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The Clay Mathematics Institute (CMI) is a private, non-profit foundation dedicated to increasing and disseminating mathematical knowledge. Formerly based in Peterborough, New Hampshire, the corporate address is now in Denver, Colorado. CMI's scientific activities are managed from the President's office in Oxford, United Kingdom. It gives out various awards and sponsorships to promising mathematicians. The institute was founded in 1998 through the sponsorship of Boston businessman Landon T. Clay. Harvard mathematician Arthur Jaffe was the first president of CMI.
While the institute is best known for its Millennium Prize Problems, it carries out a wide range of activities, including a postdoctoral program (ten Clay Research Fellows are supported currently), conferences, workshops, and summer schools.
==Governance==
The institute is run according to a standard structure comprising a scientific advisory committee that decides on grant-awarding and research proposals, and a board of directors that oversees and approves the committee's decisions. , the board is made up of members of the Clay family, whereas the advisory committee is composed of Simon Donaldson, Michael Hopkins, Carlos Kenig, Andrei Okounkov, and Andrew Wiles. Martin R. Bridson is the current president of CMI.
==Millennium Prize Problems==
The institute is best known for establishing the Millennium Prize Problems on May 24, 2000.
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Clay Mathematics Institute
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] |
These seven problems are considered by CMI to be "important classic questions that have resisted solution over the years." For each problem, the first person to solve it will be awarded $1,000,000 by the CMI. In announcing the prize, CMI drew a parallel to Hilbert's problems, which were proposed in 1900, and had a substantial impact on 20th century mathematics. Of the initial 23 Hilbert problems, most of which have been solved, only the Riemann hypothesis (formulated in 1859) is included in the seven Millennium Prize Problems.Arthur Jaffe's first-hand account of how this Millennium Prize came about can be read in The Millennium Grand Challenge in Mathematics.
For each problem, the Institute had a professional mathematician write up an official statement of the problem, which will be the main standard by which a given solution will be measured against. The seven problems are:
* P versus NP
* The Hodge conjecture
* The Poincaré conjecture—solved, by Grigori Perelman
* The Riemann hypothesis
* Yang–Mills existence and mass gap
* Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness
* The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture
Some of the mathematicians who were involved in the selection and presentation of the seven problems were Michael Atiyah, Enrico Bombieri, Alain Connes, Pierre Deligne, Charles Fefferman, John Milnor, David
|
Clay Mathematics Institute
|
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] |
Mumford, Andrew Wiles, and Edward Witten.
==Other awards==
===The Clay Research Award===
In recognition of major breakthroughs in mathematical research, the institute has an annual prize — the Clay Research Award. Its recipients to date are Ian Agol, Manindra Agrawal, Yves Benoist, Manjul Bhargava, Tristan Buckmaster, Danny Calegari, Alain Connes, Nils Dencker, Alex Eskin, David Gabai, Ben Green, Mark Gross, Larry Guth, Christopher Hacon, Richard S. Hamilton, Michael Harris, Philip Isett, Jeremy Kahn, Nets Katz, Laurent Lafforgue, Gérard Laumon, Aleksandr Logunov, Eugenia Malinnikova, Vladimir Markovic, James McKernan, Jason Miller, Maryam Mirzakhani, Ngô Bảo Châu, Rahul Pandharipande, Jonathan Pila, Jean-François Quint, Peter Scholze, Oded Schramm, Scott Sheffield, Bernd Siebert, Stanislav Smirnov, Terence Tao, Clifford Taubes, Richard Taylor, Maryna Viazovska, Vlad Vicol, Claire Voisin, Jean-Loup Waldspurger, Andrew Wiles, Geordie Williamson, Edward Witten and Wei Zhang.
==Other activities==
Besides the Millennium Prize Problems, the Clay Mathematics Institute supports mathematics via the awarding of research fellowships (which range from two to five years, and are aimed at younger mathematicians), as well as shorter-term scholarships for programs, individual research, and book writing. The institute also has a yearly Clay Research Award, recognizing major breakthroughs in mathematical research. Finally, the institute organizes a number of summer schools, conferences, workshops, public lectures,
|
Clay Mathematics Institute
|
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] |
and outreach activities aimed primarily at junior mathematicians (from the high school to postdoctoral level). CMI publications are available in PDF form at most six months after they appear in print.
The episode of the television series Elementary entitled "Solve for X" (Season 2, Episode 2) mentions the Clay Mathematics Institute in reference to their involvement in the P versus NP problem.
==References==
*Keith J. Devlin, The Millennium Problems: The Seven Greatest Unsolved Mathematical Puzzles of Our Time, Basic Books (October, 2002), .
==External links==
* Official website
* The Millennium Grand Challenge in Mathematics
* Millennium Problems
* Clay Mathematics Institute Online Library
Category:Organizations established in 1998
Category:Mathematical institutes
Category:Research institutes in Colorado
Category:1998 establishments in New Hampshire
Category:Organizations based in Denver
|
Clay Mathematics Institute
|
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] |
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
==Radio and television==
* Radio stations:
** Two state-owned radio stations are supplemented by more than 100 private radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2007);"Communications: Democratic Republic of the Congo", World Factbook, U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 7 January 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
** 27 stations (2005);
** 13 stations: 3 AM, 11 FM, and 2 shortwave (2001);
** 16 stations: 3 AM, 12 FM, and 1 shortwave (1999).
* Radios: 18.0 million (1997).
* Television stations:
** One state-owned TV broadcast station with near national coverage; more than a dozen privately owned TV stations with two having near national coverage (2007);
** 23 stations (2005);
** 4 stations (2001);
** 20 stations (1999).
* Television sets: 6.5 million (1997).
Radio is the dominant medium; a handful of stations, including state-run Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC), broadcast across the country. The United Nations Mission (MONUSCO) and a Swiss-based NGO, Fondation Hirondelle, operate one of country's leading stations, Radio Okapi. The network employs mostly-Congolese staff and aims to bridge political divisions. Radio France Internationale (RFI), which is widely available on FM, is the most popular news station. The BBC
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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broadcasts on FM in Kinshasa (92.7), Lubumbashi (92.0), Kisangani (92.0), Goma (93.3) and Bukavu (102.2)."Country profile: Democratic Republic of the Congo", BBC News, 22 February 2012. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
=== Radio Okapi ===
Radio Okapi was first established in February 2002 by the United Nations Mission in the Democratic of Republic of Congo (MONUC). Radio Okapi provides news, music, and political information to all corners of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The major purpose behind Radio Okapi is to provide all DRC citizens with radio services regardless of political affiliation. The FM waves Radio Okapi provided were aimed to be free of hate speech. Most importantly, Radio Okapi caters to the various different ethnicities within the DRC. This is done through the broadcasting of content in 5 of major languages spoken in the DRC. These five languages are French, Lingala, Swahili, Tshiluba, and Kikongo.
===Most viewed channels TV===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
|-
! Position !! Channel !! Share of total viewing (%)
|-
| 1 || RTNC || 20.8
|-
| 2 || RT Mwangaza || 4.5
|-
| 3 || Digital Congo TV || 4.0
|-
| 4 || Malaika TV || 3.3
|-
| 5 || TV5 Monde || 3.0
|-
| 6 || Canal+ || 2.5
|-
| 7 || Tele50 || 2.0
|-
| 8
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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] |
|| RTG@ || 1.6
|-
| 9 || RT Océan Pacifique || 1.4
|-
| 10 || RT Debout Kasai || 1.0
|}
== Political Uses of Media ==
=== Hate Speech ===
Specific media platforms in the Democratic Republic of Congo have used its platforms for the dissemination of hate speech. Media in the DRC has propagated hatred and ethnic divisions by reinforcing nationalistic sentiments. Numerous media outlets are owned by presidential candidates and their supporters. This increases the probability that news will tend to favor the political base of these presidential candidates. These presidential candidates use their media platforms to attack political opponents which include ethnically charged hate speech. The result of such propaganda is evident in recent conflicts between ethnic groups, Hema and Lendu. The conflict was fueled by hate speech on media platforms. As a result, the conflict between these ethnic groups has transformed to one of the bloodiest conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
=== Combating Hate Speech ===
Peacekeeping agencies in the Democratic Republic of Congo observed the dangerous risk hate speech posed to communal welfare in the region. In order to combat such harmful speech, Non-governmental agencies (NGO's) began promoting large scale media campaigns. Campaigns consisted of several different radio programs aimed
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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] |
at reconciliation and peacekeeping. Research concluded that such programs showed measurable positive effects.
==Telephones==
* Calling code: +243
* International call prefix: 00Dialing Procedures (International Prefix, National (Trunk) Prefix and National (Significant) Number) (in Accordance with ITY-T Recommendation E.164 (11/2010)), Annex to ITU Operational Bulletin No. 994-15.XII.2011, International Telecommunication Union (ITU, Geneva), 15 December 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
* Main lines:
** 58,200 lines in use, 161st in the world (2012);
** 20,000 lines in use (2000);
** 36,000 lines in use (1995).
* Mobile cellular:
** 19.5 million lines, 52nd in the world (2012);
** 2.6 million lines (2005);
** 15,000 lines (2000);
** 10,000 lines (1995).
* Telephone system: barely adequate wire and microwave radio relay service in and between urban areas; domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations; inadequate fixed line infrastructure, state-owned operator providing less than 1 fixed-line connection per 1000 persons; given the inadequate fixed-line infrastructure, the use of mobile-cellular services has surged and mobile teledensity is roughly 20 per 100 persons (2011).
* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
==Internet==
* Top-level domain: .cd (formerly .zr).
* Internet users:
** 1.2 million users, 110th in the world; 1.7% of the population, 202nd in the world (2012);Calculated using penetration rate and
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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] |
population data from "Countries and Areas Ranked by Population: 2012" , Population data, International Programs, U.S. Census Bureau, retrieved 26 June 2013"Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000-2012", International Telecommunication Union (Geneva), June 2013, retrieved 22 June 2013
** 290,000 users, 132nd in the world (2008);
** 50,000 users (2002).
* Internet hosts: 2,515 hosts, 159th in the world (2012).
* IPv4: 21,248 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 0.3 addresses per 1000 people (2012).Select Formats , Country IP Blocks. Accessed on 2 April 2012. Note: Site is said to be updated daily.Population, The World Factbook, United States Central Intelligence Agency. Accessed on 2 April 2012. Note: Data are mostly for 1 July 2012.
* Internet Service Providers: 188 ISPs (2005); 1 ISP (1999).
=== Internet cables ===
* List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa
* African Coast to Europe (ACE), a fibre optic submarine communications cable linking countries along the west coast of Africa with France.
* West Africa Cable System (WACS), a fibre optic submarine communications cable linking countries along the west coast of Africa with the United Kingdom.
== Internet Censorship and Surveillance ==
After the First Congo War (1996-1997) and Second Congo War (1998-2003), the nation transitioned to
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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a renewed national unity under the rule of President Joseph Kabila and 4 vice presidents, all from former rebel and political opposition groups. The establishment of a democratic model required checks on corruption in public finance and natural resources, executive political parties, and hyperlocal militias and bandits. Peace agreements, in turn, did not end state violence, hence the need for absolute clarity to the public. The right to report on hostile resolutions was adopted in a 2002 resolution as a part of the eventual Inter-Congolese Dialogue. This accord declared that “independent, free, responsible and efficient media are a guarantee for public freedoms, the smooth running of democracy and social cohesion”, giving the voters direct insight into public figures, programs, and overall transparency. Article 27, 28, and Clause 29 established individual freedom of expression, moral press freedom, and the public right to information, respectively. During the time of continuing 2002 conflict, radios served as stages for peace songs and “come-home” messaging. Hosts had conversations with military and government officials, army members, and rebels to discuss the challenges of peace talks and demobilization. Censorship was lenient as long as radio personnel covered both sides.
Major exceptions to the right of free press imminently
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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ensued. In 1996, censorship had begun to target Congo's artistic freedoms. Beyond broadcasts and news, the nation began to censor those who expressed political sentiments through music. The National Censorship Commission banned six songs that mentioned common opposition outcries relating to employment opportunities, civilian killings, corruption, and faltering human rights. If these songs are played on the radio, the artists may be fined up to $500 per song in accordance with a 1996 censorship decree. Freedom of the press was restricted for artists offending political elites or speaking against Congolese leaders and parties. For those using telecommunications as an outlet, interference was backed by such legislation. Open discussion about political corruption or unmentioned events, such as riots or uprisings against the ruling party, are avoided in news media but continuously active on pavement radio.
== Intentional Shutdowns ==
The Congolese government performed a series of intentional internet shutdowns. The first was conducted in December 2011 and lasted approximately 25 days. During the 25 days, Short Message Service otherwise known as SMS was the only one affected by the shutdown. According to an article by CIPESA, "One of the reasons cited by the government for blocking communication was to prevent the spread
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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of fake results over the internet before the electoral commission announced official results"
Unlike the first shutdown the second intentional shutdown had a broader range of impact.The second intentional shutdown occurred in January 2015. The Congolese government directed telecommunication companies within the country to halt all its services. Not only was SMS affected, but the entire internet itself. This action by the government came on the eve of political protest on a proposed electoral bill.
The most recent government shutdown occurred on December 19, 2016. This was an important date as President Joseph Kabila was supposed to step down as head of state. In order to quell, political upheaval the Congolese government ordered telecom operators to block social media in the country.
In September 2016, the government cut the signals of the Radio France Internationale (RFI) and United Nations Radio Okapi (UNRO). Later, the general and program director of the Radio-Télévision Manika de Kolwezi was arrested after intentionally broadcasting a phone interview with Katumbi, the opposition leader. The censorship of human freedoms of expression to information was condemned by the Congo's United Nations on Human Rights. Kabila was given until December 19, 2016, to step down. If he decided not to, precautionary measures
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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were set to counter organization and public protests. The government ordered a temporary blocking of images, videos, and voiceovers on social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Skype, and WhatsApp right after Kabila was to step down. Digital media was the central counter to government oversight and regulation seen in other telecommunication outlets. Media was used in lieu of radio broadcasting to avoid self-censorship, financial restraints that may affect networks, or news station shutdowns. Removing the intermediary for independent journalism and coverage prevented communication among those who wanted to organize and speak out against Kabila. Black-outs were utilized to prevent anticipated politically motivated violence. Additionally, the then Telecommunications Minister Thomas Luhaka was “not informed” of such interference by the government.
==See also==
* Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC), the state-run national broadcaster.
* Internet freedom in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
* Media of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
==References==
*
==External links==
* NIC.cd, domain name registrar for the .cd domain.
==Images==
File:1955 telecommunications map Atlas General du Congo 742.jpg|Map of telecommunications in the Congo, 1955
|
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
|
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] |
Telecommunications in Dominica comprises telephone, radio, television and internet services. The primary regulatory authority is the National Telecommunication Regulatory Commission which regulates all related industries to comply with The Telecommunications Act 8 of 2000.
==Telephony==
Calls from Dominica to the US, Canada, and other NANP Caribbean nations, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number. Calls from Dominica to non-NANP countries are dialed as 011 + country code + phone number with local area code.
;Telephone system:
*Domestic: fully automatic network
*International: microwave radio relay and SHF radiotelephone links to Martinique and Guadeloupe; VHF and UHF radiotelephone links to Saint Lucia
;Number formatting:
*Telephone code: 767
*Number Format: nxx-xxxx
*Country Code: +1767
*International Call Prefix: 011 (outside NANP)
;Mobile cellular service providers:
*Digicel
*LIME
==Radio==
;Radio broadcast stations:
AM 0, FM 15, shortwave 0 (2007)
;Radios:
46,000 (1997)
==Television==
;Television broadcast stations:
0 (however, there are three cable television companies, Dominica Broadcast, Marpin Telecoms and Digicel Play – a merger of Digicel and SAT Telecommunications Ltd.)
;Televisions:
11,000 (2007)
==Internet service providers==
;Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
*Cable & Wireless Dominica Ltd (DSL)
*Digicel Play (Cable & FTTP)
*Marpin Telecoms (Cable)
;Internet code: .dm
==References==
==External links==
*
* Dominica, E.C. Tel
* Dominica, SubmarineCableMap.com
Dominica
*
Dominica
|
Telecommunications in Dominica
|
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The Domain Name System (DNS) is the hierarchical and distributed naming system used to identify computers reachable through the Internet or other Internet Protocol (IP) networks. The resource records contained in the DNS associate domain names with other forms of information. These are most commonly used to map human-friendly domain names to the numerical IP addresses computers need to locate services and devices using the underlying network protocols, but have been extended over time to perform many other functions. The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
==Function==
An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the hostname www.example.com within the domain name example.com translates to the addresses (IPv4) and (IPv6). The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and e-mail addresses without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.
An important and ubiquitous function
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks.J. Dilley, B. Maggs, J. Parikh, H. Prokop, R. Sitaraman, and B. Weihl. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the URL is translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users can simultaneously receive different translations for the same domain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.
The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet. Each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager. For zones operated by a registry, administrative information is often complemented by the registry's RDAP and WHOIS services. That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet.
==History==
Using a simpler, more memorable name in place
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
of a host's numerical address dates back to the ARPANET era. The Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) maintained a text file named HOSTS.TXT that mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET.RFC 3467, "Role of the Domain Name System (DNS)", J.C. Klensin, J. Klensin (February 2003). Elizabeth Feinler developed and maintained the first ARPANET directory. Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled by Jon Postel at the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute (ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI.IEEE Annals [3B2-9] man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74
Addresses were assigned manually. Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRI Network Information Center (NIC), directed by Feinler, telephone during business hours. Later, Feinler set up a WHOIS directory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities. She and her team developed the concept of domains. Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer. Computers at educational institutions would have the domain edu, for example. She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989.
By the
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues. Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions to Paul Mockapetris. Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983 while at the University of Southern California.
The Internet Engineering Task Force published the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983.Elizabeth Feinler, IEEE Annals, 3B2-9 man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74 These were updated in RFC 973 in January 1986.
In 1984, four UC Berkeley students, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the first Unix name server implementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to as BIND. In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of DEC substantially revised the DNS implementation. Mike Karels, Phil Almquist, and Paul Vixie then took over BIND maintenance. Internet Systems Consortium was founded in 1994 by Rick Adams, Paul Vixie, and Carl Malamud, expressly to provide a home for BIND development and maintenance. BIND versions from 4.9.3 onward were developed and maintained by ISC, with support provided by ISC’s sponsors. As co-architects/programmers, Bob Halley and Paul Vixie
|
Domain Name System
|
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-0.49091029167175293,
-0.12778107821941376,
0.1644960641860962
] |
released the first production-ready version of BIND version 8 in May 1997. Since 2000, over 43 different core developers have worked on BIND.
In November 1987, RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 superseded the 1983 DNS specifications. Several additional Request for Comments have proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols.
==Structure ==
===Domain name space===
The domain name space consists of a tree data structure. Each node or leaf in the tree has a label and zero or more resource records (RR), which hold information associated with the domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot.
The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root zone. A DNS zone may consist of as many domains and sub domains as the zone manager chooses. DNS can also be partitioned according to class where the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.
Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority over the new zone is said to be delegated to a designated name server. The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.
===Domain name
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
syntax, internationalization===
The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.
The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com.
The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example, the label example specifies a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a subdomain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.
A label may contain zero to 63 characters. The null label, of length zero, is reserved for the root zone. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation. In the internal binary representation of the DNS the maximum length requires 255 octets of storage, as it also stores the length of the name.
Although no technical limitation exists to prevent domain name labels using any character which is representable by an octet, hostnames use a preferred format
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
and character set. The characters allowed in labels are a subset of the ASCII character set, consisting of characters a through z, A through Z, digits 0 through 9, and hyphen. This rule is known as the LDH rule (letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in case-independent manner.Network Working Group of the IETF, January 2006, RFC 4343: Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification Labels may not start or end with a hyphen.RFC 3696, Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names, J. Klensin An additional rule requires that top-level domain names should not be all-numeric.
The limited set of ASCII characters permitted in the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. To make this possible, ICANN approved the Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) system, by which user applications, such as web browsers, map Unicode strings into the valid DNS character set using Punycode. In 2009 ICANN approved the installation of internationalized domain name country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). In addition, many registries of the existing top-level domain names (TLDs) have adopted the IDNA system, guided by RFC 5890, RFC 5891, RFC 5892, RFC 5893.
===Name servers===
The Domain Name System
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
is maintained by a distributed database system, which uses the client–server model. The nodes of this database are the name servers. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the root name servers, the servers to query when looking up (resolving) a TLD.
====Authoritative name server====
An authoritative name server is a name server that only gives answers to DNS queries from data that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers obtained via a query to another name server that only maintains a cache of data.
An authoritative name server can either be a primary server or a secondary server. Historically the terms master/slave and primary/secondary were sometimes used interchangeably but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records. A secondary server uses a special automatic updating mechanism in the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records.
Every DNS zone
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers. This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records.
An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed authoritative, by setting a protocol flag, called the "Authoritative Answer" (AA) bit in its responses. This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools, such as dig, to indicate that the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question.
When a name server is designated as the authoritative server for a domain name for which it does not have authoritative data, it presents a type of error called a "lame delegation" or "lame response".
==Operation==
===Address resolution mechanism===
Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.
For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (hints) of the known addresses of the root name servers. The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source.
Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process,
|
Domain Name System
|
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the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers. In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for "www.wikipedia.org" is referred to the org servers. The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer. The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by the fully qualified domain name "www.wikipedia.org".
This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root. In practice caching is used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests.
====Recursive and caching name server====
In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the root zone of the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.
To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and
|
Domain Name System
|
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increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of the domain name record in question.
Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.
The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.
Internet service providers typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network.
===DNS resolvers===
The client side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods, such as recursive, non-recursive, and iterative. A resolution process may
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
use a combination of these methods.
In a non-recursive query, a DNS resolver queries a DNS server that provides a record either for which the server is authoritative, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers. In case of a caching DNS resolver, the non-recursive query of its local DNS cache delivers a result and reduces the load on upstream DNS servers by caching DNS resource records for a period of time after an initial response from upstream DNS servers.
In a recursive query, a DNS resolver queries a single DNS server, which may in turn query other DNS servers on behalf of the requester. For example, a simple stub resolver running on a home router typically makes a recursive query to the DNS server run by the user's ISP. A recursive query is one for which the DNS server answers the query completely by querying other name servers as needed. In typical operation, a client issues a recursive query to a caching recursive DNS server, which subsequently issues non-recursive queries to determine the answer and send a single answer back to the client. The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
recursive service using bits in the query headers. DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries.
The iterative query procedure is a process in which a DNS resolver queries a chain of one or more DNS servers. Each server refers the client to the next server in the chain, until the current server can fully resolve the request. For example, a possible resolution of www.example.com would query a global root server, then a "com" server, and finally an "example.com" server.
===Circular dependencies and glue records===
Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the delegation is being provided, there is a circular dependency.
In this case, the name server providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for the authoritative name server mentioned in the delegation. This information is called glue. The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in the additional section of the DNS response,
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
and provides the delegation in the authority section of the response. A glue record is a combination of the name server and IP address.
For example, if the authoritative name server for example.org is ns1.example.org, a computer trying to resolve www.example.org first resolves ns1.example.org. As ns1 is contained in example.org, this requires resolving example.org first, which presents a circular dependency. To break the dependency, the name server for the top level domain org includes glue along with the delegation for example.org. The glue records are address records that provide IP addresses for ns1.example.org. The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to query one of the domain's authoritative servers, which allows it to complete the DNS query.
===Record caching===
A standard practice in implementing name resolution in applications is to reduce the load on the Domain Name System servers by caching results locally, or in intermediate resolver hosts. Results obtained from a DNS request are always associated with the time to live (TTL), an expiration time after which the results must be discarded or refreshed. The TTL is set by the administrator of the authoritative DNS server. The period of validity may vary from a few seconds to days or
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
even weeks.
As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.
Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all. Negative caching, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the Start of Authority (SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the minimum field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.
===Reverse lookup===
A reverse DNS lookup is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain arpa. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.
When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.
===Client lookup===
Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as web browsers, e-mail clients, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the DNS resolver in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.
The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed DHCP to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined above, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.
====Broken resolvers====
Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
its name servers does not respond.
Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data. These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute.
Internet Explorer represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration.
When Google Chrome detects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message.
===Other applications===
The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features.
Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful in virtual hosting, in which many web sites are served from a single host. Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitate fault tolerance and load distribution to multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet.
DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
IP addresses. For instance, mail transfer agents use DNS to find the best mail server to deliver e-mail: An MX record provides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution.
The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of blacklisted email hosts. A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication.
For example:
* The address 102.3.4.5 is blacklisted. It points to 5.4.3.102.blacklist.example, which resolves to 127.0.0.1.
* The address 102.3.4.6 is not blacklisted and points to 6.4.3.102.blacklist.example. This hostname is either not configured, or resolves to 127.0.0.2.
E-mail servers can query blacklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the blacklist. Many of such blacklists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.
To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain. At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups of root
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
name servers exist, with additional "copies" of them distributed worldwide via anycast addressing.
Dynamic DNS (DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobile hot spots, or when the IP address changes administratively.
==DNS message format==
The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and replies; both have the same format. Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field (flags) controls the content of these four sections.
The header section consists of the following fields: Identification, Flags, Number of questions, Number of answers, Number of authority resource records (RRs), and Number of additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given. The identification field is used to match responses with queries. The flag field consists of sub-fields as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+Header flags format
|-
! Field !! Description !! Length (bits)
|-
| QR || Indicates if the message is a query (0) or a reply (1) || 1
|-
| OPCODE || The type can be QUERY (standard query, 0), IQUERY (inverse query, 1), or STATUS (server status request, 2) || 4
|-
| AA || Authoritative Answer,
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
in a response, indicates if the DNS server is authoritative for the queried hostname || 1
|-
| TC || TrunCation, indicates that this message was truncated due to excessive length || 1
|-
| RD || Recursion Desired, indicates if the client means a recursive query || 1
|-
| RA || Recursion Available, in a response, indicates if the replying DNS server supports recursion || 1
|-
| Z || Zero, reserved for future use || 3
|-
| RCODE || Response code, can be NOERROR (0), FORMERR (1, Format error), SERVFAIL (2), NXDOMAIN (3, Nonexistent domain), etc. || 4
|}
After the flag, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order.
===Question section===
The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections. Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields:
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Resource record (RR) fields
|-
! Field !! Description !! Length (octets)
|-
| NAME || Name of the requested resource || Variable
|-
| TYPE || Type of RR (A, AAAA, MX, TXT, etc.) || 2
|-
| CLASS || Class code || 2
|}
The domain name is
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label.James F. Kurose and Keith W. Ross, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 6th ed. Essex, England: Pearson Educ. Limited, 2012
==DNS transport protocols==
===DNS-over-UDP/53 ("Do53")===
From the time of its origin in 1983 until quite recently, DNS has primarily answered queries on User Datagram Protocol (UDP) port number 53. Such queries consist of a clear-text request sent in a single UDP packet from the client, responded to with a clear-text reply sent in a single UDP packet from the server. When the length of the answer exceeds 512 bytes and both client and server support Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS), larger UDP packets may be used., Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0), P. Vixie (August 1999) Use of DNS-over-UDP is limited by, among other things, its lack of transport-layer encryption, authentication, reliable delivery, and message length.
===DNS-over-TCP/53 ("Do53/TCP")===
In 1989, RFC 1123 specified optional Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) transport for DNS queries, replies and, particularly, zone transfers. Via fragmentation of long replies, TCP allows longer responses, reliable delivery, and re-use of long-lived connections between clients and servers.
===DNS-over-TLS ("DoT")===
An IETF standard for encrypted DNS emerged in 2016, utilizing standard Transport Layer
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload. DoT servers listen on TCP port 853. RFC 7858 specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory.
===DNS-over-HTTPS ("DoH")===
A competing standard for DNS query transport was introduced in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS (which in turn transports HTTP over TLS). DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it travels on TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are easily differentiable in practice. DoH has been widely criticized for decreasing user anonymity relative to DoT.
===Oblivious DNS ("ODNS") and Oblivious DoH ("ODoH")===
Oblivious DNS (ODNS) was invented and implemented by researchers at Princeton University and the University of Chicago as an extension to unencrypted DNS, before DoH itself was standardized and widely deployed. Apple and Cloudflare subsequently deployed the technology in the context of DoH, as Oblivious DoH (ODoH). ODoH combines ingress/egress separation (invented in ODNS) with DoH's HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer encryption in a single protocol.
===DNS-over-TOR===
Like other Internet protocols, DNS may be run over VPNs and tunnels. One use which has become common enough
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
since 2019 to warrant its own frequently used acronym is DNS-over-Tor. The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexisting Tor network of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS.
=== DNS-over-QUIC ("DoQ") ===
by the Internet Engineering Task Force describes DNS over QUIC.
===DNSCrypt===
The DNSCrypt protocol, which was developed in 2011 outside the IETF standards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected by DNSSEC signatures. DNSCrypt uses either TCP or UDP port 443, the same port as HTTPS encrypted web traffic. This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability. In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an "anonymized" mode, similar to the proposed "Oblivious DNS," in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution. Privacy of user/query pairs
|
Domain Name System
|
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is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client. DNSCrypt was first implemented in production by OpenDNS in December of 2011. There are several free and open source software implementations that additionally integrate ODoH. It is available for a variety of operating systems, including Unix, Apple iOS, Linux, Android, and MS Windows.
==Resource records==
The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources. The types of information elements are categorized and organized with a list of DNS record types, the resource records (RRs). Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time (time to live), a class, and type-specific data. Resource records of the same type are described as a resource record set (RRset), having no special ordering. DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implement round-robin ordering to achieve load balancing. In contrast, the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order.
When sent over an Internet Protocol network, all records use the common format specified in RFC 1035:RFC 5395, Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations,
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), Section 3
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Resource record (RR) fields
|-
! Field !! Description !! Length (octets)
|-
| NAME || Name of the node to which this record pertains || Variable
|-
| TYPE || Type of RR in numeric form (e.g., 15 for MX RRs) || 2
|-
| CLASS || Class code || 2
|-
| TTL || Count of seconds that the RR stays valid (The maximum is 231−1, which is about 68 years) || 4
|-
| RDLENGTH || Length of RDATA field (specified in octets) || 2
|-
| RDATA || Additional RR-specific data || Variable, as per RDLENGTH
|}
NAME is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree . On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.
TYPE is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the A record is used to translate from a domain name to an IPv4 address, the NS record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a DNS zone, and the MX record specifies
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address.
RDATA is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597).
The CLASS of a record is set to IN (for Internet) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes Chaos (CH) and Hesiod (HS) exist.RFC 5395, Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), p. 11 Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones.
In addition to resource records defined in a zone file, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (on the wire), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for EDNS (OPT).
===Wildcard DNS records===
The domain name system supports wildcard DNS records which specify names that start with the asterisk label, '*', e.g., *.example., The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System, E. Lewis (July 2006) DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names
|
Domain Name System
|
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specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zone x.example specifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, of x.example use the mail exchanger (MX) a.x.example. The A record for a.x.example is needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomain a.x.example, as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone.
x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
*.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
*.a.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
a.x.example. MX 10 a.x.example.
a.x.example. AAAA 2001:db8::1
The role of wildcard records was refined in , because the original definition in was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers.
==Protocol extensions==
The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 (superseded by RFC 6891) an
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
extension mechanism, called Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams.
==Dynamic zone updates==
Dynamic DNS updates use the UPDATE DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone database maintained on an authoritative DNS server. The feature is described in RFC 2136. This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on the network. As a booting client may be assigned a different IP address each time from a DHCP server, it is not possible to provide static DNS assignments for such clients.
==Security issues==
Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public. However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the requirements for security measures to protect data integrity and user authentication.
Several
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users. One such issue is DNS cache poisoning, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live). Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent.
DNS responses traditionally do not have a cryptographic signature, leading to many attack possibilities; the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses. DNSCurve has been proposed as an alternative to DNSSEC. Other extensions, such as TSIG, add support for cryptographic authentication between trusted peers and are commonly used to authorize zone transfer or dynamic update operations.
Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects. For example, and are different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosen typeface. In many fonts the letter l and the numeral 1 look very similar or even identical. This problem is acute in systems that support internationalized domain names, as many character codes in ISO 10646 may appear identical on typical computer
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
screens. This vulnerability is occasionally exploited in phishing.APWG. "Global Phishing Survey: Domain Name Use and Trends in 1H2010." 10/15/2010 apwg.org
Techniques such as forward-confirmed reverse DNS can also be used to help validate DNS results.
DNS can also "leak" from otherwise secure or private connections, if attention is not paid to their configuration, and at times DNS has been used to bypass firewalls by malicious persons, and exfiltrate data, since it is often seen as innocuous.
==Privacy and tracking issues==
Originally designed as a public, hierarchical, distributed and heavily cached database, DNS protocol has no confidentiality controls. User queries and nameserver responses are being sent unencrypted which enables network packet sniffing, DNS hijacking, DNS cache poisoning and man-in-the-middle attacks. This deficiency is commonly used by cybercriminals and network operators for marketing purposes, user authentication on captive portals and censorship.
User privacy is further exposed by proposals for increasing the level of client IP information in DNS queries (RFC 7871) for the benefit of Content Delivery Networks.
The main approaches that are in use to counter privacy issues with DNS:
*VPNs, which move DNS resolution to the VPN operator and hide user traffic from local ISP,
*Tor, which replaces traditional DNS resolution with anonymous .onion domains, hiding both
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
name resolution and user traffic behind onion routing counter-surveillance,
*Proxies and public DNS servers, which move the actual DNS resolution to a third-party provider, who usually promises little or no request logging and optional added features, such as DNS-level advertisement or pornography blocking.
**Public DNS servers can be queried using traditional DNS protocol, in which case they provide no protection from local surveillance, or DNS-over-HTTPS, DNS-over-TLS and DNSCrypt, which do provide such protection
Solutions preventing DNS inspection by local network operator are criticized for thwarting corporate network security policies and Internet censorship. They are also criticized from a privacy point of view, as giving away the DNS resolution to the hands of a small number of companies known for monetizing user traffic and for centralizing DNS name resolution, which is generally perceived as harmful for the Internet.
==Domain name registration==
The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars which are accredited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) or other organizations such as OpenNIC, that are charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization, operating a
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
registry. A registry is responsible for operating the database of names within its authoritative zone, although the term is most often used for TLDs. A registrant is a person or organization who asked for domain registration. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar, which is authorized (accredited) to assign names in the corresponding zone and publishes the information using the WHOIS protocol. As of 2015, usage of RDAP is being considered.
ICANN publishes the complete list of TLDs, TLD registries, and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service. For most of the more than 290 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance, DENIC, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. From about 2001, most Generic top-level domain (gTLD) registries have adopted this so-called thick registry approach, i.e. keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.
For top-level domains on COM and NET, a thin registry model is used. The domain registry (e.g., GoDaddy, BigRock and PDR, VeriSign, etc., etc.) holds basic WHOIS data (i.e., registrar and name
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
servers, etc.). Organizations, or registrants using ORG on the other hand, are on the Public Interest Registry exclusively.
Some domain name registries, often called network information centers (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users, in addition to providing access to the WHOIS datasets. The top-level domain registries, such as for the domains COM, NET, and ORG use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars. In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The registrants (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional subcontracting of resellers.
==RFC documents==
===Standards===
The Domain Name System is defined by Request for Comments (RFC) documents published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (Internet standards). The following is a list of RFCs that define the DNS protocol.
* , Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities
* , Domain Names - Implementation and Specification
* , Requirements for Internet Hosts—Application and Support
* , Incremental Zone Transfer in DNS
* , A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY)
* , Dynamic Updates in the domain name system (DNS UPDATE)
* , Clarifications to the DNS Specification
* , Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE)
* ,
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection
* , Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG)
* , Indicating Resolver Support of DNSSEC
* , DNSSEC and IPv6 A6 aware server/resolver message size requirements
* , DNS Extensions to Support IP Version 6
* , Handling of Unknown DNS Resource Record (RR) Types
* , Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification
* , The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System
* , HMAC SHA TSIG Algorithm Identifiers
* , DNS Name Server Identifier (NSID) Option
* , Automated Updates of DNS Security (DNSSEC) Trust Anchors
* , Measures for Making DNS More Resilient against Forged Answers
* , Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Definitions and Document Framework
* , Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA): Protocol
* , The Unicode Code Points and Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)
* , Right-to-Left Scripts for Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)
* , Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0)
* , DNS Transport over TCP - Implementation Requirements
===Proposed security standards===
* , DNS Security Introduction and Requirements
* , Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions
* , Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security Extensions
* , Use of SHA-256 in DNSSEC Delegation Signer (DS) Resource Records
* , Minimally Covering NSEC Records and DNSSEC On-line Signing
* , DNS Security (DNSSEC) Hashed Authenticated Denial
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
of Existence
* , Use of SHA-2 Algorithms with RSA in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC
* , Domain Name System (DNS) Security Extensions Mapping for the Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP)
* , Use of GOST Signature Algorithms in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC
* , The EDNS(0) Padding Option
* , Specification for DNS over Transport Layer Security (TLS)
* , Usage Profiles for DNS over TLS and DNS over DTLS
* , DNS Queries over HTTPS (DoH)
===Experimental RFCs===
* , New DNS RR Definitions
===Best Current Practices===
* , Selection and Operation of Secondary DNS Servers (BCP 16)
* , Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation (BCP 20)
* , DNS Proxy Implementation Guidelines (BCP 152)
* , Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations (BCP 42)
* , DNS Root Name Service Protocol and Deployment Requirements (BCP 40)
===Informational RFCs===
These RFCs are advisory in nature, but may provide useful information despite defining neither a standard or BCP. (RFC 1796)
* , Choosing a Name for Your Computer (FYI 5)''
* , Domain Name System Structure and Delegation
* , Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors
* , The Naming of Hosts
* , Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names
* . Threat Analysis of the Domain Name System (DNS)
* , Requirements for a Mechanism Identifying a
|
Domain Name System
|
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] |
Name Server Instance
* , Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Background, Explanation, and Rationale
* , Mapping Characters for Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) 2008
* , DNS Privacy Considerations
* , Decreasing Access Time to Root Servers by Running One on Loopback
* , DNS Query Name Minimisation to Improve Privacy
* , DNS Terminology
===Unknown===
These RFCs have an official status of Unknown, but due to their age are not clearly labeled as such.
* , Domain Requirements – Specified original top-level domains
* , Domain Administrators Guide
* , Domain Administrators Operations Guide
* , DNS Encodings of Network Names and Other Types
==See also==
* Alternative DNS root
* Comparison of DNS server software
* Domain hijacking
* DNS hijacking
* DNS management software
* DNS over HTTPS
* DNS over TLS
* Hierarchical namespace
* IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting
* Multicast DNS
* Public recursive name server
* resolv.conf
* Split-horizon DNS
* List of DNS record types
* List of managed DNS providers
* Zone file
* DNS leak
==References==
=== Sources ===
*
==External links==
*
* Zytrax.com, Open Source Guide – DNS for Rocket Scientists.
* Internet Governance and the Domain Name System: Issues for Congress Congressional Research Service
*
* Mess with DNS – site where you can do experiments with DNS.
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1983
Category:Application layer protocols
Category:Internet Standards
|
Domain Name System
|
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In mathematics, differential topology is the field dealing with the topological properties and smooth properties of smooth manifolds. In this sense differential topology is distinct from the closely related field of differential geometry, which concerns the geometric properties of smooth manifolds, including notions of size, distance, and rigid shape. By comparison differential topology is concerned with coarser properties, such as the number of holes in a manifold, its homotopy type, or the structure of its diffeomorphism group. Because many of these coarser properties may be captured algebraically, differential topology has strong links to algebraic topology.Bott, R. and Tu, L.W., 1982. Differential forms in algebraic topology (Vol. 82, pp. xiv+-331). New York: Springer.
The central goal of the field of differential topology is the classification of all smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism. Since dimension is an invariant of smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism type, this classification is often studied by classifying the (connected) manifolds in each dimension separately:
* In dimension 1, the only smooth manifolds up to diffeomorphism are the circle, the real number line, and allowing a boundary, the half-closed interval [0,1) and fully closed interval [0,1].Milnor, J. and Weaver, D.W., 1997. Topology from the differentiable viewpoint. Princeton university press.
* In
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Differential topology
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] |
dimension 2, every closed surface is classified up to diffeomorphism by its genus, the number of holes (or equivalently its Euler characteristic), and whether or not it is orientable. This is the famous classification of closed surfaces.Lee, J., 2010. Introduction to topological manifolds (Vol. 202). Springer Science & Business Media. Already in dimension two the classification of non-compact surfaces becomes difficult, due to the existence of exotic spaces such as Jacob's ladder.
* In dimension 3, William Thurston's geometrization conjecture, proven by Grigori Perelman, gives a partial classification of compact three-manifolds. Included in this theorem is the Poincaré conjecture, which states that any closed, simply connected three-manifold is homeomorphic (and in fact diffeomorphic) to the 3-sphere.
Beginning in dimension 4, the classification becomes much more difficult for two reasons.Scorpan, A., 2005. The wild world of 4-manifolds. American Mathematical Soc..Freed, D.S. and Uhlenbeck, K.K., 2012. Instantons and four-manifolds (Vol. 1). Springer Science & Business Media. Firstly, every finitely presented group appears as the fundamental group of some 4-manifold, and since the fundamental group is a diffeomorphism invariant, this makes the classification of 4-manifolds at least as difficult as the classification of finitely presented groups. By the word problem for groups, which
|
Differential topology
|
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] |
is equivalent to the halting problem, it is impossible to classify such groups, so a full topological classification is impossible. Secondly, beginning in dimension four it is possible to have smooth manifolds that are homeomorphic, but with distinct, non-diffeomorphic smooth structures. This is true even for the Euclidean space \mathbb{R}^4, which admits many exotic \mathbb{R}^4 structures. This means that the study of differential topology in dimensions 4 and higher must use tools genuinely outside the realm of the regular continuous topology of topological manifolds. One of the central open problems in differential topology is the four-dimensional smooth Poincaré conjecture, which asks if every smooth 4-manifold that is homeomorphic to the 4-sphere, is also diffeomorphic to it. That is, does the 4-sphere admit only one smooth structure? This conjecture is true in dimensions 1, 2, and 3, by the above classification results, but is known to be false in dimension 7 due to the Milnor spheres.
Important tools in studying the differential topology of smooth manifolds include the construction of smooth topological invariants of such manifolds, such as de Rham cohomology or the intersection form, as well as smoothable topological constructions, such as smooth surgery theory or the construction of cobordisms. Morse
|
Differential topology
|
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] |
theory is an important tool which studies smooth manifolds by considering the critical points of differentiable functions on the manifold, demonstrating how the smooth structure of the manifold enters into the set of tools available.Milnor, J., 2016. Morse Theory.(AM-51), Volume 51. Princeton university press. Often times more geometric or analytical techniques may be used, by equipping a smooth manifold with a Riemannian metric or by studying a differential equation on it. Care must be taken to ensure that the resulting information is insensitive to this choice of extra structure, and so genuinely reflects only the topological properties of the underlying smooth manifold. For example, the Hodge theorem provides a geometric and analytical interpretation of the de Rham cohomology, and gauge theory was used by Simon Donaldson to prove facts about the intersection form of simply connected 4-manifolds.Donaldson, S.K., Donaldson, S.K. and Kronheimer, P.B., 1997. The geometry of four-manifolds. Oxford university press. In some cases techniques from contemporary physics may appear, such as topological quantum field theory, which can be used to compute topological invariants of smooth spaces.
Famous theorems in differential topology include the Whitney embedding theorem, the hairy ball theorem, the Hopf theorem, the Poincaré–Hopf theorem, Donaldson's theorem, and the
|
Differential topology
|
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] |
Poincaré conjecture.
== Description ==
Differential topology considers the properties and structures that require only a smooth structure on a manifold to be defined. Smooth manifolds are 'softer' than manifolds with extra geometric structures, which can act as obstructions to certain types of equivalences and deformations that exist in differential topology. For instance, volume and Riemannian curvature are invariants that can distinguish different geometric structures on the same smooth manifold—that is, one can smoothly "flatten out" certain manifolds, but it might require distorting the space and affecting the curvature or volume.
On the other hand, smooth manifolds are more rigid than the topological manifolds. John Milnor discovered that some spheres have more than one smooth structure—see Exotic sphere and Donaldson's theorem. Michel Kervaire exhibited topological manifolds with no smooth structure at all. Some constructions of smooth manifold theory, such as the existence of tangent bundles, can be done in the topological setting with much more work, and others cannot.
One of the main topics in differential topology is the study of special kinds of smooth mappings between manifolds, namely immersions and submersions, and the intersections of submanifolds via transversality. More generally one is interested in properties and invariants of smooth manifolds that
|
Differential topology
|
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are carried over by diffeomorphisms, another special kind of smooth mapping. Morse theory is another branch of differential topology, in which topological information about a manifold is deduced from changes in the rank of the Jacobian of a function.
For a list of differential topology topics, see the following reference: List of differential geometry topics.
== Differential topology versus differential geometry ==
Differential topology and differential geometry are first characterized by their similarity. They both study primarily the properties of differentiable manifolds, sometimes with a variety of structures imposed on them.
One major difference lies in the nature of the problems that each subject tries to address. In one view, differential topology distinguishes itself from differential geometry by studying primarily those problems that are inherently global. Consider the example of a coffee cup and a donut. From the point of view of differential topology, the donut and the coffee cup are the same (in a sense). This is an inherently global view, though, because there is no way for the differential topologist to tell whether the two objects are the same (in this sense) by looking at just a tiny (local) piece of either of them. They must have access
|
Differential topology
|
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] |
to each entire (global) object.
From the point of view of differential geometry, the coffee cup and the donut are different because it is impossible to rotate the coffee cup in such a way that its configuration matches that of the donut. This is also a global way of thinking about the problem. But an important distinction is that the geometer does not need the entire object to decide this. By looking, for instance, at just a tiny piece of the handle, they can decide that the coffee cup is different from the donut because the handle is thinner (or more curved) than any piece of the donut.
To put it succinctly, differential topology studies structures on manifolds that, in a sense, have no interesting local structure. Differential geometry studies structures on manifolds that do have an interesting local (or sometimes even infinitesimal) structure.
More mathematically, for example, the problem of constructing a diffeomorphism between two manifolds of the same dimension is inherently global since locally two such manifolds are always diffeomorphic. Likewise, the problem of computing a quantity on a manifold that is invariant under differentiable mappings is inherently global, since any local invariant will be trivial
|
Differential topology
|
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in the sense that it is already exhibited in the topology of \R^n. Moreover, differential topology does not restrict itself necessarily to the study of diffeomorphism. For example, symplectic topology—a subbranch of differential topology—studies global properties of symplectic manifolds. Differential geometry concerns itself with problems—which may be local or global—that always have some non-trivial local properties. Thus differential geometry may study differentiable manifolds equipped with a connection, a metric (which may be Riemannian, pseudo-Riemannian, or Finsler), a special sort of distribution (such as a CR structure), and so on.
This distinction between differential geometry and differential topology is blurred, however, in questions specifically pertaining to local diffeomorphism invariants such as the tangent space at a point. Differential topology also deals with questions like these, which specifically pertain to the properties of differentiable mappings on \R^n (for example the tangent bundle, jet bundles, the Whitney extension theorem, and so forth).
The distinction is concise in abstract terms:
*Differential topology is the study of the (infinitesimal, local, and global) properties of structures on manifolds that have only trivial local moduli.
*Differential geometry is such a study of structures on manifolds that have one or more non-trivial local moduli.
== See also
|
Differential topology
|
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] |
==
* List of differential geometry topics
* Glossary of differential geometry and topology
* Important publications in differential geometry
* Important publications in differential topology
* Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime
==Notes==
== References ==
*
*
*
*
== External links ==
*
|
Differential topology
|
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] |
Data compression ratio, also known as compression power, is a measurement of the relative reduction in size of data representation produced by a data compression algorithm. It is typically expressed as the division of uncompressed size by compressed size.
==Definition==
Data compression ratio is defined as the ratio between the uncompressed size and compressed size:
: {\rm Compression\;Ratio} = \frac{\rm Uncompressed\;Size}{\rm Compressed\;Size}
Thus, a representation that compresses a file's storage size from 10 MB to 2 MB has a compression ratio of 10/2 = 5, often notated as an explicit ratio, 5:1 (read "five" to "one"), or as an implicit ratio, 5/1. This formulation applies equally for compression, where the uncompressed size is that of the original; and for decompression, where the uncompressed size is that of the reproduction.
Sometimes the space saving is given instead, which is defined as the reduction in size relative to the uncompressed size:
:{\rm Space\;Saving} = 1 - \frac{\rm Compressed\;Size}{\rm Uncompressed\;Size}
Thus, a representation that compresses the storage size of a file from 10MB to 2MB yields a space saving of 1 - 2/10 = 0.8, often notated as a percentage, 80%.
For signals of indefinite size, such as streaming audio and video, the compression ratio is defined in terms
|
Data compression ratio
|
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of uncompressed and compressed data rates instead of data sizes:
: {\rm Compression\;Ratio} = \frac{\rm Uncompressed\;Data\;Rate}{\rm Compressed\;Data\;Rate}
and instead of space saving, one speaks of data-rate saving, which is defined as the data-rate reduction relative to the uncompressed data rate:
:{\rm Data\;Rate\;Saving} = 1 - \frac{\rm Compressed\;Data\;Rate}{\rm Uncompressed\;Data\;Rate}
For example, uncompressed songs in CD format have a data rate of 16 bits/channel x 2 channels x 44.1 kHz ≅ 1.4 Mbit/s, whereas AAC files on an iPod are typically compressed to 128 kbit/s, yielding a compression ratio of 10.9, for a data-rate saving of 0.91, or 91%.
When the uncompressed data rate is known, the compression ratio can be inferred from the compressed data rate.
==Lossless vs. Lossy==
Lossless compression of digitized data such as video, digitized film, and audio preserves all the information, but it does not generally achieve compression ratio much better than 2:1 because of the intrinsic entropy of the data. Compression algorithms which provide higher ratios either incur very large overheads or work only for specific data sequences (e.g. compressing a file with mostly zeros). In contrast, lossy compression (e.g. JPEG for images, or MP3 and Opus for audio) can achieve much higher compression ratios at the cost of a decrease
|
Data compression ratio
|
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] |
in quality, such as Bluetooth audio streaming, as visual or audio compression artifacts from loss of important information are introduced. A compression ratio of at least 50:1 is needed to get 1080i video into a 20 Mbit/s MPEG transport stream.
==Uses==
The data compression ratio can serve as a measure of the complexity of a data set or signal. In particular it is used to approximate the algorithmic complexity. It is also used to see how much of a file is able to be compressed without increasing its original size.
==See also==
*Computer science
==References==
==External links==
*Nondegrading lossy compression
Category:Data compression
Category:Engineering ratios
|
Data compression ratio
|
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Database normalization or database normalisation (see spelling differences) is the process of structuring a relational database in accordance with a series of so-called normal forms in order to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity. It was first proposed by British computer scientist Edgar F. Codd as part of his relational model.
Normalization entails organizing the columns (attributes) and tables (relations) of a database to ensure that their dependencies are properly enforced by database integrity constraints. It is accomplished by applying some formal rules either by a process of synthesis (creating a new database design) or decomposition (improving an existing database design).
==Objectives==
A basic objective of the first normal form defined by Codd in 1970 was to permit data to be queried and manipulated using a "universal data sub-language" grounded in first-order logic."The adoption of a relational model of data ... permits the development of a universal data sub-language based on an applied predicate calculus. A first-order predicate calculus suffices if the collection of relations is in first normal form. Such a language would provide a yardstick of linguistic power for all other proposed data languages, and would itself be a strong candidate for embedding (with appropriate syntactic modification) in a variety
|
Database normalization
|
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of host languages (programming, command- or problem-oriented)." Codd, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks" , p. 381 An example of such a language is SQL, though it is one that Codd regarded as seriously flawed.Codd, E.F. Chapter 23, "Serious Flaws in SQL", in The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2. Addison-Wesley (1990), pp. 371–389 Databases are often normalized by adaptive input heuristic parameters, which is readily achieved with a fraction of the processing allocation used by methods such as subclass interpolation.
The objectives of normalisation beyond 1NF (first normal form) were stated by Codd as:
When an attempt is made to modify (update, insert into, or delete from) a relation, the following undesirable side-effects may arise in relations that have not been sufficiently normalized:
* Insertion anomaly. There are circumstances in which certain facts cannot be recorded at all. For example, each record in a "Faculty and Their Courses" relation might contain a Faculty ID, Faculty Name, Faculty Hire Date, and Course Code. Therefore, the details of any faculty member who teaches at least one course can be recorded, but a newly hired faculty member who has not yet been assigned to teach any courses cannot be recorded,
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
except by setting the Course Code to null.
* Update anomaly. The same information can be expressed on multiple rows; therefore updates to the relation may result in logical inconsistencies. For example, each record in an "Employees' Skills" relation might contain an Employee ID, Employee Address, and Skill; thus a change of address for a particular employee may need to be applied to multiple records (one for each skill). If the update is only partially successful – the employee's address is updated on some records but not others – then the relation is left in an inconsistent state. Specifically, the relation provides conflicting answers to the question of what this particular employee's address is.
* Deletion anomaly. Under certain circumstances, deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates deletion of data representing completely different facts. The "Faculty and Their Courses" relation described in the previous example suffers from this type of anomaly, for if a faculty member temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses, the last of the records on which that faculty member appears must be deleted, effectively also deleting the faculty member, unless the Course Code field is set to null.
===Minimize redesign when extending the database structure===
A fully normalized database
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
allows its structure to be extended to accommodate new types of data without changing existing structure too much. As a result, applications interacting with the database are minimally affected.
Normalized relations, and the relationship between one normalized relation and another, mirror real-world concepts and their interrelationships.
==Normal forms==
Codd introduced the concept of normalization and what is now known as the first normal form (1NF) in 1970. Codd went on to define the second normal form (2NF) and third normal form (3NF) in 1971,Codd, E. F. "Further Normalization of the Data Base Relational Model". (Presented at Courant Computer Science Symposia Series 6, "Data Base Systems", New York City, May 24–25, 1971.) IBM Research Report RJ909 (August 31, 1971). Republished in Randall J. Rustin (ed.), Data Base Systems: Courant Computer Science Symposia Series 6. Prentice-Hall, 1972. and Codd and Raymond F. Boyce defined the Boyce–Codd normal form (BCNF) in 1974.Codd, E. F. "Recent Investigations into Relational Data Base Systems". IBM Research Report RJ1385 (April 23, 1974). Republished in Proc. 1974 Congress (Stockholm, Sweden, 1974), N.Y.: North-Holland (1974).
Informally, a relational database relation is often described as "normalized" if it meets third normal form. Most 3NF relations are free of insertion, updation, and deletion anomalies.
The normal
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
forms (from least normalized to most normalized) are:
{| class="wikitable"
|
! scope="col" | UNF
! scope="col" | 1NF
! scope="col" | 2NF
! scope="col" | 3NF
! scope="col" | EKNF
! scope="col" | BCNF
! scope="col" | 4NF
! scope="col" | ETNF
! scope="col" | 5NF
! scope="col" | DKNF
! scope="col" | 6NF
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Primary key (no duplicate tuples) || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Atomic columns (cells cannot have tables as values) || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every non-trivial functional dependency either does not begin with a proper subset of a candidate key or ends with a prime attribute (no partial functional dependencies of non-prime attributes on candidate keys) || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every non-trivial functional dependency either begins with a superkey or ends with a prime attribute (no transitive functional dependencies of non-prime attributes on candidate keys) || || ||
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
|| || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every non-trivial functional dependency either begins with a superkey or ends with an elementary prime attribute || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every non-trivial functional dependency begins with a superkey || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every non-trivial multivalued dependency begins with a superkey || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every join dependency has a superkey component || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every join dependency has only superkey components || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every constraint is a consequence of domain constraints and key constraints || ||
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
|| || || || || || || || ||
|-
| style="text-align:right" | Every join dependency is trivial || || || || || || || || || || ||
|}
== Example of a step by step normalization ==
Normalization is a database design technique, which is used to design a relational database table up to higher normal form. The process is progressive, and a higher level of database normalization cannot be achieved unless the previous levels have been satisfied.
That means that, having data in unnormalized form (the least normalized) and aiming to achieve the highest level of normalization, the first step would be to ensure compliance to first normal form, the second step would be to ensure second normal form is satisfied, and so forth in order mentioned above, until the data conform to sixth normal form.
However, it is worth noting that normal forms beyond 4NF are mainly of academic interest, as the problems they exist to solve rarely appear in practice.
The data in the following example were intentionally designed to contradict most of the normal forms. In real life, it
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
is quite possible to be able to skip some of the normalization steps because the table doesn't contain anything contradicting the given normal form. It also commonly occurs that fixing a violation of one normal form also fixes a violation of a higher normal form in the process. Also one table has been chosen for normalization at each step, meaning that at the end of this example process, there might still be some tables not satisfying the highest normal form.
=== Initial data ===
Let a database table exist with the following structure:
{| class="wikitable"
!Title
!Author
!Author Nationality
!Format
!Price
!Subject
!Pages
!Thickness
!Publisher
!Publisher Country
!Publication Type
!Genre ID
!Genre Name
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Chad Russell
|American
|Hardcover
|49.99
|
{| class="wikitable"
|MySQL
|-
|Database
|-
| Design
|}
|520
|Thick
|Apress
|USA
|E-book
|1
|Tutorial
|}
For this example, it is assumed that each book has only one author.
As a prerequisite to conform to the relational model, a table must have a primary key, which uniquely identifies a row. Two books could have the same title, but an ISBN uniquely identifies a book, so it can be used as the primary key:
{| class="wikitable"
!ISBN
!Title
!Author
!Author Nationality
!Format
!Price
!Subject
!Pages
!Thickness
!Publisher
!Publisher Country
!Publication Type
!Genre ID
!Genre Name
|-
|1590593324
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Chad Russell
|American
|Hardcover
|49.99
|
{| class="wikitable"
|MySQL
|-
|Database
|-
| Design
|}
|520
|Thick
|Apress
|USA
|E-book
|1
|Tutorial
|}
=== Satisfying 1NF ===
To satisfy First normal form, each column of a table must have a single value. Columns which contain sets of values or nested
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
records are not allowed.
In the initial table, Subject contains a set of subject values, meaning it does not comply.
To solve the problem, the subjects are extracted into a separate Subject table:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Book
!ISBN
!Title
!Format
!Author
!Author Nationality
!Price
!Pages
!Thickness
!Publisher
!Publisher country
!Genre ID
!Genre Name
|-
|1590593324
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Hardcover
|Chad Russell
|American
|49.99
|520
|Thick
|Apress
|USA
|1
|Tutorial
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Subject
!ISBN
!Subject name
|-
|1590593324
|MySQL
|-
|1590593324
|Database
|-
|1590593324
|Design
|}
A foreign key column is added to the Subject-table, which refers to the primary key of the row from which the subject was extracted. The same information is therefore represented but without the use of non-simple domains.
Instead of one table in unnormalized form, there are now two tables conforming to the 1NF.
=== Satisfying 2NF ===
If a table has a single column primary key, it automatically satisfies 2NF, but if a table has a multi-column or composite key then it may not satisfy 2NF.
The Book table below has a composite key of {Title, Format} (indicated by the underlining), so it may not satisfy 2NF. At this point in our design the key is not finalised as the primary key, so it is called a candidate key. Consider the following table:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Book
!Title
!Format
!Author
!Author Nationality
!Price
!Pages
!Thickness
!Genre ID
!Genre Name
!Publisher ID
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Hardcover
|Chad Russell
|American
|49.99
|520
|Thick
|1
|Tutorial
|1
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|E-book
|Chad Russell
|American
|22.34
|520
|Thick
|1
|Tutorial
|1
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|E-book
|E.F.Codd
|British
|13.88
|538
|Thick
|2
|Popular
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
science
|2
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Paperback
|E.F.Codd
|British
|39.99
|538
|Thick
|2
|Popular science
|2
|}
All of the attributes that are not part of the candidate key depend on Title, but only Price also depends on Format. To conform to 2NF and remove duplicities, every non candidate-key attribute must depend on the whole candidate key, not just part of it.
To normalize this table, make {Title} a (simple) candidate key (the primary key) so that every non candidate-key attribute depends on the whole candidate key, and remove Price into a separate table so that its dependency on Format can be preserved:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Book
!Title
!Author
!Author Nationality
!Pages
!Thickness
!Genre ID
!Genre Name
!Publisher ID
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Chad Russell
|American
|520
|Thick
|1
|Tutorial
|1
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|E.F.Codd
|British
|538
|Thick
|2
|Popular science
|2
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Format - Price
!Title
!Format
!Price
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Hardcover
|49.99
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|E-book
|22.34
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|E-book
|13.88
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Paperback
|39.99
|}
|}
Now, the Book table conforms to 2NF.
=== Satisfying 3NF ===
The Book table still has a transitive functional dependency ({Author Nationality} is dependent on {Author}, which is dependent on {Title}). A similar violation exists for genre ({Genre Name} is dependent on {Genre ID}, which is dependent on {Title}). Hence, the Book table is not in 3NF. To make it in 3NF, let's use
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
the following table structure, thereby eliminating the transitive functional dependencies by placing {Author Nationality} and {Genre Name} in their own respective tables:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Book
!Title
!Author
!Pages
!Thickness
!Genre ID
!Publisher ID
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Chad Russell
|520
|Thick
|1
|1
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|E.F.Codd
|538
|Thick
|2
|2
|}
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Price
!Title
!Format
!Price
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Hardcover
|49.99
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|E-book
|22.34
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|E-book
|13.88
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Paperback
|39.99
|}
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Author
!Author
!Author Nationality
|-
|Chad Russell
|American
|-
|E.F.Codd
|British
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Genre
!Genre ID
!Genre Name
|-
|1
|Tutorial
|-
|2
|Popular science
|}
=== Satisfying EKNF ===
The elementary key normal form (EKNF) falls strictly between 3NF and BCNF and is not much discussed in the literature. It is intended “to capture the salient qualities of both 3NF and BCNF” while avoiding the problems of both (namely, that 3NF is “too forgiving” and BCNF is “prone to computational complexity”). Since it is rarely mentioned in literature, it is not included in this example.
=== Satisfying 4NF ===
Assume the database is owned by a book retailer franchise that has several franchisees that own shops in different locations. And therefore the retailer decided to add a table that contains data about availability of the books at different locations:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Book Location
!Franchisee ID
!Title
!Location
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|California
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Florida
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
Design and Optimization
|Texas
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|California
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Florida
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Texas
|-
|2
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|California
|-
|2
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Florida
|-
|2
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Texas
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|California
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Florida
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Texas
|-
|3
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Texas
|-
|}
As this table structure consists of a compound primary key, it doesn't contain any non-key attributes and it's already in BCNF (and therefore also satisfies all the previous normal forms). However, assuming that all available books are offered in each area, the Title is not unambiguously bound to a certain Location and therefore the table doesn't satisfy 4NF.
That means that, to satisfy the fourth normal form, this table needs to be decomposed as well:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Book
!Franchisee ID
!Title
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|2
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|3
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|-
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Location
!Franchisee ID
!Location
|-
|1
|California
|-
|1
|Florida
|-
|1
|Texas
|-
|2
|California
|-
|2
|Florida
|-
|2
|Texas
|-
|3
|Texas
|-
|}
|}
Now, every record is unambiguously identified by a superkey, therefore 4NF is satisfied.
=== Satisfying ETNF ===
Suppose the franchisees can also order
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
books from different suppliers. Let the relation also be subject to the following constraint:
* If a certain supplier supplies a certain title
* and the title is supplied to the franchisee
* and the franchisee is being supplied by the supplier,
* then the supplier supplies the title to the franchisee.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Supplier - Book - Franchisee
!Supplier ID
!Title
!Franchisee ID
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|1
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|2
|-
|3
|Learning SQL
|3
|}
This table is in 4NF, but the Supplier ID is equal to the join of its projections: {{Supplier ID, Title}, {Title, Franchisee ID}, {Franchisee ID, Supplier ID}}. No component of that join dependency is a superkey (the sole superkey being the entire heading), so the table does not satisfy the ETNF and can be further decomposed:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Supplier - Book
!Supplier ID
!Title
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|3
|Learning SQL
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Book - Franchisee
!Title
!Franchisee ID
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|1
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|2
|-
|Learning SQL
|3
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Franchisee - Supplier
!Supplier ID
!Franchisee ID
|-
|1
|1
|-
|2
|2
|-
|3
|3
|}
|}
The decomposition produces ETNF compliance.
=== Satisfying 5NF ===
To spot a table not satisfying the 5NF, it is usually necessary to examine the data thoroughly. Suppose the table from 4NF example with a little modification in data
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
and let's examine if it satisfies 5NF:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Book Location
!Franchisee ID
!Title
!Location
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|California
|-
|1
|Learning SQL
|California
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Texas
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|California
|-
|}
Decomposing this table lowers redundancies, resulting in the following two tables:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Book
!Franchisee ID
!Title
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|-
|1
|Learning SQL
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Location
!Franchisee ID
!Location
|-
|1
|California
|-
|1
|Texas
|-
|2
|California
|-
|}
|}
The query joining these tables would return the following data:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Book - Location JOINed
!Franchisee ID
!Title
!Location
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|California
|-
|1
|Learning SQL
|California
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|California
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|Texas
|-
|1
|Learning SQL
|Texas
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|Texas
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|California
|-
|}
The JOIN returns three more rows than it should; adding another table to clarify the relation results in three separate tables:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Book
!Franchisee ID
!Title
|-
|1
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|-
|1
|Learning SQL
|-
|1
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|2
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Franchisee - Location
!Franchisee ID
!Location
|-
|1
|California
|-
|1
|Texas
|-
|2
|California
|-
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+ align="top" |Location - Book
!Location
!Title
|-
|California
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|-
|California
|Learning SQL
|-
|California
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|Texas
|The
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|-
|}
|}
What will the JOIN return now? It actually is not possible to join these three tables. That means it wasn't possible to decompose the Franchisee - Book Location without data loss, therefore the table already satisfies 5NF.
C.J. Date has argued that only a database in 5NF is truly "normalized".
=== Satisfying DKNF ===
Let's have a look at the Book table from previous examples and see if it satisfies the Domain-key normal form:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Book
!Title
!Pages
!Thickness
!Genre ID
!Publisher ID
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|520
|Thick
|1
|1
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|538
|Thick
|2
|2
|-
|Learning SQL
|338
|Slim
|1
|3
|-
|SQL Cookbook
|636
|Thick
|1
|3
|}
Logically, Thickness is determined by number of pages. That means it depends on Pages which is not a key. Let's set an example convention saying a book up to 350 pages is considered "slim" and a book over 350 pages is considered "thick".
This convention is technically a constraint but it is neither a domain constraint nor a key constraint; therefore we cannot rely on domain constraints and key constraints to keep the data integrity.
In other words — nothing prevents us from putting, for example, "Thick" for a book with only 50 pages — and this makes the table violate DKNF.
To solve this, a table holding
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
enumeration that defines the Thickness is created, and that column is removed from the original table:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Thickness Enum
!Thickness
!Min pages
!Max pages
|-
|Slim
|1
|350
|-
|Thick
|351
|999,999,999,999
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Book - Pages - Genre - Publisher
!Title
!Pages
!Genre ID
!Publisher ID
|-
|Beginning MySQL Database Design and Optimization
|520
|1
|1
|-
|The Relational Model for Database Management: Version 2
|538
|2
|2
|-
|Learning SQL
|338
|1
|3
|-
|SQL Cookbook
|636
|1
|3
|}
|}
That way, the domain integrity violation has been eliminated, and the table is in DKNF.
=== Satisfying 6NF ===
A simple and intuitive definition of the sixth normal form is that "a table is in 6NF when the row contains the Primary Key, and at most one other attribute".
That means, for example, the Publisher table designed while creating the 1NF
{| class="wikitable"
|+Publisher
!Publisher_ID
!Name
!Country
|-
|1
|Apress
|USA
|}
needs to be further decomposed into two tables:
{|
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Publisher
!Publisher_ID
!Name
|-
|1
|Apress
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Publisher country
!Publisher_ID
!Country
|-
|1
|USA
|}
|}
The obvious drawback of 6NF is the proliferation of tables required to represent the information on a single entity. If a table in 5NF has one primary key column and N attributes, representing the same information in 6NF will require N tables; multi-field updates to a single conceptual record will require updates to multiple tables; and inserts and deletes will similarly require operations across multiple tables. For this reason, in databases intended to serve Online Transaction Processing needs, 6NF should not be used.
However, in data warehouses, which
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
do not permit interactive updates and which are specialized for fast query on large data volumes, certain DBMSs use an internal 6NF representation — known as a columnar data store. In situations where the number of unique values of a column is far less than the number of rows in the table, column-oriented storage allow significant savings in space through data compression. Columnar storage also allows fast execution of range queries (e.g., show all records where a particular column is between X and Y, or less than X.)
In all these cases, however, the database designer does not have to perform 6NF normalization manually by creating separate tables. Some DBMSs that are specialized for warehousing, such as Sybase IQ, use columnar storage by default, but the designer still sees only a single multi-column table. Other DBMSs, such as Microsoft SQL Server 2012 and later, let you specify a "columnstore index" for a particular table. Microsoft Corporation. Columnstore Indexes: Overview. https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/relational-databases/indexes/columnstore-indexes-overview . Accessed Mar 23, 2020.
==See also==
* Denormalization
* Database refactoring
* Lossless join decomposition
==Notes and references==
==Further reading==
* Date, C. J. (1999), An Introduction to Database Systems (8th ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman. .
* Kent, W. (1983) A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms
|
Database normalization
|
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] |
in Relational Database Theory, Communications of the ACM, vol. 26, pp. 120–125
* H.-J. Schek, P. Pistor Data Structures for an Integrated Data Base Management and Information Retrieval System
==External links==
*
* Database Normalization Basics by Mike Chapple (About.com)
* Database Normalization Intro , Part 2
* An Introduction to Database Normalization by Mike Hillyer.
* A tutorial on the first 3 normal forms by Fred Coulson
* Description of the database normalization basics by Microsoft
* Normalization in DBMS by Chaitanya (beginnersbook.com)
* A Step-by-Step Guide to Database Normalization
* ETNF – Essential tuple normal form
Category:Database constraints
Category:Data management
Category:Data modeling
Category:Relational algebra
|
Database normalization
|
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Dylan is a multi-paradigm programming language that includes support for functional and object-oriented programming (OOP), and is dynamic and reflective while providing a programming model designed to support generating efficient machine code, including fine-grained control over dynamic and static behaviors. It was created in the early 1990s by a group led by Apple Computer.
Dylan derives from Scheme and Common Lisp and adds an integrated object system derived from the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS). In Dylan, all values (including numbers, characters, functions, and classes) are first-class objects. Dylan supports multiple inheritance, polymorphism, multiple dispatch, keyword arguments, object introspection, pattern-based syntax extension macros, and many other advanced features. Programs can express fine-grained control over dynamism, admitting programs that occupy a continuum between dynamic and static programming and supporting evolutionary development (allowing for rapid prototyping followed by incremental refinement and optimization).
Dylan's main design goal is to be a dynamic language well-suited for developing commercial software. Dylan attempts to address potential performance issues by introducing "natural" limits to the full flexibility of Lisp systems, allowing the compiler to clearly understand compilable units, such as libraries.
Dylan derives much of its semantics from Scheme and other Lisps; some Dylan implementations were initially built within extant
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
Lisp systems. However, Dylan has an ALGOL-like syntax instead of a Lisp-like prefix syntax.
==History==
Dylan was created in the early 1990s by a group led by Apple Computer. At one time in its development, it was intended for use with the Apple Newton computer, but the Dylan implementation did not reach sufficient maturity in time, and Newton instead used a mix of C and the NewtonScript developed by Walter Smith. Apple ended their Dylan development effort in 1995, though they made a "technology release" version available (Apple Dylan TR1) that included an advanced integrated development environment (IDE).
Two other groups contributed to the design of the language and developed implementations: Harlequin released a commercial IDE for Microsoft Windows and Carnegie Mellon University released an open source compiler for Unix systems called Gwydion Dylan. Both of these implementations are now open source. The Harlequin implementation is now named Open Dylan and is maintained by a group of volunteers, the Dylan Hackers.
The Dylan language was code-named Ralph. James Joaquin chose the name Dylan for "DYnamic LANguage."
==Syntax==
Many of Dylan's syntax features come from its Lisp heritage. Originally, Dylan used a Lisp-like prefix syntax, which was based on s-expressions. By the time the language design was
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
completed, the syntax was changed to an ALGOL-like syntax, with the expectation that it would be more familiar to a wider audience of programmers. The syntax was designed by Michael Kahl. It is described in great detail in the Dylan Reference Manual.
===Lexical syntax===
Dylan is not case sensitive. Dylan's lexical syntax allows the use of a naming convention where hyphen (minus) signs are used to connect the parts of multiple-word identifiers (sometimes called "lisp-case" or "kebab case"). This convention is common in Lisp languages but cannot be used in programming languages that treat any hyphen-minus that is not part of a numeric literal as a single lexical token, even when not surrounded by whitespace characters.
Besides alphanumeric characters and hyphen-minus signs, Dylan allows certain non-alphanumerical characters as part of identifiers. Identifiers may not consist of these non-alphanumeric characters or of numeric characters alone. If there is any ambiguity, whitespace is used.
===Example code===
A simple class with several slots:
define class <point> (<object>)
slot point-x :: <integer>,
required-init-keyword: x:;
slot point-y :: <integer>,
required-init-keyword: y:;
end class <point>;
By convention, classes are named with less-than and greater-than signs used as angle brackets, e.g. the class named <point> in the
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
code example.
In end class <point> both class and <point> are optional. This is true for all end clauses. For example, you may write end if or just end to terminate an if statement.
To make an instance of <point>:
make(<point>, x: 100, y: 200)
The same class, rewritten in the most minimal way possible:
define class <point> (<object>)
slot point-x;
slot point-y;
end;
The slots are now both typed as <object>. The slots must be initialized manually:
let p = make(<point>);
point-x(p) := 100; // or p.point-x := 100;
point-y(p) := 200; // or p.point-y := 200;
By convention, constant names begin with "$":
define constant $pi :: <double-float> = 3.1415927d0;
A factorial function:
define function factorial (n :: <integer>) => (n! :: <integer>)
case
n < 0 => error("Can't take factorial of negative integer: %d\n", n);
n = 0 => 1;
otherwise => n * factorial(n - 1);
end
end;
Here, n! and <integer> are just normal identifiers.
There is no explicit return statement. The result of a method or function is the last expression evaluated. It is a common style to leave off the semicolon after an
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
expression in return position.
==Modules vs. namespace==
In many object-oriented languages, classes are the main means of encapsulation and modularity; each class defines a namespace and controls which definitions are externally visible. Further, classes in many languages define an indivisible unit that must be used as a whole. For example, using a String concatenation function requires importing and compiling against all of String.
Some languages, including Dylan, also include a separate, explicit namespace or module system that performs encapsulation in a more general way.
In Dylan, the concepts of compile-unit and import-unit are separated, and classes have nothing specifically to do with either. A library defines items that should be compiled and handled together, while a module defines a namespace. Classes can be placed together in modules, or cut across them, as the programmer wishes. Often the complete definition for a class does not exist in a single module, but is spread across several that are optionally collected together. Different programs can have different definitions of the same class, including only what they need.
For example, consider an add-on library for regex support on String. In some languages, for the functionality to be included in strings, the functionality must be added to the String namespace.
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Dylan (programming language)
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] |
As soon as this occurs, the String class becomes larger, and functions that don't need to use regex still must "pay" for it in increased library size. For this reason, these sorts of add-ons are typically placed in their own namespaces and objects. The downside to this approach is that the new functions are no longer a part of String; instead, it is isolated in its own set of functions that must be called separately. Instead of myString.parseWith(myPattern), which would be the natural organization from an OO viewpoint, something like myPattern.parseString(myString) is used, which effectively reverses the ordering.
Under Dylan, many interfaces can be defined for the same code, for instance the String concatenation method could be placed in both the String interface, and the "concat" interface which collects together all of the different concatenation functions from various classes. This is more commonly used in math libraries, where functions tend to be applicable to widely differing object types.
A more practical use of the interface construct is to build public and private versions of a module, something that other languages include as a bolt on feature that invariably causes problems and adds syntax. Under Dylan, every function call can be simply
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
places in the "Private" or "Development" interface, and collect up publicly accessible functions in Public. Under Java or C++ the visibility of an object is defined in the code, meaning that to support a similar change, a programmer would be forced to rewrite the definitions fully, and could not have two versions at the same time.
==Classes==
Classes in Dylan describe slots (data members, fields, ivars, etc.) of objects in a fashion similar to most OO languages. All access to slots is via methods, as in Smalltalk. Default getter and setter methods are automatically generated based on the slot names. In contrast with most other OO languages, other methods applicable to the class are often defined outside of the class, and thus class definitions in Dylan typically include the definition of the storage only. For instance:
define class <window> (<view>)
slot title :: <string> = "untitled", init-keyword: title:;
slot position :: <point>, required-init-keyword: position:;
end class;
In this example, the class "<window>" is defined. The <class name> syntax is convention only, to make the class names stand out—the angle brackets are merely part of the class name. In contrast, in some languages the convention is to capitalize the first letter of the
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
class name or to prefix the name with a C or T (for example). <window> inherits from a single class, <view>, and contains two slots, title holding a string for the window title, and position holding an X-Y point for a corner of the window. In this example, the title has been given a default value, while the position has not. The optional init-keyword syntax allows the programmer to specify the initial value of the slot when instantiating an object of the class.
In languages such as C++ or Java, the class would also define its interface. In this case the definition above has no explicit instructions, so in both languages access to the slots and methods is considered protected, meaning they can be used only by subclasses. To allow unrelated code to use the window instances, they must be declared public.
In Dylan, these sorts of visibility rules are not considered part of the code, but of the module/interface system. This adds considerable flexibility. For instance, one interface used during early development could declare everything public, whereas one used in testing and deployment could limit this. With C++ or Java these changes would require changes to the source code, so people
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
won't do it, whereas in Dylan this is a fully unrelated concept.
Although this example does not use it, Dylan also supports multiple inheritance.
==Methods and generic functions==
In Dylan, methods are not intrinsically associated with any specific class; methods can be thought of as existing outside of classes. Like CLOS, Dylan is based on multiple dispatch (multimethods), where the specific method to be called is chosen based on the types of all its arguments. The method need not be known at compile time, the understanding being that the required function may be available, or not, based on a user's preferences.
Under Java the same methods would be isolated in a specific class. To use that functionality the programmer is forced to import that class and refer to it explicitly to call the method. If that class is unavailable, or unknown at compile time, the application simply won't compile.
In Dylan, code is isolated from storage in functions. Many classes have methods that call their own functions, thereby looking and feeling like most other OO languages. However code may also be located in generic functions, meaning they are not attached to a specific class, and can be called natively by anyone. Linking a specific generic
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
function to a method in a class is accomplished thusly:
define method turn-blue (w :: <window>)
w.color := $blue;
end method;
This definition is similar to those in other languages, and would likely be encapsulated within the <window> class. Note the := setter call, which is syntactic sugar for color-setter($blue, w).
The utility of generic methods comes into its own when you consider more "generic" examples. For instance, one common function in most languages is the to-string, which returns some human-readable form for the object. For instance, a window might return its title and its position in parens, while a string would return itself. In Dylan these methods could all be collected into a single module called "to-string", thereby removing this code from the definition of the class itself. If a specific object did not support a to-string, it could be easily added in the to-string module.
==Extensibility==
This whole concept might strike some readers as very odd. The code to handle to-string for a window isn't defined in <window>? This might not make any sense until you consider how Dylan handles the call of the to-string. In most languages when the program is compiled the to-string for <window> is looked up and replaced with
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
a pointer (more or less) to the method. In Dylan this occurs when the program is first run; the runtime builds a table of method-name/parameters details and looks up methods dynamically via this table. That means that a function for a specific method can be located anywhere, not just in the compile-time unit. In the end the programmer is given considerable flexibility in terms of where to place their code, collecting it along class lines where appropriate, and functional lines where it's not.
The implication here is that a programmer can add functionality to existing classes by defining functions in a separate file. For instance, you might wish to add spell checking to all <string>s, which in C++ or Java would require access to the source code of the string class—and such basic classes are rarely given out in source form. In Dylan (and other "extensible languages") the spell checking method could be added in the spell-check module, defining all of the classes on which it can be applied via the define method construct. In this case the actual functionality might be defined in a single generic function, which takes a string and returns the errors. When the spell-check module is
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
compiled into your program, all strings (and other objects) will get the added functionality.
==Apple Dylan==
Apple Dylan is the implementation of Dylan produced by Apple Computer. It was originally developed for the Apple Newton product.
==References==
==External links==
*, Open Dylan – hosts open source, optimizing Dylan compiler targeting Unix/Linux, macOS, Microsoft Windows
*Overview of the language
*An Introduction to Dylan
*Apple Dylan TR1
*The Marlais Dylan Interpreter – An implementation of a subset of Dylan, suitable for bootstrapping a compiler
*
Category:Cross-platform software
Category:Extensible syntax programming languages
Category:Lisp programming language family
Category:Programming languages created in 1992
|
Dylan (programming language)
|
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] |
Digital Access Signalling System 2 (DASS2) is an obsolescent protocol defined by British Telecom for digital links to PSTN based on ISDN. Although still available on request, it has been superseded by ETS 300 102 ("EuroISDN").
DASS2 is an improved version over DASS1, based on experiences with DPNSS.
In the UK, the ISDN concept was first introduced to customers by BT with their
DASS2 connections. DASS2 (Digital Access Signalling System) is a BT-designed
signalling standard, and was introduced before the Q.931 standard was finalised
by the international community. British Telecom used the term ISDN when
describing their DASS2 lines.
DASS2 lines are provided to customers on a 2Mbit/s link and can handle 30 simultaneous calls (64kbit/s each). DASS2 is still offered by BT and other UK carriers. Q.931 is the name of the CCITT document that describes the agreed signalling format for International ISDN. CCITT had previously been known as International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee. The organisation set out the internationally agreed standards for telecommunications, and subsequently evolved into the ITU. In the United Kingdom, the Q.931-based protocol is ETS 300 102 (also known as EuroISDN). This is a very close implementation of the original CCITT specification. It is a 2Mbit/s service as
with DASS2, but
|
Digital Access Signalling System 2
|
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] |
the feature capability is far greater and has negated the problems associated with DASS2, including echo problems and circuit spikes. In the UK, both DASS 2 and EuroISDN (ETS 300 102) lines are available to customers with EuroISDN as the preferred signalling type. Customers normally choose the desired signalling system, as this will be dictated by their CPE (Customer Premises Equipment),
usually a PABX.
Most modern PABXs can handle many different types of signalling system, however
the trend seems to be away from the DASS2 (which is no longer being developed by
BT and has been known to deny problems with their DASS2 circuits), and towards the internationally recognised Q.931 standard, which is utilised by many country's telephony service providers.
The CCITT specify the standards for the layers 1, 2 and 3 signalling messages. The layer 3 messages are the messages which actually control the call setup, teardown, and routing.
The layer 3 messages or call control messages are the minimum messages that must be understood by the interfacing equipment. Individual service providers may
publish their own documentation which details further messages that will be
transported in addition to Q.931 messages. There are a number of additional
European documents that cover supplementary services. These cover features that may be
|
Digital Access Signalling System 2
|
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] |
instigated by exchanges via the ISDN and require a higher degree of layer 3 implementation.
==See also==
*DSS1 (ETSI "Euro-ISDN", also used in many non-European countries)
*DSS2 (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2) - enhanced DSS1.
Category:BT Group
Category:History of telecommunications in the United Kingdom
Category:Integrated Services Digital Network
|
Digital Access Signalling System 2
|
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] |
The Digital Private Network Signalling System (DPNSS) is a network protocol used on digital trunk lines for connecting to PABX. It supports a defined set of inter-networking facilities.
DPNSS was originally defined by British Telecom. The specification for the protocol is defined in BTNR188. The specification currently comes under the Network Interoperability Consultative Committee.
==History==
DPNSS was developed in the early 1980s by BT, or its forerunner, Post Office Telecommunications in recognition that the emerging Digital Private Circuit Primary Rate product 'Megastream' had to address the market for both data and voice, the latter being significantly greater because of the market for PBXs. At the time, BT dictated what signalling could be used on its leased lines and, whilst it only had a minority interest in the sales of PBXs, was requested by the PBX manufacturers to produce a standard to prevent the creation of a plethora of conflicting PBX protocols being developed. Under the liberalization rules of the day (1979), BT was barred from manufacturing, selling or supplying PBXs of more than 200 extensions. Digital (PCM-based) PBXs were just starting to come into the marketplace with the Plessey PDX (a licensed version of the ROLM CBX) and the GEC SL1 (a licensed
|
Digital Private Network Signalling System
|
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] |
version of the Northern Telecom SL1). It was recognised that corporate customers would wish to network these systems across the country. At the time, 'CAS' inter node signaling was slow and inter-register signaling MF5, developed from PSTN signalling protocols, was complex and would not support sufficient features.
The support for DPNSS as BT's own signalling protocol also differentiated BT's private circuit's services from those of its emerging rival Mercury Communications.
DPNSS was an active (and successful) collaboration between PBX manufacturers and BT which started relatively slowly (BT & Plessey) but quickly snowballed with MITEL, GEC, Ericsson, Philips and eventually Nortel all joining to create a powerful and feature rich protocol.
BT and some of the UK manufacturers championed DPNSS into ECMA and CCITT (ITU) but it was eventually deprecated by the standards bodies in favour of Q931 and QSig. Nevertheless, the elegance of the protocol and its compatibility with PBX features ensured the adoption DPNSS actually grew in Europe, compared to the much slower take-up of Qsig.
There were also attempts (during 1984) to take DPNSS into North America. Unfortunately the structures for the creation of standards in North America seemed to prevent manufacturer collaboration as a route forward and the ANSI standards body
|
Digital Private Network Signalling System
|
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] |
was not interested in creating PBX interworking standards.
Version 1 of BTNR188 (DPNSS) was issued in 1983; the last version of DPNSS to be released 6 in 1995 included compatibility with ISDN features released in V5. A lightweight version of DPNSS 'APNSS' was developed using analogue trunks (Sometimes compressed) and a modem to support D channel signalling.
==Overview of the Protocol==
Layer 1(CCITT) ITU-G703 defines the physical and electrical interface. G704 defines the Frame structure of the 2,048 Mbs sent across the link. G732 defines the allocation of that frame structure into the 32 discrete 64Kbit 'channels', of which 0 is used for alignment of the frames and 16 is (by convention only) allocated to common channel signalling. Speech is carried as G711.
Layer 2 Timeslot 16, 64Kbs operates as HDLC LAPB, to support up to 60 PVCs or DLCs (data link connections) (30 directly associated with the bearer channels and 30 for unrelated messages) as the specification describes them. Therefore, at maximum operation, each potential traffic channel can have two simultaneous data channels available for messages. Note that HDLC operates as a statistical multiplexing system. When traffic deltas are low, a single call establishment message will have access to the full 64Kbs (allowing
|
Digital Private Network Signalling System
|
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] |
for overheads).
DPNSS is a layer 3 protocol functioning as common channel signalling. The functionality is divided into Levels (confusingly nothing to do with OSI layers.) Levels 1-6 deal with simple call establishment (make call/break call) and are the minimum requirements by which a PBX can be said to be DPNSS compatible. The remaining levels are allocated to telephony features, supplementary services or to administrative features. Note that support of 'levels' by a PBX is not necessarily incremental. Some levels are interdependent but a PBX may omit support of some levels (above 6) and support others.
DPNSS is a compelled protocol in that each instruction issued must be met with an appropriate response from the other PBX otherwise the message is re-transmitted (until timer expiry). This means that when interworking two PBXs features invoked on PBX A must be acknowledged by PBX B even if that feature is not supported.
DPNSS carries its protocol messages as short strings of IA5 text. It is therefore much easier to interpret in its native form than Q931/Qsig or H323/H450 and a precursor to the plain language format of SIP.
==Practical Considerations==
As HDLC can operate successfully in quite poor (errored) data environments, DPNSS will work over a 2
|
Digital Private Network Signalling System
|
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