with your counsels when I ask for them. I request and order you to seal no orders except by my
command . . . I order you not to sign anything, not even a passport . . . without my command; to render
account to me personally each day and to favor no one".[33] Capitalizing on the widespread public yearning
for peace and order after decades of foreign and civil strife, the young king consolidated central political
authority at the expense of the feudal aristocracy. Praising his ability to choose and encourage men of talent,
the historian Chateaubriand noted: "it is the voice of genius of all kinds which sounds from the tomb of
Louis".[34]
Louis began his personal reign with administrative and fiscal reforms. In 1661, the treasury verged on
bankruptcy. To rectify the situation, Louis chose Jean-Baptiste Colbert as Controller-General of Finances in
1665. However, Louis first had to neutralize Nicolas Fouquet, the powerful Superintendent of Finances.
Although Fouquet's financial indiscretions were not very different from Mazarin's before him or Colbert's
after him, his ambition worried Louis. He lavishly entertained the king at the opulent château of Vaux-le-
Vicomte, flaunting a wealth which could hardly have accumulated except through embezzlement of government funds.
Fouquet appeared eager to succeed Mazarin and Richelieu in power, and he indiscreetly purchased and privately fortified the
remote island of Belle Île. These acts sealed his doom. Fouquet was charged with embezzlement; the Parlement found him guilty
and sentenced him to exile; and finally Louis altered the sentence to life imprisonment.
Fouquet's downfall gave Colbert a free hand to reduce the national debt through more
efficient taxation. The principal taxes included the aides and douanes (both customs
duties), the gabelle (salt tax), and the taille (land tax). The taille was reduced at first, and
certain tax-collection contracts were auctioned instead of being sold privately to a
favoured few. Financial officials were required to keep regular accounts, revising
inventories and removing unauthorized exemptions: up to 1661 only 10 per cent of income
from the royal domain reached the king. Reform had to overcome vested interests: the
taille was collected by officers of the Crown who had purchased their post at a high price,
and punishment of abuses necessarily lowered the value of the purchase. Nevertheless,
Colbert achieved excellent results, with the deficit of 1661 turning into a surplus by 1666,
with interest on the debt decreasing from 52 million to 24 million livres. The taille was
reduced to 42 million in 1661 and 35 million in 1665, while revenue from indirect taxation
progressed from 26 million to 55 million. The revenues of the royal domain were raised from 80,000 livres in 1661 to 5.5 million
in 1671. In 1661, the receipts were equivalent to 26 million British pounds, of which 10 million reached the treasury. The
expenditure was around 18 million pounds, leaving a deficit of 8 million. In 1667, the net receipts had risen to 20 million pounds
sterling, while expenditure had fallen to 11 million, leaving a surplus of 9 million pounds.
Money was the essential support of the reorganized and enlarged army, the panoply of Versailles, and the growing civil
administration. Finance had always been the weakness of the French monarchy: tax collection was costly and inefficient; direct
taxes dwindled as they passed through the hands of many intermediate officials; and indirect taxes were collected by private
contractors called tax farmers who made a handsome profit. The state coffers leaked at every joint.
The main weakness arose from an old bargain between the French crown and nobility: the king might raise taxes on the nation
without consent if only he exempted the nobility. Only the "unprivileged" classes paid direct taxes, which came to mean the
peasants only, as most bourgeois finagled exemptions in one way or another. The system laid the whole burden of state expenses
on the backs of the poor and powerless. After 1700, with the support of Louis's pious secret wife Madame de Maintenon, the king
Personal reign and reforms
Coming of age and early reforms | 4 | 4 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Engraving of Louis XIV
Louis and his family portrayed as
Roman gods in a 1670 painting by
Jean Nocret. L to R: Louis's aunt,
Henriette-Marie; his brother,
Philippe, duc d'Orléans; the Duke's
daughter, Marie Louise d'Orléans,
and wife, Henriette-Anne Stuart; the
Queen-mother, Anne of Austria;
three daughters of Gaston
d'Orléans; Louis XIV; the Dauphin
Louis; Queen Marie-Thérèse; la
Grande Mademoiselle.
was persuaded to change his fiscal policy. Though willing enough to tax the nobles, Louis
feared the political concessions which they would demand in return. Only towards the
close of his reign under the extreme exigency of war, was he able, for the first time in
French history, to impose direct taxes on the aristocracy. This was a step toward equality
before the law and toward sound public finance, though it was predictably diminished by
concessions and exemptions won by the insistent efforts of nobles and bourgeois.[35]
Louis and Colbert also had wide-ranging plans to grow French commerce and trade.
Colbert's mercantilist administration established new industries and encouraged
manufacturers and inventors, such as the Lyon silk manufacturers and the Gobelins
tapestry manufactory. He invited manufacturers and artisans from all over Europe to
France, such as Murano glassmakers, Swedish ironworkers, and Dutch shipbuilders. He
aimed to decrease imports while increasing French exports, hence reducing the net outflow
of precious metals from France.
Louis instituted reforms in military administration through Michel le Tellier and his son
François-Michel le Tellier, successive Marquis de Louvois. They helped to curb the
independent spirit of the nobility, imposing order on them at court and in the army. Gone were the days when generals protracted
war at the frontiers while bickering over precedence and ignoring orders from the capital and the larger strategic picture, with the
old military aristocracy (noblesse d'épée, nobility of the sword) monopolizing senior military positions and the higher ranks.
Louvois modernized the army and reorganised it into a professional, disciplined, well-trained force. He was devoted to the
soldiers' material well-being and morale, and even tried to direct campaigns.
Louis's legal reforms were enacted in his numerous Great Ordinances. Prior to that, France
was a patchwork of legal systems, with as many traditional legal regimes as there were
provinces, and two co-existing legal systems—customary law in the north and Roman civil
law in the south.[36] The Grande Ordonnance de Procédure Civile of 1667, the CodeLouis, was a comprehensive legal code imposing a uniform regulation of civil procedure
throughout the kingdom. Among other things, it prescribed baptismal, marriage and death
records in the state's registers, not the church's, and it strictly regulated the right of the
Parlements to remonstrate.[37] The Code Louis later became the basis for the Napoleonic
code, which in turn inspired many modern legal codes.
One of Louis's more infamous decrees was the Grande Ordonnance sur les Colonies of
1685, the Code Noir (black code). Although it sanctioned slavery, it attempted to humanise
the practice by prohibiting the separation of families. Additionally, in the colonies, only
Roman Catholics could own slaves, and these had to be baptised.
Louis ruled through a number of councils:
Conseil d'en haut ("High Council", concerning the most important matters ofstate)—composed of the king, the crown prince, the controller-general offinances, and the secretaries of state in charge of various departments. Themembers of that council were called ministers of state.
Conseil des dépêches ("Council of Messages", concerning notices and administrative reports from the provinces).
Conseil de Conscience ("Council of Conscience", concerning religious affairs and episcopal appointments).
Conseil royal des finances ("Royal Council of Finances") headed by the "chef du conseil des finances" (anhonorary post in most cases)—this was one of the few posts in the council available to the high aristocracy.[38]
The death of Louis's maternal uncle King Philip IV of Spain in 1665 precipitated the War of Devolution. In 1660, Louis had
married Philip IV's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, as one of the provisions of the 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees.[39] The marriage
treaty specified that Maria Theresa was to renounce all claims to Spanish territory for herself and all her descendants.[39] Mazarin
Relations with the major colonies
Early wars in the Low Countries
Spain | 5 | 5 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Louis XIV in 1670,
engraved portrait by Robert
Nanteuil
The future Philip V being introduced
as King of Spain by his grandfather,
Louis XIV
The Battle of Tolhuis, Louis XIV crosses
the Lower Rhine at Lobith on 12 June
1672; Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
Louis XIV, 1670, by Claude
Lefèbvre
and Lionne, however, made the renunciation conditional on
the full payment of a Spanish dowry of 500,000 écus.[40]
The dowry was never paid and would later play a part
persuading his maternal first cousin Charles II of Spain to
leave his empire to Philip, Duke of Anjou (later Philip V of
Spain), the grandson of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa.
The War of Devolution did not focus on the payment of the
dowry; rather, the lack of payment was what Louis XIV
used as a pretext for nullifying Maria Theresa's
renunciation of her claims, allowing the land to "devolve"
to him. In Brabant (the location of the land in dispute),
children of first marriages traditionally were not
disadvantaged by their parents' remarriages and still
inherited property. Louis's wife was Philip IV's daughter by
his first marriage, while the new king of Spain, Charles II, was his son by a subsequent
marriage. Thus, Brabant allegedly "devolved" to Maria Theresa, justifying France to attack
the Spanish Netherlands.
During the Eighty Years' War with Spain, France supported the Dutch Republic as part
of a general policy of opposing Habsburg power. Johan de Witt, Dutch Grand
Pensionary from 1653 to 1672, viewed this as crucial for Dutch security and a
counterweight against his domestic Orangist opponents. Louis provided support in the
1665-1667 Second Anglo-Dutch War but used the opportunity to launch the War of
Devolution in 1667. This captured Franche-Comté and much of the Spanish
Netherlands; French expansion in this area was a direct threat to Dutch economic
interests.[41]
The Dutch opened talks with Charles II of England on a common diplomatic front
against France, leading to the Triple Alliance, between England, the Dutch and
Sweden. The threat of an escalation and a secret treaty to divide Spanish possessions
with Emperor Leopold, the other major claimant to the throne of Spain, led Louis to relinquish many of his gains in the 1668
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.[42]
Louis placed little reliance on his agreement with Leopold and as it was now clear French and Dutch aims were in direct conflict,
he decided to first defeat the Republic, then seize the Spanish Netherlands. This required breaking up the Triple Alliance; he paid
Sweden to remain neutral and signed the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover with Charles, an Anglo-French alliance against the Dutch
Republic. In May 1672, France invaded the Republic, supported by Münster and the Electorate of Cologne.[43]
Rapid French advance led to a coup that toppled De Witt and brought William III to power.
Leopold viewed French expansion into the Rhineland as an increasing threat, especially after
they seized the strategic Duchy of Lorraine in 1670. The prospect of Dutch defeat led Leopold
to an alliance with Brandenburg-Prussia on 23 June, followed by another with the Republic on
25th.[44] Although Brandenburg was forced out of the war by the June 1673 Treaty of Vossem,
in August an anti-French alliance was formed by the Dutch, Spain, Emperor Leopold and the
Duke of Lorraine.[45]
The French alliance was deeply unpopular in England, and only more so after the
disappointing battles against Michiel de Ruyter's fleet. Charles II of England made peace with
the Dutch in the February 1674 Treaty of Westminster. However, French armies held
significant advantages over their opponents; an undivided command, talented generals like
Turenne, Condé and Luxembourg and vastly superior logistics. Reforms introduced by
Louvois, the Secretary of War, helped maintain large field armies that could be mobilised
much more quickly, allowing them to mount offensives in early spring before their opponents
were ready.[46]
Relations with the Dutch | 6 | 6 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Silver coin of Louis XIV, dated1674
Obverse. The Latin
inscription is
LVDOVICVS XIIII D[EI]
GRA[TIA] ("Louis
XIV, by the grace of
God").
Reverse. The Latin
inscription is
FRAN[CIÆ] ET
NAVARRÆ REX 1674
("King of France
and of Navarre,
1674").
The Persian embassy to Louis XIV
sent by Soltan Hoseyn in 1715.
Ambassade de Perse auprès de
Louis XIV, studio of Antoine Coypel.
The French were nevertheless forced to retreat from most of the Dutch Republic, which deeply shocked Louis; he retreated to St
Germain for a time, where no one, except a few intimates, was allowed to disturb him.[47] French military advantages allowed
them however to hold their ground in Alsace and the Spanish Netherlands while retaking Franche-Comté. By 1678, mutual
exhaustion led to the Treaty of Nijmegen, which was generally settled in France's favour and allowed Louis to intervene in the
Scanian War. Despite the military defeat, his ally Sweden regained much of what it had lost under the 1679 treaties of Saint-
Germain-en-Laye, Fontainebleau and Lund imposed on Denmark–Norway and Brandenburg.[48] Yet Louis's two primary goals,
the destruction of the Dutch Republic and the conquest of the Spanish Netherlands, had failed.[49]
Louis was at the height of his power, but at the cost of uniting his opponents; this increased as he continued his expansion. In
1679, he dismissed his foreign minister Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne, because he was seen as having compromised too
much with the allies. Louis maintained the strength of his army, but in his next series of territorial claims avoided using military
force alone. Rather, he combined it with legal pretexts in his efforts to augment the boundaries of his kingdom. Contemporary
treaties were intentionally phrased ambiguously. Louis established the Chambers of Reunion to determine the full extent of his
rights and obligations under those treaties.
Cities and territories, such as Luxembourg and Casale, were prized for their strategic
positions on the frontier and access to important waterways. Louis also sought
Strasbourg, an important strategic crossing on the left bank of the Rhine and theretofore
a Free Imperial City of the Holy Roman Empire, annexing it and other territories in
1681. Although a part of Alsace, Strasbourg was not part of Habsburg-ruled Alsace and
was thus not ceded to France in the Peace of Westphalia.
Following these annexations, Spain declared war, precipitating the War of the Reunions.
However, the Spanish were rapidly defeated because the Emperor (distracted by the
Great Turkish War) abandoned them, and the Dutch only supported them minimally. By
the Truce of Ratisbon, in 1684, Spain was forced to acquiesce in the French occupation
of most of the conquered territories, for 20 years.[50]
Louis's policy of the Réunions may have raised France to its greatest size and power
during his reign, but it alienated much of Europe. This poor public opinion was
compounded by French actions off the Barbary Coast and at Genoa. First, Louis had
Algiers and Tripoli, two Barbary pirate strongholds, bombarded to obtain a favourable treaty and the liberation of Christian
slaves. Next, in 1684, a punitive mission was launched against Genoa in retaliation for its support for Spain in previous wars.
Although the Genoese submitted, and the Doge led an official mission of apology to Versailles, France gained a reputation for
brutality and arrogance. European apprehension at growing French might and the realisation of the extent of the dragonnades'
effect (discussed below) led many states to abandon their alliances with France.[51] Accordingly, by the late 1680s, France became
increasingly isolated in Europe.
French colonies multiplied in Africa, the Americas, and Asia during Louis's reign, and
French explorers made important discoveries in North America. In 1673, Louis Jolliet and
Jacques Marquette discovered the Mississippi River. In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur
de La Salle, followed the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico and claimed the vast
Mississippi basin in Louis's name, calling it Louisiane. French trading posts were also
established in India, at Chandernagore and Pondicherry, and in the Indian Ocean at Île
Bourbon. Throughout these regions, Louis and Colbert embarked on an extensive program
of architecture and urbanism meant to reflect the styles of Versailles and Paris and the
'gloire' of the realm.[52]
Meanwhile, diplomatic relations were initiated with distant countries. In 1669, Suleiman
Aga led an Ottoman embassy to revive the old Franco-Ottoman alliance.[53] Then, in 1682,after the reception of the Moroccan embassy of Mohammed Tenim in France, Moulay Ismail, Sultan of Morocco, allowed French
consular and commercial establishments in his country.[54] In 1699, Louis once again received a Moroccan ambassador, Abdallah
bin Aisha, and in 1715, he received a Persian embassy led by Mohammad Reza Beg.
From farther afield, Siam dispatched an embassy in 1684, reciprocated by the French magnificently the next year under
Alexandre, Chevalier de Chaumont. This, in turn, was succeeded by another Siamese embassy under Kosa Pan, superbly received
at Versailles in 1686. Louis then sent another embassy in 1687, under Simon de la Loubère, and French influence grew at the
Non-European relations and the colonies | 7 | 7 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Siamese embassy of King Narai to
Louis XIV in 1686, led by Kosa Pan.
Engraving by Nicolas Larmessin.
Portrait of Louis XIV (gray pastel on
paper by Charles Le Brun, 1667,
Louvre Museum)
Louis receiving the Doge of Genoa
at Versailles on 15 May 1685,
following the Bombardment of
Genoa. (Reparation faite à
Louis XIV par le Doge de Gênes. 15
mai 1685 by Claude Guy Halle,
Versailles.)
Siamese court, which granted Mergui as a naval base to France. However, the death of
Narai, King of Ayutthaya, the execution of his pro-French minister Constantine Phaulkon,
and the siege of Bangkok in 1688 ended this era of French influence.[55]
France also attempted to participate actively in Jesuit missions to China. To break the
Portuguese dominance there, Louis sent Jesuit missionaries to the court of the Kangxi
Emperor in 1685: Jean de Fontaney, Joachim Bouvet, Jean-François Gerbillon, Louis Le
Comte, and Claude de Visdelou.[56] Louis also received a Chinese Jesuit, Michael Shen
Fu-Tsung, at Versailles in 1684.[57] Furthermore, Louis's librarian and translator Arcadio
Huang was Chinese.[58][59]
By the early 1680s, Louis had greatly augmented French influence in the world.
Domestically, he successfully increased the influence of the crown and its authority over
the church and aristocracy, thus consolidating absolute monarchy in France.
Louis initially supported traditional Gallicanism, which limited papal authority in France,
and convened an Assembly of the French clergy in November 1681. Before its dissolution
eight months later, the Assembly had accepted the Declaration of the Clergy of France,
which increased royal authority at the expense of papal power. Without royal approval,
bishops could not leave France, and appeals could not be made to the pope. Additionally,
government officials could not be excommunicated for acts committed in pursuance of
their duties. Although the king could not make ecclesiastical law, all papal regulations
without royal assent were invalid in France. Unsurprisingly, the Pope repudiated the
Declaration.[4]
By attaching nobles to his court at Versailles, Louis
achieved increased control over the French
aristocracy. According to historian Philip Mansel,
the king turned the palace into:
an irresistible combination of marriage market, employment agency andentertainment capital of aristocratic Europe, boasting the best theatre, opera,music, gambling, sex and (most important) hunting.[60]
Apartments were built to house those willing to pay court to the king.[61] However, thepensions and privileges necessary to live in a style appropriate to their rank were only
possible by waiting constantly on Louis.[62] For this purpose, an elaborate court ritual wascreated wherein the king became the centre of attention and was observed throughout the
day by the public. With his excellent memory, Louis could then see who attended him at
court and who was absent, facilitating the subsequent distribution of favours and positions.
Another tool Louis used to control his nobility was censorship, which often involved the opening of letters to discern their
author's opinion of the government and king.[61] Moreover, by entertaining, impressing, and domesticating them with extravagantluxury and other distractions, Louis not only cultivated public opinion of him, but he also ensured the aristocracy remained under
his scrutiny.
Louis's extravagance at Versailles extended far beyond the scope of elaborate court rituals. He took delivery of an African
elephant as a gift from the king of Portugal.[63] He encouraged leading nobles to live at Versailles. This, along with the prohibition
of private armies, prevented them from passing time on their own estates and in their regional power bases, from which they
historically waged local wars and plotted resistance to royal authority. Louis thus compelled and seduced the old military
aristocracy (the "nobility of the sword") into becoming his ceremonial courtiers, further weakening their power. In their place, he
raised commoners or the more recently ennobled bureaucratic aristocracy (the "nobility of the robe"). He judged that royal
authority thrived more surely by filling high executive and administrative positions with these men because they could be more
easily dismissed than nobles of ancient lineage and entrenched influence. It is believed that Louis's policies were rooted in his
Height of power
Centralisation of power | 8 | 8 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Louis XIV
experiences during the Fronde, when men of high birth readily took up the rebel cause against their king, who was actually the
kinsman of some. This victory over the nobility may thus have ensured the end of major civil wars in France until the French
Revolution about a century later.
Under Louis, France was the leading European power, and most wars pivoted around its
aggressiveness. No European state exceeded it in population, and no one could match its
wealth, central location, and very strong professional army. It had largely avoided the
devastation of the Thirty Years' War. Its weaknesses included an inefficient financial
system that was hard-pressed to pay for its military adventures, and the tendency of most
other powers to gang up against it.
During Louis's reign, France fought three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine
Years' War, and the War of the Spanish Succession. There were also two lesser conflicts:
the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions.[64] The wars were very expensive but
defined Louis XIV's foreign policy, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled "by
a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique", Louis sensed that war was the ideal way to
enhance his glory. In peacetime, he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught
his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French
military.[6] By 1695, France retained much of its dominance but had lost control of the seas
to England and Holland, and most countries, both Protestant and Catholic, were in alliance
against it. Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, France's leading military strategist, warned
Louis in 1689 that a hostile "Alliance" was too powerful at sea. He recommended that
France fight back by licensing French merchant ships to privateer and seize enemy
merchant ships while avoiding its navies:
France has its declared enemies Germany and all the states that it embraces; Spain with all its dependencies inEurope, Asia, Africa and America; the Duke of Savoy [in Italy], England, Scotland, Ireland, and all their coloniesin the East and West Indies; and Holland with all its possessions in the four corners of the world where it hasgreat establishments. France has ... undeclared enemies, indirectly hostile, hostile, and envious of its greatness,Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Portugal, Venice, Genoa, and part of the Swiss Confederation, all of which statessecretly aid France's enemies by the troops that they hire to them, the money they lend them and by protectingand covering their trade.[65]
Vauban was pessimistic about France's so-called friends and allies:
For lukewarm, useless, or impotent friends, France has the Pope, who is indifferent; the King of England[James II] expelled from his country; the Grand Duke of Tuscany; the Dukes of Mantua, Modena, and Parma [allin Italy]; and the other faction of the Swiss. Some of these are sunk in the softness that comes of years ofpeace, the others are cool in their affections....The English and Dutch are the main pillars of the Alliance; theysupport it by making war against us in concert with the other powers, and they keep it going by means of themoney that they pay every year to... Allies.... We must therefore fall back on privateering as the method ofconducting war which is most feasible, simple, cheap, and safe, and which will cost least to the state, the moreso since any losses will not be felt by the King, who risks virtually nothing....It will enrich the country, train manygood officers for the King, and in a short time force his enemies to sue for peace.[66]
Louis decided to persecute Protestants and revoke the 1598 Edict of Nantes, which awarded Huguenots political and religious
freedom. He saw the persistence of Protestantism as a disgraceful reminder of royal powerlessness. After all, the Edict was the
pragmatic concession of his grandfather Henry IV to end the longstanding French Wars of Religion. An additional factor in
Louis's thinking was the prevailing contemporary European principle to assure socio-political stability, cuius regio, eius religio
("whose realm, his religion"), the idea that the religion of the ruler should be the religion of the realm (as originally confirmed in
central Europe in the Peace of Augsburg of 1555).[67]
Responding to petitions, Louis initially excluded Protestants from office, constrained the meeting of synods, closed churches
outside of Edict-stipulated areas, banned Protestant outdoor preachers, and prohibited domestic Protestant migration. He also
disallowed Protestant-Catholic intermarriages to which third parties objected, encouraged missions to the Protestants, and
France as the pivot of warfare
Edict of Fontainebleau | 9 | 9 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Louis XIV in 1685, the year he
revoked the Edict of Nantes
Protestant peasants rebelled
against the officially sanctioned
dragonnades (conversions enforced
by dragoons, labeled "missionaries
in boots") that followed the Edict of
Fontainebleau.
rewarded converts to Catholicism.[68] This discrimination did not encounter much
Protestant resistance, and a steady conversion of Protestants occurred, especially among
the noble elites.
In 1681, Louis dramatically increased his persecution of Protestants. The principle of cuius
regio, eius religio generally also meant that subjects who refused to convert could
emigrate, but Louis banned emigration and effectively insisted that all Protestants must be
converted. Secondly, following the proposal of René de Marillac and the Marquis of
Louvois, he began quartering dragoons in Protestant homes. Although this was within his
legal rights, the dragonnades inflicted severe financial strain on Protestants and atrocious
abuse. Between 300,000 and 400,000 Huguenots converted, as this entailed financial
rewards and exemption from the dragonnades.[69]
On 15 October 1685, Louis issued the Edict of
Fontainebleau, which cited the redundancy of
privileges for Protestants given their scarcity after
the extensive conversions. The Edict of
Fontainebleau revoked the Edict of Nantes and
repealed all the privileges that arose therefrom.[4]
By his edict, Louis no longer tolerated the existence
of Protestant groups, pastors, or churches in France.
No further churches were to be constructed, and those already existing were to be
demolished. Pastors could choose either exile or secular life. Those Protestants who had
resisted conversion were now to be baptised forcibly into the established church.[70]
Historians have debated Louis's reasons for issuing the Edict of Fontainebleau. He may
have been seeking to placate Pope Innocent XI, with whom relations were tense and whose
aid was necessary to determine the outcome of a succession crisis in the Electorate of
Cologne. He may also have acted to upstage Emperor Leopold I and regain international
prestige after the latter defeated the Turks without Louis's help. Otherwise, he may simply
have desired to end the remaining divisions in French society dating to the Wars of Religion by fulfilling his coronation oath to
eradicate heresy.[71][72]
Many historians have condemned the Edict of Fontainebleau as gravely harmful to France.[73] In support, they cite the emigration
of about 200,000 highly skilled Huguenots (roughly one quarter of the Protestant population, or 1% of the French population)
who defied royal decrees and fled France for various Protestant states, weakening the French economy and enriching that of
Protestant states. On the other hand, some historians view this as an exaggeration. They argue that most of France's preeminent
Protestant businessmen and industrialists converted to Catholicism and remained.[74]
What is certain is that the reaction to the Edict was mixed. Even while French Catholic leaders exulted, Pope Innocent XI still
argued with Louis over Gallicanism and criticized the use of violence. Protestants across Europe were horrified at the treatment of
their co-religionists, but most Catholics in France applauded the move. Nonetheless, it is indisputable that Louis's public image in
most of Europe, especially in Protestant regions, was dealt a severe blow.
In the end, however, despite renewed tensions with the Camisards of south-central France at the end of his reign, Louis may have
helped ensure that his successor would experience fewer instances of the religion-based disturbances that had plagued his
forebears. French society would sufficiently change by the time of his descendant, Louis XVI, to welcome tolerance in the form
of the 1787 Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance. This restored to non-Catholics their civil rights and the
freedom to worship openly.[75] With the advent of the French Revolution in 1789, Protestants were granted equal rights with their
Roman Catholic counterparts.
Nine Years' War
Causes and conduct of the war | 10 | 10 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Battle of Fleurus, 1690
Louis in 1690
Louis XIV at the siege of
Namur (1692)
The Nine Years' War, which lasted from 1688 to 1697, initiated a period of decline in
Louis's political and diplomatic fortunes. It arose from two events in the Rhineland. First,
in 1685, the Elector Palatine Charles II died. All that remained of his immediate family
was Louis's sister-in-law, Elizabeth Charlotte. German law ostensibly barred her from
succeeding to her brother's lands and electoral dignity, but it was unclear enough for
arguments in favour of Elizabeth Charlotte to have a chance of success. Conversely, the
princess was demonstrably entitled to a division of the family's personal property. Louis
pressed her claims to land and chattels, hoping the latter, at least, would be given to her.[76]
Then, in 1688, Maximilian Henry of Bavaria, Archbishop of Cologne, an ally of France,
died. The archbishopric had traditionally been held by the Wittelsbachs of Bavaria, but the
Bavarian claimant to replace Maximilian Henry, Prince Joseph Clemens of Bavaria, was at
that time not more than 17 years old and not even ordained. Louis sought instead to install
his own candidate, Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, to ensure the key Rhenish state
remained an ally.[77]
In light of his foreign and domestic policies during the early 1680s, which were perceived
as aggressive, Louis's actions, fostered by the succession crises of the late 1680s, created
concern and alarm in much of Europe. This led to the formation of the 1686 League of
Augsburg by the Holy Roman Emperor, Spain, Sweden, Saxony, and Bavaria. Their stated
intention was to return France to at least the borders agreed to in the Treaty of
Nijmegen.[78] Emperor Leopold I's persistent refusal to convert the Truce of Ratisbon into
a permanent treaty fed Louis's fears that the Emperor would turn on France and attack the
Reunions after settling his affairs in the Balkans.[79]
Another event Louis found threatening was England's Glorious Revolution of 1688.
Although King James II was Catholic, his two Anglican daughters, Mary and Anne,
ensured the English people a Protestant succession. But when James II's son James Francis
Edward Stuart was born, he took precedence in succession over his sisters. This seemed to
herald an era of Catholic monarchs in England. Protestant lords called on the Dutch Prince
William III of Orange, grandson of Charles I of England, to come to their aid. He sailed for England with troops despite Louis's
warning that France would regard it as a provocation. Witnessing numerous desertions and defections, even among those closest
to him, James II fled England. Parliament declared the throne vacant, and offered it to James's daughter Mary II and his son-in-
law and nephew William. Vehemently anti-French, William (now William III of England) pushed his new kingdoms into war, thus
transforming the League of Augsburg into the Grand Alliance. Before this happened, Louis expected William's expedition to
England to absorb his energies and those of his allies, so he dispatched troops to the Rhineland after the expiry of his ultimatum to
the German princes requiring confirmation of the Truce of Ratisbon and acceptance of his demands about the succession crises.
This military manoeuvre was also intended to protect his eastern provinces from Imperial invasion by depriving the enemy army
of sustenance, thus explaining the preemptive scorched earth policy pursued in much of southwestern Germany (the "Devastation
of the Palatinate").[80]
French armies were generally victorious throughout the war because of Imperial commitments in
the Balkans, French logistical superiority, and the quality of French generals such as Condé's
famous pupil, François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, duc de Luxembourg.[81] He triumphed
at the Battles of Fleurus in 1690, Steenkerque in 1692, and Landen in 1693, although, the battles
proved to be of little of strategic consequence,[82][83] mostly due to the nature of late 17th-century
warfare.[84]
Although an attempt to restore James II failed at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, France
accumulated a string of victories from Flanders in the north, Germany in the east, and Italy and
Spain in the south, to the high seas and the colonies. Louis personally supervised the captures of
Mons in 1691 and Namur in 1692. Luxembourg gave France the defensive line of the Sambre by
capturing Charleroi in 1693. France also overran most of the Duchy of Savoy after the battles of
Marsaglia and Staffarde in 1693. While naval stalemate ensued after the French victory at the
Battle of Beachy Head in 1690 and the Allied victory at Barfleur-La Hougue in 1692, the Battle of
Torroella in 1694 exposed Catalonia to French invasion, culminating in the capture of Barcelona.
The Dutch captured Pondichéry in 1693, but a 1697 French raid on the Spanish treasure port of Cartagena, Spain, yielded a
fortune of 10,000,000 livres. | 11 | 11 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Marshal de Luxembourg
In July 1695, the city of Namur, occupied for three years by the French, was besieged by an allied
army led by William III. Louis XIV ordered the surprise destruction of a Flemish city to divert the
attention of these troops. This led to the bombardment of Brussels, in which more than 4,000
buildings were destroyed, including the entire city centre. The strategy failed, as Namur fell three
weeks later, but harmed Louis XIV's reputation: a century later, Napoleon deemed the
bombardment "as barbarous as it was useless".[85]
Peace was broached by Sweden in 1690. By 1692, both sides evidently wanted peace, and secret
bilateral talks began, but to no avail.[86] Louis tried to break up the alliance against him by dealingwith individual opponents but did not achieve his aim until 1696 when the Savoyards agreed to the
Treaty of Turin and switched sides. Thereafter, members of the League of Augsburg rushed to the
peace table, and negotiations for a general peace began in earnest, culminating in the Peace of
Ryswick of 1697.[87]
The Peace of Ryswick ended the War of the League of Augsburg and disbanded the Grand Alliance. By manipulating their
rivalries and suspicions, Louis divided his enemies and broke their power.
The treaty yielded many benefits for France. Louis secured permanent French sovereignty over all of Alsace, including
Strasbourg, and established the Rhine as the Franco-German border (as it is to this day). Pondichéry and Acadia were returned to
France, and Louis's de facto possession of Saint-Domingue was recognised as lawful. However, he returned Catalonia and most of
the Reunions.
French military superiority might have allowed him to press for more advantageous terms. Thus, his generosity to Spain with
regard to Catalonia has been read as a concession to foster pro-French sentiment and may ultimately have induced King Charles II
to name Louis's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou, heir to the Spanish throne.[88] In exchange for financial compensation, France
renounced its interests in the Electorate of Cologne and the Palatinate. Lorraine, which had been occupied by the French since
1670, was returned to its rightful Duke Leopold, albeit with a right of way to the French military. William and Mary were
recognised as joint sovereigns of the British Isles, and Louis withdrew support for James II. The Dutch were given the right to
garrison forts in the Spanish Netherlands that acted as a protective barrier against possible French aggression. Though in some
respects the Treaty of Ryswick may appear a diplomatic defeat for Louis since he failed to place client rulers in control of the
Palatinate or the Electorate of Cologne, he did fulfil many of the aims laid down in his 1688 ultimatum.[89] In any case, peace in1697 was desirable to Louis, since France was exhausted from the costs of the war.
By the time of the Peace of Ryswick, the Spanish succession had been a source of concern to European leaders for well over forty
years. King Charles II ruled a vast empire comprising Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, the Spanish Netherlands, and numerous
Spanish colonies. He produced no children, however, and consequently had no direct heirs.
The principal claimants to the throne of Spain belonged to the ruling families of France and Austria. The French claim derived
from Louis XIV's mother Anne of Austria (the older sister of Philip IV of Spain) and his wife Maria Theresa (Philip IV's eldest
daughter). Based on the laws of primogeniture, France had the better claim as it originated from the eldest daughters in two
generations. However, their renunciation of succession rights complicated matters. In the case of Maria Theresa, nonetheless, the
renunciation was considered null and void owing to Spain's breach of her marriage contract with Louis. In contrast, no
renunciations tainted the claims of Emperor Leopold I's son Charles, Archduke of Austria, who was a grandson of Philip III's
youngest daughter Maria Anna. The English and Dutch feared that a French or Austrian-born Spanish king would threaten the
balance of power and thus preferred the Bavarian Prince Joseph Ferdinand, a grandson of Leopold I through his first wife
Margaret Theresa of Spain (the younger daughter of Philip IV).
In an attempt to avoid war, Louis signed the Treaty of the Hague with William III of England in 1698. This agreement divided
Spain's Italian territories between Louis's son le Grand Dauphin and Archduke Charles, with the rest of the empire awarded to
Joseph Ferdinand. William III consented to permitting the Dauphin's new territories to become part of France when the latter
Peace of Ryswick
War of the Spanish Succession
Causes and build-up to the war | 12 | 12 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Philip V of Spain
Louis in 1701
succeeded to his father's throne.[90] The signatories, however, omitted to consult the ruler
of these lands, and Charles II was passionately opposed to the dismemberment of his
empire. In 1699, he re-confirmed his 1693 will that named Joseph Ferdinand as his sole
successor.[91]
Six months later, Joseph Ferdinand died. Therefore, in 1700, Louis and William III
concluded a fresh partitioning agreement, the Treaty of London. This allocated Spain, the
Low Countries, and the Spanish colonies to the Archduke. The Dauphin would receive all
of Spain's Italian territories.[92] Charles II acknowledged that his empire could only remain
undivided by bequeathing it entirely to a Frenchman or an Austrian. Under pressure from
his German wife, Maria Anna of Neuburg, Charles II named Archduke Charles as his sole
heir.
On his deathbed in 1700, Charles II of Spain
unexpectedly changed his will. The clear
demonstration of French military superiority for
many decades before this time, the pro-French
faction at the court of Spain, and even Pope
Innocent XII convinced him that France was more likely to preserve his empire intact. He
thus offered the entire empire to the Dauphin's second son Philip, Duke of Anjou, provided
it remained undivided. Anjou was not in the direct line of French succession, thus his
accession would not cause a Franco-Spanish union.[92] If Anjou refused, the throne would
be offered to his younger brother Charles, Duke of Berry. If the Duke of Berry declined it,
it would go to Archduke Charles, then to the distantly related House of Savoy if Charles
declined it.[93]
Louis was confronted with a difficult choice. He could agree to a partition of the Spanish
possessions and avoid a general war, or accept Charles II's will and alienate much of
Europe. He may initially have been inclined to abide by the partition treaties, but the
Dauphin's insistence persuaded him otherwise.[94] Moreover, Louis's foreign minister,Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy, pointed out that war with the Emperor would
almost certainly ensue whether Louis accepted the partition treaties or Charles II's will. He
emphasised that, should it come to war, William III was unlikely to stand by France since
he "made a treaty to avoid war and did not intend to go to war to implement the treaty".[91] Indeed, in the event of war, it might be
preferable to be already in control of the disputed lands. Eventually, therefore, Louis decided to accept Charles II's will. Philip,
Duke of Anjou, thus became Philip V, King of Spain.
Most European rulers accepted Philip as king, some reluctantly. Depending on one's views of the war's inevitability, Louis acted
reasonably or arrogantly.[95] He confirmed that Philip V retained his French rights despite his new Spanish position. Admittedly,
he may only have been hypothesising a theoretical eventuality and not attempting a Franco-Spanish union. But his actions were
certainly not read as disinterested. Moreover, Louis sent troops to the Spanish Netherlands to evict Dutch garrisons and secure
Dutch recognition of Philip V. In 1701, Philip transferred the asiento (the right to supply slaves to Spanish colonies) to France, as
a sign of the two nations' growing connections. As tensions mounted, Louis decided to acknowledge James Stuart, the son of
James II, as King of England, Scotland and Ireland on the latter's death, infuriating William III. These actions enraged Britain and
the Dutch Republic.[96] With the Holy Roman Emperor and the petty German states, they formed another Grand Alliance and
declared war on France in 1702. French diplomacy secured Bavaria, Portugal, and Savoy as Franco-Spanish allies.[97]
Even before war was officially declared, hostilities began with Imperial aggression in Italy. Once finally declared, the War of the
Spanish Succession lasted almost until Louis's death, at great cost to him and France.
The war began with French successes, but the talents of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, and Eugene of Savoy checked
these victories and broke the myth of French invincibility. The duo allowed the Palatinate and Austria to occupy Bavaria after
their victory at the Battle of Blenheim. Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, had to flee to the Spanish Netherlands. The
Acceptance of the will of Charles II and consequences
Commencement of fighting | 13 | 13 | wikipedia5.pdf |
The Franco-Spanish army led by the
Duke of Berwick defeated decisively
the Alliance forces of Portugal,
England, and the Dutch Republic at
the Battle of Almansa.
The Battle of Ramillies where the
French fought the Dutch and British,
23 May 1706
Louis XIV depicted on a Louis d'or in
1709
Map of France after the death of
Louis XIV
impact of this victory won the support of Portugal and Savoy. Later, the Battle of Ramillies
delivered the Low Countries to the Allies, and the Battle of Turin forced Louis to evacuate
Italy, leaving it open to Allied forces. Marlborough and Eugene met again at the Battle of
Oudenarde, which enabled them to invade France.
France established contact with Francis II Rákóczi and promised support if he took up the
cause of Hungarian independence.
Defeats, famine, and mounting debt greatly weakened France. Between 1693 and 1710,
over two million people died in two famines, made worse as foraging armies seized food
supplies from the villages.[98] In desperation, Louis ordered a disastrous invasion of theEnglish island of Guernsey in the autumn of 1704 with the aim of raiding their successful
harvest. By the winter of 1708–09, he was willing to accept peace at nearly any cost. He
agreed that the entire Spanish empire should be surrendered to Archduke Charles, and also
consented to return to the frontiers of the Peace of Westphalia, giving up all the territories
he had acquired over 60 years. But he could not promise that Philip V would accept these
terms, so the Allies demanded that Louis single-handedly attack his grandson to force
these terms on him. If he could not achieve this within the year, the war would resume.
Louis would not accept these terms.[99]
The final phases of the War of the Spanish Succession demonstrated that the Allies could
not maintain Archduke Charles in Spain just as surely as France could not retain the entire
Spanish inheritance for Philip V. The Allies were definitively expelled from central Spain
by the Franco-Spanish victories at the Battles of Villaviciosa and Brihuega in 1710.
French forces elsewhere remained obdurate despite their defeats. The Allies suffered a
Pyrrhic victory at the Battle of Malplaquet with 21,000 casualties, twice that of the
French.[100] Eventually, France recovered its military pride with the decisive victory at
Denain in 1712.
French military successes near the end of the war took place against the background of a
changed political situation in Austria. In 1705, Emperor Leopold I died. His elder son and
successor, Joseph I, followed him in 1711. His heir was none other than Archduke Charles,
who secured control of all of his brother's Austrian landholdings. If the Spanish empire
then fell to him, it would have resurrected a domain as vast as Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V's in the 16th century. To the maritime powers of Great Britain and the Dutch
Republic, this would have been as undesirable as a Franco-Spanish union.[101]
As a result of the fresh British perspective on the European balance of power, Anglo-
French talks began, culminating in the 1713 Peace of Utrecht between Louis, Philip V of
Spain, Anne of Great Britain, and the Dutch Republic. In 1714, after losing Landau and
Freiburg, the Holy Roman Emperor also made peace with France in the Treaties of Rastatt
and Baden.
In the general settlement, Philip V retained Spain and its colonies, while Austria received
the Spanish Netherlands and divided Spanish Italy with Savoy. Britain kept Gibraltar and
Menorca. Louis agreed to withdraw his support for James Stuart, son of James II and
pretender to the thrones of Great Britain and Ireland, and ceded Newfoundland, Rupert's
Land, and Acadia in the Americas to Anne. Britain gained the most from the treaty, but the
final terms were much more favourable to France than those being discussed in peace
Turning point
Conclusion of peace | 14 | 14 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Wedding of Louis and Maria
Theresa
Dual Cypher of King
Louis XIV & Queen Marie
Thérèse
Louis XIV encouraged Catholic
missions through the creation of the
Paris Foreign Missions Society
negotiations in 1709 and 1710. France retained Île-Saint-Jean and Île Royale, and Louis acquired a few minor European
territories, such as the Principality of Orange and the Ubaye Valley, which covered transalpine passes into Italy. Thanks to Louis,
his allies the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne were restored to their prewar status and returned their lands.[102]
Louis and his wife Maria Theresa of Spain had six children from the marriage contracted
for them in 1660. However, only one child, the eldest, survived to adulthood: Louis, le
Grand Dauphin, known as Monseigneur. Maria Theresa died in 1683, whereupon Louis
remarked that she had never caused him unease on any other occasion.
Despite evidence of affection early on in their marriage, Louis was never faithful to Maria
Theresa. He took a series of mistresses, both official and unofficial. Among the better
documented are Louise de La Vallière (with whom he had five children; 1661–1667),
Bonne de Pons d'Heudicourt (1665), Catherine Charlotte de Gramont (1665), Françoise-
Athénaïs, Marquise de Montespan (with whom he had seven children; 1667–1680), Anne
de Rohan-Chabot (1669–1675), Claude de Vin des Œillets (one child born in 1676),
Isabelle de Ludres (1675–1678), and Marie Angélique de Scorailles (1679–1681), who died at age
19 in childbirth. Through these liaisons, he produced numerous illegitimate children, most of
whom he married to members of cadet branches of the royal family.
Louis proved relatively more faithful to his second wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de
Maintenon. He first met her through her work caring for his children by Madame de Montespan,
noting the care she gave to his favourite, Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine.[103] The king was, atfirst, put off by her strict religious practice, but he warmed to her through her care for his
children.[103]
When he legitimized his children by Madame de Montespan on 20 December 1673, Françoise
d'Aubigné became the royal governess at Saint-Germain.[103] As governess, she was one of very
few people permitted to speak to him as an equal, without limits.[103] It is believed that they were
married secretly at Versailles on or around 10 October 1683[104] or January 1684.[105] This
marriage, though never announced or publicly discussed, was an open secret and lasted until his
death.[106]
Louis was a pious and devout king who saw himself as the head and protector of the
Catholic Church in France. He made his devotions daily regardless of where he was,
following the liturgical calendar regularly.[107] Under the influence of his very religious
second wife, he became much stronger in the practice of his Catholic faith.[108] This
included banning opera and comedy performances during Lent.[108]
Towards the middle and the end of his reign, the centre for the King's religious
observances was usually the Chapelle Royale at Versailles. Ostentation was a
distinguishing feature of daily Mass, annual celebrations, such as those of Holy Week, and
special ceremonies.[109] Louis established the Paris Foreign Missions Society, but his
informal alliance with the Ottoman Empire was criticised for undermining
Christendom.[110]
Louis generously supported the royal court of France and those who worked under him. He brought the Académie Française
under his patronage and became its "Protector". He allowed Classical French literature to flourish by protecting such writers as
Molière, Racine, and La Fontaine, whose works remain influential to this day. Louis also patronised the visual arts by funding and
commissioning artists such as Charles Le Brun, Pierre Mignard, Antoine Coysevox, and Hyacinthe Rigaud, whose works became
Personal life
Marriages and children
Piety and religion
Patronage of the arts | 15 | 15 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Painting from 1667 depicting Louis
as patron of the fine arts
The Cour royale and the Cour de
marbre at Versailles
Bust of Louis XIV by Gianlorenzo
Bernini
famous throughout Europe. Composers and musicians such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jacques
Champion de Chambonnières, and François Couperin thrived. In 1661, Louis founded the
Académie Royale de Danse, and in 1669, the Académie d'Opéra, important driving events
in the evolution of ballet. He also attracted, supported and patronized such artists as André
Charles Boulle, who revolutionised marquetry with his art of inlay, today known as
"Boulle work". Always on the lookout for new talent, the king launched music
competitions: in 1683, Michel-Richard de Lalande thus became deputy master of the Royal
Chapel, composing his Symphonies for the Soupers du Roy along with 77 large scale
Grand Motets.
Over the course of four building campaigns, Louis converted a hunting lodge
commissioned by Louis XIII into the spectacular Palace of Versailles. Except for the
current Royal Chapel (built near the end of his reign), the palace achieved much of its
current appearance after the third building campaign, which was followed by an official
move of the royal court to Versailles on 6 May 1682. Versailles became a dazzling, awe-
inspiring setting for state affairs and the reception of foreign dignitaries. At Versailles, the
king alone commanded attention.
Several reasons have been suggested for the
creation of the extravagant and stately palace, as
well as the relocation of the monarchy's seat. The
memoirist Saint-Simon speculated that Louis
viewed Versailles as an isolated power centre where
treasonous cabals could be more readily discovered and foiled.[62] There has also been
speculation that the revolt of the Fronde caused Louis to hate Paris, which he abandoned
for a country retreat, but his sponsorship of many public works in Paris, such as the
establishment of a police force and of street-lighting,[111] lend little credence to this theory.
As a further example of his continued care for the capital, Louis constructed the Hôtel des
Invalides, a military complex and home to this day for officers and soldiers rendered
infirm either by injury or old age. While pharmacology was still quite rudimentary in his
day, the Invalides pioneered new treatments and set new standards for hospice treatment.
The conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668 also induced Louis to demolish
Paris's northern walls in 1670 and replace them with wide tree-lined boulevards.[112]
Louis also renovated and improved the Louvre and other royal residences. Gian Lorenzo
Bernini was originally to plan additions to the Louvre; however, his plans would have meant the destruction of much of the
existing structure, replacing it with an Italian summer villa in the centre of Paris. Bernini's plans were eventually shelved in
favour of the elegant Louvre Colonnade designed by three Frenchmen: Louis Le Vau, Charles Le Brun, and Claude Perrault. With
the relocation of the court to Versailles, the Louvre was given over to the arts and the public.[113] During his visit from Rome,
Bernini also executed a renowned portrait bust of the king.
Few rulers in world history have commemorated themselves in as grand a manner as Louis.[114] He cultivated his image as the
Sun King (le Roi Soleil), the centre of the universe "without equal". Louis used court ritual and the arts to validate and augment
his control over France. With his support, Colbert established from the beginning of Louis's personal reign a centralised and
institutionalised system for creating and perpetuating the royal image. The King was thus portrayed largely in majesty or at war,
notably against Spain. This portrayal of the monarch was to be found in numerous media of artistic expression, such as painting,
sculpture, theatre, dance, music, and the almanacs that diffused royal propaganda to the population at large.
Over his lifetime, Louis commissioned numerous works of art to portray himself, among them over 300 formal portraits. The
earliest portrayals of Louis already followed the pictorial conventions of the day in depicting the child king as the majestically
royal incarnation of France. This idealisation of the monarch continued in later works, which avoided depictions of the effect of
smallpox that Louis contracted in 1647. In the 1660s, Louis began to be shown as a Roman emperor, the god Apollo, or Alexander
the Great, as can be seen in many works of Charles Le Brun, such as sculpture, paintings, and the decor of major monuments.
Image and depiction
Evolution of royal portraiture | 16 | 16 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Bronze bust of Louis XIV. Circa
1660, by an unknown artist. From
Paris, France. The Victoria and
Albert Museum, London.
Le roi gouverne par lui-même,
modello for the central panel of the
ceiling of the Hall of Mirrors c. 1680
by Le Brun, (1619–1690)
The depiction of the king in this manner focused on
allegorical or mythological attributes, instead of
attempting to produce a true likeness. As Louis
aged, so too did the manner in which he was
depicted. Nonetheless, there was still a disparity
between realistic representation and the demands of
royal propaganda. There is no better illustration of
this than in Hyacinthe Rigaud's frequently-
reproduced Portrait of Louis XIV of 1701, in which
a 63-year-old Louis appears to stand on a set of
unnaturally young legs.[115]
Rigaud's portrait exemplified the height of royal
portraiture during Louis's reign. Although Rigaud
crafted a credible likeness of Louis, the portrait was
neither meant as an exercise in realism nor to
explore Louis's character. Certainly, Rigaud was
concerned with detail and depicted the king's
costume with great precision, down to his shoe
buckle.[116]
However, Rigaud intended to glorify the monarchy. Rigaud's original, now housed in the Louvre, was originally meant as a gift to
Louis's grandson, Philip V of Spain. However, Louis was so pleased with the work that he kept the original and commissioned a
copy to be sent to his grandson. That became the first of many copies, both in full and half-length formats, to be made by Rigaud,
often with the help of his assistants. The portrait also became a model for French royal and imperial portraiture down to the time
of Charles X over a century later. In his work, Rigaud proclaims Louis's exalted royal status through his elegant stance and
haughty expression, the royal regalia and throne, rich ceremonial fleur-de-lys robes, as well as the upright column in the
background, which, together with the draperies, serves to frame this image of majesty.
In addition to portraits, Louis commissioned at least 20 statues of himself in the 1680s, to stand in Paris and provincial towns as
physical manifestations of his rule. He also commissioned "war artists" to follow him on campaigns to document his military
triumphs. To remind the people of these triumphs, Louis erected permanent triumphal arches in Paris and the provinces for the
first time since the decline of the Roman Empire.
Louis's reign marked the birth and infancy of the art of medallions. Sixteenth-century rulers had often issued medals in small
numbers to commemorate the major events of their reigns. Louis, however, struck more than 300 to celebrate the story of the king
in bronze, that were enshrined in thousands of households throughout France.
He also used tapestries as a medium of exalting the monarchy. Tapestries could be allegorical, depicting the elements or seasons,
or realist, portraying royal residences or historical events. They were among the most significant means to spread royal
propaganda prior to the construction of the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.[117]
Louis loved ballet and frequently danced in court ballets during the early half of his reign. In general, Louis was an eager dancer
who performed 80 roles in 40 major ballets. This approaches the career of a professional ballet dancer.[118]
His choices were strategic and varied. He danced four parts in three of Molière's comédies-ballets, which are plays accompanied
by music and dance. Louis played an Egyptian in Le Mariage forcé in 1664, a Moorish gentleman in Le Sicilien in 1667, and both
Neptune and Apollo in Les Amants magnifiques in 1670.
He sometimes danced leading roles that were suitably royal or godlike (such as Neptune, Apollo, or the Sun).[118] At other times,
he would adopt mundane roles before appearing at the end in the lead role. It is considered that, at all times, he provided his roles
with sufficient majesty and drew the limelight with his flair for dancing.[118] For Louis, ballet may not have merely been a tool for
manipulation in his propaganda machinery. The sheer number of performances he gave as well as the diversity of roles he played
may serve to indicate a deeper understanding and interest in the art form.[118][119]
Other works of art
Ballet | 17 | 17 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Louis XIV as Apollo in the Ballet
Royal de la Nuit (1653)
Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles
Ballet dancing was used by Louis as a political tool to hold power over his state. He
integrated ballet deeply into court social functions and fixated his nobles' attention on
upholding standards in ballet dancing, effectively distracting them from political
activities.[120] In 1661, the Royal Academy of Dance was founded by Louis to further his
ambition. Pierre Beauchamp, his private dance instructor, was ordered by Louis to come
up with a notation system to record ballet performances, which he did with great success.
His work was adopted and published by Feuillet in 1700 as Choregraphie. This major
development in ballet played an important role in promoting French culture and ballet
throughout Europe during Louis's time.[121]
Louis greatly emphasized etiquettes in ballet dancing, evidently seen in "La belle danse"
(the French noble style). More challenging skills were required to perform this dance with
movements very much resembling court behaviours, as a way to remind the nobles of the
king's absolute power and their own status. All the details and rules were compressed in
five positions of the bodies codified by Beauchamp.[122]
Besides the official depiction and image of Louis, his subjects also followed a non-official
discourse consisting mainly of clandestine publications, popular songs, and rumours that
provided an alternative interpretation of Louis and his government. They often focused on
the miseries arising from poor government, but also carried the hope for a better future
when Louis escaped the malignant influence of his ministers and mistresses, and took the
government into his own hands. On the other hand, petitions addressed either directly to
Louis or to his ministers exploited the traditional imagery and language of monarchy.
These varying interpretations of Louis abounded in self-contradictions that reflected the
people's amalgamation of their everyday experiences with the idea of monarchy.[123]
Alexandre Dumas portrayed Louis in his two sequels to his 1844 novel The Three Musketeers: first as a child inTwenty Years After (1845), then as a young man in The Vicomte de Bragelonne (1847–1850), in which he is acentral character. The final part of the latter novel recounts the legend that a mysterious prisoner in an iron maskwas actually Louis's twin brother and has spawned numerous film adaptations generally titled The Man in the IronMask.
In 1910, the American historical novelist Charles Major wrote "The Little King: A Story of the Childhood of KingLouis XIV".
Louis is a major character in the 1959 historical novel Angélique et le Roy ("Angélique and the King"), part of theAngélique series. The protagonist, a strong-willed lady at Versailles, rejects the King's advances and refuses tobecome his mistress. A later book, the 1961 Angélique se révolte ("Angélique in Revolt"), details the direconsequences of her defying this powerful monarch.
A character based on Louis plays an important role in The Age of Unreason, a series of four alternate historynovels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes.
Louis features significantly in Neal Stephenson's Baroque Cycle, specifically in the 2003 novel The Confusion, thegreater part of which takes place at Versailles.
In the 39 Clues series universe, it has been noted that Louis was part of the Cahill branch, Tomas.
He is called the son of Apollo in Rick Riordan's Trials of Apollo series.
Louis XIV is portrayed in Vonda N. McIntyre's 1997 novel The Moon and the Sun.
The film, The Taking of Power by Louis XIV (1966), directed by Roberto Rossellini, shows Louis's rise to powerafter the death of Cardinal Mazarin.
The film Man in the Iron Mask (1998), directed by Randall Wallace, focused on the identity of an anonymousmasked prisoner who spent decades in the Bastille and other French prisons, and his true identity remainssomewhat a mystery till date. The monarch was played by Leonardo DiCaprio.
Unofficial image
In fiction
Literature
Films | 18 | 18 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Louis XIV (seated) with his son le
Grand Dauphin (to the left), his
grandson Louis, Duke of Burgundy
(to the right), his great-grandson
Louis Duke of Anjou, and Madame
de Ventadour, Anjou's governess,
who commissioned this painting;
busts of Henry IV and Louis XIII are
in the background.
The Death of Louis XIV at the
Palace of Versailles, Thomas Jones
Barker, 1835-1840
The film, Le Roi Danse (2000; translated: The King Dances), directed by Gérard Corbiau, reveals Louis throughthe eyes of Jean-Baptiste Lully, his court musician.
Julian Sands portrayed Louis in Roland Jaffe's Vatel (2000).
Alan Rickman directed, co-wrote, and stars as Louis XIV in the film, A Little Chaos, which centres on constructionin the gardens of Versaille, at the time immediately before and after the death of Queen Maria Theresa.
The 2016 film The Death of Louis XIV, directed by Albert Serra, is set during the last two weeks of Louis XIV's lifebefore dying of gangrene, with the monarch played by Jean-Pierre Léaud.
Louis XIV is portrayed by Thierry Perkins-Lyautey in the British television film Charles II: The Power and thePassion.
The 15-year-old Louis XIV, as played by the Irish actor Robert Sheehan, is a major character of the short-livedhistorical fantasy series Young Blades from January to June 2005.
George Blagden portrays Louis XIV in the Canal+ series Versailles which aired for three seasons from 2015.
Emmanuel Moire portrayed Louis XIV in the 2005-07 Kamel Ouali musical Le Roi Soleil.
Despite the image of a healthy and virile king that Louis sought to project, evidence exists
to suggest that his health was not very good. He had many ailments: for example,
symptoms of diabetes, as confirmed in reports of suppurating periostitis in 1678, dental
abscesses in 1696, along with recurring boils, fainting spells, gout, dizziness, hot flushes,
and headaches.
From 1647 to 1711, the three chief physicians to the king (Antoine Vallot, Antoine
d'Aquin, and Guy-Crescent Fagon) recorded all of his health problems in the Journal de
Santé du Roi (Journal of the King's Health), a daily report of his health. On 18 November
1686, Louis underwent a painful operation for an anal fistula that was performed by the
surgeon Charles Felix de Tassy, who prepared a specially shaped curved scalpel for the
occasion. The wound took more than two months to heal.[124]
Louis died of gangrene at Versailles on 1 September 1715, four days before his 77th
birthday, after 72 years on the throne. Enduring much pain in his last days, he finally
"yielded up his soul without any effort, like a candle going out", while reciting the psalm
Deus, in adjutorium me festina (O Lord, make haste to help me).[125] His body was laid to
rest in Saint-Denis Basilica outside Paris. It remained there undisturbed for about 80 years
until revolutionaries exhumed and destroyed all of the remains found in the Basilica.[126]
In 1848, at Nuneham House, a piece of Louis's mummified heart, taken from his tomb and
kept in a silver locket by Lord Harcourt, Archbishop of York, was shown to the Dean of
Westminster, William Buckland, who ate a part of it.[127]
Cardinal Armand Gaston Maximilien de Rohan gave Last Rites (confession, viaticum, and
unction) to king Louis XIV.[128]
Louis outlived most of his immediate legitimate family. His last surviving legitimate son,
Louis, Dauphin of France, died in 1711. Barely a year later, the Duke of Burgundy, the
eldest of the Dauphin's three sons and then heir-apparent to Louis, followed his father.
Burgundy's elder son, Louis, Duke of Brittany, joined them a few weeks later. Thus, on his
deathbed, Louis's heir-apparent was his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis, Duke of Anjou, Burgundy's younger son.
Louis foresaw an underaged successor and sought to restrict the power of his nephew Philip II, Duke of Orléans, who, as his
closest surviving legitimate relative in France, would probably become regent to the prospective Louis XV. Accordingly, the king
created a regency council as Louis XIII had in anticipation of Louis XIV's own minority, with some power vested in his
Television
Musicals
Health and death
Succession | 19 | 19 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Territorial expansion of France
under Louis XIV (1643–1715) is
depicted in orange.
illegitimate son Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, Duke of Maine.[129] Orléans, however, had Louis's will annulled by the Parlement of
Paris after his death and made himself sole regent. He stripped Maine and his brother, Louis-Alexandre, Count of Toulouse, of
the rank of Prince of the Blood, which Louis had granted them, and significantly reduced Maine's power and privileges.[130]
Line of succession to the French throne upon the death of Louis XIV in 1715. Louis XIV's only surviving legitimate grandson,
Philip V, was not included in the line of succession due to having renounced the French throne after the war of the Spanish
Succession, which lasted for 13 years after the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700.[131]
Louis XIII (1601–1643)
Louis XIV (1638–1715)Louis, Grand Dauphin (1661–1711)Louis, Duke of Burgundy (1682–1712)Louis, Duke of Brittany (1707–1712)(1) Louis, Duke of Anjou (1710–1774)Philip V of Spain (1683–1746)Charles, Duke of Berry (1686–1714)Philippe I, Duke of Orléans (1640–1701)(2) Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (1674–1723)(3) Louis, Duke of Chartres (1703–1752)
Further down the French line of succession in 1715 was the House of Condé, followed by the House of Conti (a cadet branch of
the House of Condé). Both of these royal houses were descended in the male line from Henri II, Prince of Condé, a second cousin
of French King Louis XIII (the father of Louis XIV) in the male line.
According to Philippe de Courcillon's Journal, Louis on his deathbed advised his heir with these words:
Do not follow the bad example which I have set you; I have often undertaken war too lightly and have sustained it for
vanity. Do not imitate me, but be a peaceful prince, and may you apply yourself principally to the alleviation of the
burdens of your subjects.[132]
Some historians point out that it was a customary demonstration of piety in those days to
exaggerate one's sins. Thus they do not place much emphasis on Louis's deathbed
declarations in assessing his accomplishments. Rather, they focus on military and
diplomatic successes, such as how he placed a French prince on the Spanish throne. This,
they contend, ended the threat of an aggressive Spain that historically interfered in
domestic French politics. These historians also emphasise the effect of Louis's wars in
expanding France's boundaries and creating more defensible frontiers that preserved
France from invasion until the Revolution.[132]
Arguably, Louis also applied himself indirectly to "the alleviation of the burdens of [his]
subjects." For example, he patronised the arts, encouraged industry, fostered trade and
commerce, and sponsored the founding of an overseas empire. Moreover, the significant
reduction in civil wars and aristocratic rebellions during his reign are seen by these
historians as the result of Louis's consolidation of royal authority over feudal elites. In their analysis, his early reforms centralised
France and marked the birth of the modern French state. They regard the political and military victories as well as numerous
cultural achievements as how Louis helped raise France to a preeminent position in Europe.[133] Europe came to admire France
for its military and cultural successes, power, and sophistication. Europeans generally began to emulate French manners, values,
goods, and deportment. French became the universal language of the European elite.
Louis's detractors have argued that his considerable foreign, military and domestic expenditure impoverished and bankrupted
France. His supporters, however, distinguish the state, which was impoverished, from France, which was not. As supporting
evidence, they cite the literature of the time, such as the social commentary in Montesquieu's Persian Letters.[134]
Line of succession in 1715
Legacy
Reputation | 20 | 20 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Royal procession passing the Pont-
Neuf under Louis XIV
Alternatively, Louis's critics attribute the social upheaval culminating in the French Revolution to his failure to reform French
institutions while the monarchy was still secure. Other scholars counter that there was little reason to reform institutions that
largely worked well under Louis. They also maintain that events occurring almost 80 years after his death were not reasonably
foreseeable to Louis and that in any case, his successors had sufficient time to initiate reforms of their own.[135]
Louis has often been criticised for his vanity. The memoirist Saint-Simon, who claimed
that Louis slighted him, criticised him thus:
There was nothing he liked so much as flattery, or, to put it more plainly,
adulation; the coarser and clumsier it was, the more he relished it.
For his part, Voltaire saw Louis's vanity as the cause for his bellicosity:
It is certain that he passionately wanted glory, rather than the conquests
themselves. In the acquisition of Alsace and half of Flanders, and of all of
Franche-Comté, what he really liked was the name he made for himself.[136]
Nonetheless, Louis has also received praise. The anti-Bourbon Napoleon described him not only as "a great king", but also as "the
only King of France worthy of the name".[137] Leibniz, the German Protestant philosopher, commended him as "one of the
greatest kings that ever was".[138] And Lord Acton admired him as "by far the ablest man who was born in modern times on the
steps of a throne".[139] The historian and philosopher Voltaire wrote: "His name can never be pronounced without respect and
without summoning the image of an eternally memorable age".[140] Voltaire's history, The Age of Louis XIV, named Louis's reign
as not only one of the four great ages in which reason and culture flourished, but the greatest ever.[141][142]
Numerous quotes have been attributed to Louis XIV by legend.
The well-known "I am the state" ("L'État, c'est moi.") was reported from at least the late 18th century.[143] It was widely repeated
but also denounced as apocryphal by the early 19th century.[144][b][145]
Quotes | 21 | 21 | wikipedia5.pdf |
He did say, "Every time I appoint someone to a vacant position, I make a hundred unhappy and one ungrateful."[146][147] Louis is
recorded by numerous eyewitnesses as having said on his deathbed: "Je m'en vais, mais l'État demeurera toujours." ("I depart, but
the State shall always remain.")[148]
Coat of arms of Louis XIV
NotesUpon his accession to the throne Louis assumed the royal coat of arms of France &
Navarre.[149]
Adopted1643–1715Crest The Royal crown of FranceHelmAn opened gold helmet, with blue and gold mantling.EscutcheonAzure, three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) impaling Gules on a chain in cross saltire and orleOr an emerald Proper (for Navarre).SupportersThe two supporters are two angels, acting as heralds for the two realms. The dexter angelcarries a standard with the arms of France, and wears a tabard with the same arms. Thesinister angel also carries a standard and wears a tabard, but that of Navarre. Both arestanding on puffs of cloud.MottoThe motto is written in gold on a blue ribbon: MONTJOIE SAINT DENIS the war cry ofFrance, Saint Denis was also the abbey where the oriflamme was kept.OrdersThe escutcheons are surrounded first by the chain of the Order of Saint Michael and by thechain of the Order of the Holy Spirit, both were known as the ordres du roi.Other elementsAbove all is a pavilion armoyé with the Royal crown. From it, is a royal blue mantle with asemis of fleurs-de-lis Or, lined on the inside with ermine.Banner
Royal standard of the king
On 5 April 1693, Louis also founded the Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis (French: Ordre Royal et Militaire de Saint-
Louis), a military order of chivalry.[150][151] He named it after Louis IX and intended it as a reward for outstanding officers. It is
notable as the first decoration that could be granted to non-nobles and is roughly the forerunner of the Légion d'honneur, with
which it shares the red ribbon (though the Légion d'honneur is awarded to military personnel and civilians alike).
Ancestors of Louis XIV
8. Antoine of Navarre[154]
4. Henry IV of France[152]
9. Jeanne III of Navarre[154]
2. Louis XIII of France
10. Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany[155]
5. Marie de' Medici[152]
11. Joanna of Austria[155]
1. Louis XIV of France
Arms
Order of Saint Louis
Family
Ancestry | 22 | 22 | wikipedia5.pdf |
12. Philip II of Spain[156]
6. Philip III of Spain[153]
13. Anna of Austria[156]
3. Anne of Austria
14. Charles II, Archduke of Inner Austria[157]
7. Margaret of Austria[153]
15. Maria Anna of Bavaria[157]
Patrilineal descent
Patrilineal descent | 23 | 23 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Louis' patriline is the line from which he is descended from father to son.
Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the
generations - which means that if King Louis were to choose a historically accurate house name it would be
Robertian, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house.
Louis is a member of the House of Bourbon, a branch of the Capetian dynasty and of the Robertians.
Louis' patriline is the line from which he is descended from father to son. It follows the Bourbon kings of France, and
the Counts of Paris and Worms. This line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the
present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of
Luxembourg, Princes of Orléans and Emperors of Brazil. It is one of the oldest in Europe.
1. Robert II of Worms and Rheingau (Robert of Hesbaye), 770–807
2. Robert III of Worms and Rheingau, 808–834
3. Robert IV the Strong, 820–866
4. Robert I of France, 866–923
5. Hugh the Great, 895–956
6. Hugh Capet, 941–996
7. Robert II of France, 972–1031
8. Henry I of France, 1008–1060
9. Philip I of France, 1053–1108
10. Louis VI of France, 1081–1137
11. Louis VII of France, 1120–1180
12. Philip II of France, 1165–1223
13. Louis VIII of France, 1187–1226
14. Louis IX of France, 1214–1270
15. Robert, Count of Clermont, 1256–1317
16. Louis I, Duke of Bourbon, 1279–1342
17. James I, Count of La Marche, 1319–1362
18. John I, Count of La Marche, 1344–1393
19. Louis, Count of Vendôme, 1376–1446
20. Jean VIII, Count of Vendôme, 1428–1478
21. François, Count of Vendôme, 1470–1495
22. Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, 1489–1537
23. Antoine, King of Navarre, Duke of Vendôme, 1518–1562
24. Henry IV, King of France and of Navarre, 1553–1610
25. Louis XIII, King of France and Navarre, 1601–1643
26. Louis XIV, King of France and Navarre, 1638–1715
Name Birth Death Notes
By Maria Theresa, Infanta of Spain, Archduchess of Austria, Queen of France and of Navarre (20 September 1638 – 30 July 1683)
Louis, le Grand Dauphin 1 November 1661 14 April 1711 Fils de France. Dauphin of France (1661–1711). Had issue.Father of Louis, Dauphin of France, Philip V of Spain andCharles, Duke of Berry. Grandfather of Louis XV of France
Anne Élisabeth 18 November 1662 30 December 1662 Fille de France. Died in infancy.
Marie Anne 16 November 1664 26 December 1664 Fille de France. Died in infancy.
Marie Thérèse 2 January 1667 1 March 1672 Fille de France. Known as Madame Royale and la PetiteMadame. Died in childhood.
Philippe Charles, Duke of Anjou 5 August 1668 10 July 1671 Fils de France. Died in childhood.
Louis François, Duke of Anjou 14 June 1672 4 November 1672 Fils de France. Died in infancy.
This is an incomplete list of Louis XIV's illegitimate children. He reputedly had more, but the difficulty in fully documenting all
such births restricts the list only to the better-known and/or legitimised.
Issue | 24 | 24 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Name Birth Death Notes
By NN, a gardener
Daughter 1660 unknown She married N de la Queue, a sentry.[158]
By Louise de La Vallière (6 August 1644 – 6 June 1710)
Charles de LaBaume Le Blanc 19 December1663 15 July 1665(aged 1) Not legitimised.
Philippe de LaBaume Le Blanc 7 January1665 1666 (aged 1) Not legitimised.
Marie Anne deBourbon 2 October1666 3 May 1739(aged 73) Legitimised on 14 May 1667. Married Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti.
Louis, Count ofVermandois 3 October1667
18 November1683 (aged16) Legitimised on 20 February 1669. Held the office of Admiral of France.
By Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan (5 October 1641 – 27 May 1707)
Louise Françoisede Bourbon at the end ofMarch 1669 23 February1672 (aged 2)
Louis Auguste,Duke of Maine 31 March1670 14 May 1736(aged 66)
Legitimised on 20 December 1673. Held numerous offices, of which: ColonelGeneral of the Suisses et Grisons, Governor of Languedoc, General of theGalleys, and Grand Master of Artillery. Also Duke of Aumale, Count of Eu andPrince of Dombes. Had issue. Founder of the Maine Line. Heir presumptive forseveral days.
Louis César, Countof Vexin 20 June1672
10 January1683 (aged10) Legitimised on 20 December 1673.
Louise Françoisede Bourbon 1 June 1673 16 June 1743(aged 70) Legitimised on 20 December 1673. Married Louis III, Prince of Condé. Hadissue.
Louise Marie Annede Bourbon 12 November1674 15 September1681 (aged 6) Legitimised in January 1676.
Françoise Marie deBourbon 9 February1677
1 February1749 (aged72)
Legitimised in November 1681. Married Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the Regentof France under Louis XV. Had issue.
Louis Alexandre,Count of Toulouse 6 June 1678 1 December1737 (aged59)
Legitimised on 22 November 1681. Held numerous offices, of which: Admiral ofFrance, Governor of Guyenne, Governor of Brittany, and Grand Huntsman ofFrance. Also Duke of Damville, of Rambouillet and of Penthièvre. Had issue.
by Claude de Vin, Mademoiselle des Œillets (1637 – 18 May 1687)
Louise deMaisonblanche c. 17 June1676
12 September1718 (aged42) In 1696 she married Bernard de Prez, Baron de La Queue.[159]
by Angélique de Fontanges (1661 – 28 June 1681)
Son January1680 January 1680(stillborn)
Daughter March 1681 March 1681(stillborn) Her existence is uncertain.
Charles de Lorme, personal medical doctor to Louis XIV
Fundamental laws of the Kingdom of France
House of France
Levée (ceremony)
List of French monarchs
Outline of France
Louis XIV style
Nicolas Fouquet
French forestry Ordinance of 1669
Potager du Roi
See also | 25 | 25 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Éléphante de Louis XIV
a. Some monarchs of states that were not fully sovereign for most or all of their reign ruled for longer. For example,Sobhuza II of Swaziland at 82 years and Bernard VII of Lippe in the Holy Roman Empire at 81 years.[2]
b. The anecdote as circulated after the French Revolution, designed to illustrate the tyrannical character of theabsolutism of the Ancien Régime, held that the president of the parlement began to address the king with thewords Sire, l'État [...] but was cut off by the king interjecting L'État, c'est moi.
1. "Louis XIV" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091028021603/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572792/Louis_XIV.html). MSN Encarta. 2008. Archived from the original (https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572792/Louis_XIV.html) on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2008.
2. Buchanan, Rose Troup (29 August 2015). "Longest serving rulers ever" (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/queen-elizabeth-ii-to-become-britains-longest-reigning-monarch-longest-serving-rulers-ever-10477985.html).The Independent. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200214161336/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/queen-elizabeth-ii-to-become-britains-longest-reigning-monarch-longest-serving-rulers-ever-10477985.html)from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
3. Spielvogel 2016, p. 419.
4. "Louis XIV" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09371a.htm). Catholic Encyclopedia. 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211216230840/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09371a.htm) from the original on 16December 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
5. Nathan 1993, pp. 633–649.
6. Nathan 1993, p. 633.
7. Brémond, Henri (1908). La Provence mystique au XVIIe siècle (https://archive.org/details/laprovencemysti00bremgoog) (in French). Paris, France: Plon-Nourrit. pp. 381 (https://archive.org/details/laprovencemysti00bremgoog/page/n415)–382.
8. Bluche 1990, p. 11.
9. Barentine 2016, p. 129.
10. Panhuysen 2016, p. 26.
11. Fraser 2006, pp. 14–16.
12. Petitfils 2002, pp. 30–40
13. Reinhardt 2016, p. 20.
14. Kleinman 1985, p. 145.
15. Bély 2001, p. 57.
16. Sonnino 1998, pp. 217–218.
17. Petitfils 2002, pp. 34–37
18. Petitfils 2002, pp. 29–36
19. Beem 2018, p. 83.
20. Barentine 2016, p. 131.
21. Dvornik 1962, p. 456.
22. Kleinman 1985, p. .
23. Petitfils 2002, pp. 70–75
24. Petitfils 2002, pp. 80–85
25. Blanning 2008, p. 306.
26. Petitfils 2002, pp. 84–87.
27. Petitfils 2002, pp. 88–90, 91–98.
28. Hatton 1972, p. 22.
29. Hatton 1972, p. 31.
30. Hatton 1972, p. 18.
31. Petitfils 2002, pp. 148–150.
32. Bluche 1990, pp. 128–129.
33. "Louis XIV - the Sun King: Absolutism" (http://www.louis-xiv.de/index.php?id=30). louis-xiv.de. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131028092402/http://louis-xiv.de/index.php?id=30) from the original on 28 October 2013.Retrieved 6 December 2013.
Notes
References | 26 | 26 | wikipedia5.pdf |
34. Dunlop 2000, p. xii.
35. Petitfils 2002, pp. 250–253, 254–260.
36. Merryman 2007, p. .
37. Antoine 1989, p. 33.
38. Petitfils 2002, pp. 223–225
39. Wolf 1968, p. 117.
40. Dunlop 2000, p. 54.
41. Israel 1990, pp. 197–199.
42. Hutton 1986, pp. 299–300.
43. Lynn 1999, pp. 109–110.
44. McKay 1997, p. 206.
45. Young 2004, p. 133.
46. Black 2011, pp. 97–99.
47. Panhuysen 2009, pp. 396–398.
48. Frost 2000, p. 213.
49. Panhuysen 2009, pp. 451.
50. Lynn 1999, pp. 161–171.
51. Merriman 2019, p. 319.
52. Bailey 2018, p. 14.
53. Faroqhi, Suraiya (2006). The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 73 (https://books.google.com/books?id=oMHwBktE9MMC&pg=PA73). ISBN 978-1-8451-1122-9.
54. Bluche 1986, p. 439.
55. Keay 1994, pp. 201–204.
56. Pagani 2001, p. 182.
57. Sullivan, Michael (1989). The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art. University of California Press. p. 98 (https://books.google.com/books?id=8pLhEWdaMvEC&pg=PA98). ISBN 978-0-5202-1236-7.
58. Barnes 2005, p. 85.
59. Mungello 2005, p. 125 (https://archive.org/details/greatencounterof0000mung_m1v1/page/125).
60. Philip Mansel, King of the World: The Life of Louis XIV (2020) cited in Tim Blanning, "Solar Power," The WallStreet Journal, 17 October 2020, p. C9.
61. Saint-Simon, Louis de Rouvroy, duc de (1876). The Memoirs of the Duke de Saint-Simon on the Reign of LouisXIV. and the Regency (https://books.google.com/books?id=-EM_AAAAYAAJ). Vol. 2. Translated by St. John,Bayle. London: Chatto and Windus. pp. 363, 365. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230713192807/https://books.google.com/books?id=-EM_AAAAYAAJ) from the original on 13 July 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
62. Halsall, Paul (August 1997). "Modern History Sourcebook: Duc de Saint-Simon: The Court of Louis XIV" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080410084543/http://www.fordham.edu/HALSALL/mod/17stsimon.html). Internet ModernHistory Sourcebook. History Department of Fordham University. Archived from the original (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/17stsimon.html) on 10 April 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
63. Daubenton, Louis-Jean-Marie (2009) [1755]. "Elephant" (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/did2222.0000.944/--elephant?rgn=main;view=fulltext). Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Translated byEden, Malcolm. Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
64. Lynn 1999, p. 46.
65. Quoted in Symcox 1974, pp. 236–237
66. Quoted in Symcox 1974, pp. 237, 242
67. Sturdy 1998, pp. 89–99.
68. Sturdy 1998, pp. 92–93.
69. Sturdy 1998, p. 96, citing Pillorget, Suzanne; Pillorget, René (1996). France Baroque, France Classique (inFrench). Vol. I. Bouquins. p. 935. ISBN 978-2-2210-4868-9.
70. Nolan 2008, p. 132.
71. Sturdy 1998, pp. 96–97.
72. Bluche 1986, pp. 20–21.
73. "Louis XIV, king of France" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080107232540/http://www.bartleby.com/65/lo/Louis14Fr.html). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). 2007. Archived from the original (http://www.bartleby.com/65/lo/Louis14Fr.html) on 7 January 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
74. Sturdy 1998, p. 98, citing Scoville, Warren C. (1960). The Persecution of Huguenots and French EconomicDevelopment, 1680–1720. University of California Press. OCLC 707588406 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/707588406).
75. Edwards 2007, pp. 212–213. | 27 | 27 | wikipedia5.pdf |
76. Durant & Durant 1963, p. 691.
77. Lynn 1999, p. 192.
78. Dunlop 2000, p. 313.
79. Lynn 1999, pp. 189–191.
80. Lynn 1999, pp. 192–193.
81. Lynn 1999, p. .
82. Wijn 1950, pp. 28, 58, 71–72.
83. Lynn 1999, pp. 209, 227, 235.
84. Lynn 1999, p. 209.
85. Quoted in Terlinden, Ch. (1958). "Les rapports de l'internonce Piazza sur le bombardement de Bruxelles en 1695".Cahiers bruxellois (in French). III (II): 85–106. "aussi barbare qu'inutile"
86. Lynn 1999, p. 232.
87. Lynn 1999, p. 253.
88. Bluche 1986, p. 653.
89. Lossky 1994, p. 255.
90. Lynn 1999, p. 267.
91. Dunlop 2000, p. 353.
92. Lynn 1999, p. 268.
93. Kamen 2001, p. 6.
94. Dunlop 2000, p. 358.
95. Lynn 1999, p. 269, see footnote 1.
96. Lynn 1999, pp. 269–270.
97. Merryman 2007, p. 321.
98. Ó Gráda & Chevet 2002, pp. 706–733.
99. Lynn 1999, p. 326.
100. Lynn 1999, p. 334.
101. Lynn 1999, p. 342.
102. Lynn 1999, pp. 356–360.
103. Bryant 2004, p. 80.
104. Buckley 2008, p. 276.
105. Bryant 2004, p. 77.
106. Velde, François (11 November 2003). "Morganatic and Secret Marriages in the French Royal Family" (http://www.heraldica.org/topics/france/morganat.htm). Heraldica.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121230164725/http://www.heraldica.org/topics/france/morganat.htm) from the original on 30 December 2012. Retrieved 10 July2008. The description of the marriage as morganatic is inaccurate as French law does not define such marriages.
107. Wolf 1968, p. 280.
108. Bryant 2004, p. 83.
109. Gaudelus 2000, pp. 513–526.
110. Claydon 2007, p. 182.
111. Dunlop 2000, pp. 242–251.
112. Dunlop 2000, p. 247.
113. Bluche 1986, p. 497.
114. Burke 1992.
115. Perez 2003, pp. 62–95.
116. See also Schmitter, Amy M. (2002). "Representation and the Body of Power in French Academic Painting".Journal of the History of Ideas. 63 (3): 399–424. doi:10.1353/jhi.2002.0027 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjhi.2002.0027). ISSN 0022-5037 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5037). JSTOR 3654315 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3654315). S2CID 170904125 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170904125).
117. Sabatier 2000, p. 527–560.
118. Prest 2001, pp. 283–298.
119. See also Louis' commissioned academy of dance, discussed in Needham, Maureen (1997). "Louis XIV and theAcadémie Royale de Danse, 1661: A Commentary and Translation". Dance Chronicle. 20/2 (2): 173–190.doi:10.1080/01472529708569278 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01472529708569278). ISSN 0147-2526 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0147-2526). JSTOR 1568065 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1568065).
120. Homans 2010, p. 52.
121. Homans 2010, pp. 64–66.
122. Homans 2010, pp. 66–72. | 28 | 28 | wikipedia5.pdf |
123. Jens Ivo 2003, pp. 96–126.
124. Régnier 2009, p. 318.
125. Dunlop 2000, p. 468.
126. Schama 1990, p. 829.
127. "William Buckland" (https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/william-buckland). Westminster Abbey. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170724131211/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/william-buckland) from the original on 24 July 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
128. Marquis de Dangeau 1858.
129. Dunlop 2000, pp. 454–455.
130. Antoine 1989, pp. 33–37.
131. Holsti 1991, p. 74.
132. Bluche 1986, p. 890.
133. Dunlop 2000, p. 433, citing Montesquieu: "Louis established the greatness of France by building Versailles andMarly."
134. Bluche 1986, p. 876.
135. Bluche 1986, pp. 506, 877–878.
136. Sommerville, J. P. "The wars of Louis XIV" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120603010836/http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/351-14.htm). History 351 – Seventeenth-Century Europe. Archived from the original (http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/351-14.htm) on 3 June 2012. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
137. Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon's Notes on English History made on the Eve of the French Revolution, illustratedfrom Contemporary Historians and referenced from the findings of Later Research by Henry Foljambe Hall. NewYork: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1905, 258.
138. Bluche 1986, p. 926.
139. Durant & Durant 1963, p. 721.
140. Rogers Neill Sehnaoui 2013, p. 4.
141. Montoya 2013, p. 47.
142. Delon 2013, p. 1227.
143. Erhard, C. D. (1791). Betrachtungen über Leopolds des Weisen Gesetzgebung in Toscana [Reflections onLeopold's Wise Legislation in Toscana] (in German). Richter. p. 30 (https://books.google.com/books?id=q5hDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA30).
144. Marignié, Jean Etienne François (1818). Le roi ne peut jamais avoir tort, le roi ne peut mal faire [The king was notwrong, the king can do no wrong] (in French). Le Normant. p. 12 (https://books.google.com/books?id=P6gnAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA12).
145. "Staatswissenschaften". Jenaische Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (in German). 14.1 (31): 241 (https://books.google.com/books?id=fQwbAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA241). February 1817.
146. Blanning 2008, p. 286.
147. Wilson 2000, p. 54.
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Perez, Stanis (July–September 2003). "Les rides d'Apollon: l'évolution des portraits de Louis XIV" (https://doi.org/10.3917%2Frhmc.503.0062) [Apollo's Wrinkles: The Evolution of Portraits of Louis XIV]. Revue d'Histoire Moderne etContemporaine. 50 (3): 62–95. doi:10.3917/rhmc.503.0062 (https://doi.org/10.3917%2Frhmc.503.0062).ISSN 0048-8003 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-8003). JSTOR 20530984 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20530984).
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Prest, Julia (2001). "Dancing King: Louis XIV's Roles in Molière's Comedies-ballets, from Court to Town". SeventeenthCentury. 16 (2): 283–298. doi:10.1080/0268117X.2001.10555494 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0268117X.2001.10555494). ISSN 0268-117X (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0268-117X). S2CID 164147509 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164147509).
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Sturdy, David J. (1998). Louis XIV. St Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-3122-1427-2.
Wilson, Peter H. (2000). Absolutism in Central Europe. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-4152-3351-4.
Wolf, John B. (1968). Louis XIV (https://archive.org/details/louisxiv00wolf). W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.: a standardscholarly biography;
Young, William (2004). International Politics and Warfare in the Age of Louis XIV and Peter the Great. iUniverse.ISBN 978-0-5953-2992-2.
Wijn, J.W. (1950). Het Staatsche Leger: Deel VII (The Dutch States Army: Part VII) (in Dutch). Martinus Nijhoff.
Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 5 The Age of Louis XIV (1908), old, solid articles by scholars; complete text online (http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html#cmh1) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140210213151/http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html#cmh1) 10 February 2014 at the WaybackMachine
Lynn, John A. "Food, funds, and fortresses: resource mobilization and positional warfare in the campaigns of LouisXIV." in Feeding Mars: Logistics in Western Warfare from the Middle Ages to the Present (Taylor and Francis,2019) pp. 150–172.
Ashley, Maurice P. Louis XIV and the Greatness of France (1965) ISBN 0029010802
Beik, William. Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents (2000) ISBN 031213309X
Beik, William. "The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration." Past & Present 2005 (188): 195–224. online (https://muse.jhu.edu/article/188590) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240422210856/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/188590) 22 April 2024 at the Wayback Machine at Project MUSE
Campbell, Peter Robert. Louis XIV, 1661–1715 (London, 1993)
Church, William F., ed. The Greatness of Louis XIV. (1972).
Cowart, Georgia J. The Triumph of Pleasure: Louis XIV and the Politics of Spectacle University of Chicago Press,2008. ISBN 978-0-2261-1638-9
Cronin, Vincent. Louis XIV. London: HarperCollins, 1996. ISBN 978-1-8604-6092-0
Further reading | 32 | 32 | wikipedia5.pdf |
Félix, Joël. "'The most difficult financial matter that has ever presented itself': paper money and the financing ofwarfare under Louis XIV." Financial History Review 25.1 (2018): 43–70 online (http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/72452/2/The%20most%20difficult%20financial%20matter%20FH.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210226104833/http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/72452/2/The%20most%20difficult%20financial%20matter%20FH.pdf) 26February 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
Goubert, Pierre (197). Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen. social history from Annales School. ISBN 978-0-3947-1751-7.
Jones, Colin. The Great Nation: France from Louis XIV to Napoleon (1715–1799) (2002)
Klaits, Joseph. Printed propaganda under Louis XIV: absolute monarchy and public opinion (Princeton UniversityPress, 2015).
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Ancien Régime: A History of France 1610–1774 (1999), survey by leader of theAnnales School ISBN 0631211969
Lewis, W. H. The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV (1953) ISBN 0881339210
Mitford, Nancy (1966). The Sun King: Louis XIV at Versailles (2012 ed.). New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-5901-7491-3.
Prest, Julia, and Guy Rowlands, eds. The Third Reign of Louis XIV, c. 1682–1715 (Taylor & Francis, 2016).
Rothkrug, Lionel. Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of French Enlightenment (PrincetonUniversity Press, 2015).
Rowlands, Guy. The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661–1701(2002)
Rubin, David Lee, ed. Sun King: The Ascendancy of French Culture during the Reign of Louis XIV. Washington:Folger Books and Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1992.
Rule, John C., Louis XIV and the craft of kingship 1969.
Shennan, J. H. Louis XIV (1993)
Thompson, Ian. The Sun King's Garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre And the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles.London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006 ISBN 1-5823-4631-3
Treasure, Geoffrey. The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 (3rd ed. 2003). pp. 230–296.
Wilkinson, Rich. Louis XIV (Routledge, 2007). ISBN 978-0-4153-5815-6
Cénat, Jean-Philippe. Le roi stratège: Louis XIV et la direction de la guerre, 1661–1715 (Presses universitaires deRennes, 2019).
Croix, Alain. "Vingt millions de Français et Louis XIV." Revue dhistoire moderne contemporaine 2 (2020): 27–46.
Engerand, Fernand, editor (1899). (in French) Inventaire des tableaux du Roy rédigé en 1709 et 1710 par NicolasBailly. Paris: Ernest Leroux. Copy (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6323734m/f11.image) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160307153902/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6323734m/f11.image) 7 March 2016 atthe Wayback Machine at Gallica.
Ranum, Orest, ed. (1972). The Century of Louis XIV (http://www.palgrave.com/in/book/9781349004997). Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20180207182952/https://www.palgrave.com/in/book/9781349004997) from the
original on 7 February 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2017. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
Works by or about Louis XIV (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28+%22Louis+XIV%22+OR+%22Louis+the+Great%22+OR+%22Sun+King%22+OR+%28%221638-1715%22+AND+Louis%29+%29) at the Internet Archive
Works by Louis XIV (https://librivox.org/author/9631) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Louis XIV (http://www.history.com/topics/louis-xiv) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170622232619/http://www.history.com/topics/louis-xiv) 22 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine at History.com
Full text of marriage contract (https://web.archive.org/web/20070616071522/http://www.smae.diplomatie.gouv.fr/choiseul/ressource/pdf/D16590004.pdf), France National Archives transcription (in French)
Le Siècle de Louis XIV by Voltaire, 1751, hosted by French Wikisource
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_XIV&oldid=1267574624"
External links
| 33 | 33 | wikipedia5.pdf |
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