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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.55 | **Author details**
Chidiebere Ugwu\* and Stephen Suru Department of Human Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Anambra State, Nigeria
\*Address all correspondence to: ce.ugwu@unizik.edu.ng
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
**45**
*Cosmetic, Culinary and Therapeutic Uses of Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
[10] Mateljan G. The World's healthiest foods-essential guide for the healthiest way of eating. 1st ed..World's Healthiest
[11] Lopes L, Speretta F, Bentley M. Enhancement of skin penetration of vitamin K using monoolein-based liquid crystalline systems. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2007;
[12] Hooda R. Antiwrinkle herbal drugs. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2015; 4(4): 277-281.
[13] Moy LS, Howe R, Moy RL. Glycolic acid modulation of collagen production in human skin fibroblast cultures in vitro. Dermatol. Surg. 1996; 22 (5): 439-441.
[14] Kim SJ, Park JH, Kim DH, Won YH, Maiback HI. Increased in vivo collagen synthesis and in vitro cell proliferative effect of glycolic acid.Dermatol. Surg.
[15] Bernstein EF, Lee J, Brown DB, Yu R, Vanscott E. Glycolic acid treatment increases type 1 collagen mRNA and hyaluronic acid content of human skin. Dermatol. Surg. 2001;
[16] Swanbeck G. A new treatment of Ichthyosis and other hyperkeratotic conditions.ActaDerm.Venereol (Stockh). 1968; 48:123-127.
[17] Schupack JL, Haber RS, Stiller MY. The future of topical therapy for cutenous aging. J. Dermatol. Surg.
[18] Brannon H. Treating wrinkles with alpha hydroxy acid. Dermatol, Surg.
[19] Kordel L. Lelordkordel's natural folk remedies. London: Manton Press Ltd;
&Oncol.1990; 16:941-944.
2002; 33:120-142.
1976. 177-84p.
1998; 24 (10): 1054-1058.
27(50): 429-433.
Foods; 2006. 880p.
32(3):209-215.
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96051*
Invigorating efficacy of Cucumissativus
[1] Maheshwari RK, Mohan L, Malhotra J, Updhuay B, Rani B.
for healthcare and radiance. Int. J. Chem. Pharmaceut. Sci., 2014;
[2] Abulude OA, Adeleke KO. Comparative studies on nutritional composition of four melon seeds varieties. Pak J Nutr. 2010; 9:905-908.
[3] Bello MO, Owoeye G, Abdulhammed M, Yekeen TA. Characterization of Gourd fruit (cucubitaceae) for dietary values and anti-nutrition constituent. J Pharm BiolChem Sci. 2014; 6:7575-7585.
[4] Vivek KB, Ji-Eun K, Yong-Ha P, Sun CK. In-vivo pharmacological effectiveness of heat-treated cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) juice against CCl4 - induced detoxification in a rat model. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical
Education and Research. 2017;
[5] Doijode SD. Seed storage of horticultural crops. Edn. Haworth
[6] Grubben GJH, Denton OA. Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2 Vegetables, Netherlands: Leiden, Wageningen, Backhuys Publishers;
[7] Wang YH, Joobeur T, Dean RA, Staub, JE Cucurbits-genome mapping and molecular breeding in plants 5.
[8] Mukherjee PK, et al. Phytochemical and therapeutic potential of cucumber.
[9] Uzodike EB, Onuoha IN. The effect of cucumber (*Cucumbissativus*) extract on acid induced corneal burn in guinea
51(2):280-287.
Press; 2001. 339p.
2004. 48-57p.
Vegetables.2007; 375.
Fitoterapia.2013; 84:227-236.
pigs. JNOA.2009; 15:3-7.
**References**
2(3):737-744.
*Cosmetic, Culinary and Therapeutic Uses of Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96051*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.57 | Production and Market
**51**
**Chapter 5**
**Abstract**
*Iyabo Bosede Adeoye*
the perishable nature of the commodity.
**1. Introduction**
**Keywords:** Cucumber, market performance, market structure, constraints
Cucumber is one of the most important exotic vegetables in Nigeria [1] and are valuable source of antioxidant nutrients including vitamin C, beta carotene and Manganese with about 95% water [2]. The crop is important in prevention of human constipation and improvement in digestion [3]. Aside the nutritional benefit of cucumber, production of the commodity is also profitable [2]. Marketing is crucial to link production and consumption and facilitate increased agricultural productivity and employment [4]. Thus, efficient marketing system is germane to improve market organization in order to satisfy consumers' needs and wants [4]. Market
Market Performance and Structure
of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State
Cucumber is an important vegetable due to its numerous health benefits. There are a number of empirical studies on the economics of production of the commodity, but there is insufficient information on marketing of the commodity. The study was therefore carried out to examine market performance, structure and constraints in cucumber marketing. Primary data was collected from 70 randomly selected actors in the supply chain (54 Retailers and 16 wholesalers). Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics, net marketing margin, efficiency and Gini coefficient. Findings revealed that most of the retailers (70.4%) and wholesalers (81.3%) were male. Most of the retailers were within 31–40 years whereas majority of the wholesalers were within 41–50 years and all the marketers had secondary level of education (47.2%). Cucumber marketing was profitable at the wholesale and retail level both at the peak and lean season of cucumber production. Retailers sell an average of 159.8 kg and 83.8 kg weekly in the peak and lean season. Whereas wholesalers sell an average of 1,000 kg and 870 kg weekly in the peak and lean season respectively. Net margin at retail level was higher in the lean season (68.8/kg) compared to the peak season (46.6/kg). Similarly, at wholesale level, net marketing margin at the lean season was 17.5/kg and was higher than 6.3/kg obtained during the peak season. Marketing efficiency was greater than one for the wholesalers and retailers in both seasons. Gini coefficient of retailer was 0.32 and 0.36 for the peak and lean season indicating that the market was competitive. There was inequality in the wholesale market as indicated by the gini coefficient result. The most important constraint to cucumber marketing was perishability of the produce and price fluctuation. The study recommends improved sensitization on adequate post-harvest handling practices and storage to reduce the levels and consequences of
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.58 | Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State
*Iyabo Bosede Adeoye*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.59 | **Abstract**
Cucumber is an important vegetable due to its numerous health benefits. There are a number of empirical studies on the economics of production of the commodity, but there is insufficient information on marketing of the commodity. The study was therefore carried out to examine market performance, structure and constraints in cucumber marketing. Primary data was collected from 70 randomly selected actors in the supply chain (54 Retailers and 16 wholesalers). Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics, net marketing margin, efficiency and Gini coefficient. Findings revealed that most of the retailers (70.4%) and wholesalers (81.3%) were male. Most of the retailers were within 31–40 years whereas majority of the wholesalers were within 41–50 years and all the marketers had secondary level of education (47.2%). Cucumber marketing was profitable at the wholesale and retail level both at the peak and lean season of cucumber production. Retailers sell an average of 159.8 kg and 83.8 kg weekly in the peak and lean season. Whereas wholesalers sell an average of 1,000 kg and 870 kg weekly in the peak and lean season respectively. Net margin at retail level was higher in the lean season (68.8/kg) compared to the peak season (46.6/kg). Similarly, at wholesale level, net marketing margin at the lean season was 17.5/kg and was higher than 6.3/kg obtained during the peak season. Marketing efficiency was greater than one for the wholesalers and retailers in both seasons. Gini coefficient of retailer was 0.32 and 0.36 for the peak and lean season indicating that the market was competitive. There was inequality in the wholesale market as indicated by the gini coefficient result. The most important constraint to cucumber marketing was perishability of the produce and price fluctuation. The study recommends improved sensitization on adequate post-harvest handling practices and storage to reduce the levels and consequences of the perishable nature of the commodity.
**Keywords:** Cucumber, market performance, market structure, constraints
#### **1. Introduction**
Cucumber is one of the most important exotic vegetables in Nigeria [1] and are valuable source of antioxidant nutrients including vitamin C, beta carotene and Manganese with about 95% water [2]. The crop is important in prevention of human constipation and improvement in digestion [3]. Aside the nutritional benefit of cucumber, production of the commodity is also profitable [2]. Marketing is crucial to link production and consumption and facilitate increased agricultural productivity and employment [4]. Thus, efficient marketing system is germane to improve market organization in order to satisfy consumers' needs and wants [4]. Market
performance is the ultimate result derived from the market which include outcome from various market activities [5]. Furthermore, profitability is a key elements of financial performance [6]. Market structure is the characteristics of the organization of the market that influence the nature of competition and pricing within the market [7]. Market structure for agricultural products in Nigeria is not perfectly competitive due to collusive tendencies of sellers [8]. It is worthy of note that analysis of market structure, efficiency of an agricultural product determines whether the market is a perfectly competitive, oligopolistic or monopolistic market [9].
Most socioeconomic research on cucumber in Nigeria have focused on economics of production [1, 2]. This includes analysis of profitability and major constraints of cucumber production in two local government areas of Rivers state [2]. They found that cucumber production was profitable and the major constraints in cucumber production in the study area were pest and disease attacks, poor funding and unfavorable climatic conditions. Profitability and efficiency of cucumber production in Iseyin Local Government area of Oyo State was also evaluated [1]. They found that cucumber production was profitable in the study area and they found that Age, Education status of farmers and access to credit were the factors affecting technical efficiency of the farmers in cucumber production in the study area. Factors affecting cucumber farmers' market participation were examined in Odukpani Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria [10]. They found that distance to the market, market information and quantity of cucumber harvested were significant and important factors affecting the ability of the smallholder farmers to participate in the output market.
Past empirical studies on Market structure and performance of vegetables were on watermelon. Watermelon marketing was analyzed in Oyo State, Nigeria and the study revealed that watermelon marketing is profitable and efficient [11]. They also found that there was price discrimination and product differentiation in the market based on size and quality of the product. Structure and performance of pumpkin marketing was analyzed in Nassarawa State [4] and the study revealed that pumpkin marketing was profitable and the market was noncompetitive. Thus, there is dearth of information on market structure and performance of cucumber in Oyo state, Nigeria. The study intends to fill the above information gap.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.60 | **2. Methodology**
The study area was Ibadan (7o 231 47<sup>1</sup> N 3o 551 01 E), capital of Oyo state. The city has a tropical wet and dry climate. There are eleven local government areas in Ibadan. The city is a major center for trade in horticultural commodities such as plantain, banana, cucumber, watermelon and arable crops [12].
Multistage sampling technique was employed in the selection of respondents. The first stage involved purposive selection of two local government areas (Ibadan North and Ibadan North West) with effective cucumber marketing while stage two involve selection of major markets noted for cucumber marketing in the local government while the third stage involve random selection of 54 retailers and 16 wholesalers in the selected markets.
Primary data was collected with the aid of well-structured questionnaire. Socio economics characteristics of marketers was analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentages. Market performance was analyzed using the net marketing margin and efficiency while the market structure was estimated using Gini coefficient. Gini coefficient is used to measure statistical dispersion and is a concentration indices and it utilizes market shares to determine the extent of
**53**
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State*
market concentration [13]. The close the value of Gini coefficient is to unity, the greater the degree of inequality [14]. The net marketing margin is the difference between gross return and total cost involved in marketing while the marketing
Findings revealed that most of the retailers (70.37%) and wholesalers (81.25%) were male indicating dominance of male folks in cucumber marketing in the study area. Most of the retailers (42.59%) were within 31–40 years age group whereas majority of the wholesalers (43.75%) were within the age group of 41–50 years indicating that the wholesalers were older than the retailers in the study area. Most of watermelon marketers which is also a curcubit like cucumber were also within the age group of 31–40 years indicating that the marketers were young and agile [11]. All the wholesalers were married while 66.67% of the retailers were married. Most of the retailers (74.0%) and wholesalers (68.8%) were educated at the primary and secondary level. Whereas most of the watermelon marketers in Oyo state (54.4%) had no formal education [11]. Most of the retailers had up to 6–10 years' (44.44%) experience in cucumber marketing whereas the wholesalers had more years of experience in the marketing 11–15 years (31.25%). Most of the retailers (87%) and wholesalers (75%) had 1–5 members in their respective household. All the wholesalers had marketing of vegetable as their main occupation while 98.1% of the retailers had marketing as their main occupation and the major source of capital was from personal savings. Only 22% of the retailers were members of association while majority of the wholesalers (75%) were members of association such as cooperative society. Majority of the retailers (88.9%) and Wholesalers (56.3%) have not received training on vegetable marketing. The marketers had poor extension contact in the study area. Majority of the retailers (98.1%) and wholesalers (93.8%) had no contact with extension agents in their marketing
**Characteristics Retailers Wholesalers Average % Sex** Male 70.37 81.25 75.81
**Marital Status** Single 31.48 15.74
**Educational level** No formal 25.9 31.3 28.6
Female 29.63 18.75 24.19
21–30 25.93 12.97 31–40 42.59 18.75 30.67 41–50 20.37 43.75 32.06 51–60 3.70 31.25 17.48 61–70 3.70 6.25 4.98 Choose not to say 3.70 1.85
Married 66.67 100 83.34 Divorced 1.85 0.93
Primary 29.6 18.8 24.2
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
**3. Results and discussion**
activities (**Table 1**).
**Age** Below 20
efficiency is used to compare return per unit cost.
**3.1 Socioeconomic characteristics of marketers**
market concentration [13]. The close the value of Gini coefficient is to unity, the greater the degree of inequality [14]. The net marketing margin is the difference between gross return and total cost involved in marketing while the marketing efficiency is used to compare return per unit cost.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.61 | **3. Results and discussion**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
holder farmers to participate in the output market.
above information gap.
The study area was Ibadan (7o
wholesalers in the selected markets.
**2. Methodology**
perfectly competitive, oligopolistic or monopolistic market [9].
performance is the ultimate result derived from the market which include outcome from various market activities [5]. Furthermore, profitability is a key elements of financial performance [6]. Market structure is the characteristics of the organization of the market that influence the nature of competition and pricing within the market [7]. Market structure for agricultural products in Nigeria is not perfectly competitive due to collusive tendencies of sellers [8]. It is worthy of note that analysis of market structure, efficiency of an agricultural product determines whether the market is a
Most socioeconomic research on cucumber in Nigeria have focused on economics of production [1, 2]. This includes analysis of profitability and major constraints of cucumber production in two local government areas of Rivers state [2]. They found that cucumber production was profitable and the major constraints in cucumber production in the study area were pest and disease attacks, poor funding and unfavorable climatic conditions. Profitability and efficiency of cucumber production in Iseyin Local Government area of Oyo State was also evaluated [1]. They found that cucumber production was profitable in the study area and they found that Age, Education status of farmers and access to credit were the factors affecting technical efficiency of the farmers in cucumber production in the study area. Factors affecting cucumber farmers' market participation were examined in Odukpani Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria [10]. They found that distance to the market, market information and quantity of cucumber harvested were significant and important factors affecting the ability of the small-
Past empirical studies on Market structure and performance of vegetables were on watermelon. Watermelon marketing was analyzed in Oyo State, Nigeria and the study revealed that watermelon marketing is profitable and efficient [11]. They also found that there was price discrimination and product differentiation in the market based on size and quality of the product. Structure and performance of pumpkin marketing was analyzed in Nassarawa State [4] and the study revealed that pumpkin marketing was profitable and the market was noncompetitive. Thus, there is dearth of information on market structure and performance of cucumber in Oyo state, Nigeria. The study intends to fill the
> 231 47<sup>1</sup> N 3o 551 01
plantain, banana, cucumber, watermelon and arable crops [12].
has a tropical wet and dry climate. There are eleven local government areas in Ibadan. The city is a major center for trade in horticultural commodities such as
Multistage sampling technique was employed in the selection of respondents. The first stage involved purposive selection of two local government areas (Ibadan North and Ibadan North West) with effective cucumber marketing while stage two involve selection of major markets noted for cucumber marketing in the local government while the third stage involve random selection of 54 retailers and 16
Primary data was collected with the aid of well-structured questionnaire. Socio economics characteristics of marketers was analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentages. Market performance was analyzed using the net marketing margin and efficiency while the market structure was estimated using Gini coefficient. Gini coefficient is used to measure statistical dispersion and is a concentration indices and it utilizes market shares to determine the extent of
E), capital of Oyo state. The city
**52**
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.62 | **3.1 Socioeconomic characteristics of marketers**
Findings revealed that most of the retailers (70.37%) and wholesalers (81.25%) were male indicating dominance of male folks in cucumber marketing in the study area. Most of the retailers (42.59%) were within 31–40 years age group whereas majority of the wholesalers (43.75%) were within the age group of 41–50 years indicating that the wholesalers were older than the retailers in the study area. Most of watermelon marketers which is also a curcubit like cucumber were also within the age group of 31–40 years indicating that the marketers were young and agile [11]. All the wholesalers were married while 66.67% of the retailers were married. Most of the retailers (74.0%) and wholesalers (68.8%) were educated at the primary and secondary level. Whereas most of the watermelon marketers in Oyo state (54.4%) had no formal education [11]. Most of the retailers had up to 6–10 years' (44.44%) experience in cucumber marketing whereas the wholesalers had more years of experience in the marketing 11–15 years (31.25%). Most of the retailers (87%) and wholesalers (75%) had 1–5 members in their respective household. All the wholesalers had marketing of vegetable as their main occupation while 98.1% of the retailers had marketing as their main occupation and the major source of capital was from personal savings. Only 22% of the retailers were members of association while majority of the wholesalers (75%) were members of association such as cooperative society. Majority of the retailers (88.9%) and Wholesalers (56.3%) have not received training on vegetable marketing. The marketers had poor extension contact in the study area. Majority of the retailers (98.1%) and wholesalers (93.8%) had no contact with extension agents in their marketing activities (**Table 1**).
#### *Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
#### **Table 1.**
*Socioeconomic characteristics of the marketers.*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.63 | **4. Market performance of cucumber**
Although there are peak and lean season of marketing the commodity. Cucumber marketing is throughout the year. Market performance of cucumber was evaluated using net marketing margin and efficiency. Average quantity sold by retailers weekly in the peak and lean season were 159.8 kg and 83.8 kg respectively. This indicates that more quantity were sold in the peak season compared to the lean
**55**
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State*
**Variable Retail level**
**Average quantity sold (kg) weekly 159.8 83.8** Average cost price/kg N64.3 162.5 Average marketing cost/kg 18.68 18.68 Total cost 82.98 181.18 Average selling price/kg 129.6 250 Net margin/Kg 46.6 68.82 Marketing Efficiency 1.6 1.4
**Average quantity sold (kg) weekly 1,000 870** Average cost price N/kg 43 130 Average marketing cost/kg 15 15 Total cost 58 145 Average selling price/kg 64.3 162.5 Net margin/Kg 6.3 17.5 Marketing Efficiency 1.1 1.1
**Peak period Cost/kg Lean period Cost/Kg**
**Wholesale level**
season of production of the commodity. Average cost price per kg of cucumber in the peak season was N64.3 against N150/kg that was obtained in the lean season. The total cost incurred per kilogram was N82.98 while the total revenue was N129.6 in the peak season. The marketing margin and efficiency obtained during the peak season were N46.6/kg with the marketing efficiency of 1.6. This indicated that
Similarly in the lean season of cucumber production, average cost incurred in the retail marketing was N181.18/kg with the total revenue of N250/kg. The marketing margin obtained in the lean season was N68.82/kg with the marketing efficiency of 1.4 indicating profitability of marketing cucumber in the study area. Although marketing efficiency was higher in the peak season compared to the lean, may be
For the wholesalers, average quantity of cucumber sold during the peak season of cucumber production was 1,000 kg while average of 870 kg was sold during the lean season. Average cost incurred during marketing of cucumber per kilogram was N58 in peak season against N148 that was obtained in the lean season. Marketing margin and efficiency of cucumber in the peak season were N6.3k per kg and 1.1 indicating that cucumber marketing at wholesale was profitable. Marketing margin and efficiency during lean period was N17.5/kg while the marketing efficiency was
Cucumber market structure was estimated using Gini coefficient. Results revealed that marketers within the sale ranges of N5001- N25, 000 constituted
attributable to the lower marketing cost in the peak season (**Table 2**).
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
cucumber marketing is profitable (**Table 2**).
*Marketing margin and efficiency of cucumber.*
*1 \$ = 395.22 Nigerian naira. Source: Field Survey, 2020.*
**Table 2.**
1.1 indicating efficient marketing system (**Table 2**).
**4.1 Market structure of cucumber (retail)**
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
**Table 2.**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
Tertiary
11–15 16–20
vegetables
Civil Servants
Cooperatives Bank loans
**Main occupation** Marketing of
**Major Source of capital**
**Members of Association**
**Receive Agricultural Extension visit**
**Table 1.**
*Source: Field Survey, 2020.*
**Characteristics Retailers Wholesalers Average %**
**Years of Experience** 1–5 12.96 18.75 15.86
**Household Size** 1–5 87.0 75 81.0
Secondary 44.4 50 47.2
6–10 44.44 6.25 25.35 11–15 16.67 31.25 23.96 16–20 11.11 25.0 18.06 21–25 11.11 12.50 11.81 Above 26 3.7 6.25 4.98
6–10 13.0 25 19.0
Farming 1.9 1.9
Personal savings 94.4 100 97.2 Friends and relatives 5.6 2.8
> Yes 22.2 75 48.6 No 77.8 25 51.4
> No 88.89 56.25 72.57
Yes 1.9 6.3 4.1 No 98.1 93.8 95.9
98.1 100 99.1
**54**
**4. Market performance of cucumber**
*Socioeconomic characteristics of the marketers.*
Although there are peak and lean season of marketing the commodity. Cucumber marketing is throughout the year. Market performance of cucumber was evaluated using net marketing margin and efficiency. Average quantity sold by retailers weekly in the peak and lean season were 159.8 kg and 83.8 kg respectively. This indicates that more quantity were sold in the peak season compared to the lean
**Vegetable training** Yes 11.11 43.75 27.43
*Marketing margin and efficiency of cucumber.*
season of production of the commodity. Average cost price per kg of cucumber in the peak season was N64.3 against N150/kg that was obtained in the lean season. The total cost incurred per kilogram was N82.98 while the total revenue was N129.6 in the peak season. The marketing margin and efficiency obtained during the peak season were N46.6/kg with the marketing efficiency of 1.6. This indicated that cucumber marketing is profitable (**Table 2**).
Similarly in the lean season of cucumber production, average cost incurred in the retail marketing was N181.18/kg with the total revenue of N250/kg. The marketing margin obtained in the lean season was N68.82/kg with the marketing efficiency of 1.4 indicating profitability of marketing cucumber in the study area. Although marketing efficiency was higher in the peak season compared to the lean, may be attributable to the lower marketing cost in the peak season (**Table 2**).
For the wholesalers, average quantity of cucumber sold during the peak season of cucumber production was 1,000 kg while average of 870 kg was sold during the lean season. Average cost incurred during marketing of cucumber per kilogram was N58 in peak season against N148 that was obtained in the lean season. Marketing margin and efficiency of cucumber in the peak season were N6.3k per kg and 1.1 indicating that cucumber marketing at wholesale was profitable. Marketing margin and efficiency during lean period was N17.5/kg while the marketing efficiency was 1.1 indicating efficient marketing system (**Table 2**).
#### **4.1 Market structure of cucumber (retail)**
Cucumber market structure was estimated using Gini coefficient. Results revealed that marketers within the sale ranges of N5001- N25, 000 constituted
**Table 3.**
*Gini coefficient of retail cucumber marketing.*
63% of retailers and this accounted for 49.5% of total sales of cucumber during the peak season (**Table 3**). Similar trend was obtained in the lean season, marketers within the sale range of 5,001–25,000 also constituted 64.8% of retailers and this accounted for 53.2% of cucumber total sales in the lean season. Gini coefficients for the peak and lean season were 0.32 and 0.36 respectively. This indicated that cucumber marketing at retail level in the peak and lean season was competitive. This indicated that there are many retailers in the market and they will not be able to influence price by increasing or decreasing quantity supplied to the market. This also indicate adequate equality in the market.
#### **4.2 Market structure of cucumber (wholesale)**
Findings revealed that wholesale within the sales range of 25,001–45,000 and 45,001–65,000 constituted the greatest percentage of the wholesaler and this accounted for 13.8 and 25% of total sales. Gini coefficient for the wholesaler during the peak and lean season were 0.5 and 0.57 respectively. This implied inequality in quantity of cucumber sold among the wholesaler and sales is concentrated in the hand of few marketers and cucumber marketing at wholesale level was noncompetitive in the study area. Similarly, high inefficiency was also observed in the market structure of watermelon at Akure [14], where it was found that the Gini coefficient of watermelon was 0.7318 indicating inequality in the market (**Table 4**).
#### **4.3 Constraints in cucumber marketing**
The most important constraint to cucumber marketing was perishability of the commodity. Vegetables are highly perishable and sensitive to harvest and post-harvest handling systems. It was observed during the survey that most of the marketers use bags in packaging of the crop with attendant physical damages and
**57**
**Table 5.**
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State*
**wholesaler** ∑**X**
**Cumulative % of wholesaler**
**LEAN SEASON**
25,001 – 45,000 5 31.3 31.3 141,460 13.8 13.8 0.043 45,001 – 65,000 5 31.3 62.6 257,200 25.0 38.8 0.12 65,001 – 85,000 1 6.3 68.9 77,160 7.5 46.3 0.03 85,001 – 105,000 3 18.8 87.7 308,640 30.0 76.3 0.14 105,001-125,000 1 6.3 94.0 115,740 11.3 87.6 0.06 125,001-145,000 1 6.3 100 128,600 12.5 100 0.1 Total 1,028,800 0.5
25,001 – 45,000 2 12.5 12.5 71,500 3.2 3.2 0.004 45,001 – 65,000 4 25 37.5 240,500 10.6 13.8 0.0345 65,001 – 85,000 0 0 37.5 0 0 13.8 0 85,001 – 105,000 2 12.5 50 195,000 8.6 22.4 0.028 105,001-125,000 0 0 50 0 0 22.4 0 125,001-145,000 0 0 50 0 0 22.4 0 145,001-165,000 0 0 50 0 0 22.4 0 165,001-185,000 0 0 50 0 0 22.4 0 185,001-205,000 4 25 75 780,000 34.5 56.9 0.14225 205,001-225,000 0 0 75 0 0 56.9 0 225,001-245,000 2 12.5 87.5 455,000 20.1 77.0 0.096 245,001-265,000 2 12.5 100 520,000 23.0 100 0.125 Total 2,262,000 0.43
**Total value of sales**
**% of total sales**
**Cumulative Y**
**Yes No**
∑**XY**
**Sales N Peak season Frequency % of**
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
Gini Coefficient 0.5
265,001-285,000 GINNI
*Source: Field survey, 2020.*
*Constraints in cucumber marketing.*
**Table 4.**
COEFFICIENT
*Gini coefficient of wholesale cucumber marketing.*
**0.57**
Perishability 69(98.6) 1(1.4) High cost of transportation 64(91.4) 6(8.6) Price fluctuation 67(95.7) 3(4.3) Inadequate capital 67(95.7) 3(4.3) Storage Problem 67(95.7) 3(4.3) Poor marketing information 49(70.0) 21(30.0)
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
#### **Table 4.**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
**Frequency % of**
<5,000 0
**Gini Coefficient 0.32**
**Gini Coefficient 0.36** *Source: Field Survey, 2020.*
*Gini coefficient of retail cucumber marketing.*
**Table 3.**
**Sales N Peak season**
**retailer** ∑**X**
**Cumulative % of retailer**
5,001 – 25,000 34 63 63 533,952 49.5 49.5 0.31 25,001 – 45,000 20 37 100 544,320 50.5 100 0.37 Total **0.68**
<5,000 2 3.7 3.7 9,100 0.91 0.91 0.0 5,001 – 25,000 35 64.8 68.5 527,800 53.2 54.11 0.35 25,001 – 45,000 15 27.8 96.3 364,000 36.7 90.81 0.25 45,001 – 65,000 2 3.7 100 91,000 9.2 100 0.037 Total 54 100 991,900 **0.64**
**Total value of sales**
**Lean season**
**% of total sales**
**Cumulative Y**
∑**XY**
also indicate adequate equality in the market.
**4.3 Constraints in cucumber marketing**
**4.2 Market structure of cucumber (wholesale)**
63% of retailers and this accounted for 49.5% of total sales of cucumber during the peak season (**Table 3**). Similar trend was obtained in the lean season, marketers within the sale range of 5,001–25,000 also constituted 64.8% of retailers and this accounted for 53.2% of cucumber total sales in the lean season. Gini coefficients for the peak and lean season were 0.32 and 0.36 respectively. This indicated that cucumber marketing at retail level in the peak and lean season was competitive. This indicated that there are many retailers in the market and they will not be able to influence price by increasing or decreasing quantity supplied to the market. This
Findings revealed that wholesale within the sales range of 25,001–45,000 and 45,001–65,000 constituted the greatest percentage of the wholesaler and this accounted for 13.8 and 25% of total sales. Gini coefficient for the wholesaler during the peak and lean season were 0.5 and 0.57 respectively. This implied inequality in quantity of cucumber sold among the wholesaler and sales is concentrated in the hand of few marketers and cucumber marketing at wholesale level was noncompetitive in the study area. Similarly, high inefficiency was also observed in the market structure of watermelon at Akure [14], where it was found that the Gini coefficient
of watermelon was 0.7318 indicating inequality in the market (**Table 4**).
The most important constraint to cucumber marketing was perishability of the commodity. Vegetables are highly perishable and sensitive to harvest and post-harvest handling systems. It was observed during the survey that most of the marketers use bags in packaging of the crop with attendant physical damages and
**56**
*Gini coefficient of wholesale cucumber marketing.*
#### **Table 5.**
*Constraints in cucumber marketing.*
losses. Similarly, high perishability is one of the constraints in cucumber production in Southeast Nigeria [15]. Price fluctuation is rampant and is always due to fluctuation in the supply of the commodity. Other constraints were inadequate capital and storage problem, high cost of transportation and poor marketing information (**Table 5**).
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.64 | **5. Conclusion**
Cucumber marketing was dominated by the male folks at both retail and wholesale level. Most of the retailers were within the age group of 31–40 years and were younger than the wholesaler. Cucumber marketing at both retail and wholesale was profitable in both the peak and lean season. The analysis of the market structure at the retail level showed adequate equality while market structure at the wholesale level reflect inequality among the actors. The major constraints in cucumber marketing were perishable nature of the produce, price fluctuation and storage problem. The study advocates for the use of improved packaging in the marketing of the commodity and enhanced sensitization on the importance of adequate post-harvest handling and proper storage to reduce the problem of perishability encountered in the commodity supply chain.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.65 | **Acknowledgements**
I wish to acknowledge Mr. Habib Ganiyu for assisting in data collection for the study.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.67 | **Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State**
Questionnaire code \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Date of interview:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Phone no …………
**a.State……………………………………………..**
**b.Local Government Area………………………………………………**
**c.Name of Market ……………………………………………………….**
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"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.68 | **Section A: Socioeconomic characteristics of the Marketers**
1.Sex 1. Male 2. Female
2.Age (Years): …………………………………………………..
**59**
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State*
5.Years of experience in marketing ……………………
6.Type of marketer a. Wholesaler Yes…… No…………..
10. Are you a member of any association 1 Yes… 2. No
12.Do you receive agricultural extension services? 1. Yes 2. No
**Section B: Market performance and structure of Cucumber**
14.Cost price/bag: i. Peak season …………. ii. Lean season …………….
16.Transport cost/bag i. Peak season ………. ii. Lean season ………..
18. Selling price per bag i. Peak season ………. ii. Lean season ………..
**S/N Constraints Yes No**
**Any comment ……………………………………………………………………..**
17. Average cost of stall per month ………………………………………
**Section C: Constraints in marketing cucumber**
15.Loading cost per bag in i. Peak season ………. ii. Lean season ………..
8.What is your main occupation 1. Trading of cucumber 2. Farming 3. Civil
11.Have you ever attended any training on vegetable marketing 1. Yes 2. no
13.How many bags (40 kg weight) do you buy in a week: i. peak season ……. ii.
9.Major source of capital i. Personal savings ii. Friends and relatives iii. Coopera-
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
b. Retailer Yes…… No………….
servants 4. Others please specify.
7.Household size ……………….
tive loansiv. Bank loans
Lean season ………
1 Perishability
4 Inadequate capital 5 Storage problem
2 High cost of transportation 3 Price fluctuation (seasonality)
6 Poor marketing information
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
(**Table 5**).
**5. Conclusion**
the commodity supply chain.
**Acknowledgements**
the study.
**Questionnaire**
Phone no …………
1.Sex 1. Male 2. Female
please specify
losses. Similarly, high perishability is one of the constraints in cucumber production in Southeast Nigeria [15]. Price fluctuation is rampant and is always due to fluctuation in the supply of the commodity. Other constraints were inadequate capital and storage problem, high cost of transportation and poor marketing information
Cucumber marketing was dominated by the male folks at both retail and wholesale level. Most of the retailers were within the age group of 31–40 years and were younger than the wholesaler. Cucumber marketing at both retail and wholesale was profitable in both the peak and lean season. The analysis of the market structure at the retail level showed adequate equality while market structure at the wholesale level reflect inequality among the actors. The major constraints in cucumber marketing were perishable nature of the produce, price fluctuation and storage problem. The study advocates for the use of improved packaging in the marketing of the commodity and enhanced sensitization on the importance of adequate post-harvest handling and proper storage to reduce the problem of perishability encountered in
I wish to acknowledge Mr. Habib Ganiyu for assisting in data collection for
**Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State**
Questionnaire code \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Date of interview:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
**b.Local Government Area………………………………………………**
**c.Name of Market ……………………………………………………….**
**Section A: Socioeconomic characteristics of the Marketers**
3.Marital status 1. Single 2. Married 3. Divorced 4. Others please specify
4.Educational level 1. No formal 2. Primary 3. Secondary 4. Tertiary 5. Others
2.Age (Years): …………………………………………………..
**a.State……………………………………………..**
**58**
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.69 | **Section B: Market performance and structure of Cucumber**
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.70 | **Section C: Constraints in marketing cucumber**
**Any comment ……………………………………………………………………..**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.71 | **Author details**
Iyabo Bosede Adeoye National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Nigeria
\*Address all correspondence to: bosedeadeoye2005@gmail.com
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
**61**
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State*
plantain marketing in Ondo State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science,
[9] Adeoye IB and Ibe RB. Market Structure and Performance of Fresh Tomatoes in Ibadan Metropolis, Oyo State, 2013, Proc. 2nd All Africa
and M. Penter, Acta Hort. 1007.
Horticulture Congress Eds.: K. Hannweg
[10] Ohen SB, Umeze GE, Cobham ME. Determinants of Market Participation by Cucumber Farmers in Odukpani Local Government Area, Cross River State, Nigeria, Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 2014; 5(2):
[11] Kasali R, Aremu FJ and Shittu BA. An Economic Analysis of Watermelon Marketing in Oyo State, Nigeria.
Production Agriculture and Technology,
Adebayo CO. Analyzing the structure and performance of Shea butter market in Bosso and Borgu Local Government
[12] Wikipedia . Ibadan. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibadan, 2021.
[13] Garba ID, Sanni SA and
Areas of Niger State, Nigeria, International Journal of Service and Technology, 2015; 8(2):321-336.
[14] Oseni JO. An appraisal of the structure and conduct of watermelon marketing in Akure Metropolis, Ondo State, Nigeria. Sky Journal of Agricultural Research, 2015;
[15] Umeh OA, and Ojiako FO Limitations of Cucumber (Cucumis Sativus L) Production For Nutrition Security In Southeast Nigeria, INT'L JOURNAL OF AGRIC. AND RURAL
DEV, 2018; 21(1): 3437-3443,
2002; 5:2690-2697
188-196.
2015; 11(2):43-52.
4(4):080-089.
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
[2] Elum ZA, Etowa, EB and Ogonda AU. Economics of Cucumber Production in Rivers State, Nigeria. Agro-Science Journal of Tropical Agriculture, Food, Environment and Extension, 2016;
[3] Lutfa A, Happy FA and Yeasmin F. Production process and marketing system of Cucumber: A Socioeconomic Study In Mymensingh District Of Bangladesh, SAARC J. Agric.*, 2019;*
[4] Girei AA, Kasali R, Ogezi E and Nnodu ON. Analysis of Structure and Performance of Pumpkin Marketing in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Direct Research Journal of Agriculture and Food Science, 2018; 6(7): 166-172.
[5] Onyango CO. Analysis of Structure, Conduct and Performance of small ruminant stock market participants of Isiolo Nairobi trading market, Kenya M.Sc Project. Agricultural and Applied Econoics of Egerton University,
[6] Azim MD, Helaluddin A, and Shibbir Khan ATM. Operational Performance and Profitability: an empirical study on the Bangladeshi Ceramic Companies. International Journal of entrepreneurship and Development
[7] Olukosi JO, Isitor SU and Ode MO. Introduction to Agricultural marketing and Prices: Principle and Application, Living books Series, G.U. Publications,
[8] Imoudu PB and Afolabi JA. An Assessment of the performance of
**References**
15(2): 48-53.
*17(1): 135-147*
2013; xiii+93pp.
Studies, 2015; 3(1), 63-73.
Abuja, Nigeria, 2005.
[1] Adeoye IB and
Balogun OL. Profitability and Efficiency of Cucumber Production among Smallholder Farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2016; 61(4): 387-398.
*Market Performance and Structure of Cucumber in Ibadan, Oyo State DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96187*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.73 | Cultivation and Management
**Chapter 6**
**Abstract**
Biostimulators
*Michael Henry Böhme*
increasing root growth.
**1. Introduction**
**65**
*Bacillus subtilis*, abiotic stress influence
Growth Promoting and Stabilizing
of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in
Soilless Cultivation Systems Using
Cultivation of cucumber in greenhouses is predominantly carried out in soilless cultivation systems mainly in substrate culture. The use of organic and completely compostable substrates is of rising interest in such systems, unclean sheep wool was formed as substrate slabs, peat slabs and coconut fiber slabs were compared with mineral substrates rockwool and perlite. In general can be stated, intensively in greenhouses cultivated crops such as cucumbers, suffer often from inadequate abiotic or biotic growth conditions in particular in the rhizosphere. Many studies were done to find growth promoters or biostimulators to stabilize the growing condition in the rhizosphere, in case of stress situation as fluctuating salt concentration EC and pH value, but also in case of temperature stress. K-Humate, Lactate and *Bacillus subtilis* were investigated as biostimulators in such situations. Different concentration and combination of these biostimulators were investigated but also the methods of application on leaves and roots respectively. Very successful was used for the stabilization of the EC value for cucumber plants growing in substrate the application of K-Humate and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) as single component and combined. Following the results, it can be assumed, the application of the combined biostimulators with all substances if applied over the roots was a stimulating effect visible, whereas if applied over the leaves an inhibiting effect for cucumber plant growth. Application of the biostimulators solution with all three components BS-FZB24® (0.2%), K-Humate (0.01%), and LACTOFOL "O" (0.1%) were tested regarding their effects in case of strong but short time pH and temperature stress the growth of cucumber plants. There are a strong correlation between green biomass of treated cucumber plants and their root mass. It can be assumed that one of the effects of stress prevention through the biostimulators is primarily based on
**Keywords:** soilless cultivation, organic and mineral substrates, humates, lactates,
Cucumbers (*Cucumis sativus* L.) is a vegetable originated from the rain forest of northeastern India. Therefore, they are growing in particular in temperate areas in
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.75 | Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation Systems Using Biostimulators
*Michael Henry Böhme*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.76 | **Abstract**
Cultivation of cucumber in greenhouses is predominantly carried out in soilless cultivation systems mainly in substrate culture. The use of organic and completely compostable substrates is of rising interest in such systems, unclean sheep wool was formed as substrate slabs, peat slabs and coconut fiber slabs were compared with mineral substrates rockwool and perlite. In general can be stated, intensively in greenhouses cultivated crops such as cucumbers, suffer often from inadequate abiotic or biotic growth conditions in particular in the rhizosphere. Many studies were done to find growth promoters or biostimulators to stabilize the growing condition in the rhizosphere, in case of stress situation as fluctuating salt concentration EC and pH value, but also in case of temperature stress. K-Humate, Lactate and *Bacillus subtilis* were investigated as biostimulators in such situations. Different concentration and combination of these biostimulators were investigated but also the methods of application on leaves and roots respectively. Very successful was used for the stabilization of the EC value for cucumber plants growing in substrate the application of K-Humate and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) as single component and combined. Following the results, it can be assumed, the application of the combined biostimulators with all substances if applied over the roots was a stimulating effect visible, whereas if applied over the leaves an inhibiting effect for cucumber plant growth. Application of the biostimulators solution with all three components BS-FZB24® (0.2%), K-Humate (0.01%), and LACTOFOL "O" (0.1%) were tested regarding their effects in case of strong but short time pH and temperature stress the growth of cucumber plants. There are a strong correlation between green biomass of treated cucumber plants and their root mass. It can be assumed that one of the effects of stress prevention through the biostimulators is primarily based on increasing root growth.
**Keywords:** soilless cultivation, organic and mineral substrates, humates, lactates, *Bacillus subtilis*, abiotic stress influence
#### **1. Introduction**
Cucumbers (*Cucumis sativus* L.) is a vegetable originated from the rain forest of northeastern India. Therefore, they are growing in particular in temperate areas in
glass-greenhouses, in order to secure the appropriate temperature and humidity whereas in sub-tropical regions mostly in plastic greenhouses to secure the suitable humidity or to safe the cucumbers from heavy rainfalls. In all cases very important are the growing conditions in the rhizosphere. In the rainforest, the cucumbers are growing in a soil with a high amount of organic matter. Therefore, substrates suitable for cucumber cultivation in greenhouse should have specific physical properties, as pore volume, air and water capacity and density of the substrates [1]. In general, substrates from three groups can be used, mineral or inert, artificial and organic (**Table 1**).
In general can be stated, intensively in greenhouses cultivated crops such as cucumbers, suffer often from inadequate abiotic or biotic growth conditions in particular in the rhizosphere. Many studies were done to find growth promoters or biostimulators to stabilize the production process or to enhance plant growth of cucumbers under these conditions. Following such reports and own research the wide range of effects produced by Humates based on humic acids, have beneficial effects on the growing conditions in the rhizosphere. Many experiments were showing positive effects of different Humates as 'Bioregulator' in substrate culture of cucumbers. Other organic substances with a similar effect were tested as Lactates (salts of lactic acid) because these substances have proven biostimulatory effects and as an approach to improve the nutrient balance and plant vitality. Investigations have shown that Lactates have more stable bonds with several metal ions than other chelates. This effect can be very important to improve the nutrient supply of
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
Furthermore, as mentioned the biological conditions in these intensive cultivation systems are completely changed, in particular in the inert and artificial substrates. Many microorganisms from the rhizosphere can influence plant growth and plant health positively, and are therefore often referred to as "plant growth promoting rhizobacteria" [2]. Different microorganisms are tested regarding these effects best result could be induced by *Bacillus subtilis* (syn. *B. amyloliquefaciens ssp. plantarum*) regarding these growth and plant health promoting mechanisms as well
In several studies, cucumber growth in different substrates was investigated using mineral nutrient solution and with organic nutrients. Furthermore, plant growth-promoting agencies as the mentioned Humates, Lactates and Bacillus subtilis were investigated single or in combination regarding their effect as Bioregulator in the rhizosphere as well on the epigean part of the plants.
Following these investigations, different effects in relation to plant growth factors or conditions could find out in particular under stress conditions for plant
*Effect of biostimulators humate, lactate and* Bacillus subtilis *on stressors during growth of cucumbers under*
the cucumbers in soilless cultivation systems.
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
as the interactions between them.
growth (**Figure 1**):
**Figure 1.**
**67**
*protected cultivation.*
Which of the substrates is suitable, depends also from availability in the region of the basic material, the economically preparation and environmental tasks as possibilities of reuse or environmentally friendly waste disposal. All substrates have some limitations in comparison to the natural growing conditions of cucumbers:
A proper regulation of the growing condition in the rhizosphere of cucumbers in greenhouses, is also from high importance because the wide relation of shoot and leave to the roots - 100:1, that means a comparable little root system have to secure water and nutrients for a big biomass.
Nowadays, mainly mineral or Rockwool is used as substrate in greenhouses for fruity vegetable production as tomatoes and cucumbers. Therefore, most of the studies with different substrates for cucumber cultivations are including as 'control' the Rockwool as slabs or as granules in containers.
*\* PU foam mixed with recycled PU-granules.*
#### **Table 1.**
*Classification of substrates for hydroponically cultivation of vegetables as cucumbers and others.*
#### *Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
In general can be stated, intensively in greenhouses cultivated crops such as cucumbers, suffer often from inadequate abiotic or biotic growth conditions in particular in the rhizosphere. Many studies were done to find growth promoters or biostimulators to stabilize the production process or to enhance plant growth of cucumbers under these conditions. Following such reports and own research the wide range of effects produced by Humates based on humic acids, have beneficial effects on the growing conditions in the rhizosphere. Many experiments were showing positive effects of different Humates as 'Bioregulator' in substrate culture of cucumbers. Other organic substances with a similar effect were tested as Lactates (salts of lactic acid) because these substances have proven biostimulatory effects and as an approach to improve the nutrient balance and plant vitality. Investigations have shown that Lactates have more stable bonds with several metal ions than other chelates. This effect can be very important to improve the nutrient supply of the cucumbers in soilless cultivation systems.
Furthermore, as mentioned the biological conditions in these intensive cultivation systems are completely changed, in particular in the inert and artificial substrates. Many microorganisms from the rhizosphere can influence plant growth and plant health positively, and are therefore often referred to as "plant growth promoting rhizobacteria" [2]. Different microorganisms are tested regarding these effects best result could be induced by *Bacillus subtilis* (syn. *B. amyloliquefaciens ssp. plantarum*) regarding these growth and plant health promoting mechanisms as well as the interactions between them.
In several studies, cucumber growth in different substrates was investigated using mineral nutrient solution and with organic nutrients. Furthermore, plant growth-promoting agencies as the mentioned Humates, Lactates and Bacillus subtilis were investigated single or in combination regarding their effect as Bioregulator in the rhizosphere as well on the epigean part of the plants.
Following these investigations, different effects in relation to plant growth factors or conditions could find out in particular under stress conditions for plant growth (**Figure 1**):
#### **Figure 1.**
*Effect of biostimulators humate, lactate and* Bacillus subtilis *on stressors during growth of cucumbers under protected cultivation.*
glass-greenhouses, in order to secure the appropriate temperature and humidity whereas in sub-tropical regions mostly in plastic greenhouses to secure the suitable humidity or to safe the cucumbers from heavy rainfalls. In all cases very important are the growing conditions in the rhizosphere. In the rainforest, the cucumbers are growing in a soil with a high amount of organic matter. Therefore, substrates suitable for cucumber cultivation in greenhouse should have specific physical properties, as pore volume, air and water capacity and density of the substrates [1]. In general, substrates from three groups can be used, mineral or inert, artificial and
Which of the substrates is suitable, depends also from availability in the region of the basic material, the economically preparation and environmental tasks as possibilities of reuse or environmentally friendly waste disposal. All substrates have some limitations in comparison to the natural growing conditions of cucumbers:
• Different physical, chemical and biological conditions in the substrates
• Missing of a buffer for stress situation as fluctuation of the pH and salt concentration (EC) or limitations of macro- or micro nutrients
• Microorganisms in the rhizosphere can have different functions as
**Mineral - inert Organic Artificial** Expanded Clay Coconut fiber Aggrofoam\* Gravel Wood fiber PU-foam Perlite Peat Polystyren-foam Pumice Mix substrate Polyphenol-foam Rockwool Compost UMF-foam
> Sheepwool Pine bark
*Classification of substrates for hydroponically cultivation of vegetables as cucumbers and others.*
• Under natural soil or organic growing media conditions, humates are available
mineralization of organic material, stress reduction and as growth regulator.
A proper regulation of the growing condition in the rhizosphere of cucumbers in greenhouses, is also from high importance because the wide relation of shoot and leave to the roots - 100:1, that means a comparable little root system have to secure
Nowadays, mainly mineral or Rockwool is used as substrate in greenhouses for fruity vegetable production as tomatoes and cucumbers. Therefore, most of the studies with different substrates for cucumber cultivations are including as 'control'
• Strong reduction of the volume for root growth
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
as a buffer for fluctuation of salt concentration
water and nutrients for a big biomass.
Sand Moss peat Zeolite Straw
*PU = Polyurethan; UMF = Urea-Methanal foam.*
*PU foam mixed with recycled PU-granules.*
*\**
**66**
**Table 1.**
the Rockwool as slabs or as granules in containers.
organic (**Table 1**).
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.120607 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.77 | **2. Cultivation systems for cucumber growing in greenhouses**
In the last 45 years different hydroponic systems are developed in the world, the different systems can be subdivide in four groups [3]. Whereas, cucumbers are cultivated mostly in the first and second system.
Therefore, substances have been used as fertilizers and as bioregulators. Lactates are available under the brand name LACTOFOL® [5, 6]. That suspension fertilizer was designed mainly for foliar application and patented as a plant growth and develop-
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
Humates are the salts of Humic acids which are complex polymers including amino acids, amino sugars, peptides, aliphatic compounds involved in linkages between the aromatic groups [7]. There are different types of humates related to the organic material used and the method of extraction of the Humic Acid; in the
**Components Unit LACTOFOL O® Components Unit LACTOFOL O®** Lactic acid % 10 Magnesium % 0.1 Riboflavin mg/l 0.5 Iron % 0.4 Ascorbic acid mg/l 3 Boron mg/l 300 Thiamine mg/l 0.1 Copper mg/l 200 Nitrogen % 30 Manganese mg/l 250 Phosphorus % 7.5 Zinc mg/l 125 Potassium % 15 Molybdenum mg/l 18 Calcium % 0.5 Cobalt mg/l 6
ment regulator. The composition of LACTOFOL O® is shown in **Table 2**.
**3.2 Humates**
experiments were used different types:
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
• Peat used by Merck
◦ Na Humate
• Brown coal
◦ K Humate
◦ NH4 Humate
◦ Fulvic Acid
◦ K Humate
◦ K Humate
◦ K Humate
**Table 2.**
**69**
*Composition of LACTOFOL O®.*
• Leonardite R (Russia)
• Coconut fiber (Mexico)
• Leonardite G (Germany)
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.121451 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.78 | **2.1 Substrate culture**
Hydroponic systems in a small amount of substrate (3 to 15 l per plant) filled in containers, bags, slabs or channels. Slabs of rockwool, peat or coconut fiber are used. This system is combined with different types of trickle irrigation. There are 'open systems' in which the drainwater flows out of the substrate slabs or cultivation container in the ground. Preferable used are the 'closed systems' in which the growing medium is lying in channels and the nutrient solution is recirculating.
#### **2.2 Water culture**
The plants are cultivated without any substrate, except the substrate for propagation of the young plants. The plants are staying or hanging also in channels in recirculating nutrient solution. Quite known systems are the 'Nutrient-Film-Techniques' (NFT) and the 'Deep-Flow-Techniques' (DFT). Also gravel culture can be grouped belong to the water culture, because the gravel has only the function to stabilize the root system.
#### **2.3 Aeroponics**
The plants are cultivated without any substrate and staying or hanging on plastic-foam-sheets and the root system is hanging in a closed space. The nutrient solution is given by very fine nozzles as a kind of fog-system. Important is a high frequency of spraying with nutrient solution, advisably to spray every 2 to 4 minutes for 20 to 30 seconds according to the developmental stage of plants. This system is rarely used for cucumber cultivation.
#### **2.4 Aquaponics**
Is a combination of aquaculture with typical fish keeping in ponds and the water culture system 'nutrient-film-technique' (NFT) as a closed aquaponics, where the plants were fertilized only with the fish water. This technique becomes more and more important for the food production and has an increasing popularity, even though the system is not methodologically sound and completely scientifically investigated. Nowadays, this system is mainly used to cultivate tomatoes and leafy vegetables [4] it can be used also for cucumber cultivation.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.121591 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 78
} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.79 | **3. Biostimulators to enhance cucumber growth**
#### **3.1 Lactate**
According to previous investigations, lactates (salts of lactic acid) seem to produce bioregulatory effects. The application of lactates was tested as an approach to improve the nutrient balance and plant vitality. Investigations have shown that lactates have more stable bonds with several metal ions than other chelates.
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
Therefore, substances have been used as fertilizers and as bioregulators. Lactates are available under the brand name LACTOFOL® [5, 6]. That suspension fertilizer was designed mainly for foliar application and patented as a plant growth and development regulator. The composition of LACTOFOL O® is shown in **Table 2**.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.121734 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
"url": "https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/books/9704/authors_book/authors_book.pdf",
"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
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"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 79
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.80 | **3.2 Humates**
**2. Cultivation systems for cucumber growing in greenhouses**
cultivated mostly in the first and second system.
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
system is rarely used for cucumber cultivation.
vegetables [4] it can be used also for cucumber cultivation.
**3. Biostimulators to enhance cucumber growth**
**2.1 Substrate culture**
**2.2 Water culture**
stabilize the root system.
**2.3 Aeroponics**
**2.4 Aquaponics**
**3.1 Lactate**
**68**
In the last 45 years different hydroponic systems are developed in the world, the
Hydroponic systems in a small amount of substrate (3 to 15 l per plant) filled in containers, bags, slabs or channels. Slabs of rockwool, peat or coconut fiber are used. This system is combined with different types of trickle irrigation. There are 'open systems' in which the drainwater flows out of the substrate slabs or cultivation container in the ground. Preferable used are the 'closed systems' in which the growing medium is lying in channels and the nutrient solution is recirculating.
The plants are cultivated without any substrate, except the substrate for propagation of the young plants. The plants are staying or hanging also in channels in recirculating nutrient solution. Quite known systems are the 'Nutrient-Film-Techniques' (NFT) and the 'Deep-Flow-Techniques' (DFT). Also gravel culture can be grouped belong to the water culture, because the gravel has only the function to
The plants are cultivated without any substrate and staying or hanging on plastic-foam-sheets and the root system is hanging in a closed space. The nutrient solution is given by very fine nozzles as a kind of fog-system. Important is a high frequency of spraying with nutrient solution, advisably to spray every 2 to
4 minutes for 20 to 30 seconds according to the developmental stage of plants. This
Is a combination of aquaculture with typical fish keeping in ponds and the water culture system 'nutrient-film-technique' (NFT) as a closed aquaponics, where the plants were fertilized only with the fish water. This technique becomes more and more important for the food production and has an increasing popularity, even though the system is not methodologically sound and completely scientifically investigated. Nowadays, this system is mainly used to cultivate tomatoes and leafy
According to previous investigations, lactates (salts of lactic acid) seem to produce bioregulatory effects. The application of lactates was tested as an approach to improve the nutrient balance and plant vitality. Investigations have shown that lactates have more stable bonds with several metal ions than other chelates.
different systems can be subdivide in four groups [3]. Whereas, cucumbers are
Humates are the salts of Humic acids which are complex polymers including amino acids, amino sugars, peptides, aliphatic compounds involved in linkages between the aromatic groups [7]. There are different types of humates related to the organic material used and the method of extraction of the Humic Acid; in the experiments were used different types:
- Na Humate
- K Humate
- NH4 Humate
- Fulvic Acid
- K Humate
- K Humate
- K Humate
#### **Table 2.** *Composition of LACTOFOL O®.*
Na Humate is not very useful as Bioregulator, because the negative effects of high Na in the nutrient solution or substrates, therefore K Humates or NH4 were used in the experiments.
In relation to crop growth or soil condition can be divided in Direct and Indirect effect of humates:
Following the investigations in the research and practical experiences in agriculture and horticulture, it was found out that *Bacillus subtilis* could have different
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
◦ Formation of growth hormones and enzymes for nutrient mobilization, based on better this nutrient availability and the nutrient uptake can be
◦ Improvement of plant growth, biomass production and marketable yield.
◦ Improving of the earliness of generative development and vegetative
◦ Reducing the effects of diseases in terms of intensity and frequency.
**4. Mineral, organic and synthetic substrates used in the substrate**
because the ecological aspects are becoming more and more important when choosing substrates, as well the economic efficiency is important. Substrate were filled in containers or available as mats, between 8 and 9 liters of substrate were available per plant. The aim was to use substrates with different physical and
◦ Achieve resistance of the plants in particular against soil born diseases.
As mentioned in the introduction different substrates can be used for cucumber cultivation in substrate culture systems. In principle, most substrates are suitable for successful cucumber growing, if adequately supplied with water and plant
In one experiment were compared substrates from the three groups (**Table 1**),
• Organic substrate, consisted of pine bark (40% v /v), low-bog peat (40% v/v)
Comparing the four substrates used, the significantly highest total yields of cucumbers were obtained in the variants 'organic substrate'. The differences in crop
effects:
• Growth promoting of plants.
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
◦ Improvement of seed and tuber germination.
◦ Improvement of root formation of plants.
enhanced.
growth.
nutrients.
**71**
• Promoting of plant health.
◦ Improving plant resilience.
**cultivation system of cucumbers**
chemical parameters (**Table 3**).
• Urea-methanal foam,
and manure straw mix (20% v/v).
• Rockwool (Grodan) mats as standard substrate,
• Perlite, grain size between 0.6 mm and 1.0 mm diameter.
- to increase the vitality and stimulating plant growth,
- to increase the germination activity and accelerate the germination of seeds.
- to improves the uptake of some nutrients and enhances the transport and availability of micronutrients in the plant
- Regulation of soil properties,
- to improve thermal conditions and soil or substrate structure,
- to enhance the ion exchange capacity,
- to stimulate development of micro-organisms.
#### **3.3 Microorganisms**
Intensively cultivated crops such as cucumbers in soilless cultivation systems are stressed because the growth conditions in the rhizosphere are completely different in contrast to the natural conditions. Therefore, studies were done to improve the growth condition in the rhizosphere, to enhance plant growth and to find growth promoters to stabilize the production process. Investigations were carried out to find effective biostimulators and agencies for plant protection from pest and diseases. Different bacteria species and their strains were investigated and practically used for different plants mainly in protected cultivation [8, 9].
Many microorganisms from the rhizosphere can influence plant growth and plant health positively and in case of bacteria they are often referred as "plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria" However, their effects have to be seen as the complex and as a cumulative result of various interactions between plant, pathogen, antagonists, and environmental factors [2].
Following many investigations in the soil are bacteria present in an average amount of 6 108 cells/g of soil, and with a live weight of about 10,000 kg/ha, they are the most common microorganisms in the soil, bacillus species are one of them. The species *Bacillus subtilis* is common in the nature and can be found in every compost pile, but it was important to find active strains promising for developing marketable products. Based on several investigations, some strains of *Bacillus subtilis* are already used in industrially and agricultural fields [10]. An effective strain is in this regard is FZB24® in particular used in agriculture also as growth promoter in the rhizosphere of the cultivated plants [11].
There are various effects induced by *Bacillus subtilis* (syn*. Amyloliquefaciens* ssp. *plantarum*), and different mechanisms of these effects as well as the interactions between them.
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
Following the investigations in the research and practical experiences in agriculture and horticulture, it was found out that *Bacillus subtilis* could have different effects:
• Growth promoting of plants.
Na Humate is not very useful as Bioregulator, because the negative effects of high Na in the nutrient solution or substrates, therefore K Humates or NH4 were
In relation to crop growth or soil condition can be divided in Direct and Indirect
◦ to increase the germination activity and accelerate the germination of seeds.
◦ to improves the uptake of some nutrients and enhances the transport and
Intensively cultivated crops such as cucumbers in soilless cultivation systems are stressed because the growth conditions in the rhizosphere are completely different in contrast to the natural conditions. Therefore, studies were done to improve the growth condition in the rhizosphere, to enhance plant growth and to find growth promoters to stabilize the production process. Investigations were carried out to find effective biostimulators and agencies for plant protection from pest and diseases. Different bacteria species and their strains were
investigated and practically used for different plants mainly in protected cultiva-
Many microorganisms from the rhizosphere can influence plant growth and plant health positively and in case of bacteria they are often referred as "plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria" However, their effects have to be seen as the complex and as a cumulative result of various interactions between plant, pathogen,
Following many investigations in the soil are bacteria present in an average amount of 6 108 cells/g of soil, and with a live weight of about 10,000 kg/ha, they are the most common microorganisms in the soil, bacillus species are one of them. The species *Bacillus subtilis* is common in the nature and can be found in every compost pile, but it was important to find active strains promising for developing marketable products. Based on several investigations, some strains of *Bacillus subtilis* are already used in industrially and agricultural fields [10]. An effective strain is in this regard is FZB24® in particular used in agriculture also as growth
There are various effects induced by *Bacillus subtilis* (syn*. Amyloliquefaciens* ssp. *plantarum*), and different mechanisms of these effects as well as the interactions
◦ to improve thermal conditions and soil or substrate structure,
◦ to increase the vitality and stimulating plant growth,
availability of micronutrients in the plant
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
◦ to enhance the ion - exchange capacity,
◦ to stimulate development of micro-organisms.
used in the experiments.
• Direct effects of humates
• Indirect effects of humates
**3.3 Microorganisms**
tion [8, 9].
between them.
**70**
◦ Regulation of soil properties,
antagonists, and environmental factors [2].
promoter in the rhizosphere of the cultivated plants [11].
effect of humates:
- Improving plant resilience.
- Reducing the effects of diseases in terms of intensity and frequency.
- Achieve resistance of the plants in particular against soil born diseases.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.121780 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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"section_idx": 80
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.81 | **4. Mineral, organic and synthetic substrates used in the substrate cultivation system of cucumbers**
As mentioned in the introduction different substrates can be used for cucumber cultivation in substrate culture systems. In principle, most substrates are suitable for successful cucumber growing, if adequately supplied with water and plant nutrients.
In one experiment were compared substrates from the three groups (**Table 1**), because the ecological aspects are becoming more and more important when choosing substrates, as well the economic efficiency is important. Substrate were filled in containers or available as mats, between 8 and 9 liters of substrate were available per plant. The aim was to use substrates with different physical and chemical parameters (**Table 3**).
Comparing the four substrates used, the significantly highest total yields of cucumbers were obtained in the variants 'organic substrate'. The differences in crop
#### *Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
The objective of this experiment was to investigate the development and yield of cucumber grown on sheep wool slabs in comparison with peat and coconut fiber slabs as well as Rockwool slabs and perlite in containers. Different sheep wool slabs in size and added components were tested, the highest stability was obtained with
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
• Does sheep wool slabs have appropriate physical parameters for cucumber
• How do the physical properties change in comparison with other organic and
• How do biostimulators influence cucumber plant growth in the investigated
Sheep wool slabs used in this experiment were compared with the following
• Coconut fiber (width 25 cm, length 100 cm, height after wetting 9 cm) from
• Peat slabs 'GroBoard' (width 20 cm, length 100 cm, height after wetting 9 cm)
In this experiment fifty percent of the cucumber plants of each substrate variant were treated three times with a biostimulator solution containing 0.08% K-Humate
) of *Bacillus subtilis* FZB 24®. To the plants were applied 20 ml of this
• Perlite, average grain size between 0.06 mm and 1.5 mm, properties see
• Rockwool slabs (width 20 cm, length 100 cm, height 7.5 cm) from the
(Fa. Humintech), 0.2% Lactofol (O) (Fa. ECOFOL) and a spore suspension
solution three times in weekly intervals starting with first treatment in 6–7 leaves stage, after transplanting. Plants of *Cucumis sativus* L. 'Indira' were used for the experiment. The experiment was conducted during two cultivation periods, first from November until April and second from June until November in the next year.
*5.1.1 Effects of biostimulators growing cucumbers in mineral and organic substrates*
For the soilless cultivation of the cucumber plants substrates was selected with different physical properties (**Table 5**). In general substrates for cucumbers should have high air capacity with a range between 20 to 40%, during the cultivation time often the air capacity is decreasing very much and water capacity increasing, therefore a certain stability is necessary in this regard. Sheep wool had the highest air capacity with about 70%, while peat had the lowest air capacities with 18%. The peat slabs were pressed to reduce the volume for the transport, the expansion of the slabs needs time. Because the low water capacity of sheep wool at the beginning, a water reserve is missing in case of low water availability. It seems that sheep wool and perlite requires a higher and more stable supply with nutrient solution than the other substrates. The physical properties after second use of the substrates
sheep wool slabs in combination with coconut fibers.
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
mineral substrates?
the company 'Dutch Plantin'.
company 'Pargro' from Finland.
from the KEKKILÄ Oyj company Finland.
**Table 3** was filled in Container with 7 L volume.
substrates?
substrates [12]:
(10<sup>7</sup> cfu ml<sup>1</sup>
**73**
In this experiment following questions were investigated:
cultivation and how many months they can be used?
*WC = water capacity; AC = air capacity; PV = pore volume; CEC = cation exchange capacity. \* [1].*
#### **Table 3.**
*Physical and chemical characteristics of substrates used in experiments with cucumber growing in substrate culture.*
#### **Table 4.**
*Yield of greenhouse cucumber in mineral, artificial and organic substrate (kg/m<sup>2</sup> ).*
yield of the investigated substrates in the examined months (**Table 4**) can be due, because different growing conditions, as:
The development of the leaf area of cucumber plants was examined for the variants with rockwool mats, urea foam and perlite. The following leaf areas were determined as the mean of all measuring dates: in rockwool 8215 cm2 , in urea foam 7889 cm2 , and in perlite 7438 cm2 .
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.122246 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/",
"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
"url": "https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/books/9704/authors_book/authors_book.pdf",
"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 81
} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.82 | **5. Effects of biostimulators on the growth and cucumber plant development**
### **5.1 Mineral and organic substrates used in substrate culture of cucumbers treated with biostimulators**
In Europe, about 87 million sheep are produced, in Germany about 2.2 million. Often, there is a lack of capacity for cleaning the sheep wool, so unclean sheep wool is available as waste material.
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
The objective of this experiment was to investigate the development and yield of cucumber grown on sheep wool slabs in comparison with peat and coconut fiber slabs as well as Rockwool slabs and perlite in containers. Different sheep wool slabs in size and added components were tested, the highest stability was obtained with sheep wool slabs in combination with coconut fibers.
In this experiment following questions were investigated:
Sheep wool slabs used in this experiment were compared with the following substrates [12]:
In this experiment fifty percent of the cucumber plants of each substrate variant were treated three times with a biostimulator solution containing 0.08% K-Humate (Fa. Humintech), 0.2% Lactofol (O) (Fa. ECOFOL) and a spore suspension (10<sup>7</sup> cfu ml<sup>1</sup> ) of *Bacillus subtilis* FZB 24®. To the plants were applied 20 ml of this solution three times in weekly intervals starting with first treatment in 6–7 leaves stage, after transplanting. Plants of *Cucumis sativus* L. 'Indira' were used for the experiment. The experiment was conducted during two cultivation periods, first from November until April and second from June until November in the next year.
#### *5.1.1 Effects of biostimulators growing cucumbers in mineral and organic substrates*
For the soilless cultivation of the cucumber plants substrates was selected with different physical properties (**Table 5**). In general substrates for cucumbers should have high air capacity with a range between 20 to 40%, during the cultivation time often the air capacity is decreasing very much and water capacity increasing, therefore a certain stability is necessary in this regard. Sheep wool had the highest air capacity with about 70%, while peat had the lowest air capacities with 18%. The peat slabs were pressed to reduce the volume for the transport, the expansion of the slabs needs time. Because the low water capacity of sheep wool at the beginning, a water reserve is missing in case of low water availability. It seems that sheep wool and perlite requires a higher and more stable supply with nutrient solution than the other substrates. The physical properties after second use of the substrates
yield of the investigated substrates in the examined months (**Table 4**) can be due,
**Substrate Months of harvest Average February March April May June July** Rockwool 0.40 b 4.95 b 6.90 a 7.78 a 6.80 bc 5.77 b 5.43 Perlite 1.45 a 4.78 b 6.63 ab 6.54 ab 7.10 b 8.48 a 5.83 UM-Foam 1.10 a 4.30 b 6.10 ab 5.65 b 6.60 c 8.05 a 5.30 Organic Subst. 1.37 a 6.24 a 7.36 a 7.14 a 9.25 a 7.27 a 6.44
*Physical and chemical characteristics of substrates used in experiments with cucumber growing in substrate*
• lower substrate temperatures and lower water holding capacities in urea foam
• higher temperatures and better sorption capacity in the organic substrate
The development of the leaf area of cucumber plants was examined for the variants with rockwool mats, urea foam and perlite. The following leaf areas were
, in urea foam
*).*
**Chemical characteristics**
**] pH CEC (mval/1)**
determined as the mean of all measuring dates: in rockwool 8215 cm2
.
**5. Effects of biostimulators on the growth and cucumber plant**
**5.1 Mineral and organic substrates used in substrate culture of cucumbers**
In Europe, about 87 million sheep are produced, in Germany about 2.2 million. Often, there is a lack of capacity for cleaning the sheep wool, so unclean sheep wool
because different growing conditions, as:
*Different letters indicate significant differences, LSD, p* ≤ *0.05.*
**Substrates Physical characteristics**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
**[% v/v]**
*WC = water capacity; AC = air capacity; PV = pore volume; CEC = cation exchange capacity.*
**WC AC PV Density [kg/m3**
Rockwool 54 32 86 80 7.5–8.8 — Perlite 36 52 88 98 6.5–8.0 5 UM-Foam 45 45 90 25 6.0–6.7 2 Organic Substrate (OM) 50 40 90 350 6.0–6.5 165 Target values \* 45–65 20–40 70–95 30–500 6.7–7.0 50
*Yield of greenhouse cucumber in mineral, artificial and organic substrate (kg/m<sup>2</sup>*
, and in perlite 7438 cm2
**treated with biostimulators**
is available as waste material.
and perlite
**development**
7889 cm2
**72**
**Table 4.**
*\* [1].*
**Table 3.**
*culture.*
*AC – air capacity, WC – water capacity, PV - volume.*
*Different letters indicate significant differences (Tukey P < 0.05) within one parameter.*
#### **Table 5.**
*Physical properties of mineral and organic substrates for cucumber cultivation [12].*
were changed, in Coconut fiber and rockwool slabs the AC was below the target value.
The analyses of the mineral content of the substrates used for cucumber cultivation (**Table 6**) showed different results after the first and after second use. There was no accumulation of nutrients in the sheep wool, peat and coconut fiber slabs, but very high accumulation of NO3 in perlite and and K in rockwool. Furthermore, In the coconut fiber slabs could be determined a high accumulation of NO3 and Ca. In general, it can be stated that the nutrient values in the substrates do not show any unusual fluctuations. it must also be taken into account that the sorption capacity and the mineralization in the substrates are different, but the same nutrient solution was always added.
higher if the variants were treated with the biostimulators. The highest yield could be obtained for cucumber cultivated in the second cultivation in sheep wool slabs and peat slabs and treated with biostimulators. The lowest cucumber yield in the second year was obtained in the substrate variants rockwool slabs and perlite.
*Cucumber yield in organic substrates (sheep wool slabs, peat slabs, coconut fiber slabs) and mineral substrates*
*(perlite, Rockwool slabs) not treated with biostimulators and treated with them [12].*
Sheep wool slabs 1.08 abcd 1.94 d 8.96 e 10.07 f Peat slabs 0.57 a 1.28 abcd 7.49 c 10.41 f Coconut fiber slabs 0.76 ab 0.84 abc 7.51 c 8.09 d Perlite 0.77 ab 1.16 abcd 6.68 b 8.95 e Rockwool slabs 1.47 bcd 1.71 cd 6.11 a 9.16 e
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
*Treated – application of biostimulators (0.08% K-Humate, 0.2% Lactofol (O), spore suspension (10<sup>7</sup> cfu/ml) of* Bacillus subtilis *FZB 24® Different letters indicate significant differences (Tuckey 0.05; comparison within one*
**)**
**First cultivation Second cultivation Untreated Treated Untreated Treated**
**Substrates Yield (kg plant<sup>1</sup>**
**5.2 Effects on the nutrient supply in cucumber cultivation using biostimulators**
biostimulators were undertaken regarding the effects:
the strain FZB24®,
*Untreated – no application of biostimulators.*
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
*cultivation).*
**Table 7.**
lactates and FZB24®),
period of 12–15 min.
**75**
Cucumber plants were grown in substrate culture using containers (volume 8 L) filled with perlite. The perlite from Slovakia had an average dry density of 120 kg/ m<sup>3</sup> and a grain size between 0.6 and 1.5 mm diameter, with a pore volume of 84% v/ v, water capacity 45% v/v and air capacity of 39%. Investigations with the organic
• of different humate and lactate types, whereas from *Bacillus subtilis* was used
• of concentrations and frequencies of biostimulators applications (humates,
in the nutrient solution, or direct to the leaves adaxial or abaxial)
values), suboptimal pH and suboptimal temperature
• on the nutrient uptake of N, P, K, Ca, Mg and Fe
• of the best method of applications (in the rhizosphere, to the growing media or
• in stress situations during growth of the cucumber plants, e.g. salt stress (EC
Nutrient solution was calculated with the HYDROFER program, considering the water quality and the target value during cucumber plant growth, in order to adjust the amounts of fertilizers, salts and acids required [13]. The target values for this experiment was 170 ppm N, 50 ppm P, 260 ppm K, 150 ppm Ca, 60 ppm Mg, 3 ppm Fe, S 80 ppm, the HCO3 content was adjusted by 90 ppm. Nutrient solution was applied using trickle irrigation 2 to 4 times a day 250 ml per irrigation cycle in
In all variants, the yield was higher in the second cultivation (**Table 7**) for all substrates tested. Furthermore, in all substrate variants the cucumber yield was
#### **Table 6.**
*Nutrient content in the tested substrates after the first and second cultivation of cucumbers.*
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
*Untreated – no application of biostimulators.*
*Treated – application of biostimulators (0.08% K-Humate, 0.2% Lactofol (O), spore suspension (10<sup>7</sup> cfu/ml) of* Bacillus subtilis *FZB 24® Different letters indicate significant differences (Tuckey 0.05; comparison within one cultivation).*
#### **Table 7.**
were changed, in Coconut fiber and rockwool slabs the AC was below the target
*Different letters indicate significant differences (Tukey P < 0.05) within one parameter.*
*Physical properties of mineral and organic substrates for cucumber cultivation [12].*
The analyses of the mineral content of the substrates used for cucumber cultivation (**Table 6**) showed different results after the first and after second use. There was no accumulation of nutrients in the sheep wool, peat and coconut fiber slabs, but very high accumulation of NO3 in perlite and and K in rockwool. Furthermore, In the coconut fiber slabs could be determined a high accumulation of NO3 and Ca. In general, it can be stated that the nutrient values in the substrates do not show any unusual fluctuations. it must also be taken into account that the sorption capacity and the mineralization in the substrates are different, but the same nutrient solution
**Substrate Before use in the experiment After second use in the experiment**
Sheep wool slabs 69.4 f 22.8 a 96.8 e 43.1 cd 44.1 cd 87.2 abc Peat slabs 18.0 a 68.0 g 86.0 b 30.7 b 61.6 f 92.3 d Coconut fiber slabs 30.6 b 52.8 e 83.9 a 20.0 a 72.3 g 92.3 d Perlite 58.6 e 31.6 b 90.2 bcd 41.4 c 50.4 e 91.8 d Rockwool slabs 49.2 d 41.6 c 90.7 cd 17.2 a 74.6 g 90.1 bcd
**AC (%) WC (%) PV (%) AC (%) WC (%) PV (%)**
In all variants, the yield was higher in the second cultivation (**Table 7**) for all substrates tested. Furthermore, in all substrate variants the cucumber yield was
**Substrate Nutrients First cultivation (ppm) Second cultivation (ppm)**
Sheep wool slabs NO3 21.6 a 23.6 a Peat slabs 77.9 c 77.1 bc Coconut fiber slabs 68.2 c 85.2 c Perlite 34.7 b 65.6 b Rockwool slabs 345.1 d 248.1 d Sheep wool slabs K 28.4 a 24.2 a Peat slabs 115.7 d 72.4 c Coconut fiber slabs 113.2 d 75.8 c Perlite 55.3 b 56.6 b Rockwool slabs 70.4 c 235.9 d Sheep wool slabs Ca 33.8 b 32.7 a Peat slabs 64.9 d 73.7 b Coconut fiber slabs 55.7 c 82.9 bc Perlite 24.6 a 92.3 cd Rockwool slabs 115.3 e 96.6 d
*Different letters indicate significant differences (Tukey P < 0.05) within the cultivation.*
*Nutrient content in the tested substrates after the first and second cultivation of cucumbers.*
value.
**Table 6.**
**74**
**Table 5.**
was always added.
*AC – air capacity, WC – water capacity, PV - volume.*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
*Cucumber yield in organic substrates (sheep wool slabs, peat slabs, coconut fiber slabs) and mineral substrates (perlite, Rockwool slabs) not treated with biostimulators and treated with them [12].*
higher if the variants were treated with the biostimulators. The highest yield could be obtained for cucumber cultivated in the second cultivation in sheep wool slabs and peat slabs and treated with biostimulators. The lowest cucumber yield in the second year was obtained in the substrate variants rockwool slabs and perlite.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.122656 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/",
"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
"url": "https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/books/9704/authors_book/authors_book.pdf",
"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 82
} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.83 | **5.2 Effects on the nutrient supply in cucumber cultivation using biostimulators**
Cucumber plants were grown in substrate culture using containers (volume 8 L) filled with perlite. The perlite from Slovakia had an average dry density of 120 kg/ m<sup>3</sup> and a grain size between 0.6 and 1.5 mm diameter, with a pore volume of 84% v/ v, water capacity 45% v/v and air capacity of 39%. Investigations with the organic biostimulators were undertaken regarding the effects:
Nutrient solution was calculated with the HYDROFER program, considering the water quality and the target value during cucumber plant growth, in order to adjust the amounts of fertilizers, salts and acids required [13]. The target values for this experiment was 170 ppm N, 50 ppm P, 260 ppm K, 150 ppm Ca, 60 ppm Mg, 3 ppm Fe, S 80 ppm, the HCO3 content was adjusted by 90 ppm. Nutrient solution was applied using trickle irrigation 2 to 4 times a day 250 ml per irrigation cycle in period of 12–15 min.
#### *5.2.1 Effects of biostimulators on the salt concentration (EC) in the rhizosphere*
Strong fluctuation of the salt concentration (EC) can lead to an imbalance of nutrient supply in hydroponic system and can decrease plant growth and yield as it was shown for tomatoes [14]. The negative effects on cucumber plant growth if the EC values (EC 8 mS cm<sup>1</sup> ) is very high could be positively influenced by application of humates and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) separately or combined. This is probably an effect by the encouraging of root growth. Lactate (LACTOFOL) application had no effect in this regard. Even if the nutrient solution has the appropriate salt concentration (EC), in substrate culture, with increasing duration of the cucumber cultivation there could be an accumulation of salts mainly based on those nutrients, which are not necessary in the amount as applicate. [15]. This could lead to salt stress and reduced yield in crops like cucumber. Application of Humate and/or *Bacillus subtilis* FZB24® reduced this salt accumulation (**Figure 2**).
sustainable culture of the bacteria and adsorption of the Humate on the perlite. The
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
biostimulators grew more vigorously and had in tendency a higher yield (**Table 8**).
For plants, which are adopted on lower pH, like tomatoes and beans [14, 16] it is well known that, pH values higher than 5.7 in substrates can disturb plant growth. In some growing media as rockwool or perlite, the initial pH is higher than 6.5. To change the pH by additional preparation of the substrates before using with a nutrient solution having lower pH takes time and is sometimes difficult. During the cultivation of the plants to change the pH value is also not always successful. Therefore, different treatments with biostimulators were tested. Application of Lactate stimulated root growth and shoot development even at pH 7.5. In general,
increase of EC from 1.5 to 3.6 was not so strong, but plants treated with
pH values affect the nutrient availability and uptake, in particular of
The nutrient uptake was positive influenced even the pH was higher than
micronutrients. As recorded in experiments with cucumber [15], the pH of substrates in soilless culture systems, changed with the duration of cultivation
(**Figure 3**) and declined in the control to 5.2. The pH of the substrates treated with biostimulators was more stable, especially if *B. subtilis* FZB24® was added to the nutrient solution as single component or in combination with the other compounds.
The evaluation of growth parameters of cucumber plants showed if they were treated with biostimulators then shoot and total leaf weight was significant higher than non-treated plants especially if the plants treated with all three components (**Table 8**). For the mean number of fruits harvested per plant in this short-term experiment, no significant differences between the variants, control and different
*Effect of biostimulators (0.1% lactate, 0.01% K-Humate, 0.2%* B. subtilis *FZB24®) on pH development in the*
*5.2.2 Effects on pH values in the rhizosphere*
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
*5.2.3 Effects on growth of cucumber plants*
treatments with biostimulators.
*substrate during cultivation of cucumber [15].*
recommend.
**Figure 3.**
**77**
K-Humate showed the highest efficiency for EC stabilization this Humate was even more effective than *B. subtilis* (FZB24®). The mixture of all three compounds, however, was as effective as Humate alone and stabilized the salt concentration (EC) at about a value of 2 EC. The stabilizing effect of the salt concentration could be maintained over weeks after the last application indicating that there could be a
#### **Figure 2.**
*Effect of biostimulators (0.1% lactate, 0.01% K-Humate, 0.2%* B. subtilis *FZB24®) on EC development in the substrate during cultivation of cucumber [15].*
#### **Table 8.**
*Growth parameters of cucumber plants treated or non-treated with biostimulators [15].*
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
sustainable culture of the bacteria and adsorption of the Humate on the perlite. The increase of EC from 1.5 to 3.6 was not so strong, but plants treated with biostimulators grew more vigorously and had in tendency a higher yield (**Table 8**).
#### *5.2.2 Effects on pH values in the rhizosphere*
*5.2.1 Effects of biostimulators on the salt concentration (EC) in the rhizosphere*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
EC values (EC 8 mS cm<sup>1</sup>
**Figure 2.**
*substrate during cultivation of cucumber [15].*
K-Humate, Lactate, B.s
FZB24®
**Table 8.**
**76**
**Variants Shoot weight**
Strong fluctuation of the salt concentration (EC) can lead to an imbalance of nutrient supply in hydroponic system and can decrease plant growth and yield as it was shown for tomatoes [14]. The negative effects on cucumber plant growth if the
of humates and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) separately or combined. This is probably an effect by the encouraging of root growth. Lactate (LACTOFOL) application had no effect in this regard. Even if the nutrient solution has the appropriate salt concentration (EC), in substrate culture, with increasing duration of the cucumber cultivation there could be an accumulation of salts mainly based on those nutrients, which are not necessary in the amount as applicate. [15]. This could lead to salt stress and reduced yield in crops like cucumber. Application of Humate and/or
K-Humate showed the highest efficiency for EC stabilization this Humate was even more effective than *B. subtilis* (FZB24®). The mixture of all three compounds, however, was as effective as Humate alone and stabilized the salt concentration (EC) at about a value of 2 EC. The stabilizing effect of the salt concentration could be maintained over weeks after the last application indicating that there could be a
*Effect of biostimulators (0.1% lactate, 0.01% K-Humate, 0.2%* B. subtilis *FZB24®) on EC development in the*
**Leaf weight (g plant<sup>1</sup> )**
911.83 a 235.33 a 7.4 ns
**Fruits per plant**
**(g plant<sup>1</sup> )**
*Different letters indicate significant differences, LSD, p* ≤ *0.05); ns = non-significant.*
*Growth parameters of cucumber plants treated or non-treated with biostimulators [15].*
Control 676.00 d 172.33 c 7.0 ns 0.1% Lactate 817.50 bc 203.00 b 10.0 ns 0.01% K-Humate 776.33 c 203.67 b 7.8 ns 0.2% B.s FZB24® 839.33 b 202.83 b 10.4 ns
*Bacillus subtilis* FZB24® reduced this salt accumulation (**Figure 2**).
) is very high could be positively influenced by application
For plants, which are adopted on lower pH, like tomatoes and beans [14, 16] it is well known that, pH values higher than 5.7 in substrates can disturb plant growth. In some growing media as rockwool or perlite, the initial pH is higher than 6.5. To change the pH by additional preparation of the substrates before using with a nutrient solution having lower pH takes time and is sometimes difficult. During the cultivation of the plants to change the pH value is also not always successful. Therefore, different treatments with biostimulators were tested. Application of Lactate stimulated root growth and shoot development even at pH 7.5. In general, pH values affect the nutrient availability and uptake, in particular of micronutrients. As recorded in experiments with cucumber [15], the pH of substrates in soilless culture systems, changed with the duration of cultivation (**Figure 3**) and declined in the control to 5.2. The pH of the substrates treated with biostimulators was more stable, especially if *B. subtilis* FZB24® was added to the nutrient solution as single component or in combination with the other compounds. The nutrient uptake was positive influenced even the pH was higher than recommend.
#### *5.2.3 Effects on growth of cucumber plants*
The evaluation of growth parameters of cucumber plants showed if they were treated with biostimulators then shoot and total leaf weight was significant higher than non-treated plants especially if the plants treated with all three components (**Table 8**). For the mean number of fruits harvested per plant in this short-term experiment, no significant differences between the variants, control and different treatments with biostimulators.
#### **Figure 3.**
*Effect of biostimulators (0.1% lactate, 0.01% K-Humate, 0.2%* B. subtilis *FZB24®) on pH development in the substrate during cultivation of cucumber [15].*
It can be assumed that the EC and pH stabilizing effects of the biostimulators contributed that better development of the plant, in particular if all three components are used together.
### **5.3 Effect of biostimulators and their application method on growing of cucumber plants**
The bio-substances and Bacillus subtilis used as biostimulators had beneficial effects on plant growth in several experiments, also in stress situations, as inappropriate EC and pH value. The biostimulators were used in single applications or as a mix in the rhizosphere, but the lactate was used at the beginning as foliar-fertilizer [14]. Therefore, it came to the thought to use the biostimulators to the root zone and on the leaves. The aim was to investigated which treatment is the most effective one.
Experimental design is shown in **Table 9**, eight different treatments were compared with the control.
K-Humate (Fa. Humintech), Lactate (Fa. ECOFOL, **Table 2**) and *B. subtilis* FZB24® (Fa. ABITEP GmbH) was applied on leaves or on the substrate used in this experiment. Quantity and concentration of applied substances were deduces from previous experience [14].
> induced in each case to a higher fresh matter compared to the control. If the Biostimulators were applied on the leaves, the effect on shoot fresh matter was not as strong in comparison to the application in the root zone. When *B. subtilis*
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
the effect on the root growth was much stronger than on the shoot growth.
leaves an inhibiting effect for cucumber plant growth.
**Figure 4.**
**Figure 5.**
**79**
(FZB24®) was used, the fresh mass of the shoot was even lower. It can be stated, if the combined biostimulator with all substances was applied the effect was different if applied over the roots was a stimulating effect visible, whereas if applied over the
*Fresh matter of leaves and shoots of cucumber plants after biostimulator application (lactate, K-Humate, B.subtilis BS) on leaves and roots respectively [17]. Different letters indicate significant differences (LSD, P = 0.05).*
Comparing the effect of the treatments, also the quality of shoots and leaves seems to be different and effects on the weakness against fungi's could be expected. This effect was also found in experiments with Water spinach [18] however, in these experiments
Comparing the ratio between shoot and leaf fresh matter (**Figure 5**) there are no significant differences between all variants, but it seems the leaf application stronger stimulateed the leaf growth than shoot growth resulting in a lower ratio.
*Effect of application biostimulators (lactate, K-Humate, FZB24®) on leaves and roots respectively on the ratio*
*of shoots and leaf biomass after finishing the experiment [17]. No significant differences.*
Cucumber plants were planted and cultivated in containers (volume of 7–8 liters) filled with Perlite. Nutrient solution was calculated following the HYDROFER program [13] to adjust the amounts of fertilizers, salts and acids required according the values (170 ppm N, 50 ppm P, 260 ppm K, 150 ppm Ca, 60 ppm Mg, 3 ppm Fe, 90 ppm HCO3). By trickle irrigation 2 to 4 times a day 250 ml per irrigation cycle was applied in period of 12–15 min.
Additional the plants were treated with one of the treatments, 20 ml per container and plant, three times in weekly intervals in following development stages: the first treatment in 5–6 leafs stage; second in 7–8 leafs stage; third in 9–10 leafs stage. For the variant -Leaf application- the different treatments were sprayed on the surface of leafs. In case of variant -Root application- the different treatments were given to the substrate and thereby into the rhizosphere of the plants, in the same amount and frequency.
#### *5.3.1 Shoot development*
The application of biostimulators three times in the growing stage (week 4, 5, and 6) affected development and yield of cucumber plants. The application of the biostimulators stimulated the growth represented by a higher fresh matter of shoots and leaves in most variants (**Figure 4**). Obviously, the location of application was important for the effect of the biostimulators. The application to the root zone
#### **Table 9.**
*Concentrations and application patterns of biostimulators used in the experiment [17].*
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
#### **Figure 4.**
It can be assumed that the EC and pH stabilizing effects of the biostimulators contributed that better development of the plant, in particular if all three compo-
**5.3 Effect of biostimulators and their application method on growing of**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
The bio-substances and Bacillus subtilis used as biostimulators had beneficial effects on plant growth in several experiments, also in stress situations, as inappropriate EC and pH value. The biostimulators were used in single applications or as a mix in the rhizosphere, but the lactate was used at the beginning as foliar-fertilizer [14]. Therefore, it came to the thought to use the biostimulators to the root zone and on the leaves. The aim was to investigated which treatment is the most effective one. Experimental design is shown in **Table 9**, eight different treatments were
K-Humate (Fa. Humintech), Lactate (Fa. ECOFOL, **Table 2**) and *B. subtilis* FZB24® (Fa. ABITEP GmbH) was applied on leaves or on the substrate used in this experiment. Quantity and concentration of applied substances were deduces from
Cucumber plants were planted and cultivated in containers (volume of 7–8
Additional the plants were treated with one of the treatments, 20 ml per container and plant, three times in weekly intervals in following development stages: the first treatment in 5–6 leafs stage; second in 7–8 leafs stage; third in 9–10 leafs stage. For the variant -Leaf application- the different treatments were sprayed on the surface of leafs. In case of variant -Root application- the different treatments were given to the substrate and thereby into the rhizosphere of the plants, in the
The application of biostimulators three times in the growing stage (week 4, 5, and 6) affected development and yield of cucumber plants. The application of the biostimulators stimulated the growth represented by a higher fresh matter of shoots and leaves in most variants (**Figure 4**). Obviously, the location of application was important for the effect of the biostimulators. The application to the root zone
**application**
X X
**Root application**
liters) filled with Perlite. Nutrient solution was calculated following the HYDROFER program [13] to adjust the amounts of fertilizers, salts and acids required according the values (170 ppm N, 50 ppm P, 260 ppm K, 150 ppm Ca, 60 ppm Mg, 3 ppm Fe, 90 ppm HCO3). By trickle irrigation 2 to 4 times a day
250 ml per irrigation cycle was applied in period of 12–15 min.
**Treatment Concentration of substances Leaf**
*Concentrations and application patterns of biostimulators used in the experiment [17].*
Lactate 0,08% X X K-Humate 0,2% X X *Bacillus subtilis* (FZB24) Spore suspension (10/cfu/ml) X X
> Above mentioned concentration
Control —
nents are used together.
**cucumber plants**
compared with the control.
previous experience [14].
same amount and frequency.
Lactate +K-Humate + *Bacillus*
*subtilis*
**Table 9.**
**78**
*5.3.1 Shoot development*
*Fresh matter of leaves and shoots of cucumber plants after biostimulator application (lactate, K-Humate, B.subtilis BS) on leaves and roots respectively [17]. Different letters indicate significant differences (LSD, P = 0.05).*
induced in each case to a higher fresh matter compared to the control. If the Biostimulators were applied on the leaves, the effect on shoot fresh matter was not as strong in comparison to the application in the root zone. When *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) was used, the fresh mass of the shoot was even lower. It can be stated, if the combined biostimulator with all substances was applied the effect was different if applied over the roots was a stimulating effect visible, whereas if applied over the leaves an inhibiting effect for cucumber plant growth.
Comparing the effect of the treatments, also the quality of shoots and leaves seems to be different and effects on the weakness against fungi's could be expected. This effect was also found in experiments with Water spinach [18] however, in these experiments the effect on the root growth was much stronger than on the shoot growth.
Comparing the ratio between shoot and leaf fresh matter (**Figure 5**) there are no significant differences between all variants, but it seems the leaf application stronger stimulateed the leaf growth than shoot growth resulting in a lower ratio.
#### **Figure 5.**
*Effect of application biostimulators (lactate, K-Humate, FZB24®) on leaves and roots respectively on the ratio of shoots and leaf biomass after finishing the experiment [17]. No significant differences.*
However, the leaf treatment with the combination of all substances led to a reduction in leaf growth. After application of biostimulators via roots more or less the same ratio was found as in the control indicating the shoot and leaf growth was stimulated in the same manner.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.123190 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/",
"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
"url": "https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/books/9704/authors_book/authors_book.pdf",
"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 83
} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.84 | *5.3.2 Quantity of fruit harvest and marketable fruit quality*
The number of fruits harvested from the eight variants and the control was higher on average when the biostimulators were applied to the rhizosphere directly at the roots (**Figure 6**). The fresh weight of all cucumbers with market quality was about 500 g, therefore the number of fruits is representative for the cucumber yield. In particular, the treatment with biostimulators on the substrate that means to the root system, resulted in a higher yield at the first harvest. The number of fruits finally harvested was considerably higher after treatment of roots with Lactate and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®). The number of marketable fruits was higher than in the control in most variants treated with biostimulators.
For future experiments should include more applications also during the fruit set because these additional applications could enhance the yield further, this could be especially important in long time cultivation.
The different application methods with Biostimulators on the leafs and to the roots have not only an influence on cucumber plant growth and yield, but also on the amount of marketable and non-marketable fruits (**Figure 7**). The percentage of non-marketable fruits (C class) was more than 25% in the control and could be reduced by leaf application of each Biostimulator investigated until 20% and even until 10% if substances were applied over the roots.
mechanisms including stimulation of plants'self-defense mechanisms, as it was demonstrated in chapter 5.2.1 and 5.2.2 in case of suboptimal pH, EC values. Furthermore, *Bacillus subtilis* can accelerate plant growth and stimulate the process of formation of plant organs. Furthermore, *B. subtilis* can increase the unspecific resistances of plants against stress conditions, such as extreme high temperatures,
*Effect of application biostimulators (lactate, K-Humate, FZB24®) on leaves and roots respectively on the percentage on non-marketable fruits. Different letters indicate significant differences (chi-square-test,*
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
frost, drought, strong radiation, and deficiency of plant nutrients [18, 19].
lactates have been used as foliar fertilizers and as well as bioregulators.
on the growth of cucumber. The aim was to investigate the photosynthetic reactions to clarify first stress responses in the cucumber plants. Measuring of Chlorophyll Fluorescence is a very useful method for evaluation of plants' photosynthetic conditions and a tool in non-invasive stress detection and its
subsequent evaluation [12].
*5.4.1 Experimental design*
**81**
**Figure 7.**
*P = 0.05).*
Application of lactates in the form of LACTOFOL (**Table 2**) tends to reduce plant stress under suboptimal pH levels of nutrient solution (chapter 5.2.2) [6, 14, 16]. Introduction of Lactate as LACTOFOL into the growing system increases availability of micro- and macro-nutrients for plants. Investigations have shown that lactates have more stable bonds with several metal ions than other chelates do. Therefore,
In greenhouse cultivation of cucumbers in soilless culture systems, two stress situations are of importance, the pH and the temperature stress. In an experiment was the aim to investigate the physiological effect of a biostimulating complex consisting of *B. subtilis* (FZB24®), K-Humate and Lactate as LACTOFOL (**Table 2**)
(*Cucumis sativus* L.) cv. Jessica was cultivated in 'Mitscherlich' container volume
One half of the cucumber plants were not treated with the Biostimulator solution. The substrate of the other half of the plants was treated once a week with 300 ml of biostimulator solution (*B. subtilis* (0.2%) + K-humate (0.01%) + lactate (0.1%) per container. Treatments coincided with the following plant developmental
8 L filled with perlite with a physical and chemical properties as described in **Table 3**. The same nutrient solution was used as described in chapter 5.3. The cucumber plants were cultivated in a climatic chamber at 25°C and 80% RH.
## **5.4 Use of biostimulators to reduce abiotic stress in cucumber plants**
Different bacteria and in particular *Bacillus subtilis* are well known for their effects against soil-born fungal and bacterial diseases. There are selected strains in this regard with good effects in the field of plant protection. The strain *Bacillus subtilis* FZB24 is in addition capable of evolving different kinds of stress protective
#### **Figure 6.**
*Effect of application biostimulators (lactate, K-Humate, FZB24®) on leaves and roots respectively on number of marketable fruits in four harvesting periods of 9 days each. No significant differences.*
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
#### **Figure 7.**
However, the leaf treatment with the combination of all substances led to a reduction in leaf growth. After application of biostimulators via roots more or less the same ratio was found as in the control indicating the shoot and leaf growth was
The number of fruits harvested from the eight variants and the control was higher on average when the biostimulators were applied to the rhizosphere directly at the roots (**Figure 6**). The fresh weight of all cucumbers with market quality was about 500 g, therefore the number of fruits is representative for the cucumber yield. In particular, the treatment with biostimulators on the substrate that means to the root system, resulted in a higher yield at the first harvest. The number of fruits finally harvested was considerably higher after treatment of roots with Lactate and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®). The number of marketable fruits was higher than in the
For future experiments should include more applications also during the fruit set because these additional applications could enhance the yield further, this could be
The different application methods with Biostimulators on the leafs and to the roots have not only an influence on cucumber plant growth and yield, but also on the amount of marketable and non-marketable fruits (**Figure 7**). The percentage of non-marketable fruits (C class) was more than 25% in the control and could be reduced by leaf application of each Biostimulator investigated until 20% and even
**5.4 Use of biostimulators to reduce abiotic stress in cucumber plants**
Different bacteria and in particular *Bacillus subtilis* are well known for their effects against soil-born fungal and bacterial diseases. There are selected strains in this regard with good effects in the field of plant protection. The strain *Bacillus subtilis* FZB24 is in addition capable of evolving different kinds of stress protective
*Effect of application biostimulators (lactate, K-Humate, FZB24®) on leaves and roots respectively on number*
*of marketable fruits in four harvesting periods of 9 days each. No significant differences.*
stimulated in the same manner.
*5.3.2 Quantity of fruit harvest and marketable fruit quality*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
control in most variants treated with biostimulators.
until 10% if substances were applied over the roots.
**Figure 6.**
**80**
especially important in long time cultivation.
*Effect of application biostimulators (lactate, K-Humate, FZB24®) on leaves and roots respectively on the percentage on non-marketable fruits. Different letters indicate significant differences (chi-square-test, P = 0.05).*
mechanisms including stimulation of plants'self-defense mechanisms, as it was demonstrated in chapter 5.2.1 and 5.2.2 in case of suboptimal pH, EC values. Furthermore, *Bacillus subtilis* can accelerate plant growth and stimulate the process of formation of plant organs. Furthermore, *B. subtilis* can increase the unspecific resistances of plants against stress conditions, such as extreme high temperatures, frost, drought, strong radiation, and deficiency of plant nutrients [18, 19].
Application of lactates in the form of LACTOFOL (**Table 2**) tends to reduce plant stress under suboptimal pH levels of nutrient solution (chapter 5.2.2) [6, 14, 16]. Introduction of Lactate as LACTOFOL into the growing system increases availability of micro- and macro-nutrients for plants. Investigations have shown that lactates have more stable bonds with several metal ions than other chelates do. Therefore, lactates have been used as foliar fertilizers and as well as bioregulators.
In greenhouse cultivation of cucumbers in soilless culture systems, two stress situations are of importance, the pH and the temperature stress. In an experiment was the aim to investigate the physiological effect of a biostimulating complex consisting of *B. subtilis* (FZB24®), K-Humate and Lactate as LACTOFOL (**Table 2**) on the growth of cucumber. The aim was to investigate the photosynthetic reactions to clarify first stress responses in the cucumber plants. Measuring of Chlorophyll Fluorescence is a very useful method for evaluation of plants' photosynthetic conditions and a tool in non-invasive stress detection and its subsequent evaluation [12].
#### *5.4.1 Experimental design*
(*Cucumis sativus* L.) cv. Jessica was cultivated in 'Mitscherlich' container volume 8 L filled with perlite with a physical and chemical properties as described in **Table 3**. The same nutrient solution was used as described in chapter 5.3. The cucumber plants were cultivated in a climatic chamber at 25°C and 80% RH.
One half of the cucumber plants were not treated with the Biostimulator solution. The substrate of the other half of the plants was treated once a week with 300 ml of biostimulator solution (*B. subtilis* (0.2%) + K-humate (0.01%) + lactate (0.1%) per container. Treatments coincided with the following plant developmental stages, first treatment at 5–6 leaf stage (week 1); second at 7–8 leaf stage (2 weeks) and the third at 9–10 leaf stage (3 weeks).
After the last treatment with the biostimulator solution (4 weeks), the stress factor was applied. For the pH stress experiment, pH values were adjusted to a suboptimal level (pH 3.2) by adding H3PO4 to the nutrient solution. This pH stress was maintained for 1 week. For temperature stress, temperature in the growth chamber was lowered from 25 to 6°C for 3 h.
#### *5.4.2 pH stress for cucumber plants*
One week after transplanting the cucumber plants the chlorophyll fluorescence Fv/Fm-value increased from 0.760 (**Figure 8**) to 0.790 in plants treated with biostimulating complex and 0.770 in plants without treatment. A drastic decrease in electron efficiency was observed after imposition of a strong lowering the pH value. Between the 4th and 5th measurements, Fv/Fm of treated plants decreased to 0.747 and that of the non-treated ones even to 0.654.
given for a short time from three hours and the lowest temperature was 6°C. This stress was applied by lowering the air temperature in the climate chamber right
*Growth parameters of cucumber plants treated with biostimulators mixture prior to pH- stress (pH 3.2) for*
**Leaf weight (g/plant)**
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
Not-treated 325.75 b 230,25 b 460 ns 7002.3 ns 275.75 ns 45.08 ns
315.25 a 350 a 477.75 ns 7105.2 ns 265.5 ns 52.93 ns
**Leaf area (cm2**
**/plant)**
**Root weight (g/plant)**
**Root length (m/plant)**
Fm development showed its peculiarities (**Figure 9**). Measurement 1 to 4 gave equal electron efficiency levels. After temperature stress, Fv/Fm values decreased considerably indicating a reduction in photosystem II efficiency. Only the treated plants were able to reach higher levels of Fv/Fm after stress and could recover much
The Fv/Fm parameter had the same pattern as in case of pH stress. However, Fv/
At the end of this temperature stress experiment, the plant growth parameters were also determined (**Table 11**). The effect of the biostimulator mixture led to a
*Electron efficiency in photosystem II of cucumber plants treated with biostimulators mixture before and after*
**Leaf weight (g/plant)**
Not-treated 341,75 b 244,5 b 477,75 ns 7333,7 b 206 b 4,86 b
*Growth parameters of cucumber plants treated with biostimulator mix prior to temperature - stress at 6°C for*
**Leaf area (cm<sup>2</sup>**
390 a 358,5 a 548,25 ns 9637,4 a 321,25 a 6,98 a
**/plant)**
**Root weight (g/plant)**
**Root length (m/plant)**
after the third treatment with the biostimulating mixture.
**Shoot weight (g/ plant)**
*Different letters indicate significant differences (LSD, p = 0.05); and ns = non-significant).*
better than non-treated plants.
*low temperature treatment with 6°C for 3 h. [12].*
**length (cm)**
**Shoot weight (g/plant)**
*Different letters indicate significant differences (LSD, p = 0.05); and ns = non-significant.*
**Variants Shoot**
Treated with biostimulator
**Table 11.**
*3 h [12].*
**83**
**Variants Shoot**
Treated with biostimulator
**Table 10.**
**Figure 9.**
*one week [12].*
**length (cm)**
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
Whereas without biostimulator treatment, the fluorescence Fv/Fm-value was slightly decreasing after second and third week. In the time of the pH stress influence in the fifths week, it is visible, the stress effect was much stronger (**Figure 8**), where the lowest Fv/Fm value was 0.620. Four weeks later the plants treated with the biostimulator treatment recovered completely from the stress, but the plants without Biostimulator were still in weak condition. The plants treated with biostimulator mixture showed a higher electron efficiency of photosystem II (0.765 Fv/Fm-value) at the end of the experiment as compared to the plants without treatment (0.670 Fv/Fm-value).
The final evaluation of cucumber plants showed that this plants treated with biostimulators had significant shorter shoot length and but heavier weight than non-treated plants (**Table 10**). The roots were longer than non-treated plants and treated plants also yielded some marketable fruits (data not shown). Obviously, the biostimulators mixture was effective for reduction of the pH-stress.
#### *5.4.3 Temperature stress for cucumber plants*
Temperature stress can be happens in greenhouses if the heating system is not working or the ventilation is not proper functioning. Therefore, this stress was
#### **Figure 8.**
*Electron efficiency in photosystem II of cucumber plants treated with biostimulators mixture before and after pH-stress (pH 3.2) for one week. [12].*
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
#### **Table 10.**
stages, first treatment at 5–6 leaf stage (week 1); second at 7–8 leaf stage (2 weeks)
After the last treatment with the biostimulator solution (4 weeks), the stress factor was applied. For the pH stress experiment, pH values were adjusted to a suboptimal level (pH 3.2) by adding H3PO4 to the nutrient solution. This pH stress was maintained for 1 week. For temperature stress, temperature in the growth
One week after transplanting the cucumber plants the chlorophyll fluorescence
Whereas without biostimulator treatment, the fluorescence Fv/Fm-value was slightly decreasing after second and third week. In the time of the pH stress influence in the fifths week, it is visible, the stress effect was much stronger (**Figure 8**), where the lowest Fv/Fm value was 0.620. Four weeks later the plants treated with the biostimulator treatment recovered completely from the stress, but the plants without Biostimulator were still in weak condition. The plants treated with
biostimulator mixture showed a higher electron efficiency of photosystem II (0.765 Fv/Fm-value) at the end of the experiment as compared to the plants without
The final evaluation of cucumber plants showed that this plants treated with biostimulators had significant shorter shoot length and but heavier weight than non-treated plants (**Table 10**). The roots were longer than non-treated plants and treated plants also yielded some marketable fruits (data not shown). Obviously, the
Temperature stress can be happens in greenhouses if the heating system is not working or the ventilation is not proper functioning. Therefore, this stress was
*Electron efficiency in photosystem II of cucumber plants treated with biostimulators mixture before and after*
biostimulators mixture was effective for reduction of the pH-stress.
Fv/Fm-value increased from 0.760 (**Figure 8**) to 0.790 in plants treated with biostimulating complex and 0.770 in plants without treatment. A drastic decrease in electron efficiency was observed after imposition of a strong lowering the pH value. Between the 4th and 5th measurements, Fv/Fm of treated plants decreased to 0.747
and the third at 9–10 leaf stage (3 weeks).
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
chamber was lowered from 25 to 6°C for 3 h.
and that of the non-treated ones even to 0.654.
*5.4.2 pH stress for cucumber plants*
treatment (0.670 Fv/Fm-value).
**Figure 8.**
**82**
*pH-stress (pH 3.2) for one week. [12].*
*5.4.3 Temperature stress for cucumber plants*
*Growth parameters of cucumber plants treated with biostimulators mixture prior to pH- stress (pH 3.2) for one week [12].*
given for a short time from three hours and the lowest temperature was 6°C. This stress was applied by lowering the air temperature in the climate chamber right after the third treatment with the biostimulating mixture.
The Fv/Fm parameter had the same pattern as in case of pH stress. However, Fv/ Fm development showed its peculiarities (**Figure 9**). Measurement 1 to 4 gave equal electron efficiency levels. After temperature stress, Fv/Fm values decreased considerably indicating a reduction in photosystem II efficiency. Only the treated plants were able to reach higher levels of Fv/Fm after stress and could recover much better than non-treated plants.
At the end of this temperature stress experiment, the plant growth parameters were also determined (**Table 11**). The effect of the biostimulator mixture led to a
**Figure 9.**
*Electron efficiency in photosystem II of cucumber plants treated with biostimulators mixture before and after low temperature treatment with 6°C for 3 h. [12].*
#### **Table 11.**
*Growth parameters of cucumber plants treated with biostimulator mix prior to temperature - stress at 6°C for 3 h [12].*
#### *Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
significant difference in all parameters as compared to the non-treated plants, except for the leaf area.
The question is what could be the reason, that the temperature stress was less disturbing the cucumber plant if the plants were several time treated with Biostimulator. The biostimulators used in this experiment had shown also in previous experiments a positive reaction on the root growth [14]. It can be assumed plants with well-developed root systems have higher resistance against different stress situations. Therefore, a correlation between the green biomass of the cucumber plants and the root mass were calculated. In the experiments without treatments with biostimulators, no correlation could be found (**Figure 10**).
**6. Conclusions**
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
(EC) at about a value of 2 EC.
root growth.
**85**
In general can be stated, intensively in greenhouses cultivated crops such as cucumbers, suffer often from inadequate abiotic or biotic growth conditions in particular in the rhizosphere. Many studies were done to find growth promoters or biostimulators to stabilize the production process or to enhance plant growth of cucumbers under these conditions. One task was to find substrates with appropriate physical and chemical properties for root growth of cucumbers desirable from organic materials. Sheep wool slabs, peat slabs and coconut fiber slabs were therefore successful tested with and without Biostimulator treatments and compared with perlite and rockwool slabs. It was to decide which of the biostimulators and their modifications should be tested and could be recommended. Based on the research with different Humates the K-Humate was selected. From the different lactates the LACTOFOL"O" (CO. ECOFOL) a foliar fertilizer was chosen after many previous experiments. From the different strains of Bacillus subtilis the strain FZB24® was successful tested and can be recommended. Under the growing conditions in soilless culture, using different substrates a buffer is missing completely or partly for regulation of the nutrient availability and regulation of the sorption capacity as in the natural soil. Therefore, different stress situations can occur, the Biostimulators used in all investigations as single component or in treatments combined in order to reduce such stress situation. Very successful was used for cucumber plants growing in substrate with a high EC value the application of K-Humate and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) as single component and combined the salt concentration could be stabilized convenient for cucumbers. The mixture of all three components, however, was as effective as Humate alone and stabilized the salt concentration
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
In general, pH values affect the nutrient availability and uptake, in particular of micronutrients. The pH of substrates in soilless culture systems, changed with the duration of cultivation. Application of Lactate (LACTOFOL) and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) stimulated root growth and shoot development even at pH 7.5 and the
Application of the biostimulators solution with all three components BS-FZB24® (0.2%), K-Humate (0.01%), and LACTOFOL "O" (0.1%) were tested regarding their effects in case of strong but short time pH and temperature stress the growth of cucumber plants. The chlorophyll fluorescence Fv/Fm value showed a positive effect of the curative biostimulator treatments under the stress counteraction in plants. Results showed that there was strong correlation between green biomass of treated cucumber plants and their root mass. It can be assumed that the effect of stress prevention by the biostimulator was based mainly on enhancing the
In the experiments using the biostimulator for stabilization of cucumber plant growth, the biostimulators were applicate only in the rhizosphere that means direct to the roots. Lactate was originally developed and used as foliar-fertilizer. Therefore, it came to the thought to use the biostimulators to the root zone and on the leaves. Following the experimental results, it can be assumed, the application of the combined biostimulators with all substances if applied over the roots was a stimulating effect visible, whereas if applied over the leaves an inhibiting effect for cucumber plant growth. The number of fruits harvested from all variants and the control was higher on average when the biostimulators were applied to the
rhizosphere directly at the roots in comparison to the leaf application.
pH of the substrates treated with biostimulators was more stable.
On the other hand, those cucumber plants treated with biostimulators showed a very close correlation (R<sup>2</sup> linear =0.949) between green biomass and mass of roots (**Figure 11**). This close relationship confirms the hypothesis that increases in root mass lead to formation of larger shoots and leaf mass even under stress conditions if treated with some biostimulators.
**Figure 10.**
*Correlation between green biomass and root mass of cucumbers in plants exposed to pH and temperature stress condition, without biostimulators treatment [12].*
#### **Figure 11.**
*Correlation between green biomass and root mass of cucumbers in the experiment with pH and temperature stress condition, with biostimulators treatments [12].*
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.124061 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/",
"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
"url": "https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/books/9704/authors_book/authors_book.pdf",
"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 84
} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.85 | **6. Conclusions**
significant difference in all parameters as compared to the non-treated plants,
disturbing the cucumber plant if the plants were several time treated with
with biostimulators, no correlation could be found (**Figure 10**).
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
The question is what could be the reason, that the temperature stress was less
Biostimulator. The biostimulators used in this experiment had shown also in previous experiments a positive reaction on the root growth [14]. It can be assumed plants with well-developed root systems have higher resistance against different stress situations. Therefore, a correlation between the green biomass of the cucumber plants and the root mass were calculated. In the experiments without treatments
On the other hand, those cucumber plants treated with biostimulators showed a very close correlation (R<sup>2</sup> linear =0.949) between green biomass and mass of roots (**Figure 11**). This close relationship confirms the hypothesis that increases in root mass lead to formation of larger shoots and leaf mass even under stress conditions if
*Correlation between green biomass and root mass of cucumbers in plants exposed to pH and temperature stress*
*Correlation between green biomass and root mass of cucumbers in the experiment with pH and temperature*
except for the leaf area.
treated with some biostimulators.
*condition, without biostimulators treatment [12].*
*stress condition, with biostimulators treatments [12].*
**Figure 10.**
**Figure 11.**
**84**
In general can be stated, intensively in greenhouses cultivated crops such as cucumbers, suffer often from inadequate abiotic or biotic growth conditions in particular in the rhizosphere. Many studies were done to find growth promoters or biostimulators to stabilize the production process or to enhance plant growth of cucumbers under these conditions. One task was to find substrates with appropriate physical and chemical properties for root growth of cucumbers desirable from organic materials. Sheep wool slabs, peat slabs and coconut fiber slabs were therefore successful tested with and without Biostimulator treatments and compared with perlite and rockwool slabs. It was to decide which of the biostimulators and their modifications should be tested and could be recommended. Based on the research with different Humates the K-Humate was selected. From the different lactates the LACTOFOL"O" (CO. ECOFOL) a foliar fertilizer was chosen after many previous experiments. From the different strains of Bacillus subtilis the strain FZB24® was successful tested and can be recommended. Under the growing conditions in soilless culture, using different substrates a buffer is missing completely or partly for regulation of the nutrient availability and regulation of the sorption capacity as in the natural soil. Therefore, different stress situations can occur, the Biostimulators used in all investigations as single component or in treatments combined in order to reduce such stress situation. Very successful was used for cucumber plants growing in substrate with a high EC value the application of K-Humate and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) as single component and combined the salt concentration could be stabilized convenient for cucumbers. The mixture of all three components, however, was as effective as Humate alone and stabilized the salt concentration (EC) at about a value of 2 EC.
In general, pH values affect the nutrient availability and uptake, in particular of micronutrients. The pH of substrates in soilless culture systems, changed with the duration of cultivation. Application of Lactate (LACTOFOL) and *B. subtilis* (FZB24®) stimulated root growth and shoot development even at pH 7.5 and the pH of the substrates treated with biostimulators was more stable.
Application of the biostimulators solution with all three components BS-FZB24® (0.2%), K-Humate (0.01%), and LACTOFOL "O" (0.1%) were tested regarding their effects in case of strong but short time pH and temperature stress the growth of cucumber plants. The chlorophyll fluorescence Fv/Fm value showed a positive effect of the curative biostimulator treatments under the stress counteraction in plants. Results showed that there was strong correlation between green biomass of treated cucumber plants and their root mass. It can be assumed that the effect of stress prevention by the biostimulator was based mainly on enhancing the root growth.
In the experiments using the biostimulator for stabilization of cucumber plant growth, the biostimulators were applicate only in the rhizosphere that means direct to the roots. Lactate was originally developed and used as foliar-fertilizer. Therefore, it came to the thought to use the biostimulators to the root zone and on the leaves. Following the experimental results, it can be assumed, the application of the combined biostimulators with all substances if applied over the roots was a stimulating effect visible, whereas if applied over the leaves an inhibiting effect for cucumber plant growth. The number of fruits harvested from all variants and the control was higher on average when the biostimulators were applied to the rhizosphere directly at the roots in comparison to the leaf application.
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
**References**
[1] Geissler T. Böhme, M. Lankow (1991). Gemüseproduktion unter Glas und Plasten -Produktionsverfahren - Deutscher Landwirtschaftsverlag Berlin,
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
Activities and characterization of Bacillus subtilis strains. Zeitschrift fur
[9] Elsorra, E., Idris, H., Bochow, H., Ross, H., & Borriss, R. (2004). Use of Bacillus subtilis as bio- control agent. VI. Phytohormonelike action of culture filtrates prepared from plant growth promoting Bacillus amyloliquefaciens FZB24, FZB42, FZB45 and Bacillus subtilis FZB37. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection, 111(6), 583–597, ISSN
[10] Junge, H., Krebs, B., & Kilian, M. (2000). Strain selection, production, and formulation of the biological plant vitality enhancing agent FZB24® Bacillus subtilis. Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten Bayer, 1(1), 94–104.
[11] Kilian, M., Steiner, U., Krebs, B., Junge, H., Schmiedeknecht, G., & Hain, R. (2000). FZB24® Bacillus subtilis – mode of action of a microbial agent
Pflanzenschutz- Nachrichten Bayer, 1
[13] Böhme, M. (1993). Parameters for calculating nutrient solution for hydroponics. Eighth international congress on soilless culture, Hunters Rest, Proceedings, Wageningen, 85–96.
[14] Böhme, M. (1999). Effects of Lactate, Humate and *Bacillus subtilis* on
the growth of tomato plants in hydroponic systems, Symposium on growing media & hydroponics, Windsor, Canada, Acta Hortic. **(**ISHS**)**
[12] Böhme, M., J. Schevchenko, I. Pinker , S. Herfort (2008). Cucumber grown in sheepwool slabs treated with biostimulator compared to other organic and mineral substrates. Acta Hortic. 779,
enhancing plant vitality.
(1), 72–93.
p. 299–306,
465, p. 231-239
Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 105, 181–197.
0340-8159.
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation…*
Hochschullehrbuch; 6 Auflage.
[2] Schippers, B. 1992. Prospects for management of natural suppressiveness to control soilborne pathogenes. In E. C. Tjamos, G. C. Papavizas, & R. J. Cook (Eds.), Biological control of plant diseases, progress and challenges for the
future (NATO ASI Series A: Life Sciences), Vol. 230, pp. 21–34). New
[3] Kavetskiy, S.; M. Kraynyuk; G. Hofman; M. Böhme and O. Cleemput (2003). Soil Quality and fertilization. Tempus Tacis, NAUU, Kiev. ISBN 966-8006-20-8, p. 103–167
[4] Böhme, M., M. Dewenter and A. Gohlke (2020). Aquaponics using Asian
challenge. Acta Hortic. 1273. ISHS 2020. DOI 10.17660/ActaHortic1273 p. 155-122
[5] Pavlova, A., Batschvarov, P. 1992. Listno Podchranvane na Rastenijata cac Suspensioni torove LACTOFOL. Priloshenie na Suspensionite Torove,
[6] Shaban, N., Manolov, I., Khadum, E., Rankov, V. (1995). Complex Assesment of the Effect of Suspension Foliar Fertilizer LACTOFOL 'O' on Cucumber. Agroeco, Proceedings, Plovdiv, 2: 33-41
[7] Frimmel F.H. and R.F. Christman (1988). Humin Substances and Their Role in the Environment. 1st ed. Vol.1., Wiley-Interscience Publication: New
[8] Krebs, B., Höding, B., Kübart, S., Alemayehu, M. W., Junge, H., Schmiedeknecht, G., Grosch, R., Bochow, H., & Hevesi, M. (1998). Use of Bacillus subtilis as biocontrol agent. I.
leafy vegetables – potential and
Proceedings: 1-28, Sofia
York.
**87**
York: Plenum Press.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.86 | **Author details**
Michael Henry Böhme Department Horticultural Plant Systems, Faculty of Life Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
\*Address all correspondence to: michael.boehme@hu-berlin.de
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
*Growth Promoting and Stabilizing of Cucumber Plants Cultivated in Soilless Cultivation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96536*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.88 | **Chapter 7**
[15] Böhme, M., I. Pinker, Y. Schevchenko (2007). Effects of biostimulators on nutrient supply in vegetables.: Procc Gent.. pp. 6:
[16] Böhme, M., Shaban, N. and
Acta Hortic. 514, 33–40.
Pinker, I. (2005). Effect of
[18] Hoang, T. L. (2003).
Universität zu Berlin,
Fakultät.
**88**
697:337–344.
Abdelaziz, O. (2000). Reaction of Some Vegetable Crops to treatments with Lactat as Bioregulator and Fertilizer.
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
[17] Böhme, M., Schevtschenko, J. and
biostimulators on growth of vegetables in hydroponical systems. Acta Hortic.
Untersuchungen zur Wirkung von Huminsäure auf das Wachstum und die Nährstoffaufnahme von Tomaten (*Lycopersicon esculentum* MILL) und Wasserspinat (*Ipomoea aquatica* NORSSK) [PhD thesis], Humboldt-
Landwirtschaftlich-Gärtnerische
Horticulturae, 548, 451–458.
[19] Hoang, T. L., & Böhme, M. (2001). Influence of humic acid on the growth of tomato in hydroponic systems. Acta
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.89 | Soil and Agronomic Management for Cucumber Production in Nigeria
*Bernard Ndubuisi Okafor and Japhet J. Yaduma*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.90 | **Abstract**
Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus. L*) is an important crop; widely cultivated in different agroecologies of Nigeria. Its production continues to gain attention in Nigerian communities because of their nutritional and economic values. Average yield per/ha is below world average. Factors responsible for the low yield include inappropriate farming systems, climate change, pests and diseases infestation, poor access to credit facilities, inappropriate method of cultivation, distance to market and low availability of land. Important but often neglected is the quality/ fertility status of cucumber producing soils of Nigeria. Fertiliser use is inadequate and application is often based on blanket recommendation. Low soil quality and poor agronomic management have contributed to >40% decrease in yield. With good agricultural practices and soil management, optimum yield can be attained.
**Keywords:** cucumber, soil, agronomy, Nigeria
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.91 | **1. Introduction**
Demand for vitamins and minerals are highly dependent on vegetables. Cucumber and other fruit and leafy vegetables are in high demand because of their nutritional and economic values. According to [1], cucumber production has the capacity to enhance agricultural production, economic empowerment and food security. They are consumed fresh, as desserts in after meals, juice or in combination with other food materials. Cucumber production in Nigeria is majorly for local consumption, although Nigerian cucumbers are sometimes exported to neighbouring countries of West Africa like Chad, Cameroun, Niger and Benin Republics. Due to its importance, it ranks among major horticultural crops cultivated in Nigeria. Others are citrus, mango, African star apple, watermelon, banana, avocado pear and pineapple rank among major crops in Nigeria. Like most vegetables, its production is profitable due to high amount of cash income per unit area compared to some other crops. Cucumber production in Nigeria is usually under small scale production. Although commercial (large scale) production is also practiced under plantation farming. Some factors limiting the productivity of Nigerian soils for cucumber production include low fertility, slope, poor effective depth, stoniness/high gravel content and low nutrient/moisture retention. Good agronomic practices such as regular weeding, timely irrigation, fertiliser application and prompt harvesting are necessary for the attainment of high yield and production of quality fruits.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.92 | **1.1 Factors affecting cucumber production in Nigeria**
Several factors affect the attainment of sufficiency in cucumber production in Nigeria. These factors as highlighted by [2–5].
#### **1.2 Varieties of cucumber cultivated in Nigeria**
According to [6, 7] there are many varieties cultivated in Nigeria. However, it should be noted that not all varieties bear the same quantity of fruit. Farmers obtain hybrid seeds from seed companies or extract seed from previous planting seasons for replanting. This also affects the eventual yield. Available cucumber varieties in Nigeria include
a.Market more, b) Poinsett, 3) Marketer 4) Ex rantan, 5) Ashley, 7) Royal, 8) Belt alpha, 9) Regal 10) Unbeit. Poinset has high yielding potential among the cucumber varieties cultivated in Nigeria [8].
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.93 | **2. Cucumber production in Nigeria**
Cucumber is cultivated in every part of Nigerian agro ecology. This cuts across the rainforest to the savannah zones of Nigeria with the production pattern and volume varying from place to place. The 5 highest cucumber producing states in Nigeria are Plateau, Kaduna, Katsina, Kano and Benue. Others with high production capacity are Enugu, Ebonyi, Akwa Ibom, Oyo, Cross River, Rivers and Nassarawa.
The southern part of Nigeria enjoys between 6-7 months of rainfall, with an average of 1500 mm in the rainforest Zone and > 2000 mm in the Niger Delta region (Bayelsa, Delta, Rivers, Cross River and Akwa Ibom states). In Nigeria, all agro ecological zones support cucumber production but tree crops farming is more commonly practiced in the south due to high rainfall. Many exotic vegetables are produced majorly in the Guinea and Sudan savannah agro ecological zones of
**91**
*Soil and Agronomic Management for Cucumber Production in Nigeria*
Nigeria, which enjoy relatively low humidity and discourage growth of pest and diseases. Since the southern part of Nigeria enjoys bi- modal pattern of rainfall and a characteristic dry season between October/November of one year and February/March of the successive year, planting of cucumber can be practised all year round being a short duration crop of 45–55 days. Supplemental irrigation may be needed in the both south and northern parts of Nigeria are drought remains an impediment to cucumber production while excessive rainfall encourages buildup of pest and disease. States with high production capacity in Nigeria include Plateau, Kaduna, Katsina, Kano, Benue, Enugu and Ebonyi among others.
Cucumber requires a warm climate. Optimum day and night temperatures are 30 °C and 18-21 °C respectively. It is relatively vigorous and stand establishment is not a serious problem provided appropriate land preparation is carried out. Furthermore, soil temperature, fertility and moisture must be adequate. A welldrained soil, sandy loam to sandy clay loam is an advantage for the plants to achieve
Propagation of cucumber could be through direct seeding or transplanting after nursery operations. Transplanting is best done when the ground is still wet enough to support the seedlings after transplant. Cucumber can be grown as monocrops or as intercrops with other arables or with citrus seedlings [9], *Carica papaya* [10]. In intercropping Cucumber with other crops like Pawpaw. It is important to introduce the cucumber before the time of flowering for better nutrient use efficiency by the
Staking is very necessary on the field in order to improve yield. According to [13], staked cucumber performed better than unstaked cucumber. Intrarow spacing of 50 cm -100 cm is recommended [14]. Pruning is also required as it helps to increase light penetration in the farm and reduce build-up of pest and diseases. A spacing of 50 cm × 50 cm is recommended for cucumber cultivation in Nigeria. With pruning, a yield of 571.87 kg/ha was obtained while no pruning produced a yield of 301 kg/ha as spacing of 50 cm × 50 cm gave yield of 581.59 kg/ha. At 50 cm × 100 cm yield obtained was 291.78 kg/ha while 100 cm × 100 cm spacing
Pests and diseases which affect cucumber production in Nigeria include Cucumber mosaic virus, Downy mildew [16]. The variety and type of agrochemical used has strong influence on the reduction of insect pest infestation and severity [17]. Control measures include manual weeding, chemical and physical control measures. These include farm hygiene, manual eradication (depending on farm size) and use of chemicals. Weeding can be done 2–3 times before harvest. Inadequate weeding frequency affect yield significantly through yield decline [18]. It can also serve as weed control if planted as an intercrop. On the other hand, Intercropping of cucumber with Turmeric and Ginger can suppress Cucumber Mosaic Virus [19] while *Solanum torvum* and *Tithonia diversifolia* can suppress
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96087*
**3. Production/agronomy**
**3.1 Climatic requirements**
excellent establishment.
produced 437.04 kg/ha [15].
**3.3 Pest and disease management**
**3.2 Field establishment and management**
cucumber [11]. Delayed introduction reduces vigour [12].
*Soil and Agronomic Management for Cucumber Production in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96087*
Nigeria, which enjoy relatively low humidity and discourage growth of pest and diseases. Since the southern part of Nigeria enjoys bi- modal pattern of rainfall and a characteristic dry season between October/November of one year and February/March of the successive year, planting of cucumber can be practised all year round being a short duration crop of 45–55 days. Supplemental irrigation may be needed in the both south and northern parts of Nigeria are drought remains an impediment to cucumber production while excessive rainfall encourages buildup of pest and disease. States with high production capacity in Nigeria include Plateau, Kaduna, Katsina, Kano, Benue, Enugu and Ebonyi among others.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.94 | **3. Production/agronomy**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
Nigeria. These factors as highlighted by [2–5].
c.Improper or inadequate fertiliser application
a.Climate change
b.Scarcity of improved seeds
d.Inappropriate spacing
f. Poor storage facilities
g.Distance to market
k.Availability of land
i. Farm size
Nigeria include
e.Pest and disease attacks,
h.High cost of labour/capital
j. Volume of agrochemicals used
**1.2 Varieties of cucumber cultivated in Nigeria**
the cucumber varieties cultivated in Nigeria [8].
**2. Cucumber production in Nigeria**
**1.1 Factors affecting cucumber production in Nigeria**
Several factors affect the attainment of sufficiency in cucumber production in
According to [6, 7] there are many varieties cultivated in Nigeria. However, it should be noted that not all varieties bear the same quantity of fruit. Farmers obtain hybrid seeds from seed companies or extract seed from previous planting seasons for replanting. This also affects the eventual yield. Available cucumber varieties in
a.Market more, b) Poinsett, 3) Marketer 4) Ex rantan, 5) Ashley, 7) Royal, 8) Belt alpha, 9) Regal 10) Unbeit. Poinset has high yielding potential among
Cucumber is cultivated in every part of Nigerian agro ecology. This cuts across the rainforest to the savannah zones of Nigeria with the production pattern and volume varying from place to place. The 5 highest cucumber producing states in Nigeria are Plateau, Kaduna, Katsina, Kano and Benue. Others with high production capacity are Enugu, Ebonyi, Akwa Ibom, Oyo, Cross River, Rivers and Nassarawa. The southern part of Nigeria enjoys between 6-7 months of rainfall, with an average of 1500 mm in the rainforest Zone and > 2000 mm in the Niger Delta region (Bayelsa, Delta, Rivers, Cross River and Akwa Ibom states). In Nigeria, all agro ecological zones support cucumber production but tree crops farming is more commonly practiced in the south due to high rainfall. Many exotic vegetables are produced majorly in the Guinea and Sudan savannah agro ecological zones of
**90**
### **3.1 Climatic requirements**
Cucumber requires a warm climate. Optimum day and night temperatures are 30 °C and 18-21 °C respectively. It is relatively vigorous and stand establishment is not a serious problem provided appropriate land preparation is carried out. Furthermore, soil temperature, fertility and moisture must be adequate. A welldrained soil, sandy loam to sandy clay loam is an advantage for the plants to achieve excellent establishment.
#### **3.2 Field establishment and management**
Propagation of cucumber could be through direct seeding or transplanting after nursery operations. Transplanting is best done when the ground is still wet enough to support the seedlings after transplant. Cucumber can be grown as monocrops or as intercrops with other arables or with citrus seedlings [9], *Carica papaya* [10]. In intercropping Cucumber with other crops like Pawpaw. It is important to introduce the cucumber before the time of flowering for better nutrient use efficiency by the cucumber [11]. Delayed introduction reduces vigour [12].
Staking is very necessary on the field in order to improve yield. According to [13], staked cucumber performed better than unstaked cucumber. Intrarow spacing of 50 cm -100 cm is recommended [14]. Pruning is also required as it helps to increase light penetration in the farm and reduce build-up of pest and diseases. A spacing of 50 cm × 50 cm is recommended for cucumber cultivation in Nigeria. With pruning, a yield of 571.87 kg/ha was obtained while no pruning produced a yield of 301 kg/ha as spacing of 50 cm × 50 cm gave yield of 581.59 kg/ha. At 50 cm × 100 cm yield obtained was 291.78 kg/ha while 100 cm × 100 cm spacing produced 437.04 kg/ha [15].
#### **3.3 Pest and disease management**
Pests and diseases which affect cucumber production in Nigeria include Cucumber mosaic virus, Downy mildew [16]. The variety and type of agrochemical used has strong influence on the reduction of insect pest infestation and severity [17]. Control measures include manual weeding, chemical and physical control measures. These include farm hygiene, manual eradication (depending on farm size) and use of chemicals. Weeding can be done 2–3 times before harvest. Inadequate weeding frequency affect yield significantly through yield decline [18]. It can also serve as weed control if planted as an intercrop. On the other hand, Intercropping of cucumber with Turmeric and Ginger can suppress Cucumber Mosaic Virus [19] while *Solanum torvum* and *Tithonia diversifolia* can suppress
nematodes in cucumber [20]. *Hyptis suaveolens* and *Centrosema pubsecens* extracts can also be used for control of cucumber beetles [21].
#### **3.4 Irrigation**
Supplemental irrigation may be needed from time to time depending on available soil moisture. According to [22], 20% water deficit is recommended for cucumber production. Mulching is also an excellent practise to help conservation of soil water [23]. Under greenhouse conditions, 12.9 L of water is adequate [24]. Different methods used for irrigating cucumber in Nigeria include sprinkler and drip irrigation. Others are use of watering can (small scale production). In most cases, production of cucumber is under rainfed condition. Irrigation during flowering needs to be done with caution to avoid flower abortion. Irrigation in small scale cucumber farming is recommended in the early hours of the day or evening time to avoid high loss of moisture due to evapotranspiration.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.95 | **4. Nigerian soils and their management for cucumber production**
Nigerian soils show great variability in their properties; from the acid sands of sedimentary rock formation to the basement complex soils and coastal plain sands. pH varies from very acidic (<5 to >7). Constraints include sandiness, shallow depth, acidity (top and sub soil), and low fertility among others. Properties of Nigerian soils selected across different agro ecologies of the country are presented in **Table 1**. The soils have high base saturation but relatively low to medium effective cation exchange capacity and Total exchangeable bases.
Proper management is needed to attain sufficiency in cucumber production. Soil management is the meticulous use of soils through effective and timely combination of factors and practices which can improve soil quality and increase yield. It can be further defined as various activities carried out on the soil to improve and sustain it for optimal productivity in order to enhance food, fibre and timber production. Many agricultural practices affect cucumber producing soils. These include practices such as tillage and planting operations, irrigation, fertiliser application and use of agro chemicals for pest and disease control. Adequate soil management involves the use of soils for purposes for which they are most suited. Requirements for good Soil management includes understanding soil capability for cultivation of various crops, management of problems associated with soils, such as pH, water, fertility and temperature. Problems associated with soil management of Nigerian cucumber soils include inadequate soil survey classification and fertility assessment, lack of communication between land users and government on soil information, absence of conservation practices in farming systems,
**93**
*Soil and Agronomic Management for Cucumber Production in Nigeria*
management as crop performance is highly related to soil quality.
inadequate knowledge of the environment and over exploitation of soil resources [25]. Sustainable crop production can be undermined or constrained by poor soil
**4.1 Soil constraints to cucumber production and the available management**
Due to the inherent low fertility status of many Nigerian soils and poor availability nutrients for plant growth. Cucumber producing soils hardly have sufficient nutrients for plant needs and optimal productivity of crops. Proper soil fertility is necessary as vine length, and other growth parameters affect the eventual crop yield. Therefore, timely and appropriate application of fertiliser is required to improve yield and reduce nutrient mining and soil degradation. Organic or inorganic fertilisers are mainly used for combating soil fertility problem in cucumber production. However, there is strong advocacy for use of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM). Although fertilisers have the potentials to increase yield, there is need for caution as high fertiliser rates could also affect fruit quality [26]. Use of organo-mineral fertilisers is highly recommended as they more compatible with the nature of our soils due to their slow release pattern and environmental friendliness considering the high sand content of Nigerian
Examples of fertilisers used in soil fertility management in cucumber produc-
a.**Organic sources:** Farmyard manure e.g. poultry manure, cow dung, compost, household waste are good sources of fertiliser for cucumber. Others are poultry manure and pig manure [27]. Application rate of 5-6 t/ha poultry manure is recommended in the Northern Guinea savannah of Nigeria [28], 35 NPK 400 g/N/ha) [29]. Odeleye et al. [30], recommended 5 t/ha in the inland valley, of SWN and 10 t/ha for upland soils. For the arid zones, 120 kg/ha Poultry Manure is adequate, while 80 kg/ha cow dung is suitable [31]. Other soil fertility improvement option include the use of cassava peel and use of organo
mineral fertiliser [32], 20 t/ha PM is suitable in Kano [33].
b.**Inorganic sources:** NPK, Urea, Phosphate and potash. 50-60kgNPK/ha is recommended for the Northern guinea savannah zone [34]). According to [35], cucumber production in Nigeria requires 130 kg/haN, 95 kg/ha P2O5 and 200 kg/ha K2O. It is however important to note that fertiliser application should be based on soil test results. Fertiliser should be best applied at 3–6 WAP [36].
c.**ISFM**: Integrated soil fertility management is considered most appropriate for management of cucumber producing soils of Nigeria. ISFM strategies that can be used to manage soil fertility problems in cucumber production in Nigeria include use of appropriate farming systems and planting of companion crops such as marigold to suppress soil pathogens [37] timely and adequate application of fertilisers, use of cover crops and mixed cropping to allow organic matter accumulation, use of organic manure, compost and organo mineral fertiliser, adequate irrigation to help soil processes, crop rotation. Integrated soil fertility management is the best approach to managing
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96087*
**options**
*4.1.1 Low soil fertility*
Cucumber producing soils.
tion can be broadly grouped into
soils under cucumber [38].
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.96 | **Table 1.**
inadequate knowledge of the environment and over exploitation of soil resources [25]. Sustainable crop production can be undermined or constrained by poor soil management as crop performance is highly related to soil quality.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.97 | **4.1 Soil constraints to cucumber production and the available management options**
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.98 | *4.1.1 Low soil fertility*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
can also be used for control of cucumber beetles [21].
avoid high loss of moisture due to evapotranspiration.
capacity and Total exchangeable bases.
**3.4 Irrigation**
nematodes in cucumber [20]. *Hyptis suaveolens* and *Centrosema pubsecens* extracts
Supplemental irrigation may be needed from time to time depending on available soil moisture. According to [22], 20% water deficit is recommended for cucumber production. Mulching is also an excellent practise to help conservation of soil water [23]. Under greenhouse conditions, 12.9 L of water is adequate [24]. Different methods used for irrigating cucumber in Nigeria include sprinkler and drip irrigation. Others are use of watering can (small scale production). In most cases, production of cucumber is under rainfed condition. Irrigation during flowering needs to be done with caution to avoid flower abortion. Irrigation in small scale cucumber farming is recommended in the early hours of the day or evening time to
**4. Nigerian soils and their management for cucumber production**
Nigerian soils show great variability in their properties; from the acid sands of sedimentary rock formation to the basement complex soils and coastal plain sands. pH varies from very acidic (<5 to >7). Constraints include sandiness, shallow depth, acidity (top and sub soil), and low fertility among others. Properties of Nigerian soils selected across different agro ecologies of the country are presented in **Table 1**. The soils have high base saturation but relatively low to medium effective cation exchange
Proper management is needed to attain sufficiency in cucumber production. Soil management is the meticulous use of soils through effective and timely combination of factors and practices which can improve soil quality and increase yield. It can be further defined as various activities carried out on the soil to improve and sustain it for optimal productivity in order to enhance food, fibre and timber production. Many agricultural practices affect cucumber producing soils. These include practices such as tillage and planting operations, irrigation, fertiliser application and use of agro chemicals for pest and disease control. Adequate soil management involves the use of soils for purposes for which they are most suited. Requirements for good Soil management includes understanding soil capability for cultivation of various crops, management of problems associated with soils, such as pH, water, fertility and temperature. Problems associated with soil management of Nigerian cucumber soils include inadequate soil survey classification and fertility assessment, lack of communication between land users and government on soil information, absence of conservation practices in farming systems,
**State pH OC Tot.N Av.P Ex. K TEB ECEC BS**
Kano 5.2 9.7 2.4 5.86 0.63 17.61 18.01 99.78 Oyo 5.9 9.4 2.2 9.15 0.14 19.2 19.50 98.46 Imo 4.3 18.3 4.5 1.71 0.11 10.37 15.77 70.21 Kogi 6.1 1.53 0.27 2.84 3.96 13.69 14.25 96.07
**g/kg mg/kg cmol/kg %**
**92**
**Table 1.**
*Properties of some Nigerian soils.*
Due to the inherent low fertility status of many Nigerian soils and poor availability nutrients for plant growth. Cucumber producing soils hardly have sufficient nutrients for plant needs and optimal productivity of crops. Proper soil fertility is necessary as vine length, and other growth parameters affect the eventual crop yield. Therefore, timely and appropriate application of fertiliser is required to improve yield and reduce nutrient mining and soil degradation. Organic or inorganic fertilisers are mainly used for combating soil fertility problem in cucumber production. However, there is strong advocacy for use of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM). Although fertilisers have the potentials to increase yield, there is need for caution as high fertiliser rates could also affect fruit quality [26]. Use of organo-mineral fertilisers is highly recommended as they more compatible with the nature of our soils due to their slow release pattern and environmental friendliness considering the high sand content of Nigerian Cucumber producing soils.
Examples of fertilisers used in soil fertility management in cucumber production can be broadly grouped into
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.99 | *4.1.2 Soil temperature, soil water and soil compaction*
Soil water is critical to crop production just as fertiliser and other factors of production. Soil fertility depends on soil water, temperature and soil density because fertiliser sources need to decompose or dissolve depending on their source (organic or inorganic) in order to make nutrients available to plant. Similarly, microbial activities which are necessities in soil fertility economy are hampered by soil temperature and density. Strategies used to manage soil temperature, water and bulk density include.
a.**Mulching**: Mulch is any materials used to cover soil surface in order to reduce evaporation, weed infestation and action of rain and wind. Mulch materials may be natural or synthetic. Soil physical properties such as temperature, water and bulk density can be managed by using biological mulch (plant residue and fresh plant parts). Biological much tend to improve better than synthetic mulch. Other management strategies include conservation tillage, use of cover crops, application of manure, compost and organic mineral fertiliser in order to increase soil organic matter base.
#### *4.1.3 Soil erosion*
Soil erosion, which may be in form of water or wind erosion, constitutes a serious agent of soil degradation and limits the availability of nutrients and soil water. Exposure of soils to the vagaries of weather and climate, increasing population density, increase in proportion of land under cultivation, cultivating lands not suitable for cultivation has caused erosion problems. Erosion causes a reduction in soil volume, lowers crop yield, increases run off and decrease in the density of vegetation. Strategies used in combating erosion include avoidance of cultivation on sloppy lands or in cases of cultivation on sloppy lands; within land ridges should be avoided. Other strategies that can be used include terracing, contour ploughing and use of Vetiver technology [39]. Vetiver grasses can be planted in cucumber farms to help stabilise soils and reduce erosion. Other methods include proper spacing, crop rotation and use of natural mulch materials to reduce the effect of torrential rain drops on soils in Nigeria.
### **5. Conclusion**
Cucumber production in Nigeria is an ever expanding enterprise because of their nutritional and economic uses. Poor soil management leads to decrease in production. Therefore, adoption of certain soil management strategies such as use of cover crops, conservation tillage, use of mulch and vetiver grass technology could be effective soil stabilisers. These management strategies should be adequately adopted and appropriately applied for sustainable cucumber production in Nigeria.
**95**
**Author details**
Bernard Ndubuisi Okafor\* and Japhet J. Yaduma
provided the original work is properly cited.
National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT), Ibadan, Nigeria
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
\*Address all correspondence to: kpakpando2001@yahoo.com
*Soil and Agronomic Management for Cucumber Production in Nigeria*
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96087*
*Soil and Agronomic Management for Cucumber Production in Nigeria DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96087*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
*4.1.2 Soil temperature, soil water and soil compaction*
to increase soil organic matter base.
bulk density include.
*4.1.3 Soil erosion*
drops on soils in Nigeria.
**5. Conclusion**
Soil water is critical to crop production just as fertiliser and other factors of production. Soil fertility depends on soil water, temperature and soil density because fertiliser sources need to decompose or dissolve depending on their source (organic or inorganic) in order to make nutrients available to plant. Similarly, microbial activities which are necessities in soil fertility economy are hampered by soil temperature and density. Strategies used to manage soil temperature, water and
a.**Mulching**: Mulch is any materials used to cover soil surface in order to reduce evaporation, weed infestation and action of rain and wind. Mulch materials may be natural or synthetic. Soil physical properties such as temperature, water and bulk density can be managed by using biological mulch (plant residue and fresh plant parts). Biological much tend to improve better than synthetic mulch. Other management strategies include conservation tillage, use of cover crops, application of manure, compost and organic mineral fertiliser in order
Soil erosion, which may be in form of water or wind erosion, constitutes a serious agent of soil degradation and limits the availability of nutrients and soil water. Exposure of soils to the vagaries of weather and climate, increasing population density, increase in proportion of land under cultivation, cultivating lands not suitable for cultivation has caused erosion problems. Erosion causes a reduction in soil volume, lowers crop yield, increases run off and decrease in the density of vegetation. Strategies used in combating erosion include avoidance of cultivation on sloppy lands or in cases of cultivation on sloppy lands; within land ridges should be avoided. Other strategies that can be used include terracing, contour ploughing and use of Vetiver technology [39]. Vetiver grasses can be planted in cucumber farms to help stabilise soils and reduce erosion. Other methods include proper spacing, crop rotation and use of natural mulch materials to reduce the effect of torrential rain
Cucumber production in Nigeria is an ever expanding enterprise because of their nutritional and economic uses. Poor soil management leads to decrease in production. Therefore, adoption of certain soil management strategies such as use of cover crops, conservation tillage, use of mulch and vetiver grass technology could be effective soil stabilisers. These management strategies should be adequately adopted
and appropriately applied for sustainable cucumber production in Nigeria.
**94**
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.100 | **Author details**
Bernard Ndubuisi Okafor\* and Japhet J. Yaduma National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT), Ibadan, Nigeria
\*Address all correspondence to: kpakpando2001@yahoo.com
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.102 | **Chapter 8**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
by different organic and inorganic fertilisers *Proceedings of 35*th *annual conference of Horticultural Society of*
Afolayan S.O., Idris B.A., Jibril A., Igwe H.C., Alewadoile S.,Shuaibu S.M.,
Idris A.U., Kudi D and Hudu M (2020). Productivity of cucumber (*Cucumis sativus* L) varieties under different rates of poultry manure at Bagauda, Kano state, Nigeria. *Proceedings of 38*th *annual conference of Horticultural Society of*
[34] Anikwe N.L (2011). Effect of some soil fertility management options on the yield and income generation potentials of cucumber (*Cucumis sativus L.*) production in Abakiliki, Nigeria. *Proceedings of 29*th *annual conference of Horticultural Society of*
[35] Adebayo A,G and Akintoye H.A (2007). Growing Cucumbers in Nigeria.
[36] Odeleye O.M.O and Adedokun M.O (2006). Response of cucumber to time of fertilizer application. *2006 research review report of NIHORT* (90-91)
[37] Adedipe A.O (2017). Yield and post-harvest quality of cucumber as influenced by companion planting. *BSc Project, Department of Crop Science and Horticulture, Federal University, Oye* 56pp
[38] Abdulkadir S.U., Mahmoud B.A and Kashere M.A (2020). Effects of fertilizer management on growth and yield of Cucumber ((*Cucumis sativus*). Proceedings of 38th annual conference of Horticultural Society of Nigeria.
[39] Babalola O (2007). Soil erosion problems in Nigeria: The use of Vetiver systems Technology. 91pp. *Ibadan*
*Nigeria.* pp585-589.
*Nigeria* 628-633
*Nigeria* 379-383
HORTMAG 6-7
Pp 79-82
*University Press.*
[33] Yaduma J.J., Mudi E.I.,
Hamisu H.S., Hudu A.H.,
[26] Babatola L.A (2016). Effects of levels of NPK 15:15:15 on growth and storability of Cucumber
(*Cucumis sativus*).Nigerian Journal of Horticultural Science 21:39-48
Oladosu B.O and Folarin E.A (2017). Effects of different organic manure source on growth and yield of cucumber (*Cucumis sativus L*) in forest agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. Proceedings of 35th annual conference of Horticultural Society of Nigeria.
[28] Bamikole J.A., Olorukoba M.M and ishaya M (2011). Influence of organic and inorganic manure at different rates on growth and yield of cucumber (*Cucumis sativus*). *Proceedings of 29*th *annual conference of Horticultural Society*
[29] Anikwe N.L (2011). Effect of some soil fertility management options on the yield and income generation potentials of cucumber (*Cucumis sativus L.*) production in Abakiliki, Nigeria. *Proceedings of 29*th *annual conference of Horticultural Society of Nigeria*.
[27] Adebiyi E.O., Ajayi E.O.,
pp 39-45
*of Nigeria,* pp 359-362
pp 379-383
pp 186-189.
[30] Odeleye OMO.,
*of Nigeria*. pp201-204
Odeleye F.O.,Babatola J.O and
[31] Dantata I.J (2008). Cucumber production in semi - arid zone of Nigeria as influenced by organic sources of mineral nutrition*. Proceedings of 26*th *annual conference of Horticultural Society*
[32] Modupeola T.O., Babajide P,A., Akinleye O.C., Yussuf R.O (2017). Growth and yield of cucumber (*Cucumis sativus*) as influenced
Adelaja B.A (2008). Effects of different poultry manure on cucumber (*Cucumis sativum*) in Southwestern Nigeria. Proceedings of 26th annual conference of Horticultural Society of Nigeria.
**98**
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.103 | Health Beneficial Effects of Cucumber
*Shampa Chakraborty and Sadhana Rayalu*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.104 | **Abstract**
Cucumber is a healthy fruit which having lots of benefits. Cucumber regulates hydration and maintain adequate blood pressure and sugar, soothes skin, helped in digestion and reduces fat and help to weight loss. Cucumber contains a plenty of potassium, fiber, magnesium, manganese and vitamin A, C, K. Cucumber has several health beneficial activities such as antimicrobial properties, hydrating and detoxification, help in digestion and weight loss, preventing cancer and other fragile bone disease. In this book chapter we have discussed about the health beneficial activities of cucumber along with its different contents.
**Keywords:** cucumber, health impact
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.105 | **1. Introduction**
Cucumbers (scientifically known as *Cucumis sativus*) belong to the same botanical family as melons and squashes. Cucumbers are served into two types. "Slicing cucumbers" for fresh consumption and "Pickling cucumbers" for eventual processing into pickles. Slicing cucumbers are usually larger with skins, while pickling cucumbers are smaller having thinner skins. Cucumbers are very low in calories but contain important vitamins, minerals and high water content. Eating cucumbers may lead to many potential health benefits, including weight loss, balanced hydration, digestive regularity and lower blood sugar levels. The present chapter deals with the different health beneficial effects of cucumber fruit as well as its contents. Fresh cucumbers are one of the fantastic fruit. Eating habits of cucumber are great as we are accustomed to eat cucumber with their seeds. This habit has an outstanding health benefits. Cucumber seeds contain a wide variety of phytonutrients, including both carotenoids and flavonoids.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.106 | **2. Result and discussions**
#### **2.1 Antimicrobial activity**
Khan et al. [1] reported that Cucumber have poor activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosaonly. Osuagwu et al. [2] reported that ethanolic extracts of leaf have antimicrobial property on pathogenic microorganisms for three human pathogens *S. aureus*, *P. aeruginosa* and *S. typhi* except *E. coli* pathogens. Sood et al. [3] reported antimicrobial activity of seeds of Cucumber family- members Karella, Cucumber, Tinda, Kaddu, loki. All seeds extracts are effective against Serratiamarcescens,
*E. coli*, Streptococcus thermophilous, and showed no inhibition against Aspergillusniger, *Candida albicans*. Mallik et al. [4] reported antifungal potentials of the ethanol extract of Cucumber against six fungus. The diameter of zone of inhibition have similar activity of the standard drug, Griseofulvin.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.107 | **2.2 Phytochemical analysis**
Sood et al. [5, 6] confirmed the presence of various phytochemicals like tannins, cardiac glycosides, terpenoides, carbohydrates, resins, saponins and phytosterols. Phytochemical screening by color visualization in cucumber showed the presence of flavonoid, tannin, saponin and steroid. The spectrophotometric analysis showed flavonoid 0.36% (w/w), phenol 0.40% (w/w), and, the by titrimetry found tannin 2.82%.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.108 | **2.3 Nutritional composition**
Urooj et al. [7] reported that among all varieties, English, Zucchini and Pranic healed cucumbers have contained highest moisture and lowest in Holenarasipur and Dotted variety. Eghtedary et al. [8] reported twenty types of cucumber (*Cucumis sativus*) from different regions. Khan [9] reported 24 genotypes of cucumber based on Randomized Complete Block Design (RBCD) method.
Cucumber, sliced, raw 1.00 cup (104.00 grams) calorie-16.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.109 | **3. Different types of nutrients in cucumber**
Cucumber contains different types of flavonoids such as apigenin, diosmetin, fisetin, luleolin, quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, naringenin, theaflavanoside I, vicenin. It also contains different types lignans pinoresinol, lariciresinol and secoisolariciresinol and triterpenes like cucurbitacin A, cucurbitacin B, cucurbitacin C, cucurbitacin D.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.110 | **3.1 Medicinal uses**
Shrivastava et al. [10] reported that cucumber eating in daily basis can improve hair growth and soothes skin, reduce swelling of eye. Cucumber juice can improve the skin texture and cures skin infections, eczema. A piece of cucumber on the
**101**
**3.7 Digestion**
*Health Beneficial Effects of Cucumber*
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96053*
head for a sun stroke patient can reduce the heat of the body. Cucumber can help in weight loss and the mashed seeds with sugar before meal can reduce intestinal worms and tape worms. Boiled cucumber leaves and cumin seed roasted powders can be used for throat infections. Kashif et al. [11] reported that cucumber
Sharma et al. [12] proved that cucumber juice can acts against acidity and resist
Heidari et al. [15] investigated the activity of cucumber juice against cumene hydroperoxide induced-oxidative stress and proved that cucumber can acts as antioxidant agent. The cucumber extracts have antioxidants and radical scavenging
Sharmin et al. [16] investigated Hypoglycemic effects of cucumber and proved white pumpkin, gourd has anti hyperglycemic effects on Alloxan Induced Diabetic Rats (AIDR). The extract can lessen the high lipid profiles in AIDRs. Therefore, cucumber extracts can be useful, in the therapy of diabetes, hyperglycemia and
Cucumbers contains 96% water. Therefore, it helps to fill up the daily requirement of water by the body and keep body hydrated. In summers, people tend to dehydrate easily. Consuming cucumber can make hydrate and it also acts as a coolant and give relief from the summer heat. Cucumber and mint can use to make detox water which effectively eliminates toxins from the body, improves hydration
Cucumbers are a good source of potassium, magnesium and dietary fibre. These nutrients are known to lower blood pressure, thus reducing the risk of heart diseases. Research has also proved that regular consumption of cucumber juice was
Cucumbers act as a coolant for our stomach. The soluble fibre in cucumbers helps in slowing our digestion. Also, the high content of water in cucumber makes our stools soft, prevents constipation and keeps our bowel movements regular.
helpful in reducing blood pressure, in elderly people with hypertension.
to change in pH and have good carminative and antacid potential. Cucumber has also eye soothner activities. Keeping cucumber slices on the eyes for about 10 minutes relaxes our eyes and reduces puffiness around the eyes. Patil et al. [13] investigated activity of cucumber extract in laboratory animals. They proved that the aqueous extract of cucumber selected can reduce the induced bowel disease and possessed active against ulcerative colitis. Patil et al. [14] investigated that cucum-
contained high potassium so it can help to keep normal blood pressure.
**3.2 Different health beneficial activities of cucumber**
ber juice can have significant wound healing effect.
property. The extract help to form intracellular ROS.
**3.4 Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity**
and thus results in innumerable health benefits.
**3.3 Hepatoprotective activity**
**3.5 Hydration and detoxification**
**3.6 Reduce blood pressure**
hyperlipidemia.
#### *Health Beneficial Effects of Cucumber DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96053*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
have similar activity of the standard drug, Griseofulvin.
on Randomized Complete Block Design (RBCD) method.
**3. Different types of nutrients in cucumber**
Cucumber, sliced, raw 1.00 cup (104.00 grams) calorie-16.
Vitamin K 19% Molybdenum 12% Pantothenic acid 5% Copper 4% Phosphorus 4% Vitamin C 4% Biotin 3% Vitamin B1 3% Potassium 3% Magnesium 3% Manganese 3%
**2.2 Phytochemical analysis**
**2.3 Nutritional composition**
nin 2.82%.
Nutrient
*E. coli*, Streptococcus thermophilous, and showed no inhibition against Aspergillusniger, *Candida albicans*. Mallik et al. [4] reported antifungal potentials of the ethanol extract of Cucumber against six fungus. The diameter of zone of inhibition
Sood et al. [5, 6] confirmed the presence of various phytochemicals like tannins, cardiac glycosides, terpenoides, carbohydrates, resins, saponins and phytosterols. Phytochemical screening by color visualization in cucumber showed the presence of flavonoid, tannin, saponin and steroid. The spectrophotometric analysis showed flavonoid 0.36% (w/w), phenol 0.40% (w/w), and, the by titrimetry found tan-
Urooj et al. [7] reported that among all varieties, English, Zucchini and Pranic healed cucumbers have contained highest moisture and lowest in Holenarasipur and Dotted variety. Eghtedary et al. [8] reported twenty types of cucumber (*Cucumis sativus*) from different regions. Khan [9] reported 24 genotypes of cucumber based
Cucumber contains different types of flavonoids such as apigenin, diosmetin, fisetin, luleolin, quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, naringenin, theaflavanoside I, vicenin. It also contains different types lignans pinoresinol, lariciresinol and secoisolariciresinol and triterpenes like cucurbitacin A, cucurbitacin B, cucurbita-
Shrivastava et al. [10] reported that cucumber eating in daily basis can improve hair growth and soothes skin, reduce swelling of eye. Cucumber juice can improve the skin texture and cures skin infections, eczema. A piece of cucumber on the
**100**
cin C, cucurbitacin D.
**3.1 Medicinal uses**
head for a sun stroke patient can reduce the heat of the body. Cucumber can help in weight loss and the mashed seeds with sugar before meal can reduce intestinal worms and tape worms. Boiled cucumber leaves and cumin seed roasted powders can be used for throat infections. Kashif et al. [11] reported that cucumber contained high potassium so it can help to keep normal blood pressure.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.111 | **3.2 Different health beneficial activities of cucumber**
Sharma et al. [12] proved that cucumber juice can acts against acidity and resist to change in pH and have good carminative and antacid potential. Cucumber has also eye soothner activities. Keeping cucumber slices on the eyes for about 10 minutes relaxes our eyes and reduces puffiness around the eyes. Patil et al. [13] investigated activity of cucumber extract in laboratory animals. They proved that the aqueous extract of cucumber selected can reduce the induced bowel disease and possessed active against ulcerative colitis. Patil et al. [14] investigated that cucumber juice can have significant wound healing effect.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.112 | **3.3 Hepatoprotective activity**
Heidari et al. [15] investigated the activity of cucumber juice against cumene hydroperoxide induced-oxidative stress and proved that cucumber can acts as antioxidant agent. The cucumber extracts have antioxidants and radical scavenging property. The extract help to form intracellular ROS.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.113 | **3.4 Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activity**
Sharmin et al. [16] investigated Hypoglycemic effects of cucumber and proved white pumpkin, gourd has anti hyperglycemic effects on Alloxan Induced Diabetic Rats (AIDR). The extract can lessen the high lipid profiles in AIDRs. Therefore, cucumber extracts can be useful, in the therapy of diabetes, hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.114 | **3.5 Hydration and detoxification**
Cucumbers contains 96% water. Therefore, it helps to fill up the daily requirement of water by the body and keep body hydrated. In summers, people tend to dehydrate easily. Consuming cucumber can make hydrate and it also acts as a coolant and give relief from the summer heat. Cucumber and mint can use to make detox water which effectively eliminates toxins from the body, improves hydration and thus results in innumerable health benefits.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.115 | **3.6 Reduce blood pressure**
Cucumbers are a good source of potassium, magnesium and dietary fibre. These nutrients are known to lower blood pressure, thus reducing the risk of heart diseases. Research has also proved that regular consumption of cucumber juice was helpful in reducing blood pressure, in elderly people with hypertension.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.116 | **3.7 Digestion**
Cucumbers act as a coolant for our stomach. The soluble fibre in cucumbers helps in slowing our digestion. Also, the high content of water in cucumber makes our stools soft, prevents constipation and keeps our bowel movements regular.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.117 | **3.8 Reduces blood sugar**
Cucumbers are known to reduce blood sugar levels, thus being helpful in the management and prevention of diabetes mellitus.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.118 | **3.9 Weight loss**
Cucumbers contain 96% of water and are low in calories. There are only 15.5 calories in 100 g of cucumber. High water and low-calorie content of cucumbers, helps in reducing weight.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.119 | **3.10 Skin**
Cucumbers can enhance beauty and have good effects on the skin. Application of cucumber juice on skin makes it soft and glowing. Anti-inflammatory effects of cucumber naturally lighten our skin and reduce tanning. It also reduces wrinkles and fine lines.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.120 | **3.11 Reduces risk of cancer**
The fibre in cucumbers protects from colorectal cancer. Also, cucurbitacin present in cucumbers possesses anti-cancer properties. Tuama et al. [17] showed cucumber extract is rich in bioactive compounds and have anticancer activity with Cell lines of (IC50) with MCF 715.6 ± 1.3 and HeLa 28.2 ± 1.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.121 | **4. Effect in hair, nails and breath**
Cucumbers contain silica which is excellent for hair and nail care. They help in strengthening the nails and prevent them from becoming brittle. Moreover, phytochemicals present in cucumber destroy the bacteria in our mouth that cause bad breath.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.122 | **4.1 Antioxidant activity**
Kumaraswamy [18] demonstrated that the yellow cucumber posses more antioxidant activity where as While green and white cucumbers have low antioxidant property. The antioxidant activity is due to the carotenoids, phenolic flavonoids, tannins, polyphenols and lycopene, found in it. Mallik et al. [19] carried out an study on the cytotoxic activity of cucumber extract in ethanol.
**103**
*Health Beneficial Effects of Cucumber*
Fat
Vitamins (water soluble)
Fat soluble vitamins
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96053*
**Cucumber, sliced, raw 1.00 cup (104.00 grams) calorie-16**
**Nutrient Amount DRI/DV (%)** Fructose 0.90 g — Glucose 0.79 g — Galactose 0.00 g — Disaccharides 0.04 g — Lactose 0.00 g — Maltose 0.01 g — Sucrose 0.03 g — Soluble Fiber 0.06 g — Insoluble Fiber 0.46 g — Other carbohydrate 1.52 g —
Monosaturated fat 0.01 g — Polysaturated fat 0.03 g — Saturated fat 0.04 g — Trans fat 0.00 g — Calories from fat 1.03 — Insoluble fiber 0.46 g — Other carbohydrate 1.52 g — Calories from saturated fat 0.35 — Calories from trans fat 0.00 — Cholesterol 0.00 — Water 99.04 g —
Vitamin B1 0.03 mg 3 Vitamin B2 0.03 mg 2 Vitamin B3 0.10 mg 1
Vitamin B6 0.04 mg 2 Vitamin B12 0.00 mcg 0 Biotin 0.94 mcg 3 Choline 6.24 mg 1 Folate 7.28 mcg 2
Pantothenic acid 0.27 mg 5 Vitamin C 2.91 mg 4
Vitamin A international unit 109.20 IU — Vitamin D 0.00 IU 0 Vitamin K 17.06 mcg 19
Vitamin B3 (Niacin equivalent) 0.19 mg
Folate DFE 7.28 mcg Folate food 7.28 mcg
#### *Health Beneficial Effects of Cucumber DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96053*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
management and prevention of diabetes mellitus.
Cucumbers are known to reduce blood sugar levels, thus being helpful in the
Cucumbers contain 96% of water and are low in calories. There are only 15.5 calories in 100 g of cucumber. High water and low-calorie content of cucumbers,
Cucumbers can enhance beauty and have good effects on the skin. Application of cucumber juice on skin makes it soft and glowing. Anti-inflammatory effects of cucumber naturally lighten our skin and reduce tanning. It also reduces wrinkles
The fibre in cucumbers protects from colorectal cancer. Also, cucurbitacin present in cucumbers possesses anti-cancer properties. Tuama et al. [17] showed cucumber extract is rich in bioactive compounds and have anticancer activity with
Cucumbers contain silica which is excellent for hair and nail care. They help in strengthening the nails and prevent them from becoming brittle. Moreover, phytochemicals present in cucumber destroy the bacteria in our mouth that cause
Kumaraswamy [18] demonstrated that the yellow cucumber posses more antioxidant activity where as While green and white cucumbers have low antioxidant property. The antioxidant activity is due to the carotenoids, phenolic flavonoids, tannins, polyphenols and lycopene, found in it. Mallik et al. [19] carried out an
**Nutrient Amount DRI/DV (%)** Protein 0.68 g 1 Carbohydrate 3.78 g 2 Fat-Total 0.11 g 0 Dietary Fibers 0.52 g 2 Calories 15.60 1 Total sugar 1.74 g — Monosaccharides 1.70 g —
**Cucumber, sliced, raw 1.00 cup (104.00 grams) calorie-16**
Cell lines of (IC50) with MCF 715.6 ± 1.3 and HeLa 28.2 ± 1.
study on the cytotoxic activity of cucumber extract in ethanol.
**3.8 Reduces blood sugar**
helps in reducing weight.
**3.11 Reduces risk of cancer**
**4. Effect in hair, nails and breath**
**3.9 Weight loss**
**3.10 Skin**
and fine lines.
bad breath.
**4.1 Antioxidant activity**
**102**
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.123 | **5. Conclusion**
Cucumber is an excellent and unusual food. A cup of cucumber contained 16 calorie with its peel (15 without) and 4 percent of your daily potassium, 3 percent of your daily fiber and 4 percent of your daily vitamin C. Cucumbers also contained small amounts of vitamin K, vitamin C, magnesium, potassium, manganese and vitamin A among them Vitamin K is very important for bone health. Vitamin K intake reduces fracture rates, and combine work with vitamin D can increase bone density and positively affect calcium balance. Vitamin K helps in building bones and the effects seem to be important for women. Low vitamin K levels were associated with low bone density in women, but not in men. Low intakes of vitamin K were associated with an increased risk of hip fractures in middle-age women.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.124 | **Acknowledgements**
Authors thank the SERB (PDF/2016/002856) (Govt. of India) for financial support and Knowledge Resource Center-NEERI for checking plagiarism. (KRC No.:CSIR-NEERI/KRC/2021/Jan/EMD/1). SC acknowledges Director-NEERI for his overall support.
**105**
**Author details**
Institute, Nagpur, India
Shampa Chakraborty\* and Sadhana Rayalu
provided the original work is properly cited.
\*Address all correspondence to: shampa132@gmail.com
Environmental Materials Division, National Environmental Engineering Research
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
*Health Beneficial Effects of Cucumber*
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96053*
*Health Beneficial Effects of Cucumber DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96053*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
Vitamin E 0.05 IU
Boron 0.00 mg
Cucumber is an excellent and unusual food. A cup of cucumber contained 16 calorie with its peel (15 without) and 4 percent of your daily potassium, 3 percent of your daily fiber and 4 percent of your daily vitamin C. Cucumbers also contained small amounts of vitamin K, vitamin C, magnesium, potassium, manganese and vitamin A among them Vitamin K is very important for bone health. Vitamin K intake reduces fracture rates, and combine work with vitamin D can increase bone density and positively affect calcium balance. Vitamin K helps in building bones and the effects seem to be important for women. Low vitamin K levels were associated with low bone density in women, but not in men. Low intakes of vitamin K were associated with an increased risk of hip fractures in middle-age women.
**Nutrient Amount DRI/DV (%)**
Calcium 16.64 mg 2 Chloride 0.00 — Chromium 0.00 — Copper 0.04 4 Fluoride 0.00 0 Iodine 0.00 mg — Iron 0.29 mg 2 Magnesium 13.52 mg 3 Manganese 0.08 mg 3 Molybdenum 5.20 mcg 12 Phosphorus 24.96 mg 4 Potassium 152.88 mg 3 selenium 0.31 mcg 1 Sodium 2.08 mg 0 Zinc 0.21 mg 2 *The nutrient profiles provided in this chapter are derived from The Food Processor, Version 10.12.0, ESHA Research,*
**Cucumber, sliced, raw 1.00 cup (104.00 grams) calorie-16**
Authors thank the SERB (PDF/2016/002856) (Govt. of India) for financial support and Knowledge Resource Center-NEERI for checking plagiarism. (KRC No.:CSIR-NEERI/KRC/2021/Jan/EMD/1). SC acknowledges Director-NEERI for his
**104**
**5. Conclusion**
*Salem, Oregon, USA.*
Minerals
**Acknowledgements**
overall support.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.125 | **Author details**
Shampa Chakraborty\* and Sadhana Rayalu Environmental Materials Division, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India
\*Address all correspondence to: shampa132@gmail.com
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.128 | Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus* L.)
*Olumide Samuel Daramola*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.129 | **Abstract**
Weed interference is a major problem in cucumber farming, leading to 45–95% yield reduction. Weed control practices employed to avoid such losses are predominantly hand weeding and herbicides application. All the weed control methods used in cucumber farming have their own limitations. Hand weeding is tedious, time consuming and associated with high labor demands. Only few herbicides are registered for weed control in cucumber, and these herbicides does not provide season-long weed control when used alone, neither can they control the entire weed spectrum with diverse physiology, morphology and time of emergence. Therefore, to optimize yield, financial and environmental costs and benefits, integrated weed management approaches are advocated. A good tillage operation, use of competitive cultivars, appropriate plant population and row spacing, application of pre and post emergence herbicides are important in reducing weed density. The combination of these approaches provides effective weed control, and helps in environmental conservation. The world is now moving toward precision weed management techniques which involve remote sensing, modelling and use of robotics to control weeds. These technologies are the future of weed management in crop production and have a substantial role to play in modern cucumber production. Right selection of one or more of these techniques with reference to environmental, socioeconomic, and geographic conditions will provide effective weed control in cucumber. Future research should therefore be focused on delivering information for the implementation of these approaches.
**Keywords:** Weed competition, hand weeding, herbicides, integrated weed management
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.130 | **1. Introduction**
Weeds are one of the most important pest that reduces crop productivity. Weeds and crop plants are very similar in their demand for carbon dioxide and nitrogen from the atmosphere, water and minerals from the soil and light from the sun for their growth and development [1]. When weeds compete for these restrictive resources, the growth and development of crops are restricted, and their yield and productivity drastically reduced. The type and density of weed population, and the duration of weed-crop interference determines the magnitude of damage and yield loss inflicted by weeds on crop plants [2, 3]. Weed interference in cucumber results
in high yield reduction in the range of 45–95% in different agro climatic conditions [4–6]. Growers and agricultural experts throughout the world consistently indicate that weeds are one of the most economically important pests of cucumber. Therefore, an effective weed management strategy is recognized as a necessity for an economically feasible cucumber production [4, 6].
Currently, weed management methods employed to reduce yield losses in cucumber are predominantly hand weeding and herbicides application [7]. However, these weed management systems have a number of limitations. Hand weeding is tedious, inefficient, time consuming and associated with high labor demands [1, 7, 8]. In addition, labor for manual weeding is scarce and often too expensive [1, 2, 9]. Consequently, farmers spend a large amount of time in weeding operation. Despite the effort expended in weeding by farmers, weed still cause considerable yield losses, because most of the weeding operations are not done during the critical period of weed interference, but well after the crop have suffered irrevocable damage from weeds [4, 10]. Most weed competition in cucumber is a consequence of delayed first weeding during the early stage of crop growth [7, 11]. Moreover, the efficacy of hand weeding is often compromised by the continued wet condition characteristics of the beginning of the rainy season in many agro climatic zones. Hand weeding under conditions of irrigation or high rainfall often causes weed to re-root and re-establish, necessitating several rounds of weeding to keep cucumber weed-free and avert yield losses [5].
Herbicides are quite effective in suppressing weeds in cucumber if used properly [7]. Herbicides reduce drudgery and protect cucumber from early weed competition [4, 10]. However, only a few herbicides are registered for weed control in cucumber [12, 13]. Moreover, most available herbicides do not provide season-long weed control when used alone, and single herbicide application may not control the entire weed spectrum with diverse physiology, morphology and time of emergence [4, 6, 14]. Although herbicide use alleviates the problem of labor for weeding, incorrect use may be injurious to the crop and bring about other environmental problems [15, 16].
No-tillage, conventional tillage, stale seedbed, and mulching are other options currently utilized for weed control in cucumber [15–18]. However, these weed control methods are limited and inefficient when used as a stand-alone weed management tactics [5]. Therefore, the adoption of integrated weed management (IWM) strategy is more advantageous than relying on one form of weed control. IWM involves the reduction of weed interference through a combination of two or more methods while maintaining acceptable crop yields, environment, social and economic wellbeing [1, 19]. However, in literature, information on weed interference and management methods, especially IWM strategy for improved productivity of cucumber is very scattered and not available in the form of a single document. Therefore, this book chapter is compiled to present all the available information into one document, which will be useful to all cucumber industry stakeholders like researchers, academicians, the extension community, industrialists, and growers. This book chapter covers in detail the weed flora of cucumber, their impact on cucumber and yield losses due to weed interference, different methods of weed control and IWM management strategies in cucumber.
#### **2. Weed flora of cucumber**
Diverse weed species infest cucumber but the extent of damage inflicted on cucumber crop varies with the type of weed species involved. A complete list of weed flora in cucumber grown in different agro climatic zones around the world is
**111**
*Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
*Digitaria horizontalis* Willd. [24] *Echinochloa crusgalli* [23] *Euphorbia heterophylla* L. [27] *Euphorbia hirta* [27] *Euphorbia glomerifera* [27] *Eleusine indica* L. [22] *Emilia sonchifolia* [20, 24] *Emilia coceinea* [22, 24] *Eragrostis atrovirens* [22] *Galinsoga spp* [20] *Impereta cylindrical* [27]
**Weeds References** *Abutilon theophrasti* Medicus [20, 21] *Adconopus compressus* [5, 22] *Ageratum conyzoides* [22, 23] *Ambrosia artemisiifolia* L. [5, 20, 23] *Amaranthus hybridus* L. [5, 22–26] *Amaranthus spinosus* L. [5, 23–25] *Amaranthus palmeri* S. Wats. [4, 23–25] *Amaranthus lividus* L. [5, 24, 25] *Amaranthus retroflexus* L. [23–25] *Ambrosia artemisiifolia* L. [22, 23] *Anodacristata* L. [20, 24] *Aspilia Africana* [22] *Axonopus compressors* (Sw.) P. Beauv [22, 27] *Bidens pilosa* [22, 23, 27] *Boerhavia diffusa* (Linn). [22, 27] *Chenopodium album* L. [20, 22, 23] *Chloris pilosa* Schumach [27] *Chromoleana odorata (*L.) R.M. King and Robinson [22] *Chrysopogan aciculatus* (Retz.) Trin. [27] *Combretum hispidum* Laws. [27] *Commelina benghalensis* (Burn.) [20, 24] *Commelina diffusa* L. [22] *Commelina errecta* L. [24] *Convolvulus arvensis* L*.* [23] *Coronopus didymus* [27] *Croton hirtus* L'Herit [23] *Crupheacarth agenensis* [24] *Cynodon dactylon* L. [22–24] *Cyperus esculentus* L*.* [5, 23, 24] *Cyperus rotundus* L. [5, 20, 22, 23, 26]
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
#### *Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
an economically feasible cucumber production [4, 6].
cucumber weed-free and avert yield losses [5].
control and IWM management strategies in cucumber.
**2. Weed flora of cucumber**
problems [15, 16].
in high yield reduction in the range of 45–95% in different agro climatic conditions [4–6]. Growers and agricultural experts throughout the world consistently indicate that weeds are one of the most economically important pests of cucumber. Therefore, an effective weed management strategy is recognized as a necessity for
Currently, weed management methods employed to reduce yield losses in cucumber are predominantly hand weeding and herbicides application [7]. However, these weed management systems have a number of limitations. Hand weeding is tedious, inefficient, time consuming and associated with high labor demands [1, 7, 8]. In addition, labor for manual weeding is scarce and often too expensive [1, 2, 9]. Consequently, farmers spend a large amount of time in weeding operation. Despite the effort expended in weeding by farmers, weed still cause considerable yield losses, because most of the weeding operations are not done during the critical period of weed interference, but well after the crop have suffered irrevocable damage from weeds [4, 10]. Most weed competition in cucumber is a consequence of delayed first weeding during the early stage of crop growth [7, 11]. Moreover, the efficacy of hand weeding is often compromised by the continued wet condition characteristics of the beginning of the rainy season in many agro climatic zones. Hand weeding under conditions of irrigation or high rainfall often causes weed to re-root and re-establish, necessitating several rounds of weeding to keep
Herbicides are quite effective in suppressing weeds in cucumber if used properly [7]. Herbicides reduce drudgery and protect cucumber from early weed competition [4, 10]. However, only a few herbicides are registered for weed control in cucumber [12, 13]. Moreover, most available herbicides do not provide season-long weed control when used alone, and single herbicide application may not control the entire weed spectrum with diverse physiology, morphology and time of emergence [4, 6, 14]. Although herbicide use alleviates the problem of labor for weeding, incorrect use may be injurious to the crop and bring about other environmental
No-tillage, conventional tillage, stale seedbed, and mulching are other options currently utilized for weed control in cucumber [15–18]. However, these weed control methods are limited and inefficient when used as a stand-alone weed management tactics [5]. Therefore, the adoption of integrated weed management (IWM) strategy is more advantageous than relying on one form of weed control. IWM involves the reduction of weed interference through a combination of two or more methods while maintaining acceptable crop yields, environment, social and economic wellbeing [1, 19]. However, in literature, information on weed interference and management methods, especially IWM strategy for improved productivity of cucumber is very scattered and not available in the form of a single document. Therefore, this book chapter is compiled to present all the available information into one document, which will be useful to all cucumber industry stakeholders like researchers, academicians, the extension community, industrialists, and growers. This book chapter covers in detail the weed flora of cucumber, their impact on cucumber and yield losses due to weed interference, different methods of weed
Diverse weed species infest cucumber but the extent of damage inflicted on cucumber crop varies with the type of weed species involved. A complete list of weed flora in cucumber grown in different agro climatic zones around the world is
**110**
#### **Table 1.**
*A list of weed flora of cucumber.*
presented in **Table 1**. However, major problematic weeds in cucumber include broadleaved weed species such as members of the families Amaranthaceae (*Amaranthus retroflexus*, *Amaranthus spinosus*, *Amaranthus hybridus, Chenopodium album*) Asteraceae (*Tridax procumbens*, *Bidens pilosa, Xanthium strumarium, Ambrosia spp*); Euphobiaceae (*Euphorbia heterophylla*, *Euphorbia hirta*); Convolvulaceae (*Ipomoea spp*, *convolvulus arvensis*); Portulacaceae (*Portulaca oleracea, Purtulaca pilosa*); Solanaceae (*Solanum carolinense Solanum nigrum*), grasses weed species of the family Poaceae (*Cynodon dactylon*, *Sorghum halepense, Echinochloa crusgalli, Seteria verticillata, Digitaria spp, Paspalum spp, Panicum maximum*) and sedges of the family Cyperaceae including *Cyperus rotundus,* and *Cyperus esculentus* [24, 27–29]. The major feature of these weed species is their widespread existence and difficulty in management. Annual broad-leaved weeds like *Amaranthus spp, Chenopodium album, Solanum nigrum, Portulaca oleracea* and *Euphorbia spp* cause serious damage to cucumber due to their rapid spread, production of many seeds, high efficiency in water use and net photosynthesis [4, 5, 24, 27]. Just 1–2 plants of *Amaranthus spp* per square yard growing with cucumber throughout the crop life cycle can reduce yield by 10%, while 5–7 plants of *Amaranthus spp* per square yard can reduce cucumber yield by 50% [5]. The occurrence of many biotypes of this weed specie
**113**
*Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
and its resistance to sulfonylurea herbicides also complicates its management [25]. *Chenopodium album* is able to outgrow cucumber and compete with the crop for nutrients, light and moisture. Its rapid growth and establishment rate makes it difficult to control by cultivation [20]. *Solanum nigrum* also grows rapidly and is able to out compete with cucumber vines. It is also capable of hosting pest such as white fly [20, 25]. *Portulaca oleracea* spreads quickly due in part to its large seed it production. It also harbors pest such as caterpillar moths and spread quickly between the crop rows [20]. *Bidens pilosa* is another broad-leaved weed specie with great adaptability and one of the most difficult to control in cucumber [20]. Its main features are: the extensive formation of achenes, high water use efficiency in region of prolonged drought stress and dormancy which facilitates its viability in the soil. *Bidens pilosa* is also resistant to herbicides that inhibit the acetolactate synthase, which further
Generally, annual weeds are the main problem in cucumber but perennials such as *Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus esculentus*, *Sorghum halepense Cynodon dactylon* and *convolvulus arvensis* are also difficult to control and possess considerable problems to cucumber [24, 25, 27, 29]. These weed species remain alive for more than one year in spite of producing seeds in the growing season proceeding the dry season and, therefore cause significant damage to cucumber. They are difficult to control because they have the capacity to survive adverse conditions by forming extensive underground vegetative structures such as rhizomes and stolon [31]. *Cyperus rotundus,* and *Cyperus esculentus* can reproduce sexually and asexually by rhizomes and tubers, and therefore exert significant competition for moisture, carbon dioxide, light and nutrient in addition to their allelopathic effects [31]. Competition and allelopathic effects of *Cyperus rotundus* at high density may reduce cucumber yields
Weed interference is the detrimental effects of weed on crop resulting from their interaction with each other. Weeds are considered as the most harmful pest of crops, and their interaction with crops have considerable consequences on the economy, society, and the environment [33]. They limit crop productivity and profitability, alter the ecosystem function and hamper the sustainability of the agricultural system. Yield losses and reduced profitability due to weed interference is considered one of the major problem in cucumber production [10]. Even with advanced technologies, producers record high losses due to weed interference. According to estimates, between 45–95% potential yields of cucumber is lost due to weed interference depending on the type and density of weeds growing in the crop community, duration of weed interference, stage of crop growth at which the interference takes place and the crop variety [4, 22]. Generally, losses due to weed interference in cucumber can either be direct or indirect. Direct losses due to weed interference includes damages caused by weed's allelopathic interaction with cucumber and competition for growth resources such as nutrients, water, light and space [5, 10]. Weed interference affects cucumber production indirectly by sheltering crop pest and diseases, interfering with timeliness and efficiency of harvest, increasing harvest difficulties, reducing fruit quality and consequently increasing the cost of processing [34, 35]. Weeds are potential source for diseases and pest including powdery mildew (*Podosphaera xanthii*), gummy stem blight (*Didymella bryoniae*), fungal root rot (including *Pythium, Rhizoctonia* and *Fusarium*), thrips (Thrips palmi) which may be hosted by a variety of weeds including *Portulaca spp,*
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
makes it difficult to control in cucumber [20, 30].
**3. Effect of weed interference on cucumber**
*Amaranthus spp*, *Gomphrena celosioides* and white fly [36–39].
as much as 83% [32].
*Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
**Weeds References** *Ipomoea spp* [26] *Ipomea triloba* L. [27] *Jamaica vervain* [27] Laportea aestuans [22] Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sauuville [22] Mimosa pudica [22] *Paspalum conjugatum* [22] *Paspalum scrobiculatum* L. [27] *Panicum maximum* Jacq. [22] *Portulaca pilosa* [27] *Portulaca oleracea* [20, 23] *Phyllantus samarus* [22, 23] *Seteria verticillata* [23] *Spigelia anthelmia* L. [23, 27] *Sida acuta* [22] *Solanum carolinense* [24] *Solanum nigrum* [23, 24] *Sonchus oleraceus* [24] *Sorghum halepense* [23], *Starchyptophetae ayenesis* [22] *Talinum triangulare* (Jacq.) Willd. [20] *Tribulus terrestris* L*.* [23] *Tridax procumbens* [22] *Xanthium strumarium* L. [5, 20]
presented in **Table 1**. However, major problematic weeds in cucumber include broadleaved weed species such as members of the families Amaranthaceae (*Amaranthus retroflexus*, *Amaranthus spinosus*, *Amaranthus hybridus, Chenopodium album*)
Asteraceae (*Tridax procumbens*, *Bidens pilosa, Xanthium strumarium, Ambrosia spp*); Euphobiaceae (*Euphorbia heterophylla*, *Euphorbia hirta*); Convolvulaceae (*Ipomoea spp*, *convolvulus arvensis*); Portulacaceae (*Portulaca oleracea, Purtulaca pilosa*); Solanaceae (*Solanum carolinense Solanum nigrum*), grasses weed species of the family Poaceae (*Cynodon dactylon*, *Sorghum halepense, Echinochloa crusgalli, Seteria verticillata, Digitaria spp, Paspalum spp, Panicum maximum*) and sedges of the family Cyperaceae including *Cyperus rotundus,* and *Cyperus esculentus* [24, 27–29]. The major feature of these weed species is their widespread existence and difficulty in management. Annual broad-leaved weeds like *Amaranthus spp, Chenopodium album, Solanum nigrum, Portulaca oleracea* and *Euphorbia spp* cause serious damage to cucumber due to their rapid spread, production of many seeds, high efficiency in water use and net photosynthesis [4, 5, 24, 27]. Just 1–2 plants of *Amaranthus spp* per square yard growing with cucumber throughout the crop life cycle can reduce yield by 10%, while 5–7 plants of *Amaranthus spp* per square yard can reduce cucumber yield by 50% [5]. The occurrence of many biotypes of this weed specie
**112**
**Table 1.**
*A list of weed flora of cucumber.*
and its resistance to sulfonylurea herbicides also complicates its management [25]. *Chenopodium album* is able to outgrow cucumber and compete with the crop for nutrients, light and moisture. Its rapid growth and establishment rate makes it difficult to control by cultivation [20]. *Solanum nigrum* also grows rapidly and is able to out compete with cucumber vines. It is also capable of hosting pest such as white fly [20, 25]. *Portulaca oleracea* spreads quickly due in part to its large seed it production. It also harbors pest such as caterpillar moths and spread quickly between the crop rows [20]. *Bidens pilosa* is another broad-leaved weed specie with great adaptability and one of the most difficult to control in cucumber [20]. Its main features are: the extensive formation of achenes, high water use efficiency in region of prolonged drought stress and dormancy which facilitates its viability in the soil. *Bidens pilosa* is also resistant to herbicides that inhibit the acetolactate synthase, which further makes it difficult to control in cucumber [20, 30].
Generally, annual weeds are the main problem in cucumber but perennials such as *Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus esculentus*, *Sorghum halepense Cynodon dactylon* and *convolvulus arvensis* are also difficult to control and possess considerable problems to cucumber [24, 25, 27, 29]. These weed species remain alive for more than one year in spite of producing seeds in the growing season proceeding the dry season and, therefore cause significant damage to cucumber. They are difficult to control because they have the capacity to survive adverse conditions by forming extensive underground vegetative structures such as rhizomes and stolon [31]. *Cyperus rotundus,* and *Cyperus esculentus* can reproduce sexually and asexually by rhizomes and tubers, and therefore exert significant competition for moisture, carbon dioxide, light and nutrient in addition to their allelopathic effects [31]. Competition and allelopathic effects of *Cyperus rotundus* at high density may reduce cucumber yields as much as 83% [32].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.129403 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.131 | **3. Effect of weed interference on cucumber**
Weed interference is the detrimental effects of weed on crop resulting from their interaction with each other. Weeds are considered as the most harmful pest of crops, and their interaction with crops have considerable consequences on the economy, society, and the environment [33]. They limit crop productivity and profitability, alter the ecosystem function and hamper the sustainability of the agricultural system. Yield losses and reduced profitability due to weed interference is considered one of the major problem in cucumber production [10]. Even with advanced technologies, producers record high losses due to weed interference. According to estimates, between 45–95% potential yields of cucumber is lost due to weed interference depending on the type and density of weeds growing in the crop community, duration of weed interference, stage of crop growth at which the interference takes place and the crop variety [4, 22]. Generally, losses due to weed interference in cucumber can either be direct or indirect. Direct losses due to weed interference includes damages caused by weed's allelopathic interaction with cucumber and competition for growth resources such as nutrients, water, light and space [5, 10]. Weed interference affects cucumber production indirectly by sheltering crop pest and diseases, interfering with timeliness and efficiency of harvest, increasing harvest difficulties, reducing fruit quality and consequently increasing the cost of processing [34, 35]. Weeds are potential source for diseases and pest including powdery mildew (*Podosphaera xanthii*), gummy stem blight (*Didymella bryoniae*), fungal root rot (including *Pythium, Rhizoctonia* and *Fusarium*), thrips (Thrips palmi) which may be hosted by a variety of weeds including *Portulaca spp, Amaranthus spp*, *Gomphrena celosioides* and white fly [36–39].
Weed interference in cucumber begins during the very early stages of vegetative growth [5]. Unfortunately, cucumber is not a strong competitor at the early stage, therefore weeds out grow them during the early stage of crop growth, resulting in high yield reduction [4]. Weeds that germinates at the same time as cucumber such as annual weeds like *Amaranthus spp*, *Xanthium strumarium* and *Ambrosia artemisiifolia* grows faster and maintain canopy above and below the top of cucumber. Hence, these weeds intercept photosynthetically active radiation at the expense of the crop, resulting in reduced yield [40, 41]. Furthermore, weed-inflicted shading of cucumber flowers promotes flower abortion. Although cucumber becomes less vulnerable to weed competition after the vines run out or when they become well established, the crop may take a few more weeks to close canopy. Weeds that emerge during this period may complicate harvest by concealing fruit or hampering manual picking with prickly foliage, or entangling vines, and promote fungal diseases by limiting air circulation. *Solanum carolinense* is a host for cucumber powdery mildew fungus (*Erysiphecichor acearum*), and many common weeds such as *Amaranthus spp* and *Cyperus spp* can carry cucumber mosaic virus [42].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.130244 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
"license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/",
"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
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"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
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} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.132 | **4. Critical period of weed control (CPWC) in cucumber**
The CPWC is a period in the crop growth cycle during which weeds must be controlled to prevent quantitative and qualitative yield losses [21]. It is the period when a crop is most sensitive to weed competition and therefore the time interval when it is necessary to maintain wed-free condition to prevent an unacceptable reduction in potential yield [23]. It denote the optimum timing of weed removal to prevent potential yield loss. From practical standpoint, crop yield losses from weed interference before or after the CPWC will be of limited interest. This means that weeds that are present before or emerge after the CPWC do not cause significant yield loss [43]. Studies conducted on cucumber [5, 44] have shown that weed infestation during the CPWC imposes irreversible loss and damage on the final yield, while weed control before or after the CPWC did not improve fruit yield compared with crops kept weed-free only during the CPWC [45, 46]. Weed control recommendations in cucumber are therefore made on the basis of the CPWC because they indicate the optimum time for implementing and maintaining weed control at reduced cost [47]. Although published research work on weed interference and CPWC in cucumber are very limited in the literature, the few available studies [4, 5, 45, 48] have shown that the CPWC in cucumber varies across environment (location, soil, climate and management), infesting plant community (species, density and population), crop (cultivar, spacing and density), growing seasons and years [44–48].
In the USA, the CPWC in cucumber was estimated to be between 4 and 6 weeks after sowing [49–51]. In another study, it was determined that cucumber maintained weed-free for as little as 2 weeks after sowing (WAS) produced yield similar to the season-long weed-free treatment [52]. The author found that a single weeding either 3 or 4 WAS was sufficient to prevent yield loss for cucumber planted on 1.2 m row spacing, and concluded that no CPWC existed. Conversely, cucumber in a narrow row spacing had a 3 to 4 WAS CPWC [52]. It was reported that the CPWC for cucumber was longer at a higher plant population than in a lower plant population [52]. In Canada, the CPWC for cucumber was determined to be between 12 to 36 days after sowing (DAS) with a mixed population of common ragweed and common lambsquarters [45]. In Brazil, it was found that the CPWC was between 3 to 7 WAS [53]. Due to the disparities in the results of the CPWC from one study and location to the other, it has been recommended that critical period of weed
**115**
*Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
weeds the first time they have been noticed [42, 49, 56].
Cultural weed control is among the most important means of weed management used easily by most cucumber farmers. Cultural control is the use of common practices such as crop rotation, variation of crop row spacing, competitive cultivars adapted to climate and regional conditions, live mulches, cover crops etc. for the proper management of weeds, water and soil [57]. There has been a growing interest in cultural weed control methods during the last two decades as a result of the increasing concern of pesticide use. Cultural practices are regarded as the second
**5.2 Cultural weed management**
interference should be determined specifically for a particular region considering the weed composition and climatic condition in order to provide precise informa-
Preventive measures of weed control is an important part of weed management that has gained attention among cucumber growers and weed scientist in recent time. Preventive weed control involves techniques and practices that hinders the build-up of weed species [55]. These involves clean cultivation through the use of clean water, seeds and fertilizer, and keeping the farm environment free from weeds and their seeds [56]. It is necessary to begin preventive weed control during the year before the beginning of cucumber production and use cucumber seeds free from weed seeds to promote a weed-free cucumber crop in the preceding season. The selected field must be relatively free from weed species such as nut sedges, Bermuda grass, morning glories and Johnson grass. Seed set by pigweeds, common cocklebur and other aggressive annual weeds must also be avoided as a precautionary measure to achieve a weed-free cucumber field [49]. Other preventive weed management measures in cucumber includes not growing cucumber the year after another annual vegetable with similar tillage cultivation and harvest schedules, especially in a highly infested field. Cultivation fallow can also be used to reduce the weed seed bank in cucumber fields that are heavily infested with weeds. The choice of cucumber variety can also affect the level of weed infestation. Hence, vigorous varieties with good adaptation to the prevailing local conditions and good foliage to suppress weed should be selected [49, 56]. Optimum conditions that give cucumber a competitive advantage over the weed species must be provided to prevent buildup of weed species. Fertilizer application method and timing must be manipulated in such a way that the nutrients are available to the crop rather than the weeds. In-row drip irrigation and fertigation can be used to water and apply nutrients to the cucumber and not the inter-row weeds [42]. Measures should also be taken to use water free from weed seeds. Large amount of rapidly available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers that can stimulate excessive weed growth in nutrient responsive weeds such as pigweeds common cocklebur, common ragweed and lambs quarters should be avoided [42]. Many weed species have higher water use efficiency than cucumber, hence flood irrigation should be avoided because they provide conducive environment for weed to flourish. Furthermore, weeds should be removed before they set seeds to avoid weed seed spread in the cucumber crop. Removing weeds in their early growth stages prevents them from setting seeds and spreading these to other areas of the field. Therefore, it is necessary to remove
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
**5. Weed management in cucumber**
**5.1 Preventive weed management**
tion for growers [54].
interference should be determined specifically for a particular region considering the weed composition and climatic condition in order to provide precise information for growers [54].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.130371 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
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"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 132
} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.134 | **5.1 Preventive weed management**
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
and *Cyperus spp* can carry cucumber mosaic virus [42].
**4. Critical period of weed control (CPWC) in cucumber**
The CPWC is a period in the crop growth cycle during which weeds must be controlled to prevent quantitative and qualitative yield losses [21]. It is the period when a crop is most sensitive to weed competition and therefore the time interval when it is necessary to maintain wed-free condition to prevent an unacceptable reduction in potential yield [23]. It denote the optimum timing of weed removal to prevent potential yield loss. From practical standpoint, crop yield losses from weed interference before or after the CPWC will be of limited interest. This means that weeds that are present before or emerge after the CPWC do not cause significant yield loss [43]. Studies conducted on cucumber [5, 44] have shown that weed infestation during the CPWC imposes irreversible loss and damage on the final yield, while weed control before or after the CPWC did not improve fruit yield compared with crops kept weed-free only during the CPWC [45, 46]. Weed control recommendations in cucumber are therefore made on the basis of the CPWC because they indicate the optimum time for implementing and maintaining weed control at reduced cost [47]. Although published research work on weed interference and CPWC in cucumber are very limited in the literature, the few available studies [4, 5, 45, 48] have shown that the CPWC in cucumber varies across environment (location, soil, climate and management), infesting plant community (species, density and population), crop (cultivar, spacing and density), growing seasons and
In the USA, the CPWC in cucumber was estimated to be between 4 and 6 weeks
after sowing [49–51]. In another study, it was determined that cucumber maintained weed-free for as little as 2 weeks after sowing (WAS) produced yield similar to the season-long weed-free treatment [52]. The author found that a single weeding either 3 or 4 WAS was sufficient to prevent yield loss for cucumber planted on 1.2 m row spacing, and concluded that no CPWC existed. Conversely, cucumber in a narrow row spacing had a 3 to 4 WAS CPWC [52]. It was reported that the CPWC for cucumber was longer at a higher plant population than in a lower plant population [52]. In Canada, the CPWC for cucumber was determined to be between 12 to 36 days after sowing (DAS) with a mixed population of common ragweed and common lambsquarters [45]. In Brazil, it was found that the CPWC was between 3 to 7 WAS [53]. Due to the disparities in the results of the CPWC from one study and location to the other, it has been recommended that critical period of weed
Weed interference in cucumber begins during the very early stages of vegetative growth [5]. Unfortunately, cucumber is not a strong competitor at the early stage, therefore weeds out grow them during the early stage of crop growth, resulting in high yield reduction [4]. Weeds that germinates at the same time as cucumber such as annual weeds like *Amaranthus spp*, *Xanthium strumarium* and *Ambrosia artemisiifolia* grows faster and maintain canopy above and below the top of cucumber. Hence, these weeds intercept photosynthetically active radiation at the expense of the crop, resulting in reduced yield [40, 41]. Furthermore, weed-inflicted shading of cucumber flowers promotes flower abortion. Although cucumber becomes less vulnerable to weed competition after the vines run out or when they become well established, the crop may take a few more weeks to close canopy. Weeds that emerge during this period may complicate harvest by concealing fruit or hampering manual picking with prickly foliage, or entangling vines, and promote fungal diseases by limiting air circulation. *Solanum carolinense* is a host for cucumber powdery mildew fungus (*Erysiphecichor acearum*), and many common weeds such as *Amaranthus spp*
**114**
years [44–48].
Preventive measures of weed control is an important part of weed management that has gained attention among cucumber growers and weed scientist in recent time. Preventive weed control involves techniques and practices that hinders the build-up of weed species [55]. These involves clean cultivation through the use of clean water, seeds and fertilizer, and keeping the farm environment free from weeds and their seeds [56]. It is necessary to begin preventive weed control during the year before the beginning of cucumber production and use cucumber seeds free from weed seeds to promote a weed-free cucumber crop in the preceding season. The selected field must be relatively free from weed species such as nut sedges, Bermuda grass, morning glories and Johnson grass. Seed set by pigweeds, common cocklebur and other aggressive annual weeds must also be avoided as a precautionary measure to achieve a weed-free cucumber field [49]. Other preventive weed management measures in cucumber includes not growing cucumber the year after another annual vegetable with similar tillage cultivation and harvest schedules, especially in a highly infested field. Cultivation fallow can also be used to reduce the weed seed bank in cucumber fields that are heavily infested with weeds. The choice of cucumber variety can also affect the level of weed infestation. Hence, vigorous varieties with good adaptation to the prevailing local conditions and good foliage to suppress weed should be selected [49, 56]. Optimum conditions that give cucumber a competitive advantage over the weed species must be provided to prevent buildup of weed species. Fertilizer application method and timing must be manipulated in such a way that the nutrients are available to the crop rather than the weeds. In-row drip irrigation and fertigation can be used to water and apply nutrients to the cucumber and not the inter-row weeds [42]. Measures should also be taken to use water free from weed seeds. Large amount of rapidly available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers that can stimulate excessive weed growth in nutrient responsive weeds such as pigweeds common cocklebur, common ragweed and lambs quarters should be avoided [42]. Many weed species have higher water use efficiency than cucumber, hence flood irrigation should be avoided because they provide conducive environment for weed to flourish. Furthermore, weeds should be removed before they set seeds to avoid weed seed spread in the cucumber crop. Removing weeds in their early growth stages prevents them from setting seeds and spreading these to other areas of the field. Therefore, it is necessary to remove weeds the first time they have been noticed [42, 49, 56].
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.135 | **5.2 Cultural weed management**
Cultural weed control is among the most important means of weed management used easily by most cucumber farmers. Cultural control is the use of common practices such as crop rotation, variation of crop row spacing, competitive cultivars adapted to climate and regional conditions, live mulches, cover crops etc. for the proper management of weeds, water and soil [57]. There has been a growing interest in cultural weed control methods during the last two decades as a result of the increasing concern of pesticide use. Cultural practices are regarded as the second
most environmentally friendly weed control method next to preventive measures. Cultural techniques help the cucumber farmers to reduce the cost of weed management. These techniques can affect weed-crop interaction and inter-relationship particularly during the critical period of weed control. These techniques provides favorable and conducive environment for the growth of cucumber and give the crop a competitive advantage over infesting weed species. Cultural weed control methods are easy and cost–effective in cucumber production. Crop rotation, primary tillage, soil solarization, high plant population and manipulation of sowing dates and row spacing are cultural techniques that can easily control weeds in cucumber production [21, 46, 50].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.130931 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.136 | *5.2.1 Crop rotation*
Crop rotation enhances cucumber productivity by improving weed control and soil productivity. Continuous cultivation and tillage systems have negative interaction with each other and results in a shift in weed species composition with consequence difficulty in weed management [58]. A shift from cucumber to other crops of different life cycle, physiology and morphology serves as an important means of preventive weed control when cucumber is grown over time in the same field [42]. This practice has potential to reduce weed density and biomass, particularly when a competitive crop is rotated and an effective direct weed control tillage system is applied [5, 41]. On the other hand, continues cropping increases the risk of resistant weeds as a result of the application of similar cultural practices and herbicides of same chemistry for longer periods [21]. Broad-leaf weeds which are difficult to control in cucumber and other vegetables can be controlled readily in cereal crops. Crop rotation is particularly important in cucumber production because of its disease control benefit and weed control flexibility [59]. Cucumber-tomato, cucumber-pepper and cucumber-eggplants, rotation in farmers' fields showed that the rotation of cucumber with other vegetable crops is agronomically practicable, sustainable, and an eco-friendly technique for better weed control and economic benefits [59, 60].
#### *5.2.2 Primary tillage*
Primary tillage is an integral part of cucumber production system that enhances field preparation for planting operation. The tillage system used directly affect soil structure, plant available moisture and intensity of weed problem. Soil inversion during tillage is considered to be very beneficial for weed control [61]. The implement used and the depth of the tillage operation determines the impact of primary tillage in cucumber farming. The use of moldboard plough is an effective way to reduce weed density during the early growth stages of the cucumber crop [61, 62]. Weed densities and biomass are usually higher in zero or minimum tillage systems than in conventional tillage systems that involves the use mold plough [10, 61–63]. It was reported that cucumbers planted into no tillage rye had greater weed size compared to conventional tillage [61]. Reduced tillage was also reported to encourage increased perennial weed species in weed population in cucumber fields compared with conventional tillage [61, 62].
#### *5.2.3 Stale seedbed*
The use of stale seedbed is another cultural practice for suppressing weeds in cucumber. A stale seedbed is defined as a seedbed prepared several days, weeks, or month prior to planting or transplanting a crop [64]. In this method, resurgent
**117**
planting [73, 74].
**6. Mechanical weed management**
*Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
weeds in ploughed field are controlled by the use of tillage while irrigation or rain are used to stimulate weed seed germination. The flush of young seedlings is then killed by using shallow tillage or herbicides [65]. This method has been successfully used to reduce competition of several weed species including *Palmer amaranth*, and yellow nutsedge in cucumber [32]. Stale seed bed reduced weed infestation with the applications of glyphosate and paraquat on the seedbeds to control emerged
Soil solarization is another non-chemical weed control technique in cucumber production. This technique involves hydrothermal disinfection of moist soil by transparent polyethylene sheets during the hot summers. These sheets entrap the sunlight and increase the temperature of upper layers of the soil by 8–12 °C compared with the non-mulch soil. The elevated temperature kills some of the seeds and breaks the dormancy of others. While the solar scorching kills the newly emerged weed seedlings [67]. Soil solarization is a simple, non-hazardous method that avoids the use of any toxic materials, does not contaminate the site and therefore suited for organic cucumber farming. The effectiveness of this method of weed control has been reported in cucumber crop [68, 69]. Soil solarization proved to be an excellent method for complete control of parasitic weed specie such as Egyptian broomrape (*Orobanche aegyptiaca*) and other weed species such as *Sorghum virgatum, Chenopodium album, and Purtulaca oleracea* infestation in cucumber [68–70].
Manipulation of crop row spacing and planting density can restrict weed seed germination and enhance the crop competitive ability against weeds [71]. Narrow row spacing and high plant densities are important techniques in enhancing cucumber competitiveness and suppressing weed growth [16, 72, 73]. These techniques are very cost-effective and environmental friendly. When the optimum plant population density is used through appropriate row spacing, cucumber crop is able to develop canopy cover and hence competitive advantage over emerging weed seedlings [73]. Narrow row spacing is known to suppress weed growth by closing crop canopy earlier than wide spacing. Early canopy cover by closely spaced cucumber has been shown to smother weeds, hence reducing weed-crop competition [16, 74]. Cucumber planted at narrow plant spacing of 1 m × 0.3 m resulted in earlier canopy closure and better weed suppression than those planted at 1 m × 0.6 m and 1 m × 0.9 m [73]. In another study, spacing of 75 cm × 25 cm resulted in weed density and biomass suppression compared to spacing of
75 cm × 50 cm and 75 cm × 75 cm in cucumber [73]. Herbicides work well with narrow spacing as it impacts the weeds by decreasing their vigor due to high competition with the cucumber plants in narrow row planting compared to the wide row
Mechanical weed management involves the physical removal of weeds from the field by hand pulling or through the use of farm tools and implements such as hand hoes, cutlasses, cultivators, choppers, mowers disks or weeders [75, 76]. Mechanical weed management is one of the oldest weed control practice. It involves the practices of primary and secondary tillage. With mechanical weed
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
weeds [66].
*5.2.4 Soil solarization*
*5.2.5 Plant density and row spacing*
#### *Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
weeds in ploughed field are controlled by the use of tillage while irrigation or rain are used to stimulate weed seed germination. The flush of young seedlings is then killed by using shallow tillage or herbicides [65]. This method has been successfully used to reduce competition of several weed species including *Palmer amaranth*, and yellow nutsedge in cucumber [32]. Stale seed bed reduced weed infestation with the applications of glyphosate and paraquat on the seedbeds to control emerged weeds [66].
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.137 | *5.2.4 Soil solarization*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
production [21, 46, 50].
*5.2.1 Crop rotation*
benefits [59, 60].
*5.2.2 Primary tillage*
*5.2.3 Stale seedbed*
most environmentally friendly weed control method next to preventive measures. Cultural techniques help the cucumber farmers to reduce the cost of weed management. These techniques can affect weed-crop interaction and inter-relationship particularly during the critical period of weed control. These techniques provides favorable and conducive environment for the growth of cucumber and give the crop a competitive advantage over infesting weed species. Cultural weed control methods are easy and cost–effective in cucumber production. Crop rotation, primary tillage, soil solarization, high plant population and manipulation of sowing dates and row spacing are cultural techniques that can easily control weeds in cucumber
Crop rotation enhances cucumber productivity by improving weed control and soil productivity. Continuous cultivation and tillage systems have negative interaction with each other and results in a shift in weed species composition with consequence difficulty in weed management [58]. A shift from cucumber to other crops of different life cycle, physiology and morphology serves as an important means of preventive weed control when cucumber is grown over time in the same field [42]. This practice has potential to reduce weed density and biomass, particularly when a competitive crop is rotated and an effective direct weed control tillage system is applied [5, 41]. On the other hand, continues cropping increases the risk of resistant weeds as a result of the application of similar cultural practices and herbicides of same chemistry for longer periods [21]. Broad-leaf weeds which are difficult to control in cucumber and other vegetables can be controlled readily in cereal crops. Crop rotation is particularly important in cucumber production because of its disease control benefit and weed control flexibility [59]. Cucumber-tomato, cucumber-pepper and cucumber-eggplants, rotation in farmers' fields showed that the rotation of cucumber with other vegetable crops is agronomically practicable, sustainable, and an eco-friendly technique for better weed control and economic
Primary tillage is an integral part of cucumber production system that enhances field preparation for planting operation. The tillage system used directly affect soil structure, plant available moisture and intensity of weed problem. Soil inversion during tillage is considered to be very beneficial for weed control [61]. The implement used and the depth of the tillage operation determines the impact of primary tillage in cucumber farming. The use of moldboard plough is an effective way to reduce weed density during the early growth stages of the cucumber crop [61, 62]. Weed densities and biomass are usually higher in zero or minimum tillage systems than in conventional tillage systems that involves the use mold plough [10, 61–63]. It was reported that cucumbers planted into no tillage rye had greater weed size compared to conventional tillage [61]. Reduced tillage was also reported to encourage increased perennial weed species in weed population in
The use of stale seedbed is another cultural practice for suppressing weeds in cucumber. A stale seedbed is defined as a seedbed prepared several days, weeks, or month prior to planting or transplanting a crop [64]. In this method, resurgent
cucumber fields compared with conventional tillage [61, 62].
**116**
Soil solarization is another non-chemical weed control technique in cucumber production. This technique involves hydrothermal disinfection of moist soil by transparent polyethylene sheets during the hot summers. These sheets entrap the sunlight and increase the temperature of upper layers of the soil by 8–12 °C compared with the non-mulch soil. The elevated temperature kills some of the seeds and breaks the dormancy of others. While the solar scorching kills the newly emerged weed seedlings [67]. Soil solarization is a simple, non-hazardous method that avoids the use of any toxic materials, does not contaminate the site and therefore suited for organic cucumber farming. The effectiveness of this method of weed control has been reported in cucumber crop [68, 69]. Soil solarization proved to be an excellent method for complete control of parasitic weed specie such as Egyptian broomrape (*Orobanche aegyptiaca*) and other weed species such as *Sorghum virgatum, Chenopodium album, and Purtulaca oleracea* infestation in cucumber [68–70].
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.138 | *5.2.5 Plant density and row spacing*
Manipulation of crop row spacing and planting density can restrict weed seed germination and enhance the crop competitive ability against weeds [71]. Narrow row spacing and high plant densities are important techniques in enhancing cucumber competitiveness and suppressing weed growth [16, 72, 73]. These techniques are very cost-effective and environmental friendly. When the optimum plant population density is used through appropriate row spacing, cucumber crop is able to develop canopy cover and hence competitive advantage over emerging weed seedlings [73]. Narrow row spacing is known to suppress weed growth by closing crop canopy earlier than wide spacing. Early canopy cover by closely spaced cucumber has been shown to smother weeds, hence reducing weed-crop competition [16, 74]. Cucumber planted at narrow plant spacing of 1 m × 0.3 m resulted in earlier canopy closure and better weed suppression than those planted at 1 m × 0.6 m and 1 m × 0.9 m [73]. In another study, spacing of 75 cm × 25 cm resulted in weed density and biomass suppression compared to spacing of 75 cm × 50 cm and 75 cm × 75 cm in cucumber [73]. Herbicides work well with narrow spacing as it impacts the weeds by decreasing their vigor due to high competition with the cucumber plants in narrow row planting compared to the wide row planting [73, 74].
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.139 | **6. Mechanical weed management**
Mechanical weed management involves the physical removal of weeds from the field by hand pulling or through the use of farm tools and implements such as hand hoes, cutlasses, cultivators, choppers, mowers disks or weeders [75, 76]. Mechanical weed management is one of the oldest weed control practice. It involves the practices of primary and secondary tillage. With mechanical weed
management, weeds in fallow fields are killed and the weed seeds buried in deep soil layers where they cannot emerge. Mechanical weed control in cucumber also involves plowing or disking to destroy weeds by exposing them to variations in light, moisture and temperature [77]. Secondary tillage practices such as harrowing is also used to dislodge and shred weeds in cucumber field. Although these practices destroys weed quickly, they do not provide season-long effect because some weed seeds are still present close to the soil surface [77]. It is therefore imperative to use mechanical weed management before or during early flowering to prevent the production of large quantity of weed seed, and engage follow-up weed control practices to achieve effective weed control. The best practice is usually to cultivate cucumber at the preliminary stage of weed growth when the weeds are still physiologically immature to exert significant competition with the crop [65]. Mechanical weed control cannot be used as the singular method of weed management because it may provide favorable conditions for emergence and dispersal of dormant weed seeds. It also impact the soil structure negatively resulting in soil dryness and compaction [65]. Hence, mechanical weed control must be used only as a supplement to other weed control practices within the context of integrated weed management.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.140 | **7. Chemical weed management**
Chemical weed management in cucumber is mainly through the use of herbicides of different active ingredients. Although only limited herbicides are registered and available for weed control in cucumber, herbicides are an essential component of a successful weed control program in cucumber production [78]. These herbicides either pre-emergence or post-emergence, when applied at correct dosage and appropriate timing hampers weed growth and development [6, 7]. Herbicides use in cucumber reduces drudgery and labor requirement, and makes weed control easy, efficient and economical. It also improves soil structure by boosting soil moisture and reducing soil erosion. However, effective weed control with the use of herbicides is limited by the potential for crop injury from registered herbicides [7, 28,]. Herbicides application at too high rate can damage cucumber while too low rate will not provide the expected weed control [5]. Best results from herbicides application in cucumber are obtained when the weeds are at their highest susceptible stages and the crop is at its highest tolerance stages. Selection of a suitable herbicide program for cucumber depends on the population, growth stage, biology and ecology of the infesting weed species [10, 14, 15]. Much of chemical weed control in cucumber revolves around two key herbicides: ethalfluralin and clomazone which gives a reasonable control over most weeds [20]. Both herbicides are safe to use on cucumber and are generally applied pre-emergence for grass and broadleaved weed control [34]. Pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides are used for effective weed control in cucumber. Pre-emergence herbicides can be applied before the planting of cucumber. These herbicides remain active in soil and provide control of weeds before they emerge. However, pre-emergence herbicides should be used with extreme care as they can damage the cucumber seedlings [5, 20]. Although pre-emergence herbicides such as N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (naptalam) provides satisfactory control of the grasses and broadleaved weeds, erratic performance of the herbicide was observed in cucumber [79, 80]. Cucumbers were tolerant to 3.4 to 4.5 kg/ha of naptalam applied immediately after seeding but were injured by applications at emergence or vining [79, 80]. Reduced yields and crop injury with pre-emergence applications of CDEC at 4.5 kg/ha was also reported in cucumber [79, 80].
**119**
*Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
Registered herbicides for broadleaf weed control in cucumber include halosulfuron, clomazone, ethalfluralin, bensulide, paraquat, carfentrazone and glyphosate. Glyphosate, paraquat, and carfentrazone are effective on *Palmer amaranth* when applied as post-emergence herbicide. However, these herbicides are only registered in cucumber for non-selective control of emerged weeds pre-plant, pre, or post along the crop rows with the use of spray guard [81–83]. These herbicides lack residual control and have limitations when applied post-directed [20], including the failure to control weeds beneath or closes to the crop canopy. Therefore, additional post herbicides that are non-toxic to the crop would be beneficial. Halosulfuron is registered for pre and post-emergence control of some *Amaranth* species [84] but does not give an effective post-emergence control of *Palmer amaranth* [85]. Clomazone has poor efficacy on *Palmer amaranth* when applied alone [85, 86]. Ethalfluralin applied as pre-emergence herbicide provides good early season control of *Palmer amaranth* [87]. Bensulide is an herbicide used as pre-emergence in cucumber and can be tank-mixed with naptalam. Bensulide primarily controls annual grasses, with suppression of only three broadleaf weeds [88]. Bensulide may persist in the soil for months, which may result in potential injury to cucumber [34]. Farmers also often use a combination of clomazone and ethalfluralin for weed management in their cucumber production. Clomazone applied alone suppresses several annual broadleaf weeds and grasses. Clomazone controls *galinsoga* species (Galinsoga spp.), common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.), spurred anoda (Anodacristata L.), and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medicus.) [20]. However, the herbicide has potential to injure cucumber and adjacent vegetation as a result of volatilization and drift. Ref. [46] found that clomazone caused chlorosis in cucumber plants, though recovery was rapid. Similar to clomazone, ethalfluralin provides efficient control of many broadleaf and grass weeds and may injure cucumber. Carpetweed (*Mollugo verticillata* L.), common lambsquarters, pigweed spp. (*Amaranthus* spp.), common purslane (*Portulaca oleracea* L.), and annual grasses are controlled by ethalfluralin. Injury to cucumber from ethalfluralin differs from that of clomazone in that stunting of plants and thinning of plant stand may occur. A major factor that increases injury from ethalfluralin in cucumber is rainfall, irrigation and increased seeding depth [34, 88]. Combination of clomazone and ethalfluralin provided excellent control of annual grass and broadleaf weeds. Ref. [46] reported that applying clomazone and ethalfluralin together controlled hairy nightshade (*Solanum sarrachoides* Sendt.), redroot pigweed (*Amaranthus retroflexus* L.) and smartweed (Polygonoum persicaria L.) better than either herbicide alone. Although this herbicide combination is effective against a number of weed species, they have little to no activity on weed species such as smooth pigweed (*Amaranthus hybridus* L.), morning glory species (*Ipomoea* spp.), and yellow nut sedge (Cyperus esculentus L.) weed species which interferes with harvesting and reduce cucumber fruit quality [26].
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
**8. Integrated weed management in cucumber**
Integrated weed management is the major component of a sustainable cucumber farming. Considering the diversity of weed problem, no single method, whether physical, mechanical or chemical can provide the desired level of efficiency under all situation [19]. Hence, cucumber growers should focus on adopting integrated weed management system to widen weed control spectrum and efficiency in a sustainable, economical, and environmental manner. Integrated weed management involves coordinated use of multiple tactics for optimizing the control of all classes of weed in an ecological and economical sound manner [43]. These tactics can be direct weed control through physical (manual and mechanical tillage/land
#### *Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
context of integrated weed management.
**7. Chemical weed management**
management, weeds in fallow fields are killed and the weed seeds buried in deep soil layers where they cannot emerge. Mechanical weed control in cucumber also involves plowing or disking to destroy weeds by exposing them to variations in light, moisture and temperature [77]. Secondary tillage practices such as harrowing is also used to dislodge and shred weeds in cucumber field. Although these practices destroys weed quickly, they do not provide season-long effect because some weed seeds are still present close to the soil surface [77]. It is therefore imperative to use mechanical weed management before or during early flowering to prevent the production of large quantity of weed seed, and engage follow-up weed control practices to achieve effective weed control. The best practice is usually to cultivate cucumber at the preliminary stage of weed growth when the weeds are still physiologically immature to exert significant competition with the crop [65]. Mechanical weed control cannot be used as the singular method of weed management because it may provide favorable conditions for emergence and dispersal of dormant weed seeds. It also impact the soil structure negatively resulting in soil dryness and compaction [65]. Hence, mechanical weed control must be used only as a supplement to other weed control practices within the
Chemical weed management in cucumber is mainly through the use of herbicides of different active ingredients. Although only limited herbicides are registered and available for weed control in cucumber, herbicides are an essential component of a successful weed control program in cucumber production [78]. These herbicides either pre-emergence or post-emergence, when applied at correct dosage and appropriate timing hampers weed growth and development [6, 7]. Herbicides use in cucumber reduces drudgery and labor requirement, and makes weed control easy, efficient and economical. It also improves soil structure by boosting soil moisture and reducing soil erosion. However, effective weed control with the use of herbicides is limited by the potential for crop injury from registered herbicides [7, 28,]. Herbicides application at too high rate can damage cucumber while too low rate will not provide the expected weed control [5]. Best results from herbicides application in cucumber are obtained when the weeds are at their highest susceptible stages and the crop is at its highest tolerance stages. Selection of a suitable herbicide program for cucumber depends on the population, growth stage, biology and ecology of the infesting weed species [10, 14, 15]. Much of chemical weed control in cucumber revolves around two key herbicides: ethalfluralin and clomazone which gives a reasonable control over most weeds [20]. Both herbicides are safe to use on cucumber and are generally applied pre-emergence for grass and broadleaved weed control [34]. Pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides are used for effective weed control in cucumber. Pre-emergence herbicides can be applied before the planting of cucumber. These herbicides remain active in soil and provide control of weeds before they emerge. However, pre-emergence herbicides should be used with extreme care as they can damage the cucumber seedlings [5, 20]. Although pre-emergence herbicides such as N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (naptalam) provides satisfactory control of the grasses and broadleaved weeds, erratic performance of the herbicide was observed in cucumber [79, 80]. Cucumbers were tolerant to 3.4 to 4.5 kg/ha of naptalam applied immediately after seeding but were injured by applications at emergence or vining [79, 80]. Reduced yields and crop injury with pre-emergence applications of CDEC at 4.5 kg/ha was
**118**
also reported in cucumber [79, 80].
Registered herbicides for broadleaf weed control in cucumber include halosulfuron, clomazone, ethalfluralin, bensulide, paraquat, carfentrazone and glyphosate. Glyphosate, paraquat, and carfentrazone are effective on *Palmer amaranth* when applied as post-emergence herbicide. However, these herbicides are only registered in cucumber for non-selective control of emerged weeds pre-plant, pre, or post along the crop rows with the use of spray guard [81–83]. These herbicides lack residual control and have limitations when applied post-directed [20], including the failure to control weeds beneath or closes to the crop canopy. Therefore, additional post herbicides that are non-toxic to the crop would be beneficial. Halosulfuron is registered for pre and post-emergence control of some *Amaranth* species [84] but does not give an effective post-emergence control of *Palmer amaranth* [85]. Clomazone has poor efficacy on *Palmer amaranth* when applied alone [85, 86]. Ethalfluralin applied as pre-emergence herbicide provides good early season control of *Palmer amaranth* [87]. Bensulide is an herbicide used as pre-emergence in cucumber and can be tank-mixed with naptalam. Bensulide primarily controls annual grasses, with suppression of only three broadleaf weeds [88]. Bensulide may persist in the soil for months, which may result in potential injury to cucumber [34].
Farmers also often use a combination of clomazone and ethalfluralin for weed management in their cucumber production. Clomazone applied alone suppresses several annual broadleaf weeds and grasses. Clomazone controls *galinsoga* species (Galinsoga spp.), common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.), spurred anoda (Anodacristata L.), and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medicus.) [20]. However, the herbicide has potential to injure cucumber and adjacent vegetation as a result of volatilization and drift. Ref. [46] found that clomazone caused chlorosis in cucumber plants, though recovery was rapid. Similar to clomazone, ethalfluralin provides efficient control of many broadleaf and grass weeds and may injure cucumber. Carpetweed (*Mollugo verticillata* L.), common lambsquarters, pigweed spp. (*Amaranthus* spp.), common purslane (*Portulaca oleracea* L.), and annual grasses are controlled by ethalfluralin. Injury to cucumber from ethalfluralin differs from that of clomazone in that stunting of plants and thinning of plant stand may occur. A major factor that increases injury from ethalfluralin in cucumber is rainfall, irrigation and increased seeding depth [34, 88]. Combination of clomazone and ethalfluralin provided excellent control of annual grass and broadleaf weeds. Ref. [46] reported that applying clomazone and ethalfluralin together controlled hairy nightshade (*Solanum sarrachoides* Sendt.), redroot pigweed (*Amaranthus retroflexus* L.) and smartweed (Polygonoum persicaria L.) better than either herbicide alone. Although this herbicide combination is effective against a number of weed species, they have little to no activity on weed species such as smooth pigweed (*Amaranthus hybridus* L.), morning glory species (*Ipomoea* spp.), and yellow nut sedge (Cyperus esculentus L.) weed species which interferes with harvesting and reduce cucumber fruit quality [26].
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.141 | **8. Integrated weed management in cucumber**
Integrated weed management is the major component of a sustainable cucumber farming. Considering the diversity of weed problem, no single method, whether physical, mechanical or chemical can provide the desired level of efficiency under all situation [19]. Hence, cucumber growers should focus on adopting integrated weed management system to widen weed control spectrum and efficiency in a sustainable, economical, and environmental manner. Integrated weed management involves coordinated use of multiple tactics for optimizing the control of all classes of weed in an ecological and economical sound manner [43]. These tactics can be direct weed control through physical (manual and mechanical tillage/land
preparation), chemical and biological means [6]. It could also be indirect control through cultural or agronomic practices such as planting pattern, fertilization timing and placement method, sowing time, row spacing, seed rate, crop cultivar type, intercropping and cover crops [7]. These methods can influence either weed density (i.e. the number of individuals per unit area) and/or weed development (biomass production and soil cover). It is always recommended to use all available options in combination to achieve better control of weeds.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.142 | **9. Conclusions**
Cucumber is a difficult crop to manage as it is susceptible to the attack of numerous weeds, disease pathogens, and insect pests. Weeds reduces cucumber yield and deteriorate fruit quality. Unfortunately, cucumber is not a strong competitor against weeds particularly during the early growth stage. Hence, it is necessary to control weeds to obtain increased yield and high quality fruit from cucumber. All the weed control methods have their own shortcomings and cannot be used as a stand-alone tactics to manage weeds in cucumber efficiently. Manual weed have the constraint of high cost and labor shortage, mechanical options have their own limitations because of the increase in fuel cost, and their use is not practicable within cucumber rows and on large farm sizes. Chemical control on the other hand are always expressive, and only a few herbicides are registered for weed control in cucumber. Moreover, the few available herbicides cannot control the entire weed spectrum and provide season-long weed control when used alone. No single weed control method can provide 100% control; therefore, there is a need to adopt an integrated weed management approach to control weeds in cucumber. A good tillage operation and land preparation, the use of a competitive cucumber cultivar and appropriate plant population and row spacing, application of pre-emergence herbicides, application of post-emergence herbicides particularly along crop rows with the use of spray guard are important in reducing weed density. The combination of these approaches provides effective weed control, improves fruit quality, and helps in environmental conservation. The world is now moving toward precision weed management techniques which involve remote sensing, modelling and use of robotics to control weeds. These technologies are the future of weed management in crop production and have a substantial role to play in modern cucumber production systems. Right selection of one or more of these techniques with reference to environmental, socioeconomic, and geographic conditions will provide effective weed control in cucumber.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.143 | **Author details**
Olumide Samuel Daramola Department of Plant Physiology and Crop Production, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria
\*Address all correspondence to: olumidedara01@gmail.com
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
**121**
profiles/.
*Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
[9] Daramola OS, Adigun JA, Adeyemi OR, Olorunmaiye PM. Efficacy and economic comparison of
weed management in tomato. International Journal of Vegetable
[10] Ugwunna RU, Ochekwu EB, Anyanwu DI. Effectiveness of the Primextra Gold in controlling weeds of Cucumber (*Cucumis Sativus* L.). Journal of Applied Science and Environmental
[11] Trader BW, Wilson HP, Hines TE. Halosulfuron helps control several broadleaf weeds in cucumber and pumpkin. Weed Technology.
[12] Tickes B. Arizona Veg IPM: Melon weed control. Retrieved from Farm Press 2012: http://www.western
[13] Sosnoskie L, Hanson B, Lanini WT. Melon tolerance and weed control with new herbicides. California: University of
[14] Horak MJ, Loughin TM. Growth analysis of four Amaranthus species. Weed Science. 2000;48:347-355
[15] Shiboleth YM, Arazi T, Wang Y, Gal-on A. A new approach for weed control in a cucurbit field employing an
[16] Larry DK and Herbert JH. Plant Density and Herbicides Affect Cucumber Productivity Journal of America Society of Horticultural Science. 2000;117(1):48-53. 1992.
[17] Nweke IA, Orji EC, Ijearu SI. The effect of staking and plant spacing on the growth and yield of cucumber (*Cucumis stativus* L.) Journal of
attenuated poty virus vector for herbicide resistance. Journal of Biotechnology. 2001;37-46.
Science 2020a;26(5):18-25
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2007;21:966– 971
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California 2013.
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
Adeyemi OR. Efficacy and economics of integrated weed management in Chilli pepper. Journal of Crop Improvement.
[2] Chauhan BS, Singh RG, Mahajan G. Ecology and management of weeds under conservation agriculture: A review. Crop Protection. 2012;38:57-65.
[3] Daramola OS. Timing of weed management and yield penalty due to delayed weed management in soybean.
Planta Daninha. 2020;38(3):1-7
[4] McGowen SJ, Jennings KM,
10.1017/wet.2018.58
[5] Berry AD, Stall WM,
*sativus*). Weed Technology.
[7] Holmes GJ, Monks DW, Schultheis JR, Sorensen KA,
[8] Daramola OS, Adigun JA,
2006;20:227-231.
Chaudhari S, Monks DW, Schultheis JR, Reberg-Horton C. Critical Period for Palmer Amaranth (*Amaranthus palmeri*) Control in Pickling Cucumber. Weed Technology. 2018;32:586-591. DOI:
Rathinasabapathi B, Macdonald GE, Charudattan R. Smooth pigweed (*Amaranthus hybridus* L.) and livid amaranth (*Amaranthus lividus*) interference with cucumber (*Cucumis*
[6] Webster TM. Weed survey–southern states: vegetable, fruit, and nut crops subsection. In: Proceeding of South Weed Science Society 2006;63:246-257.
Thornton AC, Toth SJ. Crop profile for cucumbers in North Carolina. 2005. https://ipm.ces.ncsu.edu/ipm-crop-
Adeyemi OR, Adejuyigbe CO. Effect of row spacing and weed control methods on weed population dynamics in soybean. International Journal of Pest Management. 2020b;67(1):1-17
[1] Daramola OS, Adigun JA,
2021;35(1): 38-50.
**References**
*Weed Interference and Management in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99564*
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.132555 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.145 | Pest and Disease Prevention
*Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding*
Wells LK. POST weed control using halosulfuron in direct-seeded watermelon. Weed Technology
[88] Derr JF Monaco TJ. Ethalfluralin activity in cucmber. Weed science. 1982;
2007;19:706-712
30(5):498-502.
**126**
**129**
**1. Introduction**
**Chapter 10**
**Abstract**
Integrated Pest Management for
The vegetables belonging to family cucurbitaceae are known as cucurbits. These vegetables are attacked by various insect pests right from seeding to harvest. A lot of money, time, and natural resources are invested to cultivate these vegetables. Sustainable pest management practices can save this investment by avoiding losses. Successful cultivation of cucurbits especially cucumber requires an effective and economical control of insect pests. Commercial vegetable growers must produce quality vegetables that are attractive and safe to the consumer at a minimum cost. Insect pest infestations in cucurbits cause heavy economic losses to farmers through reduction in yield, increased cost of production and lowered quality of produce. Effective and economic and sustainable pest management requires the use of cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods. The integration of these different methods is necessary for achieving good management of pests. In case of cucurbits especially for cucumber pest management can be achieved only by a longterm assurance to integrated pest management practices (IPM). IPM involves the strategic use of resistant varieties, monitoring of pest incidence, cultural methods, mechanical removal of pest, biological control, and need based use of selective pesticides. Integrated pest management (IPM) is the alternative to insecticide and
Cucurbits in Cucumber
*Ravi Mohan Srivastava and Sneha Joshih*
(*Cucumis sativus* L.)
facilitates sustainable environment management.
**Keywords:** Cucurbits, Pest Management, Insect Pests, Whiteflies, Aphids
Crops belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae are commonly called cucurbits, which include more than 120 genera and 1000 species distributed in tropical and subtropical areas. Cucurbits are tropical in origin and grown mostly in Africa, tropical America, and Asia, mainly Southeast Asia. Cucurbits are a large group that include cucumber, bitter gourd, squash, bottle gourd, ridge gourd, snake gourd, watermelon, muskmelon and pumpkin. Most of the gourds and squashes are commonly used for cooking while cucumber is used for salads and pickles. Watermelon and muskmelon are taken as fruits and wax gourd is prepared as biscuits and jam. The cucurbits are beneficial for human health as their fruits help in purification of blood, boost energy level, improve digestion in the body and remove constipation. *Benincasa hispida* a member of cucurbitaceae family contains volatile oils, uronic acid, carotenes, flavonoids, ß-sitosterin and glycosides which are of pharmaceutical
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.147 | Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus* L.)
*Ravi Mohan Srivastava and Sneha Joshih*
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.148 | **Abstract**
The vegetables belonging to family cucurbitaceae are known as cucurbits. These vegetables are attacked by various insect pests right from seeding to harvest. A lot of money, time, and natural resources are invested to cultivate these vegetables. Sustainable pest management practices can save this investment by avoiding losses. Successful cultivation of cucurbits especially cucumber requires an effective and economical control of insect pests. Commercial vegetable growers must produce quality vegetables that are attractive and safe to the consumer at a minimum cost. Insect pest infestations in cucurbits cause heavy economic losses to farmers through reduction in yield, increased cost of production and lowered quality of produce. Effective and economic and sustainable pest management requires the use of cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods. The integration of these different methods is necessary for achieving good management of pests. In case of cucurbits especially for cucumber pest management can be achieved only by a longterm assurance to integrated pest management practices (IPM). IPM involves the strategic use of resistant varieties, monitoring of pest incidence, cultural methods, mechanical removal of pest, biological control, and need based use of selective pesticides. Integrated pest management (IPM) is the alternative to insecticide and facilitates sustainable environment management.
**Keywords:** Cucurbits, Pest Management, Insect Pests, Whiteflies, Aphids
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.149 | **1. Introduction**
Crops belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae are commonly called cucurbits, which include more than 120 genera and 1000 species distributed in tropical and subtropical areas. Cucurbits are tropical in origin and grown mostly in Africa, tropical America, and Asia, mainly Southeast Asia. Cucurbits are a large group that include cucumber, bitter gourd, squash, bottle gourd, ridge gourd, snake gourd, watermelon, muskmelon and pumpkin. Most of the gourds and squashes are commonly used for cooking while cucumber is used for salads and pickles. Watermelon and muskmelon are taken as fruits and wax gourd is prepared as biscuits and jam. The cucurbits are beneficial for human health as their fruits help in purification of blood, boost energy level, improve digestion in the body and remove constipation. *Benincasa hispida* a member of cucurbitaceae family contains volatile oils, uronic acid, carotenes, flavonoids, ß-sitosterin and glycosides which are of pharmaceutical importance [1]. The major phytochemical present in cucurbits is a terpenoid substance known as Cucurbitacins.
Most cucurbit species is believed to have an African origin. However, cucumber have originated from the foothills of the Himalayas. There the closely related wild species *C. hardwickii Royle* still exists. In India, the cucumber was already being cultivated 3000 years ago, in the 6th century, cucumber was cultivated in China and now it is cultivated worldwide. Immature fruits of cucumber are used as salad vegetable and for pickles. Cucumber and other cucurbit fruits are generally fat-free and low in sodium content. Cucumber is an annual crop and a climbing herb. Its growth development duration can last 12–13 months in favourable conditions.
In present scenario, a significant constraint in the sustainable production and productivity of cucurbits is mainly due to attack of various insect-pests which are responsible for adversely affecting the qualitative and qualitative yield. A wide range of pest complex has been noticed infesting the cucurbits. This chapter joins all the information and provide overall review about the major insect pest of cucumber and other cucurbits, and different IPM measures like monitoring, cultural methods, host resistance, biological control method, use of botanicals as biopesticide and at last use of less hazardous chemical control methods recommended for management of this pest.
#### **1.1 Melon fruit fly***, Bactrocera cucurbitae* **(coquillett)**
*Bactrocera cucurbitae* is a yellowish brown coloured dipteran fly and commonly known as melon fruit fly. It is native to India and is wildly distributed in tropical, subtropical and temperate region of the world [2]. Melon fruit fly attacks about 125 species of plants, mainly cucurbits, viz. gourds, cucumber, pumpkin, squash and other vegetables like tomato, green beans, egg plants etc. The female adult with the help of its sharp and hard ovipositor, punctures the soft and tender fruits and lays eggs just below the fruits's epidermis. After hatching, the maggots start feeding inside the pulp of fruits. A water soaked appearance of fruits develops as a result of larval feeding, these punctures and feeding tunnels provide entry points for various bacteria and fungi and result of this, the infested fruit start rotting, distorted and malformed fruits from plants pre-maturely. About 1000 white colour eggs in the batches of 1–40 slender (2 mm long) are laid by a single female. Dirty white coloured apodous maggots are cylindrical, elongate (7-12 cm). The maggot developmental period is 3 to 21 days depending on the temperature and host. Pupation occurs in the soil at the depth of 0.5 to 15 cm, pupal period is about 7–13 days depending on host and temperature. Adults are long lived about 150 days [3]. Melon fruit fly can cause devastating fruit damage up to 100% in all cucurbits [4].
#### *1.1.1 Management*
Cucurbits fruits are picked up at small intervals for marketing and self-consumption for that reason we cannot rely on insecticide for control of this pest but under severe infestation, it is important to use low residual toxic insecticides with short waiting periods. Therefore in keeping view the importance of crop and this pest different strategy should be used for the management of fruit fly as follows.
#### *1.1.1.1 Local area management*
Local area management is the minimum scale of pest management over a restricted area l, which has no natural protection against reinvasion. Here the major objective is to suppress the pest, rather than to eradicate it. The strategies
**131**
*Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
*1.1.1.2 Monitoring and management with cue/pheromone lures*
includes bagging of fruits, field sanitation, protein baits and cue-lure traps, host plant resistance, biological control, and soft insecticides, can be employed to avoid
For the monitoring of fruit flies, the sex attractant cue-lure traps are more effective than the food attractant tephritlure traps. and cue-lure and methyl eugenol traps have been used to attract males for monitoring and mass trapping [5, 6]. *Ocimum sanctum* as the border crop sprayed with protein bait containing spinosad as a toxicant found effective in management of this pest [7]. A variety of commercially produced attractants (cuelure ®, Eugelure®, Flycide®) are available in the market and can be used efficiently in management of this pest. For trapping male flies, installation of old used water bottle baited with cue-lure saturated wood blocks (ethanol/ cue-lure/carbaryl in a ratio 8:1:2) at 25 traps/ha prior to flower initiation is quite effective. Use of NSKE 4% as a repellent can enhance trapping and luring in bait spots. Use of neem as a repellent enhanced the catch in parapheromone traps and increased the luring ability of para-pheromone by 52%. Although, along with repellents and bait spray, other operations like removal and destruction
of maggots in early infested fruits and field sanitation must be adopted.
done on maize during the evening hours to kill adult fruit flies.
Field sanitation is most effective method in melon fruit fly management. It should be done for minimising pest intensity and to break reproduction cycle by removal and destruction of infested fruits daily from the field and bury the damaged fruits 0.46 m deep into the soil [8]. Akhtaruzzaman et al. [9] recommended bagging of cucumber fruits after 3 days of anthesis and bag should be kept for 5 days for effective control. Bagging of 3–4 cm long fruits with two layers of paper bags reduces fruit fly infestation and enhances the net returns by 40–58% [10]. 2–3 rows of maize as a trap crop can be grown between the cucurbits, which can be used as a resting site by the adult fruit fly. Spraying of any contact insecticides can be
Srinivasan [11] reported *Opius fletcheri* Silv. to be a dominant parasitoid of *B. cucurbitae.* The parasitization of *B. cucurbitae* by *O. flatcheri* has been reported to vary from 0.2 to 1.9% in *M. charantia* [12]. In the IPM program of *B. cucurbitae* at Hawaii, a new parasitoid, *Fopius arisanus* has been included [13]. A nematode, *Steinernema carpocapsae* Weiser *(Neoaplectana carpocapsae),* has been found to cause 0–86% mortality to melon fruit fly after 6 days exposure [14]. The culture filtrate of the fungus, *Rhizoctonia solani* Kuhn, act as an effective bio-agent against maggots [15], and the fungus*, Gliocladium virens* Origen, has been found to be an effective against adult flies [16]. Oviposition and development of *B. cucurbitae* adversely affected by culture filtrates of the fungi *R. solani, Trichoderma viridae*
Host plant resistance is an important element in IPM programs It is an important component in IPM programs. It does not cause any negative impact to the environment. The success in developing high yielding and melon fruit fly-resistant varieties
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
environmental and health hazard [4].
*1.1.1.3 Cultural methods*
*1.1.1.4 Biological control*
Pers., and *G. virens* [17].
*1.1.1.5 Host plant resistance*
#### *Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
includes bagging of fruits, field sanitation, protein baits and cue-lure traps, host plant resistance, biological control, and soft insecticides, can be employed to avoid environmental and health hazard [4].
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.150 | *1.1.1.2 Monitoring and management with cue/pheromone lures*
For the monitoring of fruit flies, the sex attractant cue-lure traps are more effective than the food attractant tephritlure traps. and cue-lure and methyl eugenol traps have been used to attract males for monitoring and mass trapping [5, 6]. *Ocimum sanctum* as the border crop sprayed with protein bait containing spinosad as a toxicant found effective in management of this pest [7]. A variety of commercially produced attractants (cuelure ®, Eugelure®, Flycide®) are available in the market and can be used efficiently in management of this pest. For trapping male flies, installation of old used water bottle baited with cue-lure saturated wood blocks (ethanol/ cue-lure/carbaryl in a ratio 8:1:2) at 25 traps/ha prior to flower initiation is quite effective. Use of NSKE 4% as a repellent can enhance trapping and luring in bait spots. Use of neem as a repellent enhanced the catch in parapheromone traps and increased the luring ability of para-pheromone by 52%. Although, along with repellents and bait spray, other operations like removal and destruction of maggots in early infested fruits and field sanitation must be adopted.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.133700 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.151 | *1.1.1.3 Cultural methods*
Field sanitation is most effective method in melon fruit fly management. It should be done for minimising pest intensity and to break reproduction cycle by removal and destruction of infested fruits daily from the field and bury the damaged fruits 0.46 m deep into the soil [8]. Akhtaruzzaman et al. [9] recommended bagging of cucumber fruits after 3 days of anthesis and bag should be kept for 5 days for effective control. Bagging of 3–4 cm long fruits with two layers of paper bags reduces fruit fly infestation and enhances the net returns by 40–58% [10]. 2–3 rows of maize as a trap crop can be grown between the cucurbits, which can be used as a resting site by the adult fruit fly. Spraying of any contact insecticides can be done on maize during the evening hours to kill adult fruit flies.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.133736 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.152 | *1.1.1.4 Biological control*
Srinivasan [11] reported *Opius fletcheri* Silv. to be a dominant parasitoid of *B. cucurbitae.* The parasitization of *B. cucurbitae* by *O. flatcheri* has been reported to vary from 0.2 to 1.9% in *M. charantia* [12]. In the IPM program of *B. cucurbitae* at Hawaii, a new parasitoid, *Fopius arisanus* has been included [13]. A nematode, *Steinernema carpocapsae* Weiser *(Neoaplectana carpocapsae),* has been found to cause 0–86% mortality to melon fruit fly after 6 days exposure [14]. The culture filtrate of the fungus, *Rhizoctonia solani* Kuhn, act as an effective bio-agent against maggots [15], and the fungus*, Gliocladium virens* Origen, has been found to be an effective against adult flies [16]. Oviposition and development of *B. cucurbitae* adversely affected by culture filtrates of the fungi *R. solani, Trichoderma viridae* Pers., and *G. virens* [17].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.133768 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.153 | *1.1.1.5 Host plant resistance*
Host plant resistance is an important element in IPM programs It is an important component in IPM programs. It does not cause any negative impact to the environment. The success in developing high yielding and melon fruit fly-resistant varieties is limited. By using wide hybridization technique the resistance genes from the wild relatives can be transferred in the cultivated genotypes of cucurbits [4]. Some resistant genotypes are IHR 89, Hisar II for bitter gourd, Arka Suryamukhi, IHR 35 for pumpkin, NB29 and Pusa smooth purple long for bottle gourd, Arka Tinda for round melon, *Cucumis callosus* for Wild melon, NS14 for sponge gourd and NR2, NR5, NR7 for ridge gourd.
### *1.1.1.6 Botanicals*
The adult longevity reduced from 119.2 to 26.6 days by continuous feeding with extract of *Acorus calamus* (0.15%) mixed with sugar (at 1 mL/g sugar) [18]. Neem oil (1.2%) and neem cake (4%) are found to be effecting in fruit fly management [19].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.133799 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.154 | *1.1.1.7 Chemical control*
The use of chemical insecticide to manage fruit fly is relatively ineffective. Application of malathion (0.05%) as cover spray to kill the insects on contact is effective or a bait spray by adding 50 g gur + 10 mL malathion in 10 L water that attract and kill the adults is good for its management. For good control of fruit fly spraying of malathion + molasses + water in the ratio of 1:0.1:100 is suggested by Akhtaruzzaman et al. [20]. This method is economical and environmental friendly as there is very low contamination of fruits from insecticides. Gupta and Verma [21] recommended that fenitrothion (0.025%) in combination with protein hydrolysate (0.25%) minimised melon fruit fly infestation to 8.7% compared to 43.3% damage in untreated control. Reddy [22] reported that triazophos is the most effective insecticide to manage this pest on bitter gourd. Diflubenzuron is also found effective in controlling the melon fruit fly [23], and quinalphos (0.2%) successfully manage its population on different cucurbits.
#### *1.1.2 Wide area management*
The objective of wide area management is to combine and coordinate different characteristics of an insect eradication program over an entire area within a defensible perimeter. This management program includes a three-tier model, that is, early reduction in population using bait spray, inhibition of reproduction using para-pheromone lure blocks to eradicate males to avert oviposition by females, and intensive survey using traps and fruit inspection until it could be discovered that the pest is entirely eradicated [24]. Male-sterile technique, also incorporated under this program, in this sterile males are released in the fields for mating with the wild females. The transmission of dominant lethal mutations kills the progeny of fruit fly. The females either do not lay eggs or lay sterile eggs. Eventually, the pest population can be eradicated by maintaining a barrier of sterile flies [4]. The spread of the melon fruit fly can be blocked through tight quarantine and treatment of fruits at the import/export ports.
#### **1.2 Red pumpkin beetle (***Raphidopalpa foveico* **llis/***Aulacophora foveico* **llis)**
Red pumpkin beetle is a common and major pest of a wide range of cucurbits, especially sweet gourd, bitter gourd, watermelon, bottle gourd, and muskmelon. It is polyphagous in nature [25]. Both larval and adult stages are voracious feeders of the cucurbit crops and cause severe damage to seedlings and young and tender leaves and flowers [26, 27]. The pest is widely distributed in different parts of the
**133**
*Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
throughout the country but is more common in the north western parts.
world, especially in Asia, Africa, Australia, and south Europe. In India, it occurs
The dorsal body of the adult beetle is deep orange in colour, while the ventral side is black. The beetles are about t 5–8 mm in length and 3.5–3.75 mm in width. The posterior part of the abdomen bears soft white hairs. The female lays brown coloured elongated eggs in the moist soil in the clusters of 8–9 that hatch into larvae in 6–15 days. After about 7 days of emergence, beetles starts egg laying and complete its 5 generations from March to October. Larvae are creamy, yellow-coloured and feed on the roots, stems, and fruits touching the ground. Due to infection by the saprophytic fungi rotting of damaged roots and underground stems may be occurred. Leaf lamina of cucurbits is voraciously feed by scrapping off the chlorophyll and making irregular holes on leaves with netlike appearance by beetle. First generation is more injurious than the subsequent generations as the maximum damage is noticed during cotyledon stage. The infested plants may shrivel, and resowing/replanting may become important under severe infestation. The young and smaller fruits of the infested plants may dry up. Sweet gourd was the most susceptible while bitter gourd was found to be the least susceptible host for this pest [28]. Beetles are strong fliers and very active in hot weather, and when disturbed, take fly quickly. If it is not controlled timely the damage by this pest may become severe. The losses due to the pest have been reported up to 30–100% in the field
Monitoring of seedling should be done twice a week to check the infestation of red pumpkin beetle. The older plant parts should be monitored regularly and should be treated if severe defoliation is noticed. In the initial stage of infestation collection and destruction of beetles is good practice, otherwise the alternative practices can be employed for the management of this pest. Preventive measures such as burning of old plant parts, ploughing, and harrowing of field after harvesting of the crops should be followed for the destruction of all the stages of this pest. Early planting of cucurbits than the normal planting time could also be effective in management as the plants pass the cotyledonary stage by the time the beetles
Khan [29] reported the preferred cucurbit host plants for this beetles and categorised bitter gourd, ribbed gourd, sponge gourd, and snake gourd as nonpreferred hosts (resistant), while cucumber, muskmelon, and sweet gourd were the most preferred hosts (susceptible) and bottle gourd and ash gourd were moderately
Application of neem oil cake in the soil is effective in killing grubs. Treatment of bottle gourd plants with entomopathogenic fungi *B. bassiana* resulted in maximum reduction of beetle infestation along with the highest fruit yield [30]. Khan and Wasim [31] reported maximum repellence against pumpkin beetles in treatment comprising of neem extracts mixed with benzene. *Parthenium spp*. extract was
found to be effective in management of the red pumpkin beetle [32].
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
conditions [29].
*1.2.1 Management*
become active.
*1.2.1.2 Host plant resistance*
preferred hosts (moderately susceptible).
*1.2.1.3 Botanicals and biopesticides*
*1.2.1.1 Monitoring and cultural methods*
#### *Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
world, especially in Asia, Africa, Australia, and south Europe. In India, it occurs throughout the country but is more common in the north western parts.
The dorsal body of the adult beetle is deep orange in colour, while the ventral side is black. The beetles are about t 5–8 mm in length and 3.5–3.75 mm in width. The posterior part of the abdomen bears soft white hairs. The female lays brown coloured elongated eggs in the moist soil in the clusters of 8–9 that hatch into larvae in 6–15 days. After about 7 days of emergence, beetles starts egg laying and complete its 5 generations from March to October. Larvae are creamy, yellow-coloured and feed on the roots, stems, and fruits touching the ground. Due to infection by the saprophytic fungi rotting of damaged roots and underground stems may be occurred. Leaf lamina of cucurbits is voraciously feed by scrapping off the chlorophyll and making irregular holes on leaves with netlike appearance by beetle. First generation is more injurious than the subsequent generations as the maximum damage is noticed during cotyledon stage. The infested plants may shrivel, and resowing/replanting may become important under severe infestation. The young and smaller fruits of the infested plants may dry up. Sweet gourd was the most susceptible while bitter gourd was found to be the least susceptible host for this pest [28]. Beetles are strong fliers and very active in hot weather, and when disturbed, take fly quickly. If it is not controlled timely the damage by this pest may become severe. The losses due to the pest have been reported up to 30–100% in the field conditions [29].
#### *1.2.1 Management*
#### *1.2.1.1 Monitoring and cultural methods*
Monitoring of seedling should be done twice a week to check the infestation of red pumpkin beetle. The older plant parts should be monitored regularly and should be treated if severe defoliation is noticed. In the initial stage of infestation collection and destruction of beetles is good practice, otherwise the alternative practices can be employed for the management of this pest. Preventive measures such as burning of old plant parts, ploughing, and harrowing of field after harvesting of the crops should be followed for the destruction of all the stages of this pest. Early planting of cucurbits than the normal planting time could also be effective in management as the plants pass the cotyledonary stage by the time the beetles become active.
#### *1.2.1.2 Host plant resistance*
Khan [29] reported the preferred cucurbit host plants for this beetles and categorised bitter gourd, ribbed gourd, sponge gourd, and snake gourd as nonpreferred hosts (resistant), while cucumber, muskmelon, and sweet gourd were the most preferred hosts (susceptible) and bottle gourd and ash gourd were moderately preferred hosts (moderately susceptible).
#### *1.2.1.3 Botanicals and biopesticides*
Application of neem oil cake in the soil is effective in killing grubs. Treatment of bottle gourd plants with entomopathogenic fungi *B. bassiana* resulted in maximum reduction of beetle infestation along with the highest fruit yield [30]. Khan and Wasim [31] reported maximum repellence against pumpkin beetles in treatment comprising of neem extracts mixed with benzene. *Parthenium spp*. extract was found to be effective in management of the red pumpkin beetle [32].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.133864 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.155 | *1.2.1.4 Chemical control*
Generally, this pest attacks the crop at the cotyledonary stage when adults skeletonize the young leaves. At the time of initial infestation, applications of malathion (0.5%) or carbaryl (0.1%) minimise the damage successfully [33]. Dusting with permethrin (0.5%) alone and ash + permethrin dust (2000:1 *a.i.* w/w) provide good control against this beetles on the cucumber crop, with no phytotoxicity symptoms on the plant [34]. Synthetic pyrethroids (cypermethrin 0.012%, deltamethrin 0.004%, and fenvalerate 0.01%) were effective in suppressing the beetle population for about a week [35].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.134390 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.156 | **1.3 Hadda beetle (***Epilachna implicate, E. viginitioctopunctata and E. borealis***)**
This is an occasional pest on cucurbit. It is a serious pest of squash, bitter gourd, and pumpkin. Grub only feed on the underside of the leaf, whereas adults may be found to feed on both the leaf surfaces or even on the fruit rind, leaving spiral-shaped scars and deteriorating fruit quality [36]. Both grub and adult feed voraciously by scrapping the chlorophyll of the leaves which cause characteristic skeletonization of leaf lamina and leaving a fine net of veins on leaves. The affected leaves gradually dry and fallen down. The young plants are killed overnight in case of severe infestation. The yellowish-brown coloured adult beetles are globular in shaped and 6–8 mm long, bearing 12–28 black spots on the elytra. The female lays about 300–400 eggs in clusters on the under surface of the leaves. Eggs on hatching turns into yellowish larvae (grub) with branched black spines covering the body. Full-grown larvae about 7-9 cm long pupate below the leaf or at the base of the stems. The pupa is yellow in colour, and lacks spines and hangs from the leaf. The development period comprises of 4–6 weeks under optimal conditions. Adults make semicircular cuts in rows, while Scrapping of the epidermis indicates the feeding manner of the grubs. Young plants can be totally destroyed, but older plants can tolerate considerable leaf damage. Overwintering sites for adults are under loose tree bark or under leaf litter near the edge of fields.
#### *1.3.1 Management*
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.134453 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.157 | *1.3.1.1 Cultural methods*
The best time of day for the inspection of hadda beetles on cucurbits is around noon. As they are not strong fliers, so crop rotation to distant fields tends to limit population and colonisation [36]. On the small scale like kitchen garden handpicking is recommended for the management of this pest because both the larvae and adults are not very aggressive defoliators. Harrowing and destroying vines and larvae after harvesting early cucurbits is recommended to suppress pest population. Row covers can be used to protect cucurbit from the beetles.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.134581 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.158 | *1.3.1.2 Botanicals*
The application of seed extracts of *Annona squamosa* (3 mL/L of water) helps in minimising population build up to the extent of 76% which is followed by 64% and 57% through NeemAzal (5 mL/L of water) and petroleum ether rhizome extracts of *A. calamus* (2 mL/L of water), respectively [37]. Aqueous neem kernel extracts foliar spray at concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 g/L once in a week and neem oil spray with an ultralow-volume sprayer at 10 and 20 L/ha significantly was found effective in reducing feeding by *Epilachna* beetles in cucumber and squash [38]. Tephrosia leaf extract (20 g/100 mL water) provide highest yield and good control of *Epilachna* beetle by killing adults and inhibition of pupae formation and
**135**
*1.4.1 Management*
*1.4.1.1 Monitoring*
*Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
prolonged larval duration, pupae formation, and adult emergence.
stunted plant growth are some usual symptoms of viral infection.
Aphids multiply at a very fast rate, and this must be considered while monitoring this pest. Plants should be inspected at least two times a week especially at the under
this is an environment friendly pest control method [39]. Swaminathan et al. [40] have observed the antifeedant and lethal effects of *Azadirachta indica*, *Madhuca latifolia* and *P. glabra,* on this pest. Islam et al. [41] performed larvicidal bioassays with crude aqueous leaf extracts of *plants viz., Ricinus communis, Datura metel* and *Calotropis procera* and these extracts showed considerable toxicity against the Hadda beetles by adversely affecting both oviposition and egg hatching besides
Foliar applications of some synthetic pesticides like parathion, malathion, lambda-cyhalothrin, pyrethrin and spinosad are found to be effective in control of
Many aphid species including melon aphid (*Aphis gossypii*) and green peach aphid found to feed on cucurbits and cause similar devastating damage. They pierce the tender plant part with their slender mouthpart and suck plant fluids from it. Aphids are small about 3 mm long, pear-shaped soft bodied insects with long legs and antennae. They are yellow, pale green, red, brown or black in colour. Some aphid secretes a waxy grey or white material that covers their body and it gives them a waxy or woolly appearance. The adults are usually wingless but when populations are high especially during spring and autumn season winged forms can also be seen. A pair of tube-like structures known as cornicles projecting rearwards from their abdomen is present in most of the aphid species. Aphids can disperse long distances with the help of wind flow. Asexual reproduction is a common phenomenon in majority of aphid species. Adult females give birth to wingless nymphs which become adults after moulting and shedding the skin multiple times within a week. Each adult reproduces numerous nymphs in a short span of time therefore, aphid population increase rapidly. The green peach aphid (*Myzus persicae*) is slender, dark green to yellow in colour, and it has no waxy bloom. They tend to cluster on succulent plant parts and within 10–12 days one generation completes and there are about over 20 generations annually under mild climates [42]. This aphid (both nymph and adult) is known as the most important vector for the transmission of viruses throughout the world [43]. Aphids' infestation causes a variety of symptoms, including reduced plant growth and vigour, yellowing, mottling, browning, curling and wilting of leaves, Ultimately result in low economic yields and sometimes death of plant. The downward curling and crinkling of the leaves is the first sign of aphid infestation. Malformed flowers or fruits are developed due to feeding of aphid on flower buds and fruits. Honeydew excreted by aphids also act as a growth substrate for sooty moulds (fungi) on leaves and other plant parts, which ultimately hinders photosynthesis by blocking light. Aphids also transmit several viruses that affect all cucurbits causing a high rate of crop failure and great economic losses. These viruses are cucumber mosaic virus, zucchini yellow mosaic virus, watermelon mosaic virus and papaya ring spot virus. Mottling, yellowing, or curling of leaves and
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
*1.3.1.3 Chemical control*
severe infestation of this pest.
**1.4 Aphid (***Myzus persicae and Aphis gossypii***)**
*Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
this is an environment friendly pest control method [39]. Swaminathan et al. [40] have observed the antifeedant and lethal effects of *Azadirachta indica*, *Madhuca latifolia* and *P. glabra,* on this pest. Islam et al. [41] performed larvicidal bioassays with crude aqueous leaf extracts of *plants viz., Ricinus communis, Datura metel* and *Calotropis procera* and these extracts showed considerable toxicity against the Hadda beetles by adversely affecting both oviposition and egg hatching besides prolonged larval duration, pupae formation, and adult emergence.
#### *1.3.1.3 Chemical control*
Foliar applications of some synthetic pesticides like parathion, malathion, lambda-cyhalothrin, pyrethrin and spinosad are found to be effective in control of severe infestation of this pest.
#### **1.4 Aphid (***Myzus persicae and Aphis gossypii***)**
Many aphid species including melon aphid (*Aphis gossypii*) and green peach aphid found to feed on cucurbits and cause similar devastating damage. They pierce the tender plant part with their slender mouthpart and suck plant fluids from it. Aphids are small about 3 mm long, pear-shaped soft bodied insects with long legs and antennae. They are yellow, pale green, red, brown or black in colour. Some aphid secretes a waxy grey or white material that covers their body and it gives them a waxy or woolly appearance. The adults are usually wingless but when populations are high especially during spring and autumn season winged forms can also be seen. A pair of tube-like structures known as cornicles projecting rearwards from their abdomen is present in most of the aphid species. Aphids can disperse long distances with the help of wind flow. Asexual reproduction is a common phenomenon in majority of aphid species. Adult females give birth to wingless nymphs which become adults after moulting and shedding the skin multiple times within a week. Each adult reproduces numerous nymphs in a short span of time therefore, aphid population increase rapidly. The green peach aphid (*Myzus persicae*) is slender, dark green to yellow in colour, and it has no waxy bloom. They tend to cluster on succulent plant parts and within 10–12 days one generation completes and there are about over 20 generations annually under mild climates [42]. This aphid (both nymph and adult) is known as the most important vector for the transmission of viruses throughout the world [43]. Aphids' infestation causes a variety of symptoms, including reduced plant growth and vigour, yellowing, mottling, browning, curling and wilting of leaves, Ultimately result in low economic yields and sometimes death of plant. The downward curling and crinkling of the leaves is the first sign of aphid infestation. Malformed flowers or fruits are developed due to feeding of aphid on flower buds and fruits. Honeydew excreted by aphids also act as a growth substrate for sooty moulds (fungi) on leaves and other plant parts, which ultimately hinders photosynthesis by blocking light. Aphids also transmit several viruses that affect all cucurbits causing a high rate of crop failure and great economic losses. These viruses are cucumber mosaic virus, zucchini yellow mosaic virus, watermelon mosaic virus and papaya ring spot virus. Mottling, yellowing, or curling of leaves and stunted plant growth are some usual symptoms of viral infection.
#### *1.4.1 Management*
#### *1.4.1.1 Monitoring*
Aphids multiply at a very fast rate, and this must be considered while monitoring this pest. Plants should be inspected at least two times a week especially at the under
surface of the leaves. Severe infestation is noticed during end of growing season. Yellow sticky traps should be used for detecting aphids 2–3 weeks prior to planting.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.159 | *1.4.1.2 Cultural method*
Floating row covers or reflective mulches may be effective to exclude or repel this pest [43]. On early crop stage, aluminium foil mulches can be used to repel the invading aphid and check transmission of viruses. Reflective mulches can increase temperature beyond optimum for cucurbits in very hot and arid regions therefore, not recommended for these areas. Reflective mulches repels aphids from plants and consistently suppress aphid population and also help in delaying symptoms of watermelon mosaic and cucumber mosaic cucumo virus and zucchini yellow mosaic potyviruses by 3–6 weeks. Biodegradable synthetic latex spray mulches and reflective polyethylene and provide good control of aphids and aphid-borne virus diseases on late-season melons [44]. Living mulches minimise the contrast between the plant foliage and bare land, subsequently, the aphids do not detect their host and these mulches around main crop provide additional feeding sites for viruliferous aphids (aphids carrying virus) and hence minimise aphid-borne non -persistently transmitted viruses incidence and spread [45].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.134998 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.160 | *1.4.1.3 Biological control*
Beneficial insects like predators, parasitoids, and pathogens are attracted to plants with moderate to heavy aphid infestations. These natural enemies may attack large numbers of aphids but as the reproductive potential of aphids is very high hence, the impact of the these natural enemies may not be enough to keep the aphids population below economic threshold levels. Lady bird beetles and their larvae *(Hippodamia convergens, Harmonia axyridis, Coleomegilla maculata)* [46], larvae of the syrphid fly [47], minute pirate bug *(Orius tristicolor* and *O. insidiosus)* and green lacewing larvae (*Chrysoperla carnea, Chrysopa spp*.) and brown lacewing larvae *(Hemerobius spp.)* and larvae of the aphid midge *(Aphidoletes aphidimyza*) [48] are common predators of aphid and help in natural control of this pest. Parasitoids comprises important place among natural enemies of aphid [49]. Some commonly found aphid parasitoids are *Aphidius matricariae, Aphidius colemani*, *Binodoxys angelicae and Lysiphlebus fabarum* [50]. Under humid conditions, Some fungi infect and provide biological control of aphid population, the most common entomopathogenic fungi are *B. bassiana, M. anisopliae, Verticillium lecanii* [51], and *B. bassiana* must be applied three times at an interval of 5–7 days for good control. Entomopathogenic fungus could be more effective than insecticides for controlling large populations of aphids if utilised properly.
### *1.4.1.4 Chemical control*
Potassium soap and petroleum oil or Actara are recommended for the management of this pest. Killing of aphid population should be done before destroying old crops to avoid winged virus-infected aphids from getting to nearby crops by using a detergent and vegetable oil solution. Acetamiprid (0.01%) or Cypermethrin (0.01%) or malathion (0.05%) can be used to control aphids.
#### **1.5 Whitefly (***Bemisia tabaci, B. argentifolii and Trialeurodes vaparariorus***)**
Cucurbits are attacked by several species of whiteflies. Of these, silverleaf whitefly *(Bemisia argentifolii),* tobacco whitefly *(Bemisia tabaci),* and greenhouse
**137**
of whiteflies.
*1.5.1.3 Biological control*
*Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
whitefly *(Trialeurodes vaporariorum)* are the most devastating. Whiteflies are small in size about 1–1.5 mm long and the body and wings of adult are covered with fine whitish powdery wax. Adults and eggs are commonly found on younger leaves while nymphs are present on older leaves. A female lays around 300 eggs [52]; eggs are oval in shape and are laid by making a slit in the leaf. Initially the eggs are white, changing to brown colour, and are hatched within 8–10 days. The first instar is known as called crawler is the only mobile instar that moves to look for feeding sites, while the other instars are sessile and complete its life cycle on the same feeding site [53]. One generation of whitefly completes in about 3–4 weeks. The silverleaf whitefly gets injects a toxin into the plant that causes whitening of the under surface of newly emerging leaves. Severe damage may be occur on younger plants compared to older plants. Whitefly directly affects the cucurbits by its feeding and by acting as a vector of viruses. Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus, Cucurbit chlorotic yellow virus, beet pseudo yellow virus, and lettuce infectious yellows virus, are exclusively transmitted by whiteflies in both field and greenhouse-grown cucurbits [54]. Whiteflies also excrete honeydew which promotes the growth of sooty mould on leaves and economic
For early detection and monitoring the activity of whiteflies in the field, yellow sticky traps can be used. These traps are very important step for their management
Crop rotation, mulching, floating row covers, non-infested transplants, cover crops, and good field sanitation are some common cultural practises to prevent the build-up of whiteflies. Delayed planting or host-free periods may reduces severity of infestation as temperature and rainfall influence whitefly population dynamics [56, 57]. Soil ground covers such as living or synthetic mulches have been found to suppress whitefly infestation [52, 58]. UV-reflective plastic mulch provide good management of silverleaf whitefly by repelling the adults flies, which minimize their colonisation and nymph population on zucchini squash and pumpkin [59]. Field sanitations an important practice to control whiteflies infestation, whitefly-transmitted virus incidence, and insecticide resistance. Crop residues that shelter whiteflies should be destroyed immediately after final harvesting to reduce their population and sources of plant viruses [60]. Weeds should be eradicated regularly from the crop as they can support large populations
Natural enemies of whitefly such as *Encarsia formosa*, *E. luteola,* and *Eretmocerus*
*Paecilomyces fumosoroseus* are very useful to suppress whiteflies in both field and greenhouse crops [62]. The important predators affecting whiteflies are true bugs (Miridae, Anthocoridae), beetles (Coccinellidae), lacewings (Chrysopidae, Coniopterygidae),
*californicus* have been found quite effective in the greenhouse conditions [61]. Entomopathogenic fungi based products namely, *V. lecanii, B. bassiana* and
distance
of whitefly. Traps should be placed just above the canopy at every 100 m<sup>2</sup>
of the crop as whiteflies are most attracted toward young foliage [55].
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
plant parts.
*1.5.1 Management*
*1.5.1.1 Monitoring*
*1.5.1.2 Cultural methods*
*Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
whitefly *(Trialeurodes vaporariorum)* are the most devastating. Whiteflies are small in size about 1–1.5 mm long and the body and wings of adult are covered with fine whitish powdery wax. Adults and eggs are commonly found on younger leaves while nymphs are present on older leaves. A female lays around 300 eggs [52]; eggs are oval in shape and are laid by making a slit in the leaf. Initially the eggs are white, changing to brown colour, and are hatched within 8–10 days. The first instar is known as called crawler is the only mobile instar that moves to look for feeding sites, while the other instars are sessile and complete its life cycle on the same feeding site [53]. One generation of whitefly completes in about 3–4 weeks. The silverleaf whitefly gets injects a toxin into the plant that causes whitening of the under surface of newly emerging leaves. Severe damage may be occur on younger plants compared to older plants. Whitefly directly affects the cucurbits by its feeding and by acting as a vector of viruses. Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus, Cucurbit chlorotic yellow virus, beet pseudo yellow virus, and lettuce infectious yellows virus, are exclusively transmitted by whiteflies in both field and greenhouse-grown cucurbits [54]. Whiteflies also excrete honeydew which promotes the growth of sooty mould on leaves and economic plant parts.
#### *1.5.1 Management*
#### *1.5.1.1 Monitoring*
For early detection and monitoring the activity of whiteflies in the field, yellow sticky traps can be used. These traps are very important step for their management of whitefly. Traps should be placed just above the canopy at every 100 m<sup>2</sup> distance of the crop as whiteflies are most attracted toward young foliage [55].
## *1.5.1.2 Cultural methods*
Crop rotation, mulching, floating row covers, non-infested transplants, cover crops, and good field sanitation are some common cultural practises to prevent the build-up of whiteflies. Delayed planting or host-free periods may reduces severity of infestation as temperature and rainfall influence whitefly population dynamics [56, 57]. Soil ground covers such as living or synthetic mulches have been found to suppress whitefly infestation [52, 58]. UV-reflective plastic mulch provide good management of silverleaf whitefly by repelling the adults flies, which minimize their colonisation and nymph population on zucchini squash and pumpkin [59]. Field sanitations an important practice to control whiteflies infestation, whitefly-transmitted virus incidence, and insecticide resistance. Crop residues that shelter whiteflies should be destroyed immediately after final harvesting to reduce their population and sources of plant viruses [60]. Weeds should be eradicated regularly from the crop as they can support large populations of whiteflies.
#### *1.5.1.3 Biological control*
Natural enemies of whitefly such as *Encarsia formosa*, *E. luteola,* and *Eretmocerus californicus* have been found quite effective in the greenhouse conditions [61]. Entomopathogenic fungi based products namely, *V. lecanii, B. bassiana* and *Paecilomyces fumosoroseus* are very useful to suppress whiteflies in both field and greenhouse crops [62]. The important predators affecting whiteflies are true bugs (Miridae, Anthocoridae), beetles (Coccinellidae), lacewings (Chrysopidae, Coniopterygidae),
spiders (Araneae) and mites (Phytoseiidae), [63]. *Conwentzia africana* (dusky lacewing) has been considered one of the most important predators of *B. tabaci* [64].
## *1.5.1.4 Botanicals*
Azadirachtin containing neem-based pesticide formulations like NeemAzal and Azatin have been found to control young nymphs and inhibit growth and development of older nymphs, and suppress egg laying by adult flies. Soap and certain oil sprays can be used in an organically certified crop. The efficacy of neem-based pesticides can be increased by adding 0.1%–0.5% soft soap in it.
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.161 | *1.5.1.5 Chemical control*
The adults at immature stage reside on the underside of leaves, therefore whiteflies are usually difficult to control by using chemicals. Neonicotinoid insecticide like imidacloprid or thiamethoxam applied in soil at the time of planting effectively controls whiteflies. Foliar spray with neonicotinoid insecticide such as acetamiprid can be done at early stages of growth before flower initiation. Spiromesifen is effective against immature stages of the whitefly [60]. Consecutive applications of the same insecticide should be avoided. Soil application of any neonicotinoid with a foliar application of another neonicotinoid never be followed.
#### **1.6 Squash bug (***Anasa tristis)*
The pest has been reported to attack nearly all cucurbits but most preferred cucurbits for oviposition and high rates of reproduction and survival are squash and pumpkin. It damages the crop severely by secreting highly toxic saliva into the cucurbit. Foliage is the primary site of that wilts, becomes blackened, and dies upon feeding. The fruits are also infested. The intensity of damage is directly proportional to the population density of pest. The adults emit a strong odour when crushed.
#### *1.6.1 Management*
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.135801 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.162 | *1.6.1.1 Cultural methods*
Plastic and spun bounded material can be used a row cover at the time of planting. Straw mulch is found effective in controlling squash bugs by providing cover [65]. As this pest prefers squash over other cucurbits, squash planting can be used as a trap crop around other cucurbits. Trap crop squash can be treated with insecticide to control the infestation.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.135900 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.163 | *1.6.1.2 Biological control*
Several natural enemies are known to parasitize squash bug, especially Hymenoptera parasitoids belonging to family Encyrtidae and Scelionidae. A important tachinid fly parasitoid *T. pennipes*, attacks nymphs and adults of this pest [66], and 100% parasitisation in certain fields in particular years was observed [67].
#### *1.6.1.3 Botanicals*
Certain plant derived oils such as neem oil are helpful in the management of squash bug.
**139**
**Author details**
Ravi Mohan Srivastava and Sneha Joshih
provided the original work is properly cited.
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
techniques, sustainable production of cucurbits can be achieved.
\*Address all correspondence to: ravimohanento@gmail.com
*Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.)*
For the successful squash bug control timing of application is the key. Systemic insecticides are effective in suppression of these bugs up to 3 weeks. Foliar sprays targeting newly hatched nymphs are more effective than sprays used against older stages. Multiple foliar sprays are often needed for long periods of control. Soil application of dinotefuran and pyrethrin in foliar application are recommended for
The attacks made by the insect pests in cucurbits cause severe yield and quality losses in cucurbits. Cucurbitaceous crop are an important part of the fresh market vegetable crops. The current pest management still relies mainly on chemical pesticides and excessive dependence on chemicals leads to environmental pollution, pest resurgence, pest resistance and disturbance in balance between pest and their natural enemies. There are also the real and important risks to human health and environment as insecticide residue persist in these vegetables for longer times. Therefore, an integrated approach including monitoring of pests; cultural methods, like field rotation, use of mulches and trap crops and shifting planting dates; resistant cultivars; biological control; botanicals and biopesticides; and judicious use of chemicals can minimise these associated risk with chemical pesticides. An effective integrated programme for pest management is necessary for the management of these pest problems in cucurbits. By giving focused attention through adopting IPM
*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
*1.6.1.4 Chemical control*
management of this pest [68].
**2. Conclusion**
*Integrated Pest Management for Cucurbits in Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus *L.) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97123*
## *1.6.1.4 Chemical control*
For the successful squash bug control timing of application is the key. Systemic insecticides are effective in suppression of these bugs up to 3 weeks. Foliar sprays targeting newly hatched nymphs are more effective than sprays used against older stages. Multiple foliar sprays are often needed for long periods of control. Soil application of dinotefuran and pyrethrin in foliar application are recommended for management of this pest [68].
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.135947 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 163
} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.164 | **2. Conclusion**
The attacks made by the insect pests in cucurbits cause severe yield and quality losses in cucurbits. Cucurbitaceous crop are an important part of the fresh market vegetable crops. The current pest management still relies mainly on chemical pesticides and excessive dependence on chemicals leads to environmental pollution, pest resurgence, pest resistance and disturbance in balance between pest and their natural enemies. There are also the real and important risks to human health and environment as insecticide residue persist in these vegetables for longer times. Therefore, an integrated approach including monitoring of pests; cultural methods, like field rotation, use of mulches and trap crops and shifting planting dates; resistant cultivars; biological control; botanicals and biopesticides; and judicious use of chemicals can minimise these associated risk with chemical pesticides. An effective integrated programme for pest management is necessary for the management of these pest problems in cucurbits. By giving focused attention through adopting IPM techniques, sustainable production of cucurbits can be achieved.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.136233 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
"url": "https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/books/9704/authors_book/authors_book.pdf",
"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 164
} |
0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91.165 | **Author details**
Ravi Mohan Srivastava and Sneha Joshih Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
\*Address all correspondence to: ravimohanento@gmail.com
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
| doab | 2025-04-07T03:56:59.136269 | 1-12-2023 19:39 | {
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"book_id": "0071a6c6-eff7-449d-a548-4af9bff79a91",
"url": "https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/books/9704/authors_book/authors_book.pdf",
"author": "",
"title": "Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",
"publisher": "IntechOpen",
"isbn": "9781839680243",
"section_idx": 165
} |
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