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<s> Accounting forFixed Assets Accounting forFixed AssetsSecond Edition Raymond H. Peterson John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright © 2002 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 RosewoodDrive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to thePublisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department,John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212)850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ @ WILEY.COM.This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative informationin regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding thatthe publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.This title is also available in print as ISBN 0-471-09210-X. Some content that appears in the print version of this book may not be available in this electronicedition. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site atwww.Wiley.com To a number of people who influenced my life and prepared me for thejob of creating this book:First, my mother, who not only taught me to read, but allowed meto experience the enjoyment of reading. She opened up for me the vastknowledge available in libraries.Dr. Wade Moorehouse, retired Professor of Accounting and formerChairman of the Department of Business and Economics at CaliforniaState University, Hayward, who many years ago, when I was an undergraduate student in his accounting course, stimulated my excitement about the accounting function. Blessed with classes of fewer thansix students in a new university, we spent many class hours discussingthe theory of accounting. These discussions had a large impact on mycareer direction.Earl Malone, a District Accounting Manager, who early in my career forced me to develop my own thoughts and not just rely on pastpractice. He also forced me to aquire the skill of dictation, which madethe creation of this book a possibility.Dodie Peterson, world’s best secretary, who converted my ramblings into a manuscript. Contents About the Author xv Preface xvii Chapter Chapter 1 2 What Is Accounting for Fixed Assets? 1 IntroductionConsumption of BenefitsCharacteristics of AssetsNeed to Change 1349 What Is an Asset? 11 IntroductionHistorical CostMatching PrincipleFixed AssetsPropertyPlantEquipmentDefining AssetsGovernment AccountingUser FeesNot-for-Profit Accounting 1112131416171820222424 vii viii Chapter Chapter Chapter Contents 3 4 5 Classifications of Asset Transactions 27 IntroductionClassification SystemsAccounting Policy DecisionsCoding of TransactionsProperty Record Coding System 2728313334 Determining Base Unit 39 IntroductionDefinition of Base UnitPurpose of a Base UnitEstablishing Base UnitsDecision RulesDifficulties in EstablishmentLandBuildingsEquipmentCriteria for Establishing Base UnitsExamplesSpare Parts 393940444748494952525454 Control of Property, Plant, and Equipment 55 IntroductionAsset AccountantAsset CustodianInventoriesProperty Record SystemIdentification of AssetsFarm Owner Applied Numbers 55565758585959 Contents Chapter Chapter 6 7 ix Identification of Specific AssetItems to Be TaggedBar Coded TagsSecurity 60616465 Asset Policies Manual 67 IntroductionPurposeCreating the ManualPartial Sample ManualUse of the ManualProperty, Plant, and Equipment Custodian’sResponsibilitiesResponsibilities of Asset AccountantProcedures for Purchase of Physical AssetsApproval LimitsMinimum Capitalization LevelItems Always Charged to Expense AccountTransaction ReportsData Definitions 6767696972 Establishing Value 83 IntroductionHistorical CostOther ValuesUses of ValuesInsuranceCollateral for a LoanPurchase or Sale of a Complete BusinessFirst Creation of Property Record 8384848586868787 7273757575767677 x Chapter Chapter Contents 8 9 Valuation TechniquesManagement InformationPeriodic Assessment of Value 888990 Allocation of Costs to Accounting Periods 93 IntroductionCosts of Using up AssetsDepreciationEstimated LifeCost BasisAllocation MethodsAccelerated DepreciationOther Depreciation ConcernsTax versus Book DepreciationBalance Sheet DisclosureNot-for-Profit Organizations 9394959596979899100101101 Regulated Utilities 105 IntroductionDifferences in GAAPTelecommunications AccountingBasic Property RecordTelecommunications Plant in Service Chartof AccountsRailroadsProperty AccountsCost of ConstructionUnits of PropertyList of Units of PropertyAccounting for Engineering Costs 105106106107109110111111114114115 Contents Chapter Chapter 10 11 xi Common and Contract Motor Carriersof PassengersCarrier Operating PropertyDepreciationMinor ItemsUniform System of Accounts—Tangible AccountsAccount Definitions 117117117119119119 Government Accounting 123 IntroductionMeasurement FocusFund AccountingFunding for Government AssetsAccounting Standard SettingMeasuring Service Efforts and AccomplishmentsCurrent Government GAAP Property RecordsInfrastructure AssetsMeasurement of UtilizationEstablishing Property RecordEstablishing Property Record UnitsInfrastructure Property UnitsPlanningAccounting PoliciesSoftware SelectionOff-the-Shelf Software 123124125126126127128128129130131131131132133134 Not-for-Profit Accounting 135 IntroductionAccounting Definition of Not-for-ProfitOrganizations 135136 xii Chapter Chapter Contents 12 13 Accounting Problems of Not-for-ProfitOrganizationsFormal Accounting StandardsNeed for Change in Not-for-Profit AccountingAccounting for Property, Plant, and EquipmentCreating Property RecordsProperty RecordSystem Documentation 138139140141143145147 Creation and Verification of Property Records 149 IntroductionPurpose of Property RecordNew ConceptRequirements for a Physical Asset DatabaseProperty Record UnitsCoding SystemsProperty Record Codes for Motor VehiclesOther Codes RequiredProperty Record ID NumberMaintenance of the Property Record DatabaseResponsibilities of Asset ManagerUpdating RecordsRecording Maintenance CostsVerification of Physical ExistenceMilitary Commander ApproachForeign Corrupt Practices ActFully Depreciated AssetsReports from the Property Record System 149150151152155155156156157158158159160161161163164165 Computer Programs 167 IntroductionAsset Database Software 167167 One-Write SystemsExisting Database ProgramsSoftware SelectionOff-the-Shelf Property Record Database PackagesReview Copies of SoftwareEvaluation of Software PackagesProgram ReviewChecklist for Program ReviewDatabase Fields 168169169170170171172175176 Bibliography 179 Index 185 xiii About the Author Raymond (Ray) H. Peterson is currently the senior partner of RayPeterson & Associates, a consulting firm offering business assistance inestablishing and changing accounting systems. He has served as thetreasurer of a number of nonprofit organizations. He has over thirtyyears experience as a management accountant with the Bell System. Heretired as Director of Financial Accounting with Pacific Bell.Mr. Peterson has managed the design of Pacific Telephone andTelegraph Companies detail property records. During the three-yearbreakup of the Bell System, he was appointed to a Federal Communications Commission task force to create a new uniform system of accounts for telephone companies. The proposed system was adopted bythe FCC and was installed in all telephone companies.Mr. Peterson served for 12 years on the Institute of ManagementAccountants Financial Accounting Standards Committee and its predecessor Subcommittee on Management Accounting Statement Promulgation. He received a BS from California State University at Haywardand an MBA from Golden Gate University in San Francisco. He alsotaught accounting and management information systems at GoldenGate University. xv Preface Since the first edition of this book in 1994, not much change has occurred to accounting standards for Property, Plant, and Equipment inbusiness. The GAAP promulgated by the Financial Accounting, FASB,has been to further the concept of identifying the cost of an asset andspreading that cost over the accounting periods that benefit. Accounting for contributions, impairments, and financing of assets have beenaddressed by the FASB.In contrast, much has happened in the areas of Not-for-Profit andGovernment accounting for fixed assets. FASB ordered the capitalization of assets and charging of depreciation by Not-for-Profits. The government Accounting standards Board was created as an equal to theFASB with the authority and responsibility to promulgate GAAP forgovernments. They replaced the Government Finance Officers Association and its “Blue Book”, Governmental Accounting, Auditing, andFinancial Reporting as the “official” accounting rules for State and Local government. An early step by the new GASB was to suspend depreciation for “government” not-for-profit accounting.There was a determination of jurisdiction between FASB and GASBwhich are outlined in Chapter 10, “Government Accounting” and Chapter 11, “Not-For-Profit Accounting.”Then the GASB issued concept papers that moved government accounting toward the practices long held as appropriate for businesses.These concept papers state that assets should be placed on the books atacquisition cost and that cost spread over the accounting periods theybenefit. This is a major change in accounting for these groups. Pastpractice was for assets to be purchased and expensed in the current period, if purchased with general revenue, or not even recorded if purchased with bonds or other special revenue sources.There was considerable argument that these changes were not appropriate for governments. Implementation of GASB statement 33 and xvii xviii Preface 34 were delayed, but are now being implemented. The accounting forgovernments is not the subject of this book and government accountants are referred to GASB and GFOA publications in the bibliographyfor the details. However, some discussion is included because it will beof interest to the business accountant that is establishing accountingpolicy for business and not-for-profit organizations.There has been considerable argument that fixed assets of businesses should be recorded on the books at something different than depreciated original cost, that adjustments should be made to reflect themarket value up as well as down, and that book asset accounting shouldbe changed from cost allocation to reflect some measurement of value.The public review and promulgation process of the GASB provide rebuttals to all of those arguments. I urge any accountant that holds thoseviews to research the process that GASB statements 33 and 34 followed,much of which is available on the web site at http://www.gasb.org.This book is designed for accountants and managers who want toget the most from the physical assets of their organizations.Most readers are already familiar with the concepts and practicalapplication of total quality management (TQM) zero defects, and theother procedures that describe a continued process of improvement.Having made the process and management changes that brought abouteasy improvements in quality and cost reduction they are ready to answer the following questions:How are you applying the principles of continuous improvementto the management of property, plant, and equipment?Do you have a process in place that allows you to monitor the status of maintenance (or deferred maintenance) on your property, plant,and equipment?What is the age of the oldest piece of your production equipment?Do you have a plan in place for replacement of production facilities?Are there any quality problems in your production or service delivery system caused by property, plant, and equipment failures?What is the utilization percentage of the property, plant, andequipment?Can you determine the utilization of your most expensive piece ofequipment?Do you have service or production problems attributable to equipment not being available at the place needed?Are all of your property, plant, and equipment being utilized totheir fullest? Preface xix Do you have in place a process that monitors the current condition, evaluates the future need for replacement, and brings to your attention needs to modify that plan?Do you manage your physical assets or do you put them in place,use them, and replace them when they are worn out?Do your plans include having the necessary cash to purchase replacement physical assets or will you have to do an extraordinary financing or fund-raising when you are surprised by their failure?Is there a plan in place for overall management or do you simplyhope your assets will continue to allow you to produce your product orprovide your service?The purpose of providing this book on accounting for property,plant, and equipment, is to provide the framework for you to install inyour organization accounting processes and procedures that will allowyou to manage long-term physical assets.How can a book on assets help answer these questions? All accounting students learn the basics about assets within various accounting courses, however, there really is not much definitive informationavailable on fixed assets in the accounting literature. The AccountingPrinciples Board and the Financial Accounting Standards Board areboth silent on the subject of accounting standards for fixed assets. Lacking a primary source for accounting standards, it is necessary to look tosecondary sources, which also contain very little information on thehandling of assets. Most accounting textbooks devote only a singlechapter to capitalization of assets, and do not cover the subject in depth.Accounting periodicals have focused on valuation of assets, but offerlittle on specific concepts of capitalization. The issue of valuing at historical cost versus current market price has received considerable interest over the years. Now the FASB has issued statement 93 requiringnot-for-profits to use historical cost less depreciation asset accounting.GASB has issued statements 33 and 34 that require that accounting forall but a few assets. It is even more important to have this single reference to bring all these prospectives together.A number of organizations including the American Institute ofCertified Public Accountants, the Institute of Management Accountants, and the Government Finance Officers Association offer courseson capitalization of assets. Most of these courses, however, cover eitherthe tax implications of assets or the valuation question. Little in thesecourses describes how to establish asset policies, document them in amanual, and apply them within the company. xx Preface During 1989-1990, the National Association of Accountants (nowthe Institute of Management Accountants) replaced their original Statement on Management Accounting (SMA) on Fixed Assets with twostatements relating to accounting for property, plant, and equipment.SMA 4J, published in 1989, described the accounting for property, plant,and equipment, and SMA 4L, published in 1990, covers control of property, plant, and equipment. A research issues publication called the Reporting, Control, and Analysis of Property, Plant, and Equipment waspublished in 1990. This collection of publications represents the majority of the available information on accounting for fixed assets. As a partof the IMA team coordinating those projects, I became convinced thisbook was needed.There is a need to emphasize that assets must be managed, not justpurchased, used up, and replaced. The objective is to provide not onlyaccounting for assets, but include that accounting in a process that willallow management to get the most out of the company’s investment. Itis not always possible to create more debt in order to acquire assets.Therefore, some of our consumption must be sacrificed today in orderto provide quality assets for tomorrow.In today’s complex business best quality and maximum utilizationare going to give the best return on investment. Accounting for Fixed Assets contains more than the routine accounting processes. It also has themanagement framework that must surround the accounting process.The United States economy has been built since World War II as“a paper plate society.” We rapidly built our economy based on thephilosophy of quick production without much concern for quality. Webuilt automobiles that only lasted a few years, and, in fact, are stillbuilding houses in the same way that we did in the early 1950s. Theyrequire major renovation every fifteen or twenty years. Many of thehouses of the early 1950s are currently the subject of redevelopment districts: they either require major repair or must be ripped out and replaced. We have built a tremendous economy and brought the majorityof citizens to the highest standard of living of any culture with this “doit-quick” philosophy. It created many jobs, especially at the unskilledand semiskilled level, and brought the pleasure of accomplishment andthe fruits of labor to the largest segment of U.S. citizens quickly. Wehave done so, however, for the sake of today and at the expense of tomorrow. But tomorrow has arrived, and we cannot continue to use upour assets. Those assets capable of bringing future benefits must bemanaged in a way that will allow those future benefits to occur. Preface xxi The European and Japanese economies have grown much moreslowly; jobs and the rewards that come from labors are just now reaching many segments of those cultures. However, the infrastructure basethere, the assets like roads, houses, and other buildings, constructed inthe 1950s is still in use and not in need of major repairs. A complete difference in philosophical approach was used in building the base fortheir economies. They have not sacrificed tomorrow for today, but infact sacrificed yesterday for today—and today has arrived.Assets are those things we purchase today that will bring futurebenefits. But those assets must be managed to get those future benefits.To compete in a level playing field across the world, instead of in onewhere we make all the rules, we in the United States must evaluate ourpresent practices. We can no longer afford to put two or three times thepercentage of our gross national product into the nation’s dumps eachyear than competing countries do. We can no longer approach the building and operating of our businesses as we did during World War II. Welearned there that we can build things quickly if they are only needed fora few years or are abandoned on the battlefield. Much of our managerialapproach to business assets is alarmingly similar: build it, use it, andthrow it away. To many, it is even worse than that; we buy it and don’tthink about it again until it is worn out or disrupts the production line.Accounting managers must rethink their accounting processes forassets. To be value-added, accounting information must be simple andunderstandable, and must provide relevant, timely information tothose who make decisions based on it.My goal in producing this book is not just to provide a comprehensive treatment of the details of accounting for fixed assets, but also to provide the management accountant with the processes to provide goodrelevant decision-making information for the officers of the company.Also, I provide the processes that are necessary to manage those assets.The book is organized to allow you to skip over the initial processesnecessary to the system, and understand the principles and philosophythat are necessary in managing assets.I will also suggest a different approach to management of assets.An asset is current production that is not used up, and instead providesthe means for future productivity. A hundred years ago, assets wereknown by business people as capital goods. Capital goods are something that must be managed for the future, not just to benefit currentquarter earnings. Accounting forFixed Assets 1What Is Accountingfor Fixed Assets? INTRODUCTIONMost accounting professionals believe that all there is to be learnedabout asset accounting occurred in the introductory course on principles of accounting. Therefore, although this subject can become quitecomplex, it has not been explored in the accounting literature.In 1984 when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)called for the rewriting of the uniform system of accounts for telephonecompanies, public utilities had not been following generally acceptedaccounting principles (GAAP) as outlined by the Financial AccountingStandards Board (FASB) and its predecessors, but instead used procedures that had been outlined in 1934 by the FCC. The team responsiblefor making recommendations on the rewriting of the system of accounts established a basic policy that what was to be recommendedwould comply with current GAAP.The subcommittee responsible for reviewing and recommendingprocedures for property, plant, and equipment was frustrated by thelack of definitive information on accounting for assets. The primarysources are very limited. The Accounting Principles Board (APB) andthe later FASB have been nearly silent on the subject beyond definingdepreciation and historical costs.Accounting Research Bulletin (ARB) 43 was issued in 1953 to summarize all previous GAAP. It requires that depreciation be calculated1 2 What Is Accounting for Fixed Assets? and disclosed. Most of the additional discussion on tangible assetsinvolved explaining why depreciation is appropriately calculated using historical costs. It is true that management must take into consideration the probability that plant and machinery will have to bereplaced at cost much greater than those of the facilities now in use;however, depreciation must not be calculated on the basis of this expected inflation.ARB 43 in paragraph C5 goes on to state:The cost of a reproductive facility is one of the costs of the services it renders during its useful economic life. Generally accepted accounting principles require that this cost be spreadover the expected useful life of the facility in such a way as toallocate it as equitably as possible to the periods during whichservices are obtained from the use of the facility. This procedure is known as depreciation accounting, a system of accounting which aims to distribute the cost or other basic valueof tangible capital assets, less salvage (if any), over the estimated useful life of the unit (which may be a group of assets)in a systematic and rational matter. It is a process of allocation,not of valuation.After formation of the Accounting Principles Board, APB 6 wasissued in 1964 continuing the authority outlined in ARB 43.The Board continued to support the use of historical cost as opposed to inflation accounting:The Board is of the opinion that property, plant, and equipment should not be written up by an entity to reflect appraisal,market or current values which are above cost to the entity.APB 12, issued in 1967, requires the disclosure of depreciable assets and depreciation. In addition to total depreciation expense and themajor classes of depreciable assets, it also requires disclosure of:• Depreciation expense for the period.• Balances of major classes of depreciable assets by nature offunction, at the balance sheet date.• Accumulated depreciation, either by major classes ofdepreciable assets or in total, at the balance sheet date. Consumption of Benefits 3 • A general description of the method or methods used incomputing depreciation with respect to major classes ofdepreciable assets.CONSUMPTION OF BENEFITSIn 1984, the FASB issued Concept Statement 5, which included additionaldiscussion of assets. However, it was also limited in scope, as onewould expect in a concept statement.The discussion emphasized the recognition assumption of assets,clearly indicating that assets are consumed by their use and the costshould be recognized in the accounting periods of their life.Consumption of economic benefits during a period may be recognized either directly or by relating it to revenues recognized during theperiod.Some expenses such as depreciation and insurance are allocatedby systematic and rational procedures to the period during which therelated assets are expected to provide benefits.“Any expense or loss (in future benefits) is recognized if it becomes evident that previously recognized future economic benefits ofan asset have been reduced or eliminated.”Since its creation, the FASB has entertained considerable discussion about assets, but the only statements issued cover specific assets:• Expensing versus capitalizing research and development• The accounting for software• Depreciation in not-for-profit organization financial statements• Impairment of Assets• Involuntary ConversionsFASB Concept Statement 6, Elements of Financial Statements, hasmore material than any other on the accounting for long-term tangibleassets. However, it addresses itself primarily to the definition, the purpose of accrual accounting, and the characteristics of an asset.In 1985, Concept Statement 6 added a definition of assets:Assets are probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by a particular entity as a result of past transactions orevents. 4 What Is Accounting for Fixed Assets? CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSETSConcept Statement 6 continues, enumerating the three essential characteristics of an asset:• It embodies a probable future benefit that involves a capacity,singly or in combination with other assets, to combine directlyor indirectly to future net cash in flows.• A particular entity can obtain the benefit and control others’access to it.• The transaction or other event giving rise to the entity’s rightto or control of the benefit has already occurred.This is the first discussion in promulgated accounting rules discussingthe definition and characteristics of an asset. The major thrust is thatprobable future benefit is the definition of an asset. To reflect it on thebalance sheet, the entity must be able to obtain benefit from the assetand control others’ access to the asset. This statement also reviews theconcept of future economic benefit and service potential as it relates tonot-for-profit organizations. It states:In a not-for-profit organization, the service potential or future economic benefit is used to provide desired or neededgoods or services to beneficiaries or other constituents, whichmay or may not directly result in net cash inflows to the organizations. Some not-for-profit organizations rely significantly on contributions or donations of cash to supplementselling prices. . . .This discussion introduces the argument that depreciation of tangible assets is an appropriate expense of not-for-profit organizations.In a discussion of accrual accounting, Concept Statement 6 discussesassets under a heading “Recognition, Matching, and Allocation.” Inparagraph 145, it states:Accrual accounting uses accrual, deferral, and allocation procedures whose goal is to relate revenues, expenses, gains, andlosses to periods to reflect an entity’s performance during a period instead of merely listing its cash receipts and outlays . . .the goal of accrual accounting is to account in the periods inwhich they occur for the effects on an entity of transactions and Characteristics of Assets 5 other events and circumstances, to the extent that those financial effects are recognizable and measurable.There is a discussion of costs and revenues to determine profits forperiods. Depreciation and assets are excluded from the matching concept. Paragraph 149 of Concept Statement 6 explains:However, many assets yield their benefit to an entity over several periods, for example, prepaid insurance, buildings, andvarious kinds of equipment. Expenses resulting from their useare normally allocated to the periods of the estimated usefullives (the periods over which they are expected to providebenefits) by a rational allocation procedure, for example, byrecognizing depreciation or other amortization. Although thepurpose of expense allocation is the same as that of other expense recognition—to reflect the using up of assets as a resultof transactions or other events or circumstances affecting anentity—allocation is applied if causal relations are generally,but not specifically, identified. For example, wear and tearfrom use is known to be a major cause of the expense called depreciation, but the amount of depreciation caused by wear andtear in a period normally cannot be measured.This discussion appears to make the distinction between thematching principle for revenues and expenses and the allocation ofthe cost of using up future benefits. Although this distinction is subtle, it is the point of basic disagreement between those who argue forinflation accounting and the depreciating of assets based on currentmarket value and those who argue for depreciating using a lesser historical cost.Appendix B of Concept Statement 6 further discusses characteristicsof assets, defining assets as “probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by a particular entity as a result of past transactionsor events.”Most of this discussion relates to intangible or nonphysical assets.The FASB, in issuing its Statement 2, Accounting for Research and Development Costs, also gives us some information on what makes up tangible physical assets. In their concern for the appropriate accounting forresearch and development costs, they conclude that all should becharged to expense accounts. However, they do give us their thoughts 6 What Is Accounting for Fixed Assets? about which tangible assets should and should not be included in research and development costs.A prime consideration is that materials, equipment, and facilitiesthat have an alternative future use (in research and development projectsor otherwise) shall be capitalized as tangible assets when acquired or constructed. However, the costs of such materials, equipment, or facilities thatare acquired or constructed for a particular research and developmentproject and have no alternative future uses and therefore no separate economic values are research and development costs at the time the costs areincurred. All research and development costs encompassed by the statement are charged to expense when incurred. This reflects the concept thatresearch and development costs will be used up during the span of the research project. Tangible assets that have a life beyond the current project,however, should be capitalized and depreciated over their useful lives.The preceding paragraphs summarize the present state of GAAPrelating to property, plant, and equipment.Many subjects in accounting have not been covered at lengthwithin the promulgated statements. Most with the significance of longterm tangible assets have been covered in more detail in secondaryaccounting material, but few secondary publications provide any indepth discussion on fixed assets.Research bulletins and disclosure drafts having to do with inflation accounting have not been allowed to creep into generally acceptedaccounting principles.Therefore, in determining the details of an accounting system forproperty, plant, and equipment with the FCC study in 1984 and 1985,the committee felt it necessary to use the secondary documents on assets. The documents were used to establish current practice and to forma model that telecommunications companies should use instead of the1934 FCC regulations. The only additional definitive document discussing accounting for property, plant, and equipment was issued bythe Institute of Management Accountants (IMA, formerly the NationalAssociation of Accountants) as Statement on Management Accounting(SMA) 4. SMA 4 was issued in October 1972 with the title, Fixed AssetAccounting: The Capitalization of Cost. Several concepts outlined in thetwenty-four-page statement include the following:Costs through preparation for useExtraordinary repairsBase unit Characteristics of Assets 7 Extended life or increased capacityWritten policiesCapitalization policyLife greater than one yearSelf-constructed assets that include direct overheadNo initial development costDepreciationThe SMA 4 discusses a number of concepts which were then, andstill are, common practice.All Costs to Prepare Item for UseAll costs in addition to the invoice price to make an item of property, plant,and equipment ready for use should be capitalized in its historical cost.Extraordinary RepairsNormal repairs are charged to expense when incurred; however, extraordinary repairs that extend the life, increase the capability, or increaseefficiency of the item should be capitalized during its life, the historicalcost increased, and depreciation recalculated from that date forward.Base UnitThe base unit concept is not dealt with in any other document. It outlines the concept that property units should have a policy determination as to what constitutes the property record entity that is capitalized.The base unit might be a complete machine or the individual components of that machine. This concept is important when establishing ausable property record system for a particular company. For example,entities that use light trucks as maintenance vehicles may wear out anumber of trucks during the lives of hydraulic lifts, welding equipment, and utility beds.Written PoliciesIt is important for each company to have an asset manual with written policies. Determinations of appropriate base units and otherpolicies unique to a company must be described and documented.Without written policies, asset accounting will not be consistentover a period	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[ 1, 16535, 292, 363, 26262, 1094, 7224, 13, 10601, 292, 363, 26262, 1094, 7224, 11863, 17138, 13, 29934, 388, 8315, 379, 29889, 5879, 1330, 13, 11639, 399, 15168, 669, 317, 787, 29892, 9266, 29889, 13, 11882, 1266, 29871, 30211, 29871, 29906, 29900, 29900, 29906, 491, 2259, 399, 15168, 322, 317, 787, 29892, 9266, 1696, 1570, 3088, 29889, 2178, 10462, 21676, 29889, 3782, 760, 310, 445, 17745, 1122, 367, 9483, 1133, 29892, 6087, 297, 263, 5663, 16837, 1788, 20289, 29878, 550, 29885, 4430, 297, 738, 883, 470, 491, 738, 2794, 29892, 27758, 29892, 28310, 29892, 6731, 542, 2270, 292, 29892, 16867, 29892, 885, 9450, 470, 6467, 29892, 5174, 408, 21905, 1090, 922, 1953, 29871, 29896, 29900, 29955, 272, 29871, 29896, 29900, 29947, 310, 278, 29871, 29896, 29929, 29955, 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"of time.\n8\nWhat Is Accounting for Fixed Assets?\nCapitalization PolicyA minimum level of capitali(...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[310,931,29889,13,29947,13,5618,1317,16535,292,363,383,11925,1094,7224,29973,13,12415,2410,2133,2521(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	1
"done by classifying and coding the transaction.Classification of a transaction is defined asThe ide(...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[2309,491,770,9215,322,14137,278,10804,29889,2385,2450,310,263,10804,338,3342,408,1576,29769,310,126(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	2
"and the list of base units by property class is that they are understandable by the nonaccountants (...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[322,278,1051,310,2967,10340,491,2875,770,338,393,896,526,2274,519,491,278,1661,10149,1934,297,10596(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	3
"access during that period.Remember also that loss is not always due to theft; it may occur inthe no(...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[2130,2645,393,3785,29889,7301,1096,884,393,6410,338,451,2337,2861,304,278,615,29936,372,1122,6403,9(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	4
"ant should be aware of the replacement cost prior to establishing the insurance coverage. At the ti(...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[424,881,367,9543,310,278,16920,3438,7536,304,10127,292,278,1663,18541,23746,29889,2180,278,931,310,(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	5
"6\nRegulated Utilities\nregulations for direction. Accountants in nonregulated industries mayfind t(...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[29953,13,4597,7964,22310,1907,13,1727,8250,363,5305,29889,16535,1934,297,1661,1727,7964,6397,2722,1(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	6
"group in 1984. The Financial AccountingFoundation (FAF) is the financing organization for both the (...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[2318,297,29871,29896,29929,29947,29946,29889,450,4231,273,1455,16535,292,28077,313,4519,29943,29897(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	7
"established by reviewing replacement cost, it wouldthen be appropriate to reduce that cost by the e(...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[7841,491,9076,292,16920,3438,29892,372,723,6098,367,8210,304,10032,393,3438,491,278,15899,1401,4361(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	8
"A number of those aircraft are still operatingin small countries today. An aircraft frequently live(...TRUNCATED)	accounting	Accounting for Fixed Assets	[319,1353,310,1906,15780,526,1603,13598,262,2319,10916,9826,29889,530,15780,13672,12080,8724,967,244(...TRUNCATED)	[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)	[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)	9

<s> Accounting forFixed Assets Accounting forFixed AssetsSecond Edition Raymond H. Peterson John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright © 2002 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 RosewoodDrive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to thePublisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department,John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212)850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ @ WILEY.COM.This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative informationin regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding thatthe publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.This title is also available in print as ISBN 0-471-09210-X. Some content that appears in the print version of this book may not be available in this electronicedition. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site atwww.Wiley.com To a number of people who influenced my life and prepared me for thejob of creating this book:First, my mother, who not only taught me to read, but allowed meto experience the enjoyment of reading. She opened up for me the vastknowledge available in libraries.Dr. Wade Moorehouse, retired Professor of Accounting and formerChairman of the Department of Business and Economics at CaliforniaState University, Hayward, who many years ago, when I was an undergraduate student in his accounting course, stimulated my excitement about the accounting function. Blessed with classes of fewer thansix students in a new university, we spent many class hours discussingthe theory of accounting. These discussions had a large impact on mycareer direction.Earl Malone, a District Accounting Manager, who early in my career forced me to develop my own thoughts and not just rely on pastpractice. He also forced me to aquire the skill of dictation, which madethe creation of this book a possibility.Dodie Peterson, world’s best secretary, who converted my ramblings into a manuscript. Contents About the Author xv Preface xvii Chapter Chapter 1 2 What Is Accounting for Fixed Assets? 1 IntroductionConsumption of BenefitsCharacteristics of AssetsNeed to Change 1349 What Is an Asset? 11 IntroductionHistorical CostMatching PrincipleFixed AssetsPropertyPlantEquipmentDefining AssetsGovernment AccountingUser FeesNot-for-Profit Accounting 1112131416171820222424 vii viii Chapter Chapter Chapter Contents 3 4 5 Classifications of Asset Transactions 27 IntroductionClassification SystemsAccounting Policy DecisionsCoding of TransactionsProperty Record Coding System 2728313334 Determining Base Unit 39 IntroductionDefinition of Base UnitPurpose of a Base UnitEstablishing Base UnitsDecision RulesDifficulties in EstablishmentLandBuildingsEquipmentCriteria for Establishing Base UnitsExamplesSpare Parts 393940444748494952525454 Control of Property, Plant, and Equipment 55 IntroductionAsset AccountantAsset CustodianInventoriesProperty Record SystemIdentification of AssetsFarm Owner Applied Numbers 55565758585959 Contents Chapter Chapter 6 7 ix Identification of Specific AssetItems to Be TaggedBar Coded TagsSecurity 60616465 Asset Policies Manual 67 IntroductionPurposeCreating the ManualPartial Sample ManualUse of the ManualProperty, Plant, and Equipment Custodian’sResponsibilitiesResponsibilities of Asset AccountantProcedures for Purchase of Physical AssetsApproval LimitsMinimum Capitalization LevelItems Always Charged to Expense AccountTransaction ReportsData Definitions 6767696972 Establishing Value 83 IntroductionHistorical CostOther ValuesUses of ValuesInsuranceCollateral for a LoanPurchase or Sale of a Complete BusinessFirst Creation of Property Record 8384848586868787 7273757575767677 x Chapter Chapter Contents 8 9 Valuation TechniquesManagement InformationPeriodic Assessment of Value 888990 Allocation of Costs to Accounting Periods 93 IntroductionCosts of Using up AssetsDepreciationEstimated LifeCost BasisAllocation MethodsAccelerated DepreciationOther Depreciation ConcernsTax versus Book DepreciationBalance Sheet DisclosureNot-for-Profit Organizations 9394959596979899100101101 Regulated Utilities 105 IntroductionDifferences in GAAPTelecommunications AccountingBasic Property RecordTelecommunications Plant in Service Chartof AccountsRailroadsProperty AccountsCost of ConstructionUnits of PropertyList of Units of PropertyAccounting for Engineering Costs 105106106107109110111111114114115 Contents Chapter Chapter 10 11 xi Common and Contract Motor Carriersof PassengersCarrier Operating PropertyDepreciationMinor ItemsUniform System of Accounts—Tangible AccountsAccount Definitions 117117117119119119 Government Accounting 123 IntroductionMeasurement FocusFund AccountingFunding for Government AssetsAccounting Standard SettingMeasuring Service Efforts and AccomplishmentsCurrent Government GAAP Property RecordsInfrastructure AssetsMeasurement of UtilizationEstablishing Property RecordEstablishing Property Record UnitsInfrastructure Property UnitsPlanningAccounting PoliciesSoftware SelectionOff-the-Shelf Software 123124125126126127128128129130131131131132133134 Not-for-Profit Accounting 135 IntroductionAccounting Definition of Not-for-ProfitOrganizations 135136 xii Chapter Chapter Contents 12 13 Accounting Problems of Not-for-ProfitOrganizationsFormal Accounting StandardsNeed for Change in Not-for-Profit AccountingAccounting for Property, Plant, and EquipmentCreating Property RecordsProperty RecordSystem Documentation 138139140141143145147 Creation and Verification of Property Records 149 IntroductionPurpose of Property RecordNew ConceptRequirements for a Physical Asset DatabaseProperty Record UnitsCoding SystemsProperty Record Codes for Motor VehiclesOther Codes RequiredProperty Record ID NumberMaintenance of the Property Record DatabaseResponsibilities of Asset ManagerUpdating RecordsRecording Maintenance CostsVerification of Physical ExistenceMilitary Commander ApproachForeign Corrupt Practices ActFully Depreciated AssetsReports from the Property Record System 149150151152155155156156157158158159160161161163164165 Computer Programs 167 IntroductionAsset Database Software 167167 One-Write SystemsExisting Database ProgramsSoftware SelectionOff-the-Shelf Property Record Database PackagesReview Copies of SoftwareEvaluation of Software PackagesProgram ReviewChecklist for Program ReviewDatabase Fields 168169169170170171172175176 Bibliography 179 Index 185 xiii About the Author Raymond (Ray) H. Peterson is currently the senior partner of RayPeterson & Associates, a consulting firm offering business assistance inestablishing and changing accounting systems. He has served as thetreasurer of a number of nonprofit organizations. He has over thirtyyears experience as a management accountant with the Bell System. Heretired as Director of Financial Accounting with Pacific Bell.Mr. Peterson has managed the design of Pacific Telephone andTelegraph Companies detail property records. During the three-yearbreakup of the Bell System, he was appointed to a Federal Communications Commission task force to create a new uniform system of accounts for telephone companies. The proposed system was adopted bythe FCC and was installed in all telephone companies.Mr. Peterson served for 12 years on the Institute of ManagementAccountants Financial Accounting Standards Committee and its predecessor Subcommittee on Management Accounting Statement Promulgation. He received a BS from California State University at Haywardand an MBA from Golden Gate University in San Francisco. He alsotaught accounting and management information systems at GoldenGate University. xv Preface Since the first edition of this book in 1994, not much change has occurred to accounting standards for Property, Plant, and Equipment inbusiness. The GAAP promulgated by the Financial Accounting, FASB,has been to further the concept of identifying the cost of an asset andspreading that cost over the accounting periods that benefit. Accounting for contributions, impairments, and financing of assets have beenaddressed by the FASB.In contrast, much has happened in the areas of Not-for-Profit andGovernment accounting for fixed assets. FASB ordered the capitalization of assets and charging of depreciation by Not-for-Profits. The government Accounting standards Board was created as an equal to theFASB with the authority and responsibility to promulgate GAAP forgovernments. They replaced the Government Finance Officers Association and its “Blue Book”, Governmental Accounting, Auditing, andFinancial Reporting as the “official” accounting rules for State and Local government. An early step by the new GASB was to suspend depreciation for “government” not-for-profit accounting.There was a determination of jurisdiction between FASB and GASBwhich are outlined in Chapter 10, “Government Accounting” and Chapter 11, “Not-For-Profit Accounting.”Then the GASB issued concept papers that moved government accounting toward the practices long held as appropriate for businesses.These concept papers state that assets should be placed on the books atacquisition cost and that cost spread over the accounting periods theybenefit. This is a major change in accounting for these groups. Pastpractice was for assets to be purchased and expensed in the current period, if purchased with general revenue, or not even recorded if purchased with bonds or other special revenue sources.There was considerable argument that these changes were not appropriate for governments. Implementation of GASB statement 33 and xvii xviii Preface 34 were delayed, but are now being implemented. The accounting forgovernments is not the subject of this book and government accountants are referred to GASB and GFOA publications in the bibliographyfor the details. However, some discussion is included because it will beof interest to the business accountant that is establishing accountingpolicy for business and not-for-profit organizations.There has been considerable argument that fixed assets of businesses should be recorded on the books at something different than depreciated original cost, that adjustments should be made to reflect themarket value up as well as down, and that book asset accounting shouldbe changed from cost allocation to reflect some measurement of value.The public review and promulgation process of the GASB provide rebuttals to all of those arguments. I urge any accountant that holds thoseviews to research the process that GASB statements 33 and 34 followed,much of which is available on the web site at http://www.gasb.org.This book is designed for accountants and managers who want toget the most from the physical assets of their organizations.Most readers are already familiar with the concepts and practicalapplication of total quality management (TQM) zero defects, and theother procedures that describe a continued process of improvement.Having made the process and management changes that brought abouteasy improvements in quality and cost reduction they are ready to answer the following questions:How are you applying the principles of continuous improvementto the management of property, plant, and equipment?Do you have a process in place that allows you to monitor the status of maintenance (or deferred maintenance) on your property, plant,and equipment?What is the age of the oldest piece of your production equipment?Do you have a plan in place for replacement of production facilities?Are there any quality problems in your production or service delivery system caused by property, plant, and equipment failures?What is the utilization percentage of the property, plant, andequipment?Can you determine the utilization of your most expensive piece ofequipment?Do you have service or production problems attributable to equipment not being available at the place needed?Are all of your property, plant, and equipment being utilized totheir fullest? Preface xix Do you have in place a process that monitors the current condition, evaluates the future need for replacement, and brings to your attention needs to modify that plan?Do you manage your physical assets or do you put them in place,use them, and replace them when they are worn out?Do your plans include having the necessary cash to purchase replacement physical assets or will you have to do an extraordinary financing or fund-raising when you are surprised by their failure?Is there a plan in place for overall management or do you simplyhope your assets will continue to allow you to produce your product orprovide your service?The purpose of providing this book on accounting for property,plant, and equipment, is to provide the framework for you to install inyour organization accounting processes and procedures that will allowyou to manage long-term physical assets.How can a book on assets help answer these questions? All accounting students learn the basics about assets within various accounting courses, however, there really is not much definitive informationavailable on fixed assets in the accounting literature. The AccountingPrinciples Board and the Financial Accounting Standards Board areboth silent on the subject of accounting standards for fixed assets. Lacking a primary source for accounting standards, it is necessary to look tosecondary sources, which also contain very little information on thehandling of assets. Most accounting textbooks devote only a singlechapter to capitalization of assets, and do not cover the subject in depth.Accounting periodicals have focused on valuation of assets, but offerlittle on specific concepts of capitalization. The issue of valuing at historical cost versus current market price has received considerable interest over the years. Now the FASB has issued statement 93 requiringnot-for-profits to use historical cost less depreciation asset accounting.GASB has issued statements 33 and 34 that require that accounting forall but a few assets. It is even more important to have this single reference to bring all these prospectives together.A number of organizations including the American Institute ofCertified Public Accountants, the Institute of Management Accountants, and the Government Finance Officers Association offer courseson capitalization of assets. Most of these courses, however, cover eitherthe tax implications of assets or the valuation question. Little in thesecourses describes how to establish asset policies, document them in amanual, and apply them within the company. xx Preface During 1989-1990, the National Association of Accountants (nowthe Institute of Management Accountants) replaced their original Statement on Management Accounting (SMA) on Fixed Assets with twostatements relating to accounting for property, plant, and equipment.SMA 4J, published in 1989, described the accounting for property, plant,and equipment, and SMA 4L, published in 1990, covers control of property, plant, and equipment. A research issues publication called the Reporting, Control, and Analysis of Property, Plant, and Equipment waspublished in 1990. This collection of publications represents the majority of the available information on accounting for fixed assets. As a partof the IMA team coordinating those projects, I became convinced thisbook was needed.There is a need to emphasize that assets must be managed, not justpurchased, used up, and replaced. The objective is to provide not onlyaccounting for assets, but include that accounting in a process that willallow management to get the most out of the company’s investment. Itis not always possible to create more debt in order to acquire assets.Therefore, some of our consumption must be sacrificed today in orderto provide quality assets for tomorrow.In today’s complex business best quality and maximum utilizationare going to give the best return on investment. Accounting for Fixed Assets contains more than the routine accounting processes. It also has themanagement framework that must surround the accounting process.The United States economy has been built since World War II as“a paper plate society.” We rapidly built our economy based on thephilosophy of quick production without much concern for quality. Webuilt automobiles that only lasted a few years, and, in fact, are stillbuilding houses in the same way that we did in the early 1950s. Theyrequire major renovation every fifteen or twenty years. Many of thehouses of the early 1950s are currently the subject of redevelopment districts: they either require major repair or must be ripped out and replaced. We have built a tremendous economy and brought the majorityof citizens to the highest standard of living of any culture with this “doit-quick” philosophy. It created many jobs, especially at the unskilledand semiskilled level, and brought the pleasure of accomplishment andthe fruits of labor to the largest segment of U.S. citizens quickly. Wehave done so, however, for the sake of today and at the expense of tomorrow. But tomorrow has arrived, and we cannot continue to use upour assets. Those assets capable of bringing future benefits must bemanaged in a way that will allow those future benefits to occur. Preface xxi The European and Japanese economies have grown much moreslowly; jobs and the rewards that come from labors are just now reaching many segments of those cultures. However, the infrastructure basethere, the assets like roads, houses, and other buildings, constructed inthe 1950s is still in use and not in need of major repairs. A complete difference in philosophical approach was used in building the base fortheir economies. They have not sacrificed tomorrow for today, but infact sacrificed yesterday for today—and today has arrived.Assets are those things we purchase today that will bring futurebenefits. But those assets must be managed to get those future benefits.To compete in a level playing field across the world, instead of in onewhere we make all the rules, we in the United States must evaluate ourpresent practices. We can no longer afford to put two or three times thepercentage of our gross national product into the nation’s dumps eachyear than competing countries do. We can no longer approach the building and operating of our businesses as we did during World War II. Welearned there that we can build things quickly if they are only needed fora few years or are abandoned on the battlefield. Much of our managerialapproach to business assets is alarmingly similar: build it, use it, andthrow it away. To many, it is even worse than that; we buy it and don’tthink about it again until it is worn out or disrupts the production line.Accounting managers must rethink their accounting processes forassets. To be value-added, accounting information must be simple andunderstandable, and must provide relevant, timely information tothose who make decisions based on it.My goal in producing this book is not just to provide a comprehensive treatment of the details of accounting for fixed assets, but also to provide the management accountant with the processes to provide goodrelevant decision-making information for the officers of the company.Also, I provide the processes that are necessary to manage those assets.The book is organized to allow you to skip over the initial processesnecessary to the system, and understand the principles and philosophythat are necessary in managing assets.I will also suggest a different approach to management of assets.An asset is current production that is not used up, and instead providesthe means for future productivity. A hundred years ago, assets wereknown by business people as capital goods. Capital goods are something that must be managed for the future, not just to benefit currentquarter earnings. Accounting forFixed Assets 1What Is Accountingfor Fixed Assets? INTRODUCTIONMost accounting professionals believe that all there is to be learnedabout asset accounting occurred in the introductory course on principles of accounting. Therefore, although this subject can become quitecomplex, it has not been explored in the accounting literature.In 1984 when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)called for the rewriting of the uniform system of accounts for telephonecompanies, public utilities had not been following generally acceptedaccounting principles (GAAP) as outlined by the Financial AccountingStandards Board (FASB) and its predecessors, but instead used procedures that had been outlined in 1934 by the FCC. The team responsiblefor making recommendations on the rewriting of the system of accounts established a basic policy that what was to be recommendedwould comply with current GAAP.The subcommittee responsible for reviewing and recommendingprocedures for property, plant, and equipment was frustrated by thelack of definitive information on accounting for assets. The primarysources are very limited. The Accounting Principles Board (APB) andthe later FASB have been nearly silent on the subject beyond definingdepreciation and historical costs.Accounting Research Bulletin (ARB) 43 was issued in 1953 to summarize all previous GAAP. It requires that depreciation be calculated1 2 What Is Accounting for Fixed Assets? and disclosed. Most of the additional discussion on tangible assetsinvolved explaining why depreciation is appropriately calculated using historical costs. It is true that management must take into consideration the probability that plant and machinery will have to bereplaced at cost much greater than those of the facilities now in use;however, depreciation must not be calculated on the basis of this expected inflation.ARB 43 in paragraph C5 goes on to state:The cost of a reproductive facility is one of the costs of the services it renders during its useful economic life. Generally accepted accounting principles require that this cost be spreadover the expected useful life of the facility in such a way as toallocate it as equitably as possible to the periods during whichservices are obtained from the use of the facility. This procedure is known as depreciation accounting, a system of accounting which aims to distribute the cost or other basic valueof tangible capital assets, less salvage (if any), over the estimated useful life of the unit (which may be a group of assets)in a systematic and rational matter. It is a process of allocation,not of valuation.After formation of the Accounting Principles Board, APB 6 wasissued in 1964 continuing the authority outlined in ARB 43.The Board continued to support the use of historical cost as opposed to inflation accounting:The Board is of the opinion that property, plant, and equipment should not be written up by an entity to reflect appraisal,market or current values which are above cost to the entity.APB 12, issued in 1967, requires the disclosure of depreciable assets and depreciation. In addition to total depreciation expense and themajor classes of depreciable assets, it also requires disclosure of:• Depreciation expense for the period.• Balances of major classes of depreciable assets by nature offunction, at the balance sheet date.• Accumulated depreciation, either by major classes ofdepreciable assets or in total, at the balance sheet date. Consumption of Benefits 3 • A general description of the method or methods used incomputing depreciation with respect to major classes ofdepreciable assets.CONSUMPTION OF BENEFITSIn 1984, the FASB issued Concept Statement 5, which included additionaldiscussion of assets. However, it was also limited in scope, as onewould expect in a concept statement.The discussion emphasized the recognition assumption of assets,clearly indicating that assets are consumed by their use and the costshould be recognized in the accounting periods of their life.Consumption of economic benefits during a period may be recognized either directly or by relating it to revenues recognized during theperiod.Some expenses such as depreciation and insurance are allocatedby systematic and rational procedures to the period during which therelated assets are expected to provide benefits.“Any expense or loss (in future benefits) is recognized if it becomes evident that previously recognized future economic benefits ofan asset have been reduced or eliminated.”Since its creation, the FASB has entertained considerable discussion about assets, but the only statements issued cover specific assets:• Expensing versus capitalizing research and development• The accounting for software• Depreciation in not-for-profit organization financial statements• Impairment of Assets• Involuntary ConversionsFASB Concept Statement 6, Elements of Financial Statements, hasmore material than any other on the accounting for long-term tangibleassets. However, it addresses itself primarily to the definition, the purpose of accrual accounting, and the characteristics of an asset.In 1985, Concept Statement 6 added a definition of assets:Assets are probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by a particular entity as a result of past transactions orevents. 4 What Is Accounting for Fixed Assets? CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSETSConcept Statement 6 continues, enumerating the three essential characteristics of an asset:• It embodies a probable future benefit that involves a capacity,singly or in combination with other assets, to combine directlyor indirectly to future net cash in flows.• A particular entity can obtain the benefit and control others’access to it.• The transaction or other event giving rise to the entity’s rightto or control of the benefit has already occurred.This is the first discussion in promulgated accounting rules discussingthe definition and characteristics of an asset. The major thrust is thatprobable future benefit is the definition of an asset. To reflect it on thebalance sheet, the entity must be able to obtain benefit from the assetand control others’ access to the asset. This statement also reviews theconcept of future economic benefit and service potential as it relates tonot-for-profit organizations. It states:In a not-for-profit organization, the service potential or future economic benefit is used to provide desired or neededgoods or services to beneficiaries or other constituents, whichmay or may not directly result in net cash inflows to the organizations. Some not-for-profit organizations rely significantly on contributions or donations of cash to supplementselling prices. . . .This discussion introduces the argument that depreciation of tangible assets is an appropriate expense of not-for-profit organizations.In a discussion of accrual accounting, Concept Statement 6 discussesassets under a heading “Recognition, Matching, and Allocation.” Inparagraph 145, it states:Accrual accounting uses accrual, deferral, and allocation procedures whose goal is to relate revenues, expenses, gains, andlosses to periods to reflect an entity’s performance during a period instead of merely listing its cash receipts and outlays . . .the goal of accrual accounting is to account in the periods inwhich they occur for the effects on an entity of transactions and Characteristics of Assets 5 other events and circumstances, to the extent that those financial effects are recognizable and measurable.There is a discussion of costs and revenues to determine profits forperiods. Depreciation and assets are excluded from the matching concept. Paragraph 149 of Concept Statement 6 explains:However, many assets yield their benefit to an entity over several periods, for example, prepaid insurance, buildings, andvarious kinds of equipment. Expenses resulting from their useare normally allocated to the periods of the estimated usefullives (the periods over which they are expected to providebenefits) by a rational allocation procedure, for example, byrecognizing depreciation or other amortization. Although thepurpose of expense allocation is the same as that of other expense recognition—to reflect the using up of assets as a resultof transactions or other events or circumstances affecting anentity—allocation is applied if causal relations are generally,but not specifically, identified. For example, wear and tearfrom use is known to be a major cause of the expense called depreciation, but the amount of depreciation caused by wear andtear in a period normally cannot be measured.This discussion appears to make the distinction between thematching principle for revenues and expenses and the allocation ofthe cost of using up future benefits. Although this distinction is subtle, it is the point of basic disagreement between those who argue forinflation accounting and the depreciating of assets based on currentmarket value and those who argue for depreciating using a lesser historical cost.Appendix B of Concept Statement 6 further discusses characteristicsof assets, defining assets as “probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by a particular entity as a result of past transactionsor events.”Most of this discussion relates to intangible or nonphysical assets.The FASB, in issuing its Statement 2, Accounting for Research and Development Costs, also gives us some information on what makes up tangible physical assets. In their concern for the appropriate accounting forresearch and development costs, they conclude that all should becharged to expense accounts. However, they do give us their thoughts 6 What Is Accounting for Fixed Assets? about which tangible assets should and should not be included in research and development costs.A prime consideration is that materials, equipment, and facilitiesthat have an alternative future use (in research and development projectsor otherwise) shall be capitalized as tangible assets when acquired or constructed. However, the costs of such materials, equipment, or facilities thatare acquired or constructed for a particular research and developmentproject and have no alternative future uses and therefore no separate economic values are research and development costs at the time the costs areincurred. All research and development costs encompassed by the statement are charged to expense when incurred. This reflects the concept thatresearch and development costs will be used up during the span of the research project. Tangible assets that have a life beyond the current project,however, should be capitalized and depreciated over their useful lives.The preceding paragraphs summarize the present state of GAAPrelating to property, plant, and equipment.Many subjects in accounting have not been covered at lengthwithin the promulgated statements. Most with the significance of longterm tangible assets have been covered in more detail in secondaryaccounting material, but few secondary publications provide any indepth discussion on fixed assets.Research bulletins and disclosure drafts having to do with inflation accounting have not been allowed to creep into generally acceptedaccounting principles.Therefore, in determining the details of an accounting system forproperty, plant, and equipment with the FCC study in 1984 and 1985,the committee felt it necessary to use the secondary documents on assets. The documents were used to establish current practice and to forma model that telecommunications companies should use instead of the1934 FCC regulations. The only additional definitive document discussing accounting for property, plant, and equipment was issued bythe Institute of Management Accountants (IMA, formerly the NationalAssociation of Accountants) as Statement on Management Accounting(SMA) 4. SMA 4 was issued in October 1972 with the title, Fixed AssetAccounting: The Capitalization of Cost. Several concepts outlined in thetwenty-four-page statement include the following:Costs through preparation for useExtraordinary repairsBase unit Characteristics of Assets 7 Extended life or increased capacityWritten policiesCapitalization policyLife greater than one yearSelf-constructed assets that include direct overheadNo initial development costDepreciationThe SMA 4 discusses a number of concepts which were then, andstill are, common practice.All Costs to Prepare Item for UseAll costs in addition to the invoice price to make an item of property, plant,and equipment ready for use should be capitalized in its historical cost.Extraordinary RepairsNormal repairs are charged to expense when incurred; however, extraordinary repairs that extend the life, increase the capability, or increaseefficiency of the item should be capitalized during its life, the historicalcost increased, and depreciation recalculated from that date forward.Base UnitThe base unit concept is not dealt with in any other document. It outlines the concept that property units should have a policy determination as to what constitutes the property record entity that is capitalized.The base unit might be a complete machine or the individual components of that machine. This concept is important when establishing ausable property record system for a particular company. For example,entities that use light trucks as maintenance vehicles may wear out anumber of trucks during the lives of hydraulic lifts, welding equipment, and utility beds.Written PoliciesIt is important for each company to have an asset manual with written policies. Determinations of appropriate base units and otherpolicies unique to a company must be described and documented.Without written policies, asset accounting will not be consistentover a period

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

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0

"of time.\n8\nWhat Is Accounting for Fixed Assets?\nCapitalization PolicyA minimum level of capitali(...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

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1

"done by classifying and coding the transaction.Classification of a transaction is defined asThe ide(...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

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2

"and the list of base units by property class is that they are understandable by the nonaccountants (...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

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3

"access during that period.Remember also that loss is not always due to theft; it may occur inthe no(...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

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4

"ant should be aware of the replacement cost prior to establishing the insurance coverage. At the ti(...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

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5

"6\nRegulated Utilities\nregulations for direction. Accountants in nonregulated industries mayfind t(...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

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6

"group in 1984. The Financial AccountingFoundation (FAF) is the financing organization for both the (...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

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[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)

7

"established by reviewing replacement cost, it wouldthen be appropriate to reduce that cost by the e(...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

[7841,491,9076,292,16920,3438,29892,372,723,6098,367,8210,304,10032,393,3438,491,278,15899,1401,4361(...TRUNCATED)

[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)

[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)

8

"A number of those aircraft are still operatingin small countries today. An aircraft frequently live(...TRUNCATED)

accounting

Accounting for Fixed Assets

[319,1353,310,1906,15780,526,1603,13598,262,2319,10916,9826,29889,530,15780,13672,12080,8724,967,244(...TRUNCATED)

[1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1(...TRUNCATED)

[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0(...TRUNCATED)

9