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[ { "plaintext": "The 1964 United States presidential election was the 45th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 3, 1964. Incumbent Democratic United States President Lyndon B. Johnson defeated Barry Goldwater, the Republican nominee, in a landslide. With 61.1% of the popular vote, Johnson won the largest share of the popular vote of any candidate since the largely uncontested 1820 election.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21491579, 5043544, 24113, 54533, 4792, 32070, 41053306, 14619595, 40508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 156, 179 ], [ 180, 197 ], [ 207, 222 ], [ 228, 238 ], [ 253, 262 ], [ 312, 325 ], [ 393, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson took office on November 22, 1963, following the assassination of his predecessor, John F. Kennedy. He easily defeated a primary challenge by segregationist Governor George Wallace of Alabama, to win the nomination to a full term. At the 1964 Democratic National Convention, Johnson also won the nomination of his preferred running mate, Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota. Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, a leader of his party's conservative faction, defeated liberal Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York and Governor William Scranton of Pennsylvania at the 1964 Republican National Convention.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21183551, 286369, 5119376, 23493864, 5441736, 1286, 259897, 303, 2086910, 24909346, 42636, 19590, 4792, 21883824, 2298740, 357311, 12861, 19283265, 8210131, 252781, 1429354, 23332, 1800787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 12 ], [ 56, 88 ], [ 90, 105 ], [ 128, 145 ], [ 149, 163 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 191, 198 ], [ 245, 280 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 353, 368 ], [ 372, 381 ], [ 391, 406 ], [ 410, 417 ], [ 443, 455 ], [ 474, 481 ], [ 482, 490 ], [ 491, 509 ], [ 513, 521 ], [ 526, 534 ], [ 535, 551 ], [ 555, 567 ], [ 575, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson championed his passage of the Civil Rights Act, and advocated a series of anti-poverty programs collectively known as the Great Society. Goldwater espoused a low-tax, small-government philosophy. Although he supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960, as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax, Goldwater reluctantly opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as he felt that Title II violated individual liberty and states' rights. Democrats successfully portrayed Goldwater as a dangerous extremist, most famously in the \"Daisy\" television advertisement. The Republicans were divided between its moderate and conservative factions, with Rockefeller and other moderate party leaders refusing to campaign for Goldwater. Johnson led by wide margins in all opinion polls conducted during the campaign, although his lead continued to dwindle throughout.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 188746, 55792, 70134, 26726864, 407755, 511882, 2188206, 36856552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 310, 324 ], [ 339, 347 ], [ 466, 480 ], [ 573, 578 ], [ 580, 604 ], [ 804, 847 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson carried 44 states and the District of Columbia, which voted for the first time in this election. Goldwater won his home state and swept the states of the Deep South, most of which had not voted for a Republican presidential candidate since the end of Reconstruction in 1877. This was the last time that the Democratic Party won the white vote, although they came close in 1992. This was the first-ever and only election before 1992 in which the Democrats carried Vermont, and the first election since 1912 in which the Democrats carried Maine. Conversely, it was also the first-ever election in which the Republicans carried Georgia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 108956, 70133, 401342, 55040, 39529, 32578, 19977, 48830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 54 ], [ 62, 86 ], [ 162, 172 ], [ 259, 273 ], [ 380, 384 ], [ 471, 478 ], [ 545, 550 ], [ 633, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was the last election in which the Democratic nominee carried Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, or Oklahoma, and the only election ever in which the Democrat carried Alaska. As such, this was the most recent presidential election in which the entire Midwestern region voted Democratic. Iowa and Oregon would not vote Democratic again until 1988, California, Colorado, Illinois, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, and Vermont would not vote Democratic again until 1992, while Indiana and Virginia would not vote Democratic again until 2008. As of 2022, this marks the last time that a Democratic presidential candidate has won more than 400 electoral votes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14607, 31716, 33611, 21651, 26746, 21647, 16716, 22489, 624, 104697, 26810748, 26811621, 39531, 5407, 5399, 14849, 19978, 21216, 21134, 21648, 21649, 32578, 39529, 21883857, 32432, 406859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 72 ], [ 74, 78 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 103, 115 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 289, 299 ], [ 325, 329 ], [ 334, 340 ], [ 379, 383 ], [ 385, 395 ], [ 397, 405 ], [ 407, 415 ], [ 417, 424 ], [ 426, 432 ], [ 434, 447 ], [ 449, 459 ], [ 461, 471 ], [ 477, 484 ], [ 523, 527 ], [ 535, 542 ], [ 547, 555 ], [ 594, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson's landslide victory coincided with the defeat of many conservative Republican congressmen. The subsequent 89th Congress would pass major legislation such as the Social Security Amendments of 1965 and the Voting Rights Act. The 1964 election marked the beginning of a major, long-term re-alignment in American politics, as Goldwater's unsuccessful bid significantly influenced the modern conservative movement. The movement of conservatives to the Republican Party continued, culminating in the 1980 presidential victory of Ronald Reagan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34190910, 1847180, 1204588, 55791, 2298740, 40570, 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 53 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 169, 203 ], [ 212, 229 ], [ 388, 416 ], [ 502, 527 ], [ 531, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While on the first stop of his 1964 re-election campaign, President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas. Supporters were shocked and saddened by the loss of the charismatic President, while opposition candidates were put in the awkward position of running against the policies of a slain political figure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Assassination of President John F. Kennedy", "target_page_ids": [ 5119376, 286369, 53838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ], [ 80, 92 ], [ 118, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the following period of mourning, Republican leaders called for a political moratorium, so as not to appear disrespectful. As such, little politicking was done by the candidates of either major party until January 1964, when the primary season officially began. At the time, most political pundits saw Kennedy's assassination as leaving the nation politically unsettled.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Assassination of President John F. Kennedy", "target_page_ids": [ 188399, 1700192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 39 ], [ 297, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The only candidate other than President Johnson to actively campaign was then-Alabama Governor George Wallace, who ran in a number of northern primaries, though his candidacy was more to promote the philosophy of states' rights among a northern audience; while expecting some support from delegations in the South, Wallace was certain that he was not in contention for the Democratic nomination. Johnson received 1,106,999 votes in the primaries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1286, 259897, 407755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 94 ], [ 95, 109 ], [ 213, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the national convention, the integrated Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) claimed the seats for delegates for Mississippi, not on the grounds of Party rules, but because the official Mississippi delegation had been elected by a white primary system. The national party's liberal leaders supported an even division of the seats between the two Mississippi delegations; Johnson was concerned that, while the regular Democrats of Mississippi would probably vote for Goldwater anyway, rejecting them would lose him the South. Eventually, Hubert Humphrey, Walter Reuther, and the black civil rights leaders, including Roy Wilkins, Martin Luther King Jr., and Bayard Rustin, worked out a compromise: The MFDP took two seats; the regular Mississippi delegation was required to pledge to support the party ticket; and no future Democratic convention would accept a delegation chosen by a discriminatory poll. Joseph L. Rauh Jr., the MFDP's lawyer, initially refused this deal, but they eventually took their seats. Many white delegates from Mississippi and Alabama refused to sign any pledge, and left the convention; and many young civil rights workers were offended by any compromise. Johnson biographers Rowland Evans and Robert Novak claim that the MFDP fell under the influence of \"black radicals\" and rejected their seats. Johnson lost Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and South Carolina.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 338548, 7688975, 42636, 294500, 1070488, 20076, 172875, 22354380, 18130, 303, 16949861, 48830, 27956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 79 ], [ 241, 254 ], [ 547, 562 ], [ 564, 578 ], [ 626, 637 ], [ 639, 661 ], [ 667, 680 ], [ 914, 932 ], [ 1347, 1356 ], [ 1358, 1365 ], [ 1367, 1378 ], [ 1380, 1387 ], [ 1393, 1407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson also faced trouble from Robert F. Kennedy, President Kennedy's younger brother and the U.S. Attorney General. Kennedy and Johnson's relationship was troubled from the time Robert Kennedy was a Senate staffer. Then-Majority Leader Johnson surmised that Kennedy's hostility was the direct result of the fact that Johnson frequently recounted a story that embarrassed Kennedy's father, Joseph P. Kennedy, the ambassador to the United Kingdom. According to his recounting, Johnson and President Franklin D. Roosevelt misled the ambassador, upon a return visit to the United States, to believe that Roosevelt wished to meet in Washington for friendly purposes; in fact, Roosevelt planned to — and did — fire the ambassador, due to the ambassador's well publicized views. The Johnson–Kennedy hostility was rendered mutual in the 1960 primaries and the 1960 Democratic National Convention, when Robert Kennedy had tried to prevent Johnson from becoming his brother's running mate, a move that deeply embittered both men.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 21131695, 44002, 291132, 10979, 2909917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 49 ], [ 95, 116 ], [ 391, 408 ], [ 499, 520 ], [ 854, 889 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 1964, despite his personal animosity for the president, Kennedy had tried to force Johnson to accept him as his running mate. Johnson eliminated this threat by announcing that none of his cabinet members would be considered for second place on the Democratic ticket. Johnson also became concerned that Kennedy might use his scheduled speech at the 1964 Democratic Convention to create a groundswell of emotion among the delegates to make him Johnson's running mate; he prevented this by deliberately scheduling Kennedy's speech on the last day of the convention, after his running mate had already been chosen. Shortly after the 1964 Democratic Convention, Kennedy decided to leave Johnson's cabinet and run for the U.S. Senate in New York; he won the general election in November. Johnson chose United States Senator Hubert Humphrey from Minnesota, a liberal and civil rights activist, as his running mate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 8210131, 24909346, 42636, 19590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 740, 748 ], [ 805, 826 ], [ 827, 842 ], [ 848, 857 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Republican Party (GOP) was badly divided in 1964 between its conservative and moderate-liberal factions. Former Vice-president Richard Nixon, who had been beaten by Kennedy in the extremely close 1960 presidential election, decided not to run. Nixon, a moderate with ties to both wings of the GOP, had been able to unite the factions in 1960; in his absence, the way was clear for the two factions to engage in a hard-fought campaign for the nomination. Barry Goldwater, a Senator from Arizona, was the champion of the conservatives. The conservatives had historically been based in the American Midwest, but beginning in the 1950s, they had been gaining in power in the South and West, and the core of Goldwater's support came from suburban conservative Republicans. The conservatives favored a low-tax, small federal government which supported individual rights and business interests, and opposed social welfare programs. They also supported an internationalist and interventionist foreign policy. The conservatives resented the dominance of the GOP's moderate wing, which was based in the Northeastern United States. Since 1940, the Eastern moderates had defeated conservative presidential candidates at the GOP's national conventions. The conservatives believed the Eastern Republicans were little different from liberal Democrats in their philosophy and approach to government. Goldwater's chief opponent for the Republican nomination was Nelson Rockefeller, the Governor of New York and the long-time leader of the GOP's liberal faction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 2298740, 357311, 25473, 24909346, 21883824, 2298740, 104697, 247817, 650414, 431669, 19283265, 12861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 77 ], [ 82, 98 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 477, 484 ], [ 490, 497 ], [ 523, 536 ], [ 600, 607 ], [ 904, 918 ], [ 1059, 1067 ], [ 1097, 1123 ], [ 1449, 1467 ], [ 1473, 1493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1961, a group of twenty-two conservatives, headed by Ohio Congressman John M. Ashbrook, lawyer and National Review publisher William A. Rusher, and scholar F. Clifton White, met privately in Chicago to discuss the formation of a grass-roots organization to secure the nomination of a conservative as the 1964 Republican candidate. The main headquarters for the organization were established at Suite 3505 of the Chanin Building in New York City, leading members to refer to themselves as the \"Suite 3505 Committee\". Following the 1962 mid-term elections, they formally backed Goldwater, who notified them that he did not want to run for the presidency. In April 1963, they formed the Draft Goldwater Committee, chaired by Texas Republican Party Chairman Peter O'Donnell. The committee solidified growing conservative strength in the West and South, and began working to gain control of state parties in the Midwest from liberal Republicans. Throughout the rest of the year, speculation about a potential Goldwater candidacy grew, and grass-roots activism and efforts among conservative Republicans expanded.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 810840, 216387, 1524710, 30694494, 12534670, 30696034, 40553139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 89 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 128, 145 ], [ 159, 175 ], [ 533, 556 ], [ 687, 712 ], [ 757, 772 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially, Rockefeller was considered the front-runner, ahead of Goldwater. However, in 1963, two years after Rockefeller's divorce from his first wife, he married Margaretta \"Happy\" Murphy, who was nearly 18 years younger than he and had just divorced her husband and surrendered her four children to his custody. The fact that Murphy had suddenly divorced her husband before marrying Rockefeller led to rumors that Rockefeller had been having an extra-marital affair with her. This angered many social conservatives and female voters within the GOP, many of whom called Rockefeller a \"wife stealer\". After his re-marriage, Rockefeller's lead among Republicans lost 20 points overnight. Senator Prescott Bush of Connecticut, the father of President George H. W. Bush and grandfather of President George W. Bush, was among Rockefeller's critics on this issue: \"Have we come to the point in our life as a nation where the governor of a great state — one who perhaps aspires to the nomination for president of the United States — can desert a good wife, mother of his grown children, divorce her, then persuade a young mother of four youngsters to abandon her husband and their four children and marry the governor?\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 2933556, 219177, 174262, 6466, 11955, 3414021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 189 ], [ 497, 517 ], [ 696, 709 ], [ 713, 724 ], [ 750, 767 ], [ 797, 811 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first primary, in New Hampshire, both Rockefeller and Goldwater were considered to be the favorites, but the voters instead gave a surprising victory to the U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., Nixon's running mate in 1960 and a former Massachusetts senator. Lodge was a write-in candidate. He went on to win the Massachusetts and New Jersey primaries, before withdrawing his candidacy because he had finally decided he did not want the Republican nomination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 68651, 59756, 153062, 40565, 1645518, 24909346, 480905, 1645518, 21648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 179 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 198, 219 ], [ 245, 249 ], [ 263, 276 ], [ 277, 284 ], [ 298, 316 ], [ 340, 353 ], [ 358, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite his defeat in New Hampshire, Goldwater pressed on, winning the Illinois, Texas, and Indiana primaries, with little opposition, and Nebraska's primary, after a stiff challenge from a draft-Nixon movement. Goldwater also won a number of state caucuses, and gathered even more delegates. Meanwhile, Nelson Rockefeller won the West Virginia and Oregon primaries against Goldwater, and William Scranton won in his home state of Pennsylvania. Both Rockefeller and Scranton also won several state caucuses, mostly in the Northeast.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 14849, 29810, 21883857, 21647, 419854, 261703, 19283265, 32905, 26811621, 1429354, 23332, 261703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 139, 147 ], [ 190, 195 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 304, 322 ], [ 331, 344 ], [ 349, 355 ], [ 389, 405 ], [ 431, 443 ], [ 498, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final showdown between Goldwater and Rockefeller was in the California primary. In spite of the previous accusations regarding his marriage, Rockefeller led Goldwater in most opinion polls in California, and he appeared headed for victory when his new wife gave birth to a son, Nelson Rockefeller Jr., three days before the primary. His son's birth brought the issue of adultery front and center, and Rockefeller suddenly lost ground in the polls. Combined with Goldwater conservatives' expanded dedicated efforts and superior organizing, Goldwater won the primary by a narrow 51–48% margin, thus eliminating Rockefeller as a serious contender and all but clinching the nomination. With Rockefeller's elimination, the party's moderates and liberals turned to William Scranton, the Governor of Pennsylvania, in the hopes that he could stop Goldwater. However, as the Republican Convention began, Goldwater was seen as the heavy favorite to win the nomination. This was notable, as it signified a shift to a more conservative-leaning Republican Party.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 5407, 58809, 1429354, 252781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 74 ], [ 374, 382 ], [ 763, 779 ], [ 785, 809 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Total popular vote", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barry Goldwater – 2,267,079 (38.33%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 4792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson Rockefeller – 1,304,204 (22.05%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 19283265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jim Rhodes – 615,754 (10.41%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 638127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. – 386,661 (6.54%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 153062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John W. Byrnes – 299,612 (5.07%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 8872161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Scranton – 245,401 (4.15%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1429354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret Chase Smith – 227,007 (3.84%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 253580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Nixon – 197,212 (3.33%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 25473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unpledged – 173,652 (2.94%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harold Stassen – 114,083 (1.93%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 237818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Other – 58,933 (0.99%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lyndon B. Johnson (write-in) – 23,406 (0.40%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George W. Romney – 1,955 (0.03%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 318677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1964 Republican National Convention, July 13–16 at Daly City, California's Cow Palace arena, was one of the most bitter on record. The party's moderates and conservatives openly expressed their contempt for each other. Rockefeller was loudly booed when he came to the podium for his speech; in his speech, he roundly criticized the party's conservatives, which led many conservatives in the galleries to yell and scream at him. A group of moderates tried to rally behind Scranton to stop Goldwater, but Goldwater's forces easily brushed his challenge aside, and Goldwater was nominated on the first ballot. The presidential tally was as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1800787, 108106, 762931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 39 ], [ 55, 76 ], [ 79, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barry Goldwater 883", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 4792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Scranton 214", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1429354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nelson Rockefeller 114", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 19283265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George W. Romney 41", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 318677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret Chase Smith 27", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 253580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Walter Judd 22", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 2493835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hiram Fong 5", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 467670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. 2", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 153062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vice-presidential nomination went to little-known Republican Party Chairman William E. Miller, a Representative from western New York. Goldwater stated that he chose Miller simply because \"he drives [President] Johnson nuts\". This would be the only Republican ticket between 1952 and 1976 that did not include Nixon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 307966, 19468510, 8210131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 97 ], [ 101, 115 ], [ 129, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In accepting his nomination, Goldwater uttered his most famous phrase (a quote from Cicero suggested by speechwriter Harry Jaffa): \"I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue.\" For many GOP moderates, Goldwater's speech was seen as a deliberate insult, and many of these moderates would defect to the Democrats in the fall election.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 6046, 1269917, 428002, 936385, 16369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 90 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 156, 165 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 265, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Goldwater had been successful in rallying conservatives, he was unable to broaden his base of support for the general election. Shortly before the Republican Convention, he had alienated moderate and liberal Republicans by his vote against the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which Johnson supported following Kennedy's death and signed into law. While a staunch supporter of racial equality, having voted in favor of the 1957 and 1960 Civil Rights acts bills and the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, Goldwater felt that desegregation was primarily a states' rights issue, rather than a national policy, and believed the 1964 act to be unconstitutional. Goldwater's vote against the legislation helped cause African-Americans to overwhelmingly support Johnson. Goldwater had previously voted in favor of the 1957 and 1960 Civil Rights acts, but only after proposing \"restrictive amendments\" to them. Goldwater was famous for speaking \"off-the-cuff\" at times, and many of his former statements were given wide publicity by the Democrats. In the early 1960s, Goldwater had called the Eisenhower administration \"a dime store New Deal\", and the former president never fully forgave him or offered him his full support in the election.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 12795, 188746, 67203, 713718, 1612593, 4538945, 283934, 19283361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 135 ], [ 253, 277 ], [ 527, 540 ], [ 814, 818 ], [ 823, 845 ], [ 1088, 1113 ], [ 1117, 1127 ], [ 1128, 1136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1961, he told a news conference that \"sometimes, I think this country would be better off if we could just saw off the Eastern Seaboard and let it float out to sea\", a remark which indicated his dislike of the liberal economic and social policies that were often associated with that part of the nation. That comment came back to hurt him, in the form of a Johnson television commercial, as did remarks about making Social Security voluntary (something that even his running mate Miller felt that it would lead to the destruction of its system) and selling the Tennessee Valley Authority. In his most famous verbal gaffe, Goldwater once joked that the U.S. military should \"lob one [a nuclear bomb] into the men's room of the Kremlin\" in the Soviet Union.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 28730792, 89126, 180557, 48728, 55770, 381075, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ], [ 131, 147 ], [ 377, 398 ], [ 428, 443 ], [ 573, 599 ], [ 738, 745 ], [ 754, 766 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Goldwater was also hurt by the reluctance of many prominent moderate Republicans to support him. Governors Nelson Rockefeller of New York and George W. Romney of Michigan refused to endorse Goldwater due to his stance on civil rights and his proposal to make Social Security voluntary, and did not campaign for him. On the other hand, former Vice President Richard Nixon and Governor William Scranton of Pennsylvania loyally supported the GOP ticket and campaigned for Goldwater, although Nixon did not entirely agree with Goldwater's political stances and said that it would \"be a tragedy\" if Goldwater's platform were not \"challenged and repudiated\" by the Republicans. Scranton also felt that Goldwater's proposal of voluntarizing Social Security was the \"worst kind of fiscal responsibility\". The New York Herald-Tribune, a voice for eastern Republicans (and a target for Goldwater activists during the primaries), supported Johnson in the general election. Some moderates even formed a \"Republicans for Johnson\" organization, although most prominent GOP politicians avoided being associated with it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 19283265, 318677, 25473, 360833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 125 ], [ 142, 158 ], [ 357, 370 ], [ 801, 824 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly before the Republican convention, CBS reporter Daniel Schorr wrote from Germany that, \"It looks as though Senator Goldwater, if nominated, will be starting his campaign here in Bavaria, center of Germany's right wing\". He noted that a prior Goldwater interview with the German magazine Der Spiegel was an \"appeal to right-wing elements\". However, there was no ulterior motive for the trip; it was just a vacation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 37653, 486809, 11867, 3764, 210137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 45 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 294, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fact magazine published an article polling psychiatrists around the country as to Goldwater's sanity. Some 1,189 psychiatrists appeared to agree that Goldwater was \"emotionally unstable\" and unfit for office, though none of the members had actually interviewed him. The article received heavy publicity and resulted in a change to the ethics guidelines of the American Psychiatric Association. In a libel suit, a federal court awarded Goldwater $1 in compensatory damages, and $75,000 in punitive damages.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 4727448, 160911, 28661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 360, 392 ], [ 399, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eisenhower's strong backing could have been an asset to the Goldwater campaign, but instead, its absence was clearly noticed. When questioned about the presidential capabilities of the former president's younger brother, university administrator Milton S. Eisenhower, in July 1964, Goldwater replied: \"One Eisenhower in a generation is enough.\" However, Eisenhower did not openly repudiate Goldwater, and made one television commercial for Goldwater's campaign. A prominent Hollywood celebrity who vigorously supported Goldwater was Ronald Reagan. Reagan gave a well-received televised speech supporting Goldwater; it was so popular that Goldwater's advisors had it played on local television stations around the nation. Many historians consider this speech — \"A Time for Choosing\" — to mark the beginning of Reagan's transformation from an actor to a political leader. In 1966, Reagan would be elected Governor of California.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 921874, 5796, 25433, 712938, 3448557, 62517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 266 ], [ 484, 493 ], [ 533, 546 ], [ 761, 780 ], [ 873, 877 ], [ 903, 925 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, President Johnson was concerned he could lose the election by appearing soft on Communism. On July 10, the was ordered into the Gulf of Tonkin, authorized to \"maintain contact with the U.S. military command in Saigon ... and arrange 'such communications ... as may be desired'\". On July 30, South Vietnamese commandos tried to attack the North Vietnamese radar station on the island of Hon Me, with the USS Maddox sufficiently close that the North Vietnamese believed it was there to provide cover for that commando raid. North Vietnam filed an official complaint with the International Control Commission, accusing the United States of being behind the raid. On August 2, the Maddox reported having been attacked by three North Vietnamese Navy torpedo boats. Johnson called Soviet Premier Khrushchev, saying the US did not want war and asking the Soviets to convince North Vietnam to not attack American warships. The next day, August 3, South Vietnamese raided Cape Vinhson and Cua Ron. That night, in the middle of a thunderstorm, the Maddox intercepted radio messages that gave them \"the 'impression' that Communist parol boats were bracing for [another] assault\". They called for air support from the . The pilots didn't see anything, but the Maddox and the nearby started shooting in all directions. However, after the incident, all US personnel involved acknowledged they had neither seen nor heard Communist gunfire. Nevertheless, Johnson and an aide Kenneth O'Donnell agreed that Johnson \"would have to respond firmly to defend himself against Goldwater and the Republican right wing\". Johnson denounced the attack as \"unprovoked\" and secured essentially a blank check to do anything he thought necessary in Vietnam, and left Goldwater looking like an irresponsible hawk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 229373, 1475747, 42754748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 154 ], [ 585, 617 ], [ 1657, 1737 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson positioned himself as a moderate, and succeeded in portraying Goldwater as an extremist. CIA Director William Colby asserted that Tracy Barnes instructed the CIA to spy on the Goldwater campaign and the Republican National Committee, to provide information to Johnson's campaign (Usdin, Steve (May 22, 2018). \"When the CIA Infiltrated a Presidential Campaign\" (Politico).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Goldwater had a habit of making blunt statements about war, nuclear weapons, and economics that could be turned against him. Most famously, the Johnson campaign broadcast a television commercial on September 7 dubbed the \"Daisy Girl\" ad, which featured a little girl picking petals from a daisy in a field, counting the petals, which then segues into a launch countdown and a nuclear explosion. The ads were in response to Goldwater's advocacy of \"tactical\" nuclear weapons use in Vietnam. \"Confessions of a Republican\", another Johnson ad, features a monologue from a man who tells viewers that he had previously voted for Eisenhower and Nixon, but now worries about the \"men with strange ideas\", \"weird groups\", and \"the head of the Ku Klux Klan\" who were supporting Goldwater; he concludes that \"either they're not Republicans, or I'm not\". Voters increasingly viewed Goldwater as a right-wing fringe candidate. His slogan, \"In your heart, you know he's right\", was successfully parodied by the Johnson campaign into, \"In your guts, you know he's nuts\", or, \"In your heart, you know he might\" (as in \"he might push the nuclear button\"), or even, \"In your heart, he's too far right\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 33158, 21785, 9223, 511882, 26301, 462524, 202354, 49698096, 16779, 56522, 27540846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 58 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 221, 233 ], [ 353, 359 ], [ 360, 369 ], [ 481, 488 ], [ 491, 518 ], [ 735, 747 ], [ 886, 896 ], [ 1122, 1136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Johnson campaign's greatest concern may have been voter complacency leading to low turnout in key states. To counter this, all of Johnson's broadcast ads concluded with the line: \"Vote for President Johnson on November 3. The stakes are too high for you to stay home.\" The Democratic campaign used two other slogans: \"All the way with LBJ\"; and, \"LBJ for the USA\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 113604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election campaign was disrupted for a week by the death of former president Herbert Hoover on October 20, 1964, because it was considered disrespectful to be campaigning during a time of mourning. Hoover died of natural causes. He had been U.S. president from 1929 to 1933. Both major candidates attended his funeral.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 13682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson led in all opinion polls by huge margins throughout the entire campaign.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 36856552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election was held on November 3, 1964. Johnson beat Goldwater in the general election, winning over 61% of the popular vote, the highest percentage since the popular vote first became widespread in 1824. In the end, Goldwater won only his native state of Arizona and five Deep South states — Louisiana, Mississippi, Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina — which had been increasingly alienated by Democratic civil rights policies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 40509, 21883824, 401342, 18130, 16949861, 48830, 303, 27956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 206 ], [ 259, 266 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 296, 305 ], [ 307, 318 ], [ 320, 327 ], [ 329, 336 ], [ 342, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The five Southern states that voted for Goldwater swung over dramatically to support him. For instance, in Mississippi, where Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt had won 97% of the popular vote in 1936, Goldwater won 87% of the vote. Of these states, Louisiana had been the only state where a Republican had won even once since Reconstruction. Mississippi, Alabama, and South Carolina had not voted Republican in any presidential election since Reconstruction, whilst Georgia had never voted Republican even during Reconstruction (thus making Goldwater the first Republican to ever carry Georgia).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 10979, 40558, 55040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 156 ], [ 192, 196 ], [ 323, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1964 election was a major transition point for the South, and an important step in the process by which the Democrats' former \"Solid South\" became a Republican bastion. Nonetheless, Johnson still managed to eke out a bare popular majority of 51–49% (6.307 to 5.993 million) in the eleven former Confederate states. Conversely, Johnson was the first Democrat ever to carry the state of Vermont in a presidential election, and only the second Democrat, after Woodrow Wilson in 1912, when the Republican Party was divided, to carry Maine in the twentieth century. Maine and Vermont had been the only states that FDR had failed to carry during any of his four successful presidential bids.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 723054, 32578, 19977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 142 ], [ 389, 396 ], [ 533, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around twenty percent of the people who had voted for Nixon in the 1960 election switched their support to Johnson. Of the 3,126 counties/districts/independent cities making returns, Johnson won in 2,275 (72.77%), while Goldwater carried 826 (26.42%). Unpledged electors carried six counties in Alabama (0.19%).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Johnson landslide defeated many conservative Republican congressmen, giving him a majority that could overcome the conservative coalition.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 3464443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is the first election to have participation of the District of Columbia, under the 23rd Amendment to the US Constitution.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 108956, 70133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 76 ], [ 88, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Johnson campaign broke two American election records previously held by Franklin Roosevelt: the most Electoral College votes won by a major-party candidate running for the White House for the first time (with 486 to the 472 won by Roosevelt in 1932); and the largest share of the popular vote under the current Democratic/Republican competition (Roosevelt won 60.8% nationwide, Johnson 61.1%). This first-time electoral count was exceeded when Ronald Reagan won 489 votes in 1980. Johnson retains the highest percentage of the popular vote, as of the 2020 presidential election.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 40556, 25433, 40570, 48410011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 252 ], [ 448, 461 ], [ 479, 483 ], [ 555, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source (popular vote): ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source (electoral vote): ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Margin of victory less than 5% (23 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Margin of victory over 5%, but less than 10% (40 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tipping point:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percent of vote (Democratic)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percent of vote (Republican)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percent of vote (other)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although Goldwater was decisively defeated, some political pundits and historians believe he laid the foundation for the conservative revolution to follow. Among them is Richard Perlstein, historian of the American conservative movement, who wrote of Goldwater's defeat: \"Here was one time, at least, when history was written by the losers.\" Ronald Reagan's speech on Goldwater's behalf, grass-roots organization, and the conservative takeover (although temporary in the 1960s) of the Republican party would all help to bring about the \"Reagan Revolution\" of the 1980s.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 25964, 2297212, 25433, 32070, 871552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 144 ], [ 170, 187 ], [ 342, 355 ], [ 485, 501 ], [ 537, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson went from his victory in the 1964 election to launch the Great Society program at home, signing the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and starting the War on Poverty. He also escalated the Vietnam War, which eroded his popularity. By 1968, Johnson's popularity had declined, and the Democrats became so split over his candidacy that he withdrew as a candidate. Moreover, his support of civil rights for blacks helped split white union members and Southerners away from Franklin D. Roosevelt's Democratic New Deal Coalition, which would later lead to the phenomenon of the \"Reagan Democrat\". Of the 14 presidential elections that followed up to 2020, Democrats would win only six times, although in 8 of those elections, a majority, the Democratic candidate received the highest number of popular votes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 55792, 55791, 232940, 32611, 37071, 10979, 86217, 151820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 78 ], [ 108, 125 ], [ 151, 165 ], [ 189, 200 ], [ 386, 398 ], [ 469, 490 ], [ 504, 522 ], [ 573, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election also furthered the shift of the black voting electorate away from the Republican Party, a phenomenon which had begun with the New Deal. Since the 1964 election, Democratic presidential candidates have almost consistently won 80–95% of the black vote in each presidential election.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 19283361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conservatism in the United States", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2298740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the United States (1964–1980)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the United States Democratic Party", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3088213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the United States Republican Party", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4157940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Second inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21204177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 United States gubernatorial elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41879017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 United States House of Representatives elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1341865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 United States Senate elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1177591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural born citizen of the United States (regarding Goldwater's Constitutional eligibility to be President)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67732240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scientists and Engineers for Johnson–Humphrey", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11471148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Davies, Gareth, and Julian E. Zelizer, eds. America at the Ballot Box: Elections and Political History (2015) pp.184–195, role of liberalism.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " – a political fiction novel around the Republican campaign.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 24850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evans, Rowland, and Novak, Robert (1966). Lyndon B. Johnson: The Exercise of Power.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2402309, 322394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Farrington, Joshua D. (2020). \"Evicted from the Party: Black Republicans and the 1964 Election\". Journal of Arizona History 61.1: 127–148.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jurdem, Laurence R. \"'The Media Were Not Completely Fair to You': Foreign Policy, the Press and the 1964 Goldwater Campaign\". Journal of Arizona History 61.1 (2020): 161–180.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mann, Robert (2011). Daisy Petals and Mushroom Clouds: LBJ, Barry Goldwater and the Ad That Changed American Politics. Louisiana State University Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Middendorf, J. William (2006). A Glorious Disaster: Barry Goldwater’s Presidential Campaign and the Origins of the Conservative Movement. Basic Books.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gallup, George H., ed. (1972). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971. 3 vols. Random House.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 100077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chester, Edward W. (1977). A guide to political platforms.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Porter, Kirk H. and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. (1973). National party platforms, 1840–1972.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Campaign commercials from the 1964 election", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "CONELRAD's definitive history of the Daisy ad", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1964 election results: State-by-state Popular vote", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1964 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1964 popular vote by counties", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"How close was the 1964 election?\", Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "electoral history", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Election of 1964 in Counting the Votes ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1964_United_States_presidential_election", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "Barry_Goldwater", "Hubert_Humphrey", "Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson", "Lyndon_B._Johnson", "November_1964_events_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "United States presidential election, 1964" ]

[ { "plaintext": "{{Infobox election", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| election_name = 1968 United States presidential election", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| country = United States", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| flag_year = 1960", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| type = presidential", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| opinion_polls = Nationwide opinion polling for the 1968 United States presidential election", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| previous_election = 1964 United States presidential election", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| previous_year = 1964", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| election_date = November 5, 1968", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| next_election = 1972 United States presidential election", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| next_year = 1972", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| votes_for_election = 538 members of the Electoral College", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 85533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| needed_votes = 270 electoral", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| turnout = 60.8% 1.1 pp", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1969007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| image_size = x160px", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| image1 = File:Richard Nixon portrait.jpg", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| nominee1 = Richard Nixon", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| party1 = Republican Party (United States)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| home_state1 = New York", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8210131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| running_mate1 = Spiro Agnew", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| electoral_vote1 = 301", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| states_carried1 = 32", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| popular_vote1 = 31,783,783", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| percentage1 = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| image2 = File:Hubert Humphrey crop.jpg ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| nominee2 = Hubert Humphrey", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| party2 = Democratic Party (United States)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| home_state2 = Minnesota", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| running_mate2 = Edmund Muskie", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 307962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| electoral_vote2 = 191", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| states_carried2 = 13 + DC", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 108956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| popular_vote2 = 31,271,839", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| percentage2 = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| image3 = File:George C Wallace.jpg", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| nominee3 = George Wallace", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 259897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| party3 = American Independent Party", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| home_state3 = Alabama", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| running_mate3 = Curtis LeMay", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 66225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| electoral_vote3 = 46", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| states_carried3 = 5", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| popular_vote3 = 9,901,118", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| percentage3 = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| color3 = FF7F00", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| map_size = 350px", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| map = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| map_caption = Presidential election results map. denotes states won by Nixon/Agnew, denotes those won by Humphrey/Muskie, and denotes those won by Wallace/LeMay, including a North Carolina faithless elector. Numbers indicate electoral votes cast by each state.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1387946, 79771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 211 ], [ 230, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| title = President", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| before_election = Lyndon B. Johnson", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| before_party = Democratic Party (United States)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| after_election = Richard Nixon", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| after_party = Republican Party (United States)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ongoing = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "}}", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1968 United States presidential election was the 46th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5, 1968. The Republican nominee, former vice president Richard Nixon, defeated the Democratic nominee, incumbent vice president Hubert Humphrey, and the American Independent Party nominee, former Alabama governor George Wallace.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21491579, 32070, 32759, 25473, 5043544, 42636, 307452, 1286, 259897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 174, 187 ], [ 202, 212 ], [ 247, 262 ], [ 272, 298 ], [ 315, 331 ], [ 332, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Incumbent president Lyndon B. Johnson had been the early front-runner for the Democratic Party's nomination, but he withdrew from the race after only narrowly winning the New Hampshire primary. Eugene McCarthy, Robert F. Kennedy, and Humphrey emerged as the three major candidates in the Democratic primaries, until Kennedy was assassinated. Humphrey edged out anti-Vietnam war candidate McCarthy to win the Democratic nomination, sparking numerous anti-war protests. Nixon entered the Republican primaries as the front-runner, defeating liberal New York governor Nelson Rockefeller, conservative governor of California Ronald Reagan, and other candidates to win his party's nomination. Alabama's Democratic former governor, George Wallace, ran on the American Independent Party ticket, campaigning in favor of racial segregation on the basis of \"state's rights\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 54533, 445301, 166899, 21131695, 15644506, 21131596, 16205891, 19283265, 25433, 259897, 307452, 5441736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 37 ], [ 171, 192 ], [ 194, 209 ], [ 211, 228 ], [ 284, 308 ], [ 324, 340 ], [ 486, 506 ], [ 564, 582 ], [ 620, 633 ], [ 725, 739 ], [ 752, 778 ], [ 811, 829 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election year was tumultuous and chaotic. It was marked by the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. in early April, and the subsequent 54 days of riots across the nation, by the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy in early June, and by widespread opposition to the Vietnam War across university campuses. Vice President Hubert Humphrey won the Democratic nomination, with Humphrey promising to continue Johnson's war on poverty and to support the civil rights movement. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21189400, 36474617, 21131596, 1854610, 232940, 49001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 107 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 186, 220 ], [ 254, 283 ], [ 420, 434 ], [ 454, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The support of civil rights by the Johnson administration hurt Humphrey's image in the South, leading to the prominent Democratic governor of Alabama, George Wallace, to mount a third-party challenge against his own party to defend racial segregation on the basis of \"state's rights\". Wallace led a far-right American Independent Party attracting socially conservative voters throughout the South, and encroaching further support from white-working class voters in the Industrial North and Midwest who were attracted to Wallace's economic populism and anti-establishment rhetoric. In doing so, Wallace split the New Deal Coalition, winning over Southern Democrats, as well as former Goldwater supporters who preferred Wallace to Nixon. Nixon previously served as vice president under Dwight Eisenhower for eight years from 1953–1961, and chose to take advantage of Democratic infighting by running a more centrist platform aimed at attracting moderate voters as part of his \"silent majority\" who were alienated by both the liberal agenda that was advocated by Hubert Humphrey, and by the ultra-conservative viewpoints shared by George Wallace on race and civil rights, yet used coded language to combat Wallace in the Outer South, where these states were less extreme on the segregation issue. Nixon sought to restore law and order to the nation's cities and provide new leadership in the Vietnam War. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 307452, 86217, 861808, 4792, 8182, 88270, 1630932, 32611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 335 ], [ 612, 630 ], [ 645, 663 ], [ 683, 692 ], [ 784, 801 ], [ 975, 990 ], [ 1318, 1331 ], [ 1389, 1400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During most of the campaign, Humphrey trailed Nixon significantly in polls taken from late August to early October, but he narrowed Nixon's lead considerably after Wallace's candidacy collapsed and adopted a change of tactics during the final month of the campaign before November 5 election day, and when Johnson suspended bombing in the Vietnam War. Despite a last-minute effort to win the presidency, Humphrey was unable to surpass Nixon in the final days of the campaign, losing the Electoral College by 111 votes (not counting faithless electors), as well as the popular vote by a narrow margin. This was the first presidential election after the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which had resulted in growing restoration and enforcement of the franchise for racial minorities, especially in the South, where most had been disenfranchised since the turn of the century. Minorities in other areas also regained their ability to vote.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55791, 3058522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 667, 692 ], [ 773, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Nixon also became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president, a feat that was not repeated until 2020, when Joe Biden was elected president. Nixon remains the last candidate to win his party's presidential nomination, and the subsequent election, after having lost in a previous presidential election. , this is the last time that all 50 states and the District of Columbia would vote under a winner-take-all system. Maine would begin allocating its electoral votes by congressional district in 1972 and Nebraska would begin doing the same in 1992. This was the most recent election in which both major party presidential nominees had at one point held the vice presidency. This also remains the most recent election in which the incumbent president was eligible to run again but was not the eventual nominee of their party. This is the last time a Republican won without Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. Nixon was the first Republican ever to win without Minnesota, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, as well as the first since 1928 to do so without Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and the first since 1896 without winning Washington. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48410011, 145422, 40565, 48009201, 36084614, 303, 16949861, 18130, 29810, 1930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 129 ], [ 136, 145 ], [ 298, 328 ], [ 523, 527 ], [ 571, 575 ], [ 900, 907 ], [ 909, 920 ], [ 922, 931 ], [ 933, 938 ], [ 944, 952 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the election of 1964, incumbent Democratic United States President Lyndon B. Johnson won the largest popular vote landslide in U.S. presidential election history over Republican United States Senator Barry Goldwater. During the presidential term that followed, Johnson was able to achieve many political successes, including passage of his Great Society domestic programs (including \"War on Poverty\" legislation), landmark civil rights legislation, and the continued exploration of space. Despite these significant achievements, Johnson's popular support would be short-lived. Even as Johnson scored legislative victories, the country endured large-scale race riots in the streets of its larger cities, along with a generational revolt of young people and violent debates over foreign policy. The emergence of the hippie counter-culture, the rise of New Left activism, and the emergence of the Black Power movement exacerbated social and cultural clashes between classes, generations, and races. Adding to the national crisis, on April 4, 1968, civil rights leader Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, igniting riots of grief and anger across the country. In Washington, D. C., rioting took place within a few blocks of the White House, and the government stationed soldiers with machine guns on the Capitol steps to protect it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 40566, 5043544, 24113, 54533, 21491579, 32070, 24909346, 4792, 55792, 37071, 47646, 8544676, 42034955, 20648200, 49001, 20076, 21189400, 48607, 108956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 35, 45 ], [ 46, 69 ], [ 70, 87 ], [ 130, 156 ], [ 170, 180 ], [ 181, 202 ], [ 203, 218 ], [ 343, 356 ], [ 426, 438 ], [ 817, 823 ], [ 824, 839 ], [ 853, 861 ], [ 897, 908 ], [ 1048, 1067 ], [ 1073, 1096 ], [ 1102, 1114 ], [ 1118, 1136 ], [ 1195, 1212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Vietnam War was the primary reason for the precipitous decline of President Lyndon B. Johnson's popularity. He had greatly escalated U.S. commitment: By late 1967, over 500,000 American soldiers were fighting in Vietnam. Draftees made up 42 percent of the military in Vietnam, but suffered 58% of the casualties, as nearly 1000 Americans a month were killed, and many more were injured. But resistance to the war rose as success seemed ever out of reach. The national news media began to focus on the high costs and ambiguous results of escalation, despite Johnson's repeated efforts to downplay the seriousness of the situation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 32611, 304113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 472, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early January 1968, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara said the war would be winding down, claiming that the North Vietnamese were losing their will to fight. But, shortly thereafter, the North Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive, in which they and Communist Vietcong forces undertook simultaneous attacks on all government strongholds across South Vietnam. Though the uprising ended in a U.S. military victory, the scale of the Tet offensive led many Americans to question whether the war could be \"won\", or was worth the costs to the US. In addition, voters began to mistrust the government's assessment and reporting of the war effort. The Pentagon called for sending several hundred thousand more soldiers to Vietnam. Johnson's approval ratings fell below 35%. The Secret Service refused to let the president visit American colleges and universities, and prevented him from appearing at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois, because it could not guarantee his safety.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 43998, 80222, 218181, 68286, 58221, 15485731, 6886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 43 ], [ 44, 59 ], [ 223, 236 ], [ 266, 274 ], [ 776, 790 ], [ 902, 937 ], [ 941, 958 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following candidates were frequently interviewed by major broadcast networks, were listed in publicly published national polls, or ran a campaign that extended beyond their flying home delegation in the case of favorite sons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 359763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon received 1,679,443 votes''' in the primaries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The front-runner for the Republican nomination was former Vice President Richard Nixon, who formally began campaigning in January 1968. Nixon had worked tirelessly behind the scenes and was instrumental in Republican gains in Congress and governorships in the 1966 midterm elections. Thus, the party machinery and many of the new congressmen and governors supported him. Still, there was wariness in the Republican ranks over Nixon, who had lost the 1960 election to John F. Kennedy and then lost the 1962 California gubernatorial election. Some hoped a more \"electable\" candidate would emerge. The story of the 1968 Republican primary campaign and nomination may be seen as one Nixon opponent after another entering the race and then dropping out. Nixon was the front runner throughout the contest because of his superior organization, and he easily defeated the rest of the field.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 795047, 32759, 25473, 5119376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 58, 72 ], [ 73, 86 ], [ 467, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon's first challenger was Michigan Governor George W. Romney. A Gallup poll in mid-1967 showed Nixon with 39%, followed by Romney with 25%. After a fact-finding trip to Vietnam, Romney told Detroit talk show host Lou Gordon that he had been \"brainwashed\" by the military and the diplomatic corps into supporting the Vietnam War; the remark led to weeks of ridicule in the national news media. Turning against American involvement in Vietnam, Romney planned to run as the anti-war Republican version of Eugene McCarthy. But, following his \"brainwashing\" comment, Romney's support faded steadily; with polls showing him far behind Nixon, he withdrew from the race on February 28, 1968.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 19808, 318677, 26314840, 1073769, 304113, 166899, 20948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 47, 63 ], [ 216, 226 ], [ 282, 298 ], [ 384, 394 ], [ 505, 520 ], [ 542, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United States Senator Charles Percy was considered another potential threat to Nixon, and had planned on waging an active campaign after securing a role as Illinois's favorite son. Later, however, Percy declined to have his name listed on the ballot for the Illinois presidential primary. He no longer sought the presidential nomination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 24909346, 495489, 359763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 22, 35 ], [ 167, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon won a resounding victory in the important New Hampshire primary on March 12, with 78% of the vote. Anti-war Republicans wrote in the name of New York governor Nelson Rockefeller, the leader of the Republican Party's liberal wing, who received 11% of the vote and became Nixon's new challenger. Rockefeller had not originally intended to run, having discounted a campaign for the nomination in 1965, and planned to make United States Senator Jacob Javits, the favorite son, either in preparation of a presidential campaign or to secure him the second spot on the ticket. As Rockefeller warmed to the idea of entering the race, Javits shifted his effort to seeking a third term in the Senate. Nixon led Rockefeller in the polls throughout the primary campaign, and though Rockefeller defeated Nixon and Governor John Volpe from Massachusetts primary on April 30, he otherwise fared poorly in state primaries and conventions. He had declared too late to get his name placed on state primary ballots.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 12861, 19283265, 24909346, 773090, 359763, 252510, 753980, 1645518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 164 ], [ 165, 183 ], [ 425, 446 ], [ 447, 459 ], [ 465, 477 ], [ 807, 815 ], [ 816, 826 ], [ 832, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By early spring, California governor Ronald Reagan, the leader of the Republican Party's conservative wing, had become Nixon's chief rival. In the Nebraska primary on May 14, Nixon won with 70% of the vote to 21% for Reagan and 5% for Rockefeller. While this was a wide margin for Nixon, Reagan remained Nixon's leading challenger. Nixon won the next primary of importance, Oregon, on May 15 with 65% of the vote, and won all the following primaries except for California (June 4), where only Reagan appeared on the ballot. Reagan's victory in California gave him a plurality of the nationwide primary vote, but his poor showing in most other state primaries left him far behind Nixon in the delegate count.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 62517, 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ], [ 37, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Total popular vote:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ronald Reagan: 1,696,632 (37.93%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Nixon: 1,679,443 (37.54%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 25473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James A. Rhodes: 614,492 (13.74%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 638127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson Rockefeller: 164,340 (3.67%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 19283265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unpledged: 140,639 (3.14%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eugene McCarthy (write-in): 44,520 (1.00%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 166899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harold Stassen: 31,655 (0.71%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 237818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Volpe: 31,465 (0.70%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 753980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Others: 21,456 (0.51%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George Wallace (write-in): 15,291 (0.34%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 259897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert F. Kennedy (write-in): 14,524 (0.33%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 21131695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hubert Humphrey (write-in): 5,698 (0.13)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 42636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lyndon B. Johnson (write-in): 4,824 (0.11%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George W. Romney: 4,447 (0.10%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 318677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Raymond P. Shafer: 1,223 (0.03%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1341033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Scranton: 724 (0.02%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1429354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles H. Percy: 689 (0.02%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 495489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barry Goldwater: 598 (0.01%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 4792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Lindsay: 591 (0.01%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 279089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the 1968 Republican National Convention opened on August 5 in Miami Beach, Florida, the Associated Press estimated that Nixon had 656 delegate votes – 11 short of the number he needed to win the nomination. Reagan and Rockefeller were his only remaining opponents and they planned to unite their forces in a \"stop-Nixon\" movement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1867194, 109449, 18935732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 42 ], [ 65, 85 ], [ 91, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because Goldwater had done well in the Deep South, delegates to the 1968 Republican National Convention included more Southern conservatives than in past conventions. There seemed potential for the conservative Reagan to be nominated if no victor emerged on the first ballot. Nixon narrowly secured the nomination on the first ballot, with the aid of South Carolina Senator Strom Thurmond, who had switched parties in 1964. He selected dark horse Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing to both Northern moderates and Southerners disaffected with the Democrats. Nixon's first choice for running mate was reportedly his longtime friend and ally Robert Finch, who was the Lieutenant Governor of California at the time. Finch declined that offer, but accepted an appointment as the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare in Nixon's administration. With Vietnam a key issue, Nixon had strongly considered tapping his 1960 running mate, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., a former U.S. senator, ambassador to the UN, and ambassador twice to South Vietnam.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 401342, 1867194, 24909346, 44642, 314017, 39075, 880821, 579076, 44279, 153062, 59756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 49 ], [ 68, 103 ], [ 366, 373 ], [ 374, 388 ], [ 436, 446 ], [ 465, 476 ], [ 718, 730 ], [ 744, 777 ], [ 853, 896 ], [ 1011, 1032 ], [ 1103, 1116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Candidates for the Vice-Presidential nomination:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Spiro T. Agnew, Governor of Maryland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 39075, 101141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Howard Baker, U.S. senator from Tennessee", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 380745, 30395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 33, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., former U.S. senator from Massachusetts, two-time ambassador to South Vietnam, and 1960 GOP VP nominee.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 153062, 1645518, 59756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 49, 62 ], [ 87, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edward Brooke, U.S. senator from Massachusetts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 251608, 1645518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George H. W. Bush, U.S. representative from Texas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 11955, 29810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David F. Cargo, Governor of New Mexico", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 411624, 253082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Chafee, Governor of Rhode Island", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 988365, 253088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Daniel J. Evans, Governor of Washington", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 268006, 252293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 18, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert H. Finch, Lieutenant Governor of California", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mark Hatfield, U.S. senator from Oregon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 343742, 26811621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 34, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jacob K. Javits, U.S. senator from New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 773090, 8210131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 36, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Warren P. Knowles, Governor of Wisconsin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1434440, 253096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 20, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Lindsay, Mayor of New York City, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 279089, 206327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John A. Love, Governor of Colorado", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 11851346, 56239830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rogers C.B. Morton, U.S. representative from Maryland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 840827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles H. Percy, U.S. senator from Illinois", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 495489, 14849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 37, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ronald Reagan, Governor of California", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 25433, 62517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James A. Rhodes, Governor of Ohio", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 638127, 252505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 18, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson Rockefeller, Governor of New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 19283265, 12861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 21, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George W. Romney, Governor of Michigan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 318677, 13018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 19, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John G. Tower, U.S. senator from Texas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 470063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John A. Volpe, Governor of Massachusetts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 753980, 252510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of the 2020 presidential election, 1968 was the last time that two siblings (Nelson and Winthrop Rockefeller) ran against each other in a presidential primary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Republican Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 185311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following candidates were frequently interviewed by major broadcast networks, were listed in publicly published national polls, or ran a campaign that extended beyond their home delegation in the case of favorite sons.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 359763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Humphrey received 166,463 votes in the primaries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because Lyndon B. Johnson had been elected to the presidency only once, in 1964, and had served less than two full years of the term before that, the 22nd Amendment did not disqualify him from running for another term. As a result, it was widely assumed when 1968 began that President Johnson would run for another term, and that he would have little trouble winning the Democratic nomination.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 70132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite growing opposition to Johnson's policies in Vietnam, it appeared that no prominent Democratic candidate would run against a sitting president of his own party. It was also accepted at the beginning of the year that Johnson's record of domestic accomplishments would overshadow public opposition to the Vietnam War and that he would easily boost his public image after he started campaigning. Even United States Senator Robert F. Kennedy from New York, an outspoken critic of Johnson's policies, with a large base of support, publicly declined to run against Johnson in the primaries. Poll numbers also suggested that a large share of Americans who opposed the Vietnam War felt the growth of the anti-war hippie movement among younger Americans and violent unrest on college campuses", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 24909346, 21131695, 8210131, 13802159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 405, 426 ], [ 427, 444 ], [ 450, 458 ], [ 712, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "was not helping their cause. On January 30, however, claims by the Johnson administration that a recent troop surge would soon bring an end to the war were severely discredited when the Tet Offensive broke out. Although the American military was eventually able to fend off the attacks, and also inflict heavy losses among the communist opposition, the ability of the North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong to launch large scale attacks during the Tet Offensive's long duration greatly weakened American support for the military draft and further combat operations in Vietnam. A recorded phone conversation which Johnson had with Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley on January 27 revealed that both men had become aware of Kennedy's private intention to enter the Democratic presidential primaries and that Johnson was willing to accept Daley's offer to run as Humphrey's vice president if he were to end his re-election campaign. Daley, whose city would host the 1968 Democratic National Convention, also preferred either Johnson or Humphrey over any other candidate, and stated that Kennedy had met him the week before, and that he was unsuccessful in his attempt to win over Daley's support.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 218181, 310285, 40221, 15485731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 199 ], [ 627, 640 ], [ 641, 657 ], [ 956, 991 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In time, only United States Senator Eugene McCarthy from Minnesota proved willing to challenge Johnson openly. Running as an anti-war candidate in the New Hampshire primary, McCarthy hoped to pressure the Democrats into publicly opposing the Vietnam War. Since New Hampshire was the first presidential primary of 1968, McCarthy poured most of his limited resources into the state. He was boosted by thousands of young college students, led by youth coordinator Sam Brown, who shaved their beards and cut their hair to be \"Clean for Gene\". These students organized get-out-the-vote drives, rang doorbells, distributed McCarthy buttons and leaflets, and worked hard in New Hampshire for McCarthy. On March 12, McCarthy won 42 percent of the primary vote, to Johnson's 49 percent, a shockingly strong showing against an incumbent president, which was even more impressive because Johnson had more than 24 supporters running for the Democratic National Convention delegate slots to be filled in the election, while McCarthy's campaign organized more strategically. McCarthy won 20 of the 24 delegates. This gave McCarthy's campaign legitimacy and momentum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 24909346, 166899, 19590, 445301, 19249010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 35 ], [ 36, 51 ], [ 57, 66 ], [ 151, 172 ], [ 461, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sensing Johnson's vulnerability, Senator Robert F. Kennedy announced his candidacy four days after the New Hampshire primary. Thereafter, McCarthy and Kennedy engaged in a series of state primaries. Despite Kennedy's high profile, McCarthy won most of the early primaries, including Kennedy's native state of Massachusetts and some primaries in which he and Kennedy were in direct competition. Following his victory in the key battleground state of Oregon, it was assumed that McCarthy was the preferred choice among the young voters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1645518, 26811621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 322 ], [ 449, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 31, 1968, following the New Hampshire primary and Kennedy's entry into the election, the president made a televised speech to the nation and said that he was suspending all bombing of North Vietnam in favor of peace talks. After concluding his speech, Johnson announced,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"With America's sons in the fields far away, with America's future under challenge right here at home, with our hopes and the world's hopes for peace in the balance every day, I do not believe that I should devote an hour or a day of my time to any personal partisan causes or to any duties, other than the awesome duties of this office — the presidency of your country. Accordingly, I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 5338788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 384, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Not discussed publicly at the time was Johnson's concern that he might not survive another term — Johnson's health was poor, and he had already suffered a serious heart attack in 1955. He died on January 22, 1973, two days after the end of the new presidential term. Bleak political forecasts also contributed to Johnson's withdrawal; internal polling by Johnson's campaign in Wisconsin, the next state to hold a primary election, showed the President trailing badly.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 20556798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians have debated why Johnson quit a few days after his weak showing in New Hampshire. Jeff Shesol says Johnson wanted out of the White House, but also wanted vindication; when the indicators turned negative, he decided to leave. Lewis L. Gould says that Johnson had neglected the Democratic party, was hurting it by his Vietnam policies, and under-estimated McCarthy's strength until the last minute, when it was too late for Johnson to recover. Randall Bennett Woods said Johnson realized he needed to leave, in order for the nation to heal. Robert Dallek writes that Johnson had no further domestic goals, and realized that his personality had eroded his popularity. His health was poor, and he was pre-occupied with the Kennedy campaign; his wife was pressing for his retirement, and his base of support continued to shrink. Leaving the race would allow him to pose as a peace-maker. Anthony J. Bennett, however, said Johnson \"had been forced out of a re-election race in 1968 by outrage over his policy in Southeast Asia\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 22544402, 4491811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 104 ], [ 550, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, an AP reporter said that Johnson decided to end his re-election bid after CBS News anchor Walter Cronkite, who was influential, turned against the president's policy in Vietnam. During a CBS News editorial which aired on February 27, Cronkite recommended the US pursue peace negotiations. After watching Cronkite's editorial, Johnson allegedly exclaimed: \"If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America.\" This quote by Johnson has been disputed for accuracy. Johnson was attending Texas Governor John Connally's birthday gala in Austin, Texas, when Cronkite's editorial aired and did not see the original broadcast. But, Cronkite and CBS News correspondent Bob Schieffer defended reports that the remark had been made. They said that members of Johnson's inner circle, who had watched the editorial with the president, including presidential aide George Christian and journalist Bill Moyers, later confirmed the accuracy of the quote to them. Schieffer, who was a reporter for the Star-Telegrams WBAP television station in Fort Worth, Texas, when Cronkite's editorial aired, acknowledged reports that the president saw the editorial's original broadcast were inaccurate, but claimed the president was able to watch a taping of it the morning after it aired and then made the remark. However, Johnson's January 27, 1968, phone conversion with Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley revealed that the two were trying to feed Robert Kennedy's ego so he would stay in the race, convincing him that the Democratic Party was undergoing a \"revolution\". They suggested he might earn a spot as vice president.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 167289, 1051337, 2677407, 170721, 30872421, 1703532, 40221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 114 ], [ 667, 680 ], [ 857, 873 ], [ 889, 900 ], [ 991, 1004 ], [ 1006, 1010 ], [ 1366, 1382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Johnson's withdrawal, the Democratic Party quickly split into four factions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The first faction consisted of labor unions and big-city party bosses (led by Mayor Richard J. Daley). This group had traditionally controlled the Democratic Party since the days of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and they feared loss of their control over the party. After Johnson's withdrawal this group rallied to support Hubert Humphrey, Johnson's vice-president; it was also believed that President Johnson himself was covertly supporting Humphrey, despite his public claims of neutrality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 40221, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 101 ], [ 193, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The second faction, which rallied behind Senator Eugene McCarthy, was composed of college students, intellectuals, and upper-middle-class urban whites who had been the early activists against the war in Vietnam; they perceived themselves as the future of the Democratic Party.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The third group was primarily composed of African-Americans, Latinos, and other minorities, as well as several anti-war groups; these groups rallied behind Senator Robert F. Kennedy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The fourth group consisted of white Southern Democrats. Some older voters, remembering the New Deal's positive impact upon the rural South, supported Vice-president Humphrey. Many would rally behind the third-party campaign of former Alabama Governor George Wallace as a \"law and order\" candidate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 19283361, 259897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 100 ], [ 252, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the Vietnam War had become the major issue that was dividing the Democratic Party, and Johnson had come to symbolize the war for many liberal Democrats, Johnson believed that he could not win the nomination without a major struggle, and that he would probably lose the election in November to the Republicans. However, by withdrawing from the race, he could avoid the stigma of defeat, and he could keep control of the party machinery by giving the nomination to Humphrey, who had been a loyal vice-president. Milne (2011) argues that, in terms of foreign-policy in the Vietnam War, Johnson at the end wanted Nixon to be president rather than Humphrey, since Johnson agreed with Nixon, rather than Humphrey, on the need to defend South Vietnam from communism. However, Johnson's telephone calls show that Johnson believed the Nixon camp was deliberately sabotaging the Paris peace talks. He told Humphrey, who refused to use allegations based on illegal wiretaps of a presidential candidate. Nixon himself called Johnson and denied the allegations. Dallek concludes that Nixon's advice to Saigon made no difference, and that Humphrey was so closely identified with Johnson's unpopular policies that no last-minute deal with Hanoi could have affected the election.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 669964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 875, 892 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Johnson's withdrawal, Vice President Hubert Humphrey announced his candidacy. Kennedy was successful in four state primaries (Indiana, Nebraska, South Dakota, and California), and McCarthy won six (Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Oregon, New Jersey, and Illinois). However, in primaries where they campaigned directly against one another, Kennedy won three primaries (Indiana, Nebraska, and California), and McCarthy won only one (Oregon). Humphrey did not compete in the primaries, leaving that job to favorite sons who were his surrogates, notably United States Senator George A. Smathers from Florida, United States Senator Stephen M. Young from Ohio, and Governor Roger D. Branigin of Indiana. Instead, Humphrey concentrated on winning the delegates in non-primary states, where party leaders such as Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley controlled the delegate votes in their states. Kennedy defeated Branigin and McCarthy in the Indiana primary, and then defeated McCarthy in the Nebraska primary. However, McCarthy upset Kennedy in the Oregon primary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 32759, 359763, 24909346, 1504130, 18933066, 24909346, 709448, 22199, 253071, 2991511, 21883857, 310285, 40221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 42 ], [ 517, 529 ], [ 564, 585 ], [ 586, 604 ], [ 610, 617 ], [ 619, 640 ], [ 641, 657 ], [ 663, 667 ], [ 673, 681 ], [ 682, 699 ], [ 703, 710 ], [ 819, 832 ], [ 833, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Kennedy's defeat in Oregon, the California primary was seen as crucial to both Kennedy and McCarthy. McCarthy stumped the state's many colleges and universities, where he was treated as a hero for being the first presidential candidate to oppose the war. Kennedy campaigned in the ghettos and barrios of the state's larger cities, where he was mobbed by enthusiastic supporters. Kennedy and McCarthy engaged in a television debate a few days before the primary; it was generally considered a draw. On June 4, Kennedy narrowly defeated McCarthy in California, 46%–42%. However, McCarthy refused to withdraw from the race, and made it clear that he would contest Kennedy in the upcoming New York primary, where McCarthy had much support from anti-war activists in New York City. The New York primary quickly became a moot point, however, for Kennedy was assassinated shortly after midnight on June 5; he died twenty-six hours later at Good Samaritan Hospital. Kennedy had just given his victory speech in a crowded ballroom of the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles; he and his aides then entered a narrow kitchen pantry on their way to a banquet room to meet with reporters. In the pantry, Kennedy and five others were shot by Sirhan Sirhan, a 24-year-old Rosicrucian Palestinian of Christian background and Jordanian citizenship, who hated Kennedy because of his support for Israel. Sirhan admitted his guilt, was convicted of murder, and is still in prison. In recent years some have cast doubt on Sirhan's guilt, including Sirhan himself, who said he was \"brainwashed\" into killing Kennedy and was a patsy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 92903, 488582, 21131596, 11014661, 652622, 21131645, 49972, 23267, 23949, 7515964, 12636891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 287, 293 ], [ 299, 305 ], [ 846, 870 ], [ 939, 962 ], [ 1035, 1051 ], [ 1229, 1242 ], [ 1258, 1269 ], [ 1270, 1281 ], [ 1285, 1305 ], [ 1310, 1316 ], [ 1605, 1610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political historians still debate whether Kennedy could have won the Democratic nomination, had he lived. Some historians, such as Theodore H. White and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., have argued that Kennedy's broad appeal and famed charisma would have convinced the party bosses at the Democratic Convention to give him the nomination. Jack Newfield, author of RFK: A Memoir, stated in a 1998 interview that on the night he was assassinated, \"[Kennedy] had a phone conversation with Mayor Daley of Chicago, and Mayor Daley all but promised to throw the Illinois delegates to Bobby at the convention in August 1968. I think he said to me, and Pete Hamill: 'Daley is the ball game, and I think we have Daley. However, other writers such as Tom Wicker, who covered the Kennedy campaign for The New York Times, believe that Humphrey's large lead in delegate votes from non-primary states, combined with Senator McCarthy's refusal to quit the race, would have prevented Kennedy from ever winning a majority at the Democratic Convention, and that Humphrey would have been the Democratic nominee, even if Kennedy had lived. The journalist Richard Reeves and historian Michael Beschloss have both written that Humphrey was the likely nominee, and future Democratic National Committee chairman Larry O'Brien wrote in his memoirs that Kennedy's chances of winning the nomination had been slim, even after his win in California.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 24976741, 1013900, 27665426, 672911, 5659484, 30680, 544496, 677779, 762752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 148 ], [ 153, 179 ], [ 231, 239 ], [ 641, 652 ], [ 737, 747 ], [ 786, 804 ], [ 1131, 1145 ], [ 1160, 1177 ], [ 1284, 1297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the moment of RFK's death, the delegate totals were:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hubert Humphrey 561", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 42636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert F. Kennedy 393", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 21131695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eugene McCarthy 258", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 166899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Total popular vote:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eugene McCarthy: 2,914,933 (38.7%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 166899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert F. Kennedy: 2,304,542 (30.6%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 21131695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen M. Young: 549,140 (7.3%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 709448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lyndon B. Johnson: 383,048 (5.1%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger D. Branigin: 238,700 (3.2%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 2991511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Smathers: 236,242 (3.1%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1504130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hubert Humphrey: 166,463 (2.2%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 42636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unpledged: 670,328 (8.9%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George Wallace: 33,520 (0.4%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 259897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Nixon (write-in): 13,035 (0.2%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 25473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson A. Rockefeller: 5,116 (0.1%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 19283265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ronald Reagan (write-in): 4,987 (0.1%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ted Kennedy: 4,052 (0.1%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 184136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Others: 10,963 (0.1%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Kennedy's death altered the dynamics of the race. Although Humphrey appeared the presumptive favorite for the nomination, thanks to his support from the traditional power blocs of the party, he was an unpopular choice with many of the anti-war elements within the party, who identified him with Johnson's controversial position on the Vietnam War. However, Kennedy's delegates failed to unite behind a single candidate who could have prevented Humphrey from getting the nomination. Some of Kennedy's support went to McCarthy, but many of Kennedy's delegates, remembering their bitter primary battles with McCarthy, refused to vote for him. Instead, these delegates rallied around the late-starting candidacy of Senator George McGovern of South Dakota, a Kennedy supporter in the spring primaries who had presidential ambitions himself. This division of the anti-war votes at the Democratic Convention made it easier for Humphrey to gather the delegates he needed to win the nomination.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 39766716, 62896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 250 ], [ 726, 741 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the 1968 Democratic National Convention opened in Chicago, thousands of young activists from around the nation gathered in the city to protest the Vietnam War. On the evening of August 28, in a clash which was covered on live television, Americans were shocked to see Chicago police brutally beating anti-war protesters in the streets of Chicago in front of the Conrad Hilton Hotel. While the protesters chanted, \"The whole world is watching\", the police used clubs and tear gas to beat back or arrest the protesters, leaving many of them bloody and dazed. The tear gas wafted into numerous hotel suites; in one of them Vice President Humphrey was watching the proceedings on television. The police said that their actions were justified because numerous police officers were being injured by bottles, rocks, and broken glass that were being thrown at them by the protestors. The protestors had also yelled insults at the police, calling them \"pigs\" and other epithets. The anti-war and police riot divided the Democratic Party's base: some supported the protestors and felt that the police were being heavy-handed, but others disapproved of the violence and supported the police. Meanwhile, the convention itself was marred by the strong-arm tactics of Chicago's mayor Richard J. Daley (who was seen on television angrily cursing Senator Abraham Ribicoff from Connecticut, who made a speech at the convention denouncing the excesses of the Chicago police). In the end, the nomination itself was anti-climactic, with Vice-president Humphrey handily beating McCarthy and McGovern on the first ballot.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 42627, 15485731, 18584048, 1202646, 514444, 847967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 44 ], [ 140, 163 ], [ 419, 446 ], [ 475, 483 ], [ 965, 973 ], [ 1344, 1360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the delegates nominated Humphrey, the convention then turned to selecting a vice-presidential nominee. The main candidates for this position were Senators Edward M. Kennedy from Massachusetts, Edmund Muskie from Maine, and Fred R. Harris from Oklahoma; Governors Richard Hughes of New Jersey and Terry Sanford of North Carolina; Mayor Joseph Alioto of San Francisco, California; former Deputy Secretary of Defense Cyrus Vance; and Ambassador Sargent Shriver from Maryland. Another idea floated was to tap Republican Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York, one of the most liberal Republicans. Ted Kennedy was Humphrey's first choice, but the senator turned him down. After narrowing it down to Senator Muskie and Senator Harris, Vice-president Humphrey chose Muskie, a moderate and environmentalist from Maine, for the nomination. The convention complied with the request and nominated Senator Muskie as Humphrey's running mate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 184136, 307962, 1067698, 442273, 423155, 1100906, 165126, 234508, 19283265, 10184, 19977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 178 ], [ 199, 212 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 269, 283 ], [ 302, 315 ], [ 341, 354 ], [ 420, 431 ], [ 448, 463 ], [ 531, 549 ], [ 789, 805 ], [ 811, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The publicity from the anti-war riots crippled Humphrey's campaign from the start, and it never fully recovered. Before 1968 the city of Chicago had been a frequent host for the political conventions of both parties; since 1968 only one national convention has been held there (the Democratic convention of 1996, which nominated Bill Clinton for a second term).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1202740, 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 311 ], [ 329, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source: Keating Holland, \"All the Votes... Really\", CNN", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hubert Humphrey", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " President Lyndon B. Johnson", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 24113, 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mayor Richard J. Daley of Chicago", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 310285, 40221, 6886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 7, 23 ], [ 27, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Former President Harry S. Truman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 3418303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Singer/actor Frank Sinatra", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 11181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert F. Kennedy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Senator Abraham Ribicoff from Connecticut", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 847967, 6466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 31, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Senator George McGovern from South Dakota", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 62896, 26746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 30, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Senator Vance Hartke from Indiana", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 284498, 21883857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 27, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Labor Leader Cesar Chavez", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 68319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Writer Truman Capote", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 155736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Writer Norman Mailer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 189774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Actress Shirley MacLaine", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 147368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Actress Stefanie Powers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1256128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Actor Robert Vaughn", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 229105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Actor Peter Lawford", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 367128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Singer Bobby Darin", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 100161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eugene McCarthy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Don Edwards from California", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 2791854, 5407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 33, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Actor Paul Newman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 49706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Actress Tallulah Bankhead", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 229818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Playwright Arthur Miller", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 2310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Writer William Styron", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 148351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George McGovern (during convention)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Senator Abraham Ribicoff from Connecticut", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 847967, 6466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 31, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Governor Harold E. Hughes of Iowa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Democratic Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1328384, 26810748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American Independent Party, which was established in 1967 by Bill and Eileen Shearer, nominated former Alabama Governor George Wallace – whose pro-racial segregation policies had been rejected by the mainstream of the Democratic Party – as the party's candidate for president. The impact of the Wallace campaign was substantial, winning the electoral votes of several states in the Deep South. He appeared on the ballot in all fifty states, but not the District of Columbia. Although he did not come close to winning any states outside the South, Wallace was the 1968 presidential candidate who most disproportionately drew his support from among young men. Wallace also proved to be popular among blue-collar workers in the North and Midwest, and he took many votes which might have gone to Humphrey.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "American Independent Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 307452, 307452, 259897, 26316, 401342, 246816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 65, 69 ], [ 124, 138 ], [ 151, 169 ], [ 386, 396 ], [ 702, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wallace was not expected to win the election – his strategy was to prevent either major party candidate from winning a preliminary majority in the Electoral College. Although Wallace put considerable effort into mounting a serious general election campaign, his presidential bid was also a continuation of Southern efforts to elect unpledged electors that had taken place in every election from 1956 – he had his electors promise to vote not necessarily for him but rather for whomever he directed them to support – his objective was not to move the election into the U.S. House of Representatives where he would have had little influence, but rather to give himself the bargaining power to determine the winner. Wallace's running mate was retired four star General Curtis LeMay.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "American Independent Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 85533, 1020107, 40564, 19468510, 216817, 66225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 164 ], [ 332, 350 ], [ 395, 399 ], [ 568, 597 ], [ 723, 735 ], [ 766, 778 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to deciding on LeMay, Wallace gave serious consideration to former U.S. senator, governor, and Baseball Commissioner A. B. Happy Chandler of Kentucky as his running mate. Chandler and Wallace met a number of times; however, Chandler said that he and Wallace were unable to come to an agreement regarding their positions on racial matters. Paradoxically, Chandler supported the segregationist Dixiecrats in the 1948 presidential elections. However, after being re-elected Governor of Kentucky in 1955, he used National Guard troops to enforce school integration.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "American Independent Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 304107, 158006, 253074, 37988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 143 ], [ 398, 407 ], [ 477, 497 ], [ 515, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "LeMay embarrassed Wallace's campaign in the fall by suggesting that nuclear weapons could be used in Vietnam.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "American Independent Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 21785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also on the ballot in two or more states were black activist Eldridge Cleaver (who was ineligible to take office, as he would have only been 33 years of age on January 20, 1969) for the Peace and Freedom Party; Henning Blomen for the Socialist Labor Party; Fred Halstead for the Socialist Workers Party; E. Harold Munn for the Prohibition Party; and Charlene Mitchell – the first African-American woman to run for president, and the first woman to receive valid votes in a general election – for the Communist Party. Comedians Dick Gregory and Pat Paulsen were notable write-in candidates. A facetious presidential candidate for 1968 was a pig named Pigasus, as a political statement by the Yippies, to illustrate their premise that \"one pig's as good as any other\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "American Independent Party nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 181992, 248633, 5685800, 38777001, 4541024, 43441278, 14646192, 307316, 3988833, 452981, 207593, 1188024, 480905, 3503405, 241701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 77 ], [ 186, 209 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 234, 255 ], [ 257, 270 ], [ 279, 302 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 350, 367 ], [ 500, 515 ], [ 527, 539 ], [ 544, 555 ], [ 569, 587 ], [ 650, 657 ], [ 691, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon developed a \"Southern strategy\" that was designed to appeal to conservative white southerners, who had traditionally voted Democratic, but were opposed to Johnson and Humphrey's support for the civil rights movement, as well as the rioting that had broken out in the ghettos of most large cities. Wallace, however, won over many of the voters Nixon targeted, effectively splitting that voting bloc. Indeed, Wallace deliberately targeted many states he had little chance of carrying himself in the hope that by splitting as many votes with Nixon as possible he would give competitive states to Humphrey and, by extension, boost his own chances of denying both opponents an Electoral College majority.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 454963, 37071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 36 ], [ 200, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since he was well behind Nixon in the polls as the campaign began, Humphrey opted for a slashing, fighting campaign style. He repeatedly – and unsuccessfully – challenged Nixon to a televised debate, and he often compared his campaign to the successful underdog effort of President Harry Truman, another Democrat who had trailed in the polls, in the 1948 presidential election. Humphrey predicted that he, like Truman, would surprise the experts and win an upset victory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 3418303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon campaigned on a theme to restore \"law and order\", which appealed to many voters angry with the hundreds of violent riots that had taken place across the country in the previous few years. Following the murder of Martin Luther King in April 1968, there was massive rioting in inner city areas. The police were overwhelmed and President Johnson decided to call out the U.S. Army. Nixon also opposed forced busing to desegregate schools. Proclaiming himself a supporter of civil rights, he recommended education as the solution rather than militancy. During the campaign, Nixon proposed government tax incentives to African Americans for small businesses and home improvements in their existing neighborhoods.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1630932, 20076, 36474617, 353942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 218, 236 ], [ 262, 297 ], [ 403, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the campaign, Nixon also used as a theme his opposition to the decisions of Chief Justice Earl Warren, pledging to \"remake the Supreme Court.\" Many conservatives were critical of Chief Justice Warren for using the Supreme Court to promote liberal policies in the fields of civil rights, civil liberties, and the separation of church and state. Nixon promised that if he were elected president, he would appoint justices who would take a less-active role in creating social policy. In another campaign promise, he pledged to end the draft. During the 1960s, Nixon had been impressed by a paper he had read by Professor Martin Anderson of Columbia University. Anderson had argued in the paper for an end to the draft and the creation of an all-volunteer army. Nixon also saw ending the draft as an effective way to undermine the anti-Vietnam war movement, since he believed affluent college-age youths would stop protesting the war once their own possibility of having to fight in it was gone.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 71908, 37071, 37476, 168714, 1029446, 21973657, 6310, 1854610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ], [ 280, 292 ], [ 294, 309 ], [ 319, 349 ], [ 539, 544 ], [ 625, 640 ], [ 644, 663 ], [ 834, 859 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Humphrey, meanwhile, promised to continue and expand the Great Society welfare programs started by President Johnson, and to continue the Johnson Administration's \"War on Poverty\". He also promised to continue the efforts of Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, and the Supreme Court, in promoting the expansion of civil rights and civil liberties for minority groups. However, Humphrey also felt constrained for most of his campaign in voicing any opposition to the Vietnam War policies of President Johnson, due to his fear that Johnson would reject any peace proposals he made and undermine his campaign. As a result, early in his campaign Humphrey often found himself the target of anti-war protestors, some of whom heckled and disrupted his campaign rallies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 55792, 232940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 70 ], [ 164, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Democratic Convention in late August, Humphrey trailed Nixon by double digits in most polls, and his chances seemed hopeless. Many within Humphrey's campaign saw their real goal as avoiding the potential humiliation of finishing behind Wallace in the electoral college vote (if not necessarily the popular vote), rather than having any serious chance of defeating Nixon. According to Time magazine, \"The old Democratic coalition was disintegrating, with untold numbers of blue-collar workers responding to Wallace's blandishments, Negroes threatening to sit out the election, liberals disaffected over the Vietnam War, the South lost. The war chest was almost empty, and the party's machinery, neglected by Lyndon Johnson, creaked in disrepair.\" Calling for \"the politics of joy\", and using the still-powerful labor unions as his base, Humphrey fought back. In order to distance himself from Johnson, and to take advantage of the Democratic plurality in voter registration, Humphrey stopped being identified in ads as \"Vice-President Hubert Humphrey\", instead being labelled \"Democratic candidate Hubert Humphrey\". ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 36856552, 31600, 17626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 101 ], [ 394, 398 ], [ 820, 832 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Humphrey attacked Wallace as a racist bigot who appealed to the darker impulses of Americans. Wallace had been rising in the polls as a result of tailoring his message to audiences outside of his southern strongholds by using anti-establishment rhetoric and attacks on \"concentrated wealth\", with Wallace's polling numbers peaking at 21% nationally in late September and early October. However, Wallace's momentum went into reverse after he selected Curtis LeMay as his running mate. Curtis LeMay's suggestion of using tactical nuclear weapons in Vietnam conjured up the worst memories of the 1964 Goldwater campaign. Labor unions also undertook a major effort to win back union members who were supporting Wallace, with some substantial success. Polling numbers that had showed Wallace winning almost one-half of union members in the summer of 1968 went increasingly into sharp decline as the election campaign progressed into the fall up to early November election day. As election day approached and Wallace's support in the North, Midwest and West began to wane, Humphrey finally began to climb in the polls.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 66225, 15106061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 450, 462 ], [ 593, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October, Humphrey—who was rising sharply in the polls due to the sharp decline of the Wallace polling—began to distance himself publicly from the Johnson administration on the Vietnam War, calling for a bombing halt. The key turning point for Humphrey's campaign came when President Johnson officially announced a bombing halt, and even a possible peace deal, the weekend before the election. The \"Halloween Peace\" gave Humphrey's campaign a badly needed boost. In addition, Senator Eugene McCarthy finally endorsed a vote for Humphrey in late October after previously refusing to do so, and by election day the polls were reporting a dead heat.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Nixon campaign had anticipated a possible \"October surprise\", a peace agreement produced by the Paris negotiations; as such an agreement would be a boost to Humphrey, Nixon thwarted any last-minute chances of a \"Halloween Peace\". Nixon told campaign aide and his future White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman to put a \"monkey wrench\" into an early end to the war. Johnson was enraged and said that Nixon had \"blood on his hands\", and that Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen agreed with Johnson that such action was \"treason\". Defense Secretary Clark Clifford considered the moves an illegal violation of the Logan Act. A former director of the Nixon Library called it a \"covert action\" which \"laid the skulduggery of his presidency\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 3618423, 212934, 144113, 46507, 103566, 80224, 2472246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ], [ 274, 300 ], [ 301, 315 ], [ 446, 468 ], [ 469, 484 ], [ 555, 569 ], [ 619, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryce Harlow, former Eisenhower White House staff member, claimed to have \"a double agent working in the White House... I kept Nixon informed.\" Harlow and Nixon's future National Security Advisor and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, who was friendly with both campaigns and guaranteed a job in either a Humphrey or Nixon administration, separately predicted Johnson's \"bombing halt\": \"The word is out that we are making an effort to throw the election to Humphrey. Nixon has been told of it\", Democratic senator George Smathers informed Johnson.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 10298499, 44028, 32293, 13765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 170, 195 ], [ 200, 218 ], [ 219, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon asked Anna Chennault to be his \"channel to Mr. Thieu\" in order to advise him to refuse participation in the talks, in what is sometimes described as the \"Anna Chennault Affair\". Thieu was promised a better deal under a Nixon administration. Chennault agreed and periodically reported to John Mitchell that Thieu had no intention of attending a peace conference. On November 2, Chennault informed the South Vietnamese ambassador: \"I have just heard from my boss in Albuquerque who says his boss [Nixon] is going to win. And you tell your boss [Thieu] to hold on a while longer.\" In 1997, Chennault admitted that, \"I was constantly in touch with Nixon and Mitchell\". The effort also involved Texas Senator John Tower and Kissinger, who traveled to Paris on behalf of the Nixon campaign. William Bundy stated that Kissinger obtained \"no useful inside information\" from his trip to Paris, and \"almost any experienced Hanoi watcher might have come to the same conclusion\". While Kissinger may have \"hinted that his advice was based on contacts with the Paris delegation\", this sort of \"self-promotion ... is at worst a minor and not uncommon practice, quite different from getting and reporting real secrets\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 3325863, 80096, 84570, 470063, 533543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ], [ 53, 58 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 710, 720 ], [ 791, 804 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson learned of the Nixon-Chennault effort because the NSA was intercepting communications in Vietnam. In response, Johnson ordered NSA surveillance of Chennault and wire-tapped the South Vietnamese embassy and members of the Nixon campaign. He did not leak the information to the public because he did not want to \"shock America\" with the revelation, nor reveal that the NSA was intercepting communications in Vietnam. Johnson did make information available to Humphrey, but at this point Humphrey thought he was going to win the election, so he did not reveal the information to the public. Humphrey later regretted this as a mistake. The South Vietnamese government withdrew from peace negotiations, and Nixon publicly offered to go to Saigon to help the negotiations. A promising \"peace bump\" ended up in \"shambles\" for the Democratic Party.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 21939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election on November 5, 1968, proved to be extremely close, and it was not until the following morning that the television news networks were able to declare Nixon the winner. The key states proved to be California, Ohio, and Illinois, all of which Nixon won by three percentage points or less. Had Humphrey carried all three of these states, he would have won the election. Had he carried only two of them or just California among them, George Wallace would have succeeded in his aim of preventing an electoral college majority for any candidate, and the decision would have been given to the House of Representatives, at the time controlled by the Democratic Party. Nixon won the popular vote with a plurality of 512,000 votes, or a victory margin of about one percentage point. In the electoral college Nixon's victory was larger, as he carried 32 states with 301 electoral votes, compared to Humphrey's 13 states and 191 electoral votes and Wallace's five states and 46 electoral votes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Nixon was able to win the Electoral College, dominating several regions in the Western United States, Midwest, Upland South, and portions of the Northeast, while winning the popular vote by a relatively small 511,944 votes over Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey. Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey performed relatively well in the Northeast and Upper Midwest. Wallace finished last with five states in the Deep South; he is the most recent third-party candidate to win any states. This is the first time that the Republican popular vote margin was under 5 points since 1896.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 179578, 104697, 8152135, 431669, 42636, 401342, 319501, 40529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 108 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 255, 270 ], [ 415, 425 ], [ 449, 460 ], [ 578, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Out of all the states that Nixon had previously carried in 1960, Maine and Washington were the only two states that did not vote for Nixon again in 1968; while Nixon carried them four years later during his re-election campaign in 1972. He also carried eight states that voted for John F. Kennedy in 1960: Illinois, New Jersey, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Mexico, Nevada and Delaware. This was the last time until 1988 that the state of Washington voted Democratic and until 1992 that Connecticut, Maine, and Michigan voted Democratic in the general election. Nixon was also the last Republican candidate to win a presidential election without carrying Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. This is the first time which the Republican candidate captured the White House without carrying Michigan, Minnesota, Maine and Pennsylvania. He would be the last Republican candidate to carry Minnesota (four years later, in 1972), as of 2020. This is also the first time since 1916 that Minnesota voted for the candidate who did not eventually win.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Remarkably, Nixon won the election despite winning only two of the six states (Arizona and South Carolina) won by Republican Barry Goldwater four years earlier. He remains the only presidential candidate to win in spite of defending such a low number of his own party's states. All of the remaining four States carried by Goldwater were carried by Wallace in 1968. They would be won by Nixon in 1972. Four of the fives states won by Wallace had voted for Goldwater.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 21883824, 27956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 86 ], [ 91, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the 3,130 counties/districts/independent cities making returns, Nixon won in 1,859 (59.39%) while Humphrey carried 693 (22.14%). Wallace was victorious in 578 counties (18.47%), all of which (with one exception of Pemiscot County, Missouri) were located in the South.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 94568, 179553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 242 ], [ 264, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon said that Humphrey left a gracious message congratulating him, noting, \"I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 40565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon's victory is often considered a realigning election in American politics. From 1932 to 1964, the Democratic Party was undoubtedly the majority party, winning seven out of nine presidential elections, and their agenda influenced policies undertaken by the Republican Eisenhower administration. The 1968 election reversed the situation completely. From 1968 until 2004, Republicans won seven out of ten presidential elections, and its policies clearly affected those enacted by the Democratic Clinton administration via the Third Way.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 440517, 4538945, 361745, 292269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 57 ], [ 272, 297 ], [ 497, 519 ], [ 528, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election was a seismic event in the long-term realignment in Democratic Party support, especially in the South. Nationwide, the bitter splits over civil rights, the new left, the Vietnam War, and other \"culture wars\" were slow to heal. Democrats could no longer count on white Southern support for the presidency, as Republicans made major gains in suburban areas and areas filled with Northern migrants. The rural Democratic \"courthouse cliques\" in the South lost power. While Democrats controlled local and state politics in the South, Republicans usually won the presidential vote. In 1968, Humphrey won less than ten percent of the white Southern vote, with two-thirds of his vote in the region coming from blacks, who now voted in full strength.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 65067511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 431, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1968 until 2004, only two Democrats were elected president, both native Southerners – Jimmy Carter of Georgia and Bill Clinton of Arkansas. Not until 2008 did a Northern Democrat, Barack Obama of Illinois, again win a presidential election. In 2020, another Northern Democrat, Joe Biden of Delaware, won a presidential election.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 15992, 534366, 145422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 103 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 282, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another important result of this election was that it led to several reforms in how the Democratic Party chose its presidential nominees. In 1969, the McGovern–Fraser Commission adopted a set of rules for the states to follow in selecting convention delegates. These rules reduced the influence of party leaders on the nominating process and provided greater representation for minorities, women, and youth. The reforms led most states to adopt laws requiring primary elections, instead of party leaders, to choose delegates.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 7025225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After 1968, the only way to win the party's presidential nomination became through the primary process; Humphrey turned out to be the last nominee of either major party to win his party's nomination without having directly competed in the primaries.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Interestingly, this remains the most recent presidential election in which the incumbent president was not nominated for a presidential term despite being eligible, and the only such election to occur after the Twenty-second Amendment came into effect. It is also the last election in which any third-party candidate won an entire state's electoral votes, with Wallace carrying five states.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This election was the last time until 1992 that the Democratic nominee won Connecticut, Maine, and Michigan and the last until 1988 when Washington voted Democrat, and the last time a Republican won the presidency without winning Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. It was also the first time since 1888 that bellwether Coös County, New Hampshire did not support the winning candidate.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 1878130, 93507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 337 ], [ 338, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was the first time since 1928 that North Carolina voted for a Republican, and the first since 1912 (only the second time since 1852 and as of 2020, the last time) that Maine and Vermont did not support same party. Similarly, it is the last time that Oregon and Washington did not support the same party, meaning the two neighbouring states have only voted for different candidates twice in 100 years.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the narrow (0.7%) difference in the popular vote, Humphrey took only 35.5% of the electoral vote. This disparity prompted the introduction of the Bayh–Celler amendment in Congress, which would have replaced the Electoral College with a direct election of the presidency. The effort was not successful and the Electoral College is still in force.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 85533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source (Popular Vote): ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source (Electoral Vote): ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States where margin of victory was less than 5 percentage points (223 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (tipping point state for Nixon win)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (tipping point state for Humphrey win)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States where margin of victory was more than 5 percentage points, but less than 10 percentage points (155 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Notes: In Alabama, Wallace was the official Democratic Party nominee, while Humphrey ran on the ticket of short-lived National Democratic Party of Alabama, loyal to him as an official Democratic Party nominee.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 303, 14968594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 118, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In North Carolina one Nixon Elector cast his ballot for George Wallace (President) and Curtis LeMay (Vice President).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 21650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Republican)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Democratic)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (American Independent)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report. \"Group Analysis of the 1968 Presidential Vote\" XXVI, No. 48 (November 1968), p.3218.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source:' Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report. \"Group Analysis of the 1968 Presidential Vote\", XXVI, No. 48 (November 1968), p.3218.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 United States House of Representatives elections", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1341738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 United States Senate elections", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1177501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 United States gubernatorial elections", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40282437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the United States (1964–1980)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the United States Democratic Party", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3088213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the United States Republican Party", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4157940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of presidents of the United States", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19908980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " First inauguration of Richard Nixon", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21204142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "White, Theodore H., The Making of the President 1968. Pocket Books, 1970.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 24976741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boomhower, Ray E. \"Fighting the Good Fight: John Bartlow Martin and Hubert Humphrey's 1968 Presidential Campaign.\" Indiana Magazine of History (2020) 116#1 pp 1–29. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brown, Stuart Gerry. The Presidency on Trial: Robert Kennedy's 1968 Campaign and Afterwards. U. Press of Hawaii, 1972. 155 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Burner, David, and West, Thomas R. The Torch Is Passed: The Kennedy Brothers and American Liberalism. (1984). 307 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coffey, Justin P. Spiro Agnew and the Rise of the Republican Right (ABC-CLIO, 2015).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cohen, Michael A. American Maelstrom: The 1968 Election and the Politics of Division (Oxford UP, 2016) excerpt and online review", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Herzog, Arthur. McCarthy for President (1969)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1661311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jamieson, Patrick E. \"Seeing the Lyndon B. Johnson Presidency through the March 31, 1968 Withdrawal Speech.\" Presidential Studies Quarterly Vol 29#1 1999 pp.134+", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kimball, Warren F. \"The Election of 1968.\" Diplomatic History 2004 28(4): 513–528. Fulltext online in SwetsWise, Ingenta and Ebsco. Comments by others at pp.563–576; reply, p.577.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 69949939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LaFerber, Walter. The Deadly Bet: LBJ, Vietnam, and the 1968 Election (2005) short survey", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1239518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lesher, Stephan. George Wallace: American Populist. (1994). 587 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lichtenstein, Nelson, ed. Political Profiles: The Johnson Years. 1976. short biographies of 400+ key politicians.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Longley, Kyle. LBJ's 1968: Power, Politics, and the Presidency in America's Year of Upheaval (2018) excerpt", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson, Michael. Resilient America: Electing Nixon in 1968, Channeling Dissent, and Dividing Government (University Press of Kansas; 2014) 360 pages", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson, Michael. \"The Historical Presidency: Lost Confidence: The Democratic Party, the Vietnam War, and the 1968 Election.\" Presidential Studies Quarterly 48.3 (2018): 570–585.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " O'Mara, Margaret. Pivotal Tuesdays: Four Elections That Shaped the Twentieth Century (2015), compares 1912, 1932, 1968, 1992 in terms of social, economic, and political history", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schumacher, Michael. The Contest: The 1968 Election and the War for America's Soul (U of Minnesota Press, 2018) 540 pp. online review", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shesol, Jeff. Mutual Contempt: Lyndon Johnson, Robert Kennedy, and the Feud that Defined a Decade (1997)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Small, Melvin. \"The Election of 1968\", Diplomatic History (2004) 28#4 pp 513–528, on foreign-policy issues online", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Solberg, Carl. Hubert Humphrey (2003), scholarly biography excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Time. \"Wallace's Army: The Coalition Of Frustration\", Time October 18, 1968", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Woods, Randall. LBJ: Architect of American Ambition (2006)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gallup, George H., ed. The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971. 3 vols. Random House, 1972. press releases;", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 100077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " McCarthy, Eugene. The Year of the People (1969), memoir", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ; firsthand reporting", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " online", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , famous report by American journalist", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chester, Edward W A guide to political platforms (1977) online", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Porter, Kirk H., and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National party platforms, 1840-1972'' (1973)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Election Wall's 1968 Election Video Page", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 popular vote by counties", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 popular vote by states", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Campaign commercials from the 1968 election", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " — Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"LBJ Tapes Implicate Nixon With Treason\". ABC News. December 5, 2008, (video).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Election of 1968 in Counting the Votes", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1968_United_States_presidential_election", "Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon", "Richard_Nixon", "Hubert_Humphrey", "George_Wallace", "November_1968_events_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "United States presidential election, 1968" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The 1972 United States presidential election was the 47th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 7, 1972. Incumbent Republican President Richard Nixon from California defeated Democratic U.S. Senator George McGovern of South Dakota. Until the 1984 election, this was the largest margin of victory in the Electoral College in a U.S. presidential election, and as of 2022, it remains the last time a presidential candidate captured more than 60% of the popular vote. It was also the first presidential election that would see California move ahead of New York in the number of each state's electoral votes, a gap that has since widened.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21491579, 32070, 24113, 25473, 5043544, 24909346, 62896, 40571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 156, 165 ], [ 166, 179 ], [ 205, 215 ], [ 216, 228 ], [ 229, 244 ], [ 272, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon swept aside challenges from two Republican congressmen in the 1972 Republican primaries to win re-nomination. McGovern, who had played a significant role in changing the Democratic nomination system after the 1968 election, mobilized the anti-Vietnam War movement and other liberal supporters to win his party's nomination. Among the candidates he defeated were early front-runner Edmund Muskie, 1968 nominee Hubert Humphrey, and Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm, the first African-American person to run for a major party's presidential nomination.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14722255, 7025225, 40567, 32611, 14713896, 307962, 42636, 567269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 93 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 215, 228 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 318, 328 ], [ 387, 400 ], [ 415, 430 ], [ 450, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon emphasized the strong economy and his success in foreign affairs, while McGovern ran on a platform calling for an immediate end to the Vietnam War, and the institution of a guaranteed minimum income. Nixon maintained a large, and consistent, lead in polling. Separately, Nixon's re-election committee broke into the Watergate complex to wiretap the Democratic National Committee's headquarters, a scandal that would later be known as \"Watergate\". McGovern's campaign was seriously damaged by the revelation that his running mate, Thomas Eagleton, had undergone electroconvulsive therapy as a treatment for depression. Eagleton was replaced on the ballot by Sargent Shriver.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32611, 457460, 259334, 625197, 91221, 182450, 52382, 291836, 44093, 8389, 234508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 152 ], [ 179, 204 ], [ 285, 306 ], [ 322, 339 ], [ 343, 350 ], [ 355, 384 ], [ 441, 450 ], [ 536, 551 ], [ 567, 592 ], [ 612, 622 ], [ 663, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon won the election in a landslide, taking 60.7% of the popular vote and carrying 49 states, while being the first Republican to sweep the South. McGovern took just 37.5% of the popular vote, while John G. Schmitz of the American Independent Party won 1.4% of the vote. Nixon received almost 18million more votes than McGovern, and he holds the record for the widest popular vote margin in any post–World War II United States presidential election and the record for widest raw vote margin in any presidential election. The 1972 presidential election was the first since the ratification of the 26th Amendment, which lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. Within two years of the election, both Nixon and Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned from office: the former in August 1974, due to Watergate, the latter in October 1973, due to a separate corruption charge. Gerald Ford succeeded Agnew as vice president, then, in the following year, succeeded Nixon as president, making him the only U.S. president in history not to be elected to the office on a presidential ticket.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41053306, 179553, 885007, 307452, 14619595, 70136, 39075, 5030380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 224, 250 ], [ 363, 389 ], [ 598, 612 ], [ 722, 733 ], [ 866, 877 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", this was the last time that Minnesota voted for the Republican candidate in a presidential election, the longest such streak for any state, and only once since then have Rhode Island and Hawaii done so, when they voted for Ronald Reagan in the 1984 election. This was also the most recent presidential election in which the entire Midwest was won by a single candidate. This was the first election since 1956 in which an incumbent president was re-elected to a 2nd term. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19590, 25410, 13270, 25433, 40571, 104697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 189, 195 ], [ 225, 238 ], [ 246, 259 ], [ 333, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite this election delivering Nixon's greatest electoral triumph, Nixon later wrote in his memoirs that \"it was one of the most frustrating and in many ways the least satisfying of all\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Republican candidates:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Nixon, President of the United States from California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 25473, 24113, 5407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 45 ], [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pete McCloskey, Representative from California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1090228, 19468510, 5407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 30 ], [ 36, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John M. Ashbrook, Representative from Ohio", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 810840, 22199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Nixon was a popular incumbent president in 1972, as he was credited with opening the People's Republic of China as a result of his visit that year, and achieving détente with the Soviet Union. Polls showed that Nixon held a strong lead in the Republican primaries. He was challenged by two candidates: liberal Pete McCloskey from California, and conservative John Ashbrook from Ohio. McCloskey ran as an anti-war candidate, while Ashbrook opposed Nixon's détente policies towards China and the Soviet Union. In the New Hampshire primary, McCloskey garnered 19.8% of the vote to Nixon's 67.6%, with Ashbrook receiving 9.7%. Nixon won 1323 of the 1324 delegates to the Republican convention, with McCloskey receiving the vote of one delegate from New Mexico. Vice President Spiro Agnew was re-nominated by acclamation; while both the party's moderate wing and Nixon himself had wanted to replace him with a new running-mate (the moderates favoring Nelson Rockefeller, and Nixon favoring John Connally), it was ultimately concluded that such action would incur too great a risk of losing Agnew's base of conservative supporters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 5405, 2994571, 397142, 26779, 5266241, 1090228, 2298740, 810840, 397142, 5405, 26779, 445301, 39075, 19283265, 300265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 119 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 170, 177 ], [ 187, 199 ], [ 310, 317 ], [ 318, 332 ], [ 354, 366 ], [ 367, 380 ], [ 463, 470 ], [ 488, 493 ], [ 502, 514 ], [ 523, 544 ], [ 780, 791 ], [ 954, 972 ], [ 993, 1006 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Seven members of Vietnam Veterans Against the War were brought on federal charges for conspiring to disrupt the Republican convention. They were acquitted by a federal jury in Gainesville, Florida.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Republican nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 2899234, 108959, 18933066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 49 ], [ 176, 187 ], [ 189, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Overall, fifteen people declared their candidacy for the Democratic Party nomination. They were:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "George McGovern, senator from South Dakota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 62896, 24909346, 26746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 24 ], [ 30, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hubert Humphrey, senator from Minnesota, former vice president, and presidential nominee in 1968", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 42636, 19590, 32759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 30, 39 ], [ 48, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George Wallace, Governor of Alabama", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 259897, 1286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund Muskie, senator from Maine, vice presidential nominee in 1968", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 307962, 19977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 28, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eugene J. McCarthy, former senator from Minnesota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 166899, 19590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 40, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry M. Jackson, senator from Washington", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 253585, 13015878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 31, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shirley Chisholm, Representative of New York's 12th congressional district", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 567269, 19468510, 5195738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 32 ], [ 36, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terry Sanford, former governor of North Carolina", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 423155, 253083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 22, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Lindsay, Mayor of New York City, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 279089, 206327, 8210131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 36 ], [ 38, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wilbur Mills, representative of Arkansas's 2nd congressional district", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 810543, 6594137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 32, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vance Hartke, senator from Indiana", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 284498, 21883857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 27, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fred Harris, senator from Oklahoma", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1067698, 22489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 26, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sam Yorty, Mayor of Los Angeles, California", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 357067, 357012, 5407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 33, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Patsy Mink, representative of Hawaii's 2nd congressional district", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 712550, 859074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 30, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Walter Fauntroy, Delegate from Washington, D. C.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 309582, 108956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 31, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Senate Majority Whip Ted Kennedy, the youngest brother of late President John F. Kennedy and late United States Senator Robert F. Kennedy, was the favorite to win the 1972nomination, but he announced he would not be a candidate. The favorite for the Democratic nomination then became Senator Ed Muskie, the 1968 vice-presidential nominee. Muskie's momentum collapsed just prior to the New Hampshire primary, when the so-called \"Canuck letter\" was published in the Manchester Union-Leader. The letter, actually a forgery from Nixon's \"dirty tricks\" unit, claimed that Muskie had made disparaging remarks about French-Canadians– a remark likely to injure Muskie's support among the French-American population in northern New England. Subsequently, the paper published an attack on the character of Muskie's wife Jane, reporting that she drank and used off-color language during the campaign. Muskie made an emotional defense of his wife in a speech outside the newspaper's offices during a snowstorm. Though Muskie later stated that what had appeared to the press as tears were actually melted snowflakes, the press reported that Muskie broke down and cried, shattering the candidate's image as calm and reasoned.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 46507, 184136, 24113, 5119376, 24909346, 21131695, 307962, 40567, 3064662, 23989983, 144743, 21531764, 30901162, 1408922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 21, 32 ], [ 63, 72 ], [ 73, 88 ], [ 98, 119 ], [ 120, 137 ], [ 292, 301 ], [ 307, 311 ], [ 428, 441 ], [ 464, 487 ], [ 609, 625 ], [ 719, 730 ], [ 810, 814 ], [ 850, 859 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nearly two years before the election, South Dakota Senator George McGovern entered the race as an anti-war, progressive candidate. McGovern was able to pull together support from the anti-war movement and other grassroots support to win the nomination in a primary system he had played a significant part in designing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 62896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 25, 1972, New York Representative Shirley Chisholm announced she would run, and became the first African-American woman to run for the Democratic or Republican presidential nomination. Hawaii Representative Patsy Mink also announced she would run, and became the first Asian American person to run for the Democratic presidential nomination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On April 25, George McGovern won the Massachusetts primary. Two days later, journalist Robert Novak quoted a \"Democratic senator\", later revealed to be Thomas Eagleton, as saying: \"The people don't know McGovern is for amnesty, abortion, and legalization of pot. Once middle America – Catholic middle America, in particular – finds this out, he's dead.\" The label stuck, and McGovern became known as the candidate of \"amnesty, abortion, and acid\". It became Humphrey's battle cry to stop McGovern—especially in the Nebraska primary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 322394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alabama Governor George Wallace, who ran on a third-party ticket in 1968, did well in the South (winning nearly every county in the Florida primary) and among alienated and dissatisfied voters in the North. What might have become a forceful campaign was cut short when Wallace was shot in an assassination attempt by Arthur Bremer on May 15. Wallace was struck by five bullets and left paralyzed from the waist down. The day after the assassination attempt, Wallace won the Michigan and Maryland primaries, but the shooting effectively ended his campaign, and he pulled out in July.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1286, 259897, 40567, 179553, 509638, 259897, 466334, 23254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 17, 31 ], [ 68, 72 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 200, 205 ], [ 269, 285 ], [ 317, 330 ], [ 386, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the end, McGovern won the nomination by winning primaries through grass-roots support, in spite of establishment opposition. McGovern had led a commission to re-design the Democratic nomination system after the divisive nomination struggle and convention of 1968. However, the new rules angered many prominent Democrats whose influence was marginalized, and those politicians refused to support McGovern's campaign (some even supporting Nixon instead), leaving the McGovern campaign at a significant disadvantage in funding, compared to Nixon. Some of the principles of the McGovern Commission have lasted throughout every subsequent nomination contest, but the Hunt Commission instituted the selection of Superdelegates a decade later, in order to reduce the nomination chances of outsiders like McGovern and Carter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 40567, 489248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 265 ], [ 709, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Results:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "George McGovern – 1864.95", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 62896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry M. Jackson – 525", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 253585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George Wallace – 381.7", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 259897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shirley Chisholm – 151.95", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 567269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terry Sanford – 77.5", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 423155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hubert Humphrey – 66.7", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 42636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wilbur Mills – 33.8", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 810543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund Muskie – 24.3", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 307962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ted Kennedy – 12.7", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 184136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sam Yorty – 10", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 357067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wayne Hays – 5", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 703736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Lindsay – 5", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 279089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fred Harris – 2", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1067698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eugene McCarthy – 2", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 166899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Walter Mondale – 2", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 42172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ramsey Clark – 1", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 211039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Walter Fauntroy – 1", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 309582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vance Hartke – 1", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 284498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harold Hughes – 1", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1328384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Patsy Mink – 1", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 712550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most polls showed McGovern running well behind incumbent President Richard Nixon, except when McGovern was paired with Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy. McGovern and his campaign brain trust lobbied Kennedy heavily to accept the bid to be McGovern's running mate, but he continually refused their advances, and instead suggested U.S. Representative (and House Ways and Means Committee chairman) Wilbur Mills of Arkansas and Boston Mayor Kevin White. Offers were then made to Hubert Humphrey, Connecticut Senator Abraham Ribicoff, and Minnesota Senator Walter Mondale, all of whom turned it down. Finally, the vice presidential slot was offered to Senator Thomas Eagleton of Missouri, who accepted the offer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 25473, 1645518, 184136, 216817, 19468510, 465643, 810543, 1930, 853502, 2568050, 42636, 847967, 42172, 291836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 80 ], [ 119, 132 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 251, 263 ], [ 330, 349 ], [ 355, 385 ], [ 396, 408 ], [ 412, 420 ], [ 425, 437 ], [ 438, 449 ], [ 476, 491 ], [ 513, 529 ], [ 553, 567 ], [ 656, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With hundreds of delegates displeased with McGovern, the vote to ratify Eagleton's candidacy was chaotic, with at least three other candidates having their names put into nomination and votes scattered over 70 candidates. A grass-roots attempt to displace Eagleton in favor of Texas state representative Frances Farenthold gained significant traction, though was ultimately unable to change the outcome of the vote.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1071840, 12484840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 304, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vice-presidential balloting went on so long that McGovern and Eagleton were forced to begin making their acceptance speeches at around 2 am, local time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the convention ended, it was discovered that Eagleton had undergone psychiatric electroshock therapy for depression and had concealed this information from McGovern. A Time magazine poll taken at the time found that 77 percent of the respondents said, \"Eagleton's medical record would not affect their vote.\" Nonetheless, the press made frequent references to his \"shock therapy\", and McGovern feared that this would detract from his campaign platform. McGovern subsequently consulted confidentially with pre-eminent psychiatrists, including Eagleton's own doctors, who advised him that a recurrence of Eagleton's depression was possible and could endanger the country, should Eagleton become president. McGovern had initially claimed that he would back Eagleton \"1000 percent\", only to ask Eagleton to withdraw three days later. This perceived lack of conviction in sticking with his running mate was disastrous for the McGovern campaign.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 64656869, 8389, 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 106 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 174, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "McGovern later approached six different prominent Democrats to run for vice-president: Ted Kennedy, Edmund Muskie, Hubert Humphrey, Abraham Ribicoff, Larry O'Brien, and Reubin Askew. All six declined. Sargent Shriver, brother-in-law to John, Robert, and Ted Kennedy, former Ambassador to France, and former Director of the Peace Corps, later accepted. He was officially nominated by a special session of the Democratic National Committee. By this time, McGovern's poll ratings had plunged from 41 to 24 percent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Democratic nomination", "target_page_ids": [ 307962, 847967, 762752, 770595, 234508, 2630379, 23488900, 23488900, 182450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 113 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 150, 163 ], [ 169, 181 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 274, 294 ], [ 307, 315 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 408, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The only major third party candidate in the 1972 election was conservative Republican Representative John G. Schmitz, who ran on the American Independent Party ticket (the party on whose ballot George Wallace ran in 1968). He was on the ballot in 32 states and received 1,099,482 votes. Unlike Wallace, however, he did not win a majority of votes cast in any state, and received no electoral votes, although he did finish ahead of McGovern in four of the most conservative Idaho counties. Schmitz's performance in archconservative Jefferson County was the best by a third-party Presidential candidate in any free or postbellum state county since 1936 when William Lemke reached over twenty-eight percent of the vote in the North Dakota counties of Burke, Sheridan and Hettinger.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Third parties", "target_page_ids": [ 319501, 885007, 307452, 259897, 53012225, 96328, 505770, 382338, 93212, 93169, 93197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 133, 159 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 473, 478 ], [ 531, 547 ], [ 608, 612 ], [ 656, 669 ], [ 748, 753 ], [ 755, 763 ], [ 768, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Hospers and Tonie Nathan of the newly formed Libertarian Party were on the ballot only in Colorado and Washington, but were official write-in candidates in four others, and received 3,674 votes, winning no states. However, they did receive one Electoral College vote from Virginia from a Republican faithless elector (see below). The Libertarian vice-presidential nominee Theodora \"Tonie\" Nathan became the first Jew and the first woman in U.S. history to receive an Electoral College vote.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Third parties", "target_page_ids": [ 531463, 32044, 13015878, 32432, 1387946, 762593, 25955086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 50, 67 ], [ 108, 118 ], [ 277, 285 ], [ 304, 321 ], [ 377, 400 ], [ 418, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linda Jenness was nominated by the Socialist Workers Party, with Andrew Pulley as her running-mate. Benjamin Spock and Julius Hobson were nominated for president and vice-president, respectively, by the People's Party.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Third parties", "target_page_ids": [ 2978386, 43441278, 2978407, 54522, 2978415, 1058255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 35, 58 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 100, 114 ], [ 119, 132 ], [ 203, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "McGovern ran on a platform of immediately ending the Vietnam War and instituting guaranteed minimum incomes for the nation's poor. His campaign was harmed by his views during the primaries (which alienated many powerful Democrats), the perception that his foreign policy was too extreme, and the Eagleton debacle. With McGovern's campaign weakened by these factors, the Republicans successfully portrayed him as a radical left-wing extremist incompetent to serve as president. Nixon led in the polls by large margins throughout the entire campaign. With an enormous fundraising advantage and a comfortable lead in the polls, Nixon concentrated on large rallies and focused speeches to closed, select audiences, leaving much of the retail campaigning to surrogates like Vice President Agnew. Nixon did not, by design, try to extend his coattails to Republican congressional or gubernatorial candidates, preferring to pad his own margin of victory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 457460, 36856552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 106 ], [ 483, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon's percentage of the popular vote was only marginally less than Lyndon Johnson's record in the 1964 election, and his margin of victory was slightly larger. Nixon won a majority vote in 49 states, including McGovern's home state of South Dakota. Only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia voted for the challenger, resulting in an even more lopsided Electoral College tally. McGovern garnered only 37.5 percent of the national popular vote, the lowest share received by a Democratic Party nominee since John W. Davis won only 28.8 percent of the vote in the 1924 election. The only major party candidate since 1972 to receive less than 40 percent of the vote was Republican incumbent President George H. W. Bush who won 37.4 percent of the vote in the 1992 election, a race that (as in 1924) was complicated by a strong third party vote.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 40566, 26746, 1645518, 108956, 85533, 261850, 40537, 11955, 39529, 50655075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 113 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 256, 269 ], [ 278, 298 ], [ 360, 377 ], [ 513, 526 ], [ 568, 581 ], [ 704, 721 ], [ 762, 775 ], [ 830, 846 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the McGovern campaign believed that its candidate had a better chance of defeating Nixon because of the new Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution that lowered the national voting age to 18 from 21, most of the youth vote went to Nixon. This was the first election in American history in which a Republican candidate carried every single Southern state, continuing the region's transformation from a Democratic bastion into a Republican stronghold as Arkansas was carried by a Republican presidential candidate for the first time in a century. By this time, all the Southern states, except Arkansas and Texas, had been carried by a Republican in either the previous election or the one in 1964 (although Republican candidates carried Texas in 1928, 1952 and 1956). As a result of this election, Massachusetts became the only state that Nixon did not carry in any of the three presidential elections in which he was a candidate. This is one of only two elections since 1856 that Massachusetts and Rhode Island did not support the same candidate. The other election which the two states did not do so is 1980.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 70136, 32070, 179553, 723054, 51404455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 173 ], [ 323, 333 ], [ 365, 379 ], [ 425, 445 ], [ 478, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This presidential election was the first since 1808 in which New York did not have the largest number of electors in the Electoral College, having fallen to 41 electors vs. California's 45. Additionally, through 2020 it remains the last one in which Minnesota was carried by the Republican candidate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 40475, 8210131, 5407, 48410011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 51 ], [ 61, 69 ], [ 173, 183 ], [ 212, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "McGovern won a mere 130 counties, plus the District of Columbia and four county-equivalents in Alaska, easily the fewest counties won by any major-party presidential nominee since the advent of popular presidential elections. In nineteen states, McGovern failed to carry a single county; he carried a mere one county-equivalent in a further nine states, and just two counties in a further seven. In contrast to Walter Mondale's narrow 1984 win in Minnesota, McGovern comfortably did win Massachusetts, but lost every other state by no less than five percentage points, as well as 45 states by more than ten percentage points – the exceptions being Massachusetts, Minnesota, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, and his home state of South Dakota. This election also made Nixon the second former vice president in American history to serve two terms back-to-back, after Thomas Jefferson in 1800 and 1804. Since McGovern carried only one state, bumper stickers reading \"Nixon 49 America 1\", \"Don't Blame Me, I'm From Massachusetts\", and \"Massachusetts: The One And Only\" were popular for a short time in Massachusetts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 42172, 29922, 40454, 40474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 411, 425 ], [ 857, 873 ], [ 877, 881 ], [ 886, 890 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon managed to win 18% of the African American vote (Gerald Ford would get 16% in 1976). He also remains the only Republican in modern times to threaten the oldest extant Democratic stronghold of South Texas: this is the last election when the Republicans have won Hidalgo or Dimmit counties, the only time Republicans have won La Salle County between William McKinley in 1900 and Donald Trump in 2020, and one of only two occasions since Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 that Republicans have gained a majority in Presidio County. More significantly, the 1972 election was the most recent time several highly populous urban counties – including Cook in Illinois, Orleans in Louisiana, Hennepin in Minnesota, Cuyahoga in Ohio, Durham in North Carolina, Queens in New York, and Prince George's in Maryland – have voted Republican.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1054022, 91557, 91605, 91525, 33521, 4848272, 91474, 96268, 53842, 94972, 93128, 93313, 45579, 45454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 209 ], [ 267, 274 ], [ 278, 284 ], [ 330, 345 ], [ 354, 370 ], [ 383, 395 ], [ 511, 526 ], [ 642, 646 ], [ 660, 667 ], [ 682, 690 ], [ 705, 713 ], [ 723, 729 ], [ 749, 755 ], [ 773, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wallace vote had also been crucial to Nixon being able to sweep the states that had narrowly held out against him in 1968 (Texas, Maryland and West Virginia), as well as the states Wallace won himself (Arkansas, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia). The pro-Wallace group of voters had only giving AIP nominee John Schmitz a depressing 2.4% of its support, while 19.1% backed McGovern, and the majority 78.5% broke for Nixon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 14061285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon, who became term-limited under the provisions of the Twenty-second Amendment as a result of his victory, became the first (and, as of 2020, only) presidential candidate to win a significant number of electoral votes in three presidential elections since ratification of that Amendment. Prior to ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment, three other presidential candidates (Andrew Jackson, Grover Cleveland, and Franklin D. Roosevelt) also polled significant electoral votes in at least three elections (unlike Nixon, Jackson, Cleveland, and Roosevelt also won the popular vote at least three times, although only Roosevelt was elected President more than twice). Counting Nixon's successful runs for vice president in the 1950s, he matched Franklin Roosevelt's achievements of winning the presidency or vice-presidency in four elections (and polling significant electoral votes in five), while over-reaching Roosevelt by winning electoral votes for president or vice president in every state.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 7436762, 70132, 1623, 12495, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ], [ 59, 82 ], [ 383, 397 ], [ 399, 415 ], [ 421, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 520 electoral votes received by Nixon, added to the 301 electoral votes he received in 1968, gave him the most total electoral votes received by any candidate who had been vice president to be elected to the office of president (821), and the fourth largest number of electoral votes received by any canadiate who was elected to the office of president behind Dwight Eisenhower's 899, Ronald Reagan's 1,014 and Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1,876 total electoral votes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 40567, 8182, 25433, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 95 ], [ 364, 381 ], [ 389, 402 ], [ 415, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Legend", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the first time since 1828 Maine allowed its electoral votes to be split between candidates. Two electoral votes were awarded to the winner of the statewide race and one electoral vote to the winner of each congressional district. This was the first time the Congressional District Method had been used since Michigan used it in 1892. Nixon won all four votes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States where margin of victory was more than 5 percentage points, but less than 10 percentage points (43 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tipping point states:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (tipping point for a Nixon victory)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (tipping point for a McGovern victory)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Republican)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Democratic)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Other)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nixon won 36 percent of the Democratic vote, according to an exit poll conducted for CBS News by George Fine Research, Inc. This represents more than twice the percentage of voters who typically defect from their party in presidential elections. Nixon also became the first Republican presidential candidate in American history to win the Roman Catholic vote (53–46), and the first in recent history to win the blue-collar vote, which he won by a 5-to-4 margin. McGovern narrowly won the union vote (50–48), though this difference was within the survey's margin of error of 2 percentage points. McGovern also narrowly won the youth vote (i. e., those aged 18 to 24) 52–46, a narrower margin than many of his strategists had predicted. Early on, the McGovern campaign also significantly over-estimated the number of young people who would vote in the election: They predicted that 18 million would have voted in total, but exit polls indicate that the actual number was about 12 million. McGovern did win comfortably among both African-American and Jewish voters, but by somewhat smaller margins than usual for a Democratic candidate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 665947, 359551, 606848, 246816, 2154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 70 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 339, 353 ], [ 411, 422 ], [ 1027, 1043 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 17, 1972, five months before election day, five men broke into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate hotel in Washington, D. C.; the resulting investigation led to the revelation of attempted cover-ups of the break-in within the Nixon administration. What became known as the Watergate scandal eroded President Nixon's public and political support in his second term, and he resigned on August 9, 1974, in the face of probable impeachment by the House of Representatives and removal from office by the Senate.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-election investigations into the Watergate break-in", "target_page_ids": [ 182450, 625197, 52382, 1795376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 104 ], [ 125, 140 ], [ 310, 327 ], [ 461, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of the continuing Watergate investigation in 1974–1975, federal prosecutors offered companies that had given illegal campaign contributions to President Nixon's re-election campaign lenient sentences if they came forward. Many companies complied, including Northrop Grumman, 3M, American Airlines, and Braniff Airlines. By 1976, prosecutors had convicted 18 American corporations of contributing illegally to Nixon's campaign.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-election investigations into the Watergate break-in", "target_page_ids": [ 216886, 7664801, 2386, 383819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 281 ], [ 283, 285 ], [ 287, 304 ], [ 310, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 United States House of Representatives elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1341707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 United States Senate elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1107000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 United States gubernatorial elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36321942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George McGovern 1972 presidential campaign", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24898459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Second inauguration of Richard Nixon", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21204110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72, a collection of articles by Hunter S. Thompson on the subject of the election, focusing on the McGovern campaign.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1580208, 14328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ], [ 73, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union: Volume I. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852 (1947).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography and further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 556446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rayback, Joseph G. Free Soil: The Election of 1848. (1970).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography and further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 8183409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Silbey, Joel H. Party Over Section: The Rough and Ready Presidential Election of 1848 (2009). 205 pp.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography and further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chester, Edward W. (1977). A guide to political platforms.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography and further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Porter, Kirk H. and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National party platforms, 1840–1972 (1973)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography and further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Election Wall's 1972 Election Video Page", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 popular vote by counties", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 popular vote by states", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " — Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Campaign commercials from the 1972 election", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " C-SPAN segment on 1972 campaign commercials", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " C-SPAN segment on the \"Eagleton Affair\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Election of 1972 in Counting the Votes", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1972_United_States_presidential_election", "Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon", "Richard_Nixon", "Articles_containing_video_clips" ]

[ "United States presidential election, 1972" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The 1976 United States presidential election was the 48th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 2, 1976. Democrat Jimmy Carter of Georgia defeated incumbent Republican President Gerald Ford from Michigan by a narrow victory of 297 electoral college votes to Ford's 240.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5043544, 15992, 48830, 32070, 24113, 5030380, 18859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 143 ], [ 144, 156 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 187, 197 ], [ 198, 207 ], [ 208, 219 ], [ 225, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "President Richard Nixon had won the previous 1972 election, with Spiro Agnew as his running mate, but in 1973, Agnew resigned, and Ford was appointed as vice president via the 25th Amendment. When Nixon resigned in 1974 in the wake of the Watergate scandal, Ford ascended to the presidency, becoming the first, and only, president to take office without having been elected as either president or vice president. The entire ordeal that was the Watergate scandal badly damaged the entire Republican party and its election prospects throughout the remainder of the decade. Ford promised to continue Nixon's political agenda and govern as a moderate Republican, causing considerable backlash from the conservative wing of his party. This spurred former California governor Ronald Reagan to mount a significant challenge against him in the Republican primaries, in which Ford narrowly prevailed at the convention. Carter was little-known at the start of the Democratic primaries, but the former governor of Georgia emerged as the front-runner after his victories in the first set of primaries. Campaigning as a political moderate in his own party, and as a Washington, D. C., outsider, Carter defeated opponents such as Mo Udall and liberal California governor Jerry Brown to clinch the Democratic nomination.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25473, 40568, 39075, 70135, 52382, 357311, 2298740, 62517, 25433, 15016390, 869678, 14737784, 596874, 175220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 45, 58 ], [ 65, 76 ], [ 176, 190 ], [ 239, 256 ], [ 638, 657 ], [ 698, 710 ], [ 750, 769 ], [ 770, 783 ], [ 836, 856 ], [ 898, 908 ], [ 954, 974 ], [ 1216, 1224 ], [ 1257, 1268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ford pursued a \"Rose Garden strategy\" in which he sought to portray himself as an experienced leader focused on fulfilling his role as chief executive. On the other hand, Carter emphasized his status as a reformer who was \"untainted\" by Washington. Saddled with a poor economy, the fall of South Vietnam, and his unpopular pardon of Nixon, Ford trailed by a wide margin in polls taken after Carter's formal nomination in July 1976. Ford's polling rebounded after a strong performance in the first presidential debate, and the race was close on election day.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 264256, 59756, 49285702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 36 ], [ 290, 303 ], [ 323, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carter won a majority of the popular and electoral vote. He was able to carry several Midwestern and Northeastern swing states such as Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, as well as every state in the Democratic-dominated region of the South, except for Virginia and Oklahoma. Ford dominated the Western states. Despite the political climate of the United States being predominantly conservative-leaning in the years prior to the election, Carter was able to achieve victory largely off of the backlash of the Watergate scandal that still was deeply hurting Republican candidates. Jimmy Carter also remains the last Democratic candidate in presidential history to win a majority of the Southern states. Ford won 27 states, the most states ever carried by a losing candidate. Both of the major party vice-presidential nominees, Walter Mondale in 1984 and Bob Dole in 1996, would later win their respective party's presidential nominations, but lose in the general election (respectively to incumbent presidents Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48864563, 32046180, 39913555, 43159357, 52308704, 179578, 42172, 40571, 55846, 32077, 25433, 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 139 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 159, 167 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 265, 273 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 825, 839 ], [ 843, 847 ], [ 852, 860 ], [ 864, 868 ], [ 1008, 1021 ], [ 1026, 1038 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 was the last presidential election in which Democrats relied on the New Deal Coalition that united labor unions in urban cities, religious minorities (Jews, and Catholics), African Americans, southerners, and blue collar workers in the industrial Midwest, who had benefited from Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt's liberal, New Deal economic programs since the Great Depression in the 1930s. Thus, Carter's win represented the last victory in a period of political dominance by the Democratic Party known as the Fifth Party System that had begun in 1932 and would end in 1980 with Carter's defeat by Ronald Reagan. Meanwhile, Ford's defeat marked the first time in 44 years that an incumbent president was voted out of office (after Herbert Hoover's loss in 1932).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 86217, 10979, 6983977, 40556, 40570, 25433, 13682, 40556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 91 ], [ 305, 326 ], [ 526, 544 ], [ 563, 567 ], [ 585, 589 ], [ 614, 627 ], [ 747, 761 ], [ 772, 776 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2020, this was the last time that the southern states of Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas voted for the Democratic candidate in a presidential election, as well as the last election where the winning candidate did not win a majority of the 51 jurisdictions that cast votes in the Electoral College (the 50 states plus the District of Columbia). Conversely, it remains the last time that a Democrat would win the presidency without carrying a number of modern blue states and swing states; namely, Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, Connecticut, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. As such, this is the last time that a Democrat would rely on a coalition of predominantly Southern states to win the presidency.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48410011, 1130657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 10 ], [ 480, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was also the last election in which a candidate flipped more than 270 electoral votes, the required amount to win, and the last election in which an incumbent president picked someone other than the incumbent vice president as their running mate. Furthermore, as of 2022, this is the earliest presidential election with a surviving major party candidate, Jimmy Carter, who is 97 years of age, and the last time that a Democrat won a presidential election with fewer than 300 electoral votes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The surprise winner of the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination was Jimmy Carter, a former state senator and governor of Georgia. When the primaries began, Carter was little-known at the national level, and many political pundits regarded a number of better-known candidates, such as Senator Henry M. Jackson from Washington, Representative Morris Udall from Arizona, Governor George Wallace of Alabama, and California Governor Jerry Brown, as the favorites for the nomination. However, in the wake of the Watergate scandal, Carter realized that his status as a Washington outsider, political centrist, and moderate reformer could give him an advantage over his better-known establishment rivals. Carter also took advantage of the record number of state primaries and caucuses in 1976, to eliminate his better-known rivals one-by-one.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 964172, 253585, 596874, 259897, 62517, 175220, 52382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ], [ 295, 311 ], [ 344, 356 ], [ 380, 394 ], [ 411, 430 ], [ 431, 442 ], [ 509, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry M. Jackson made a fateful decision not to compete in the early Iowa caucus and New Hampshire primary, which Jimmy Carter won after liberals split their votes among four other candidates. Though Jackson went on to win the Massachusetts and New York primaries, he was forced to quit the race on May 1, after losing the critical Pennsylvania primary to Carter by twelve percentage points. Carter then defeated Governor Wallace, his main conservative challenger, by a wide margin in the North Carolina primary, thus forcing Wallace to end his campaign. Representative Udall, a liberal, then became Carter's main challenger. He finished second to Carter in the New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, New York, Michigan, South Dakota, and Ohio primaries, and won the caucuses in his home state of Arizona, while running even with Carter in the New Mexico caucuses. However, the fact that Udall finished second to Carter in most of these races meant that Carter steadily accumulated more delegates for the nomination than he did.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 15992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Carter closed in on the nomination, an \"ABC\" (\"Anybody But Carter\") movement started among Northern and Western liberal Democrats who worried that Carter's Southern upbringing would make him too conservative for the Democratic Party. The leaders of the \"ABC\" movement, Idaho Senator Frank Church and California Governor Jerry Brown, both announced their candidacies for the Democratic nomination, and defeated Carter in several late primaries. However, their campaigns started too late to prevent Carter from gathering the remaining delegates he needed to capture the nomination.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 461925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By June 1976, Carter had captured more than enough delegates to win the Democratic nomination. At the 1976 Democratic National Convention, Carter easily won the nomination on the first ballot; Udall finished in second place. Carter then chose Minnesota Senator Walter Mondale, a liberal and political protégé of Hubert Humphrey, as his running mate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 2909880, 42172, 42636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 137 ], [ 261, 275 ], [ 312, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Republican candidates", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gerald Ford, President of the United States", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 5030380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ronald Reagan, former governor of California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The contest for the Republican Party's presidential nomination in 1976 was between two serious candidates: incumbent president Gerald Ford, a member of the party's moderate wing, and former governor of California Ronald Reagan, a member of the party's conservative wing. The presidential primary campaign between the two men was hard-fought and relatively even; by the start of the Republican Convention in August 1976, the race for the nomination was still too close to call. Ford defeated Reagan by a narrow margin on the first ballot at the 1976 Republican National Convention in Kansas City, and chose Senator Bob Dole from Kansas as his running mate in the place of incumbent vice president Nelson Rockefeller, who had announced the previous year that he was not interested in being considered for the vice presidential nomination. Since Rockefeller was the second vice president to assume the office as ruled by the Section 2 of the 25th Amendment and the other one who achieved this feat was Ford who was nominated in 1976, this made Rockefeller the only vice president never contested in the general election both as presidential and vice presidential nominee. All presidents had contested for the office, either as president or vice president, with the exception of Ford, who appeared only after being president and all other vice presidents other than Ford had contested for the office. The 1976 Republican Convention was the last political convention to open with the presidential nomination still being undecided until the actual balloting at the convention.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 25433, 869678, 17454, 55846, 19283265, 70135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 226 ], [ 544, 579 ], [ 583, 594 ], [ 614, 622 ], [ 696, 714 ], [ 939, 953 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger MacBride, who had gained fame in the 1972 election as a faithless elector, ran as the nominee of the Libertarian Party.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 168177, 40568, 1387946, 32044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 44, 57 ], [ 63, 80 ], [ 108, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eugene McCarthy, a former Democratic Senator from Minnesota, ran as an independent candidate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 166899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ben Bubar, Prohibition Party nominee.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 3008217, 307316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frank Zeidler, former mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ran as the nominee of Socialist Party USA, which was founded in a split with Socialist Party of America.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 255226, 248589, 243594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 76, 95 ], [ 131, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gus Hall, four-time Communist Party candidate", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 55853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lester Maddox, the former Democratic Governor of Georgia (and Lieutenant Governor under Carter), ran as the nominee of the American Independent Party", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 252689, 307452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 124, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the advantages Ford held over Carter as the general election campaign began was his presidential privilege to preside over events celebrating the United States Bicentennial; this often resulted in favorable publicity for Ford. These included the Washington, D. C., fireworks display on the Fourth of July, which was televised nationally. On July 7, 1976, the President and First Lady served as hosts at a White House state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United Kingdom, which was televised on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) network. These events were part of Ford's \"Rose Garden\" strategy to win the election, meaning that instead of appearing as a typical politician, Ford presented himself as a \"tested leader\" who was busily fulfilling the role of national leader and chief executive. Not until October did Ford leave the White House to actively campaign across the nation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 374909, 781729, 12153654, 62093, 29697498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 179 ], [ 297, 311 ], [ 441, 459 ], [ 464, 477 ], [ 528, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jimmy Carter ran as a reformer who was \"untainted\" by Washington political scandals, which many voters found attractive in the wake of the Watergate scandal that had led to President Richard Nixon's resignation. Ford, although personally unconnected with Watergate, was seen by many as too close to the discredited Nixon administration, especially after he granted Nixon a presidential pardon for any crimes he might have committed during his term of office. Ford's pardon of Nixon caused his popularity, as measured by public opinion polls, to plummet. Ford's refusal to explain his reasons for pardoning Nixon publicly (he would do so in his memoirs several years later), also hurt his image.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 15992, 52382, 25473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 183, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ford unsuccessfully asked Congress to end the 1950s-era price controls on natural gas, which had caused a dwindling of American natural gas reserves after the 1973 oil crisis. Carter stated during his campaign that he opposed the ending of the price controls and thought such a move would be \"disastrous\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 244180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Democratic National Convention, Carter held a 33-point lead over Ford in the polls. However, as the campaign continued, the race greatly tightened. During the campaign Playboy magazine published a controversial interview with Carter; in the interview, Carter admitted to having \"lusted in my heart\" for women other than his wife and used the word \"screw,\" which cut into his support among women and evangelical Christians. On September 23, Ford performed well in what was the first televised presidential debate since 1960. Polls taken after the debate showed that most viewers felt that Ford was the winner. Carter was also hurt by Ford's charges that he lacked the necessary experience to be an effective national leader and that he was vague on many issues.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 23221, 222069, 40565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 185 ], [ 502, 521 ], [ 528, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, Ford also committed a costly blunder in the campaign that halted his momentum. During the second presidential debate on October 6, Ford stumbled when he asserted that \"there is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe, and there never will be under a Ford administration\". He added that he did not \"believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union\", and made the same claim with regard to Yugoslavia and Romania (Yugoslavia was not a Warsaw Pact member). Ford refused to retract his statement for almost a week after the debate, causing his surge in the polls to stall and allowing Carter to maintain a slight lead in the polls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 33622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 195 ], [ 465, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A vice-presidential debate, the first ever formal one of its kind, between Bob Dole and Walter Mondale also hurt the Republican ticket when Dole asserted that military unpreparedness on the part of Democratic presidents was responsible for all of the wars the U.S. had fought in the 20th century. Dole, a World War II veteran, noted that in every 20th-century war, from World War I to the Vietnam War, a Democrat had been president. Dole then pointed out that the number of U.S. casualties in \"Democrat wars\" was roughly equal to the population of Detroit. Many voters felt that Dole's criticism was unfairly harsh, and that his dispassionate delivery made him seem cold. Years later, Dole would remark that he regretted the comment, believing that it had hurt the Republican ticket. One factor that did help Ford in the closing days of the campaign was a series of popular television appearances he did with Joe Garagiola, Sr., a retired baseball star for the St. Louis Cardinals and a well-known announcer for NBC Sports. Garagiola and Ford appeared in a number of shows in several large cities. During the show, Garagiola would ask Ford questions about his life and beliefs; the shows were so informal, relaxed, and laid-back that some television critics labelled them the \"Joe and Jerry Show\". Ford and Garagiola obviously enjoyed one another's company, and they remained friends after the election was over.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 55846, 42172, 4764461, 32611, 870673, 23408844, 1681761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 83 ], [ 88, 102 ], [ 370, 381 ], [ 389, 400 ], [ 909, 927 ], [ 961, 980 ], [ 1012, 1022 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were three presidential debates and one vice presidential debate during the 1976 general election.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite his campaign's blunders, Ford managed to close the remaining gap in the polls, and by election day, the race was judged to be even. It took most of that night and the following morning to determine the winner. It was not until 3:30 am EST, that the NBC television network was able to declare that Carter had carried Mississippi and had thus accumulated more than the 270 electoral votes needed to win (seconds later, ABC News also declared Carter the winner, based on projections for Carter in Wisconsin and Hawaii, while CBS News announced Carter's victory at 3:45 am). Carter defeated Ford by two percentage points in the national popular vote.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The electoral vote was the closest since 1916; Carter carried 23 states, with 297 electoral votes, while Ford won 27 states, with 240 electoral votes (one elector, future state Senator Mike Padden from Washington state, pledged to Ford, voted for Reagan). Carter's victory came primarily from his near-sweep of the South (he lost only Virginia and Oklahoma), and his narrow victories in large Northern states such as New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Ford did well in the West, carrying every state in that region, except for Hawaii. The most tightly contested state in the election was Oregon, which Ford won by under 2,000 votes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 4961779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A switch of 3,687 votes in Hawaii and 5,559 votes in Ohio, or 144,384 votes from New York from Carter to Ford, would have resulted in a Ford victory. By percentage of the vote, the states that secured Carter's victory were Wisconsin (1.68% margin) and Ohio (.27% margin). Had Ford won these states and all other states he carried, he would have won the presidency. The 27 states he won were, and still are, the most states ever carried by a losing candidate for president. Had Ford won the election, the provisions of the 22nd amendment would have disqualified him from running in 1980, as he served more than two years of Nixon's second term.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 70132, 40570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 522, 536 ], [ 581, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carter was the first Democrat since John F. Kennedy in 1960 to carry the states of the Deep South (Bill Clinton was the only Democrat since 1976 to carry more than one state from the Deep South, doing so in both 1992 and 1996), and the first since Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964 to carry a majority of all southern states. Carter performed very strongly in his home state of Georgia, carrying 66.7% of the vote and every county in the state. His winning of 23 states was only the first time since the 1960 election, and the second time in history, that the winner of the election won fewer than half the states. His 50.1% of the vote was the only time since 1964 that a Democrat managed to obtain an absolute majority of the popular vote in a presidential election, until Barack Obama won 52.9% of the vote in 2008. Carter is one of six Democrats since the American Civil War to obtain an absolute majority of the popular vote, the others being Samuel J. Tilden, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lyndon B. Johnson, Barack Obama, and Joe Biden.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 5119376, 40565, 3356, 39529, 32077, 54533, 40566, 179553, 534366, 406859, 863, 638313, 60048, 10979, 145422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 55, 59 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 212, 216 ], [ 221, 225 ], [ 248, 265 ], [ 269, 273 ], [ 301, 316 ], [ 767, 779 ], [ 805, 809 ], [ 852, 870 ], [ 884, 901 ], [ 940, 956 ], [ 958, 979 ], [ 1018, 1027 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This election represents the last time to date that Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, or South Carolina would vote Democratic, and the last time North Carolina would vote Democratic until 2008, as well as the last time Florida voted Democratic until 1996, and the last time Arkansas, Delaware, Kentucky, Louisiana, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee voted Democratic until 1992. It is also the last time in which Shasta, Yuba, Placer, El Dorado, and Madera Counties in California, Adams and Brown in Ohio, Brazoria and McLennan Counties in Texas, Madison County in Alabama, Brevard County in Florida, Warren County in Kentucky, and St. Mary's County in Maryland would vote Democratic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 29810, 16949861, 303, 27956, 21650, 406859, 18933066, 32077, 1930, 7930, 16846, 18130, 19571, 22199, 23332, 30395, 39529, 82097, 82133, 82030, 79770, 82016, 57239, 93136, 48941, 91501, 80784, 72008, 95514, 71496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 57 ], [ 59, 70 ], [ 72, 79 ], [ 84, 98 ], [ 140, 154 ], [ 183, 187 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 245, 249 ], [ 269, 277 ], [ 279, 287 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 299, 308 ], [ 310, 318 ], [ 320, 324 ], [ 326, 338 ], [ 344, 353 ], [ 377, 381 ], [ 417, 423 ], [ 425, 429 ], [ 431, 437 ], [ 439, 448 ], [ 454, 469 ], [ 485, 490 ], [ 495, 500 ], [ 510, 518 ], [ 523, 540 ], [ 551, 565 ], [ 578, 592 ], [ 605, 618 ], [ 636, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This election was the last time that a Democrat won the presidency without winning a number of modern blue states and swing states, specifically California, Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, Michigan, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington. This is the only time a Democrat has won without New Mexico, as well as the only time it voted for a candidate who lost the popular vote. Similarly, it is one of only three instances in which a Democrat won without Nevada (the others being the two elections of Grover Cleveland in 1884 and 1892).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 12495, 57452840, 56766096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 538, 554 ], [ 558, 562 ], [ 567, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was the first time in exactly 100 years (since 1876) when Florida and Virginia supported different candidates, and the first time since Oklahoma statehood in 1907 when Oklahoma and Tennessee did so.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 51404492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source (Popular Vote): ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source (Electoral Vote): ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This election represents the second time that the winning candidate has received a majority of the electoral votes, although the second-place candidate carried a majority of the states. It had previously happened in the 1960 election. The \"margin\" column shows the difference between the two leading candidates, and the \"swing\" column shows the margin swing from the respective party's nominee from 1972 to 1976.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 40565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maine allowed its electoral votes to be split between candidates. Two electoral votes were awarded to the winner of the statewide race and one electoral vote to the winner of each congressional district. Ford won all four votes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States where margin of victory was under 1% (35 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States where margin of victory was under 5% (264 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (tipping point state)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "States where margin of victory was more than 5%, but less than 10% (105 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Democratic)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with Highest Percent of Vote (Republican)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: CBS News/New York Times interviews with 12,782 voters as they left the polls, as reported in The New York Times, November 9, 1980, p.28, and in further analysis. The 1976 data are from CBS News interviews.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Voter demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 359551, 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ], [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Presidency of Jimmy Carter", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14458921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the United States (1964–1980)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 United States House of Representatives elections", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1341672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 United States Senate elections", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1106937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 United States gubernatorial elections", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27391085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inauguration of Jimmy Carter", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21204057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chester, Edward W A guide to political platforms (1977) online", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Williams, Daniel K. The Election of the Evangelical: Jimmy Carter, Gerald Ford, and the Presidential Contest of 1976 (University Press of Kansas, 2020) online review", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Election Wall's 1976 Election Video Page", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 popular vote by counties", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Campaign commercials from the 1976 election", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " — Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (archived)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Election of 1976 in Counting the Votes ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1976_United_States_presidential_election", "Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter", "Jimmy_Carter", "Gerald_Ford", "Walter_Mondale", "Bob_Dole", "November_1976_events_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "United States presidential election, 1976" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The 1980 United States presidential election was the 49th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 4, 1980. Republican nominee Ronald Reagan defeated incumbent Democratic president Jimmy Carter in a landslide victory. This was the second successive election in which the incumbent president was defeated, after Carter himself defeated Gerald Ford four years earlier in 1976. Additionally, it was only the second time, and the first in nearly 100 years that a Republican candidate defeated an incumbent Democrat. Republican Benjamin Harrison defeated President Grover Cleveland.In the 1892 United States presidential election Cleveland was reelected defeating Harrison. Due to the rise of conservatism following Reagan's victory, some historians consider the election to be a political realignment that began with Barry Goldwater's presidential campaign in 1964, and the 1980 election marked the start of the Reagan Era.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21491579, 32070, 25433, 5043544, 15992, 5030380, 40569, 40527, 7766419, 12495, 40528, 2298740, 440517, 4792, 40566, 25784046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 187, 197 ], [ 208, 220 ], [ 362, 373 ], [ 396, 400 ], [ 462, 478 ], [ 550, 567 ], [ 587, 603 ], [ 611, 651 ], [ 715, 727 ], [ 802, 823 ], [ 840, 855 ], [ 858, 887 ], [ 935, 945 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carter's unpopularity and poor relations with Democratic leaders encouraged an intra-party challenge by Senator Ted Kennedy, a younger brother of President John F. Kennedy. Carter defeated Kennedy in the majority of the Democratic primaries, but Kennedy remained in the race until Carter was officially nominated at the 1980 Democratic National Convention. The Republican primaries were contested between Reagan, who had previously served as the Governor of California, former Congressman George H. W. Bush of Texas, Congressman John B. Anderson of Illinois, and several other candidates. All of Reagan's opponents had dropped out by the end of the primaries, and the 1980 Republican National Convention nominated a ticket consisting of Reagan and Bush. Anderson entered the race as an independent candidate, and convinced former Wisconsin Governor Patrick Lucey, a Democrat, to serve as his running mate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 184136, 5119376, 14713051, 2493747, 15016407, 11955, 43424, 2760050, 2172378, 755755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 123 ], [ 156, 171 ], [ 220, 240 ], [ 320, 355 ], [ 361, 381 ], [ 489, 506 ], [ 529, 545 ], [ 668, 703 ], [ 786, 797 ], [ 849, 862 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan campaigned for increased defense spending, implementation of supply-side economic policies, and a balanced budget. His campaign was aided by Democratic dissatisfaction with Carter, the Iran hostage crisis, and a worsening economy at home marked by high unemployment and inflation. Carter attacked Reagan as a dangerous right-wing extremist, and warned that Reagan would cut Medicare and Social Security.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 174607, 243433, 26818, 58353, 48728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 88 ], [ 192, 211 ], [ 255, 286 ], [ 381, 389 ], [ 394, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan won the election by a landslide, taking 489 electoral votes and 50.8% of the popular vote with a margin of 9.7%. Reagan received the highest number of electoral votes ever won by a non-incumbent presidential candidate. In the simultaneous Congressional elections, Republicans won control of the United States Senate for the first time since 1955. Carter won 41% of the vote, but carried just six states and Washington, D. C. Anderson won 6.6% of the popular vote, and he performed best among liberal Republican voters dissatisfied with Reagan. Reagan, then 69, was the oldest person to ever be elected to a first term. As of 2022, this remains the last time that a Democratic president failed to win re-election to a second term. This is the last election in which a Republican won without Georgia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41053306, 85533, 1106375, 24909346, 108956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ], [ 51, 66 ], [ 283, 301 ], [ 302, 322 ], [ 414, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the 1970s, the United States underwent a wrenching period of low economic growth, high inflation and interest rates, and intermittent energy crises. By October 1978, Iran—a major oil supplier to the United States at the time—was experiencing a major uprising that severely damaged its oil infrastructure and greatly weakened its capability to produce oil. In January 1979, shortly after Iran's leader Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled the country, Iranian opposition figure Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ended his 14-year exile in France and returned to Iran to establish an Islamic Republic, largely hostile to American interests and influence in the country. In the spring and summer of 1979, inflation was on the rise and various parts of the United States were experiencing energy shortages.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 26818, 24926282, 41304897, 347268, 64648, 20065598, 63899, 26232, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 126 ], [ 132, 158 ], [ 177, 181 ], [ 255, 269 ], [ 412, 416 ], [ 417, 438 ], [ 483, 492 ], [ 493, 510 ], [ 582, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carter was widely blamed for the return of the long gas lines in the summer of 1979 that was last seen just after the 1973 Yom Kippur War. He planned on delivering his fifth major speech on energy, but he felt that the American people were no longer listening. Carter left for the presidential retreat of Camp David. \"For more than a week, a veil of secrecy enveloped the proceedings. Dozens of prominent Democratic Party leaders—members of Congress, governors, labor leaders, academics and clergy—were summoned to the mountaintop retreat to confer with the beleaguered president.\" His pollster, Pat Caddell, told him that the American people simply faced a crisis of confidence because of the assassinations of John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr.; the Vietnam War; and Watergate. On July 15, 1979, Carter gave a nationally televised address in which he identified what he believed to be a \"crisis of confidence\" among the American people. This came to be known as his \"Malaise speech\", although Carter never used the word in the speech.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 34276, 6357, 223225, 3404772, 286369, 21131596, 21189400, 32611, 52382, 14458921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 137 ], [ 305, 315 ], [ 430, 449 ], [ 596, 607 ], [ 712, 727 ], [ 729, 746 ], [ 751, 773 ], [ 779, 790 ], [ 796, 805 ], [ 996, 1010 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many expected Senator Ted Kennedy to successfully challenge Carter in the upcoming Democratic primary. Kennedy's official announcement was scheduled for early November. A television interview with Roger Mudd of CBS a few days before the announcement went badly, however. Kennedy gave an \"incoherent and repetitive\" answer to the question of why he was running, and the polls, which showed him leading the President by 58–25 in August now had him ahead 49–39.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1124679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, Carter was given an opportunity for political redemption when the Khomeini regime again gained public attention and allowed the taking of 52 American hostages by a group of Islamist students and militants at the U.S. embassy in Tehran on November 4, 1979. Carter's calm approach towards the handling of this crisis resulted in his approval ratings jump in the 60-percent range in some polls, due to a \"rally round the flag\" effect.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 243433, 15012, 57654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 169 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 239, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the beginning of the election campaign, the prolonged Iran hostage crisis had sharpened public perceptions of a national crisis. On April 25, 1980, Carter's ability to use the hostage crisis to regain public acceptance eroded when his high risk attempt to rescue the hostages ended in disaster when eight servicemen were killed. The unsuccessful rescue attempt drew further skepticism towards his leadership skills.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 243433, 354143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 76 ], [ 248, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the failed rescue attempt, Carter took overwhelming blame for the Iran hostage crisis, in which the followers of the Ayatollah Khomeini burned American flags and chanted anti-American slogans, paraded the captured American hostages in public, and burned Carter in effigy. Carter's critics saw him as an inept leader who had failed to solve the worsening economic problems at home. His supporters defended the president as a decent, well-intentioned man being unfairly criticized for problems that had been escalating for years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 11447, 773390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 167 ], [ 274, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom in 1979, Conservative challenger Margaret Thatcher was elected Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in a decisive victory defeating incumbent Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan. The UK Election was held against the backdrop of stagflation, high oil prices, high inflation, a large welfare state, turmoil in public sector unions and the Winter of Discontent summed up by The Sun newspaper headline, \"Crisis? What crisis?\". The scenario which played out in Britain would essentially be repeated and would foreshadow Carter's loss.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 73211, 32113, 19831, 24150, 19279158, 52278, 157946, 26146987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 36, 40 ], [ 42, 54 ], [ 66, 83 ], [ 96, 132 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 197, 212 ], [ 372, 392 ], [ 406, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another event that polarized the electorate was the U.S.-led 1980 Summer Olympics boycott. Shortly following the Soviet Union's December 1979 invasion of Afghanistan, Carter demanded that the USSR withdraw from Afghanistan or the U.S. would boycott the 1980 Summer Olympics, set to be staged in Moscow. The Soviet Union did not withdraw until 1990, shortly before its dissolution in December 1991 following the signing of the Belavezha Accords by the Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian presidents. Carter's stance was controversial—he was both praised for his moral stand and criticized for politicizing the Olympics. With many allied countries joining the U.S. in the boycott, the contrasting spirits of competitive goodwill and campaign animosity, a feature of most presidential campaign years, was absent and the press had additional time to devote to national and international strife.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1958265, 26779, 80197, 82785, 2738170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 89 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 142, 165 ], [ 253, 273 ], [ 426, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a tit-for-tat response four years later, most Eastern Bloc countries boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 267800, 97477, 12813736, 82762, 18110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 49, 61 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 86, 106 ], [ 110, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following candidates were frequently interviewed by major broadcast networks and cable news channels, were listed in publicly published national polls, or had held a public office. Reagan received 7,709,793 votes in the primaries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Former governor Ronald Reagan of California was the odds-on favorite to win his party's nomination for president after nearly beating incumbent President Gerald Ford just four years earlier. Reagan dominated the primaries early, driving from the field Senate Minority Leader Howard Baker from Tennessee, former governor John Connally of Texas, Senator Robert Dole from Kansas, Representative Phil Crane from Illinois, and Representative John Anderson from Illinois, who dropped out of the race to run as an Independent. George H. W. Bush from Texas posed the strongest challenge to Reagan with his victories in the Pennsylvania and Michigan primaries, but it was not enough to turn the tide. Reagan won the nomination on the first round at the 1980 Republican National Convention in Detroit, Michigan, in July, then chose Bush (his top rival) as his running mate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 25433, 5407, 15016390, 5030380, 380745, 300265, 55846, 412077, 43424, 11955, 2760050, 8687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 119, 133 ], [ 154, 165 ], [ 275, 287 ], [ 320, 333 ], [ 352, 363 ], [ 392, 402 ], [ 437, 450 ], [ 520, 537 ], [ 744, 779 ], [ 783, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following candidates were frequently interviewed by major broadcast networks, were listed in published national polls, or had held public office. Carter received 10,043,016 votes in the primaries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The three major Democratic candidates in early 1980 were incumbent President Jimmy Carter, Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts, and Governor Jerry Brown of California. Brown withdrew on April 2. Carter and Kennedy faced off in 34 primaries. Not counting the 1968 election in which Lyndon Johnson withdrew his candidacy, this was the most tumultuous primary race that an elected incumbent president had encountered since President Taft, during the highly contentious election of 1912.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 15992, 184136, 175220, 40567, 54533, 169131, 33522, 40534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 89 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 142, 153 ], [ 259, 272 ], [ 282, 296 ], [ 350, 362 ], [ 421, 435 ], [ 467, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the summer of 1980, there was a short-lived \"Draft Muskie\" movement; Secretary of State Edmund Muskie was seen as a favorable alternative to a deadlocked convention. One poll showed that Muskie would be a more popular alternative to Carter than Kennedy, implying that the attraction was not so much to Kennedy as to the fact that he was not Carter. Muskie was polling even with Ronald Reagan at the time, while Carter was seven points behind. Although the underground \"Draft Muskie\" campaign failed, it became a political legend.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 307962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After defeating Kennedy in 24 of 34 primaries, Carter entered the party's convention in New York in August with 60 percent of the delegates pledged to him on the first ballot. Still, Kennedy refused to drop out. At the convention, after a futile last-ditch attempt by Kennedy to alter the rules to free delegates from their first-ballot pledges, Carter was renominated with 2,129 votes to 1,146 for Kennedy. Vice President Walter Mondale was also renominated. In his acceptance speech, Carter warned that Reagan's conservatism posed a threat to world peace and progressive social welfare programs from the New Deal to the Great Society.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 2493747, 42172, 19283361, 55792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ], [ 423, 437 ], [ 606, 614 ], [ 622, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John B. Anderson was defeated in the Republican primaries, but entered the general election as an independent candidate. He campaigned as a liberal Republican alternative to Reagan's conservatism. Anderson's campaign appealed primarily to frustrated anti-Carter voters from Republican and Democratic backgrounds. Despite maintaining the support of millions of liberal, pro-ERA, anti-Reagan and anti-Carter voters all the way up to election day to finish third with 5.7 million votes, Anderson's poll ratings had ebbed away through the campaign season as many of his initial supporters were pulled away by Carter and Reagan. Anderson's running mate was Patrick Lucey, a Democratic former Governor of Wisconsin and then ambassador to Mexico, appointed by President Carter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 43424, 755755, 253096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 652, 665 ], [ 687, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Libertarian Party nominated Ed Clark for president and David Koch for vice president. They received almost one million votes and were on the ballot in all 50 states plus Washington, D.C. Koch, a co-owner of Koch Industries, pledged part of his personal fortune to the campaign. The Libertarian Party platform was the only political party in 1980 to contain a plank advocating for the equal rights of homosexual men and women as well as the only party platform to advocate explicitly for \"amnesty\" for all illegal non-citizens. The platform was also unique in favoring the repeal of both the National Labor Relations Act and all state Right to Work laws. Clark emphasized his support for an end to the war on drugs. He advertised his opposition to the draft and wars of choice.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 32044, 506889, 531483, 199026, 3510770, 55816, 392198, 1181646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 32, 40 ], [ 59, 69 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 388, 428 ], [ 595, 623 ], [ 638, 656 ], [ 705, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Clark–Koch ticket received 921,128 votes (1.1% of the total nationwide), finishing in fourth place nationwide. This was the highest overall number of votes earned by a Libertarian candidate until the 2012 election, when Gary Johnson and James P. Gray became the first Libertarian ticket to earn more than a million votes, albeit with a lower overall vote percentage than Clark–Koch. The 1980 total remained the highest percentage of popular votes a Libertarian Party candidate received in a presidential race until Johnson and William Weld received 3.3% of the popular vote in 2016. Clark's strongest support was in Alaska, where he came in third place with 11.7% of the vote, finishing ahead of Independent candidate John B. Anderson and receiving almost half as many votes as Jimmy Carter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 20102947, 314992, 328909, 505437, 21377251, 624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 217 ], [ 224, 236 ], [ 241, 254 ], [ 531, 543 ], [ 581, 585 ], [ 620, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Socialist Party USA nominated David McReynolds for president and Sister Diane Drufenbrock for vice president, making McReynolds the first openly gay man to run for president and Drufenbrock the first nun to be a candidate for national office in the U.S.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 248589, 261424, 2059266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 34, 50 ], [ 76, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Citizens Party ran biologist Barry Commoner for president and Comanche Native American activist LaDonna Harris for vice president. The Commoner–Harris ticket was on the ballot in twenty-nine states and in the District of Columbia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 362817, 2537522, 1074406, 54001, 21217, 3321213, 108956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 23, 32 ], [ 33, 47 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 75, 90 ], [ 100, 114 ], [ 213, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Communist Party USA ran Gus Hall for president and Angela Davis for vice president.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 452981, 55853, 48522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 55, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American Party nominated Percy L. Greaves Jr. for president and Frank L. Varnum for vice president.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 7426580, 25544346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 29, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rock star Joe Walsh ran a mock campaign as a write-in candidate, promising to make his song \"Life's Been Good\" the new national anthem if he won, and running on a platform of \"Free Gas For Everyone.\" Though the 33-year-old Walsh was not old enough to actually assume the office, he wanted to raise public awareness of the election.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 304518, 480905, 1926500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ], [ 45, 63 ], [ 93, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under federal election laws, Carter and Reagan received $29.4 million each, and Anderson was given a limit of $18.5 million with private fund-raising allowed for him only. They were not allowed to spend any other money. Carter and Reagan each spent about $15 million on television advertising, and Anderson under $2 million. Reagan ended up spending $29.2 million in total, Carter $29.4 million, and Anderson spent $17.6 million—partially because he (Anderson) didn't get Federal Election Commission money until after the election.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 238487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 472, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1980 election is considered by some to be a political realignment, reaching a climate of confrontation practically not seen since 1932. Reagan's supporters praise him for running a campaign of upbeat optimism. David Frum says Carter ran an attack-based campaign based on \"despair and pessimism\" which \"cost him the election.\" Carter emphasized his record as a peacemaker, and said Reagan's election would threaten civil rights and social programs that stretched back to the New Deal. Reagan's platform also emphasized the importance of peace, as well as a prepared self-defense.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 440517, 191233, 37071, 19283361, 24702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 69 ], [ 214, 224 ], [ 418, 430 ], [ 478, 486 ], [ 540, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immediately after the conclusion of the primaries, a Gallup poll held that Reagan was ahead, with 58% of voters upset by Carter's handling of the Presidency. One analysis of the election has suggested that \"Both Carter and Reagan were perceived negatively by a majority of the electorate.\" While the three leading candidates (Reagan, Anderson and Carter) were religious Christians, Carter had the most support of evangelical Christians according to a Gallup poll. However, in the end, Jerry Falwell's Moral Majority lobbying group is credited with giving Reagan two-thirds of the white evangelical vote. According to Carter: \"that autumn [1980] a group headed by Jerry Falwell purchased $10 million in commercials on southern radio and TV to brand me as a traitor to the South and no longer a Christian.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 5367625, 16504, 104973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 64 ], [ 485, 498 ], [ 501, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election of 1980 was a key turning point in American politics. It signaled the new electoral power of the suburbs and the Sun Belt. Reagan's success as a conservative would initiate a realigning of the parties, as liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats would either leave politics or change party affiliations through the 1980s and 1990s to leave the parties much more ideologically polarized. While during Barry Goldwater's 1964 campaign, many voters saw his warnings about a too-powerful government as hyperbolic and only 30% of the electorate agreed that government was too powerful, by 1980 a majority of Americans believed that government held too much power.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 28908, 445569, 2298740, 357311, 151820, 4792, 40566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 116 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 218, 237 ], [ 242, 264 ], [ 419, 434 ], [ 437, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan promised a restoration of the nation's military strength, at the same time 60% of Americans polled felt defense spending was too low. Reagan also promised an end to \"trust me government\" and to restore economic health by implementing a supply-side economic policy. Reagan promised a balanced budget within three years (which he said would be \"the beginning of the end of inflation\"), accompanied by a 30% reduction in tax rates over those same years. With respect to the economy, Reagan famously said, \"A recession is when your neighbor loses his job. A depression is when you lose yours. And recovery is when Jimmy Carter loses his.\" Reagan also criticized the \"windfall profit tax\" that Carter and Congress enacted that year in regards to domestic oil production and promised to attempt to repeal it as president. The tax was not a tax on profits, but on the difference between the price control-mandated price and the market price.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 174607, 1897997, 4050898, 1185519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 263 ], [ 290, 305 ], [ 670, 689 ], [ 891, 904 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the issue of women's rights there was much division, with many feminists frustrated with Carter, the only major-party candidate who supported the Equal Rights Amendment. After a bitter Convention fight between Republican feminists and antifeminists the Republican Party dropped their forty-year endorsement of the ERA. Reagan, however, announced his dedication to women's rights and his intention to, if elected, appoint women to his cabinet and the first female justice to the Supreme Court. He also pledged to work with all 50 state governors to combat discrimination against women and to equalize federal laws as an alternative to the ERA. Reagan was convinced to give an endorsement of women's rights in his nomination acceptance speech.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 22443992, 59635, 31737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 149, 171 ], [ 481, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carter was criticized by his own aides for not having a \"grand plan\" for the recovery of the economy, nor did he ever make any campaign promises; he often criticized Reagan's economic recovery plan, but did not create one of his own in response.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In August, after the Republican National Convention, Ronald Reagan gave a campaign speech at the annual Neshoba County Fair on the outskirts of Philadelphia, Mississippi, where three civil rights workers were murdered in 1964. He was the first presidential candidate ever to campaign at the fair. Reagan famously announced, \"Programs like education and others should be turned back to the states and local communities with the tax sources to fund them. I believe in states' rights. I believe in people doing as much as they can at the community level and the private level.\" Reagan also stated, \"I believe we have distorted the balance of our government today by giving powers that were never intended to be given in the Constitution to that federal establishment.\" He went on to promise to \"restore to states and local governments the power that properly belongs to them.\" President Carter criticized Reagan for injecting \"hate and racism\" by the \"rebirth of code words like 'states' rights'\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 2760050, 94772, 122377, 1392055, 407755, 31644, 407755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 51 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 144, 169 ], [ 209, 225 ], [ 466, 480 ], [ 721, 733 ], [ 960, 992 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two days later, Reagan appeared at the Urban League convention in New York, where he said, \"I am committed to the protection and enforcement of the civil rights of black Americans. This commitment is interwoven into every phase of the plans I will propose.\" He then said that he would develop \"enterprise zones\" to help with urban renewal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 401506, 3908528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 294, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The media's main criticism of Reagan centered on his gaffes. When Carter kicked off his general election campaign in Tuscumbia, Reagan—referring to the Southern U.S. as a whole—claimed that Carter had begun his campaign in the birthplace of the Ku Klux Klan. In doing so, Reagan seemed to insinuate that the KKK represented the South, which caused many Southern governors to denounce Reagan's remarks. Additionally, Reagan was widely ridiculed by Democrats for saying that trees caused pollution; he later said that he meant only certain types of pollution and his remarks had been misquoted.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 104589, 16779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 126 ], [ 245, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, Carter was burdened by a continued weak economy and the Iran hostage crisis. Inflation, high interest rates, and unemployment continued through the course of the campaign, and the ongoing hostage crisis in Iran became, according to David Frum in How We Got Here: The '70s, a symbol of American impotence during the Carter years. John Anderson's independent candidacy, aimed at eliciting support from liberals, was also seen as hurting Carter more than Reagan, especially in reliably Democratic states such as Massachusetts and New York.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 243433, 38286, 163115, 31741, 191233, 1645518, 8210131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 86 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 124, 136 ], [ 243, 253 ], [ 520, 533 ], [ 538, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The League of Women Voters, which had sponsored the 1976 Ford/Carter debate series, announced that it would do so again for the next cycle in the spring of 1979. However, Carter was not eager to participate with any debate. He had repeatedly refused to a debate with Senator Edward M. Kennedy during the primary season, and had given ambivalent signals as to his participation in the fall.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 392704, 184136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 275, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The League of Women Voters had announced a schedule of debates similar to 1976, three presidential and one vice presidential. No one had much of a problem with this until it was announced that Rep. John B. Anderson might be invited to participate along with Carter and Reagan. Carter steadfastly refused to participate with Anderson included, and Reagan refused to debate without him. It took months of negotiations for the League of Women Voters to finally put it together. It was held on September 21, 1980, in the Baltimore Convention Center. Reagan said of Carter's refusal to debate: \"He [Carter] knows that he couldn't win a debate even if it were held in the Rose Garden before an audience of Administration officials with the questions being asked by Jody Powell.\" The League of Women Voters promised the Reagan campaign that the debate stage would feature an empty chair to represent the missing president. Carter was very upset about the planned chair stunt, and at the last minute convinced the league to take it out. The debate was moderated by Bill Moyers. Anderson, who many thought would handily dispatch Reagan, managed only a narrow win, according to many in the media at that time, with Reagan putting up a much stronger performance than expected. Despite the narrow win in the debate, Anderson, who had been as high as 20% in some polls, and at the time of the debate was over 10%, dropped to about 5% soon after, although Anderson got back up to winning 6.6% of the vote on election day. In the debate, Anderson failed to substantively engage Reagan enough on their social issue differences and on Reagan's advocation of supply-side economics. Anderson instead started off by criticizing Carter: \"Governor Reagan is not responsible for what has happened over the last four years, nor am I. The man who should be here tonight to respond to those charges chose not to attend,\" to which Reagan added: \"It's a shame now that there are only two of us here debating, because the two that are here are in more agreement than disagreement.\" In one moment in the debate, Reagan commented on a rumor that Anderson had invited Senator Ted Kennedy to be his running mate by asking the candidate directly, \"John, would you really prefer Teddy Kennedy to me?\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 43424, 345084, 264256, 765190, 170721, 184136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 214 ], [ 517, 544 ], [ 666, 677 ], [ 759, 770 ], [ 1057, 1068 ], [ 2144, 2155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As September turned into October, the situation remained essentially the same. Governor Reagan insisted Anderson be allowed to participate in a three-way debate, while President Carter remained steadfastly opposed to this. As the standoff continued, the second debate was canceled, as was the vice presidential debate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With two weeks to go to the election, the Reagan campaign decided that the best thing to do at that moment was to accede to all of President Carter's demands, including that Anderson not feature, and LWV agreed to exclude Congressman Anderson from the final debate, which was rescheduled for October 28 in Cleveland, Ohio.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 5951, 22199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 315 ], [ 317, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The presidential debate between President Carter and Governor Reagan was moderated by Howard K. Smith and presented by the League of Women Voters. The showdown ranked among the highest ratings of any television program in the previous decade. Debate topics included the Iranian hostage crisis, and nuclear arms treaties and proliferation. Carter's campaign sought to portray Reagan as a reckless \"war hawk,\" as well as a \"dangerous right-wing radical\". But it was President Carter's reference to his consultation with 12-year-old daughter Amy concerning nuclear weapons policy that became the focus of post-debate analysis and fodder for late-night television jokes. President Carter said he had asked Amy what the most important issue in that election was and she said, \"the control of nuclear arms.\" A famous political cartoon, published the day after Reagan's landslide victory, showed Amy Carter sitting in Jimmy's lap with her shoulders shrugged asking \"the economy? the hostage crisis?\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 39882, 29831, 1500031, 16267, 21785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 101 ], [ 200, 210 ], [ 539, 542 ], [ 660, 664 ], [ 787, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When President Carter criticized Reagan's record, which included voting against Medicare and Social Security benefits, Governor Reagan audibly sighed and replied: \"There you go again\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 58353, 48728, 20086888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ], [ 93, 108 ], [ 164, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In describing the national debt that was approaching $1 trillion, Reagan stated \"a billion is a thousand millions, and a trillion is a thousand billions.\" When Carter would criticize the content of Reagan's campaign speeches, Reagan began his counter with the words: \"Well ... I don't know that I said that. I really don't.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his closing remarks, Reagan asked viewers: \"Are you better off now than you were four years ago? Is it easier for you to go and buy things in the stores than it was four years ago? Is there more or less unemployment in the country than there was four years ago? Is America as respected throughout the world as it was? Do you feel that our security is as safe, that we're as strong as we were four years ago? And if you answer all of those questions 'yes', why then, I think your choice is very obvious as to whom you will vote for. If you don't agree, if you don't think that this course that we've been on for the last four years is what you would like to see us follow for the next four, then I could suggest another choice that you have.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After trailing Carter by 8 points among registered voters (and by 3 points among likely voters) right before their debate, Reagan moved into a 3-point lead among likely voters immediately afterward.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1980, former Watergate scandal prosecutor Leon Jaworski accepted a position as honorary chairman of Democrats for Reagan. Five months earlier, Jaworski had harshly criticized Reagan as an \"extremist\"; he said after accepting the chairmanship, \"I would rather have a competent extremist than an incompetent moderate.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 52382, 315739, 151820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 113, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Former Democratic Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota (who in 1968 had challenged Lyndon Johnson from the left, causing the then-President to all but abdicate) endorsed Reagan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 166899, 40567, 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 41 ], [ 63, 67 ], [ 83, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three days before the November 4 voting in the election, the National Rifle Association endorsed a presidential candidate for the first time in its history, backing Reagan. Reagan had received the California Rifle and Pistol Association's Outstanding Public Service Award. Carter had appointed Abner J. Mikva, a fervent proponent of gun control, to a federal judgeship and had supported the Alaska Lands Bill, closing to hunting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 70101, 1243566, 44276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 87 ], [ 294, 308 ], [ 333, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anderson had received endorsements from:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Former officeholders", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Former Representative (Arizona's 2nd congressional district) and Interior Secretary Stewart Udall (D-AZ)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 19468510, 4895064, 44004, 734542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 24, 60 ], [ 66, 84 ], [ 85, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Current and former state and local officials and party officeholders", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Massachusetts", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Middlesex County Sheriff John J. Buckley (D-MA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 76195, 40726783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 26, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Former Massachusetts State Representative Francis W. Hatch Jr. (R-MA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 722246, 30413745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 42 ], [ 43, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Former Massachusetts Republican Party chairman Josiah Spaulding (R-MA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 6753792, 29683973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 38 ], [ 48, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Celebrities, political activists, and political commentators", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Newspapers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Hutchinson News in Hutchinson, Kansas", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 17190344, 114853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 24, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Burlington Free Press in Burlington, VT", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 5720614, 67258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 30, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carter had received endorsements from:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Newspapers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Des Moines Register in Des Moines, Iowa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1429223, 9163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 28, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Penn State Daily Collegian in State College, Pennsylvania", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1209509, 131800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 35, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commoner had received endorsements from:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Celebrities, political activists, and political commentators", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Montgomery County precinct committeeman and Consumer Party Auditor General candidate Darcy Richardson (D-PA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 58114, 15407713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 60, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DeBerry had received endorsements from:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Celebrities, political activists and political commentators", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American People's Historical Society director Bernie Sanders of Vermont", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 361176, 32578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 65, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan had received endorsements from:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "United States Senate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arizona Senator Dennis DeConcini (D-AZ)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 416330, 892651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 16, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Virginia Senator Harry Byrd Jr. (D-VA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 416469, 728400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New York Senator Jacob Javits (R-NY)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 416434, 773090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 17, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Former Massachusetts Senator Edward Brooke (R-MA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 416406, 251608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ], [ 29, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United States House of Representatives", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Representative (California's 12th congressional district) Pete McCloskey (R-CA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 19468510, 5593076, 1090228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 57 ], [ 59, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Former Representative (California's 26th congressional district) James Roosevelt (D-CA; son of Franklin Delano Roosevelt)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 19468510, 4066649, 1738051, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 24, 64 ], [ 66, 81 ], [ 96, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Governors and State Constitutional officers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Former Georgia Governor Lester Maddox (D-GA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 253067, 252689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ], [ 25, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Former Alabama Governor John Malcolm Patterson (D-AL)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1286, 1672747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ], [ 25, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Former Texas Governor Preston Smith (D-TX)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 214883, 728058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 23, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Former Mississippi Governor John Bell Williams (D-MS)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 215933, 230357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 28 ], [ 29, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Current and former state and local officials and party officeholders", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Florida", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fort Lauderdale City Advisory Board member Jim Naugle (D-FL)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 109028, 11967582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 44, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New York", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Former New York State Senator Jeremiah B. Bloom (D-NY)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1393764, 43840725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 30 ], [ 31, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Celebrities, political activists and political commentators", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Former UCLA men's basketball head coach John Wooden", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 9728093, 505605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 40 ], [ 41, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Retired United States Navy Admiral Elmo Zumwalt (D-VA)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 20518076, 2385768, 85241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 27 ], [ 28, 35 ], [ 36, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Newspaper endorsements", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Arizona Republic in Phoenix, Arizona", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1049195, 49121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 25, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Desert Sun in Palm Springs, California", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 7739728, 10311463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 19, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Omaha World-Herald in Omaha, Nebraska", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1639392, 46159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 23 ], [ 27, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Quad-City Times in Davenport, Iowa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 2228829, 8599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 24, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Record in Stockton, California", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 7200371, 99302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Repository in Canton, Ohio", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 12005163, 129826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 19, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Plain Dealer in Cleveland, Ohio", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 738659, 5951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 21, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Blade in Toledo, Ohio", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1458719, 30849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 14, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Houston Chronicle in Houston, Texas", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 251916, 13774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richmond Times-Dispatch in Richmond, Virginia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 975299, 53274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 28, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The election was held on November 4, 1980. Ronald Reagan and running mate George H. W. Bush beat Carter by almost 10 percentage points in the popular vote. Republicans also gained control of the Senate on Reagan's coattails for the first time since 1952. The electoral college vote was a landslide, with 489 votes (representing 44 states) for Reagan and 49 for Carter (representing six states and Washington, D.C.). NBC News projected Reagan as the winner at 8:15 pm EST (5:15 PST), before voting was finished in the West, based on exit polls; it was the first time a broadcast network used exit polling to project a winner, and took the other broadcast networks by surprise. Carter conceded defeat at 9:50 pm EST. Some of Carter's advisors urged him to wait until 11:00 pm EST to allow poll results from the West Coast to come in, but Carter decided to concede earlier in order to avoid the impression that he was sulking. Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill angrily accused Carter of weakening the party's performance in the Senate elections for doing this. Carter's loss was the worst performance by an incumbent president since Herbert Hoover lost to Franklin D. Roosevelt by a margin of 18% in 1932, and his 49 electoral college votes were the fewest won by an incumbent since William Howard Taft won only 8 in 1912. Carter was the first incumbent Democrat to serve only one full term since James Buchanan and also the first to serve one full term, seek re-election, and lose since Martin Van Buren; Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms while Harry Truman and Lyndon B. Johnson served one full term in addition to respectively taking over following the deaths of Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 11955, 32070, 735039, 167284, 665947, 265845, 1106375, 33522, 19732383, 19763, 12495, 3418303, 54533, 10979, 5119376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 156, 167 ], [ 205, 223 ], [ 416, 424 ], [ 532, 542 ], [ 945, 956 ], [ 1024, 1040 ], [ 1279, 1298 ], [ 1393, 1407 ], [ 1484, 1500 ], [ 1502, 1518 ], [ 1558, 1570 ], [ 1575, 1592 ], [ 1678, 1699 ], [ 1704, 1719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carter carried only Georgia (his home state), Maryland, Minnesota (Mondale's home state), Hawaii, West Virginia, Rhode Island, and the District of Columbia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 48830, 18858, 19590, 13270, 32905, 25410, 108956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 98, 111 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 135, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Anderson won 6.6% of the popular vote but failed to win any state outright. He found the most support in New England, fueled by liberal and moderate Republicans who felt Reagan was too far to the right and with voters who normally leaned Democratic but were dissatisfied with the policies of the Carter Administration. His best showing was in Massachusetts, where he won 15% of the popular vote. Conversely, Anderson performed worst in the South, receiving under 2% of the popular vote in South Carolina, Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi. Anderson claims that he was accused of spoiling the election for Carter by receiving votes that might have otherwise been cast for Carter. However, 37 percent of Anderson voters polled preferred Reagan as their second choice. Even if all Anderson votes had gone for Carter, Reagan would have still held enough majorities and pluralities to maintain 331 electoral votes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 21531764, 1645518, 179553, 538393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 121 ], [ 348, 361 ], [ 445, 450 ], [ 586, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Libertarian Party candidate Ed Clark received 921,299 popular votes (1.06%). The Libertarians succeeded in getting Clark on the ballot in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Clark's best showing was in Alaska, where he received 11.66% of the vote. The 921,299 votes achieved by the Clark–Koch ticket was the best performance by a Libertarian presidential candidate until 2012, when the Johnson–Gray ticket received 1,273,667 votes. In addition, the popular vote percentage was the highest of a Libertarian presidential candidate until 2016, when the Johnson-Weld ticket received 3.28%.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 32044, 506889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 28, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan won 53% of the vote in reliably Democratic South Boston. His electoral college victory of 489 electoral votes (90.9% of the electoral vote) was the most lopsided electoral college victory for a first-time President-elect, with the exception of George Washington's unanimous victory in 1788. Although Reagan was to win an even greater Electoral College majority in 1984, the 1980 election nonetheless stands as the last time some currently very strong Democratic counties gave a Republican majority or plurality. Notable examples are Jefferson County in Washington State, Lane County, Oregon, Marin and Santa Cruz Counties in California, McKinley County, New Mexico, and Rock Island County, Illinois. This election is the last time a Republican won the presidency without winning Georgia. This is the first time Massachusetts voted for the Republican candidate since 1956. 1980 is one of only two occurrences of a pair of consecutive elections seeing the incumbent president defeated, the other one happening in 1892. This is the only time in the 20th century a party was voted out after a single four-year term.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 1076714, 91204, 92006, 82017, 82075, 93402, 96175, 40528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 540, 556 ], [ 578, 597 ], [ 599, 604 ], [ 609, 628 ], [ 644, 671 ], [ 677, 705 ], [ 1018, 1022 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Survey research and post-election polling indicated that the landslide result had been more a repudiation of Carter than an embrace of Reagan and his conservatism. However, the public was aware that Reagan would move the nation in a more conservative direction, and were, apparently, willing to give it a chance to avoid four more years of Carter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At 69 years old, Ronald Reagan was the oldest non-incumbent presidential candidate to win a presidential election. Thirty-six years later in 2016 this record was surpassed by Donald Trump at 70 years old. It was then surpassed again by Joe Biden who was elected at 77 years old in 2020.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 25433, 21377251, 4848272, 145422, 48410011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ], [ 141, 145 ], [ 175, 187 ], [ 236, 245 ], [ 281, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source (popular vote): ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source (electoral vote): ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maine allowed its electoral votes to be split between candidates. Two electoral votes were awarded to the winner of the statewide race and one electoral vote to the winner of each congressional district. Reagan won all four votes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Margin of victory less than 1% (30 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Margin of victory less than 5% (135 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Margin of victory more than 5%, but less than 10% (113 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (tipping-point state)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 60074602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Republican)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Democratic)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Other)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: CBS News and The New York Times exit poll from the Roper Center for Public Opinion Research ()", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Voter demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 359551, 30680, 22543346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ], [ 21, 39 ], [ 59, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"October Surprise conspiracy theory\" alleges the existence of a plot to influence the outcome of the election. One of the leading national issues was the release of 66 Americans being held hostage in Iran since November 4, 1979. Reagan won the election. On the day of his inauguration—in fact, minutes after he concluded his 20-minute inaugural address—the Islamic Republic of Iran announced the release of the hostages. The timing gave rise to an allegation that representatives of Reagan's presidential campaign had conspired with Iran to delay the release until after the election to thwart President Jimmy Carter from pulling off an \"October surprise\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Conspiracy theory", "target_page_ids": [ 243433, 21204000, 14653, 519775, 15992, 3618423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 181 ], [ 272, 288 ], [ 361, 385 ], [ 509, 517 ], [ 608, 620 ], [ 642, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 United States House of Representatives elections", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1341640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 United States Senate elections", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1106375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 United States gubernatorial elections", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18079033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the United States (1964–1980)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the United States (1980–1991)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anderson v. Celebrezze", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18215902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October Surprise conspiracy theory", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1105245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Political activities of the Koch brothers", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30666034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " First inauguration of Ronald Reagan", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21204000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Debategate per allegations of Carter's briefing books being leaked to Reagan campaign prior to their debate", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2529854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " . online review by Michael Barone", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Davies, Gareth, and Julian E. Zelizer, eds. America at the Ballot Box: Elections and Political History (2015) pp.196–218.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hogue, Andrew P. Stumping God: Reagan, Carter, and the Invention of a Political Faith (Baylor University Press; 2012) 343 pages; A study of religious rhetoric in the campaign", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mason, Jim (2011). No Holding Back: The 1980 John B. Anderson Presidential Campaign. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " . online review by Lou Cannon", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stanley, Timothy. Kennedy vs. Carter: The 1980 Battle for the Democratic Party's Soul'' (University Press of Kansas, 2010) 298 pages. A revisionist history of the 1970s and their political aftermath that argues that Ted Kennedy's 1980 campaign was more popular than has been acknowledged; describes his defeat by Jimmy Carter in terms of a \"historical accident\" rather than perceived radicalism.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Election Wall's 1980 Election Video Page", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 popular vote by counties", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 popular vote by states", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Campaign commercials from the 1980 election", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " —Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Portrayal of 1980 presidential elections in the U.S. by the Soviet television", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Election of 1980 in Counting the Votes ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1980_United_States_presidential_election", "Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan", "Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter", "Ronald_Reagan", "Jimmy_Carter", "Walter_Mondale", "George_H._W._Bush", "November_1980_events_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "United States presidential election, 1980" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The 1984 United States presidential election was the 50th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 6, 1984. Incumbent Republican President Ronald Reagan defeated Democratic former Vice President Walter Mondale, in a landslide, winning 525 electoral votes and 58.8 percent of the popular vote. No other candidate in United States history has matched Reagan's electoral vote total in a single election. This is the most recent US presidential election in which a candidate received over 500 electoral votes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21491579, 32070, 25433, 5043544, 42172, 41053306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 166, 179 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 222, 236 ], [ 243, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush faced only token opposition in their bid for re-nomination. Mondale faced a competitive field in his bid, defeating Colorado Senator Gary Hart, activist Jesse Jackson and several other candidates in the 1984 Democratic primaries. He eventually chose U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro of New York as his running mate, the first woman to be on a major party's presidential ticket.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11955, 5399, 200496, 18603579, 14710295, 232530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 197, 210 ], [ 247, 272 ], [ 314, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan touted a strong economic recovery from the 1970s stagflation and the 1981–1982 recession, as well as the widespread perception that his presidency had overseen a revival of national confidence and prestige. At 73, Reagan was, at the time, the oldest person ever to be nominated by a major party for president. The Reagan campaign produced effective television advertising and deftly neutralized concerns regarding Reagan's age. Mondale criticized Reagan's supply-side economic policies and budget deficits and he called for a nuclear freeze and ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26818, 5174980, 174607, 22165, 59635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ], [ 76, 95 ], [ 463, 492 ], [ 533, 547 ], [ 572, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan won a landslide re-election victory, carrying 49 of the 50 states, making this the second election in the 20th century in which a party won 49 states. Mondale won only his home state of Minnesota with a 0.18% margin of victory, and the District of Columbia. Reagan won 525 of the 538 electoral votes, the most of any presidential candidate in U.S. history. In terms of electoral votes, this was the second-most lopsided presidential election in modern U.S. history; Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1936 victory over Alf Landon, in which he won 98.5 percent or 523 of the then-total 531 electoral votes, ranks first. His popular vote margin of victory—nearly 16.9million votes (54.4million for Reagan to 37.5million for Mondale)—was exceeded only by Richard Nixon in his 1972 victory over George McGovern, and Reagan is the most recent presidential candidate, as of 2022, to win the popular vote by a margin of greater than 10 million votes and by a margin of greater than 10%. Reagan was also the first president since Dwight D. Eisenhower to be re-elected while winning absolute popular vote majorities in both of his presidential campaigns and was the first presidential candidate in history to win more than 50 million votes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2390318, 10979, 40558, 104466, 25473, 40568, 62896, 8182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 406, 448 ], [ 473, 494 ], [ 497, 509 ], [ 515, 525 ], [ 748, 761 ], [ 769, 781 ], [ 787, 802 ], [ 1018, 1038 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan, at 73 years old, would be the oldest winner of a presidential election until Joe Biden won the 2020 election at the age of 77. As of 2020, no Republican candidate has since won New York, Washington, Massachusetts, Oregon, Hawaii, or Rhode Island. Wisconsin would also not go Republican again until Donald Trump won the state in 2016.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 145422, 48410011, 8210131, 13015878, 1645518, 26811621, 13270, 25410, 33127, 4848272, 21377251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ], [ 103, 116 ], [ 185, 193 ], [ 195, 205 ], [ 207, 220 ], [ 222, 228 ], [ 230, 236 ], [ 241, 253 ], [ 255, 264 ], [ 306, 318 ], [ 336, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2022, this is the most recent presidential election in which both major parties' presidential and vice-presidential nominees are deceased, and the most recent in which a major party candidate failed to receive more than 100 electoral votes. This was the last election in the 20th century in which the incumbent Republican has won a second term. The next Republican presidential incumbent to win re-election was George W. Bush in 2004.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3414021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 417, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ben Fernandez, former Special Ambassador to Paraguay, from California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 9936024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ronald Reagan, President of the United States", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harold Stassen, former Governor of Minnesota", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 237818, 19590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 36, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ronald Reagan—the incumbent president—was the assured nominee for the Republican Party, with only token opposition. The popular vote from the Republican primaries was as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ronald Reagan (inc.): 6,484,987 (98.6%)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unpledged delegates: 41,411 (0.6%)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Others: 21,643 (0.3%)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Ronald Reagan No\": 14,047 (0.2%)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harold E. Stassen: 12,749 (0.2%)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " David Kelly: 360", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gary Arnold: 252", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Benjamin Fernandez: 202", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan was renominated by a vote of 2,233 delegates (two delegates abstained). For the only time in American history, the vice presidential roll call was taken concurrently with the presidential roll call. Vice President George H. W. Bush was overwhelmingly renominated. This was the last time in the 20th century that the vice-presidential candidate of either major party was nominated by roll call vote.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 11955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reubin Askew, former Governor of Florida", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 770595, 76250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 22, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alan Cranston, U.S. senator from California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 572465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Glenn, U.S. senator from Ohio and former NASA astronaut", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 58702, 22199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gary Hart, U.S. senator from Colorado", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 200496, 5399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 30, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ernest Hollings, U.S. senator from South Carolina ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 46736, 27956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 36, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jesse Jackson, clergyman and civil rights activist from Illinois", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 18603579, 14849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George McGovern, former U.S. senator and 1972 Democratic nominee from South Dakota", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 62896, 40568, 26746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 42, 65 ], [ 71, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walter Mondale, former Vice President and former U.S. senator from Minnesota", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 42172, 19590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 68, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only three Democratic candidates won any state primaries: Mondale, Hart, and Jackson. Initially, Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy, after a failed bid to win the 1980 Democratic nomination for president, was considered the de facto front-runner of the 1984 primary. However, Kennedy announced in December 1982 that he did not intend to run. Former Vice-President Mondale was then viewed as the favorite to win the Democratic nomination. Mondale had the largest number of party leaders supporting him, and he had raised more money than any other candidate. However, both Jackson and Hart emerged as surprising, and troublesome, opponents.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 184136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South Carolina Senator Ernest Hollings's wit and experience, as well as his call for a budget freeze, won him some positive attention, but his relatively conservative record alienated liberal Democrats, and he was never really noticed in a field dominated by Walter Mondale, John Glenn, and Gary Hart. Hollings dropped out two days after losing badly in New Hampshire and endorsed Hart a week later. His disdain for his competitors was at times showcased in his comments. He notably referred to Mondale as a \"lapdog\", and to former astronaut Glenn as \"Sky King\" who was \"confused in his capsule.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 46736, 22684686, 42172, 58702, 200496, 30871765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 87, 100 ], [ 259, 273 ], [ 275, 285 ], [ 291, 300 ], [ 552, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "California Senator Alan Cranston hoped to galvanize supporters of the nuclear freeze movement that had called on the United States to halt the deployment of existing nuclear weapons and the development of new ones. Glenn and Askew hoped to capture the support of moderate and conservative Democrats. None of them possessed the fundraising ability of Mondale nor the grassroots support of Hart and Jackson, and none won any contests.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 572465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jackson was the second African-American (after Shirley Chisholm) to mount a nationwide campaign for the presidency, and he was the first African-American candidate to be a serious contender. He got 3.5 million votes during the primaries, third behind Hart and Mondale. He won the primaries in Virginia, South Carolina, and Louisiana, and split Mississippi, where there were two separate contests for Democratic delegates. Through the primaries, Jackson helped confirm the black electorate's importance to the Democratic Party in the South at the time. During the campaign, however, Jackson made an off-the-cuff reference to Jews as \"Hymies\" and New York City as \"Hymietown\", for which he later apologized. Nonetheless, the remark was widely publicized, and derailed his campaign for the nomination. Jackson ended up winning 21% of the national primary vote but received only 8% of the delegates to the national convention, and he initially charged that his campaign was hurt by the same party rules that allowed Mondale to win. He also poured scorn on Mondale, saying that Hubert Humphrey was the \"last significant politician out of the St. Paul-Minneapolis\" area.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 567269, 5043544, 42636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ], [ 509, 525 ], [ 1073, 1088 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hart, from Colorado, was a more serious threat to Mondale, and after winning several early primaries it looked as if he might take the nomination away from Mondale. Hart finished a surprising second in the Iowa caucuses, with 16.5% of the vote. This established him as the main rival to Mondale, effectively eliminating John Glenn, Ernest Hollings and Alan Cranston as alternatives. Hart criticized Mondale as an \"old-fashioned\" Great Society Democrat who symbolized \"failed policies\" of the past. Hart positioned himself (just as Bill Clinton would eight years later) as a younger, fresher, and more moderate Democrat who could appeal to younger voters. He emerged as a formidable candidate, winning the key New Hampshire, Ohio, and California primaries as well as several others, especially in the West. However, Hart could not overcome Mondale's financial and organizational advantages, especially among labor union leaders in the Midwest and industrial Northeast.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 435012, 55792, 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 219 ], [ 429, 442 ], [ 531, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hart was also badly hurt in a televised debate with Mondale during the primaries, when the former vice president used a popular television commercial slogan to ridicule Hart's vague \"New Ideas\" platform. Turning to Hart on camera, Mondale told Hart that whenever he heard Hart talk about his \"New Ideas\", he was reminded of the Wendy's fast-food slogan \"Where's the beef?\" The remark drew loud laughter and applause from the viewing audience and caught Hart off-guard. Hart never fully recovered from Mondale's charge that his \"New Ideas\" were shallow and lacking in specifics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 21405519, 251938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 328, 335 ], [ 354, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At a roundtable debate between the three remaining Democratic candidates moderated by Phil Donahue, Mondale and Hart got into such a heated argument over the issue of U.S. policy in Central America that Jackson had to tap his water glass on the table to help get them to stop.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 273444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mondale gradually pulled away from Hart in the delegate count, but, as Time reported in late May, \"Mondale ... has a wide lead in total delegates (1,564 to 941) ... because of his victories in the big industrial states, his support from the Democratic Establishment and the arcane provisions of delegate-selection rules that his vanguard helped draft two years ago.\" After the final primary in California, on June 5, which Hart won, Mondale was about 40 delegates short of the total he needed for the nomination. However, at the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco on July 16, Mondale received the overwhelming support of the unelected superdelegates from the party establishment to win the nomination.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 31600, 1895671, 489248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 75 ], [ 529, 559 ], [ 648, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mondale's nomination marked the second time since the nomination of former Governor of Georgia Jimmy Carter in 1976 and the fourth time since the nomination of former Representative John W. Davis in 1924 that the Democratic Party nominated a private citizen for President (i.e., not serving in an official government role at the time of the nomination and election). Mondale was the last private citizen to be nominated for president by the Democratic Party until former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in 2016. Mondale was also the last former vice president to be nominated for president by the Democratic Party after leaving office until Joe Biden in 2020.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 253067, 15992, 40569, 261850, 40537, 5043544, 5043192, 21377251, 145422, 48410011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 94 ], [ 95, 107 ], [ 111, 115 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 199, 203 ], [ 213, 229 ], [ 490, 505 ], [ 509, 513 ], [ 644, 653 ], [ 657, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This race for the Democratic Party presidential nomination was the closest in two generations, and, as of 2020, it was the last occasion that a major party's race for the presidential nomination went all the way to its convention.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note: These are only those endorsements which occurred during or before the primary race.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mondale had received endorsements from:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "United States House of Representatives", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Jim Bates of California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1514835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Edward Boland of Massachusetts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 974995, 1645518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 33, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Rick Boucher of Virginia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 18935284, 32432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ], [ 32, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Joseph D. Early of Massachusetts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 3962614, 1645518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 35, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Barney Frank of Massachusetts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 5052153, 1645518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ], [ 32, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Robert García of New York", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 30863109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Sam Gejdenson of Connecticut", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 3021404, 6466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 33, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Tom Harkin of Iowa", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 375268, 26810748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Joe Moakley of Massachusetts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1852578, 1645518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 31, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Representative Charles B. 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Mr. Reagan will raise taxes, and so will I. He won't tell you. I just did.\" Although Mondale intended to expose Reagan as hypocritical and position himself as the honest candidate, the choice of raising taxes as a discussion point likely damaged his electoral chances.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mondale chose U.S. Rep. Geraldine A. Ferraro from New York as his running mate, making her the first woman nominated for that position by a major party, and the first Italian American on a major party ticket since Al Smith in 1928. Mondale wanted to establish a precedent with his vice presidential candidate; although Tonie Nathan of the Libertarian Party had already figured as an Electoral-College candidate for vice-president (1972), Ferraro would become the first woman to receive votes from all the electors of a state. Another reason for the nominee to \"go for broke\" instead of balancing the ticket was Reagan's lead in the polls. Mondale hoped to appeal to women, and by 1980, they were the majority of voters. In a \"much criticized parade of possible Veep candidates\" to his home in Minnesota, Mondale considered San Francisco Mayor Dianne Feinstein and Kentucky Governor Martha Layne Collins, also female; Los Angeles Mayor Tom Bradley, an African American; and San Antonio Mayor Henry Cisneros, a Hispanic, as other finalists for the nomination. In addition to her sex, Mondale chose Ferraro because he hoped she would attract ethnic voters with her personal background. Unsuccessful nomination candidate Jesse Jackson derided Mondale's vice-presidential screening process as a \"P.R. parade of personalities\", but praised Mondale for his choice, having himself pledged to name a woman to the ticket in the event he was nominated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 19468510, 232530, 172040, 40538, 762593, 32044, 40568, 19590, 1558297, 224672, 253074, 1616224, 434176, 650431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 24, 44 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 226, 230 ], [ 319, 331 ], [ 339, 356 ], [ 431, 435 ], [ 517, 524 ], [ 586, 606 ], [ 843, 859 ], [ 864, 881 ], [ 882, 902 ], [ 935, 946 ], [ 991, 1005 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mondale had wanted to choose New York Governor Mario Cuomo as his running mate, but Cuomo declined and recommended Ferraro, his protégée. Mondale might have named Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis as his running mate had he wanted to make a \"safe\" choice\", while others preferred Senator Lloyd Bentsen because he would appeal to more conservative Southern voters. Nomination rival Gary Hart stated before Ferraro's selection that he would accept an invitation to run with Mondale; Hart's supporters claimed he would do better than Mondale against President Reagan, an argument undercut by a June 1984 Gallup poll that showed both men nine points behind the president.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 12861, 277935, 252510, 74453, 299257, 200496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 47, 58 ], [ 163, 185 ], [ 186, 201 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 386, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sources:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The National Unity Party was an outgrowth of John Anderson's presidential campaign from the 1980 presidential election. Anderson hoped that the party would be able to challenge the \"two old parties\", which he viewed as being tied to various special interest groups and incapable of responsible fiscal reform. The intention was to organize the new party in California, Oregon, Washington, Illinois, the New England states, and others where his previous candidacy had proven to have experienced the most success. The party was also eligible for $5.8 million in Federal election funds, but its qualification depended on it being on the ballot in at least ten states; however, it remained unclear if National Unity could actually obtain the funds, or if it needed to be Anderson himself.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 43424, 40570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 92, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anderson initially was against running, hoping that another notable politico would take the party into the 1984 election, and feared that his own candidacy might result in the party being labeled a \"personality cult\". However, no candidate came forward resulting in Anderson becoming the nominee in waiting. While Anderson had found equal support from the Republicans and Democrats in the 1980 election, the grand majority of the former had since switched back, resulting in the new party being supported principally by those who normally would vote Democratic, which it was feared might make him a spoiler candidate. In light of this, in addition to difficulties in getting on the ballot in his targeted states (Utah and Kentucky were the only two, neither among those he intended to prominently campaign in), Anderson ultimately declined to run. Later he would endorse the Democratic nominee, Walter Mondale.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 538393, 42172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 599, 616 ], [ 895, 909 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anderson had hoped that the party would continue to grow and later field a candidate in 1988 (which he declared would not be him), but it floundered and ultimately dissolved.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " David Bergland, Party Chairman from California", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 1111376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gene Burns, talk radio host from Florida (withdrew – August 26, 1983)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 28130362, 30077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tonie Nathan, 1972 vice presidential nominee from Oregon (declined to contest)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 762593, 26811621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 51, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Earl Ravenal, foreign policy analyst, academic, and writer from Washington, D.C.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 29722925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mary Ruwart, research scientist from Texas", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 708247, 29810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 38, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Burns was the initial frontrunner for the nomination, but withdrew, citing concerns that the party would not be able to properly finance a campaign. The remaining candidates were Bergland; Ravenal, who had worked in the Department of Defense under Robert McNamara and Clark Clifford; and Ruwart. Bergland narrowly won the presidential nomination over Ravenal. His running mate was James A. Lewis. The ticket appeared on 39 state ballots.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 80222, 80224, 6805318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 263 ], [ 268, 282 ], [ 381, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sonia Johnson ran in the 1984 presidential election, as the presidential candidate of the Citizens Party, Pennsylvania's Consumer Party and California's Peace and Freedom Party. Johnson received 72,161 votes (0.1%) finishing fifth. Her running mate for the Citizens Party was Richard Walton and for the Peace and Freedom Party Emma Wong Mar. One of her campaign managers, Mark Dunlea, later wrote a novel about a first female president, Madame President.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 156347, 362817, 248633, 4109208, 48304913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 153, 176 ], [ 276, 290 ], [ 327, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Communist Party USA ran Gus Hall for president and Angela Davis for vice president.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 452981, 55853, 48522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 55, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against what he considered to be unfairness in Reagan's economic policies and the need to reduce federal budget deficits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 5266241, 57026189, 59635, 268487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 45, 59 ], [ 68, 90 ], [ 212, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Ferraro's choice was popular among Democratic activists, polls immediately after the announcement showed that only 22% of women were pleased about her selection, versus 18% who agreed that it was a bad idea. 60% of all voters thought that pressure from women's groups had led to Mondale's decision, versus 22% who believed that he had chosen the best available candidate. Some members of the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church criticized the Catholic Ferraro for being pro-choice on abortion. Already fighting an uphill battle with voters, Ferraro also faced a slew of allegations, mid-campaign, directed toward her husband, John Zaccaro. These allegations included Zaccaro's possible past involvement in organized crime, pornography distribution, and campaign contribution violations. Ferraro responded to these allegations against her husband by releasing her family tax returns to the media on August 21, 1984. However, the damage to the campaign was already done.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 37600898, 9921832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 415, 436 ], [ 479, 489 ], [ 635, 647 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At a campaign stop in Hammonton, New Jersey, Reagan said, \"America's future rests in a thousand dreams inside your hearts. It rests in the message of hope in songs of a man so many young Americans admire, New Jersey's Bruce Springsteen.\" The Reagan campaign briefly used \"Born in the U.S.A.\", a song criticizing the treatment of Vietnam War veterans (which they mistakenly thought was devoid of anti-war content and a very jingoistic patriotic rock song), as a campaign song, without permission, until Springsteen, a lifelong Democrat, insisted that they stop. Two of the more memorable Reagan campaign ads were commonly known as \"Morning in America\" and, after the difficult first debate for the president, \"Bear in the woods\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 124963, 60192, 4859391, 32611, 3799018, 3793900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ], [ 218, 235 ], [ 272, 290 ], [ 329, 340 ], [ 631, 649 ], [ 709, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan was the oldest president to have served to that time (at 73) and there were questions about his capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency, particularly after Reagan had a poor showing in his first debate with Mondale on October 7. He referred to having started going to church \"here in Washington\", although the debate was in Louisville, Kentucky, referred to military uniforms as \"wardrobe\", and admitted to being \"confused\", among other mistakes. In the next debate on October 21, however, in response to a question from journalist Henry Trewhitt about his age, Reagan joked, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience.\" Mondale himself laughed at the joke, and later admitted that Reagan had effectively neutralized the age issue:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [ 58592, 55609143, 55609143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 349, 369 ], [ 532, 540 ], [ 557, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were two presidential debates and one vice presidential debate during the 1984 general election.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General election", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reagan was re-elected in the November 6 election in an electoral and popular vote landslide, winning 49 states by the time the ballots were finished counting on election night at 11:34 PM in Iowa. He won a record 525 electoral votes total (of 538 possible), and received 58.8% of the popular vote; despite Ferraro's selection, 55% of women who voted did so for Reagan, and his 54 to 61% of the Catholic vote was the highest for a Republican candidate in history. Mondale's 13 electoral college votes (from his home state of Minnesota—which he won by 0.18%—and the District of Columbia) marked the lowest total of any major presidential candidate since Alf Landon's 1936 loss to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Mondale's defeat was also the worst for any Democratic Party candidate in American history in the Electoral College (and his 13 electoral votes the fewest any Democrat has won since Stephen A. Douglas claimed 12 in the 1860 election, when the Democratic vote was divided), though others, including Alton B. Parker, James M. Cox, John W. Davis, and George S. McGovern, did worse in the popular vote. The 1984 election remains the only election since the uncontested 1820 election that any candidate of any party won every state along the Atlantic Coast.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 4958298, 104466, 40558, 10979, 22418929, 40519, 368456, 148088, 261850, 62896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 394, 407 ], [ 652, 662 ], [ 665, 669 ], [ 678, 699 ], [ 884, 902 ], [ 921, 934 ], [ 1000, 1015 ], [ 1017, 1029 ], [ 1031, 1044 ], [ 1050, 1068 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psephologists attributed a factor of the Republican victory to \"Reagan Democrats\", millions of Democrats who voted for Reagan, as in 1980. They characterized such Reagan Democrats as southern whites and northern blue collar workers who voted for Reagan because they credited him with the economic recovery, saw Reagan as strong on national security issues, and perceived the Democrats as supporting the poor and minorities at the expense of the middle class. The Democratic National Committee commissioned a study after the election that came to these conclusions, but destroyed all copies of the final report, afraid that it would offend the party's key voters. Reagan also benefited from a near-total collapse in the third-party vote, which dropped to just 0.67% of the popular vote, its lowest level since 1964. Despite John B. Anderson's endorsement of Mondale, the majority of the people who voted for Anderson in 1980 voted for Reagan in this 1984 election, as did the majority of those who voted for Ed Clark in 1980.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 543598, 151820, 182450, 40566, 506889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 64, 79 ], [ 463, 492 ], [ 809, 813 ], [ 1007, 1015 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Reagan was asked in December 1984 what he wanted for Christmas he joked, \"Well, Minnesota would have been nice\". Reagan lost Minnesota in both this election and in 1980, making it the only state he failed to win in either election, and also making him the first two-term president not to carry Minnesota since Woodrow Wilson. The same feat would later be duplicated by fellow Republican presidential candidate George W. Bush who won both the 2000, and 2004 United States Presidential Elections without winning Minnesota either time. This is the last election where the Republican candidate achieved any of the following: Win every state in the Northeastern and Pacific regions of the United States; win at least one county in every state; win any of the following states: Hawaii, Massachusetts, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Washington; and win the following states twice: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 40570, 33523, 3414021, 431669, 174579, 1645518, 26811621, 25410, 13015878, 6466, 7930, 14849, 19977, 18858, 1645518, 18859, 21134, 21648, 21649, 26811621, 23332, 32578, 13015878, 33127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 173 ], [ 315, 329 ], [ 415, 429 ], [ 649, 661 ], [ 666, 673 ], [ 785, 798 ], [ 810, 816 ], [ 818, 830 ], [ 836, 846 ], [ 896, 907 ], [ 909, 917 ], [ 919, 927 ], [ 929, 934 ], [ 936, 944 ], [ 946, 959 ], [ 961, 969 ], [ 971, 984 ], [ 986, 996 ], [ 998, 1008 ], [ 1020, 1026 ], [ 1028, 1040 ], [ 1042, 1049 ], [ 1051, 1061 ], [ 1067, 1076 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was also the last election where the Republican nominee won Wisconsin until 2016, Iowa until 2004, West Virginia until 2000, the last election in which the winning candidate won by a double-digit margin in the percentage of the popular vote, and the last election where the winning candidate won by an eight-digit margin in total popular votes (10 million or more). Finally, despite his narrow loss in Minnesota, Reagan still won in five out of its eight congressional districts (by contrast, Nixon had only carried one Massachusetts district twelve years earlier) thus making Reagan the only U.S. presidential candidate in history to win the popular vote in a majority of congressional districts in every state. In stark contrast, Mondale became the first major-party U.S. presidential candidate since the start of popular presidential elections not to win a majority of the popular vote in even a single state (not counting Stephen A. Douglas in 1860, and William H. Taft in 1912, elections which were both complicated by strong third-party performances, plus the Democratic vote being divided between Douglas and John C. Breckinridge in 1860), having only won a plurality of 49.7% of the vote in Minnesota.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 33127, 26810748, 32905, 33522, 89141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 72 ], [ 85, 89 ], [ 102, 115 ], [ 961, 976 ], [ 1119, 1139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 525 electoral votes received by Reagan – the most ever received by a nominee in one election – added to the 489 electoral votes he achieved in 1980, gave him", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 40570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the most total electoral votes received by any candidate who was elected to the office of president twice (1,014), and the second largest number of electoral votes received by any candidate who was elected to the office of president behind Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1,876 total electoral votes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source for the popular vote:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source for the electoral vote:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sources:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maine allowed its electoral votes to be split between candidates. Two electoral votes were awarded to the winner of the statewide race and one electoral vote to the winner of each congressional district. Reagan won all four votes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Margin of victory less than 1% (10 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Margin of victory more than 1%, but less than 5% (17 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Margin of victory more than 5%, but less than 10% (90 electoral votes):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tipping point:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percent of vote (Republican)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Counties with highest percent of vote (Democratic)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: CBS News and The New York Times exit poll from the Roper Center for Public Opinion Research ()", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Voter demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 359551, 30680, 22543346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ], [ 21, 39 ], [ 59, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Where's the beef?: A slogan used by Wendy's to suggest that their competitors have smaller portions of meat in their sandwiches, but used in the Democratic primaries by Mondale to criticize Gary Hart's positions as lacking substance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable expressions and phrases", "target_page_ids": [ 251938, 21405519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 37, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Morning in America: Slogan used by the Reagan campaign.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable expressions and phrases", "target_page_ids": [ 3799018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 United States Senate elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1106281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 United States House of Representatives elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1341598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 United States gubernatorial elections", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15816386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the United States (1980–1991)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21203973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boyd, Richard W., Paul R. Mencher, Philip J. Paseltiner, Ezra Paul, Alexander S. Vanda, \"The 1984 Election as Anthony Downs and Stanley Kelley Might Interpret It\", Political Behavior, Vol. 10, No. 3 (Autumn, 1988), pp.197–213.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1261161, 51211303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 124 ], [ 129, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goldman, Peter, et al. The quest for the presidency 1984 (1985) online", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Election Wall's 1984 election video page", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 popular vote by counties", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 popular vote by states", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Campaign commercials from the 1984 election", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Election of 1984 in Counting the Votes ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1984_United_States_presidential_election", "George_H._W._Bush", "Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan", "Ronald_Reagan", "Walter_Mondale", "November_1984_events_in_the_United_States", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "1984_in_women's_history" ]

[ "United States presidential election, 1984" ]

[ { "plaintext": "NLP may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Natural language processing, a branch of artificial intelligence concerned with automated interpretation and generation of human language", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Computing and mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 21652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Natural-language programming, an ontology-assisted way of programming in terms of natural language sentences", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Computing and mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 18784729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nonlinear programming, a process of solving optimisation problems where constraints are nonlinear", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Computing and mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 679709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Library of Poland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5156876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Library of the Philippines", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4770865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Neuro-linguistic programming, a pseudoscientific method aimed at modifying human behavior", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 67147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "No light perception, a diagnosis of severe blindness", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2158298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Labour Party (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1195065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Liberal Party (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 379073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Liberation Party (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15586731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural Law Party (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7843859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Labour (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 609233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Vladimir I Sviatoslavich or Volodymyr I Sviatoslavych (, Volodiměrъ Svętoslavičь; c. 95815 July 1015), also known as Vladimir the Great or Volodymyr the Great, was Prince of Novgorod, Grand Prince of Kiev, and ruler of Kievan Rus' from 980 to 1015.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12310646, 158407, 21486360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 183 ], [ 185, 205 ], [ 220, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vladimir's father was Prince Sviatoslav I of Kiev of the Rurikid dynasty. After the death of his father in 972, Vladimir, who was then prince of Novgorod, was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his brother Yaropolk murdered his other brother Oleg of Drelinia, becoming the sole ruler of Rus'. In Sweden, with the help of his relative Ladejarl Håkon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, he assembled a Varangian army and reconquered Novgorod from Yaropolk. By 980, Vladimir had consolidated the Rus realm from modern-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine to the Baltic Sea and had solidified the frontiers against incursions of Bulgarians, Baltic tribes and Eastern nomads. Originally a follower of Slavic paganism, Vladimir converted to Christianity in 988 and Christianized the Kievan Rus'. He is thus also known as Saint Vladimir.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40606, 21487138, 21488120, 26740, 158416, 12488130, 21486360, 5058739, 6418664, 1120436, 21241, 21487063, 21488120, 21486360, 3457, 25391, 31750, 3335, 151876, 4540, 310584, 5211, 604601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 49 ], [ 57, 72 ], [ 145, 153 ], [ 177, 188 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 250, 266 ], [ 295, 299 ], [ 304, 310 ], [ 342, 350 ], [ 351, 367 ], [ 378, 384 ], [ 401, 410 ], [ 432, 440 ], [ 494, 503 ], [ 520, 527 ], [ 529, 535 ], [ 540, 547 ], [ 555, 565 ], [ 621, 631 ], [ 633, 646 ], [ 692, 707 ], [ 731, 743 ], [ 755, 784 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in 958, Vladimir was the natural son and youngest son of Sviatoslav I of Kiev by his housekeeper Malusha. Malusha is described in the Norse sagas as a prophetess who lived to the age of 100 and was brought from her cave to the palace to predict the future. Malusha's brother Dobrynya was Vladimir's tutor and most trusted advisor. Hagiographic tradition of dubious authenticity also connects his childhood with the name of his grandmother, Olga of Kiev, who was Christian and governed the capital during Sviatoslav's frequent military campaigns.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Rise to power", "target_page_ids": [ 574821, 40606, 5176760, 300166, 5516670, 22817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ], [ 62, 82 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 280, 288 ], [ 445, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transferring his capital to Pereyaslavets in 969, Sviatoslav designated Vladimir ruler of Novgorod the Great but gave Kiev to his legitimate son Yaropolk. After Sviatoslav's death at the hands of the Pechenegs in 972, a fratricidal war erupted in 976 between Yaropolk and his younger brother Oleg, ruler of the Drevlians. In 977, Vladimir fled to his kinsman Haakon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, collecting as many Norse warriors as he could to assist him to recover Novgorod. On his return the next year, he marched against Yaropolk. On his way to Kiev he sent ambassadors to Rogvolod (Norse: Ragnvald), prince of Polotsk, to sue for the hand of his daughter Rogneda (Norse: Ragnhild). The high-born princess refused to affiance herself to the son of a bondswoman (and was betrothed to Yaropolk), so Vladimir attacked Polotsk, slew Rogvolod, and took Ragnhild by force, slaying her parents. Polotsk was a key fortress on the way to Kiev, and capturing Polotsk and Smolensk facilitated the taking of Kiev in 978, where he slew Yaropolk by treachery and was proclaimed knyaz of all Kievan Rus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Rise to power", "target_page_ids": [ 1157077, 21488120, 158416, 682784, 12488130, 944789, 1120436, 21241, 153473, 243373, 11979775, 387661, 637475, 101616, 465784, 21486360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 41 ], [ 90, 108 ], [ 145, 153 ], [ 200, 209 ], [ 292, 296 ], [ 311, 320 ], [ 359, 376 ], [ 387, 393 ], [ 414, 419 ], [ 420, 428 ], [ 576, 584 ], [ 614, 621 ], [ 659, 666 ], [ 964, 972 ], [ 1067, 1072 ], [ 1080, 1090 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vladimir continued to expand his territories beyond his father's extensive domain. In 981, he seized the Cherven towns from the Poles; in 981–982, he suppressed a Vyatichi rebellion; in 983, he subdued the Yatvingians; in 984, he conquered the Radimichs; and in 985, he conducted a military campaign against the Volga Bulgars, planting numerous fortresses and colonies on his way.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Years of pagan rule", "target_page_ids": [ 400543, 275297, 1483299, 577727, 946946, 470955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 118 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 206, 217 ], [ 244, 253 ], [ 312, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Christianity had spread in the region under Oleg's rule, Vladimir had remained a thoroughgoing pagan, taking eight hundred concubines (along with numerous wives) and erecting pagan statues and shrines to gods.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Years of pagan rule", "target_page_ids": [ 5211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He may have attempted to reform Slavic paganism in an attempt to identify himself with the various gods worshipped by his subjects. He built a pagan temple on a hill in Kiev dedicated to six gods: Perun—the god of thunder and war, \"a Norse god favored by members of the prince’s druzhina (military retinue)\"; Slav gods Stribog and Dazhd'bog; Mokosh—a goddess representing Mother Nature \"worshipped by Finnish tribes\"; Khors and Simargl, \"both of which had Iranian origins, were included, probably to appeal to the Poliane.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Years of pagan rule", "target_page_ids": [ 310584, 33576199, 380620, 380583, 600069, 964987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 197, 202 ], [ 319, 326 ], [ 331, 340 ], [ 342, 348 ], [ 428, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Open abuse of the deities that most people in Rus' revered triggered widespread indignation. A mob killed the Christian Fyodor and his son Ioann (later, after the overall Christianisation of Kievan Rus', people came to regard these two as the first Christian martyrs in Rus', and the Orthodox Church set a day to commemorate them, 25 July). Immediately after the murder of Fyodor and Ioann, early medieval Rus' saw persecutions against Christians, many of whom escaped or concealed their belief.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Years of pagan rule", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, Prince Vladimir mused over the incident long after, and not least for political considerations. According to the early Slavic chronicle, the Tale of Bygone Years, which describes life in Kievan Rus' up to the year 1110, he sent his envoys throughout the world to assess first-hand the major religions of the time: Islam, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Byzantine Orthodoxy. They were most impressed with their visit to Constantinople, saying, \"We knew not whether we were in Heaven or on Earth… We only know that God dwells there among the people, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Years of pagan rule", "target_page_ids": [ 45675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Primary Chronicle reports that in the year 987, after consultation with his boyars, Vladimir the Great sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighboring nations whose representatives had been urging him to embrace their respective faiths. The result is described by the chronicler Nestor. He reported that Islam was undesirable due to its prohibition of alcoholic beverages and pork. Vladimir remarked on the occasion: \"Drinking is the joy of all Rus'. We cannot exist without that pleasure.\" Ukrainian and Russian sources also describe Vladimir consulting with Jewish envoys and questioning them about their religion, but ultimately rejecting it as well, saying that their loss of Jerusalem was evidence that they had been abandoned by God.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Christianization of the Kievan Rus'", "target_page_ids": [ 45675, 64696, 586071, 18948043, 20609697, 25955086, 1399139, 5042765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 286, 303 ], [ 370, 388 ], [ 394, 398 ], [ 578, 584 ], [ 690, 707 ], [ 753, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His emissaries also visited pre-schism Latin Rite Christian and Eastern Rite Christian missionaries. Ultimately Vladimir settled on Eastern Christianity. In the churches of the Germans his emissaries saw no beauty; but at Constantinople, where the full festival ritual of the Byzantine Church was set in motion to impress them, they found their ideal: \"We no longer knew whether we were in heaven or on earth\", they reported, describing a majestic Divine Liturgy in Hagia Sophia, \"nor such beauty, and we know not how to tell of it.\" Vladimir was impressed by this account of his envoys.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Christianization of the Kievan Rus'", "target_page_ids": [ 30869117, 42207, 42207, 5646, 191634, 42764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 64, 86 ], [ 132, 152 ], [ 222, 236 ], [ 448, 462 ], [ 466, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 988, having taken the town of Chersonesos in Crimea, he boldly negotiated for the hand of emperor Basil II's sister, Anna. Never before had a Byzantine imperial princess, and one \"born in the purple\" at that, married a barbarian, as matrimonial offers of French kings and German emperors had been peremptorily rejected. In short, to marry the 27-year-old princess to a pagan Slav seemed impossible. Vladimir was baptized at Chersonesos, however, taking the Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial brother-in-law; the sacrament was followed by his wedding to Anna. Returning to Kiev in triumph, he destroyed pagan monuments and established many churches, starting with a church dedicated to St. Basil, and the Church of the Tithes (989).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Christianization of the Kievan Rus'", "target_page_ids": [ 1216124, 163045, 46426, 1983345, 16972981, 19842539, 604601, 175143, 1463939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 101, 109 ], [ 120, 124 ], [ 145, 154 ], [ 182, 202 ], [ 618, 643 ], [ 711, 720 ], [ 730, 750 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arab sources, both Muslim and Christian, present a different story of Vladimir's conversion. Yahya of Antioch, al-Rudhrawari, al-Makin, al-Dimashqi, and ibn al-Athir all give essentially the same account. In 987, Bardas Sclerus and Bardas Phocas revolted against the Byzantine emperor Basil II. Both rebels briefly joined forces, but then Bardas Phocas proclaimed himself emperor on 14 September 987. Basil II turned to the Kievan Rus' for assistance, even though they were considered enemies at that time. Vladimir agreed, in exchange for a marital tie; he also agreed to accept Christianity as his religion and to Christianize his people. When the wedding arrangements were settled, Vladimir dispatched 6,000 troops to the Byzantine Empire, and they helped to put down the revolt.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Christianization of the Kievan Rus'", "target_page_ids": [ 2185, 23958340, 2883491, 21766196, 1138639, 3235626, 3254552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 93, 109 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 153, 165 ], [ 213, 227 ], [ 232, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 988 and 991, he baptized Pecheneg princes Metiga and Kuchug, respectively.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Christianization of the Kievan Rus'", "target_page_ids": [ 682784, 5549951, 5550109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 36 ], [ 45, 51 ], [ 56, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vladimir then formed a great council out of his boyars and set his twelve sons over his subject principalities. According to the Primary Chronicle, he founded the city of Belgorod in 991. In 992, he went on a campaign against the Croats, most likely the White Croats that lived on the border of modern Ukraine. This campaign was cut short by the attacks of the Pechenegs on and around Kyiv.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Christian reign", "target_page_ids": [ 3124897, 45675, 21447732, 2634825, 31750, 682784, 585629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 78 ], [ 129, 146 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 254, 266 ], [ 302, 309 ], [ 361, 370 ], [ 385, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his later years he lived in a relative peace with his other neighbors: Bolesław I of Poland, Stephen I of Hungary, and Andrikh the Czech (a questionable character mentioned in A Tale of the Bygone Years). After Anna's death, he married again, likely to a granddaughter of Otto the Great.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Christian reign", "target_page_ids": [ 38999, 29594, 45675, 25605367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 94 ], [ 96, 116 ], [ 179, 205 ], [ 275, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1014, his son Yaroslav the Wise stopped paying tribute. Vladimir decided to chastise the insolence of his son and began gathering troops against him. Vladimir fell ill, however, most likely of old age, and died at Berestove, near modern-day Kyiv. The various parts of his dismembered body were distributed among his numerous sacred foundations and were venerated as relics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Christian reign", "target_page_ids": [ 42213, 226651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 369, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his Christian reign, Vladimir lived the teachings of the Bible through acts of charity. He would hand out food and drink to the less fortunate, and made an effort to go out to the people who could not reach him. His work was based on the impulse to help one's neighbors by sharing the burden of carrying their cross. He founded numerous churches, including the (Church, or Cathedral, of the Tithes) (989), established schools, protected the poor and introduced ecclesiastical courts. He lived mostly at peace with his neighbors, the incursions of the Pechenegs alone disturbing his tranquility.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Christian reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1463939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 369, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He introduced the Byzantine law code into his territories following his conversion but reformed some of its harsher elements; he notably abolished the death penalty along with judicial torture and mutilation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Christian reign", "target_page_ids": [ 2587315, 5902, 1924227, 24809916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 176, 192 ], [ 197, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fate of all Vladimir's daughters, whose number is around nine, is uncertain. His wives, concubines, and their children were as follows: ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Olava or Allogia (Varangian or Czech), speculative; she might have been mother of Vysheslav while others claim that it is a confusion with Helena Lekapene", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 21487063, 151873, 14466834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 28 ], [ 32, 37 ], [ 140, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vysheslav (c. 977c. 1010), Prince of Novgorod (988–1010)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a widow of Yaropolk I, a Greek nun", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 158416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sviatopolk the Accursed (born c. 979), possibly the surviving son of Yaropolk", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 158420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rogneda (the daughter of Rogvolod); later upon divorce she entered a convent taking the Christian name of Anastasia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 637475, 11979775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 26, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Izyaslav of Polotsk (born c. 979, Kiev), Prince of Polotsk (989–1001)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 12487886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yaroslav the Wise (no earlier than 983), Prince of Rostov (988–1010), Prince of Novgorod (1010–1034), Grand Prince of Kiev (1016–1018, 1019–1054). Possibly he was a son of Anna rather than Rogneda. Another interesting fact is that he was younger than Sviatopolk according to the words of Boris in the Tale of Bygone Years and not as it was officially known.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 42213, 458018, 1414229, 45675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 52, 58 ], [ 289, 294 ], [ 302, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vsevolod (c. 9841013), possibly the Swedish Prince Wissawald of Volhynia (c. 1000), was perhaps the first husband of Estrid Svendsdatter", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 405978, 15839844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ], [ 118, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mstislav, distinct from Mstislav of Chernigov, possibly died as an infant, if he was ever born", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mstislav of Chernigov (born c. 983), Prince of Tmutarakan (990–1036), Prince of Chernigov (1024–1036), other sources claim him to be the son of other mothers (Adela, Malfrida, or some other Bulgarian wife)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 3183751, 1414486, 550123, 18436921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 167, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Predslava, a concubine of Bolesław I Chrobry according to Gesta principum Polonorum", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 7016, 38999, 4370821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 27, 45 ], [ 59, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Premislava, (died 1015), some sources state that she was a wife of the Duke Laszlo (Vladislav) \"the Bald\" of the Arpadians", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 40314820, 549494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 106 ], [ 114, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mstislava, in 1018 was taken by Bolesław I Chrobry among the other daughters", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 38999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bulgarian Adela, some sources claim that Adela is not necessarily Bulgarian as Boris and Gleb may have been born from some other wife", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Boris (born c. 986), Prince of Rostov (c. 10101015), remarkable is the fact that the Rostov Principality as well as the Principality of Murom used to border the territory of the Volga Bolgars", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 1414229, 760545, 470955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 137, 142 ], [ 179, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gleb (born c. 987), Prince of Murom (1013–1015), as is Boris, Gleb is also claimed to be the son of Anna Porphyrogenita", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 1414229, 1983345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 101, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stanislav (born c. 9851015), Prince of Smolensk (988–1015), possibly of another wife and the fate of whom is not certain", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sudislav (died 1063), Prince of Pskov (1014–1036), possibly of another wife, but he is mentioned in Nikon's Chronicles. He spent 35 years in prison and later became a monk.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 42089365, 302543, 214172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 33, 38 ], [ 101, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Malfrida", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 18436921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sviatoslav (c. 9821015), Prince of Drevlians (990–1015)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anna Porphyrogenita", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 1983345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theofana, a wife of Novgorod posadnik Ostromir, a grandson of semi-legendary Dobrynya (highly doubtful is the fact of her being Anna's offspring)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 1334130, 1358645, 5516670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 38 ], [ 39, 47 ], [ 78, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a granddaughter of Otto the Great (possibly Rechlinda Otona [Regelindis])", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 25605367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maria Dobroniega of Kiev (born c. 1012), the Duchess of Poland (1040–1087), married around 1040 to Casimir I the Restorer, Duke of Poland, her maternity as daughter of this wife is deduced from her apparent age", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 22913708, 60757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 100, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " other possible family", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vladimirovna, an out-of-marriage daughter (died 1044), married to Bernard, Margrave of the Nordmark.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 11701648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pozvizd (born prior to 988), a son of Vladimir according to Hustyn Chronicles. He, possibly, was the Prince Khrisokhir mentioned by Niketas Choniates.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 70158443, 142127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 78 ], [ 133, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Eastern Orthodox, Byzantine Rite Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches celebrate the feast day of St. Vladimir on 15/28 July.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Significance and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1834723, 11529982, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 22, 45 ], [ 50, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The town Volodymyr in north-western Ukraine was founded by Vladimir and is named after him. The foundation of another town, Vladimir in Russia, is usually attributed to Vladimir Monomakh. However some researchers argue that it was also founded by Vladimir the Great.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Significance and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 514131, 463924, 428291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 18 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 169, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "St Volodymyr's Cathedral, one of the largest cathedrals in Kyiv, is dedicated to Vladimir the Great, as was originally the Kyiv University. The Imperial Russian Order of St. Vladimir and Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary in the United States are also named after him.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Significance and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2000954, 1583836, 20611504, 394004, 1759198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 123, 138 ], [ 144, 160 ], [ 161, 182 ], [ 187, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The memory of Vladimir was also kept alive by innumerable Russian folk ballads and legends, which refer to him as Krasno Solnyshko (the Fair Sun, or the Red Sun; Красно Солнышко in Russian). The Varangian period of Eastern Slavic history ceases with Vladimir, and the Christian period begins.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Significance and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 21487063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The appropriation of Kievan Rus' as part of national history has also been a topic of contention in Ukrainophile vs. Russophile schools of historiography since the Soviet era. Today, he is regarded as a symbol in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Significance and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 31300528, 2541825, 13295032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 112 ], [ 117, 127 ], [ 164, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All branches of the economy prospered under him. He minted coins and regulated foreign affairs with other countries, such as trade, bringing in Greek wines, Baghdad spices, and Arabian horses for the markets of Kiev.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Significance and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 60707760, 2720752, 4492, 292690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 64 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 177, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Saint Vladimir", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 394004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Russian rulers", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 971988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Ukrainian rulers", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19768852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Family life and children of Vladimir I", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3124897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of people known as The Great", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 214273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Vladimir Monument in Kyiv (1853)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46654319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Monument to Vladimir the Great (Moscow) in 2016", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55315220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prince Vladimir, Russian animated feature film (2006)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5098248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Viking, Russian historical film (2016)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47524221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Golden, P. B. (2006) \"Rus.\" Encyclopaedia of Islam (Brill Online). Eds.: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1791208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some historical analysis and political insights on the state affairs of Vladimir the Great ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Velychenko, Stephen, How Valdamarr Sveinaldsson got to Moscow (krytyka.com), 9 November 2015.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Vladimir_the_Great", "Ukrainian_saints", "Russian_saints", "Grand_Princes_of_Kiev", "Rurik_dynasty", "Christian_monarchs", "11th-century_Christian_saints", "950s_births", "1015_deaths", "Year_of_birth_uncertain", "Christian_royal_saints", "Roman_Catholic_royal_saints", "Princes_of_Novgorod", "10th-century_princes_in_Kievan_Rus'", "Converts_to_Christianity_from_pagan_religions", "Burials_at_the_Church_of_the_Tithes", "Kievan_Khagans" ]

[ "Volodymyr Sviatoslavych", "Volodymyr the Great", "Vladimir Svyatoslavich", "Valdamar", "Volodimer", "Volodymyr of Kyiv" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Christus Dominus (Christ the Lord; abbreviation \"CD\") is the Second Vatican Council's \"Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops\". ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The document was approved by a vote of 2,319 to 2 of the assembled bishops and was promulgated by Pope Paul VI on 28 October 1965. Christus Dominus calls for strong episcopal conferences of bishops, to set the standard for the church in their region, while fully supporting the Vatican and the Pope. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4092, 24028, 2269370, 13393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 73 ], [ 98, 110 ], [ 166, 187 ], [ 279, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CD describes how bishops exercise their office at three levels: in the universal church (chapter one), in their own \"particular church\" or diocese (chapter two), and at the regional or national level (chapter three).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The First Vatican Council of 1869–1870 focused on the pope and defined the doctrine of \"papal infallibility\" but did not discuss other bishops. Thus, when Pope John XXIII called for a Second Vatican Council, everyone expected it to take up this unfinished business.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 11390, 23807, 28134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 155, 170 ], [ 184, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The role of the bishops of the church was brought into renewed prominence, especially when seen collectively, as a college that has succeeded to that of the apostles in teaching and governing the church. This college does not exist without its head, the successor of St. Peter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Apostolic College", "target_page_ids": [ 31663216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In these days especially bishops frequently are unable to fulfill their office effectively and fruitfully unless they develop a common effort involving constant growth in harmony and closeness of ties with other bishops. Episcopal conferences already established in many nations-have furnished outstanding proofs of a more fruitful apostolate. Therefore, this sacred synod considers it to be supremely fitting that everywhere bishops belonging to the same nation or region form an association which would meet at fixed times. Thus, when the insights of prudence and experience have been shared and views exchanged, there will emerge a holy union of energies in the service of the common good of the churches. (CD 37)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Apostolic College", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Accordingly, claims made by some, that the council gave the church two separate earthly heads, the College of Bishops and the Pope, were countered by the Preliminary Explanatory Note added to the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen Gentium and printed at the end of the text.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Preliminary note", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This Note states:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Preliminary note", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is no such thing as the college without its head ... and in the college the head preserves intact his function as Vicar of Christ and pastor of the universal Church. In other words it is not a distinction between the Roman Pontiff and the bishops taken together, but between the Roman Pontiff by himself and the Roman Pontiff along with the bishops.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Preliminary note", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Appointment of Catholic bishops", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10502483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hierarchy of the Catholic Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1714063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lists of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Text on the Vatican website", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Decrees", "Documents_of_the_Second_Vatican_Council", "Episcopacy_in_the_Catholic_Church", "Latin_texts", "1965_documents", "1965_in_Christianity" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A gill () is a respiratory organ that many aquatic organisms use to extract dissolved oxygen from water and to excrete carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are kept moist. The microscopic structure of a gill presents a large surface area to the external environment. Branchia (pl. branchiae) is the zoologists' name for gills (from Ancient Greek ).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 66723, 1975073, 22303, 33306, 5906, 275334, 27725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 98, 103 ], [ 119, 133 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 309, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the exception of some aquatic insects, the filaments and lamellae (folds) contain blood or coelomic fluid, from which gases are exchanged through the thin walls. The blood carries oxygen to other parts of the body. Carbon dioxide passes from the blood through the thin gill tissue into the water. Gills or gill-like organs, located in different parts of the body, are found in various groups of aquatic animals, including mollusks, crustaceans, insects, fish, and amphibians. Semiterrestrial marine animals such as crabs and mudskippers have gill chambers in which they store water, enabling them to use the dissolved oxygen when they are on land.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23366462, 3997, 75003, 5906, 19773328, 40119056, 621, 47482979, 93084, 4063480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 41 ], [ 87, 92 ], [ 96, 110 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 427, 434 ], [ 437, 447 ], [ 469, 478 ], [ 481, 496 ], [ 520, 524 ], [ 530, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galen observed that fish had multitudes of openings (foramina), big enough to admit gases, but too fine to give passage to water. Pliny the Elder held that fish respired by their gills, but observed that Aristotle was of another opinion. The word branchia comes from the Greek , \"gills\", plural of (in singular, meaning a fin).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12326, 44920, 308, 11887, 11036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 130, 145 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 271, 276 ], [ 323, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many microscopic aquatic animals, and some larger but inactive ones, can absorb sufficient oxygen through the entire surface of their bodies, and so can respire adequately without gills. However, more complex or more active aquatic organisms usually require a gill or gills. Many invertebrates, and even amphibians, use both the body surface and gills for gaseous exchange.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gills usually consist of thin filaments of tissue, lamellae (plates), branches, or slender, tufted processes that have a highly folded surface to increase surface area. The delicate nature of the gills is possible because the surrounding water provides support. The blood or other body fluid must be in intimate contact with the respiratory surface for ease of diffusion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 103915, 1470758, 2075950, 27725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ], [ 51, 59 ], [ 99, 108 ], [ 155, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A high surface area is crucial to the gas exchange of aquatic organisms, as water contains only a small fraction of the dissolved oxygen that air does. A cubic meter of air contains about 250 grams of oxygen at STP. The concentration of oxygen in water is lower than in air and it diffuses more slowly. In fresh water, the dissolved oxygen content is approximately 8cm3/L compared to that of air which is 210cm3/L. Water is 777 times more dense than air and is 100 times more viscous. Oxygen has a diffusion rate in air 10,000 times greater than in water. The use of sac-like lungs to remove oxygen from water would not be efficient enough to sustain life. Rather than using lungs, \"[g]aseous exchange takes place across the surface of highly vascularised gills over which a one-way current of water is kept flowing by a specialised pumping mechanism. The density of the water prevents the gills from collapsing and lying on top of each other, which is what happens when a fish is taken out of water.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 379303, 1096360, 202898, 30125638, 146839, 27745, 62557527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 120, 136 ], [ 142, 145 ], [ 154, 165 ], [ 192, 196 ], [ 211, 214 ], [ 306, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usually water is moved across the gills in one direction by the current, by the motion of the animal through the water, by the beating of cilia or other appendages, or by means of a pumping mechanism. In fish and some molluscs, the efficiency of the gills is greatly enhanced by a countercurrent exchange mechanism in which the water passes over the gills in the opposite direction to the flow of blood through them. This mechanism is very efficient and as much as 90% of the dissolved oxygen in the water may be recovered.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 171317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gills of vertebrates typically develop in the walls of the pharynx, along a series of gill slits opening to the exterior. Most species employ a countercurrent exchange system to enhance the diffusion of substances in and out of the gill, with blood and water flowing in opposite directions to each other. The gills are composed of comb-like filaments, the gill lamellae, which help increase their surface area for oxygen exchange.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 36856, 21581881, 171317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 148, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a fish breathes, it draws in a mouthful of water at regular intervals. Then it draws the sides of its throat together, forcing the water through the gill openings, so it passes over the gills to the outside. Fish gill slits may be the evolutionary ancestors of the thymus glands, parathyroid glands, as well as many other structures derived from the embryonic branchial pouches.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 56265, 291114, 3519753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 282 ], [ 285, 303 ], [ 365, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gills of fish form a number of slits connecting the pharynx to the outside of the animal on either side of the fish behind the head. Originally there were many slits, but during evolution, the number reduced, and modern fish mostly have five pairs, and never more than eight.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sharks and rays typically have five pairs of gill slits that open directly to the outside of the body, though some more primitive sharks have six pairs and the Broadnose sevengill shark being the only cartilaginous fish exceeding this number. Adjacent slits are separated by a cartilaginous gill arch from which projects a cartilaginous gill ray. This gill ray is the support for the sheet-like interbranchial septum, which the individual lamellae of the gills lie on either side of. The base of the arch may also support gill rakers, projections into the pharyngeal cavity that help to prevent large pieces of debris from damaging the delicate gills.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 43617, 26354203, 1257752, 166945, 227504, 8188359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 11, 15 ], [ 160, 185 ], [ 277, 290 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 522, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A smaller opening, the spiracle, lies in the back of the first gill slit. This bears a small pseudobranch that resembles a gill in structure, but only receives blood already oxygenated by the true gills. The spiracle is thought to be homologous to the ear opening in higher vertebrates.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 61590380, 3460783, 142431, 236981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 63, 72 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 267, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most sharks rely on ram ventilation, forcing water into the mouth and over the gills by rapidly swimming forward. In slow-moving or bottom-dwelling species, especially among skates and rays, the spiracle may be enlarged, and the fish breathes by sucking water through this opening, instead of through the mouth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chimaeras differ from other cartilagenous fish, having lost both the spiracle and the fifth gill slit. The remaining slits are covered by an operculum, developed from the septum of the gill arch in front of the first gill.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 490225, 3979402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 141, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In bony fish, the gills lie in a branchial chamber covered by a bony operculum. The great majority of bony fish species have five pairs of gills, although a few have lost some over the course of evolution. The operculum can be important in adjusting the pressure of water inside of the pharynx to allow proper ventilation of the gills, so bony fish do not have to rely on ram ventilation (and hence near constant motion) to breathe. Valves inside the mouth keep the water from escaping.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 22350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gill arches of bony fish typically have no septum, so the gills alone project from the arch, supported by individual gill rays. Some species retain gill rakers. Though all but the most primitive bony fish lack spiracles, the pseudobranch associated with them often remains, being located at the base of the operculum. This is, however, often greatly reduced, consisting of a small mass of cells without any remaining gill-like structure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Marine teleosts also use their gills to excrete osmolytes (e.g. Na⁺, Cl−). The gills' large surface area tends to create a problem for fish that seek to regulate the osmolarity of their internal fluids. Seawater contains more osmolytes than the fish's internal fluids, so marine fishes naturally lose water through their gills via osmosis. To regain the water, marine fishes drink large amounts of sea water while simultaneously expending energy to excrete salt through the Na+/K+-ATPase ionocytes (formerly known as mitochondrion-rich cells and chloride cells). Conversely, fresh water contains less osmolytes than the fish's internal fluids. Therefore, freshwater fishes must utilize their gill ionocytes to attain ions from their environment to maintain optimal blood osmolarity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 326787, 2835186, 255244, 1605200, 182379, 47152521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 14 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 398, 407 ], [ 457, 461 ], [ 474, 487 ], [ 546, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lampreys and hagfish do not have gill slits as such. Instead, the gills are contained in spherical pouches, with a circular opening to the outside. Like the gill slits of higher fish, each pouch contains two gills. In some cases, the openings may be fused together, effectively forming an operculum. Lampreys have seven pairs of pouches, while hagfishes may have six to fourteen, depending on the species. In the hagfish, the pouches connect with the pharynx internally and a separate tube which has no respiratory tissue (the pharyngocutaneous duct) develops beneath the pharynx proper, expelling ingested debris by closing a valve at its anterior end. Lungfish larvae also have external gills, as does the primitive ray-finned fish Polypterus, though the latter has a structure different from amphibians.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 20975731, 77662, 230330, 10607834, 734, 1842616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 13, 20 ], [ 654, 662 ], [ 680, 694 ], [ 718, 733 ], [ 734, 744 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tadpoles of amphibians have from three to five gill slits that do not contain actual gills. Usually no spiracle or true operculum is present, though many species have operculum-like structures. Instead of internal gills, they develop three feathery external gills that grow from the outer surface of the gill arches. Sometimes, adults retain these, but they usually disappear at metamorphosis. Examples of salamanders that retain their external gills upon reaching adulthood are the olm and the mudpuppy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 263800, 621, 20866, 658095, 4771644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 12, 21 ], [ 379, 392 ], [ 483, 486 ], [ 495, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Still, some extinct tetrapod groups did retain true gills. A study on Archegosaurus demonstrates that it had internal gills like true fish.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 13701811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crustaceans, molluscs, and some aquatic insects have tufted gills or plate-like structures on the surfaces of their bodies. Gills of various types and designs, simple or more elaborate, have evolved independently in the past, even among the same class of animals. The segments of polychaete worms bear parapodia many of which carry gills. Sponges lack specialised respiratory structures, and the whole of the animal acts as a gill as water is drawn through its spongy structure.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Invertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 40119056, 19773328, 43207, 1418525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 13, 20 ], [ 280, 296 ], [ 302, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aquatic arthropods usually have gills which are in most cases modified appendages. In some crustaceans these are exposed directly to the water, while in others, they are protected inside a gill chamber. Horseshoe crabs have book gills which are external flaps, each with many thin leaf-like membranes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Invertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 1093068, 199437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 217 ], [ 224, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many marine invertebrates such as bivalve molluscs are filter feeders. A current of water is maintained through the gills for gas exchange, and food particles are filtered out at the same time. These may be trapped in mucus and moved to the mouth by the beating of cilia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Invertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 202240, 377720, 501188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 50 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 218, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Respiration in the echinoderms (such as starfish and sea urchins) is carried out using a very primitive version of gills called papulae. These thin protuberances on the surface of the body contain diverticula of the water vascular system.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Invertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 43143, 228613, 66152, 14099868, 1257123, 378557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 40, 48 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 216, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gills of aquatic insects are tracheal, but the air tubes are sealed, commonly connected to thin external plates or tufted structures that allow diffusion. The oxygen in these tubes is renewed through the gills. In the larval dragonfly, the wall of the caudal end of the alimentary tract (rectum) is richly supplied with tracheae as a rectal gill, and water pumped into and out of the rectum provides oxygen to the closed tracheae.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Invertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 379255, 70289, 50357, 57621, 69720, 19385671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 222, 227 ], [ 229, 238 ], [ 274, 290 ], [ 292, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A plastron is a type of structural adaptation occurring among some aquatic arthropods (primarily insects), a form of inorganic gill which holds a thin film of atmospheric oxygen in an area with small openings called spiracles that connect to the tracheal system. The plastron typically consists of dense patches of hydrophobic setae on the body, which prevent water entry into the spiracles, but may also involve scales or microscopic ridges projecting from the cuticle. The physical properties of the interface between the trapped air film and surrounding water allow gas exchange through the spiracles, almost as if the insect were in atmospheric air. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the surrounding water due to its high solubility, while oxygen diffuses into the film as the concentration within the film has been reduced by respiration, and nitrogen also diffuses out as its tension has been increased. Oxygen diffuses into the air film at a higher rate than nitrogen diffuses out. However, water surrounding the insect can become oxygen-depleted if there is no water movement, so many such insects in still water actively direct a flow of water over their bodies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Invertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 61590380, 14136, 338271, 5906, 59497, 491962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 224 ], [ 315, 326 ], [ 327, 332 ], [ 654, 668 ], [ 721, 731 ], [ 826, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inorganic gill mechanism allows aquatic insects with plastrons to remain constantly submerged. Examples include many beetles in the family Elmidae, aquatic weevils, and true bugs in the family Aphelocheiridae, as well as at least one species of ricinuleid arachnid. A somewhat similar mechanism is used by the diving bell spider, which maintains an underwater bubble that exchanges gas like a plastron. Other diving insects (such as backswimmers, and hydrophilid beetles) may carry trapped air bubbles, but deplete the oxygen more quickly, and thus need constant replenishment.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Invertebrates", "target_page_ids": [ 7044, 38786603, 339399, 207600, 66800392, 194578, 953257, 2940782, 965236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 127 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 160, 166 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 197, 212 ], [ 249, 268 ], [ 314, 332 ], [ 437, 448 ], [ 455, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquatic respiration", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 379245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Book lung", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 199437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fish gill", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37926134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gill raker", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8188359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gill slit", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3460783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lung", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Artificial gills (human)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2551796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fish Dissection - Gills exposed Australian Museum. Updated: 11 June 2010. Retrieved 16 January 2012.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Animal_anatomy", "Arthropod_anatomy", "Fish_anatomy", "Organs_(anatomy)", "Respiratory_system" ]

[ "gills" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Polish United Workers' Party (; ), commonly abbreviated to PZPR, was the communist party which ruled the Polish People's Republic as a one-party state from 1948 to 1989. The PZPR had led two other legally permitted subordinate minor parties together as the Front of National Unity and later Patriotic Movement for National Rebirth. Ideologically, it was based on the theories of Marxism-Leninism, with a strong emphasis on left-wing nationalism. The Polish United Workers' Party had total control over public institutions in the country as well as the Polish People's Army, the UB-SB security agencies, the Citizens' Militia (MO) police force and the media.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37008, 355133, 102459, 69099, 10561121, 11773988, 20972, 16066160, 7471060, 3350162, 2158227, 63164809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 92 ], [ 109, 133 ], [ 139, 154 ], [ 191, 244 ], [ 261, 284 ], [ 295, 334 ], [ 383, 399 ], [ 427, 448 ], [ 556, 576 ], [ 582, 587 ], [ 611, 633 ], [ 655, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The falsified 1947 Polish legislative election granted the far-left complete political authority in post-war Poland. The PZPR was founded forthwith in December 1948 through the unification of two previous political entities, the Polish Workers' Party (PPR) and the Polish Socialist Party (PPS). Since 1952, the position of \"First Secretary\" of the Polish United Workers' Party was equivalent to that of a dictator, the president or the head of state in other world countries. Throughout its existence, the PZPR maintained close ties with ideologically-similar parties of the Eastern Bloc, most notably the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Between 1948 and 1954, nearly 1.5 million individuals registered as Polish United Workers' Party members, and membership rose to 3 million by 1980.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5158973, 32927, 408349, 1426721, 8409, 13456, 97477, 60906, 422214, 7271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 46 ], [ 105, 108 ], [ 229, 250 ], [ 265, 287 ], [ 405, 413 ], [ 436, 449 ], [ 575, 587 ], [ 606, 638 ], [ 640, 673 ], [ 682, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party's primary objective was to impose socialist agenda into Polish society. The communist government sought to improve the living standards of the proletariat, make education and healthcare available to all, establish a centralized planned economy, nationalize all institutions and provide internal or external security by up-keeping a strong-armed force. Some concepts imported from abroad, such as large-scale collective farming and secularization, failed in their early stages. The PZPR was considered more liberal and pro-Western than its counterparts in East Germany or the Soviet Union, and was more averse to radical politics. Although propaganda was utilized in major media outlets like Trybuna Ludu (\"People's Tribune\") and televised Dziennik (\"Journal\"), censorship became ineffective by the mid-1980s and was gradually abolished. On the other hand, the Polish United Worker's Party was responsible for the brutal pacification of civil resistance and protesters in the Poznań protests of 1956, the 1970 Polish protests and throughout martial law between 1981 and 1983. The PZPR also initiated a bitter anti-Semitic campaign during the 1968 Polish political crisis, which forced the remainder of Poland's Jews to emigrate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26847, 43349971, 7843, 1062429, 39711745, 333225, 19280734, 1075896, 13058, 26779, 15611519, 13801970, 63164809, 10280220, 2973807, 405418, 2010310, 1078, 2291645, 416798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ], [ 153, 164 ], [ 238, 253 ], [ 255, 266 ], [ 418, 436 ], [ 441, 455 ], [ 516, 523 ], [ 532, 539 ], [ 565, 577 ], [ 585, 597 ], [ 622, 638 ], [ 701, 713 ], [ 749, 757 ], [ 946, 962 ], [ 985, 1008 ], [ 1014, 1034 ], [ 1050, 1061 ], [ 1118, 1130 ], [ 1151, 1179 ], [ 1220, 1224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amidst the ongoing political and economic crises, the Solidarity movement emerged as a major anti-bureaucratic social movement that pursued social change. With communist rule being relaxed in neighbouring countries, the PZPR systematically lost support and was forced to negotiate with the opposition and adhere to the Polish Round Table Agreement, which permitted free democratic elections. The elections on 4 June 1989 proved victorious for Solidarity, thus bringing 40-year communist rule in Poland to an end. The Polish United Workers' Party was dissolved in January 1990.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28869, 632986, 3394750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 73 ], [ 319, 347 ], [ 396, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until 1989, the PZPR held dictatorial powers (the amendment to the constitution of 1976 mentioned \"a leading national force\") and controlled an unwieldy bureaucracy, the military, the secret police, and the economy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Programme and goals", "target_page_ids": [ 3350162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its main goal was to create a Communist society and help to propagate Communism all over the world. On paper, the party was organised on the basis of democratic centralism, which assumed a democratic appointment of authorities, making decisions, and managing its activity. Yet in fact, the key roles were played by the Central Committee, its Politburo and Secretariat, which were subject to the strict control of the authorities of the Soviet Union. These authorities decided about the policy and composition of the main organs; although, according to the statute, it was a responsibility of the members of the congress, which was held every five or six years. Between sessions, the regional, county, district and work committees held party conferences. The smallest organizational unit of the PZPR was the Fundamental Party Organization (FPO), which functioned in workplaces, schools, cultural institutions, etc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Programme and goals", "target_page_ids": [ 43356485, 20394950, 11172472, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 171 ], [ 319, 336 ], [ 342, 351 ], [ 436, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main part in the PZPR was played by professional politicians, or the so-called \"party's hardcore\", formed by people who were recommended to manage the main state institutions, social organizations, and trade unions. The crowning time of the PZPR development (the end of the 1970s) consisted of over 3.5 million members. The Political Office of the Central Committee, Secretariat and regional committees appointed the key posts within the party and in all organizations having ‘state’ in its name – from central offices to even small state and cooperative companies. It was called the nomenklatura system of state and economy management. In certain areas of the economy, e.g., in agriculture, the nomenklatura system was controlled with the approval of the PZPR and by its allied parties, the United People's Party (agriculture and food production), and the Democratic Party (trade community, small enterprise, some cooperatives). After martial law began, the Patriotic Movement for National Rebirth was founded to organize these and other parties.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Programme and goals", "target_page_ids": [ 17626, 21999, 7417233, 2074131, 2010310, 11773988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 218 ], [ 588, 600 ], [ 796, 817 ], [ 861, 877 ], [ 940, 951 ], [ 963, 1002 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Polish United Workers' Party was established at the unification congress of the Polish Workers' Party and Polish Socialist Party during meetings held from 15 to 21 December 1948. The unification was possible because the PPS activists who opposed unification (or rather absorption into the Workers' Party) had been forced out of the party. Similarly, the members of the PPR who were accused of \"rightist–nationalist deviation\" () were expelled. Thus, the PZPR was the PPR under a new name for all intents and purposes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 408349, 1426721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 105 ], [ 110, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Rightist-nationalist deviation\" was a political propaganda term used by the Polish Stalinists against prominent activists, such as Władysław Gomułka and Marian Spychalski who opposed Soviet involvement in the Polish internal affairs, as well as internationalism displayed by the creation of the Cominform and the subsequent merger that created the PZPR. It is believed that it was Joseph Stalin who put pressure on Bolesław Bierut and Jakub Berman to remove Gomułka and Spychalski as well as their followers from power in 1948. It is estimated that over 25% of socialists were removed from power or expelled from political life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16798688, 245678, 1726719, 26779, 38777061, 38433006, 15641, 61215, 626831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 132, 149 ], [ 154, 171 ], [ 184, 190 ], [ 246, 262 ], [ 296, 305 ], [ 382, 395 ], [ 416, 431 ], [ 436, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bolesław Bierut, an NKVD agent and a hardline Stalinist, served as first Secretary General of the ruling PZPR from 1948 to 1956, playing a leading role in imposing communism and the installation of its repressive regime. He had served as President since 1944 (though on a provisional basis until 1947). After a new constitution abolished the presidency, Bierut took over as Prime Minister, a post he held until 1954. He remained party leader until his death in 1956.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42976779, 28621, 5655140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 24 ], [ 46, 55 ], [ 311, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bierut oversaw the trials of many Polish wartime military leaders, such as General Stanisław Tatar and Brig. General Emil August Fieldorf, as well as 40 members of the Wolność i Niezawisłość (Freedom and Independence) organisation, various Church officials and many other opponents of the new regime including Witold Pilecki, condemned to death during secret trials. Bierut signed many of those death sentences.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1908534, 4660412, 5119444, 824265, 1021037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 98 ], [ 117, 137 ], [ 168, 190 ], [ 310, 324 ], [ 352, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bierut's mysterious death in Moscow in 1956 (shortly after attending the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) gave rise to much speculation about poisoning or a suicide, and symbolically marked the end of Stalinism era in Poland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19004, 43143815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 35 ], [ 73, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1956, shortly after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the PZPR leadership split into two factions, dubbed Natolinians and Puławians. The Natolin faction – named after the place where its meetings took place, in a government villa in Natolin – were against the post-Stalinist liberalization programs (Gomułka thaw) and they proclaimed simple nationalist and antisemitic slogans as part of a strategy to gain power. The most well known members included Franciszek Jóźwiak, Wiktor Kłosiewicz, Zenon Nowak, Aleksander Zawadzki, Władysław Dworakowski, Hilary Chełchowski.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 67854995, 10584331, 1078, 65946546, 19657477, 558195, 67607331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 271 ], [ 331, 343 ], [ 388, 399 ], [ 482, 500 ], [ 521, 532 ], [ 534, 553 ], [ 555, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Puławian faction – the name comes from the Puławska Street in Warsaw, on which many of the members lived – sought great liberalization of socialism in Poland. After the events of Poznań June, they successfully backed the candidature of Władysław Gomułka for First Secretary of party, thus imposing a major setback upon Natolinians. Among the most prominent members were Roman Zambrowski and Leon Kasman. Both factions disappeared towards the end of the 1950s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2973807, 13635794, 56786965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 194 ], [ 374, 390 ], [ 395, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially very popular for his reforms and seeking a \"Polish way to socialism\", and beginning an era known as Gomułka's thaw, he came under Soviet pressure. In the 1960s he supported persecution of the Roman Catholic Church and intellectuals (notably Leszek Kołakowski who was forced into exile). He participated in the Warsaw Pact intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968. At that time he was also responsible for persecuting students as well as toughening censorship of the media. In 1968, he incited an anti-Zionist propaganda campaign, as a result of Soviet bloc opposition to the Six-Day War.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 1041593, 33622, 5322, 2291645, 29328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 223 ], [ 251, 268 ], [ 320, 331 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 504, 536 ], [ 583, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1970, a bloody clash with shipyard workers in which several dozen workers were fatally shot forced his resignation (officially for health reasons; he had in fact suffered a stroke). A dynamic younger man, Edward Gierek, took over the Party leadership and tensions eased.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 405418, 245681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 217, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1960s, Edward Gierek had created a personal power base and become the recognized leader of the young technocrat faction of the party. When rioting over economic conditions broke out in late 1970, Gierek replaced Gomułka as party first secretary. Gierek promised economic reform and instituted a program to modernize industry and increase the availability of consumer goods, doing so mostly through foreign loans. His good relations with Western politicians, especially France's Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and West Germany's Helmut Schmidt, were a catalyst for his receiving western aid and loans.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 79474, 41901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 490, 514 ], [ 534, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard of living improved in Poland in the 1970s, the economy, however, began to falter during the 1973 oil crisis, and by 1976 price hikes became necessary. New riots broke out in June 1976, and although they were forcibly suppressed, the planned price increases were suspended. High foreign debts, food shortages, and an outmoded industrial base compelled a new round of economic reforms in 1980. Once again, price increases set off protests across the country, especially in the Gdańsk and Szczecin shipyards. Gierek was forced to grant legal status to Solidarity and to concede the right to strike. (Gdańsk Agreement).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 244180, 10653680, 28869, 1902685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 120 ], [ 164, 196 ], [ 562, 572 ], [ 610, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly thereafter, in early September 1980, Gierek was replaced by Stanisław Kania as General Secretary of the party by the Central Committee, amidst much social and economic unrest.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1116056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kania admitted that the party had made many economic mistakes, and advocated working with Catholic and trade unionist opposition groups. He met with Solidarity leader Lech Wałęsa, and other critics of the party. Though Kania agreed with his predecessors that the Communist Party must maintain control of Poland, he never assured the Soviets that Poland would not pursue actions independent of the Soviet Union. On 18 October 1981, the Central Committee of the Party withdrew confidence in him, and Kania was replaced by Prime Minister (and Minister of Defence) Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 27123535, 51250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 98 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 566, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 February 1981, Jaruzelski was elected Prime Minister of Poland and became the first secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party on 18 October 1981. Before initiating the plan of suppressing Solidarity, he presented it to Soviet Premier Nikolai Tikhonov. On 13 December 1981, Jaruzelski imposed martial law in Poland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40543, 609467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 68 ], [ 244, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982, Jaruzelski revitalized the Front of National Unity, the organization the Communists used to manage their satellite parties, as the Patriotic Movement for National Rebirth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10561121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1985, Jaruzelski resigned as prime minister and defence minister and became chairman of the Polish Council of State, a post equivalent to that of president or a dictator, with his power centered on and firmly entrenched in his coterie of \"LWP\" generals and lower ranks officers of the Polish People's Army.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 906006, 8409, 7471060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 118 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 242, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The attempt to impose a naked military dictatorship, notwithstanding, the policies of Mikhail Gorbachev stimulated political reform in Poland. By the close of the tenth plenary session in December 1988, the Polish United Workers Party was forced, after strikes, to approach leaders of Solidarity for talks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20979, 155134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 103 ], [ 253, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 6 February to 15 April 1989, negotiations were held between 13 working groups during 94 sessions of the roundtable talks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25874393, 632986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 81 ], [ 109, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These negotiations resulted in an agreement that stated that a great degree of political power would be given to a newly created bicameral legislature. It also created a new post of president to act as head of state and chief executive. Solidarity was also declared a legal organization. During the following Polish elections the Communists won 65 percent of the seats in the Sejm, though the seats won were guaranteed and the Communists were unable to gain a majority, while 99 out of the 100 seats in the Senate — all freely contested — were won by Solidarity-backed candidates. Jaruzelski won the presidential ballot by one vote.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 204299, 43581, 28167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 150 ], [ 183, 192 ], [ 378, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jaruzelski was unsuccessful in convincing Wałęsa to include Solidarity in a \"grand coalition\" with the Communists and resigned his position of general secretary of the Polish United Workers Party. The PZPR' two allied parties broke their long-standing alliance, forcing Jaruzelski to appoint Solidarity's Tadeusz Mazowiecki as the country's first non-communist prime minister since 1948. Jaruzelski resigned as Poland's President in 1990, being succeeded by Wałęsa in December.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 927699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting from January 1990, the collapse of the PZPR became inevitable. All over the country, public occupations of the party buildings started in order to prevent stealing the party's possessions and destroying or taking the archives. On 29 January 1990, XI Congress was held, which was supposed to recreate the party. Finally, the PZPR dissolved, and some of its members decided to establish two new social-democratic parties. They got over $1 million from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union known as the Moscow loan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 463, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The former activists of the PZPR established the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland (in Polish: Socjaldemokracja Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, SdRP), of which the main organizers were Leszek Miller and Mieczysław Rakowski. The SdRP was supposed (among other things) to take over all rights and duties of the PZPR, and help to divide out the property. Up to the end of the 1980s, it had considerable incomes mainly from managed properties and from the RSW company ‘Press- Book-Traffic’, which in turn had special tax concessions. During this period, the income from membership fees constituted only 30% of the PZPR's revenues. After the dissolution of the Polish United Workers' Party and the establishment of the SdRP, the rest of the activists formed the Social Democratic Union of the Republic of Poland (USdRP), which changed its name to the Polish Social Democratic Union, and The 8th July Movement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 850180, 18414, 1439977, 36553835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 91 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 206, 225 ], [ 849, 879 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of 1990, there was an intense debate in the Sejm on the takeover of the wealth that belonged to the former PZPR. Over 3000 buildings and premises were included in the wealth and almost half of it was used without legal basis. Supporters of the acquisition argued that the wealth was built on the basis of plunder and the Treasury grant collected by the whole society. Opponents of SdRP claimed that the wealth was created from membership fees; therefore, they demanded wealth inheritance for SdPR which at that time administered the wealth. Personal property and the accounts of the former PZPR were not subject to control of a parliamentary committee.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 9 November 1990, the Sejm passed \"The resolution about the acquisition of the wealth that belonged to the former PZPR\". This resolution was supposed to result in a final takeover of the PZPR real estate by the Treasury. As a result, only a part of the real estate was taken over mainly for a local government by 1992, whereas a legal dispute over the other party carried on till 2000. Personal property and finances of the former PZPR practically disappeared. According to the declaration of SdRP Members of Parliament, 90–95% of the party's wealth was allocated for gratuity or was donated for social assistance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The highest statutory authority of the Voivodeship party organization was the voivodeship conference, and in the period between conferences – the PZPR voivodeship committee. To drive current party work, the provincial committee chose the executive. Voivodeship conferences convened a provincial committee in consultation with the Central Committee of PZPR – formally at least once in year. Plenary meetings of the Voivodeship committee were to be convened at least every two months and executive meetings – once a week.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In practice, the frequency of holding provincial conferences and plenary meetings KW deviated from the statutory standards were held less often. Dates and basic Topics of session of Voivodeship party conferences and plenary sessions of Voivodeship Committee PZPR in the provinces of Poland were generally correlated with dates and topics of plenary sessions Central Committee of the PZPR. They were devoted mainly to \"transferring\" resolutions and decisions of the Central Committee to the provincial party organization. The provincial committee had no freedom in shaping the original, its own meeting plan. The initiative could be demonstrated – in accordance with the principle of democratic centralism – only in the implementation of resolutions and orders of instances supreme.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dependence of the Voivodeship party organization and its authorities was also determined by that its activity was financed almost entirely from a subsidy received from the Central Committee of PZPR. Membership fees constituted no more than 10% of revenues. The activities of the Voivodeship Committee between PZPR Voivodeship conferences were formally controlled by the Audit Committee (elected during these conferences). Initially only examined the budget implementation and accounting of PZPR Voivodeship Committee. In the following years, the scope of its activities was expanded, including control over the management of party membership cards, security OF confidential documents, how to deal with complaints and complaints addressed to the party. The number of inspections carried out grew systematically, and the work of committees accepted more planned and formalized character.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Central Committee had its seat in the Party's House, a building erected by obligatory subscription from 1948 to 1952 and colloquially called White House or the House of Sheep. Since 1991 the Bank-Financial Center \"New World\" is located in this building. From 1991–2000 the Warsaw Stock Exchange also had its seat there.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Building", "target_page_ids": [ 2285904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the year 1954 the head of the party was the Chair of Central Committee:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Party leaders", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wojciech Jaruzelski", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable politicians after 1989", "target_page_ids": [ 51250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aleksander Kwaśniewski", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable politicians after 1989", "target_page_ids": [ 150186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Józef Oleksy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable politicians after 1989", "target_page_ids": [ 637457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable politicians after 1989", "target_page_ids": [ 633107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leszek Miller", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable politicians after 1989", "target_page_ids": [ 18414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marek Belka", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable politicians after 1989", "target_page_ids": [ 630580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Danuta Hübner", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable politicians after 1989", "target_page_ids": [ 1437058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11172472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Polish United Workers' Party members", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23739980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eastern Bloc politics", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22069398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Communist Party of Poland (1918 – 1938 y.)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 346280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Polish Communist Party (2002) – receiver with 2002 year", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40949165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MSWiA – Sprawozdanie z likwidacji majątku byłej PZPR (MSWiA – The report on the liquidation of property of the former PZPR) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Polish_United_Workers'_Party", "Eastern_Bloc", "Parties_of_one-party_systems", "1948_establishments_in_Poland", "1990_disestablishments_in_Poland" ]

[ "PZPR", "PUWP" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The peritoneum is the serous membrane forming the lining of the abdominal cavity or coelom in amniotes and some invertebrates, such as annelids. It covers most of the intra-abdominal (or coelomic) organs, and is composed of a layer of mesothelium supported by a thin layer of connective tissue. This peritoneal lining of the cavity supports many of the abdominal organs and serves as a conduit for their blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1425177, 67058, 75003, 236981, 43116674, 315175, 228845, 3191861, 48530, 641160, 21435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 64, 80 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 235, 246 ], [ 276, 293 ], [ 353, 369 ], [ 404, 416 ], [ 419, 435 ], [ 442, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The abdominal cavity (the space bounded by the vertebrae, abdominal muscles, diaphragm, and pelvic floor) is different from the intraperitoneal space (located within the abdominal cavity but wrapped in peritoneum). The structures within the intraperitoneal space are called \"intraperitoneal\" (e.g., the stomach and intestines), the structures in the abdominal cavity that are located behind the intraperitoneal space are called \"retroperitoneal\" (e.g., the kidneys), and those structures below the intraperitoneal space are called \"subperitoneal\" or \"infraperitoneal\" (e.g., the bladder).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 46521228, 3191861, 321567, 674776, 39747, 69720, 534675, 17025, 32259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 56 ], [ 58, 75 ], [ 77, 86 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 303, 310 ], [ 315, 324 ], [ 429, 444 ], [ 457, 463 ], [ 579, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The peritoneum is one continuous sheet, forming two layers and a potential space between them: the peritoneal cavity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 7242577, 936133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 80 ], [ 99, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The outer layer, the parietal peritoneum, is attached to the abdominal wall and the pelvic walls. The tunica vaginalis, the serous membrane covering the male testis, is derived from the vaginal process, an outpouching of the parietal peritoneum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3618404, 4789639, 4765461, 67193, 7773066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 75 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 102, 118 ], [ 158, 164 ], [ 186, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inner layer, the visceral peritoneum, is wrapped around the visceral organs, located inside the intraperitoneal space for protection. It is thinner than the parietal peritoneum. The mesentery is a double layer of visceral peritoneum that attaches to the gastrointestinal tract. There are often blood vessels, nerves, and other structures between these layers. The space between these two layers is technically outside of the peritoneal sac, and thus not in the peritoneal cavity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 637855, 69720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 195 ], [ 258, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The potential space between these two layers is the peritoneal cavity, filled with a small amount (about 50 mL) of slippery serous fluid that allows the two layers to slide freely over each other.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 936133, 3542825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 124, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The right paracolic gutter is continuous with the right and left subhepatic spaces. The epiploic foramen allows communication between the greater sac and the lesser sac. The peritoneal space in males is closed, while the peritoneal space in females is continuous with the extraperitoneal pelvis through openings of the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and the vagina.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 7806515, 16973233, 23676652, 31863, 32476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 88, 104 ], [ 319, 334 ], [ 340, 346 ], [ 356, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peritoneal folds are omenta, mesenteries and ligaments; they connect organs to each other or to the abdominal wall. There are two main regions of the peritoneal cavity, connected by the omental foramen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 637855, 517612, 17874, 16973233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 21, 27 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 186, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The greater sac, represented in red in the diagrams above.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3251527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The lesser sac, represented in blue. The lesser sac is divided into two \"omenta\":", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3236413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The lesser omentum (or gastrohepatic) is attached to the lesser curvature of the stomach and the liver.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2665949, 8342364, 17384301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ], [ 58, 89 ], [ 98, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The greater omentum (or gastrocolic) hangs from the greater curvature of the stomach and loops down in front of the intestines before curving back upwards to attach to the transverse colon. In effect it is draped in front of the intestines like an apron and may serve as an insulating or protective layer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4638658, 8342364, 69720, 59366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 53, 85 ], [ 117, 127 ], [ 184, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mesentery is the part of the peritoneum through which most abdominal organs are attached to the abdominal wall and supplied with blood and lymph vessels and nerves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 637855, 3997, 347123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 133, 138 ], [ 143, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, in the pelvic cavity there are several structures that are usually named not for the peritoneum, but for the areas defined by the peritoneal folds:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4789639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The structures in the abdomen are classified as intraperitoneal, mesoperitoneal, retroperitoneal or infraperitoneal depending on whether they are covered with visceral peritoneum and whether they are attached by mesenteries (mensentery, mesocolon).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 534675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Structures that are intraperitoneal are generally mobile, while those that are retroperitoneal are relatively fixed in their location.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some structures, such as the kidneys, are \"primarily retroperitoneal\", while others such as the majority of the duodenum, are \"secondarily retroperitoneal\", meaning that structure developed intraperitoneally but lost its mesentery and thus became retroperitoneal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The peritoneum develops ultimately from the mesoderm of the trilaminar embryo. As the mesoderm differentiates, one region known as the lateral plate mesoderm splits to form two layers separated by an intraembryonic coelom. These two layers develop later into the visceral and parietal layers found in all serous cavities, including the peritoneum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 39044, 4850489, 4781874, 13682582, 1425177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 52 ], [ 60, 77 ], [ 135, 157 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 305, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an embryo develops, the various abdominal organs grow into the abdominal cavity from structures in the abdominal wall. In this process they become enveloped in a layer of peritoneum. The growing organs \"take their blood vessels with them\" from the abdominal wall, and these blood vessels become covered by peritoneum, forming a mesentery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 36624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peritoneal folds develop from the ventral and dorsal mesentery of the embryo.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 637855, 637855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ], [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CT scan is a fast (15 seconds) and efficient way in visualising the peritoneal spaces. Although ultrasound is good at visualizing peritoneal collections and ascites, without ionising radiation, it does not provide a good overall assessment of all the peritoneal cavities. MRI scan is also increasingly used to visualise peritoneal diseases, but requires long scan time (30 to 45 minutes) and prone to motion artifacts due to respiration and peristalsis and chemical shift artifacts at the bowel-mesentery interface. Those with peritoneal carcinomatosis, acute pancreatitis, and intraabdominal sepsis may not tolerate prolonged MRI scan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In one form of dialysis, called peritoneal dialysis, a glucose solution is sent through a tube into the peritoneal cavity. The fluid is left there for a prescribed amount of time to absorb waste products, and then removed through the tube. The reason for this effect is the high number of arteries and veins in the peritoneal cavity. Through the mechanism of diffusion, waste products are removed from the blood.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 56511, 749209, 19908550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ], [ 32, 51 ], [ 359, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peritonitis is the inflammation of the peritoneum. It is more commonly associated to infection from a punctured organ of the abdominal cavity. It can also be provoked by the presence of fluids that produce chemical irritation, such as gastric acid or pancreatic juice. Peritonitis causes fever, tenderness, and pain in the abdominal area, which can be localized or diffuse. The treatment involves rehydration, administration of antibiotics, and surgical correction of the underlying cause. Mortality is higher in the elderly and if present for a prolonged time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 70425, 638449, 3239937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 251, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Primary peritoneal cancer is a cancer of the cells lining the peritoneum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Peritoneum\" is derived from Greek περιτόναιον peritonaion \"peritoneum, abdominal membrane\" via Latin. In Greek, περί peri means \"around,\" while τείνω teino means \"to stretch\"; thus, \"peritoneum\" means \"stretched over.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 34 ], [ 96, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Duodenorenal ligament", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11806375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Overview and diagrams at colostate.edu", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Abdomen" ]

[ "peritoneal cavity mesothelium" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The pistachio (, Pistacia vera), a member of the cashew family, is a small tree originating from Central Asia and the Middle East. The tree produces seeds that are widely consumed as food.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 69213, 6742, 19323, 251647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 62 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 149, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pistacia vera is often confused with other species in the genus Pistacia that are also known as pistachio. These other species can be distinguished by their geographic distributions (in the wild) and their seeds which are much smaller and have a soft shell.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 69207, 21780446, 37694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 72 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 206, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pistachio is from late Middle English \"pistace\", from Old French, superseded in the 16th century by forms from Italian \"pistacchio\", via Latin from Greek \"pistákion\", and from Middle Persian pistakē.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 50711, 320082, 34568, 17730, 148363, 889882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 37 ], [ 54, 64 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 137, 142 ], [ 148, 153 ], [ 177, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pistachio tree is native to regions of Central Asia, including present-day Iran and Afghanistan. Archaeology shows that pistachio seeds were a common food as early as 6750 BC. So far, the earliest evidence of pistachio consumption goes back to the Bronze Age Central Asia and comes from Djarkutan, modern Uzbekistan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14653, 737, 18951655, 56203181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 83 ], [ 88, 99 ], [ 101, 112 ], [ 291, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pistachio trees were introduced from Asia to Europe in the 1st century AD by the Romans. They are cultivated across southern Europe and north Africa.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Theophrastus described it as a terebinth-like tree with almond-like nuts from Bactria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 98409, 2301837, 1064, 45378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 31, 40 ], [ 56, 62 ], [ 78, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It appears in Dioscorides' writings as pistákia (πιστάκια), recognizable as P. vera by its comparison to pine nuts. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 192515, 320509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 105, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pliny the Elder writes in his Natural History that pistacia, \"well known among us\", was one of the trees unique to Syria, and that the seed was introduced into Italy by the Roman Proconsul in Syria, Lucius Vitellius the Elder (in office in 35 AD) and into Hispania at the same time by Flaccus Pompeius. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44920, 74215, 37694, 1046450, 1672625, 20597079, 6046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 30, 45 ], [ 135, 139 ], [ 179, 188 ], [ 199, 225 ], [ 256, 264 ], [ 285, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early sixth-century manuscript De observatione ciborum (\"On the observance of foods\") by Anthimus implies that pistacia remained well known in Europe in Late Antiquity. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9456776, 823343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 101 ], [ 157, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An article on pistachio tree cultivation is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12167141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archaeologists have found evidence from excavations at Jarmo in northeastern Iraq for the consumption of Atlantic pistachio. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18951655, 710328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 55, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were said to have contained pistachio trees during the reign of King Merodach-Baladan about 700 BC.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66786, 1131757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 100, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th century, the pistachio was cultivated commercially in parts of the English-speaking world, such as Australia along with New Mexico and California where it was introduced in 1854 as a garden tree. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1904 and 1905, David Fairchild of the United States Department of Agriculture introduced hardier cultivars to California collected from China, but it was not promoted as a commercial crop until 1929. Walter T. Swingle's pistachios from Syria had already fruited well at Niles, California, by 1917.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1450449, 70896, 167906, 5246084, 52826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ], [ 41, 80 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 203, 222 ], [ 273, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pistachio is a desert plant and is highly tolerant of saline soil. It has been reported to grow well when irrigated with water having 3,000–4,000ppm of soluble salts. Pistachio trees are fairly hardy in the right conditions and can survive temperatures ranging between in winter and in summer. They need a sunny position and well-drained soil. Pistachio trees do poorly in conditions of high humidity and are susceptible to root rot in winter if they get too much water and the soil is not sufficiently free-draining. Long, hot summers are required for proper ripening of the fruit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Botany", "target_page_ids": [ 64599, 5818788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ], [ 426, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tree grows up to tall. It has deciduous, pinnate leaves long. The plants are dioecious, with separate male and female trees. The flowers are apetalous and unisexual and borne in panicles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Botany", "target_page_ids": [ 66722, 339742, 1641735, 169493, 1522987, 219614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 44 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 147, 156 ], [ 161, 170 ], [ 184, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fruit is a drupe, containing an elongated seed, which is the edible portion. The seed, commonly thought of as a nut, is a culinary nut, not a botanical nut. The fruit has a hard, cream-colored exterior shell. The seed has a mauve-colored skin and light green flesh, with a distinctive flavor. When the fruit ripens, the shell changes from green to an autumnal yellow/red and abruptly splits partly open. This is known as dehiscence, and happens with an audible pop. The splitting open is a trait that has been selected by humans. Commercial cultivars vary in how consistently they split open.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Botany", "target_page_ids": [ 57425, 37694, 251647, 251647, 2321613, 167906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 20 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 126, 138 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 425, 435 ], [ 545, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each pistachio tree averages around of seeds, or around 50,000, every two years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Botany", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The pistachio tree is long-lived, and may live up to 300 years. The trees are planted in orchards, and take approximately seven to ten years to reach significant production. Production is alternate-bearing or biennial-bearing, meaning the harvest is heavier in alternate years. Peak production is reached around 20 years. Trees are usually pruned to size to make the harvest easier. One male tree produces enough pollen for eight to twelve drupe-bearing females. Harvesting in the United States and in Greece is often accomplished using equipment to shake the drupes off the tree. After hulling and drying, pistachios are sorted according to open-mouth and closed-mouth shells, then roasted or processed by special machines to produce pistachio kernels.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 168008, 3417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 209, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In California, almost all female pistachio trees are the 'Kerman' cultivar, from Kerman, Iran. A scion from a mature female 'Kerman' is grafted onto a one-year-old rootstock.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 847140, 14080493, 2613688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 93 ], [ 97, 102 ], [ 164, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pistachio trees are vulnerable to numerous diseases and infestation by insects such as Leptoglossus clypealis in North America. Among these is infection by the fungus Botryosphaeria, which causes panicle and shoot blight (symptoms include death of the flowers and young shoots), and can damage entire pistachio orchards. In 2004, the rapidly growing pistachio industry in California was threatened by panicle and shoot blight first discovered in 1984. In 2011, anthracnose fungus caused a sudden 50% loss in the Australian pistachio harvest. Several years of severe drought in Iran around 2008 to 2015 caused significant declines in production.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 57355435, 22531700, 219614, 51668, 233043, 1290402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 109 ], [ 167, 181 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 461, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, global production of pistachios was about , with the United States and Turkey as leading producers, together accounting for 68% of the total (table). Secondary producers were Iran, China, and Syria.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 2020 report indicated that nearly half of the global production of pistachios in 2019 came from the United States, with production in Iran falling to as low as 7% due to US trade sanctions against Iran, climate change, and weak economic and water management in Iran. Efforts to grow pistachios for international markets were made during 2019 in Georgia and adjacent Caucasus countries. More organic production is being promoted in Spain ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 5042951, 39282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 219 ], [ 368, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The kernels are often eaten whole, either fresh or roasted and salted, and are also used in pistachio ice cream, kulfi, spumoni, pistachio butter, pistachio paste and confections such as baklava, pistachio chocolate, pistachio halva, pistachio lokum or biscotti and cold cuts such as mortadella. Americans make pistachio salad, which includes fresh pistachios or pistachio pudding, whipped cream, and canned fruit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Consumption", "target_page_ids": [ 143498, 42360671, 872876, 1124192, 18707192, 182802, 25166391, 1446854, 528261, 44831, 6059105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 69 ], [ 92, 111 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 120, 127 ], [ 187, 194 ], [ 227, 232 ], [ 244, 249 ], [ 253, 261 ], [ 266, 274 ], [ 284, 294 ], [ 311, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The shell of the pistachio is naturally a beige color, but it may be dyed red or green in commercial pistachios. Originally, dye was applied to hide stains on the shells caused when the nuts were picked by hand. In the 21st century, most pistachios are harvested by machine and the shells remain unstained.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Consumption", "target_page_ids": [ 18938115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raw pistachios are 4% water, 45% fat, 28% carbohydrates, and 20% protein (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, pistachios provide of food energy and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value or DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several dietary minerals, and the B vitamins thiamin (76% DV) and vitamin B6 (131% DV) (table). Pistachios are a moderate source (10–19% DV) of calcium, riboflavin, vitamin B5, folate, vitamin E, and vitamin K (table).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Nutrition", "target_page_ids": [ 5932, 6531493, 182303, 267488, 66554, 235195, 30500, 54110, 5668, 26229, 54099, 54117, 54104, 32541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 65, 72 ], [ 137, 148 ], [ 191, 202 ], [ 222, 235 ], [ 245, 261 ], [ 282, 289 ], [ 303, 313 ], [ 381, 388 ], [ 390, 400 ], [ 402, 412 ], [ 414, 420 ], [ 422, 431 ], [ 437, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fat profile of raw pistachios consists of saturated fats, monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats. Saturated fatty acids include palmitic acid (10% of total) and stearic acid (2%). Oleic acid is the most common monounsaturated fatty acid (51% of total fat) and linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, is 31% of total fat. Relative to other tree nuts, pistachios have a lower amount of fat and food energy but higher amounts of potassium, vitamin K, γ-tocopherol, and certain phytochemicals such as carotenoids, and phytosterols.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Nutrition", "target_page_ids": [ 264746, 11042, 11042, 542488, 338511, 661100, 880497, 23055, 54105, 472231, 294943, 1862004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ], [ 62, 82 ], [ 87, 107 ], [ 139, 152 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 191, 201 ], [ 271, 284 ], [ 442, 451 ], [ 464, 476 ], [ 490, 503 ], [ 513, 523 ], [ 530, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved the first qualified health claim specific to consumption of seeds (including pistachios) to lower the risk of heart disease: \"Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating per day of most nuts, such as pistachios, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease\". Although a typical serving of pistachios supplies substantial food energy (nutrition table), their consumption in normal amounts is not associated with weight gain or obesity.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Research and health effects", "target_page_ids": [ 11632, 265229, 512662, 56435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 60 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 180, 193 ], [ 560, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One review of preliminary research found that pistachio consumption lowered blood pressure in persons without diabetes mellitus.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Research and health effects", "target_page_ids": [ 56558, 40017873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 90 ], [ 110, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with other tree seeds, aflatoxin is found in poorly harvested or processed pistachios. Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. The mold contamination may occur from soil, poor storage, and spread by pests. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament-like growth. It is unsafe to eat mold-infected and aflatoxin-contaminated pistachios. Aflatoxin contamination is a frequent risk, particularly in warmer and humid environments. Food contaminated with aflatoxins has been found as the cause of frequent outbreaks of acute illnesses in parts of the world. In some cases, such as Kenya, this has led to several deaths.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Toxin and safety concerns", "target_page_ids": [ 177303, 6445, 698043, 55235852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 161, 179 ], [ 184, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pistachio shells typically split naturally prior to harvest, with a hull covering the intact seeds. The hull protects the kernel from invasion by molds and insects, but this hull protection can be damaged in the orchard by poor orchard management practices, by birds, or after harvest, which makes it much easier for pistachios to be exposed to contamination. Some pistachios undergo so-called \"early split\", wherein both the hull and the shell split. Damage or early splits can lead to aflatoxin contamination. In some cases, a harvest may be treated to keep contamination below strict food safety thresholds; in other cases, an entire batch of pistachios must be destroyed because of aflatoxin contamination.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Toxin and safety concerns", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like other members of the family Anacardiaceae (which includes poison ivy, sumac, mango, and cashew), pistachios contain urushiol, an irritant that can cause allergic reactions.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Toxin and safety concerns", "target_page_ids": [ 69213, 28276397, 69232, 56315, 63577, 251123, 55313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 63, 73 ], [ 75, 80 ], [ 82, 87 ], [ 93, 99 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 158, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of culinary nuts", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8654442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pistacia lentiscus", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Terebinth", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2301837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] } ]

[ "Pistacia", "Edible_nuts_and_seeds", "Flora_of_Central_Asia", "Flora_of_Western_Asia", "Trees_of_Mediterranean_climate", "Italian_cuisine", "Plants_described_in_1753", "Drupes", "Symbols_of_California" ]

[ "the pistachio tree", "pistachio", "pistachio tree" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sea lemon is a loosely applied common name for a group of medium-sized to large shell-less colorful sea slugs or nudibranchs, specifically dorid nudibranchs in the taxonomic family Dorididae and other closely related families. These are marine gastropod mollusks.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 331921, 549472, 355989, 30463, 56276, 18842359, 179252, 19773328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 113, 123 ], [ 164, 173 ], [ 174, 180 ], [ 237, 243 ], [ 244, 253 ], [ 254, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Monterey sea lemon is Doris montereyensis and the mottled pale sea lemon is Diaulula lentiginosa.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23650336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The common name sea lemon probably comes from these animal's visual similarity to a lemon based on such qualities as the roughened skin, the oval form when seen from above, and the common but not inevitable orange to pale yellow coloration.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 331921, 21299730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 84, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These dorid nudibranchs can be large (up to 20cm), rather flattened, and oval in shape when seen from above. They have two hornlike projections (rhinophores) on the head, and a rosette-like tuft of gills on the back of the animal. The mantle is sometimes sprinkled with black dots, and it is covered in small bumps, which are called tubercles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 13954411, 843865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 155 ], [ 333, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sea lemons feed on sponges. They lay ribbons of white or yellow eggs. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life habits", "target_page_ids": [ 47271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taxonomically the Dorididae is a family of several genera, the dorids named after the mythological ancient Greek sea nymph Doris. (See Ovidius, Metamorphoses 2.6)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life habits", "target_page_ids": [ 1344040, 37802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 128 ], [ 135, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genera within the family Dorididae include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aphelodoris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 21734962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Artachaea ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 59832201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conualevia ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 34878731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doriopsis ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 25491193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goslineria ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 34878768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homoiodoris : nomen dubium", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 25491324, 2348754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 15, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pharodoris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 34878785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genera brought into synonymy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anisodoris : synonym of Diaulula (Discodorididae)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 25467052, 23618764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ], [ 36, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anoplodoris : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aporodoris [synonym of Taringa in family Discodorididae]", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 32842416, 25380808, 23618764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 43, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Archidoris : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Austrodoris : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ctenodoris : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doridigitata synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doriopsis : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doriorbis synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Etidoris synonym of Thordisa ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 25491622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guyonia synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neodoris : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Praegliscita : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rhabdochila : synonym of Rostanga ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 526579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Siraius : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Staurodoris : synonym of Doris ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Genera", "target_page_ids": [ 23394665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ] ] } ]

[ "Dorididae", "Taxa_named_by_Constantine_Samuel_Rafinesque" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Thomas Joannes Stieltjes (, 29 December 1856 – 31 December 1894) was a Dutch mathematician. He was a pioneer in the field of moment problems and contributed to the study of continued fractions. The Thomas Stieltjes Institute for Mathematics at Leiden University, dissolved in 2011, was named after him, as is the Riemann–Stieltjes integral.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1244992, 46802, 86373, 330491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 139 ], [ 173, 191 ], [ 244, 261 ], [ 313, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stieltjes was born in Zwolle on 29 December 1856. His father (who had the same first names) was a civil engineer and politician. Stieltjes Sr. was responsible for the construction of various harbours around Rotterdam, and also seated in the Dutch parliament. Stieltjes Jr. went to university at the Polytechnical School in Delft in 1873. Instead of attending lectures, he spent his student years reading the works of Gauss and Jacobi — the consequence of this being he failed his examinations. There were 2 further failures (in 1875 and 1876), and his father despaired. His father was friends with H. G. van de Sande Bakhuyzen (who was the director of Leiden University), and Stieltjes Jr. was able to get a job as an assistant at Leiden Observatory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 58553, 13475, 26049, 208206, 8308, 6125, 210340, 801910, 86373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ], [ 191, 198 ], [ 207, 216 ], [ 241, 257 ], [ 323, 328 ], [ 417, 422 ], [ 427, 433 ], [ 598, 626 ], [ 652, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon afterwards, Stieltjes began a correspondence with Charles Hermite which lasted for the rest of his life. He originally wrote to Hermite concerning celestial mechanics, but the subject quickly turned to mathematics and he began to devote his spare time to mathematical research.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 22870422, 102182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 70 ], [ 152, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The director of Leiden Observatory, van de Sande-Bakhuyzen, responded quickly to Stieltjes' request on 1 January 1883 to stop his observational work to allow him to work more on mathematical topics. In 1883, he also married Elizabeth Intveld in May. She also encouraged him to move from astronomy to mathematics. And in September, Stieltjes was asked to substitute at University of Delft for F J van den Berg. From then until December of that year, he lectured on analytical geometry and on descriptive geometry. He resigned his post at the observatory at the end of that year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 46599, 103244, 2202, 484891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 22 ], [ 368, 387 ], [ 464, 483 ], [ 491, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1884, Stieltjes applied for a chair in Groningen. He was initially accepted, but in the end turned down by the Department of Education, since he lacked the required diplomas. In 1884, Hermite and professor David Bierens de Haan arranged for an honorary doctorate to be granted to Stieltjes by Leiden University, enabling him to become a professor. In 1885, he was appointed as member of the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences (Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, KNAW), the next year he became foreign member. In 1889, he was appointed professor of differential and integral calculus at Toulouse University.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 50118, 33927692, 86373, 392098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 51 ], [ 209, 230 ], [ 296, 313 ], [ 394, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stieltjes worked on almost all branches of analysis, continued fractions and number theory, and for his work, he is sometimes called \"the father of the analytic theory of continued fractions\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 48396, 46802, 21527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 53, 72 ], [ 77, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His work is also seen as important as a first step towards the theory of Hilbert spaces. Other important contributions to mathematics that he made involved discontinuous functions and divergent series, differential equations, interpolation, the gamma function and elliptic functions. He became known internationally because of the Riemann–Stieltjes integral.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 20598932, 6122, 876428, 1424309, 14569, 12316, 69939, 330491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 86 ], [ 156, 178 ], [ 184, 200 ], [ 202, 223 ], [ 226, 239 ], [ 245, 259 ], [ 264, 282 ], [ 331, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stieltjes' work on continued fractions earned him the Ormoy Prize of the Académie des Sciences.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards", "target_page_ids": [ 395934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chebyshev–Markov–Stieltjes inequalities", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9296238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 368525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laplace–Stieltjes transform", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 365929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Riemann–Stieltjes integral", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 330491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heine–Stieltjes polynomials", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27396845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stieltjes–Wigert polynomials", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27403688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stieltjes polynomials", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32896001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stieltjes constants", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1479085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stieltjes matrix", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8098498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stieltjes moment problem", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3242790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stieltjes transformation (and Stieltjes inversion formula)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11503699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Annales de la Faculté des Sciences de Toulouse co-founded by Stieltjes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20920042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Montel's theorem", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1484228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Œuvres complètes de Thomas Jan Stieltjes, pub. par les soins de la Société mathématique d'Amsterdam. (Groningen: P. Noordhoff, 1914–18) (PDF copy at UMDL, text in Dutch, French and German)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1856_births", "1894_deaths", "French_mathematicians", "Delft_University_of_Technology_faculty", "Members_of_the_Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences", "People_from_Zwolle", "19th-century_Dutch_scientists", "19th-century_Dutch_mathematicians" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Vladimir Yaroslavich (, Old Norse Valdamarr Jarizleifsson; 1020 – October 4, 1052) reigned as prince of Novgorod from 1036 until his death. He was the eldest son of Yaroslav I the Wise of Kiev by Ingigerd, daughter of king Olof Skötkonung of Sweden.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22666, 21488120, 42213, 585629, 30874869, 255539, 5058739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 165, 184 ], [ 188, 192 ], [ 196, 204 ], [ 223, 238 ], [ 242, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the state affairs he was assisted by the voivode Vyshata and the bishop Luka Zhidiata. In 1042, Vladimir may have been in conflict with Finns, according to some interpretations even making a military campaign in Finland. In the next year he led the Russian armies against the Byzantine emperor Constantine IX. He predeceased his father by two years and was buried by him in St Sophia Cathedral he had built in Novgorod. His sarcophagus is in a niche on the south side of the main body of the cathedral overlooking the Martirievskii Porch. He is depicted in an early twentieth-century fresco above the sarcophagus and on a new effigial icon on top of the sarcophagus. The details of his death is unknown, however his son Rostislav and his descendants were in unfriendly relationship with the descendants of the Yaroslaviches triumvirate (Iziaslav, Sviatoslav, and Vsevolod). Three of Vladimir's younger brothers Izyaslav I, Svyatoslav II and Vsevolod I all reigned in Kiev, while other two (Igor and Vyacheslav) died in their early twenties after which their lands were split between the Yaroslaviches triumvirate. Coincidentally, the Vyshata of Novgorod pledged his support to Rostislav in the struggle against the triumvirate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 149044, 5511985, 12321812, 14685079, 11552261, 8179811, 253603, 2130072, 21488120, 749943, 750220, 40466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 51 ], [ 52, 59 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 75, 88 ], [ 122, 144 ], [ 267, 296 ], [ 297, 311 ], [ 377, 396 ], [ 413, 421 ], [ 914, 924 ], [ 926, 939 ], [ 944, 954 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vladimir's only son, Rostislav Vladimirovich, was a landless prince who usurped power in Tmutarakan. His descendants were dispossessed by their uncles and were proclaimed as izgoi (outcast), but gradually managed to establish themselves in Halychyna, ruling the land until 1199, when their line became extinct. In order to downplay their claims to Kiev, the records of Vladimir's military campaigns seem to have been obliterated from Kievan chronicles. As a result, medieval historians often confuse him with two more famous namesakes — Vladimir the Great and Vladimir Monomakh. The name of Vladimir's consort is uncertain either. According to Nikolai Baumgarten, Vladimir was married to the daughter of count Leopold of Staden, Ode. Others (Aleksandr Nazarenko) disregard that assumption or claim a different person.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7338524, 1414486, 15455131, 402344, 40575, 428291, 1490198, 7500848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 44 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 174, 179 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 537, 555 ], [ 560, 577 ], [ 602, 609 ], [ 742, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vladimir's memory was better preserved in foreign sources. In Norse sagas he frequently figures as Valdemar Holti (that is, \"the Nimble\"). George Cedrenus noticed Vladimir's arrogance in dealing with the Byzantines.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 300166, 1566140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 72 ], [ 139, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volkoff, Vladimir Vladimir, the Russian Viking. Overlook Press, 1985.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wanaselja, Lee; Saltares, Javier (art): Vladimir: Prince of Russia. Kingstone Comics, 2012. (graphic novel)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "6. Coggeshall, Robt W. \"Ancestors and Kin\" (1988), p 189", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "11th-century_princes_in_Kievan_Rus'", "1020_births", "1052_deaths", "Burials_at_the_Cathedral_of_St._Sophia,_Novgorod", "Princes_of_Novgorod", "Heirs_apparent_who_never_acceded" ]

[ "Vladimir Yaroslavich" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Johann Mühlegg (born 8 November 1970 in Ostallgäu, Germany) is a former top level cross-country skier who competed in international competitions first representing Germany and then Spain, after becoming a Spanish citizen in 1999. He was excluded and disqualified from the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City for doping.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 432850, 11867, 44298710, 11867, 26667, 38678, 53837, 860860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 51, 58 ], [ 82, 101 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 272, 292 ], [ 296, 310 ], [ 315, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mühlegg participated for Germany in the 1992, 1994 and 1998 Winter Olympics, even though he began having trouble with Germany's ski federation in 1993. From the beginning, Mühlegg singled himself out, at one point accusing German head coach Georg Zipfel for \"damaging him spiritually\" (the so-called Spiritistenaffäre). He was thrown off the team in 1995, but was reinstated later. But from that moment on, the ever eccentric Mühlegg insisted on taking a flask of holy water with him at all times, and trusting only his Portuguese cleaning woman/chaperone Justina Agostinho. In the end, Mühlegg was branded as a team cancer and was thrown out.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 113357, 113198, 113189, 61172878, 847357, 970642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 44 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 55, 75 ], [ 241, 253 ], [ 464, 474 ], [ 520, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After being ejected from the national team after the 1998 Nagano Games, his good relations with members of the Spanish cross-country skiing team, in particular Juan Jesús Gutiérrez Cuevas and Haritz Zunzunegui, opened the door for Mühlegg to obtain Spanish citizenship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competing for Spain", "target_page_ids": [ 25057601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late 1999, competing for Spain, he won a World Cup race for the first time. At the 2001 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Lahti, he won two medals with a silver in the 10km + 10km combined pursuit (stepping up when the original medalist Jari Isometsä was disqualified for hemohes use), and a gold in the 50km freestyle race. These are the only medals ever that Spain has won at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competing for Spain", "target_page_ids": [ 25172259, 6417749, 305764, 5990869, 10445002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ], [ 86, 125 ], [ 129, 134 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 279, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Mühlegg won gold medals in the 30km freestyle and the 10km + 10km pursuit races, the successes gaining him congratulations from King Juan Carlos I of Spain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competing for Spain", "target_page_ids": [ 38678, 53837, 75795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 27 ], [ 31, 45 ], [ 180, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mühlegg finished first in the 50km classical race held on the final Saturday of the Salt Lake City Winter Olympic Games on 23 February 2002 but was disqualified from that race and was expelled from the Games the next day, after testing positive for darbepoetin (a medicine which boosts red blood cell count; the substance was not banned at the time since it had only recently been developed).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competing for Spain", "target_page_ids": [ 40592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the darbepoetin scandal, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) initially let Mühlegg keep his gold medals from the first two races. But in December 2003 a ruling by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) found that these medals should also be withdrawn. The CAS remitted this case as well as similar ones involving Olga Danilova and Larisa Lazutina (both from Russia) to the IOC Executive Board, which confirmed the rulings in February 2004.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Doping controversy", "target_page_ids": [ 15147, 930608, 3400075, 2822201, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 76 ], [ 183, 213 ], [ 331, 344 ], [ 349, 364 ], [ 376, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing results", "target_page_ids": [ 175281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2 medals – (1 gold, 1 silver)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "7 victories", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "12 podiums ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cross-country skiing results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cross-country skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of sportspeople sanctioned for doping offences", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 892306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Olympic 4 x 10 km relay results: 1936-2002 ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1970_births", "Living_people", "German_emigrants_to_Spain", "Doping_cases_in_cross-country_skiing", "German_male_cross-country_skiers", "Spanish_male_cross-country_skiers", "German_sportspeople_in_doping_cases", "Spanish_people_of_German_descent", "Spanish_sportspeople_in_doping_cases", "Cross-country_skiers_at_the_1992_Winter_Olympics", "Cross-country_skiers_at_the_1994_Winter_Olympics", "Cross-country_skiers_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Cross-country_skiers_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Olympic_cross-country_skiers_of_Germany", "Olympic_cross-country_skiers_of_Spain", "Competitors_stripped_of_Winter_Olympics_medals", "FIS_Nordic_World_Ski_Championships_medalists_in_cross-country_skiing", "FIS_Cross-Country_World_Cup_champions", "Sportspeople_from_Bavaria" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Darbepoetin alfa (INN) is a re-engineered form of erythropoietin containing 5 amino acid changes (N30, T32, V87, N88, T90) resulting in the creation of 2 new sites for N-linked carbohydrate addition. It has a 3-fold longer serum half-life compared to epoetin alpha and epoetin beta. It stimulates erythropoiesis (increases red blood cell levels) by the same mechanism as rHuEpo (binding and activating the Epo receptor) and is used to treat anemia, commonly associated with chronic kidney failure and cancer chemotherapy. Darbepoetin is marketed by Amgen under the trade name Aranesp.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 611768, 217732, 682181, 67158, 83537, 714452, 7172, 932897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 21 ], [ 51, 65 ], [ 298, 312 ], [ 324, 338 ], [ 442, 448 ], [ 475, 497 ], [ 509, 521 ], [ 550, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The medication was approved in September 2001, by the US Food and Drug Administration for treatment of anemia in patients with chronic kidney failure by intravenous or subcutaneous injection. In June 2001, it had been approved by the European Medicines Agency for this indication as well as the treatment of anemia in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11632, 1427054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 85 ], [ 235, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Reddy's Laboratories launched darbepoetin alfa in India under the brand name ‘Cresp’ in August 2010. This is the world's first follow-on biologic of darbepoetin alfa.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1622570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Darbepoetin is produced by recombinant DNA technology in modified Chinese hamster ovary cells. It differs from endogenous erythropoietin (EPO) by containing two more N-linked oligosaccharide chains. It is an erythropoiesis-stimulating 165-amino acid protein.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1357514, 544531, 1207, 23634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 42 ], [ 66, 92 ], [ 240, 250 ], [ 251, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12039054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Use of darbepoetin alfa is contraindicated in patients with hypersensitivity to the drug, pre-existing uncontrolled hypertension, and pure red cell aplasia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contraindications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Darbepoetin alfa has black box warnings in the United States for increased risk of death, myocardial infarction, stroke, venous thromboembolism, thrombosis of vascular access, and tumor progression or recurrence. To avoid side effects, it is recommended for patients with chronic kidney failure or cancer to use the lowest possible dose needed to avoid red blood cell (RBC) transfusions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Adverse effects", "target_page_ids": [ 2105763, 8221, 20556798, 625404, 211191, 183048, 1236730, 88857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ], [ 83, 88 ], [ 90, 111 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 121, 143 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 180, 185 ], [ 374, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to those listed in the black box warning, use of darbepoetin alfa also increases the risk of cardiovascular problems, including cardiac arrest, arrhythmia, hypertension and congestive heart failure, and edema. A recent study has extended these findings to treatment of patients exhibiting cancer-related anemia (distinct from anemia resulting from chemotherapy). Other reported adverse reactions include increased risk of seizure, hypotension, and chest pain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Adverse effects", "target_page_ids": [ 60575, 77432, 249930, 70426, 27154, 500475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 154 ], [ 168, 180 ], [ 186, 210 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 435, 442 ], [ 444, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Darbepoetin alfa is not assigned a pregnancy category in the United States.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pregnancy and lactation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is not known if darbepoetin alfa is excreted in breast milk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pregnancy and lactation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Darbepoetin alfa binds to the erythropoietin receptor on erythroid progenitor cells, stimulating RBC production and differentiation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mechanism of action", "target_page_ids": [ 5827434, 1264088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 53 ], [ 57, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amgen sent a \"dear stockholders\" letter in January, 2007, that highlighted results from a recent anemia of cancer trial, and warned doctors to consider use in that off-label indication with caution.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Safety advisories in anemic cancer patients", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amgen advised the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as to the results of the DAHANCA 10 clinical trial. The DAHANCA 10 data monitoring committee found that 3-year loco-regional control in subjects treated with Aranesp was significantly worse than for those not receiving Aranesp (p=0.01).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Safety advisories in anemic cancer patients", "target_page_ids": [ 11632, 11848572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 51 ], [ 83, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response to these advisories, the FDA released a Public Health Advisory", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Safety advisories in anemic cancer patients", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "on March 9, 2007, and a clinical alert for doctors on February 16, 2007, about the use of erythropoeisis-stimulating agents (ESAs) such as epoetin alfa (marketed as Epogen) and darbepoetin alfa. The advisory recommended caution in using these agents in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy or off chemotherapy, and indicated a lack of clinical evidence to support improvements in quality of life or transfusion requirements in these settings.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Safety advisories in anemic cancer patients", "target_page_ids": [ 13768757, 5810868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 130 ], [ 139, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2010 update to clinical practice guidelines from the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Society of Hematology (ASH), use of ESAs such as darbepoetin alfa in cancer patients is appropriate when following stipulations outlined in FDA-approved labeling.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Safety advisories in anemic cancer patients", "target_page_ids": [ 19149544, 14851772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 107 ], [ 123, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like EPO, darbepoetin alfa has the potential to be abused by athletes seeking a competitive advantage. Its use during the 2002 Winter Olympic Games to improve performance led to the disqualification of cross-country skiers Larisa Lazutina and Olga Danilova of Russia and Johann Mühlegg of Spain from their final races.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 38678, 44298710, 2822201, 3400075, 40591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 147 ], [ 202, 222 ], [ 223, 238 ], [ 243, 256 ], [ 271, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epogen and Aranesp had more than $6 billion in combined sales in 2006. Procrit sales were about $3.2 billion in 2006.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Economics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Antianemic_preparations", "Growth_factors", "Erythropoiesis-stimulating_agents", "World_Anti-Doping_Agency_prohibited_substances" ]

[ "NESP", "Epoetin" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A pseudonym (; ) or alias () is a fictitious name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from their original or true name (orthonym). This also differs from a new name that entirely or legally replaces an individual's own. Most pseudonym holders use pseudonyms because they wish to remain anonymous, but anonymity is difficult to achieve and often fraught with legal issues.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 145171, 181382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 163 ], [ 321, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonyms include stage names, user names, ring names, pen names, aliases, superhero or villain identities and code names, gamer identifications, and regnal names of emperors, popes, and other monarchs. In some cases, it may also include nicknames. Historically, they have sometimes taken the form of anagrams, Graecisms, and Latinisations, although there may be many other methods of choosing a pseudonym.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scope", "target_page_ids": [ 53412, 16301990, 844984, 46043, 43076, 491312, 53430, 1361, 14763066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 32, 42 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 151, 162 ], [ 239, 247 ], [ 302, 309 ], [ 327, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonyms should not be confused with new names that replace old ones and become the individual's full-time name. Pseudonyms are \"part-time\" names, used only in certain contexts – to provide a more clear-cut separation between one's private and professional lives, to showcase or enhance a particular persona, or to hide an individual's real identity, as with writers' pen names, graffiti artists' tags, resistance fighters' or terrorists' noms de guerre, and computer hackers' handles. Actors, voice-over artists, musicians, and other performers sometimes use stage names, for example, to better channel a relevant energy, gain a greater sense of security and comfort via privacy, more easily avoid troublesome fans/\"stalkers\", or to mask their ethnic backgrounds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scope", "target_page_ids": [ 83933, 2471540, 16301990, 21504235, 53412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 405, 425 ], [ 470, 477 ], [ 479, 486 ], [ 488, 493 ], [ 562, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some cases, pseudonyms are adopted because they are part of a cultural or organisational tradition: for example devotional names used by members of some religious institutes, and \"cadre names\" used by Communist party leaders such as Trotsky and Lenin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scope", "target_page_ids": [ 3805890, 27050663, 37008, 17888, 11015252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 131 ], [ 156, 175 ], [ 204, 219 ], [ 236, 243 ], [ 248, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A collective name or collective pseudonym is one shared by two or more persons, for example the co-authors of a work, such as Carolyn Keene, Erin Hunter, Ellery Queen, Nicolas Bourbaki, or James S. A. Corey.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scope", "target_page_ids": [ 54835, 3865373, 157862, 167394, 29040164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 139 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 154, 166 ], [ 168, 184 ], [ 189, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term pseudonym is derived from the Greek word \"\" (pseudṓnymon), literally 'false name', from (pseûdos) 'lie, falsehood' and (ónoma) 'name'. The term alias is a Latin adverb meaning 'at another time, elsewhere'.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 2234284, 37513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 172, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes people change their names in such a manner that the new name becomes permanent and is used by all who know the person. This is not an alias or pseudonym, but in fact a new name. In many countries, including common law countries, a name change can be ratified by a court and become a person's new legal name.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 5254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, in the 1960s, civil rights campaigner Malcolm X, originally known as Malcolm Little, changed his surname to \"X\" to represent his unknown African ancestral name that had been lost when his ancestors were brought to North America as slaves. He then changed his name again to Malik El-Shabazz when he converted to Islam.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 20796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Likewise some Jews adopted Hebrew family names upon immigrating to Israel, dropping surnames that had been in their families for generations. The politician David Ben-Gurion, for example, was born David Grün in Poland. He adopted his Hebrew name in 1910 when he published his first article in a Zionist journal in Jerusalem.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 67765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Businesspersons of ethnic minorities in some parts of the world are sometimes advised by an employer to use a pseudonym that is common or acceptable in that area when conducting business, to overcome racial or religious bias.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Criminals may use aliases, fictitious business names, and dummy corporations (corporate shells) to hide their identity, or to impersonate other persons or entities in order to commit fraud. Aliases and fictitious business names used for dummy corporations may become so complex that, in the words of The Washington Post, \"getting to the truth requires a walk down a bizarre labyrinth\" and multiple government agencies may become involved to uncover the truth. Giving a false name to a law enforcement officer is a crime in many jurisdictions; see identity fraud.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 230404, 5405926, 846633, 102226, 3974048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 52 ], [ 58, 76 ], [ 78, 94 ], [ 300, 319 ], [ 547, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A pen name, or nom de plume (French for \"pen name\"), is a pseudonym (sometimes a particular form of the real name) adopted by an author (or on the author's behalf by their publishers).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 46043, 914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ], [ 129, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the term is most frequently used today with regard to identity and the Internet, the concept of pseudonymity has a long history. In ancient literature it was common to write in the name of a famous person, not for concealment or with any intention of deceit; in the New Testament, the second letter of Peter is probably such. A more modern example is all of The Federalist Papers, which were signed by Publius, a pseudonym representing the trio of James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. The papers were written partially in response to several Anti-Federalist Papers, also written under pseudonyms. As a result of this pseudonymity, historians know that the papers were written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay, but have not been able to discern with complete accuracy which of the three authored a few of the papers. There are also examples of modern politicians and high-ranking bureaucrats writing under pseudonyms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 46833, 15950, 40597, 21816397, 2210837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 388 ], [ 457, 470 ], [ 472, 490 ], [ 496, 504 ], [ 563, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some female authors used male pen names, in particular in the 19th century, when writing was a male-dominated profession. The Brontë sisters used pen names for their early work, so as not to reveal their gender (see below) and so that local residents would not know that the books related to people of the neighbourhood. The Brontës used their neighbours as inspiration for characters in many of their books. Anne Brontë's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848) was published under the name Acton Bell, while Charlotte Brontë used the name Currer Bell for Jane Eyre (1847) and Shirley (1849), and Emily Brontë adopted Ellis Bell as cover for Wuthering Heights (1847). Other examples from the nineteenth-century are the novelist Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot) and the French writer Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin (George Sand). Pseudonyms may also be used due to cultural or organization or political prejudices.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 256804, 2029, 194869, 6532, 55438, 582377, 9810, 55435, 13049, 52592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 140 ], [ 409, 420 ], [ 423, 450 ], [ 505, 521 ], [ 552, 561 ], [ 573, 580 ], [ 593, 605 ], [ 638, 655 ], [ 740, 752 ], [ 806, 817 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, some 20th- and 21st-century male romance novelists have used female pen names. A few examples are Brindle Chase, Peter O'Donnell (as Madeline Brent), Christopher Wood (as Penny Sutton and Rosie Dixon), and Hugh C. Rae (as Jessica Sterling).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 206389, 1364009, 44141263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 147 ], [ 169, 185 ], [ 225, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A pen name may be used if a writer's real name is likely to be confused with the name of another writer or notable individual, or if the real name is deemed unsuitable.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Authors who write both fiction and non-fiction, or in different genres, may use different pen names to avoid confusing their readers. For example, the romance writer Nora Roberts writes mystery novels under the name J. D. Robb.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1138392, 1138392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 178 ], [ 216, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some cases, an author may become better known by his pen name than his real name. Some famous examples of that include Samuel Clemens, writing as Mark Twain, and Theodor Geisel, better known as Dr. Seuss. The British mathematician Charles Dodgson wrote fantasy novels as Lewis Carroll and mathematical treatises under his own name.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 154450, 8855, 26586083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 159 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 274, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some authors, such as Harold Robbins, use several literary pseudonyms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 62075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some pen names have been used for long periods, even decades, without the author's true identity being discovered, as with Elena Ferrante and Torsten Krol.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 31625302, 14121906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 137 ], [ 142, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joanne Rowling published the Harry Potter series as J. K. Rowling. Rowling also published the Cormoran Strike series, a series of detective novels including The Cuckoo's Calling under the pseudonym Robert Galbraith.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 16027, 2387806, 39957027, 39956633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 29, 41 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 157, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winston Churchill wrote as Winston S. Churchill (from his full surname Spencer Churchill which he did not otherwise use) in an attempt to avoid confusion with an American novelist of the same name. The attempt was not wholly successful – the two are still sometimes confused by booksellers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 33265, 14509590, 641992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 27, 47 ], [ 162, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A pen name may be used specifically to hide the identity of the author, as with exposé books about espionage or crime, or explicit erotic fiction. Erwin von Busse used a pseudonym when he published short stories about sexually charged encounters between men in Germany in 1920. Some prolific authors adopt a pseudonym to disguise the extent of their published output, e. g. Stephen King writing as Richard Bachman. Co-authors may choose to publish under a collective pseudonym, e. g., P. J. Tracy and Perri O'Shaughnessy. Frederic Dannay and Manfred Lee used the name Ellery Queen as a pen name for their collaborative works and as the name of their main character. Asa Earl Carter, a Southern white segregationist affiliated with the KKK, wrote Western books under a fictional Cherokee persona to imply legitimacy and conceal his history.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 309754, 71043749, 26954, 25622, 5590289, 11264064, 157862, 157862, 157862, 1326425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 86 ], [ 147, 162 ], [ 374, 386 ], [ 398, 413 ], [ 485, 496 ], [ 501, 520 ], [ 522, 537 ], [ 542, 553 ], [ 568, 580 ], [ 666, 681 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Why do authors choose pseudonyms? It is rarely because they actually hope to stay anonymous forever,\" mused writer and columnist Russell Smith in his review of the Canadian novel Into That Fire by the pseudonymous M. J. Cates.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 294785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A famous case in French literature was Romain Gary. Already a well-known writer, he started publishing books as Émile Ajar to test whether his new books would be well received on their own merits, without the aid of his established reputation. They were: Émile Ajar, like Romain Gary before him, was awarded the prestigious Prix Goncourt by a jury unaware that they were the same person. Similarly, TV actor Ronnie Barker submitted comedy material under the name Gerald Wiley.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 82713, 69940, 75619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 324, 337 ], [ 408, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A collective pseudonym may represent an entire publishing house, or any contributor to a long-running series, especially with juvenile literature. Examples include Watty Piper, Victor Appleton, Erin Hunter, and Kamiru M. Xhan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 264813, 1773914, 3865373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 175 ], [ 177, 192 ], [ 194, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another use of a pseudonym in literature is to present a story as being written by the fictional characters in the story. The series of novels known as A Series of Unfortunate Events are written by Daniel Handler under the pen name of Lemony Snicket, a character in the series. This applies also to some of the several 18th-century English and American writers who used the name Fidelia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 568208, 79581, 79572, 60485246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 182 ], [ 198, 212 ], [ 235, 249 ], [ 379, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An anonymity pseudonym or multiple-use name is a name used by many different people to protect anonymity. It is a strategy that has been adopted by many unconnected radical groups and by cultural groups, where the construct of personal identity has been criticised. This has led to the idea of the \"open pop star\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 7407276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonyms and acronyms are often employed in medical research to protect subjects' identities through a process known as de-identification.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1052571, 34017095, 34057814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 66, 94 ], [ 122, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nicolaus Copernicus put forward his theory of heliocentrism in the manuscript Commentariolus anonymously, in part because of his employment as a law clerk for a church-government organization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 323592, 5375984, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 78, 92 ], [ 161, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sophie Germain and William Sealy Gosset used pseudonyms to publish their work in the field of mathematics – Germain, to avoid rampant 19thcentury academic misogyny, and Gosset, to avoid revealing brewing practices of his employer, the Guinness Brewery.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 27791, 105651, 19168, 1723781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 19, 39 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 235, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Satoshi Nakamoto is a pseudonym of a still unknown author or authors' group behind a white paper about bitcoin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 30128660, 291336, 28249265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 85, 96 ], [ 103, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Ancien Régime France, a nom de guerre (\"war name\") would be adopted by each new recruit (or assigned to them by the captain of their company) as they enlisted in the French army. These pseudonyms had an official character and were the predecessor of identification numbers: soldiers were identified by their first names, their family names, and their noms de guerre (e. g. Jean Amarault dit Lafidélité). These pseudonyms were usually related to the soldier's place of origin (e. g. Jean Deslandes dit Champigny, for a soldier coming from a town named Champigny), or to a particular physical or personal trait (e. g. Antoine Bonnet dit Prettaboire, for a soldier prêt à boire, ready to drink). In 1716, a nom de guerre was mandatory for every soldier; officers did not adopt noms de guerre as they considered them derogatory. In daily life, these aliases could replace the real family name.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 6637507, 7946, 472345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ], [ 253, 275 ], [ 554, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Noms de guerre were adopted for security reasons by members of World War II French resistance and Polish resistance. Such pseudonyms are often adopted by military special-forces soldiers, such as members of the SAS and similar units of resistance fighters, terrorists, and guerrillas. This practice hides their identities and may protect their families from reprisals; it may also be a form of dissociation from domestic life. Some well-known men who adopted noms de guerre include Carlos, for Ilich Ramírez Sánchez; Willy Brandt, Chancellor of West Germany; and Subcomandante Marcos, spokesman of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN). During Lehi's underground fight against the British in Mandatory Palestine, the organization's commander Yitzchak Shamir (later Prime Minister of Israel) adopted the nom de guerre \"Michael\", in honour of Ireland's Michael Collins.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 83938, 964250, 83933, 12720, 19654013, 49260, 20890626, 33166, 23733653, 87066, 29287, 38584582, 168208, 97509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 93 ], [ 98, 115 ], [ 236, 255 ], [ 273, 283 ], [ 494, 515 ], [ 517, 529 ], [ 531, 541 ], [ 545, 557 ], [ 563, 583 ], [ 602, 639 ], [ 655, 659 ], [ 703, 722 ], [ 753, 768 ], [ 862, 877 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Revolutionaries and resistance leaders, such as Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky, Golda Meir, Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, and Josip Broz Tito, often adopted their noms de guerre as their proper names after the struggle. George Grivas, the Greek-Cypriot EOKA militant, adopted the nom de guerre Digenis (Διγενής). In the French Foreign Legion, recruits can adopt a pseudonym to break with their past lives. Mercenaries have long used \"noms de guerre\", sometimes even multiple identities, depending on the country, conflict, and circumstance. Some of the most familiar noms de guerre today are the kunya used by Islamic mujahideen. These take the form of a teknonym, either literal or figurative.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 11015252, 15641, 17888, 66578, 810348, 16567, 1189567, 554151, 11544, 3353497, 18305760, 11009695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 53 ], [ 55, 61 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 84, 116 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 216, 229 ], [ 249, 253 ], [ 316, 337 ], [ 592, 597 ], [ 614, 624 ], [ 651, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Individuals using a computer online may adopt or be required to use a form of pseudonym known as a \"handle\" (a term deriving from CB slang), \"user name\", \"login name\", \"avatar\", or, sometimes, \"screen name\", \"gamertag\", \"IGN (In Game (Nick)Name)\" or \"nickname\". On the Internet, pseudonymous remailers use cryptography that achieves persistent pseudonymity, so that two-way communication can be achieved, and reputations can be established, without linking physical identities to their respective pseudonyms. Aliasing is the use of multiple names for the same data location.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 41440, 882812, 16301990, 9878372, 908746, 16301990, 881586, 53430, 85767, 18934432, 180609, 671841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 35 ], [ 130, 138 ], [ 142, 146 ], [ 155, 160 ], [ 169, 175 ], [ 194, 205 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 251, 259 ], [ 279, 300 ], [ 306, 318 ], [ 466, 476 ], [ 509, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More sophisticated cryptographic systems, such as anonymous digital credentials, enable users to communicate pseudonymously (i. e., by identifying themselves by means of pseudonyms). In well-defined abuse cases, a designated authority may be able to revoke the pseudonyms and reveal the individuals' real identity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 5451418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Use of pseudonyms is common among professional eSports players, despite the fact that many professional games are played on LAN.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 564204, 17739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ], [ 124, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonymity has become an important phenomenon on the Internet and other computer networks. In computer networks, pseudonyms possess varying degrees of anonymity, ranging from highly linkable public pseudonyms (the link between the pseudonym and a human being is publicly known or easy to discover), potentially linkable non-public pseudonyms (the link is known to system operators but is not publicly disclosed), and unlinkable pseudonyms (the link is not known to system operators and cannot be determined). For example, true anonymous remailer enables Internet users to establish unlinkable pseudonyms; those that employ non-public pseudonyms (such as the now-defunct Penet remailer) are called pseudonymous remailers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 54666, 85765, 85767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 529, 547 ], [ 672, 686 ], [ 699, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The continuum of unlinkability can also be seen, in part, on Wikipedia. Some registered users make no attempt to disguise their real identities (for example, by placing their real name on their user page). The pseudonym of unregistered users is their IP address, which can, in many cases, easily be linked to them. Other registered users prefer to remain anonymous, and do not disclose identifying information. However, in certain cases, permits system administrators to consult the server logs to determine the IP address, and perhaps the true name, of a registered user. It is possible, in theory, to create an unlinkable Wikipedia pseudonym by using an Open proxy, a Web server that disguises the user's IP address. But most open proxy addresses are blocked indefinitely due to their frequent use by vandals. Additionally, Wikipedia's public record of a user's interest areas, writing style, and argumentative positions may still establish an identifiable pattern.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 14921, 769273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 261 ], [ 657, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "System operators (sysops) at sites offering pseudonymity, such as Wikipedia, are not likely to build unlinkability into their systems, as this would render them unable to obtain information about abusive users quickly enough to stop vandalism and other undesirable behaviors. Law enforcement personnel, fearing an avalanche of illegal behavior, are equally unenthusiastic. Still, some users and privacy activists like the American Civil Liberties Union believe that Internet users deserve stronger pseudonymity so that they can protect themselves against identity theft, illegal government surveillance, stalking, and other unwelcome consequences of Internet use (including unintentional disclosures of their personal information and doxing, as discussed in the next section). Their views are supported by laws in some nations (such as Canada) that guarantee citizens a right to speak using a pseudonym. This right does not, however, give citizens the right to demand publication of pseudonymous speech on equipment they do not own.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 28576, 1950, 2750352, 34826296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 423, 453 ], [ 675, 730 ], [ 735, 741 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most Web sites that offer pseudonymity retain information about users. These sites are often susceptible to unauthorized intrusions into their non-public database systems. For example, in 2000, a Welsh teenager obtained information about more than 26,000 credit card accounts, including that of Bill Gates. In 2003, VISA and MasterCard announced that intruders obtained information about 5.6 million credit cards. Sites that offer pseudonymity are also vulnerable to confidentiality breaches. In a study of a Web dating service and a pseudonymous remailer, University of Cambridge researchers discovered that the systems used by these Web sites to protect user data could be easily compromised, even if the pseudonymous channel is protected by strong encryption. Typically, the protected pseudonymous channel exists within a broader framework in which multiple vulnerabilities exist. Pseudonym users should bear in mind that, given the current state of Web security engineering, their true names may be revealed at any time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 85767, 25978572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 535, 556 ], [ 558, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonymity is an important component of the reputation systems found in online auction services (such as eBay), discussion sites (such as Slashdot), and collaborative knowledge development sites (such as Wikipedia). A pseudonymous user who has acquired a favorable reputation gains the trust of other users. When users believe that they will be rewarded by acquiring a favorable reputation, they are more likely to behave in accordance with the site's policies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 130495, 26715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 111 ], [ 140, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If users can obtain new pseudonymous identities freely or at a very low cost, reputation-based systems are vulnerable to whitewashing attacks, also called serial pseudonymity, in which abusive users continuously discard their old identities and acquire new ones in order to escape the consequences of their behavior: \"On the Internet, nobody knows that yesterday you were a dog, and therefore should be in the doghouse today.\" Users of Internet communities who have been banned only to return with new identities are called sock puppets. Whitewashing is one specific form of Sybil attack on distributed systems. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1744341, 8728576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 524, 536 ], [ 575, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The social cost of cheaply discarded pseudonyms is that experienced users lose confidence in new users, and may subject new users to abuse until they establish a good reputation. System operators may need to remind experienced users that most newcomers are well-intentioned (see, for example, ). Concerns have also been expressed about sock puppets exhausting the supply of easily remembered usernames. In addition a recent research paper demonstrated that people behave in a potentially more aggressive manner when using pseudonyms/nicknames (due to the online disinhibition effect) as opposed to being completely anonymous. In contrast, research by the blog comment hosting service Disqus found pseudonymous users contributed the \"highest quantity and quality of comments\", where \"quality\" is based on an aggregate of likes, replies, flags, spam reports, and comment deletions, and found that users trusted pseudonyms and real names equally. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 9620112, 27871572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 555, 582 ], [ 684, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Researchers at the University of Cambridge showed that pseudonymous comments tended to be more substantive and engaged with other users in explanations, justifications, and chains of argument, and less likely to use insults, than either fully anonymous or real name comments. Proposals have been made to raise the costs of obtaining new identities, such as by charging a small fee or requiring e-mail confirmation. Academic research has proposed cryptographic methods to pseudonymize social media identities or government-issued identities, to accrue and use anonymous reputation in online forums, or to obtain one-per-person and hence less readily-discardable pseudonyms periodically at physical-world pseudonym parties. Others point out that Wikipedia's success is attributable in large measure to its nearly non-existent initial participation costs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "People seeking privacy often use pseudonyms to make appointments and reservations. Those writing to advice columns in newspapers and magazines may use pseudonyms. Steve Wozniak used a pseudonym when attending the University of California, Berkeley after co-founding Apple Computer, because \"[he] knew [he] wouldn't have time enough to be an A+ student.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1618484, 27848, 31922, 856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 113 ], [ 163, 176 ], [ 213, 247 ], [ 266, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When used by an actor, musician, radio disc jockey, model, or other performer or \"show business\" personality a pseudonym is called a stage name, or, occasionally, a professional name, or screen name.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Members of a marginalized ethnic or religious group have often adopted stage names, typically changing their surname or entire name to mask their original background.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stage names are also used to create a more marketable name, as in the case of Creighton Tull Chaney, who adopted the pseudonym Lon Chaney, Jr., a reference to his famous father Lon Chaney, Sr.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 142239, 309034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 142 ], [ 177, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chris Curtis of Deep Purple fame was christened as Christopher Crummey (\"crumby\" is UK slang for poor quality). In this and similar cases a stage name is adopted simply to avoid an unfortunate pun.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 795203, 45848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 16, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonyms are also used to comply with the rules of performing-arts guilds (Screen Actors Guild (SAG), Writers Guild of America, East (WGA), AFTRA, etc.), which do not allow performers to use an existing name, in order to avoid confusion. For example, these rules required film and television actor Michael Fox to add a middle initial and become Michael J. Fox, to avoid being confused with another actor named Michael Fox. This was also true of author and actress Fannie Flagg, who chose this pseudonym; her real name, Patricia Neal, being the name of another well-known actress; and British actor Stewart Granger, whose real name was James Stewart. The film-making team of Joel and Ethan Coen, for instance, share credit for editing under the alias Roderick Jaynes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 12369, 129218, 7019516, 472480, 68904, 7630851, 1583724, 210214, 420537, 15780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 74 ], [ 77, 96 ], [ 104, 134 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 347, 361 ], [ 412, 423 ], [ 466, 478 ], [ 554, 580 ], [ 600, 615 ], [ 676, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some stage names are used to conceal a person's identity, such as the pseudonym Alan Smithee, which was used by directors in the Directors Guild of America (DGA) to remove their name from a film they feel was edited or modified beyond their artistic satisfaction. In theatre, the pseudonyms George or Georgina Spelvin, and Walter Plinge are used to hide the identity of a performer, usually when he or she is \"doubling\" (playing more than one role in the same play).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 79599, 362736, 576844, 497647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 92 ], [ 129, 155 ], [ 291, 317 ], [ 323, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Agnew was a name used by the BBC to conceal the identity of a scriptwriter, such as for the Doctor Who serial City of Death, which had three writers, including Douglas Adams, who was at the time of writing the show's Script Editor. In another Doctor Who serial, The Brain of Morbius, writer Terrance Dicks demanded the removal of his name from the credits saying it could go out under a \"bland pseudonym\". This ended up as Robin Bland.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 589105, 8209, 88472, 8091, 1799845, 902937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 98, 108 ], [ 116, 129 ], [ 166, 179 ], [ 268, 288 ], [ 297, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Musicians and singers can use pseudonyms to allow artists to collaborate with artists on other labels while avoiding the need to gain permission from their own labels, such as the artist Jerry Samuels, who made songs under Napoleon XIV. Rock singer-guitarist George Harrison, for example, played guitar on Cream's song \"Badge\" using a pseudonym. In classical music, some record companies issued recordings under a nom de disque in the 1950s and 1960s to avoid paying royalties. A number of popular budget LPs of piano music were released under the pseudonym Paul Procopolis. Another example is that Paul McCartney used his fictional name \"Bernerd Webb\" for Peter and Gordon's song Woman.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 762851, 12731, 53414, 1811210, 6606611, 13736167, 167658, 14145525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 200 ], [ 259, 274 ], [ 306, 311 ], [ 320, 325 ], [ 558, 573 ], [ 599, 613 ], [ 657, 673 ], [ 681, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonyms are used as stage names in heavy metal bands, such as Tracii Guns in LA Guns, Axl Rose and Slash in Guns N' Roses, Mick Mars in Mötley Crüe, Dimebag Darrell in Pantera, or C.C. Deville in Poison. Some such names have additional meanings, like that of Brian Hugh Warner, more commonly known as Marilyn Manson: Marilyn coming from Marilyn Monroe and Manson from convicted serial killer Charles Manson. Jacoby Shaddix of Papa Roach went under the name \"Coby Dick\" during the Infest era. He changed back to his birth name when lovehatetragedy was released.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 13869, 1137194, 1039938, 150056, 97778, 2773076, 1029247, 19364, 217489, 142805, 1122897, 166643, 650426, 19318, 42635, 895850, 922776, 3112624, 169576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 65, 76 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 102, 107 ], [ 111, 124 ], [ 126, 135 ], [ 139, 150 ], [ 152, 167 ], [ 171, 178 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 199, 205 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 340, 354 ], [ 395, 409 ], [ 411, 425 ], [ 429, 439 ], [ 483, 489 ], [ 534, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Johansen, front man for the hard rock band New York Dolls, recorded and performed pop and lounge music under the pseudonym Buster Poindexter in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The music video for Poindexter's debut single, Hot Hot Hot, opens with a monologue from Johansen where he notes his time with the New York Dolls and explains his desire to create more sophisticated music.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 526954, 146791, 4439914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 49, 63 ], [ 229, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ross Bagdasarian, Sr., creator of Alvin and the Chipmunks, wrote original songs, arranged, and produced the records under his real name, but performed on them as David Seville. He also wrote songs as Skipper Adams. Danish pop pianist Bent Fabric, whose full name is Bent Fabricius-Bjerre, wrote his biggest instrumental hit \"Alley Cat\" as Frank Bjorn.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 755989, 355901, 606263, 14792503, 31242570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 34, 57 ], [ 162, 175 ], [ 234, 245 ], [ 325, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a time, the musician Prince used an unpronounceable \"Love Symbol\" as a pseudonym (\"Prince\" is his actual first name rather than a stage name). He wrote the song \"Sugar Walls\" for Sheena Easton as \"Alexander Nevermind\" and \"Manic Monday\" for The Bangles as \"Christopher Tracy\". (He also produced albums early in his career as \"Jamie Starr\").", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 57317, 57317, 2615993, 511271, 1553994, 30513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 57, 68 ], [ 166, 177 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 227, 239 ], [ 245, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many Italian-American singers have used stage names, as their birth names were difficult to pronounce or considered too ethnic for American tastes. Singers changing their names included Dean Martin (born Dino Paul Crocetti), Connie Francis (born Concetta Franconero), Frankie Valli (born Francesco Castelluccio), Tony Bennett (born Anthony Benedetto), and Lady Gaga (born Stefani Germanotta)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 151603, 167051, 182456, 232669, 17782843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 197 ], [ 225, 239 ], [ 268, 281 ], [ 313, 325 ], [ 356, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, the British rock band Feeder briefly changed its name to Renegades so it could play a whole show featuring a set list in which 95 per cent of the songs played were from their forthcoming new album of the same name, with none of their singles included. Front man Grant Nicholas felt that if they played as Feeder, there would be uproar over him not playing any of the singles, so used the pseudonym as a hint. A series of small shows were played in 2010, at 250- to 1,000-capacity venues with the plan not to say who the band really are and just announce the shows as if they were a new band.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 669074, 25489607, 731997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 66, 75 ], [ 271, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases, hip-hop and rap artists prefer to use pseudonyms that represents some variation of their name, personality, or interests. Examples include Iggy Azalea (her stage name is a combination of her dog's name, Iggy, and her home street in Mullumbimby, Azalea Street), Ol' Dirty Bastard (known under at least six aliases), Diddy (previously known at various times as Puffy, P. Diddy, and Puff Daddy), Ludacris, Flo Rida (whose stage name is a tribute to his home state, Florida), British-Jamaican hip-hop artist Stefflon Don (real name Stephanie Victoria Allen), LL Cool J, and Chingy. Black metal artists also adopt pseudonyms, usually symbolizing dark values, such as Nocturno Culto, Gaahl, Abbath, and Silenoz. In punk and hardcore punk, singers and band members often replace real names with tougher-sounding stage names such as Sid Vicious (real name John Simon Ritchie) of the late 1970s band Sex Pistols and \"Rat\" of the early 1980s band The Varukers and the 2000s re-formation of Discharge. The punk rock band The Ramones had every member take the last name of Ramone.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 33715219, 1288220, 166781, 152447, 159966, 13994263, 18933066, 55538225, 170459, 568128, 4874, 2076921, 6170694, 158287, 30320, 757910, 965518, 32216781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 165 ], [ 247, 258 ], [ 276, 293 ], [ 330, 335 ], [ 408, 416 ], [ 418, 426 ], [ 477, 484 ], [ 519, 531 ], [ 570, 579 ], [ 585, 591 ], [ 593, 604 ], [ 677, 691 ], [ 693, 698 ], [ 840, 851 ], [ 906, 917 ], [ 952, 964 ], [ 995, 1004 ], [ 1025, 1036 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry John Deutschendorf Jr., an American singer-songwriter, used the stage name John Denver. The Australian country musician born Robert Lane changed his name to Tex Morton. Reginald Kenneth Dwight legally changed his name in 1972 to Elton John.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 58586, 2135296, 5052197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 163, 173 ], [ 235, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alter ego", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 179901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anonymity", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 181382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anonymous post", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3907601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anonymous remailer", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 54666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bugō", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60987800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Courtesy name", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 152565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Code name", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 308198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Confidentiality", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 353859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Data haven", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 168753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Digital signature", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Friend-to-friend", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1185274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heteronym", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3332266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hypocorism", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 657042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Doe", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Latinised names", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9204283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of placeholder names by language", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22422669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of pseudonyms", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 207947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of pseudonyms used in the American Constitutional debates", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47189619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of stage names", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12089729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mononymous person", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18520676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nickname", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nym server", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 85767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nymwars", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32825679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Onion routing", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 424617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Penet.fi", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 85765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Placeholder name", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1270265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Placeholder names in cryptography", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 679079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudepigrapha", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 503214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonymization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8543665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonymous Bosch", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16607557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudonymous remailer", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 85767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Public key encryption", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Secret identity", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 163204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peschke, Michael. 2006. International Encyclopedia of Pseudonyms. Detroit: Gale. .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Room, Adrian. 2010. Dictionary of Pseudonyms: 13,000 Assumed Names and Their Origins. 5th rev. ed. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A site with pseudonyms for celebrities and entertainers ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another list of pseudonyms", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. copyright status of pseudonyms", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anonymity Bibliography Excellent bibliography on anonymity and pseudonymity. Includes hyperlinks.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anonymity Network Describes an architecture for anonymous Web browsing.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) Anonymity/Pseudonymity Archive", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Real Name Fallacy - \"Not only would removing anonymity fail to consistently improve online community behavior – forcing real names in online communities could also increase discrimination and worsen harassment.\" with 30 references", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mut'i", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Pseudonyms", "Semantics", "Word_play", "Applications_of_cryptography", "Anonymity" ]

[ "assumed name", "alias" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757July 12, 1804) was an American revolutionary, statesman and Founding Father of the United States. He was an influential interpreter and promoter of the U.S. Constitution, and was the founder of the Federalist Party, the nation's financial system, the United States Coast Guard, and the New York Post newspaper. As the first secretary of the treasury, Hamilton was the main author of the economic policies of the administration of President George Washington. He took the lead in the federal government's funding of the states' American Revolutionary War debts, as well as establishing the nation's first two de facto central banks (i.e. the Bank of North America and the First Bank of the United States), a system of tariffs, and the resumption of friendly trade relations with Britain. His vision included a strong central government led by a vigorous executive branch, a strong commercial economy, support for manufacturing, and a strong national defense.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1973, 55959, 540802, 31644, 32086, 32223, 102227, 43338, 8702096, 195149, 771, 5666, 55570, 55569, 240468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 88 ], [ 90, 99 ], [ 104, 140 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 242, 258 ], [ 295, 320 ], [ 330, 343 ], [ 368, 393 ], [ 452, 501 ], [ 527, 547 ], [ 571, 597 ], [ 661, 673 ], [ 685, 706 ], [ 715, 746 ], [ 984, 1000 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was born out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis. He was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. When he reached his teens, local patrons sent him to New York to pursue his education. While a student, his opinion pieces supporting the Continental Congress were published under a pen name, and he also addressed crowds on the subject. He took an early role in the militia as the American Revolutionary War began. As an artillery officer in the new Continental Army he saw action in the New York and New Jersey campaign. In 1777, he became a senior aide to Commander in Chief General George Washington, but returned to field command in time for a pivotal action securing victory at the Siege of Yorktown, effectively ending hostilities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 198388, 21503, 504974, 38322, 46043, 4158168, 168210, 480615, 239481, 254428, 11968, 157770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 155, 162 ], [ 260, 280 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 388, 395 ], [ 472, 488 ], [ 510, 542 ], [ 572, 576 ], [ 580, 598 ], [ 607, 624 ], [ 709, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, he was elected as a representative from New York to the Congress of the Confederation. He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York before returning to politics. Hamilton was a leader in seeking to replace the weak confederal government under the Articles of Confederation; he led the Annapolis Convention of 1786, which spurred Congress to call a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, where he then served as a delegate from New York. He helped ratify the Constitution by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers, which are still used as one of the most important references for Constitutional interpretation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8210131, 3470589, 12097619, 227091, 691, 435284, 1743283, 50585, 46833, 30870726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ], [ 71, 100 ], [ 146, 162 ], [ 246, 256 ], [ 278, 303 ], [ 316, 344 ], [ 379, 404 ], [ 408, 420 ], [ 546, 567 ], [ 634, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton led the Treasury Department as a trusted member of President Washington's first cabinet. To this day he remains the youngest U.S. cabinet member to take office since the beginning of the Republic. Hamilton successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, to assume states' debts, and to create the government-backed Bank of the United States (i.e. the First Bank of the United States). These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, and later by a controversial whiskey tax. He opposed administration entanglement with the series of unstable French revolutionary governments. Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party, which was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 53667, 32290, 1602548, 322221, 55569, 55551, 7515651, 143541, 11188, 32080, 29922, 15950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 244, 258 ], [ 320, 333 ], [ 432, 463 ], [ 508, 514 ], [ 518, 524 ], [ 556, 567 ], [ 636, 656 ], [ 755, 782 ], [ 790, 806 ], [ 811, 824 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York. He called for mobilization under President John Adams in 1798–99 against French First Republic military aggression, and was commissioned Commanding General of the U.S. Army, which he reconstituted, modernized, and readied for war. The army did not see combat in the Quasi-War fought entirely at sea, and Hamilton was outraged by Adams' diplomatic approach to the crisis with France. His opposition to Adams' re-election helped cause the Federalist Party defeat in 1800. Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college, and Hamilton helped to defeat Burr, whom he found unprincipled, and to elect Jefferson despite philosophical differences.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 451461, 10410626, 62243, 233039, 1424652, 25343, 40454, 57454, 85533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 83 ], [ 100, 110 ], [ 130, 151 ], [ 161, 171 ], [ 194, 229 ], [ 323, 332 ], [ 521, 525 ], [ 541, 551 ], [ 583, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton continued his legal and business activities in New York City, and was active in ending the legality of the international slave trade. Vice President Burr ran for governor of New York State in 1804, and Hamilton campaigned against him as unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged him to a duel on July 11, 1804, in which Burr shot and mortally wounded Hamilton, who died the following day.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48737568, 15647290, 3445146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 141 ], [ 163, 205 ], [ 295, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton is generally regarded as an astute and intellectually brilliant administrator, politician and financier, if often impetuous. His ideas are credited with laying the foundation for American government and finance.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander Hamilton was born and spent part of his childhood in Charlestown, the capital of the island of Nevis in the Leeward Islands (then part of the British West Indies). Hamilton and his older brother James Jr. (1753–1786) were born out of wedlock to Rachel Faucette, a married woman of half-British and half-French Huguenot descent, and James A. Hamilton, a Scotsman who was the fourth son of Alexander Hamilton, the laird of Grange in Ayrshire. Though there is persistent speculation that Hamilton's mother was of mixed race, it is not substantiated by verifiable evidence. Rachel Faucette was listed as white on tax rolls.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early childhood", "target_page_ids": [ 198388, 21503, 276895, 294567, 574821, 75899, 34850722, 2238065, 6872637, 68208, 243749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 74 ], [ 105, 110 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 152, 171 ], [ 237, 251 ], [ 313, 328 ], [ 363, 371 ], [ 422, 427 ], [ 431, 437 ], [ 441, 449 ], [ 520, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is not certain whether Hamilton's birth was in 1755 or 1757. Most historical evidence, after Hamilton's arrival in North America, supports the idea that he was born in 1757, including Hamilton's own writings. Hamilton listed his birth year as 1757 when he first arrived in the Thirteen Colonies, and celebrated his birthday on January 11. In later life, he tended to give his age only in round figures. Historians accepted 1757 as his birth year until about 1930, when additional documentation of his early life in the Caribbean was published, initially in Danish. A probate paper from St. Croix in 1768, drafted after the death of Hamilton's mother, listed him as 13 years old, which has caused some historians since the 1930s to favor a birth year of 1755.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early childhood", "target_page_ids": [ 34681, 18956035, 8227, 1043001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 297 ], [ 522, 531 ], [ 560, 566 ], [ 570, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians have speculated on possible reasons for two different years of birth to have appeared in historical documents. If 1755 is correct, Hamilton might have been trying to appear younger than his college classmates, or perhaps wished to avoid standing out as older. If 1757 is correct, the single probate document indicating a birth year of 1755 may have simply included an error, or Hamilton might once have given his age as 13 after his mother's death in an attempt to appear older and more employable. Historians have pointed out that the probate document contained other proven inaccuracies, demonstrating it was not entirely reliable. Richard Brookhiser noted that \"a man is more likely to know his own birthday than a probate court.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early childhood", "target_page_ids": [ 6341870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 645, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's mother had been married previously on St. Croix in the Virgin Islands, then ruled by Denmark, to a Danish or German merchant, Johann Michael Lavien. They had one son, Peter Lavien. In 1750, Faucette left her husband and first son; then traveled to Saint Kitts where she met James Hamilton. Hamilton and Faucette moved together to Nevis, her birthplace, where she had inherited a seaside lot in town from her father.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early childhood", "target_page_ids": [ 229431, 76972, 59392160, 59392160, 27737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 58 ], [ 96, 103 ], [ 137, 158 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 259, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "James Hamilton later abandoned Rachel Faucette and their two sons, James Jr. and Alexander, allegedly to \"spar[e] [her] a charge of bigamy... after finding out that her first husband intend[ed] to divorce her under Danish law on grounds of adultery and desertion.\" Thereafter, Rachel moved with her two children to St. Croix, where she supported them by keeping a small store in Christiansted. She contracted yellow fever and died on February 19, 1768, leaving Hamilton orphaned. This may have had severe emotional consequences for him, even by the standards of an 18th-century childhood. In probate court, Faucette's \"first husband seized her estate\" and obtained the few valuables that she had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family's books and returned them to Hamilton.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early childhood", "target_page_ids": [ 226222, 1256318, 34254, 18012669, 62912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 138 ], [ 379, 392 ], [ 409, 421 ], [ 592, 605 ], [ 752, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton became a clerk at Beekman and Cruger, a local import-export firm that traded with New York and New England. He and James Jr. were briefly taken in by their cousin Peter Lytton; however, Lytton took his own life in July 1769, leaving his property to his mistress and their son, and the Hamilton brothers were subsequently separated. James apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Alexander was given a home by Thomas Stevens a merchant from Nevis. Some clues have led to speculation that Stevens was Alexander Hamilton's biological father: his son Edward Stevens became a close friend of Hamilton, the two boys were described as looking much alike, both were fluent in French and shared similar interests. However, this allegation, mostly based on the comments of Timothy Pickering on the resemblance between the two men, has always been vague and unsupported. Rachel Faucette had been living on St. Kitts and Nevis for years at the time when Alexander was conceived, while Thomas Stevens lived on Antigua and St. Croix; also, James Hamilton never disclaimed paternity, and even in later years, signed his letters to Hamilton with \"Your very Affectionate Father.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early childhood", "target_page_ids": [ 21531764, 50431492, 465344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 115 ], [ 557, 571 ], [ 773, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton, despite being only in his teenage years, proved capable enough as a trader to be left in charge of the firm for five months in 1771 while the owner was at sea. He remained an avid reader and later developed an interest in writing. He began to desire a life outside the island where he lived. He wrote a letter to his father that was a detailed account of a hurricane that had devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772. The Presbyterian Reverend Hugh Knox, a tutor and mentor to Hamilton, submitted the letter for publication in the Royal Danish-American Gazette. The biographer Ron Chernow found the letter astounding for two reasons; first, that \"for all its bombastic excesses, it does seem wondrous [that a] self-educated clerk could write with such verve and gusto,\" and second, that a teenage boy produced an apocalyptic \"fire-and-brimstone sermon\" viewing the hurricane as a \"divine rebuke to human vanity and pomposity.\" The essay impressed community leaders, who collected a fund to send Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early childhood", "target_page_ids": [ 2240593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 590, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Church of England denied membership to Alexander and James Hamilton Jr.—and education in the church school—because their parents were not legally married. While their mother lived they received \"individual tutoring\" and classes in a private school led by a Jewish headmistress. Alexander supplemented his education with the family library of 34 books.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 25955086, 833159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 268, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 1772 Hamilton arrived by ship in Boston and proceeded from there to New York City. He took lodgings with the Irish-born Hercules Mulligan who, as the brother of a trader known to Hamilton's benefactors, assisted Hamilton in selling cargo that was to pay for his education and support. Later in 1772, in preparation for college work, Hamilton began to fill gaps in his education at the Elizabethtown Academy, a preparatory school run by Francis Barber in Elizabethtown, New Jersey. He there came under the influence of William Livingston, a local leading intellectual and revolutionary, with whom he lived for a time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 48573378, 156975, 23235291, 9765541, 236313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 148 ], [ 421, 439 ], [ 447, 461 ], [ 465, 490 ], [ 529, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton entered Mulligan's alma mater King's College (now Columbia University) in New York City in the autumn of 1773 \"as a private student\", again boarding with Mulligan until officially matriculating in May 1774. His college roommate and lifelong friend Robert Troup spoke glowingly of Hamilton's clarity in concisely explaining the patriots' case against the British in what is credited as Hamilton's first public appearance, on July 6, 1774, at the Liberty Pole at King's College. Hamilton, Troup, and four other undergraduates formed an unnamed literary society that is regarded as a precursor of the Philolexian Society.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 684168, 6310, 21834303, 1162392, 1860537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 59, 78 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 454, 466 ], [ 607, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Church of England clergyman Samuel Seabury published a series of pamphlets promoting the Loyalist cause in 1774, to which Hamilton responded anonymously with his first political writings, A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress and The Farmer Refuted. Seabury essentially tried to provoke fear in the colonies, and his main objective was to stop the potential union among the colonies. Hamilton published two additional pieces attacking the Quebec Act, and may have also authored the fifteen anonymous installments of \"The Monitor\" for Holt's New York Journal. Hamilton was a supporter of the Revolutionary cause at this pre-war stage, although he did not approve of mob reprisals against Loyalists. On May 10, 1775, Hamilton won credit for saving his college president Myles Cooper, a Loyalist, from an angry mob by speaking to the crowd long enough for Cooper to escape.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 1398675, 219394, 29781787, 29781905, 55000, 1973, 7187931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 42 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 188, 234 ], [ 239, 257 ], [ 448, 458 ], [ 596, 619 ], [ 777, 789 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was forced to discontinue his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during the British occupation of the city. With the completion of his military service, after some months of self-study, by July 1782 Hamilton passed the bar exam and in October 1782 was licensed to argue cases before the Supreme Court of the State of New York. Hamilton was awarded a Master of Arts degree from the reconstituted Columbia College in 1788 for his work in reopening the college and placing it on firm financial footing. Hamilton was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1791.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 4126896, 684168, 283120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 384, 398 ], [ 429, 445 ], [ 571, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1775, after the first engagement of American troops with the British at Lexington and Concord, Hamilton and other King's College students joined a New York volunteer militia company called the Corsicans, later renamed or reformed as the Hearts of Oak.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 4321886, 4158168, 15323785, 5991437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 96 ], [ 169, 176 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 240, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He drilled with the company, before classes, in the graveyard of nearby St. Paul's Chapel. Hamilton studied military history and tactics on his own and was soon recommended for promotion. Under fire from HMS Asia, he led the Hearts of Oak with support from Hercules Mulligan and the Sons of Liberty on a successful raid for British cannons in the Battery, the capture of which resulted in the unit becoming an artillery company thereafter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 5122291, 12207036, 505178, 33018826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 89 ], [ 204, 212 ], [ 283, 298 ], [ 343, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through his connections with influential New York patriots such as Alexander McDougall and John Jay, Hamilton raised the New York Provincial Company of Artillery of 60 men in 1776, and was elected captain. The company took part in the campaign of 1776 in and around New York City; as rearguard of the Continental Army's retreat up Manhattan, serving at the Battle of Harlem Heights shortly after, as well as at the Battle of White Plains a month later. At the Battle of Trenton, it was stationed at the high point of town, the meeting of the present Warren and Broad streets, to keep the Hessians pinned in the Trenton Barracks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 486947, 574456, 21816397, 16639189, 6461120, 480615, 17293333, 481086, 404509, 230033, 336315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ], [ 67, 86 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 121, 161 ], [ 197, 204 ], [ 235, 251 ], [ 284, 293 ], [ 357, 381 ], [ 415, 437 ], [ 460, 477 ], [ 588, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton participated in the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. After an initial setback, Washington rallied the American troops and led them in a successful charge against the British forces. After making a brief stand, the British fell back, some leaving Princeton, and others taking up refuge in Nassau Hall. Hamilton brought three cannons up and had them fire upon the building. Then some Americans rushed the front door, and broke it down. The British subsequently put a white flag outside one of the windows; 194 British soldiers walked out of the building and laid down their arms, thus ending the battle in an American victory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 218910, 1965410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ], [ 304, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was invited to become an aide to William Alexander, Lord Stirling, and another general, perhaps Nathanael Greene or Alexander McDougall. He declined these invitations, believing his best chance for improving his station in life was glory on the battlefield. Hamilton eventually received an invitation he felt he could not refuse: to serve as Washington's aide, with the rank of lieutenant colonel. Washington believed that \"Aides de camp are persons in whom entire confidence must be placed and it requires men of abilities to execute the duties with propriety and dispatch.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 356299, 236764, 574456, 22376677, 3412836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 74 ], [ 105, 121 ], [ 125, 144 ], [ 364, 368 ], [ 387, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton served four years as Washington's chief staff aide. He handled letters to Congress, state governors, and the most powerful generals of the Continental Army; he drafted many of Washington's orders and letters at the latter's direction; he eventually issued orders from Washington over Hamilton's own signature. Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of high-level duties, including intelligence, diplomacy, and negotiation with senior army officers as Washington's emissary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 168210, 146678, 28165911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 164 ], [ 391, 403 ], [ 405, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the war, Hamilton became the close friend of several fellow officers. His letters to the Marquis de Lafayette and to John Laurens, employing the sentimental literary conventions of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology, have been read by Jonathan Ned Katz as revelatory of a homosocial or even homosexual relationship. Biographer Gregory D. Massey amongst others, by contrast, dismisses all such speculation as unsubstantiated, describing their friendship as purely platonic camaraderie instead and placing their correspondence in the context of the flowery diction of the time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 156068, 430947, 11150813, 2330609, 1141158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 116 ], [ 124, 136 ], [ 152, 184 ], [ 279, 296 ], [ 316, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While on Washington's staff, Hamilton long sought command and a return to active combat. As the war drew nearer to an end, he knew that opportunities for military glory were diminishing. On February 15, 1781, Hamilton was reprimanded by Washington after a minor misunderstanding. Although Washington quickly tried to mend their relationship, Hamilton insisted on leaving his staff. He officially left in March, and settled with his new wife Elizabeth Schuyler close to Washington's headquarters. He continued to repeatedly ask Washington and others for a field command. Washington continued to demur, citing the need to appoint men of higher rank. This continued until early July 1781, when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his commission enclosed, \"thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn't get his desired command.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 10508019, 36301328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 441, 459 ], [ 742, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 31, Washington relented and assigned Hamilton as commander of a battalion of light infantry companies of the 1st and 2nd New York Regiments and two provisional companies from Connecticut. In the planning for the assault on Yorktown, Hamilton was given command of three battalions, which were to fight in conjunction with the allied French troops in taking Redoubts No. 9 and No. 10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown. Hamilton and his battalions took Redoubt No. 10 with bayonets in a nighttime action, as planned. The French also suffered heavy casualties and took Redoubt No. 9. These actions forced the British surrender of an entire army at Yorktown, marking the de facto end of the war, although small battles continued for two more years until the signing of the Treaty of Paris and the departure of the last British troops.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revolutionary War", "target_page_ids": [ 33078381, 157770, 145416, 2973792, 2404394, 53436, 43594, 191926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 109 ], [ 216, 239 ], [ 277, 286 ], [ 340, 353 ], [ 364, 371 ], [ 486, 494 ], [ 682, 690 ], [ 784, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Yorktown, Hamilton returned to New York and resigned his commission in March 1782. He passed the bar in July after six months of self-directed education. He also accepted an offer from Robert Morris to become receiver of continental taxes for the State of New York. Hamilton was appointed in July 1782 to the Congress of the Confederation as a New York representative for the term beginning in November 1782. Before his appointment to Congress in 1782, Hamilton was already sharing his criticisms of Congress. He expressed these criticisms in his letter to James Duane dated September 3, 1780. In this letter he wrote, ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [ 230337, 3470589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 204 ], [ 315, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While on Washington's staff, Hamilton had become frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress, particularly its dependence upon the states for voluntary financial support that was not often forthcoming. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had no power to collect taxes or to demand money from the states. This lack of a stable source of funding had made it difficult for the Continental Army both to obtain its necessary provisions and to pay its soldiers. During the war, and for some time after, Congress obtained what funds it could from subsidies from the King of France, from aid requested from the several states (which were often unable or unwilling to contribute), and from European loans.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An amendment to the Articles had been proposed by Thomas Burke, in February 1781, to give Congress the power to collect a 5% impost, or duty on all imports, but this required ratification by all states; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782. James Madison joined Hamilton in influencing Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind. Their report recommending the delegation argued the national government needed not just some level of financial autonomy, but also the ability to make laws that superseded those of the individual states. Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax, since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states; but Virginia's rescission of its own ratification of this amendment ended the Rhode Island negotiations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [ 502737, 15950, 2342619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 305, 318 ], [ 794, 804 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Hamilton was in Congress, discontented soldiers began to pose a danger to the young United States. Most of the army was then posted at Newburgh, New York. Those in the army were funding much of their own supplies, and they had not been paid in eight months. Furthermore, after Valley Forge, the Continental officers had been promised in May 1778 a pension of half their pay when they were discharged. By the early 1780s, due to the structure of the government under the Articles of Confederation, it had no power to tax to either raise revenue or pay its soldiers. In 1782, after several months without pay, a group of officers organized to send a delegation to lobby Congress, led by Capt. Alexander McDougall. The officers had three demands: the Army's pay, their own pensions, and commutation of those pensions into a lump-sum payment if Congress were unable to afford the half-salary pensions for life. Congress rejected the proposal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [ 259964, 10778278, 43613, 574456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 159 ], [ 283, 295 ], [ 354, 361 ], [ 697, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several congressmen, including Hamilton, Robert Morris and Gouverneur Morris (no relation), attempted to use this so-called Newburgh Conspiracy as leverage to secure support from the states and in Congress for funding of the national government. They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach, implying unknown consequences if their demands were not met, and defeated proposals designed to end the crisis without establishing general taxation: that the states assume the debt to the army, or that an impost be established dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [ 230337, 432330, 625793, 30297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 124, 143 ], [ 516, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton suggested using the Army's claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system. The Morrises and Hamilton contacted General Henry Knox to suggest he and the officers defy civil authority, at least by not disbanding if the army were not satisfied. Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that Hamilton covertly \"take direction\" of the officers' efforts to secure redress, to secure continental funding but keep the army within the limits of moderation. Washington wrote Hamilton back, declining to introduce the army. After the crisis had ended, Washington warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for the national funding plan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [ 233146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 15, Washington defused the Newburgh situation by addressing the officers personally. Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783. In the same month, Congress passed a new measure for a 25-year impost—which Hamilton voted against—that again required the consent of all the states; it also approved a commutation of the officers' pensions to five years of full pay. Rhode Island again opposed these provisions, and Hamilton's robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter were widely held to be excessive.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1783, a different group of disgruntled soldiers from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay. When they began to march toward Philadelphia, Congress charged Hamilton and two others with intercepting the mob. Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania's Supreme Executive Council, but was turned down. Hamilton instructed Assistant Secretary of War William Jackson to intercept the men. Jackson was unsuccessful. The mob arrived in Philadelphia, and the soldiers proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay. Hamilton argued that Congress ought to adjourn to Princeton, New Jersey. Congress agreed, and relocated there. Frustrated with the weakness of the central government, Hamilton while in Princeton drafted a call to revise the Articles of Confederation. This resolution contained many features of the future U.S. Constitution, including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and raise an army. It also included the separation of powers into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [ 82388, 6916285, 7141815, 84658, 28561, 31756, 195149, 1636627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 84 ], [ 366, 392 ], [ 393, 408 ], [ 603, 624 ], [ 989, 1009 ], [ 1019, 1030 ], [ 1032, 1041 ], [ 1047, 1055 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton resigned from Congress in 1783. When the British left New York in 1783, he practiced there in partnership with Richard Harison. He specialized in defending Tories and British subjects, as in Rutgers v. Waddington, in which he defeated a claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the military occupation of New York. He pleaded for the Mayor's Court to interpret state law consistent with the 1783 Treaty of Paris which had ended the Revolutionary War.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [ 2659727, 31350776, 29778270, 191926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 79 ], [ 120, 135 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 432, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1784, he founded the Bank of New York, one of the oldest banks in America. Hamilton was one of the men who restored King's College as Columbia College, which had been suspended since 1776 and severely damaged during the war. Long dissatisfied with the Articles of Confederation as too weak to be effective, he played a major leadership role at the Annapolis Convention in 1786. He drafted its resolution for a constitutional convention, and in doing so brought one step closer to reality his longtime desire to have a more effectual, more financially self-sufficient federal government.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return to civilian life", "target_page_ids": [ 12097619, 684168, 435284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ], [ 138, 154 ], [ 352, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature and was chosen as a delegate for the Constitutional Convention by his father-in-law Philip Schuyler. Even though Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention, his direct influence at the Convention itself was quite limited. Governor George Clinton's faction in the New York legislature had chosen New York's other two delegates, John Lansing Jr. and Robert Yates, and both of them opposed Hamilton's goal of a strong national government. Thus, whenever the other two members of the New York delegation were present, they decided New York's vote, to ensure that there were no major alterations to the Articles of Confederation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [ 45470, 426458, 1743283, 308181, 147872, 25068298, 869291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 68, 94 ], [ 132, 157 ], [ 179, 194 ], [ 357, 371 ], [ 453, 469 ], [ 474, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early in the Convention Hamilton made a speech proposing a President-for-Life; it had no effect upon the deliberations of the convention. He proposed to have an elected president and elected senators who would serve for life, contingent upon \"good behavior\" and subject to removal for corruption or abuse; this idea contributed later to the hostile view of Hamilton as a monarchist sympathizer, held by James Madison. According to Madison's notes, Hamilton said in regards to the executive, \"The English model was the only good one on this subject. The hereditary interest of the king was so interwoven with that of the nation, and his personal emoluments so great, that he was placed above the danger of being corrupted from abroad... Let one executive be appointed for life who dares execute his powers.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [ 1743283, 24909346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 149 ], [ 191, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton argued, \"And let me observe that an executive is less dangerous to the liberties of the people when in office during life than for seven years. It may be said this constitutes as an elective monarchy... But by making the executive subject to impeachment, the term 'monarchy' cannot apply...\" In his notes of the convention, Madison interpreted Hamilton's proposal as claiming power for the \"rich and well born\". Madison's perspective all but isolated Hamilton from his fellow delegates and others who felt they did not reflect the ideas of revolution and liberty.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the convention, Hamilton constructed a draft for the Constitution based on the convention debates, but he never presented it. This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution. In this draft, the Senate was to be elected in proportion to the population, being two-fifths the size of the House, and the President and Senators were to be elected through complex multistage elections, in which chosen electors would elect smaller bodies of electors; they would hold office for life, but were removable for misconduct. The President would have an absolute veto. The Supreme Court was to have immediate jurisdiction over all lawsuits involving the United States, and state governors were to be appointed by the federal government.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [ 31737, 113258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 582, 595 ], [ 640, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of the convention, Hamilton was still not content with the final Constitution, but signed it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and urged his fellow delegates to do so also. Since the other two members of the New York delegation, Lansing and Yates, had already withdrawn, Hamilton was the only New York signer to the United States Constitution. He then took a highly active part in the successful campaign for the document's ratification in New York in 1788, which was a crucial step in its national ratification. He first used the popularity of the Constitution by the masses to compel George Clinton to sign, but was unsuccessful. The state convention in Poughkeepsie in June 1788 pitted Hamilton, Jay, James Duane, Robert Livingston, and Richard Morris against the Clintonian faction led by Melancton Smith, Lansing, Yates, and Gilbert Livingston.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [ 640894, 8033000, 43523139, 1279749, 45640305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 746, 757 ], [ 759, 776 ], [ 782, 796 ], [ 835, 850 ], [ 872, 890 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Members of Hamilton's faction were against any conditional ratification, under the impression that New York would not be accepted into the Union, while Clinton's faction wanted to amend the Constitution, while maintaining the state's right to secede if their attempts failed. During the state convention, New Hampshire and Virginia becoming the ninth and tenth states to ratify the Constitution, respectively, had ensured any adjournment would not happen and a compromise would have to be reached. Hamilton's arguments used for the ratifications were largely iterations of work from The Federalist Papers, and Smith eventually went for ratification, though it was more out of necessity than Hamilton's rhetoric. The vote in the state convention was ratified 30 to 27, on July 26, 1788.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1788, Hamilton served a second term in what proved to be the last session of the Congress of the Confederation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [ 3470589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton recruited John Jay and James Madison to write a series of essays, now known as The Federalist Papers, to defend the proposed Constitution. He made the largest contribution to that effort, writing 51 of the 85 essays published (Madison wrote 29, and Jay wrote the other five). Hamilton supervised the entire project, enlisted the participants, wrote the majority of the essays, and oversaw the publication. During the project, each person was responsible for their areas of expertise. Jay covered foreign relations. Madison covered the history of republics and confederacies, along with the anatomy of the new government. Hamilton covered the branches of government most pertinent to him: the executive and judicial branches, with some aspects of the Senate, as well as covering military matters and taxation. The papers first appeared in The Independent Journal on October 27, 1787.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [ 46833, 19515760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 109 ], [ 847, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton wrote the first paper signed as Publius, and all of the subsequent papers were signed under the name. Jay wrote the next four papers to elaborate on the confederation's weakness and the need for unity against foreign aggression and against splitting into rival confederacies, and, except for Federalist No. 64, was not further involved. Hamilton's highlights included discussion that although republics have been culpable for disorders in the past, advances in the \"science of politics\" had fostered principles that ensured that those abuses could be prevented (such as the division of powers, legislative checks and balances, an independent judiciary, and legislators that were represented by electors [Numbers 7–9]). Hamilton also wrote an extensive defense of the constitution (No. 23–36), and discussed the Senate and executive and judicial branches in Numbers 65–85. Hamilton and Madison worked to describe the anarchic state of the confederation in numbers 15–22, and the two have been described as not being significantly different in thought during this time period—in contrast to their stark opposition later in life. Subtle differences appeared with the two when discussing the necessity of standing armies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Constitution and the Federalist Papers", "target_page_ids": [ 25215973, 2651800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 48 ], [ 301, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1764, King George III had ruled in favor of New York in a dispute between New York and New Hampshire over the region that later became the state of Vermont. New York then refused to recognize claims to property derived from grants by New Hampshire governor Benning Wentworth during the preceding 15 years when the territory had been governed as a de facto part of New Hampshire. Consequently, the people of the disputed territory, called the New Hampshire Grants, resisted the enforcement of New York's laws within the grants. Ethan Allen's militia called the Green Mountain Boys, noted for successes in the war against the British in 1775, was originally formed for the purpose of resisting the colonial government of New York. In 1777, the statesmen of the grants declared it a separate state to be called Vermont, and by early 1778, had erected a state government.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reconciliation between New York and Vermont", "target_page_ids": [ 42029, 32578, 427623, 489560, 9333, 39199, 538613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 151, 158 ], [ 260, 277 ], [ 445, 465 ], [ 530, 541 ], [ 563, 582 ], [ 783, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During 1777–1785, Vermont was repeatedly denied representation in the Continental Congress, largely because New York insisted that Vermont was legally a part of New York. Vermont took the position that because its petitions for admission to the Union were denied, it was not a part of the United States, not subject to Congress, and at liberty to negotiate separately with the British. The latter Haldimand negotiations led to some exchanges of prisoners of war. The peace treaty of 1783 that ended the war included Vermont within the boundaries of the United States. On March 2, 1784, Governor George Clinton of New York asked Congress to declare war for the purpose of overthrowing the government of Vermont, but Congress made no decision.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reconciliation between New York and Vermont", "target_page_ids": [ 30688587, 25798444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 250 ], [ 397, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1787, the government of New York had almost entirely given up plans to subjugate Vermont, but still claimed jurisdiction. As a member of the legislature of New York, Hamilton argued forcefully and at length in favor of a bill to recognize the sovereignty of the State of Vermont, against numerous objections to its constitutionality and policy. Consideration of the bill was deferred to a later date. In 1787 through 1789, Hamilton exchanged letters with Nathaniel Chipman, a lawyer representing Vermont. In 1788, the new Constitution of the United States went into effect, with its plan to replace the unicameral Continental Congress with a new Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Hamilton wrote:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reconciliation between New York and Vermont", "target_page_ids": [ 21806874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 458, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1790, the New York legislature decided to give up New York's claim to Vermont if Congress decided to admit Vermont to the Union and if negotiations between New York and Vermont on the boundary between the two states were successfully concluded. In 1790, negotiators discussed not only the boundary, but also financial compensation of New York land-grantees whose grants Vermont refused to recognize because they conflicted with earlier grants from New Hampshire. Compensation in the amount of 30,000 Spanish dollars was agreed to, and Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reconciliation between New York and Vermont", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "President George Washington appointed Hamilton as the first United States secretary of the treasury on September 11, 1789. He left office on the last day of January 1795. Much of the structure of the government of the United States was worked out in those five years, beginning with the structure and function of the cabinet itself. Biographer Forrest McDonald argues that Hamilton saw his office, like that of the British first lord of the treasury, as the equivalent of a prime minister. Hamilton oversaw his colleagues under the elective reign of George Washington. Washington requested Hamilton's advice and assistance on matters outside the purview of the Treasury Department. In 1791, while secretary, Hamilton was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Hamilton submitted various financial reports to Congress. Among these are the First Report on the Public Credit, Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports, Report on a National Bank, On the Establishment of a Mint, Report on Manufactures, and the Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit. So, the great enterprise in Hamilton's project of an administrative republic is the establishment of stability.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 43338, 3719419, 235991, 53667, 391882, 8008805, 15212693, 38042005, 1038174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 99 ], [ 344, 360 ], [ 423, 449 ], [ 661, 680 ], [ 745, 782 ], [ 862, 895 ], [ 897, 943 ], [ 945, 970 ], [ 1004, 1026 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the adjournment of the House in September 1789, they requested Hamilton to make a report on suggestions to improve the public credit by January 1790. Hamilton had written to Robert Morris as early as 1781, that fixing the public credit will win their objective of independence. The sources that Hamilton used ranged from Frenchmen such as Jacques Necker and Montesquieu to British writers such as Hume, Hobbes, and Malachy Postlethwayt. While writing the report he also sought out suggestions from contemporaries such as John Witherspoon and Madison. Although they agreed on additional taxes such as distilleries and duties on imported liquors and land taxes, Madison feared that the securities from the government debt would fall into foreign hands.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 156005, 54956, 7925, 29823, 6761168, 260898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 346, 360 ], [ 365, 376 ], [ 404, 408 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 422, 442 ], [ 528, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the report, Hamilton felt that the securities should be paid at full value to their legitimate owners, including those who took the financial risk of buying government bonds that most experts thought would never be redeemed. He argued that liberty and property security were inseparable and that the government should honor the contracts, as they formed the basis of public and private morality. To Hamilton, the proper handling of the government debt would also allow America to borrow at affordable interest rates and would also be a stimulant to the economy.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton divided the debt into national and state, and further divided the national debt into foreign and domestic debt. While there was agreement on how to handle the foreign debt (especially with France), there was not with regards to the national debt held by domestic creditors. During the Revolutionary War, affluent citizens had invested in bonds, and war veterans had been paid with promissory notes and IOUs that plummeted in price during the Confederation. In response, the war veterans sold the securities to speculators for as little as fifteen to twenty cents on the dollar.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 1006501, 19613312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 390, 406 ], [ 411, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton felt the money from the bonds should not go to the soldiers who had shown little faith in the country's future, but the speculators that had bought the bonds from the soldiers. The process of attempting to track down the original bondholders along with the government showing discrimination among the classes of holders if the war veterans were to be compensated also weighed in as factors for Hamilton. As for the state debts, Hamilton suggested consolidating them with the national debt and label it as federal debt, for the sake of efficiency on a national scale.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The last portion of the report dealt with eliminating the debt by utilizing a sinking fund that would retire five percent of the debt annually until it was paid off. Due to the bonds being traded well below their face value, the purchases would benefit the government as the securities rose in price. When the report was submitted to the House of Representatives, detractors soon began to speak against it. Some of the negative views expressed in the House were that the notion of programs that resembled British practice were wicked, and that the balance of power would be shifted away from the representatives to the executive branch. William Maclay suspected that several congressmen were involved in government securities, seeing Congress in an unholy league with New York speculators. Congressman James Jackson also spoke against New York, with allegations of speculators attempting to swindle those who had not yet heard about Hamilton's report.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 592506, 468650, 2848586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 90 ], [ 637, 651 ], [ 802, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The involvement of those in Hamilton's circle such as Schuyler, William Duer, James Duane, Gouverneur Morris, and Rufus King as speculators was not favorable to those against the report, either, though Hamilton personally did not own or deal a share in the debt. Madison eventually spoke against it by February 1790. Although he was not against current holders of government debt to profit, he wanted the windfall to go to the original holders. Madison did not feel that the original holders had lost faith in the government, but sold their securities out of desperation. The compromise was seen as egregious to both Hamiltonians and their dissidents such as Maclay, and Madison's vote was defeated 36 votes to 13 on February 22.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 1294958, 640894, 261268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ], [ 78, 89 ], [ 114, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fight for the national government to assume state debt was a longer issue, and lasted over four months. During the period, the resources that Hamilton was to apply to the payment of state debts was requested by Alexander White, and was rejected due to Hamilton's not being able to prepare information by March 3, and was even postponed by his own supporters in spite of configuring a report the next day (which consisted of a series of additional duties to meet the interest on the state debts). Duer resigned as Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, and the vote of assumption was voted down 31 votes to 29 on April 12.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 2648796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During this period, Hamilton bypassed the rising issue of slavery in Congress, after Quakers petitioned for its abolition, returning to the issue the following year.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 253264, 4812151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ], [ 85, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another issue in which Hamilton played a role was the temporary location of the capital from New York City. Tench Coxe was sent to speak to Maclay to bargain about the capital being temporarily located to Philadelphia, as a single vote in the Senate was needed and five in the House for the bill to pass. Thomas Jefferson wrote years afterward that Hamilton had a discussion with him, around this time period, about the capital of the United States being relocated to Virginia by means of a \"pill\" that \"would be peculiarly bitter to the Southern States, and that some concomitant measure should be adopted to sweeten it a little to them\". The bill passed in the Senate on July 21 and in the House 34 votes to 28 on July 26, 1790.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 833770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's Report on a National Bank was a projection from the first Report on the Public Credit. Although Hamilton had been forming ideas of a national bank as early as 1779, he had gathered ideas in various ways over the past eleven years. These included theories from Adam Smith, extensive studies on the Bank of England, the blunders of the Bank of North America and his experience in establishing the Bank of New York. He also used American records from James Wilson, Pelatiah Webster, Gouverneur Morris, and from his assistant treasury secretary Tench Coxe. He thought that this plan for a National Bank could help in any sort of financial crisis.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 4484, 55570, 21835290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 308, 323 ], [ 345, 366 ], [ 459, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton suggested that Congress should charter the National Bank with a capitalization of $10million, one-fifth of which would be handled by the government. Since the government did not have the money, it would borrow the money from the bank itself, and repay the loan in ten even annual installments. The rest was to be available to individual investors. The bank was to be governed by a twenty-five-member board of directors that was to represent a large majority of the private shareholders, which Hamilton considered essential for his being under a private direction. Hamilton's bank model had many similarities to that of the Bank of England, except Hamilton wanted to exclude the government from being involved in public debt, but provide a large, firm, and elastic money supply for the functioning of normal businesses and usual economic development, among other differences. The tax revenue to initiate the bank was the same as he had previously proposed, increases on imported spirits: rum, liquor, and whiskey.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 55569, 695460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 721, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bill passed through the Senate practically without a problem, but objections to the proposal increased by the time it reached the House of Representatives. It was generally held by critics that Hamilton was serving the interests of the Northeast by means of the bank, and those of the agrarian lifestyle would not benefit from it. Among those critics was James Jackson of Georgia, who also attempted to refute the report by quoting from The Federalist Papers. Madison and Jefferson also opposed the bank bill. The potential of the capital not being moved to the Potomac if the bank was to have a firm establishment in Philadelphia was a more significant reason, and actions that Pennsylvania members of Congress took to keep the capital there made both men anxious. The Whiskey Rebellion also showed how in other financial plans, there was a distance between the classes as the wealthy profited from the taxes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 2848586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Madison warned the Pennsylvania congress members that he would attack the bill as unconstitutional in the House, and followed up on his threat. Madison argued his case of where the power of a bank could be established within the Constitution, but he failed to sway members of the House, and his authority on the constitution was questioned by a few members. The bill eventually passed in an overwhelming fashion 39 to 20, on February 8, 1791.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Washington hesitated to sign the bill, as he received suggestions from Attorney General Edmund Randolph and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson dismissed the 'necessary and proper' clause as reasoning for the creation of a national bank, stating that the enumerated powers \"can all be carried into execution without a bank.\" Along with Randolph and Jefferson's objections, Washington's involvement in the movement of the capital from Philadelphia is also thought to be a reason for his hesitation. In response to the objection of the 'necessary and proper' clause, Hamilton stated that \"Necessary often means no more than needful, requisite, incidental, useful, or conductive to\", and the bank was a \"convenient species of medium in which they (taxes) are to be paid.\" Washington would eventually sign the bill into law.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 266907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1791, Hamilton submitted the Report on the Establishment of a Mint to the House of Representatives. Many of Hamilton's ideas for this report were from European economists, resolutions from Continental Congress meetings from 1785 and 1786, and from people such as Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris and Thomas Jefferson.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 391329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because the most circulated coins in the United States at the time were Spanish currency, Hamilton proposed that minting a United States dollar weighing almost as much as the Spanish peso would be the simplest way to introduce a national currency. Hamilton differed from European monetary policymakers in his desire to overprice gold relative to silver, on the grounds that the United States would always receive an influx of silver from the West Indies. Despite his own preference for a monometallic gold standard, he ultimately issued a bimetallic currency at a fixed 15:1 ratio of silver to gold.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 309769, 18717338, 37412, 37412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 123, 143 ], [ 501, 514 ], [ 539, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton proposed that the U.S. dollar should have fractional coins using decimals, rather than eighths like the Spanish coinage. This innovation was originally suggested by Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris, with whom Hamilton corresponded after examining one of Morris's Nova Constellatio coins in 1783. He also desired the minting of small value coins, such as silver ten-cent and copper cent and half-cent pieces, for reducing the cost of living for the poor. One of his main objectives was for the general public to become accustomed to handling money on a frequent basis.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 19974772, 230337, 43879631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 199 ], [ 200, 213 ], [ 279, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1792, Hamilton's principles were adopted by Congress, resulting in the Coinage Act of 1792, and the creation of the United States Mint. There was to be a ten-dollar Gold Eagle coin, a silver dollar, and fractional money ranging from one-half to fifty cents. The coining of silver and gold was issued by 1795.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 572040, 358818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 93 ], [ 119, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smuggling off American coasts was an issue before the Revolutionary War, and after the Revolution it was more problematic. Along with smuggling, lack of shipping control, pirating, and a revenue unbalance were also major problems. In response, Hamilton proposed to Congress to enact a naval police force called revenue cutters in order to patrol the waters and assist the custom collectors with confiscating contraband. This idea was also proposed to assist in tariff controlling, boosting the American economy, and promote the merchant marine. It is thought that his experience obtained during his apprenticeship with Nicholas Kruger was influential in his decision-making.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 426234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Concerning some of the details of the \"System of Cutters\", Hamilton wanted the first ten cutters in different areas in the United States, from New England to Georgia. Each of those cutters was to be armed with ten muskets and bayonets, twenty pistols, two chisels, one broad-ax and two lanterns. The fabric of the sails was to be domestically manufactured; and provisions were made for the employees' food supply and etiquette when boarding ships. Congress established the Revenue Cutter Service on August 4, 1790, which is viewed as the birth of the United States Coast Guard.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 541322, 32223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 97 ], [ 552, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the principal sources of revenue Hamilton prevailed upon Congress to approve was an excise tax on whiskey. In his first Tariff Bill in January 1790, Hamilton proposed to raise the three million dollars needed to pay for government operating expenses and interest on domestic and foreign debts by means of an increase on duties on imported wines, distilled spirits, tea, coffee, and domestic spirits. It failed, with Congress complying with most recommendations excluding the excise tax on whiskey (Madison's tariff of the same year was a modification of Hamilton's that involved only imported duties and was passed in September).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 11404033, 33153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 101 ], [ 105, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response of diversifying revenues, as three-fourths of revenue gathered was from commerce with Great Britain, Hamilton attempted once again during his Report on Public Credit when presenting it in 1790 to implement an excise tax on both imported and domestic spirits. The taxation rate was graduated in proportion to the whiskey proof, and Hamilton intended to equalize the tax burden on imported spirits with imported and domestic liquor. In lieu of the excise on production citizens could pay 60 cents by the gallon of dispensing capacity, along with an exemption on small stills used exclusively for domestic consumption. He realized the loathing that the tax would receive in rural areas, but thought of the taxing of spirits more reasonable than land taxes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Opposition initially came from Pennsylvania's House of Representatives protesting the tax. William Maclay had noted that not even the Pennsylvanian legislators had been able to enforce excise taxes in the western regions of the state. Hamilton was aware of the potential difficulties and proposed inspectors the ability to search buildings that distillers were designated to store their spirits, and would be able to search suspected illegal storage facilities to confiscate contraband with a warrant. Although the inspectors were not allowed to search houses and warehouses, they were to visit twice a day and file weekly reports in extensive detail. Hamilton cautioned against expedited judicial means, and favored a jury trial with potential offenders. As soon as 1791, locals began to shun or threaten inspectors, as they felt the inspection methods were intrusive. Inspectors were also tarred and feathered, blindfolded, and whipped. Hamilton had attempted to appease the opposition with lowered tax rates, but it did not suffice.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 238346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 891, 911 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strong opposition to the whiskey tax by cottage producers in remote, rural regions erupted into the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794; in Western Pennsylvania and western Virginia, whiskey was the basic export product and was fundamental to the local economy. In response to the rebellion, believing compliance with the laws was vital to the establishment of federal authority, Hamilton accompanied to the rebellion's site President Washington, General Henry \"Light Horse Harry\" Lee, and more federal troops than were ever assembled in one place during the Revolution. This overwhelming display of force intimidated the leaders of the insurrection, ending the rebellion virtually without bloodshed.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 633717, 143541, 1351168, 32432, 401673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 100, 117 ], [ 130, 150 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 445, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's next report was his Report on Manufactures. Although he was requested by Congress on January 15, 1790, for a report for manufacturing that would expand the United States' independence, the report was not submitted until December 5, 1791. In the report, Hamilton quoted from Wealth of Nations and used the French physiocrats as an example for rejecting agrarianism and the physiocratic theory, respectively. Hamilton also refuted Smith's ideas of government noninterference, as it would have been detrimental for trade with other countries. Hamilton also thought that the United States, being a primarily agrarian country, would be at a disadvantage in dealing with Europe. In response to the agrarian detractors, Hamilton stated that the agriculturists' interest would be advanced by manufactures, and that agriculture was just as productive as manufacturing.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 45440, 1193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 323, 334 ], [ 363, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton argued that developing an industrial economy is impossible without protective tariffs. Among the ways that the government should assist manufacturing, Hamilton argued for government assistance to \"infant industries\" so they can achieve economies of scale, by levying protective duties on imported foreign goods that were also manufactured in the United States, for withdrawing duties levied on raw materials needed for domestic manufacturing, and pecuniary boundaries. He also called for encouraging immigration for people to better themselves in similar employment opportunities. Congress shelved the report without much debate (except for Madison's objection to Hamilton's formulation of the General Welfare clause, which Hamilton construed liberally as a legal basis for his extensive programs).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 210545, 1859820, 10517, 29298842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 53 ], [ 206, 223 ], [ 245, 263 ], [ 703, 725 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1791, Hamilton, along with Coxe and several entrepreneurs from New York and Philadelphia formed the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures, a private industrial corporation. In May 1792, the directors decided to examine The Passaic Falls as a possible location for a manufacturing center. On July 4, 1792, the society directors met Philip Schuyler at Abraham Godwin's hotel on the Passaic River, where they would lead a tour prospecting the area for the national manufactory. It was originally suggested that they dig mile-long trenches and build the factories away from the falls, but Hamilton argued that it would be too costly and laborious.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 602541, 308181, 55103761, 579242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 155 ], [ 349, 364 ], [ 368, 382 ], [ 398, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The location at Great Falls of the Passaic River in New Jersey was selected due to access to raw materials, it being densely inhabited, and having access to water power from the falls of the Passaic. The factory town was named Paterson after New Jersey's Governor William Paterson, who signed the charter. The profits were to derive from specific corporates rather than the benefits to be conferred to the nation and the citizens, which was unlike the report. Hamilton also suggested the first stock to be offered at $500,000 and to eventually increase to $1million, and welcomed state and federal government subscriptions alike. The company was never successful: numerous shareholders reneged on stock payments, some members soon went bankrupt, and William Duer, the governor of the program, was sent to debtors' prison where he died. In spite of Hamilton's efforts to mend the disaster, the company folded.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 602528, 294343, 1294958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 48 ], [ 264, 280 ], [ 750, 762 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When France and Britain went to war in early 1793, all four members of the Cabinet were consulted on what to do. They and Washington unanimously agreed to remain neutral, and to have the French ambassador who was raising privateers and mercenaries on American soil, \"Citizen\" Genêt, recalled. However, in 1794 policy toward Britain became a major point of contention between the two parties. Hamilton and the Federalists wished for more trade with Britain, the largest trading partner of the newly formed United States. The Republicans saw monarchist Britain as the main threat to republicanism and proposed instead to start a trade war.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 176739, 2230524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 35 ], [ 266, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To avoid war, Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British; Hamilton largely wrote Jay's instructions. The result was Jay's Treaty. It was denounced by the Republicans, but Hamilton mobilized support throughout the land. The Jay Treaty passed the Senate in 1795 by exactly the required two-thirds majority. The Treaty resolved issues remaining from the Revolution, averted war, and made possible ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain. Historian George Herring notes the \"remarkable and fortuitous economic and diplomatic gains\" produced by the Treaty.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 193600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several European states had formed a League of Armed Neutrality against incursions on their neutral rights; the Cabinet was also consulted on whether the United States should join the alliance, and decided not to. It kept that decision secret, but Hamilton revealed it in private to George Hammond, the British minister to the United States, without telling Jay or anyone else. His act remained unknown until Hammond's dispatches were read in the 1920s. This \"amazing revelation\" may have had limited effect on the negotiations; Jay did threaten to join the League at one point, but the British had other reasons not to view the League as a serious threat.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 20094515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His wife Eliza suffered a miscarriage while Hamilton was absent during his armed repression of the Whiskey Rebellion. In the wake of this Hamilton tendered his resignation from office on December 1, 1794, giving Washington two months' notice, Before leaving his post on January 31, 1795, Hamilton submitted a Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit to Congress to curb the debt problem. Hamilton grew dissatisfied with what he viewed as a lack of a comprehensive plan to fix the public debt. He wished to have new taxes passed with older ones made permanent and stated that any surplus from the excise tax on liquor would be pledged to lower public debt. His proposals were included in a bill by Congress within slightly over a month after his departure as treasury secretary. Some months later Hamilton resumed his law practice in New York to remain closer to his family.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Secretary of the Treasury", "target_page_ids": [ 10508019, 143541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 99, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's vision was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, who formed a rival party, the Jeffersonian Republican party. They favored strong state governments based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national government supported by a national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as insufficiently devoted to republicanism, too friendly toward corrupt Britain and toward monarchy in general, and too oriented toward cities, business and banking.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Emergence of political parties", "target_page_ids": [ 29922, 32080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ], [ 121, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American two-party system began to emerge as political parties coalesced around competing interests. A congressional caucus, led by Madison, Jefferson and William Branch Giles, began as an opposition group to Hamilton's financial programs. Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves Federalists. The opposition group, now called the Democratic-Republican Party by political scientists, at the time called itself Republicans.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Emergence of political parties", "target_page_ids": [ 3612962, 652627, 32086, 32080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ], [ 159, 179 ], [ 293, 304 ], [ 343, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton assembled a nationwide coalition to garner support for the Administration, including the expansive financial programs Hamilton had made administration policy and especially the president's policy of neutrality in the European war between Britain and revolutionary France. Hamilton publicly denounced the French minister Edmond-Charles Genêt (he called himself \"Citizen Genêt\") who commissioned American privateers and recruited Americans for private militias to attack British ships and colonial possessions of British allies. Eventually, even Jefferson joined Hamilton in seeking Genêt's recall. If Hamilton's administrative republic was to succeed, Americans had to see themselves first as citizens of a nation, and experience an administration that proved firm and demonstrated the concepts found within the United States Constitution. The Federalists did impose some internal direct taxes but they departed from most implications of the Hamilton administrative republic as risky.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Emergence of political parties", "target_page_ids": [ 2230524, 50767, 2230524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 329, 349 ], [ 412, 422 ], [ 582, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Jeffersonian Republicans opposed banks and cities, and favored the series of unstable revolutionary governments in France. They built their own national coalition to oppose the Federalists. Both sides gained the support of local political factions, and each side developed its own partisan newspapers. Noah Webster, John Fenno, and William Cobbett were energetic editors for the Federalists; Benjamin Franklin Bache and Philip Freneau were fiery Republican editors. All of their newspapers were characterized by intense personal attacks, major exaggerations, and invented claims. In 1801, Hamilton established a daily newspaper that is still published, the New York Evening Post (now the New York Post), and brought in William Coleman as its editor.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Emergence of political parties", "target_page_ids": [ 21620, 5618217, 175818, 2537415, 728864, 102227, 102227, 29290611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 318 ], [ 320, 330 ], [ 336, 351 ], [ 396, 419 ], [ 424, 438 ], [ 661, 682 ], [ 692, 705 ], [ 723, 738 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The opposition between Hamilton and Jefferson is the best known and historically the most important in American political history. Hamilton's and Jefferson's incompatibility was heightened by the unavowed wish of each to be Washington's principal and most trusted advisor.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Emergence of political parties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An additional partisan irritant to Hamilton was the 1791 United States Senate election in New York, which resulted in the election of Democratic-Republican candidate Aaron Burr, previously the New York state attorney general, over Senator Philip Schuyler, the Federalist incumbent and Hamilton's father-in-law. Hamilton blamed Burr personally for this outcome, and negative characterizations of Burr began to appear in his correspondence thereafter. The two men did work together from time to time thereafter on various projects, including Hamilton's army of 1798 and the Manhattan Water Company.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Emergence of political parties", "target_page_ids": [ 23984305, 57454, 3534436, 8742652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 98 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 193, 224 ], [ 572, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's resignation as Secretary of the Treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life. With the resumption of his law practice, he remained close to Washington as an advisor and friend. Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of his farewell address by writing drafts for Washington to compare with the latter's draft, although when Washington contemplated retirement in 1792, he had consulted James Madison for a draft that was used in a similar manner to Hamilton's.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 1291578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the election of 1796, under the Constitution as it stood then, each of the presidential electors had two votes, which they were to cast for different men. The one who received the most votes would become president, the second-most, vice president. This system was not designed with the operation of parties in mind, as they had been thought disreputable and factious. The Federalists planned to deal with this by having all their Electors vote for John Adams, then vice president, and all but a few for Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 40452, 85533, 317971, 27956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 506, 521 ], [ 525, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adams resented Hamilton's influence with Washington and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington and thought him too emotionally unstable to be president. Hamilton took the election as an opportunity: he urged all the northern electors to vote for Adams and Pinckney, lest Jefferson get in; but he cooperated with Edward Rutledge to have South Carolina's electors vote for Jefferson and Pinckney. If all this worked, Pinckney would have more votes than Adams, Pinckney would become president, and Adams would remain vice president, but it did not work. The Federalists found out about it (even the French minister to the United States knew), and northern Federalists voted for Adams but not for Pinckney, in sufficient numbers that Pinckney came in third and Jefferson became vice president. Adams resented the intrigue since he felt his service to the nation was much more extensive than Pinckney's.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 187159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 390, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1797, Hamilton became the first major American politician publicly involved in a sex scandal. Six years earlier, in the summer of 1791, 34-year-old Hamilton became involved in an affair with 23-year-old Maria Reynolds. According to Hamilton's account Maria approached him at his house in Philadelphia, claiming that her husband James Reynolds was abusive and had abandoned her, and she wished to return to her relatives in New York but lacked the means. Hamilton recorded her address and subsequently delivered $30 personally to her boarding house, where she led him into her bedroom and \"Some conversation ensued from which it was quickly apparent that other than pecuniary consolation would be acceptable\". The two began an intermittent illicit affair that lasted approximately until June 1792.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 235224, 2833659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 109 ], [ 220, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the course of that year, while the affair was taking place, James Reynolds was well aware of his wife's unfaithfulness, and likely orchestrated it from the beginning. He continually supported their relationship to extort blackmail money regularly from Hamilton. The common practice of the day for men of equal social standing was for the wronged husband to seek retribution in a duel, but Reynolds, of a lower social status and realizing how much Hamilton had to lose if his activity came into public view, resorted to extortion. After an initial request of $1,000 to which Hamilton complied, Reynolds invited Hamilton to renew his visits to his wife \"as a friend\" only to extort forced \"loans\" after each visit that, most likely in collusion, Maria solicited with her letters. In the end, the blackmail payments totaled over $1,300 including the initial extortion. Hamilton at this point may have been aware of both spouses being involved in the blackmail, and he welcomed and strictly complied with James Reynolds' request to end the affair.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 153833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 384, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1792, James Reynolds and his associate Jacob Clingman were arrested for counterfeiting and speculating in Revolutionary War veterans' unpaid back wages. Clingman was released on bail and relayed information to Democratic-Republican congressman James Monroe that Reynolds had evidence incriminating Hamilton in illicit activity as Treasury Secretary. Monroe consulted with congressmen Muhlenberg and Venable on what actions to take and the congressmen confronted Hamilton on December 15, 1792. Hamilton refuted the suspicions of speculation by exposing his affair with Maria and producing as evidence the letters by both of the Reynolds, proving that his payments to James Reynolds related to blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct. The trio agreed on their honor to keep the documents privately with the utmost confidence.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 63088, 15978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 114 ], [ 256, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1797, however, the \"notoriously scurrilous\" journalist James T. Callender published A History of the United States for the Year 1796. The pamphlet contained accusations, based on documents from the confrontation of December 15, 1792 taken out of context, that James Reynolds had been an agent of Hamilton. On July 5, 1797, Hamilton wrote to Monroe, Muhlenberg, and Venable, asking them to confirm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. All but Monroe complied with Hamilton's request. Hamilton then published a 100-page booklet, later usually referred to as the Reynolds Pamphlet, and discussed the affair in indelicate detail for the time. Hamilton's wife Elizabeth eventually forgave him, but never forgave Monroe. Although Hamilton faced ridicule from the Democratic-Republican faction, he maintained his availability for public service.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 6340616, 33820300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 90 ], [ 642, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the military build-up of the Quasi-War of 1798–1800, and with the strong endorsement of Washington (who had been called out of retirement to lead the Army if a French invasion materialized), Adams reluctantly appointed Hamilton a major general of the army. At Washington's insistence, Hamilton was made the senior major general, prompting Henry Knox to decline appointment to serve as Hamilton's junior (Knox had been a major general in the Continental Army and thought it would be degrading to serve beneath him).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 11080919, 168210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 250 ], [ 448, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton served as inspector general of the United States Army from July 18, 1798, to June 15, 1800. Because Washington was unwilling to leave Mount Vernon unless it were to command an army in the field, Hamilton was the de facto head of the army, to Adams's considerable displeasure. If full-scale war broke out with France, Hamilton argued that the army should conquer the North American colonies of France's ally, Spain, bordering the United States. Hamilton was prepared to march the army through the Southern United States if necessary.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 22244285, 21139, 179553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 62 ], [ 375, 398 ], [ 505, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To fund this army, Hamilton wrote regularly to Oliver Wolcott Jr., his successor at the treasury; William Loughton Smith, of the House Ways and Means Committee; and Senator Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts. He urged them to pass a direct tax to fund the war. Smith resigned in July 1797, as Hamilton complained to him for slowness, and urged Wolcott to tax houses instead of land. The eventual program included taxes on land, houses, and slaves, calculated at different rates in different states and requiring assessment of houses, and a Stamp Act like that of the British before the Revolution though this time Americans were taxing themselves through their own representatives. This provoked resistance in southeastern Pennsylvania nevertheless, led primarily by men such as John Fries who had marched with Washington against the Whiskey Rebellion.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 21835434, 3342280, 308093, 978991, 579979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ], [ 98, 120 ], [ 173, 190 ], [ 540, 549 ], [ 779, 789 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton aided in all areas of the army's development, and after Washington's death he was by default the senior officer of the United States Army from December 14, 1799, to June 15, 1800. The army was to guard against invasion from France. Adams, however, derailed all plans for war by opening negotiations with France that led to peace. There was no longer a direct threat for the army Hamilton was commanding to respond to. Adams discovered that key members of his cabinet, namely Secretary of State Timothy Pickering and Secretary of War James McHenry, were more loyal to Hamilton than himself; Adams fired them in May 1800.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 1424652, 32293, 465344, 44000, 547346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 146 ], [ 484, 502 ], [ 503, 520 ], [ 525, 541 ], [ 542, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1799, the Alien and Sedition Acts had left one Democratic-Republican newspaper functioning in New York City; when the last, the New Daily Advertiser, reprinted an article saying that Hamilton had attempted to purchase the Philadelphia Aurora and close it down, Hamilton had the publisher prosecuted for seditious libel, and the prosecution compelled the owner to close the paper.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 3173, 2215399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 45 ], [ 315, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1800 election, Hamilton worked to defeat not only the rival Democratic-Republican candidates, but also his party's own nominee, John Adams. Aaron Burr had won New York for Jefferson in May; now Hamilton proposed a rerun of the election under different rules—with carefully drawn districts and each choosing an elector—such that the Federalists would split the electoral vote of New York. (John Jay, a Federalist who had given up the Supreme Court to be Governor of New York, wrote on the back of the letter the words, \"Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt,\" and declined to reply.)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Adams was running this time with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina (the elder brother of candidate Thomas Pinckney from the 1796 election). Hamilton now toured New England, again urging northern electors to hold firm for Pinckney in the renewed hope of making Pinckney president; and he again intrigued in South Carolina. Hamilton's ideas involved coaxing middle-state Federalists to assert their non-support for Adams if there was no support for Pinckney and writing to more of the modest supports of Adams concerning his supposed misconduct while president. Hamilton expected to see southern states such as the Carolinas cast their votes for Pinckney and Jefferson, and would result in the former being ahead of both Adams and Jefferson.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 368096, 21531764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 65 ], [ 177, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In accordance with the second of the aforementioned plans, and a recent personal rift with Adams, Hamilton wrote a pamphlet called Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the United States that was highly critical of him, though it closed with a tepid endorsement. He mailed this to two hundred leading Federalists; when a copy fell into the Democratic-Republicans' hands, they printed it. This hurt Adams's 1800 reelection campaign and split the Federalist Party, virtually assuring the victory of the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson, in the election of 1800; it diminished Hamilton's position among many Federalists.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jefferson had beaten Adams, but both he and Aaron Burr had received 73 votes in the Electoral College (Adams finished in third place, Pinckney in fourth, and Jay received one vote). With Jefferson and Burr tied, the United States House of Representatives had to choose between the two men. Several Federalists who opposed Jefferson supported Burr, and for the first 35 ballots, Jefferson was denied a majority. Before the 36th ballot, Hamilton threw his weight behind Jefferson, supporting the arrangement reached by James A. Bayard of Delaware, in which five Federalist Representatives from Maryland and Vermont abstained from voting, allowing those states' delegations to go for Jefferson, ending the impasse and electing Jefferson president rather than Burr.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 661547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 517, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues, he viewed Jefferson as the lesser of two evils. Hamilton spoke of Jefferson as being \"by far not so a dangerous man\", and that Burr was a \"mischievous enemy\" to the principal measure of the past administration. It was for that reason, along with the fact that Burr was a northerner and not a Virginian, that many Federalist Representatives voted for him.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 289843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton wrote many letters to friends in Congress to convince the members to see otherwise. The Federalists rejected Hamilton's diatribe as reasons to not vote for Burr, although historian Cokie Roberts claimed that Hamilton's campaign against Burr was a major reason Burr failed to win in the end. Nevertheless, Burr would become Vice President of the United States after losing to Jefferson. When it became clear that Jefferson had developed his own concerns about Burr and would not support his return to the vice presidency, Burr sought the New York governorship in 1804 with Federalist support, against the Jeffersonian Morgan Lewis, but was defeated by forces including Hamilton.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 564027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 626, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after the 1804 gubernatorial election in New York—in which Morgan Lewis, greatly assisted by Hamilton, defeated Aaron Burr—the Albany Register published Charles D. Cooper's letters, citing Hamilton's opposition to Burr and alleging that Hamilton had expressed \"a still more despicable opinion\" of the Vice President at an upstate New York dinner party. Cooper claimed that the letter was intercepted after relaying the information, but stated he was \"unusually cautious\" in recollecting the information from the dinner.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 564027, 57454, 16696940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ], [ 117, 127 ], [ 158, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Burr, sensing an attack on his honor, and recovering from his defeat, demanded an apology in letter form. Hamilton wrote a letter in response and ultimately refused because he could not recall the instance of insulting Burr. Hamilton would also have been accused of recanting Cooper's letter out of cowardice. After a series of attempts to reconcile were to no avail, a duel was arranged through liaisons on June 27, 1804.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of honor was fundamental to Hamilton's vision of himself and of the nation. Historians have noted, as evidence of the importance that honor held in Hamilton's value system, that Hamilton had previously been a party to seven \"affairs of honor\" as a principal, and to three as an advisor or second. Such affairs of honor were often concluded prior to reaching their final stage, i.e. a duel.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Before the duel, Hamilton wrote an explanation of his decision to participate while at the same time intending to \"throw away\" his shot. Hamilton viewed his roles of being a father and husband, putting his creditors at risk, placing his family's welfare in jeopardy and his moral and religious stances as reasons not to duel, but he felt it impossible to avoid due to having made attacks on Burr which he was unable to recant, and because of Burr's behavior prior to the duel. He attempted to reconcile his moral and religious reasons and the codes of honor and politics. He intended to accept the duel in order to satisfy his political ethics, and throw away his fire to satisfy his moral codes. His desire to be available for future political matters also played a factor. A week before the duel, at an annual Independence Day dinner of the Society of the Cincinnati, both Hamilton and Burr were in attendance. Separate accounts confirm that Hamilton was uncharacteristically effusive while Burr was by contrast uncharacteristically withdrawn. Accounts also agree that Burr became roused when Hamilton, again uncharacteristically, sang a favorite song. Long thought to have been a different tune, recent scholarship indicates that it was \"How Stands the Glass Around\", an anthem sung by military troops about fighting and dying in war: ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 5860977, 217609, 64524295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 126 ], [ 843, 868 ], [ 1241, 1268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The duel began at dawn on July 11, 1804, along the west bank of the Hudson River on a rocky ledge in Weehawken, New Jersey. Both opponents were rowed over from Manhattan separately from different locations, as the spot was not accessible from the west due to the steepness of the adjoining cliffs. Coincidentally, the duel took place relatively close to the location of the duel that had ended the life of Hamilton's eldest son, Philip, three years earlier. Lots were cast for the choice of position and which second should start the duel. Both were won by Hamilton's second, who chose the upper edge of the ledge for Hamilton facing the city to the east, toward the rising sun. After the seconds had measured the paces Hamilton, according to both William P. Van Ness and Burr, raised his pistol \"as if to try the light\" and had to wear his glasses to prevent his vision from being obscured. Hamilton also refused the more sensitive hairspring setting for the dueling pistols offered by Nathaniel Pendleton.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 47911, 125244, 153833, 21811768, 4633039, 17165671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 80 ], [ 101, 122 ], [ 689, 696 ], [ 748, 767 ], [ 933, 943 ], [ 987, 1006 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vice President Burr shot Hamilton, delivering what proved to be a fatal wound. Hamilton's shot broke a tree branch directly above Burr's head. Neither of the seconds, Pendleton nor Van Ness, could determine who fired first, as each claimed that the other man had fired first.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after, they measured and triangulated the shooting, but could not determine from which angle Hamilton had fired. Burr's shot hit Hamilton in the lower abdomen above his right hip. The bullet ricocheted off Hamilton's second or third false rib, fracturing it and causing considerable damage to his internal organs, particularly his liver and diaphragm, before becoming lodged in his first or second lumbar vertebra. The biographer Ron Chernow considers the circumstances to indicate that, after taking deliberate aim, Burr fired second, while the biographer James Earnest Cooke suggests that Burr took careful aim and shot first, and Hamilton fired while falling, after being struck by Burr's bullet.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 57174, 17384301, 321567, 280497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 247 ], [ 336, 341 ], [ 346, 355 ], [ 403, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The paralyzed Hamilton was immediately attended by the same surgeon who tended Phillip Hamilton, and ferried to the Greenwich Village boarding house of his friend William Bayard Jr., who had been waiting on the dock. After final visits from his family and friends and considerable suffering for at least 31 hours, Hamilton died at two o'clock the following afternoon, July 12, 1804, at Bayard's home just below the present Gansevoort Street. The city fathers halted all business at noon two days later for Hamilton's funeral, the procession route of about two miles organized by the Society of the Cincinnati had so many participants of every class of citizen that it took hours to complete, and was widely reported nationwide by newspapers. Gouverneur Morris gave the eulogy at his funeral and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children. Hamilton was buried in the Trinity Churchyard Cemetery in Manhattan.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-secretary years", "target_page_ids": [ 15332838, 13011, 34505109, 1720658, 217609, 544296, 45470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 67 ], [ 116, 133 ], [ 163, 181 ], [ 423, 440 ], [ 583, 608 ], [ 885, 912 ], [ 916, 925 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Hamilton was stationed in Morristown, New Jersey, in the winter of December 1779 – March 1780, he met Elizabeth Schuyler, a daughter of General Philip Schuyler and Catherine Van Rensselaer. They were married on December 14, 1780, at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 125569, 10508019, 308181, 53853971, 12143310, 52106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 54 ], [ 108, 126 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 170, 194 ], [ 243, 259 ], [ 263, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elizabeth and Alexander Hamilton had eight children, though there is often confusion because two sons were named Philip:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Philip (1782–1801), died in a duel, just as his father would three years later.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 49115171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angelica (1784–1857)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 53377191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Jr. (1786–1875)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 19197121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James Alexander (1788–1878)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 19183228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Church (1792–1882)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 19184418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Stephen (1797–1850)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 13441377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eliza (1799–1859)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 53068208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philip, also called Little Phil (1802–1884), named after his older brother who had been killed in a duel the previous year", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 52771699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Hamilton's death in 1804, Elizabeth endeavored to preserve his legacy. She re-organized all of Alexander's letters, papers, and writings with the help of her son, John Church Hamilton, and persevered through many setbacks in getting his biography published. She was so devoted to Alexander's memory that she wore a small package around her neck containing the pieces of a sonnet which Alexander wrote for her during the early days of their courtship.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 19184418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was also close to Elizabeth's sisters. During his lifetime he was even rumored to have had an affair with his wife's older sister Angelica who, three years before Hamilton's marriage to Elizabeth had eloped with John Barker Church, an Englishman who made a fortune in North America during the Revolution and later returned to Europe with his wife and children between 1783 and 1797. Even though the style of their correspondence during Angelica's fourteen-year residence in Europe was flirtatious, modern historians like Chernow and Fielding agree that despite contemporary gossip there is no conclusive evidence that Hamilton's relationship with Angelica was ever physical or went beyond a strong affinity between in-laws. Hamilton also maintained a correspondence with Elizabeth's younger sister Margarita, nicknamed Peggy, who was the recipient of his first letters praising her sister Elizabeth at the time of his courtship in early 1780.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 12269514, 24153241, 50830753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 147 ], [ 221, 239 ], [ 828, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a youth in the West Indies, Hamilton was an orthodox and conventional Presbyterian of the \"New Light\" evangelical type (as opposed to the \"Old Light\" tradition); he was taught there by a student of John Witherspoon, a moderate of the New School. He wrote two or three hymns, which were published in the local newspaper. Robert Troup, his college roommate, noted that Hamilton was \"in the habit of praying on his knees night and morning\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 934177, 9852773, 260898, 13756, 21834303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 103 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 201, 217 ], [ 271, 276 ], [ 323, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Gordon Wood, Hamilton dropped his youthful religiosity during the Revolution and became \"a conventional liberal with theistic inclinations who was an irregular churchgoer at best\"; however, he returned to religion in his last years. Chernow wrote that Hamilton was nominally an Episcopalian, but:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 19280748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stories were circulated that Hamilton had made two quips about God at the time of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. During the French Revolution, he displayed a utilitarian approach to using religion for political ends, such as by maligning Jefferson as \"the atheist\", and insisting that Christianity and Jeffersonian democracy were incompatible. After 1801, Hamilton further attested his belief in Christianity, proposing a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802 to take hold of \"some strong feeling of the mind\" to elect \"fit men\" to office, and advocating \"Christian welfare societies\" for the poor. After being shot, Hamilton spoke of his belief in God's mercy.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 11188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On his deathbed, Hamilton asked the Episcopal Bishop of New York, Benjamin Moore, to give him holy communion. Moore initially declined to do so, on two grounds: that to participate in a duel was a mortal sin, and that Hamilton, although undoubtedly sincere in his faith, was not a member of the Episcopalian denomination. After leaving, Moore was persuaded to return that afternoon by the urgent pleas of Hamilton's friends, and upon receiving Hamilton's solemn assurance that he repented for his part in the duel, Moore gave him communion. Bishop Moore returned the next morning, stayed with Hamilton for several hours until his death, and conducted the funeral service at Trinity Church.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 4227112, 837771, 9767, 357089, 244284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 64 ], [ 66, 80 ], [ 94, 108 ], [ 197, 207 ], [ 674, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's birthplace on the island of Nevis had a large Jewish community, constituting one quarter of Charlestown's white population by the 1720s. He came into contact with Jews on a regular basis; as a small boy, he was tutored by a Jewish schoolmistress, and had learned to recite the Ten Commandments in the original Hebrew.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 2539671, 763213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 304 ], [ 321, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton exhibited a degree of respect for Jews that was described by Chernow as \"a life-long reverence.\" He believed that Jewish achievement was a result of divine providence: ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 415601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on the phonetic similarity of \"Lavien\" to a common Jewish surname, it has often been suggested that the first husband of Hamilton's mother, Rachel Faucette, a German or Dane named Johann Michael Lavien, was Jewish or of Jewish descent. On this foundation, historian Andrew Porwancher, a self-acknowledged \"lone voice\" whose \"findings clash with much of the received wisdom on Hamilton\", has promoted a theory that Hamilton himself was Jewish. Porwancher argues that Hamilton's mother (French Huguenot on her father's side) must have converted to Judaism before marrying Lavien, and that even after her separation and bitter divorce from Lavien, she would still have raised her children by James Hamilton as Jews. Reflecting the consensus of modern historians, historian Michael E. Newton wrote that \"there is no evidence that Lavien is a Jewish name, no indication that John Lavien was Jewish, and no reason to believe that he was.\" Newton traced the suggestions to a 1902 work of historical fiction by novelist Gertrude Atherton.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 40597, 59392160, 75899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 161 ], [ 186, 207 ], [ 498, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's interpretations of the Constitution set forth in the Federalist Papers remain highly influential, as seen in scholarly studies and court decisions. Although the Constitution was ambiguous as to the exact balance of power between national and state governments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater federal power at the expense of the states. As secretary of the treasury, he established—against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Jefferson—the country's first de facto central bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, and other federal powers, under Congress's constitutional authority to issue currency, to regulate interstate commerce, and to do anything else that would be \"necessary and proper\" to enact the provisions of the Constitution.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 46833, 623271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 81 ], [ 719, 739 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, Jefferson took a stricter view of the Constitution. Parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy was eventually settled by the Supreme Court of the United States in McCulloch v. Maryland, which in essence adopted Hamilton's view, granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, essentially confirming the doctrine of implied powers. Nevertheless, the American Civil War and the Progressive Era demonstrated the sorts of crises and politics Hamilton's administrative republic sought to avoid.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 31737, 146270, 1602548, 863, 560252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 236 ], [ 240, 261 ], [ 466, 480 ], [ 500, 518 ], [ 527, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's policies as secretary of the treasury greatly affected the United States government and still continue to influence it. His constitutional interpretation, particularly of the Necessary and Proper Clause, set precedents for federal authority that are still used by the courts and are considered an authority on constitutional interpretation. The prominent French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, who spent 1794 in the United States, wrote, \"I consider Napoleon, Fox, and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton\", adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 623271, 48542, 69880, 142125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 213 ], [ 382, 411 ], [ 469, 477 ], [ 479, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut as both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously aristocratic. Hamilton's reputation was mostly negative in the eras of Jeffersonian democracy and Jacksonian democracy. The older Jeffersonian view attacked Hamilton as a centralizer, sometimes to the point of accusations that he advocated monarchy. By the Progressive era, Herbert Croly, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Theodore Roosevelt praised his leadership of a strong government. Several nineteenth- and twentieth-century Republicans entered politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 384945, 372347, 1283602, 153059, 30535, 4157940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 216 ], [ 221, 241 ], [ 397, 410 ], [ 412, 429 ], [ 435, 453 ], [ 543, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In more recent years, according to Sean Wilentz, favorable views of Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars, who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Modern scholars favoring Hamilton have portrayed Jefferson and his allies, in contrast, as naïve, dreamy idealists.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The lineage of Hamilton's New York Provincial Company of Artillery has been perpetuated in the United States Army in a series of units nicknamed \"Hamilton's Own\". It was carried as of 2010 by the 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery Regiment. In the Regular Army, it is the oldest unit and the only one with credit for the Revolutionary War.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 16639189, 26799168, 2187390, 34497735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 66 ], [ 211, 239 ], [ 248, 260 ], [ 306, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of Coast Guard vessels have been given a designation after Alexander Hamilton, including:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " USRC Hamilton (1830), the fastest vessel in Morris-Taney Class of cutters, operated out of Boston for much of her career. It became famous for rescues and saving property, and extremely popular; so much so that music was written in November 1839 titled \"The Cutter Hamilton Quick step.\" Hamilton was lost in a gale in 1853. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 14237913, 14092249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 45, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USS Alexander Hamilton (1871), was a revenue cutter in service from 1871 to 1906, and a participant in the Spanish–American War.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 28265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton (WIX 272), as the U. S. Navy gunboat Vicksburg and others of the Annapolis-class were authorized to be built in 1895 with a mission to show the flag and keep order in foreign ports, supporting the \"gunboat diplomacy\" policy of the period. Gunboat technology advanced rapidly at the turn of the last century, and the class of steam and sail quickly became obsolete. The Vicksburg was transferred to the Coast Guard in 1921, and in the following year was commissioned with the name Alexander Hamilton, replacing the Itasca as the Coast Guard Academy's training ship. She was decommissioned in 1944 and was transferred to the War Shipping Administration in 1946.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 10817070, 794117, 435901, 1666399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 218, 235 ], [ 548, 567 ], [ 643, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USCGC Alexander Hamilton (WPG-34) was a Treasury-class cutter launched in 1937. Sunk after an attack by a German U-boat in January 1942, the Hamilton was the U.S. Coast Guard's first loss of World War II.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 30709841, 31888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 114, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USCGC Hamilton (WHEC-715) was a cutter in service from 1967 to 2011 and transferred to the Philippine Navy as an excess defense article under the Foreign Assistance Act as BRP Gregorio del Pilar (PS-15).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 7525862, 1954004, 4739487, 51126740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 92, 107 ], [ 147, 169 ], [ 173, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USCGC Hamilton (WMSL-753) is a U.S. Coast Guard cutter commissioned in 2014.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 37043488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of vessels in the U.S. Navy have borne the designation USS Hamilton, though some have been named for other men. The USS Alexander Hamilton (SSBN-617) was the second Lafayette-class nuclear-powered fleet ballistic missile submarine.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 410340, 410264, 187255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 158 ], [ 174, 189 ], [ 212, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the beginning of the American Civil War, Hamilton has been depicted on more denominations of U.S. currency than anyone else. He has appeared on the $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $1,000 notes. Hamilton also appears on the $500 Series EE Savings Bond.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 863, 38017115, 18717338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 45 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 99, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's portrait has been featured on the front of the U.S. $10 bill since 1928. The source of the engraving is John Trumbull's 1805 portrait of Hamilton, in the portrait collection of New York City Hall. In June 2015, the U.S. Treasury announced a decision to replace the engraving of Hamilton with that of Harriet Tubman. It was later decided to leave Hamilton on the $10, and replace Andrew Jackson with Tubman on the $20.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 477331, 340258, 276722, 53667, 37243, 1623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ], [ 115, 128 ], [ 188, 206 ], [ 226, 239 ], [ 311, 325 ], [ 390, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first postage stamp to honor Hamilton was issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1870. The portrayals on the 1870 and 1888 issues are from the same engraved die, which was modeled after a bust of Hamilton by Italian sculptor Giuseppe Ceracchi. The Hamilton 1870 issue was the first U.S. postage stamp to honor a Secretary of the Treasury. The three-cent red commemorative issue, which was released in 1957 on the 200th anniversary of Hamilton's birth, includes a rendition of the Federal Hall building, located in New York City. On March 19, 1956, the United States Postal Service issued the $5 Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Hamilton.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 45545896, 8977288, 43338, 464921, 4884818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 203 ], [ 224, 241 ], [ 311, 336 ], [ 479, 491 ], [ 594, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Grange is the only home Alexander Hamilton ever owned. It is a Federal style mansion designed by John McComb Jr. It was built on Hamilton's 32-acre country estate in what is now called \"Hamilton Heights\" in upper Manhattan, and was completed in 1802. Hamilton named the house \"The Grange\" after the estate of his grandfather Alexander in Ayrshire, Scotland. The house remained in the family until 1833, when his widow Eliza sold it to Thomas E. Davis, a British-born real estate developer, for $25,000. Part of the proceeds were used by Eliza to purchase a new townhouse from Davis in Greenwich Village (now known as the Hamilton-Holly House), where Eliza lived until 1843 with her grown children Alexander and Eliza, and their spouses.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4381127, 1691932, 1324984, 2910087, 68208, 13011, 32487087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 190, 206 ], [ 342, 350 ], [ 589, 606 ], [ 625, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Grange was first moved from its original location in 1889, and was moved again in 2008 to a spot in St. Nicholas Park in Hamilton Heights, on land that was once part of the Hamilton estate. The historic structure, now designated as the Hamilton Grange National Memorial, was restored to its original 1802 appearance in 2011, and is maintained by the National Park Service for public visitation .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 8900018, 161535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 121 ], [ 354, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Columbia University, Hamilton's alma mater, has official memorials to Hamilton on its campus in New York City. The college's main classroom building for the humanities is Hamilton Hall, and a large statue of Hamilton stands in front of it. The university press has published his complete works in a multivolume letterpress edition. Columbia University's student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates is named the Alexander Hamilton Society. Its undergraduate liberal arts college, Columbia College, also hands out the Alexander Hamilton Medal as its highest award to accomplished alumni and to those who have offered exceptional service to the school.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6310, 6641503, 47419736, 1903626, 662134, 684168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 191, 217 ], [ 245, 261 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 496, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton served as one of the first trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy in Clinton, New York, which was renamed Hamilton College in 1812, after receiving a college charter.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 513989, 513989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 75 ], [ 116, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main administration building of the United States Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut, is named Hamilton Hall to commemorate Hamilton's creation of the United States Revenue Cutter Service, one of the predecessor services of the United States Coast Guard.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 435901, 89514, 426234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 73 ], [ 77, 100 ], [ 167, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton High School (Los Angeles)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2058352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton Jr./Sr. High School (Elmsford, New York)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 23212751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton High School (Brooklyn)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 51570657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton High School (Milwaukee)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 11703362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. Army's Fort Hamilton (1831) in Brooklyn at the entrance to New York Harbor is named after Hamilton. It is the fourth oldest installation in the nation, after: West Point (1778), Carlisle Barracks (1779), and Fort Leslie J McNair (1791).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1306358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1880, Hamilton's son John Church Hamilton commissioned Carl Conrads to sculpt a granite statue, now located in Central Park, New York City.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 19184418, 37255977, 45536506, 37536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 44 ], [ 58, 70 ], [ 91, 97 ], [ 114, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hamilton Club in Brooklyn, NY commissioned William Ordway Partridge to cast a bronze statue of Hamilton that was completed in 1892 for exhibition at the World's Columbian Exposition and later installed in front of the club on the corner of Remsen and Clinton Streets in 1893. The club was absorbed by another and the building demolished, and so the statue was removed in 1936 to Hamilton Grange National Memorial, then located on Convent Avenue in Manhattan. Though the home it stood in front of on Convent Avenue was itself relocated in 2007, the statue remains at that location.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 898741, 41960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 71 ], [ 157, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A bronze statue of Hamilton by Franklin Simmons, dated 1905–06, overlooks the Great Falls of the Passaic River at Paterson Great Falls National Historical Park in New Jersey.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6718266, 602528, 602528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 78, 89 ], [ 114, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Washington, D.C., the south terrace of the Treasury Building features a statue of Hamilton by James Earle Fraser, which was dedicated on May 17, 1923.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 17369751, 31508065, 1414775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 63 ], [ 75, 93 ], [ 97, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Construction for Hudson River Day Line of the PS Alexander Hamilton was completed in 1924. When the Alexander Hamilton retired from service as a passenger steamboat in 1971 it was one of the last operating sidewheel steamboats in the country. It was the last sidewheeler to traverse the Hudson River, and probably the East Coast. Its retirement signaled the end of an era.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1439881, 26701726, 178690, 334071, 47911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ], [ 46, 67 ], [ 145, 164 ], [ 206, 226 ], [ 287, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Chicago, a thirteen-foot tall statue of Hamilton by sculptor John Angel was cast in 1939. It was not installed at Lincoln Park until 1952, due to problems with a controversial 78-foot tall columned shelter designed for it and later demolished in 1993. The statue has remained on public display, and was restored and regilded in 2016.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 65344306, 36939077, 715299, 36939077, 390698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 51 ], [ 64, 74 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 165, 208 ], [ 319, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Connecting the New York City boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx is the Alexander Hamilton Bridge, an eight-lane steel arch bridge that carries traffic over the Harlem River, near his former Grange estate. It connects the Trans-Manhattan Expressway in the Washington Heights section of Manhattan and the Cross-Bronx Expressway, as part of Interstate 95 and U.S. 1. The bridge opened to traffic on January 15, 1963, the same day that the Cross-Bronx Expressway was completed.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2821737, 287802, 3506603, 182694, 1005093, 3506603, 9032560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 97 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 222, 248 ], [ 256, 274 ], [ 304, 326 ], [ 339, 352 ], [ 357, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1990, the U.S. Custom House in New York City was renamed after Hamilton.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 444081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A bronze sculpture of Hamilton titled The American Cape, by Kristen Visbal, was unveiled at Journal Square in downtown Hamilton, Ohio, in October 2004.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 53442450, 128961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 119, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Hamilton's birthplace in Charlestown, Nevis, the Alexander Hamilton Museum was located in Hamilton House, a Georgian-style building rebuilt on the foundations of the house where Hamilton was once believed to have been born and to have lived during his childhood. The Nevis Heritage Centre, located next door (to the south) of the museum building, is the current site of the museum's Alexander Hamilton exhibit. The wooden building, historically of the same age as the museum building, was known locally as the Trott House, as Trott was the surname of the family that owned the house in recent times. Evidence gradually accumulated that the wooden house was the actual historical home of Hamilton and his mother, and in 2011, the wooden house and land were acquired by the Nevis Historical and Conservation Society.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 198388, 21503, 22696156, 12924, 22696156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ], [ 41, 46 ], [ 52, 77 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 775, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerous American towns and cities, including Hamilton, Kansas; Hamilton, Missouri; Hamilton, Massachusetts; and Hamilton, Ohio; were named in honor of Alexander Hamilton. In eight states, counties have been named for Hamilton:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 114596, 122549, 116746, 128961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ], [ 64, 82 ], [ 84, 107 ], [ 113, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton is not known to have ever owned slaves, although members of his family were slave owners. At the time of her death, Hamilton's mother owned two slaves named Christian and Ajax, and she had written a will leaving them to her sons; however, due to their illegitimacy, Hamilton and his brother were held ineligible to inherit her property, and never took ownership of the slaves. Later, as a youth in St. Croix, Hamilton worked for a company trading in commodities that included slaves. During his career, Hamilton did occasionally handle financial transactions involving slaves as the legal representative of his own family members, and one of Hamilton's grandsons interpreted some of these journal entries as being purchases for himself. His son John Church Hamilton maintained the converse in the 1840 biography of his father: \"He never owned a slave; but on the contrary, having learned that a domestic whom he had hired was about to be sold by her master, he immediately purchased her freedom.\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the time of Hamilton's early participation in the American Revolution, his abolitionist sensibilities had become evident. Hamilton was active during the Revolutionary War in trying to raise black troops for the army, with the promise of freedom. In the 1780s and 1790s, he generally opposed pro-slavery southern interests, which he saw as hypocritical to the values of the American Revolution. In 1785, he joined his close associate John Jay in founding the New-York Society for Promoting the Manumission of Slaves, and Protecting Such of Them as Have Been, or May be Liberated, the main anti-slavery organization in New York. The society successfully promoted the abolition of the international slave trade in New York City and passed a state law to end slavery in New York through a decades-long process of emancipation, with a final end to slavery in the state on July 4, 1827.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1973, 21816397, 8379623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ], [ 436, 444 ], [ 461, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At a time when most white leaders doubted the capacity of blacks, Hamilton believed slavery was morally wrong and wrote that \"their natural faculties are as good as ours.\" Unlike contemporaries such as Jefferson, who considered the removal of freed slaves (to a western territory, the West Indies, or Africa) to be essential to any plan for emancipation, Hamilton pressed for emancipation with no such provisions. Hamilton and other Federalists supported Toussaint Louverture's revolution against France in Haiti, which had originated as a slave revolt. Hamilton's suggestions helped shape the Haitian constitution. In 1804, when Haiti became the Western Hemisphere's first independent state with a majority Black population, Hamilton urged closer economic and diplomatic ties.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 141986, 13373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 455, 475 ], [ 507, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton has been portrayed as the \"patron saint\" of the American School of economic philosophy that, according to one historian, later dominated American economic policy after 1861. His ideas and work influenced the 19th century German economist Friedrich List, and Abraham Lincoln's chief economic advisor Henry C. Carey, among others.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 376996, 489074, 307, 489058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 72 ], [ 247, 261 ], [ 267, 282 ], [ 308, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton firmly supported government intervention in favor of business, after the manner of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, as early as the fall of 1781. In contrast to the British policy of international mercantilism, which he believed skewed benefits to colonial and imperial powers, Hamilton was a pioneering advocate of protectionism. He is credited with the idea that industrialization would only be possible with tariffs to protect the \"infant industries\" of an emerging nation.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 146811, 19708, 153023, 55551, 1859820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 113 ], [ 196, 208 ], [ 315, 328 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 434, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political theorists credit Hamilton with the creation of the modern administrative state, citing his arguments in favor of a strong executive, linked to the support of the people, as the linchpin of an administrative republic. The dominance of executive leadership in the formulation and carrying out of policy was, in his view, essential to resist the deterioration of republican government. Some scholars point to similarities between Hamiltonian recommendations and the development of Meiji Japan after 1868 as evidence of the global influence of Hamilton's theory.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 84786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 488, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton has appeared as a significant figure in popular works of historical fiction, including many that focused on other American political figures of his time. In comparison to other Founding Fathers, Hamilton attracted relatively little attention in American popular culture in the 20th century, apart from his portrait on the $10 bill.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 540802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A stage play called Hamilton, which ran on Broadway in 1917, was co-written by George Arliss, who played the title role. Arliss reprised the role of Hamilton in a 1931 film based on the stage play.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 48824264, 725252, 7605117, 28098860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 80, 93 ], [ 162, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2015, Hamilton's profile in popular culture was significantly raised by the hit Broadway show An American Musical, written by Lin-Manuel Miranda, who débuted the title role. The musical, which Miranda based on a biography by Ron Chernow, was described by The New Yorker as \"an achievement of historical and cultural reimagining. In Miranda's telling, the headlong rise of one self-made immigrant becomes the story of America.\" The Off-Broadway production of Hamilton won the 2015 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical as well as seven other Drama Desk Awards. In 2016, Hamilton received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, and set a record with 16 Tony Award nominations, of which the show won 11, including Best Musical. An Obama administration plan to replace Hamilton on the $10 bill was shelved due in part to the popularity of the musical.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 45433681, 13072534, 60248143, 2240593, 31365, 89127, 19278722, 417090, 48716, 54741, 249875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 118 ], [ 131, 149 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 230, 241 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 436, 448 ], [ 485, 525 ], [ 549, 565 ], [ 599, 623 ], [ 650, 660 ], [ 710, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " On July 3, 2020, Disney+ released the movie Hamilton, an authorized film of the Broadway stage production performed by the original cast.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 57014419, 63015598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 45, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Novelist Gertrude Atherton wrote a fictionalized biography, The Conqueror, Being the True and Romantic Story of Alexander Hamilton, published in 1902.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1051841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gore Vidal's 1973 historical novel Burr included Hamilton as a major character.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 62169, 187644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " L. Neil Smith cast Hamilton as a principal villain in the historical background of his 1980 libertarian alternative history novel The Probability Broach and its sequels in the North American Confederacy series.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 228817, 3225498, 1203, 5228811, 5229137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 105, 124 ], [ 131, 153 ], [ 177, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Adams Chronicles, a 1976 PBS miniseries, featured Hamilton in a major recurring role.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 16972436, 29697498, 350712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 30, 33 ], [ 34, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Forging of a Nation, a 1986 TV series, included Hamilton as a main character, portrayed by Richard Bekins.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5803602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the 2000 A&E TV movie The Crossing, about Valley Forge, Hamilton is played by Canadian actor Steven McCarthy and is portrayed memorably at the start of the Battle of Trenton.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 472505, 1845248, 10778278, 230033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 16 ], [ 26, 38 ], [ 46, 58 ], [ 160, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Adams, a 2008 HBO miniseries in seven parts, featured Rufus Sewell as Hamilton in two episodes.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 14145137, 4765530, 1361048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 20, 23 ], [ 60, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legends & Lies, a documentary series produced by Bill O'Reilly, featured Alexander McPherson as Hamilton in eight episodes that aired on Fox News in 2016.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 46919592, 2071490, 188564, 11121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 19, 37 ], [ 50, 63 ], [ 138, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Washington's Spies, an AMC period drama, included Sean Haggerty in a recurring role as Hamilton in its final two seasons (2016–2017).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 801036, 1376711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 28 ], [ 29, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An organized group of faithless electors in the 2016 United States presidential election called themselves \"Hamilton electors\", seeking to link their efforts to Hamilton's Federalist No. 68.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 52488980, 2653922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 89 ], [ 173, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Founding Fathers of the United States", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 540802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Founders Online", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69966923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compromise of 1790", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4947504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of central banking in the United States", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1290773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of foreign-born United States Cabinet members", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21196950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Panic of 1792", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19925897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Balogh, Brian. 2009. A Government out of Sight: The Mystery of National Authority in Nineteenth Century American. New York: Cambridge University Press.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bordewich, Fergus M. The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government (2016) on 1789–91.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A one-volume recasting of Brant's six-volume life.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Detailed political history of the 1790s; online free", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " . Four volumes, with various subtitles, cited as \"Flexner, Washington\". Vol. IV. .", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gaspar, Vitor. \"The making of a continental financial system: Lessons for Europe from early American history.\" Journal of European Integration 37.7 (2015): 847–859, summarizes Hamilton's achievements in Atlantic perspective.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A review of the evidence on Newburgh; despite the title, Kohn is doubtful that a coup d'état was ever seriously attempted.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " First volume of two, contains Hamilton's lifetime.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Summarizes speculations of William Duer and others in the context of the national economy.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Survey of politics in the 1790s.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An undergraduate paper, which concludes that Hamilton was ambivalent about slavery.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The most recent synthesis of the era.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cooke, Jacob E., ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Profile. 1967. (short excerpts from Hamilton and his critics)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cunningham, Noble E. Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation. 2000. (short collection of primary sources, with commentary)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (all of Hamilton's major writings and many of his letters)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freeman, Joanne B., ed., The Essential Hamilton: Letters & Other Writings (Library of America, 2017) 424 pp. (abridged ed.)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Frisch, Morton J., ed. Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton. 1985.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Goebel, Julius, Jr., and Joseph H. Smith, eds. The Law Practice of Alexander Hamilton. 5 vols. Columbia University Press, 1964–80. (comprehensive edition of Hamilton's legal papers)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Alexander. Report on Manufactures. (economic program for the United States)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1038174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Alexander. Report on Public Credit. (financial program for the United States)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 8008805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Alexander; Hamilton, John Church. The Works of Alexander Hamilton: Miscellanies, 1789–1795: France; Duties on imports; National bank; Manufactures; Revenue circulars; Reports on claims. 1850. John F. Trow, printer. (free online e-book edition)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 19184418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Alexander; Madison, James; Jay, John. The Federalist Papers. (published under the shared pseudonym \"Publius\")", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 15950, 21816397, 46833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 49, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Morris, Richard, ed. Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation. 1957. (excerpts from Hamilton's writings)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Archives, Founders Online – searchable edition", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sylla, Richard and David J. Cowen, eds. Alexander Hamilton on Finance, Credit, and Debt (Columbia UP, 2018) 346 pp. (partly abridged version of key documents; online review)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Syrett, Harold C., Jacob E. Cooke, and Barbara Chernow, eds. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton. 27 vols. Columbia University Press, 1961–87. (Includes all letters and writings by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; the definitive edition of Hamilton's works, intensively annotated)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Taylor, George Rogers, ed. Hamilton and the National Debt. 1950. (excerpts from 1790s writings representing all sides)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton on PBS' American Experience ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton Papers from the Library of Congress (newly available August 2017)", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, subset of Founders Online from the National Archives", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 70667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New-York Historical Society's Alexander Hamilton Exhibit", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton's Report on Manufactures (Columbia University Press)", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton's Congressional biography", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton by Henry Cabot Lodge", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 153059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton's Plan of Government", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton Grange National Memorial", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton and the National Triumph of New York City, WNET video lecture; overview of Hamilton's career", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Hamilton records at Trinity Wall Street Archives", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ "Publius", "Hamilton", "Alexander Hamilton, US Treasury secretary", "A. Ham" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Carl Richard Woese (; July 15, 1928 – December 30, 2012) was an American microbiologist and biophysicist. Woese is famous for defining the Archaea (a new domain of life) in 1977 by phylogenetic taxonomy of 16S ribosomal RNA, a technique he pioneered that revolutionized microbiology. He also originated the RNA world hypothesis in 1967, although not by that name. Woese held the Stanley O. Ikenberry Chair and was professor of microbiology at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 539355, 54000, 19179592, 62603, 23962, 30463, 14075787, 25765, 44447011, 384695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 154, 160 ], [ 181, 193 ], [ 194, 202 ], [ 206, 223 ], [ 307, 327 ], [ 379, 399 ], [ 447, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carl Woese was born in Syracuse, New York on July 15, 1928. Woese attended Deerfield Academy in Massachusetts. He received a bachelor's degree in mathematics and physics from Amherst College in 1950. During his time at Amherst, Woese took only one biology course (Biochemistry, in his senior year) and had \"no scientific interest in plants and animals\" until advised by William M. Fairbank, then an assistant professor of physics at Amherst, to pursue biophysics at Yale.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 4233891, 1645518, 18831, 22939, 60355, 3954, 27978147, 54000, 34273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 92 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 175, 190 ], [ 264, 276 ], [ 370, 389 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 466, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1953, he completed a Ph.D. in biophysics at Yale University, where his doctoral research focused on the inactivation of viruses by heat and ionizing radiation. He studied medicine at the University of Rochester for two years, quitting two days into a pediatrics rotation. Then he became a postdoctoral researcher in biophysics at Yale University investigating bacterial spores. From 1960–63, he worked as a biophysicist at the General Electric Research Laboratory in Schenectady, New York. In 1964, Woese joined the microbiology faculty of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, where he focused on Archaea, genomics, and molecular evolution as his areas of expertise. He became a professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign's Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, which was renamed in his honor in 2015, after his death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 21031297, 54000, 34273, 19167679, 202522, 31918, 23593, 12990536, 55412, 176052, 384695, 39607668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 29 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 47, 62 ], [ 123, 128 ], [ 143, 161 ], [ 190, 213 ], [ 254, 264 ], [ 430, 466 ], [ 470, 491 ], [ 634, 653 ], [ 710, 752 ], [ 755, 798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Woese died on December 30, 2012, following complications from pancreatic cancer, leaving as survivors his wife Gabriella and a son and daughter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 363559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Woese turned his attention to the genetic code while setting up his lab at General Electric's Knolls Laboratory in the fall of 1960. Interest among physicists and molecular biologists had begun to coalesce around deciphering the correspondence between the twenty amino acids and the four letter alphabet of nucleic acid bases in the decade following James D. Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Franklin's discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953. Woese published a series of papers on the topic. In one, he deduced a correspondence table between what was then known as \"soluble RNA\" and DNA based upon their respective base pair ratios. He then re-evaluated experimental data associated with the hypothesis that viruses used one base, rather than a triplet, to encode each amino acid, and suggested 18 codons, correctly predicting one for proline. Other work established the mechanistic basis of protein translation, but in Woese's view, largely overlooked the genetic code's evolutionary origins as an afterthought.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 12385, 12730, 6707383, 1207, 89080, 16289, 11461, 90472, 4292, 38811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 46 ], [ 75, 91 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 263, 274 ], [ 307, 325 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 367, 380 ], [ 386, 403 ], [ 621, 630 ], [ 841, 848 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1962, Woese spent several months as a visiting researcher at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, a locus of intense activity on the molecular biology of gene expression and gene regulation. While in Paris, he met Sol Spiegelman, who invited Woese to visit the University of Illinois after hearing his research goals; at this visit Spiegelman offered Woese a position with immediate tenure beginning in the fall of 1964. With the freedom to patiently pursue more speculative threads of inquiry outside the mainstream of biological research, Woese began to consider the genetic code in evolutionary terms, asking how the codon assignments and their translation into an amino acid sequence might have evolved.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 866902, 22989, 9792451, 384695, 3153225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ], [ 89, 94 ], [ 212, 226 ], [ 259, 281 ], [ 381, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For much of the 20th century, prokaryotes were regarded as a single group of organisms and classified based on their biochemistry, morphology and metabolism. In a highly influential 1962 paper, Roger Stanier and C. B. van Niel first established the division of cellular organization into prokaryotes and eukaryotes, defining prokaryotes as those organisms lacking a cell nucleus. Adapted from Édouard Chatton's generalization, Stanier and Van Niel's concept was quickly accepted as the most important distinction among organisms; yet they were nevertheless skeptical of microbiologists' attempts to construct a natural phylogenetic classification of bacteria. However, it became generally assumed that all life shared a common prokaryotic (implied by the Greek root πρό (pro-), before, in front of) ancestor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 3954, 1099348, 20374, 33811818, 1753623, 19172225, 24536543, 6235, 13809164, 23962, 11887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 129 ], [ 131, 141 ], [ 146, 156 ], [ 194, 207 ], [ 212, 226 ], [ 288, 298 ], [ 304, 313 ], [ 366, 378 ], [ 393, 408 ], [ 619, 631 ], [ 755, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1977, Carl Woese and George E. Fox experimentally disproved this universally held hypothesis about the basic structure of the tree of life. Woese and Fox discovered a kind of microbial life which they called the “archaebacteria” (Archaea). They reported that the archaebacteria comprised \"a third kingdom\" of life as distinct from bacteria as plants and animals. Having defined Archaea as a new \"urkingdom\" (later domain) which were neither bacteria nor eukaryotes, Woese redrew the taxonomic tree. His three-domain system, based on phylogenetic relationships rather than obvious morphological similarities, divided life into 23 main divisions, incorporated within three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 10223144, 8383637, 19179592, 62603, 30463, 164897, 9028799, 19179592, 24536543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 129, 141 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 417, 423 ], [ 486, 495 ], [ 506, 525 ], [ 683, 691 ], [ 693, 700 ], [ 706, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acceptance of the validity of Woese's phylogenetically valid classification was a slow process. Prominent biologists including Salvador Luria and Ernst Mayr objected to his division of the prokaryotes. Not all criticism of him was restricted to the scientific level. A decade of labor-intensive oligonucleotide cataloging left him with a reputation as \"a crank,\" and Woese would go on to be dubbed as \"Microbiology's Scarred Revolutionary\" by a news article printed in the journal Science. The growing body of supporting data led the scientific community to accept the Archaea by the mid-1980s. Today, few scientists cling to the idea of a unified Prokarya.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 256313, 9238, 193513, 338705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 141 ], [ 146, 156 ], [ 481, 488 ], [ 534, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Woese's work on Archaea is also significant in its implications for the search for life on other planets. Before the discovery by Woese and Fox, scientists thought that Archaea were extreme organisms that evolved from the microorganisms more familiar to us. Now, most believe they are ancient, and may have robust evolutionary connections to the first organisms on Earth. Organisms similar to those archaea that exist in extreme environments may have developed on other planets, some of which harbor conditions conducive to extremophile life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 9619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 524, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notably, Woese's elucidation of the tree of life shows the overwhelming diversity of microbial lineages: single-celled organisms represent the vast majority of the biosphere's genetic, metabolic, and ecologic niche diversity. As microbes are crucial for many biogeochemical cycles and to the continued function of the biosphere, Woese's efforts to clarify the evolution and diversity of microbes provided an invaluable service to ecologists and conservationists. It was a major contribution to the theory of evolution and to our knowledge of the history of life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 8383637, 398638, 3212877, 45441, 9236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ], [ 259, 279 ], [ 430, 440 ], [ 445, 461 ], [ 508, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Woese wrote, \"My evolutionary concerns center on the bacteria and the archaea, whose evolutions cover most of the planet's 4.5-billion-year history. Using ribosomal RNA sequence as an evolutionary measure, my laboratory has reconstructed the phylogeny of both groups, and thereby provided a phylogenetically valid system of classification for prokaryotes. The discovery of the archaea was in fact a product of these studies\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Woese also speculated about an era of rapid evolution in which considerable horizontal gene transfer occurred between organisms. First described by Woese and Fox in a 1977 paper and explored further with microbiologist Jane Gibson in a 1980 paper, these organisms, or progenotes, were imagined as protocells with very low complexity due to their error-prone translation apparatus (\"noisy genetic transmission channel\"), which produced high mutation rates that limited the specificity of cellular interaction and the size of the genome. This early translation apparatus would have produced a group of structurally similar, functionally equivalent proteins, rather than a single protein. Furthermore, because of this reduced specificity, all cellular components were susceptible to horizontal gene transfer, and rapid evolution occurred at the level of the ecosystem.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 205624, 53615916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 100 ], [ 219, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The transition to modern cells (the \"Darwinian Threshold\") occurred when organisms evolved translation mechanisms with modern levels of fidelity: improved performance allowed cellular organization to reach a level of complexity and connectedness that made genes from other organisms much less able to displace an individual's own genes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 59976010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In later years, Woese's work concentrated on genomic analysis to elucidate the significance of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) for evolution. He worked on detailed analyses of the phylogenies of the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and on the effect of horizontal gene transfer on the distribution of those key enzymes among organisms. The goal of the research was to explain how the primary cell types (the archaeal, eubacterial, and eukaryotic) evolved from an ancestral state in the RNA world.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work and discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 25765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 479, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Woese shared his thoughts on the past, present, and future of biology in Current Biology:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Perspectives on biology", "target_page_ids": [ 15501806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"important questions\" that 21st century biology faces all stem from a single question, the nature and generation of biological organization. . . . Yes, Darwin is back, but in the company of . . . scientists who can see much further into the depths of biology than was possible heretofore. It is no longer a \"10,000 species of birds\" view of evolution—evolution seen as a procession of forms. The concern is now with the process of evolution itself.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Perspectives on biology", "target_page_ids": [ 8553751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "I see the question of biological organization taking two prominent directions today. The first is the evolution of (proteinaceous) cellular organization, which includes sub-questions such as the evolution of the translation apparatus and the genetic code, and the origin and nature of the hierarchies of control that fine-tune and precisely interrelate the panoply of cellular processes that constitute cells. It also includes the question of the number of different basic cell types that exist on earth today: did all modern cells come from a single ancestral cellular organization?", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Perspectives on biology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The second major direction involves the nature of the global ecosystem. . . . Bacteria are the major organisms on this planet—in numbers, in total mass, in importance to the global balances. Thus, it is microbial ecology that . . . is most in need of development, both in terms of facts needed to understand it, and in terms of the framework in which to interpret them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Perspectives on biology", "target_page_ids": [ 1057083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Woese considered biology to have an \"all-important\" role in society. In his view, biology should serve a broader purpose than the pursuit of \"an engineered environment\":", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Perspectives on biology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "What was formally recognized in physics needs now to be recognized in biology: science serves a dual function. On the one hand it is society's servant, attacking the applied problems posed by society. On the other hand, it functions as society's teacher, helping the latter to understand its world and itself. It is the latter function that is effectively missing today.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Perspectives on biology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Woese was a MacArthur Fellow in 1984, was made a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1988, received the Leeuwenhoek Medal (microbiology's highest honor) in 1992, the Selman A. Waksman Award in Microbiology in 1995 from the National Academy of Sciences, and was a National Medal of Science recipient in 2000. In 2003, he received the Crafoord Prize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences \"for his discovery of a third domain of life\". He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2004. In 2006, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Society.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors and scientific legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4222171, 46510, 256253, 28306611, 46510, 100286, 256390, 210815, 283120, 510795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 63, 91 ], [ 114, 131 ], [ 176, 215 ], [ 233, 261 ], [ 273, 298 ], [ 343, 357 ], [ 367, 400 ], [ 471, 501 ], [ 534, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many microbial species, such as Pyrococcus woesei, Methanobrevibacter woesei, and Conexibacter woesei, are named in his honor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors and scientific legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 40234962, 40193056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 49 ], [ 51, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Microbiologist Justin Sonnenburg of Stanford University said \"The 1977 paper is one of the most influential in microbiology and arguably, all of biology. It ranks with the works of Watson and Crick and Darwin, providing an evolutionary framework for the incredible diversity of the microbial world\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors and scientific legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26977, 16289, 11461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ], [ 181, 187 ], [ 192, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With regard to Woese's work on horizontal gene transfer as a primary evolutionary process, Professor Norman R. Pace of the University of Colorado at Boulder said, \"I think Woese has done more for biology writ large than any biologist in history, including Darwin... There's a lot more to learn, and he's been interpreting the emerging story brilliantly\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors and scientific legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26790897, 289672, 8145410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 115 ], [ 123, 156 ], [ 256, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Archaea", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19179592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bacterial phyla, the major lineages of Bacteria", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30239813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George E. Fox", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10223144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karl Stetter", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 874025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Norman R. Pace", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26790897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Otto Kandler", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40426706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Phylogenetics", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tree of life (biology)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8383637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 16S ribosomal RNA", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14075787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Woeseian revolution", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44432370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Woese's dogma", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35937072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carl Woese papers at the University of Illinois, Champaign", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Woese's Homepage, Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, November 30, 2017", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carl R. Woese Guestbook, Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, November 30, 2017", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Excerpts from a documentary on Woese's Tree of Life", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Carl_Woese", "1928_births", "2012_deaths", "American_microbiologists", "Amherst_College_alumni", "Deerfield_Academy_alumni", "Foreign_Members_of_the_Royal_Society", "MacArthur_Fellows", "Members_of_the_United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "National_Medal_of_Science_laureates", "People_from_Syracuse,_New_York", "University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign_faculty", "Leeuwenhoek_Medal_winners", "Deaths_from_pancreatic_cancer", "Scientists_from_New_York_(state)", "Members_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_Illinois", "History_of_genetics" ]

[ "Carl Richard Woese", "Carl R. Woese", "C. Woese", "C. R. Woese" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Otto II (955 – 7 December 983), called the Red (der Rote), was Holy Roman Emperor from 973 until his death in 983. A member of the Ottonian dynasty, Otto II was the youngest and sole surviving son of Otto the Great and Adelaide of Italy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50853, 22644, 25605367, 2519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 81 ], [ 131, 147 ], [ 200, 214 ], [ 219, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II was made joint-ruler of Germany in 961, at an early age, and his father named him co-Emperor in 967 to secure his succession to the throne. His father also arranged for Otto II to marry the Byzantine Princess Theophanu, who would be his wife until his death. When his father died after a 37-year reign, the eighteen-year-old Otto II became absolute ruler of the Holy Roman Empire in a peaceful succession. Otto II spent his reign continuing his father's policy of strengthening Imperial rule in Germany and extending the borders of the Empire deeper into southern Italy. Otto II also continued the work of Otto I in subordinating the Catholic Church to Imperial control.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 31120, 50123, 13277, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 216 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 370, 387 ], [ 642, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early in his reign, Otto II defeated a major revolt against his rule from other members of the Ottonian dynasty who claimed the throne for themselves. His victory allowed him to exclude the Bavarian line of the Ottonians from the line of Imperial succession. This strengthened his authority as Emperor and secured the succession of his own son to the Imperial throne.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4588542, 22644, 2335662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 190, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With domestic affairs settled, Otto II would focus his attention from 980 onward to annexing the whole of Italy into the Empire. His conquests brought him into conflict with the Byzantine Empire and with the Muslims of the Fatimid Caliphate, who both held territories in southern Italy. After initial successes in unifying the southern Lombard principalities under his authority and in conquering Byzantine-controlled territory, Otto II's campaigns in southern Italy ended in 982 following a disastrous defeat by the Muslims. While he was preparing to counterattack Muslim forces, a major uprising by the Slavs broke out in 983, forcing the Empire to abandon its major territorial holdings east of the Elbe river.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 19541, 56176, 18011, 5435758, 30948504, 50759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 194 ], [ 208, 215 ], [ 223, 240 ], [ 336, 343 ], [ 492, 509 ], [ 583, 610 ], [ 702, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II died suddenly in 983 at the age of 28 after a ten-year reign. He was succeeded as Emperor by his three-year-old son Otto III, plunging the Empire into a political crisis.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II was born in 955, the third son of the King of Germany Otto I and his second wife Adelaide of Italy. By 957, Otto II's older brothers Henry (born 952) and Bruno (born 953) had died, as well as Otto I's son from his first wife Eadgyth, the Crown Prince Liudolf, Duke of Swabia. With his older brothers dead, the two-year-old Otto became the Kingdom's crown prince and Otto I's heir apparent. Otto I entrusted his illegitimate son, Archbishop William of Mainz, with Otto II's literary and cultural education. Margrave Odo, commander of the Eastern March, taught the young crown prince the art of war and the kingdom's legal customs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 3190225, 25605367, 2519, 9935, 236210, 2041078, 213047, 33943, 11660206, 9012041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 62, 68 ], [ 89, 106 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 246, 258 ], [ 259, 282 ], [ 383, 396 ], [ 437, 464 ], [ 514, 526 ], [ 545, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Needing to put his affairs in order prior to his descent into Italy, Otto I summoned a Diet at Worms and had Otto II elected, at the age of six, co-regent in May 961. Otto II was later crowned by his uncle Bruno the Great, Archbishop of Cologne, at Aachen Cathedral, probably on Pentecost (26 May). While Otto I had secured succession of the throne, he had violated the Kingdom's unwritten law that succession rights could only be granted to a child who has reached the age of majority. He was likely motivated by the high risk associated with his expedition into Italy to claim the Imperial title from the Pope. Otto I crossed the Alps into Italy, while Otto II remained in Germany, and the two archbishops, Bruno and William, were appointed as his regents. After three-and-a-half years in Italy, Otto I returned to Germany early in 965 as Holy Roman Emperor. In order to give the hope of dynastic continuity after his death, Otto I again confirmed Otto II as his heir on 2 February 965, the third anniversary of Otto I's coronation as Emperor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 14532, 30599237, 1490996, 662592, 214438, 45971, 5254, 862311, 50853, 35348624, 50853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 206, 221 ], [ 223, 244 ], [ 249, 265 ], [ 279, 288 ], [ 380, 393 ], [ 470, 485 ], [ 583, 597 ], [ 750, 757 ], [ 841, 859 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though Otto I was crowned Emperor in 962 and returned to Germany in 965, the political situation in Italy remained unstable. After almost two years in Germany, Otto I made a third expedition to Italy in 966. Bruno was again appointed regent over the eleven-year-old Otto II during Otto I's absence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With his power over northern and central Italy secured, Otto I sought to clarify his relationship with the Byzantine Empire in the East. The Byzantine Emperor objected to Otto's use of the title \"Emperor\". The situation between East and West was finally resolved to share sovereignty over southern Italy. Otto I sought a marriage alliance between his Imperial house and the Eastern Macedonian dynasty. A prerequisite for the marriage alliance was the coronation of Otto II as Co-Emperor. Otto I then sent word for Otto II to join him in Italy. In October 967, father and son met in Verona and together marched through Ravenna to Rome. On 25 December 967, Otto II was crowned Co-Emperor by Pope John XIII, securing Otto II's succession to the Imperial crown following his father's death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 4016, 22644, 2585080, 263991, 37409, 98568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 123 ], [ 141, 158 ], [ 351, 365 ], [ 382, 400 ], [ 582, 588 ], [ 618, 625 ], [ 689, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II's coronation allowed marriage negotiations to begin with the East. Only in 972, six years later, under the new Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes, was a marriage and peace agreement concluded, however. Though Otto I preferred Byzantine Princess Anna Porphyrogenita, daughter of former Byzantine Emperor Romanos II, as she was born in the purple, her age (then only five years old) prevented serious consideration by the East. The choice of Emperor John I Tzimisces was his niece Theophanu, who was the soldier-emperor's niece by marriage. On 14 April 972, the sixteen-year-old Otto II was married to the fourteen-year-old Eastern princess, and Theophanu was crowned empress by the Pope.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 159769, 1983345, 74026, 19842539, 31120, 44488575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 153 ], [ 253, 272 ], [ 311, 321 ], [ 334, 352 ], [ 487, 496 ], [ 597, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even after his coronation, Otto II remained in the shadow of his overbearing father. Though the nominal co-ruler of the Empire, he was denied any role in its administration. Unlike his earlier son Liudolf, whom Otto I named Duke of Swabia in 950, Otto II was granted no area of responsibility. Otto II was confined primarily to northern Italy during his father's time south of the Alps. After five years away, the Imperial family returned to Saxony in August 972.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 2041078, 663122, 28395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 204 ], [ 224, 238 ], [ 442, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 May 973, Otto died of fever, and Otto II succeeded his father as sole Emperor without meeting any opposition. Otto II spent his reign continuing his father's policy of strengthening Imperial rule in Germany and extending it deeper into Italy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Otto the Great died, the smooth succession to the imperial throne of Otto II had long been guaranteed. Otto II had been king of Germany for twelve years and Emperor for five at the time of Otto the Great's death. Unlike his father, Otto II did not have any brothers to contest his claims to the throne. On May 8, the nobles of the Empire assembled before Otto II and, according to the Saxon Chronicler Widukind of Corvey, \"elected\" Otto II as his father's successor. One of Otto II's first acts was to confirm the rights and possessions of the Archbishop of Magdeburg. Although Otto II had succeeded peacefully to the throne, internal divisions of power still remained unaddressed. During his first seven years as Emperor, he was constantly occupied with maintaining Imperial power against internal rivals and external enemies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 59184, 258684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 407, 425 ], [ 549, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The domestic problems Otto the Great faced between 963 and 972 had not been resolved by his death. The Saxon nobility continued to resist the Archdiocese of Magdeburg located along the Empire's eastern border. Though established by Otto I, the exact details of the diocese's boundaries were left to Otto II and his aides. Otto II's marriage to the Byzantine Princess Theophanu proved to be to his disadvantage because the Saxon nobles felt it distanced the Emperor from their interests. Among Otto II's chief advisors, only the Saxon Bishop Dietrich I of Metz had close connections with the old Saxon nobility. His other advisers lacked support from the Empire's various dukes. The Archbishop of Mainz, Willigis, appointed in 975, who had been Otto II's advisor since Otto the Great's second expedition into Italy in the 960s, had not been born into a noble family. Hildebald of Worms, who had been appointed as Otto II's Chancellor in 977 and then as Bishop of Worms in 979, was also not from a noble family.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 258684, 16972981, 31120, 8885472, 5436361, 1342867, 214175, 1527981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 166 ], [ 348, 357 ], [ 367, 376 ], [ 541, 559 ], [ 682, 701 ], [ 703, 711 ], [ 922, 932 ], [ 952, 967 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto the Great also failed to clarify affairs in Italy prior to his death. Otto died soon after the appointment of Pope Benedict VI in 973. In 974 Benedict was imprisoned in the Castel Sant'Angelo, the stronghold of the Crescentii family. When Otto II sent an imperial representative, Count Sicco, to secure his release, Crescentius I and Cardinal-Deacon Franco Ferrucci, who would subsequently become Boniface VII, an antipope, had Benedict murdered while still in prison.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 24012, 298009, 1326165, 5274749, 24059, 1633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 131 ], [ 178, 196 ], [ 220, 230 ], [ 321, 334 ], [ 402, 414 ], [ 419, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following his coronation, a rift developed between Otto II and his mother, the Dowager Empress Adelaide of Italy. From the death of Otto the Great until Easter 974, Adelaide accompanied the Emperor at all times, traveling throughout the Empire with him. However, Otto II's mother and his wife Theophanu each mistrusted the influence the other held over the Emperor, causing friction within the Imperial household. A final meeting between Otto II and Adelaide was arranged shortly before Pentecost in 978, but a peaceful outcome was not achieved, forcing Adelaide to retire to Burgundy and to the protection of her brother King Conrad of Burgundy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 299376, 2519, 31120, 45971, 2891230, 2602090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 94 ], [ 95, 112 ], [ 293, 302 ], [ 487, 496 ], [ 576, 584 ], [ 627, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II sought continued peace between himself and the descendants of his uncle Henry I, Duke of Bavaria. To ensure domestic tranquillity, Otto II, on 27 June 973, granted his cousin, Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, control over the imperial castles in Bamberg and Stegaurach. This was not enough for the young Bavarian Duke, who wished to extend his influence in the Duchy of Swabia as his father had under Otto the Great. The death of Bishop Ulrich of Augsburg on 4 July, brought the conflict between the cousins to a head. Without consulting Otto II, Henry II named his cousin Henry as the new Bishop of Augsburg. Augsburg was located on the western side of the Swabian-Bavarian border, the territory of Henry II's brother-in-law Burchard III, Duke of Swabia. Henry's actions in naming a bishop in a duchy not his own and without Imperial direction brought him into conflict with both Otto II and Burchard III. Not desiring civil war, Otto II, on 22 September 973, invested Henry as bishop.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 2335662, 227817, 4896, 2329632, 3196657, 64477, 5092577, 4754936, 1416762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 104 ], [ 184, 209 ], [ 248, 255 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 363, 378 ], [ 439, 457 ], [ 575, 580 ], [ 728, 756 ], [ 963, 971 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 12 November 973, Burchard III died with no heir: his union to Hadwing, sister of Henry II, had produced no children. With no clear successor, Henry II demanded that Otto II name him as the new Duke of Swabia. The Emperor sensed the far-reaching ambitions of his cousin and denied his request. Instead, Otto II named as Duke his nephew Otto, son of his half-brother Liudolf, Duke of Swabia. Prior to his appointment, Otto had been a long-time opponent of Henry II's expanding influence in Swabia. By naming a descendant of his half-brother instead of his cousin, Otto II reinforced his father's policy of appointing close family members to key posts throughout the Empire. This appointment elevated the descendants of Otto the Great above those of Henry I in the selection process, further dividing Otto II and Henry II.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 663122, 2353923, 2041078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 210 ], [ 338, 342 ], [ 368, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The appointment of Otto as Duke of Swabia was taken by Henry II as an assault on his claim to the Imperial throne and a slight to his honor. He and his advisor, Bishop Abraham of Freising, conspired with the Duke of Poland Mieszko I and the Duke of Bohemia Boleslaus II against Otto II in 974. While the historical sources do not describe the goals of the conspirators, Henry II likely intended to restore his honor and to ensure his position as the second most influential man in the Empire. Upon hearing of the conspiracy, Poppo, the Bishop of Würzburg, demanded Henry II and his followers submit to Otto II or face excommunication. Otto the Great's efforts to consolidate the Church under Imperial control had made this type of action normal. Henry II and his followers complied and submitted to Otto II before armed conflict broke out. Otto II, however, severely punished the conspirators: Henry II was imprisoned at Ingelheim and Bishop Abraham at Corvey.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 26288, 20597, 223907, 446165, 1519512, 10338, 255247, 1922265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 222 ], [ 223, 232 ], [ 241, 256 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 536, 554 ], [ 618, 633 ], [ 921, 930 ], [ 953, 959 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 976, Henry II had returned to Bavaria. Whether Otto II released him from prison or he escaped is not known for certain. Upon his return, Henry openly rebelled against Otto II, claiming rulership over the Empire for himself. Henry II mobilized the Saxon nobility against Otto II. In particular, Henry II had strong connections to Margrave Gunther of Merseburg, Count Egbert the One-Eyed, and Dietrich I of Wettin, who were all displeased with Otto II's lack of adherence to Saxon tradition. In response to the rebellion, Otto II stripped Henry II of his duchy and had him excommunicated. Otto II then marched his army south to Bavaria and laid siege to Regensburg, Henry II's stronghold. Otto II's army eventually broke through the city's defenses, forcing Henry II to flee to Bohemia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 11707994, 11965060, 17645585, 49117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 341, 361 ], [ 369, 388 ], [ 394, 414 ], [ 655, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Henry II deposed, in July 976 Otto II issued far-reaching edicts on the reorganization of the southern German duchies. Otto II reduced the size of Duchy of Bavaria by almost a third. From the excised Bavarian territory, Otto II established the Duchy of Carinthia in southern Germany. By depriving Bavaria of the March of Verona, Otto II considerably reduced the influence of the Bavarian dukes in northern Italy and in general Imperial policy regarding Italy. Otto II gave the newly diminished Duchy of Bavaria to his relative Otto, the Duke of Swabia, and appointed Henry III, son of the former Bavarian Duke Berthold, as Duke of Carinthia. These appointments continued his policy of appointing individuals who had no political links to Otto the Great, including those who had even rebelled against him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 1463463, 74817, 9961239, 4754671, 4835384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 168 ], [ 249, 267 ], [ 317, 332 ], [ 572, 581 ], [ 615, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With matters in southern Germany settled, Otto II turned his attention to defeating and capturing Henry II. After a failed first invasion into Bohemia, Otto II marched to Bohemia a second time in August 977. While in Bohemia, a revolt broke out in Bavaria. Henry I, Bishop of Augsburg, and the newly appointed Carinthian Duke Henry III joined Henry II in rebellion, forcing Otto II to return from Bohemia. The Emperor, aided by the Duke of Swabia and Bavaria, met the rebels at Passau and, after a long siege, forced them into submission. Otto II then brought the rebels before the Imperial Diet in Quedlinburg on March 31, 978. Boleslaus II was treated with honors and swore loyalty to Otto II. Mieszko I of Poland recognized Otto's royal authority to the throne. Otto II imprisoned Henry II under the custody of the Bishop of Utrecht where he would remain until Otto II's death in 983.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 4588542, 5092577, 227880, 30599237, 25320, 20597, 43248316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 255 ], [ 257, 284 ], [ 479, 485 ], [ 583, 596 ], [ 600, 611 ], [ 697, 716 ], [ 819, 836 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Otto the Great had pardoned rebellious family members for their crimes, Otto II followed a different policy. Instead, Otto II hoped to subordinate the Bavarian line of Ottonians to his Imperial authority. Henry II's four-year-old son, also named Henry, was sent to Hildesheim to study for an ecclesiastical career. It appears Otto II intended to end the Bavarian Ottonians' secular control of Bavaria. Under a new Duke, Bavaria would remain a remote area of the Empire. Otto II would only visit the Duchy three times during his reign, in all cases accompanied by the military.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 27485516, 153231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 257 ], [ 271, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 950, Otto the Great had subdued the Kingdom of Denmark and forced the Danish King Gorm the Old to accept him as his overlord. Otto the Great also forced the king and his heir apparent Harald Bluetooth to convert to Christianity. Under the reign of Otto the Great, Denmark fulfilled all its obligations and regularly paid tribute to the Germans. When Harald became king in 958, he expanded the control of his kingdom into Norway, becoming king there in 970. With his newly obtained power, the young ruler was no longer willing to accept German supremacy over his kingdom. In summer 974, Harald rebelled against Otto II. With the support of Norwegian troops, Harald was able to cross the Danish border into Germany, defeating the German forces stationed in the north. Otto II attacked Harald's forces, but the joint Danish-Norwegian army repelled the German army. In autumn, however, when the Norwegian allies sailed north to return to Norway, Otto II was able to counter Harald's advances at the Danevirke.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 11746442, 233507, 42419, 4794884, 21241, 816386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 57 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 187, 203 ], [ 207, 230 ], [ 424, 430 ], [ 998, 1007 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before Henry II's civil war in southern Germany erupted, Otto II was faced with disputes in western Germany. The brothers Reginar IV, Count of Mons, and Lambert I, Count of Louvain, demanded that the Emperor restore their confiscated inheritance in the Duchy of Lorraine. Years earlier in 958, Otto the Great banished their father Reginar III, Count of Hainaut, to Bohemia after he attempted a failed revolt. In 973, Otto II granted their request. With both Otto the Great and Count Reginar III dead, it appears Otto II desired a fresh start with the two sons. Lambert I and Reginar IV returned to Lorraine in 973 to reclaim their land by force. After an initial failure, the brothers attempted again in 976, this time with the support of King Lothar of France. To help calm the situation in the west, Otto II appointed Charles, his cousin and brother of Lothar, as Duke of Lower Lorraine. The same year, Otto II appointed Egbert as his Imperial Chancellor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 1299499, 10779101, 49149, 6335397, 4345, 638030, 1299891, 6857216, 11778490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 147 ], [ 153, 180 ], [ 253, 270 ], [ 331, 360 ], [ 365, 372 ], [ 744, 760 ], [ 820, 827 ], [ 866, 888 ], [ 923, 929 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II's support of Charles, however, infuriated the French king, who claimed the Duchy as his own territory. Charles and Lothair were also feuding, with Charles being exiled from France over an infidelity allegation concerning Lothair's wife. Charles fled to Otto II's court and paid homage to Otto II. In return, Otto II appointed Charles as Duke and promised to support his claim to the French throne. Soon after Otto II crushed Henry II's revolt in the south, the Emperor and his wife Theophanu returned to the old capital of Aachen in Lorraine. With the Imperial family near the French border, Lothair invaded Lorraine and marched on Aachen. With the French army in sight, Otto II and Theophanu fled to Cologne and then to the Duchy of Saxony. Upon hearing of the French invasion, Otto II’s mother Adelaide of Italy, who was Lothair's mother-in-law, sided with Lothair over her own son and moved to the court of her brother King Conrad of Burgundy. After occupying Aachen for five days, Lothair returned to France after symbolically disgracing the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 31120, 1520, 49149, 6187, 264007, 2519, 2602090, 85451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 490, 499 ], [ 531, 537 ], [ 541, 549 ], [ 709, 716 ], [ 733, 748 ], [ 804, 821 ], [ 930, 941 ], [ 945, 953 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II convened the Imperial Diet in mid-July at Dortmund. There, Otto II declared war against France and prepared his army to march west. In September 978, Otto II retaliated against Lothair by invading France with the aid of Charles. He met with little resistance on French territory, devastating the land around Rheims, Soissons, and Laon. Otto II then had Charles crowned as King of the Franks by Theodoric I, Bishop of Metz. Lothair then fled to the French capital of Paris and was there besieged by Otto II and Charles. Sickness among his troops brought on by winter and a French relief army under Hugh Capet forced Otto II and Charles to lift the siege on November 30, and to return to Germany. On the journey back to Germany, Otto's rearguard was attacked and destroyed by French forces, with their supplies being captured. Despite neither side obtaining a clear victory, Otto II felt his honor was sufficiently restored and opened peace negotiations with the French King. Peace was finally concluded between Otto II and Lothair in 980: in return for renouncing his claims on Lorraine, Otto II would recognize Lothair's son Louis V as the rightful heir to the French throne.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 149349, 48845, 81271, 83171, 8885472, 75185, 17293333, 293942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 324, 332 ], [ 338, 342 ], [ 402, 429 ], [ 605, 615 ], [ 742, 751 ], [ 1133, 1140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With peace concluded, Otto II returned to Aachen to celebrate Pentecost, and then moved towards Nijmegen. During the journey, in late June or early July 980, the Empress Theophanu gave birth to the Imperial couple's only son: Otto III.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign as emperor", "target_page_ids": [ 45971, 21713, 38935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 71 ], [ 96, 104 ], [ 226, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With his rule north of the Alps secured and with the birth of his heir, Otto II shifted his focus to Italy. The situation south of the Alps was chaotic. Pope Benedict VI, who had been appointed by Otto I, had been imprisoned by the Romans in Castel Sant'Angelo. When Otto II sent an imperial representative, Count Sicco, to secure his release, Crescentius I and Cardinal Franco Ferrucci had Benedict VI murdered while still in prison in 974. Cardinal Franco Ferrucci then crowned himself as Benedict VI's successor, becoming Antipope Boniface VII. A popular revolt, however, forced Boniface VII to flee to Constantinople, taking a vast treasure with him. In October 974, under the direction of Count Sicco, the bishop of Sutri was elected Pope as Pope Benedict VII. Boniface VII was then summarily excommunicated for his unsuccessful attempt to take the papacy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 24012, 298009, 5274749, 1633, 24059, 5646, 14447714, 24013, 10338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 169 ], [ 242, 260 ], [ 344, 357 ], [ 525, 533 ], [ 534, 546 ], [ 606, 620 ], [ 711, 726 ], [ 747, 764 ], [ 798, 812 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 979 Benedict VII's position as ruler of Rome was threatened, forcing the Pope to withdraw from and seek the aid of the Emperor. Accepting the Pope's call for aid, Otto II and Theophanu, along with their infant son Otto III, prepared for a march south across the Alps. Otto II appointed Willigis, the Archbishop of Mainz, to serve as his regent over Germany.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 38935, 1342867, 5436361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 225 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 303, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 980 the Imperial court arrived in Chiavenna and received its first Italian delegations. Otto II arrived in Italy at Pavia on December 5, 980. In Pavia, Otto II and his mother, the dowager empress Adelaide of Italy, were reconciled after years of being apart. Before the imperial family celebrated Christmas together in Ravenna, Otto II received the Iron Crown of Lombardy as the King of Italy. Following the New Year, Otto II led his Imperial court to Rome, reaching the city on February 9, 981, where the Emperor restored Pope Benedict VII to his papal throne without difficulty. In Rome, Otto II held a magnificent court ceremony to mark Easter. The imperial family was joined by Otto II's sister Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg, King Conrad of Burgundy and his wife Matilda of France, Duke Hugh Capet of France, Duke Otto of Swabia and Bavaria, and other high secular and religious officials from Germany, Italy and France.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 6702238, 44934, 299376, 2519, 37409, 355409, 434937, 23540725, 2602090, 30701416, 75185, 2353923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 54 ], [ 127, 132 ], [ 191, 206 ], [ 207, 224 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 360, 382 ], [ 390, 403 ], [ 710, 740 ], [ 747, 765 ], [ 779, 796 ], [ 803, 813 ], [ 825, 856 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II proceeded to hold court in Rome, making the city his Imperial capital, where he received princes and nobles from all parts of western Europe.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The relationship between the Empire and the Republic of Venice was readdressed during Otto II's reign. In 966, The Doge of Venice Pietro IV married a relative of Otto I. The marriage brought the Empire and Venice into close relationship, with Otto I, in 967, granting a series of commercial agreements to Venice in general and to Pietro IV's family in particular. These agreements strengthened Venice's tie to the Western Empire, which greatly angered the Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimisces as Venice controlled all sea trade between Western Europe and the Byzantine Levant in the East.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 613492, 63340, 6016334, 4016, 159769, 33800, 18138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 62 ], [ 115, 129 ], [ 130, 139 ], [ 456, 473 ], [ 474, 490 ], [ 534, 548 ], [ 567, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto I's military protection of Pietro IV ensured his hold over power in Venice despite his autocratic tendencies over the republican city. In 973, however, Otto I died. With Otto II busy suppressing revolts in Germany, the Venetians opposed to Pietro IV found their opportunity to depose him. Imprisoning the Doge within his palace, the Venetian nobles set fire to the building. However, the fire soon spread to Saint Mark's Basilica, resulting in the greater part of the city being burnt. The Doge and his son, also named Pietro, were killed in the blaze, but their bodies were later recovered and respectfully buried. Pietro IV's younger son, Vitale Candiano, survived, however, and fled to Otto II's court in Saxony with plans to depose the new pro-Byzantine Doge, Pietro I Orseolo.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 4588542, 211329, 11836384, 264007, 5667319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 218 ], [ 413, 434 ], [ 646, 661 ], [ 713, 719 ], [ 769, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pietro I's conciliating policy towards the Empire was ineffective. After having ruled Venice for four years, Pietro I voluntarily abdicated to become a monk, allowing the pro-Ottonian Vitale to return to Venice as Doge in 977, restoring the city's friendly relationship with the Empire. However, Vitale's reign was short (less than two years) and he too voluntarily abdicated to become a monk. With the position vacant, the pro-Byzantine Tribuno Memmo became the new Doge in 979. With the change in leadership, Otto II was reluctant to renew the city's commercial agreements which his father had previously granted to the city. It was only after the intervention of Otto II's mother, the dowager empress Adelaide of Italy, that the Emperor renewed the agreements.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 419369, 10360155, 2519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 156 ], [ 438, 451 ], [ 704, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Violence erupted in Venice during 980 due to tensions between the pro-Ottonian Coloprini family and the pro-Byzantine Morosini family. The Coloprini pleaded with the Emperor for support. Seeing an opportunity to fully incorporate Venice into the Empire, Otto II agreed. Upon arriving in Italy in 981, Otto II immediately imposed a trade embargo against the island republic. When the initial embargo showed little effect on Venice, Otto II imposed a second embargo in 983 which dealt considerable damage to the Venetian economy. The effects were disastrous enough to cause the ruling Venetian families to surrender to Otto II, but Otto II's untimely death that year prevented him from capitalizing on his victory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 3083210, 411315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 133 ], [ 331, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II followed the policy of his father in expanding the importance of the Church in his Empire, in particular the importance of monasticism and monasteries. The Church and its organs served as a supporting and stabilizing factor in the Empire's structure. To fulfill these tasks, Otto II strengthened the legal integrity and economic independence of the bishops from the secular nobility. The Ottonians had a particular religious interest in Memleben as both Otto II's father Otto I and grandfather Henry I had died there. Otto II and his wife Theophanu enhanced the spiritual importance of the city by establishing a Benedictine Imperial abbey there: the Memleben Abbey. Within a short time, the Memleben Abbey had become one of the richest and most influential of the Imperial abbeys. These measures and the unusual size of the abbey perhaps suggest that Memleben may have been intended as an Imperial Mausoleum for the Ottonians.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 19626, 45856, 22644, 7719139, 25605367, 13957, 4240, 5335537, 10690840, 5335537, 231168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 142 ], [ 147, 158 ], [ 396, 405 ], [ 445, 453 ], [ 479, 485 ], [ 502, 509 ], [ 621, 632 ], [ 633, 647 ], [ 659, 673 ], [ 773, 787 ], [ 898, 916 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the suppression of Henry II's rebellion, Otto II used the Empire's monasteries as the location for the treason trials. While his father had founded only one monastery (Otto I later replaced the abbey with the Cathedral of Magdeburg) during his 37-year reign, Otto II established at least four monasteries: Memleben, Tegernsee, Bergen, and Arneburg. Monasticism became a key part of Otto II's Imperial policy, entrusting the abbots with key political functions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 227817, 4588542, 31292, 1018787, 10690840, 3669726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 40, 49 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 219, 241 ], [ 316, 324 ], [ 326, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II employed monks among his top political advisers, including Ekkehard I and Majolus of Cluny. One of the most important such monks was John Philagathus (the future Antipope John XVI). Of Greek descent, John was the personal chaplain of Otto II's wife Theophanu, accompanying her when she traveled from Constantinople to marry Otto II. Otto II appointed him as his Imperial Chancellor from 980 to 982, as well as abbot of Nonantola Abbey. Following Otto II's death in 983, Theophanu, as her son Otto III's regent, would name John as Otto III's tutor. She would later appoint John as the bishop of Piacenza, and would send him to Constantinople to arrange for a marriage between Otto III and a Byzantine princess.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 8111813, 5470695, 774155, 42056, 183232, 31120, 3272063, 38935, 15176947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 77 ], [ 82, 98 ], [ 170, 187 ], [ 193, 198 ], [ 230, 238 ], [ 257, 266 ], [ 427, 442 ], [ 500, 508 ], [ 592, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In regard to his Italian policy, Otto II went beyond the goals of his father. Not satisfied with the territorial gains made under Otto I, Otto II's policy was based not only on securing his power in Rome and cooperating with the Papacy, but also on gaining absolute dominion over the whole of Italy. Influenced by his wife, who was hostile to the return of the Macedonian Dynasty in the shape of Byzantine Emperor Basil II after the assassination of John I Tzimisces, Otto II was persuaded to annex Byzantine-controlled southern Italy. However, this policy necessarily meant war not only with the Byzantine Empire but with the Muslim Fatimid Caliphate, which claimed southern Italy as within its sphere of influence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 2585080, 4016, 46426, 159769, 16972981, 19541, 56176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 361, 379 ], [ 396, 413 ], [ 414, 422 ], [ 450, 466 ], [ 597, 613 ], [ 627, 633 ], [ 634, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ottonians' chief lieutenant in central and southern Italy had long been the Lombard leader Pandulf Ironhead. Originally appointed by Otto I as Prince of Benevento and Capua in 961, Pandulf waged war against the Byzantines and expanded Ottonian control to include the Duchy of Spoleto in 967. The following year, under Otto II, Pandulf added the Principality of Salerno to the Empire. His campaigns under Otto I and Otto II incorporated all three of the southern Lombard principalities - Benevento, Capua, and Salerno - into the Holy Roman Empire. As vassal of Otto II, Pandulf ruled a large bloc of territories stretching as far north as Tuscany and as far south as the Gulf of Taranto.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 18011, 3235297, 25605367, 1273903, 6105064, 1272705, 6101862, 13277, 268717, 1212342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 87 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 171, 176 ], [ 271, 287 ], [ 349, 372 ], [ 532, 549 ], [ 554, 560 ], [ 674, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pandulf's death in 981 deprived Otto II of one of his primary lieutenants. Pandulf's lands were partitioned among his sons, though further quarrels between the local Lombard princes soon followed. Pandulf's older son Landulf IV received Capua and Benevento while his younger son Pandulf II received Salerno. Upon hearing of Pandulf's death, Otto II, ruling from Rome, traveled south to install Thrasimund IV as Duke of Spoleto. Then, Pandulf's nephew Pandulf II was given Benevento when Otto II partitioned Landulf IV's territory, with Landulf IV keeping Capua. Finally, Duke Manso I of Amalfi deposed Pandulf II of Salerno in 982.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 4785936, 4589430, 45088275, 4543107, 4755128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 227 ], [ 279, 289 ], [ 394, 407 ], [ 451, 461 ], [ 576, 593 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 982 the entire area once ruled by Pandulf had collapsed, weakening Otto II's position against the Byzantines. The Byzantines still claimed sovereignty over the Lombard principalities, and the lack of a single leader to prevent their advances into Lombard territory allowed the Byzantines to make inroads further north. Otto II attempted on several occasions to reunify the Lombard principalities politically and ecclesiastically into his Empire after Pandulf's death. Though he unsuccessfully besieged Manso I in Salerno, Otto II ultimately obtained the recognition of his authority from all the Lombard principalities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With his authority reestablished over the Lombard princes, Otto II turned his attention towards the threat from Muslim Sicily. Since the 960s the island had been under Muslim rule as the Emirate of Sicily, a state of the Fatimid Caliphate. The ruling Kalbid dynasty had conducted raids against Imperial territories in southern Italy. The death of Pandulf in 981 allowed the Sicilian Emir Abu al-Qasim to increase his raids, hitting targets in Apulia and Calabria. As early as 980 Otto II demanded a fleet from the city of Pisa to help him carry out his war in southern Italy, and in September 981 he marched into southern Italy. Needing allies in his campaign against the Muslims and the Byzantine Empire, Otto II reconciled with Amalfian Duke Manso I, granting Imperial recognition of his rule over Salerno.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 19541, 4025585, 56176, 2143981, 55314375, 44783, 44772, 24636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 174 ], [ 187, 204 ], [ 221, 238 ], [ 251, 265 ], [ 388, 400 ], [ 443, 449 ], [ 454, 462 ], [ 522, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II's troops marched on Byzantine-controlled Apulia in January 982 with the purpose of annexing the territory into his Empire. Otto II's march caused the Byzantine Empire to seek an alliance with Muslim Sicily in order to hold on to its southern Italian possessions. Otto's army besieged and captured the Byzantine city of Taranto, the administrative center of Apulia, in March 982. After celebrating Easter in Taranto, Otto II moved his army westward, defeating a Muslim army in early July. Emir Abu al-Qasim, who had declared a Holy War (jihad) against Otto, retreated when he noticed the unexpected strength of Otto II's troops when the latter was not far from Rossano Calabro. Informed of the Muslim retreat, Otto II left his wife Theophanu and young son Otto III (along with the Imperial treasury) in the city and marched his army to pursue the Muslim force.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 56148, 9325, 16203, 2355437, 31120, 38935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 174 ], [ 327, 334 ], [ 405, 411 ], [ 544, 549 ], [ 668, 683 ], [ 739, 748 ], [ 763, 771 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unable to flee back to his stronghold in Sicily due to an Ottonian naval blockade, al-Qasim faced Otto's army in a pitched battle south of Crotone at Cape Colonna on July 14, 982. After a violent clash, a corps of Otto II's heavy cavalry destroyed the Muslim center and pushed towards al-Qasim's guards, with the Emir killed during the charge. Despite the Emir's death, the Muslim troops did not flee the battlefield but regrouped and managed to surround the Imperial soldiers, slaughtering many of them and inflicting a severe defeat upon the Emperor. According to the Muslim historian Ibn al-Athir, Imperial casualties numbered around 4,000. Landulf IV of Benevento and Pandulf II of Salerno, Bishop Henry I of Augsburg, Margrave Gunther of Merseburg, the Abbot of Fulda, and numerous other Imperial officials were among the battle's casualties.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 5435758, 13362077, 1138639, 4785936, 4589430, 5092577, 11707994, 23923021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 129 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 587, 599 ], [ 644, 667 ], [ 672, 693 ], [ 702, 721 ], [ 732, 752 ], [ 758, 772 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Imperial defeat shocked the political makeup of Southern Italy. With two Lombard princes dead, the Principalities of Capua and the Benevento passed to younger branches of the Landulfid family. Though the Muslim troops were forced to retreat to Sicily after their victory, the Muslims remained a presence in southern Italy, harassing the Byzantines and Lombards. This Ottonian defeat, the worst in the history of the Empire at the time, greatly weakened Imperial power in southern Italy. The Byzantines joined forces with the Muslims and regained possession of Apulia from Ottonian forces.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reign in Italy", "target_page_ids": [ 897351, 6105064, 1273903, 11462657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 103, 126 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 179, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The defeat at Stilo forced Otto II to flee north to Rome. He then held an Imperial Diet at Verona on Pentecost 983. He sent his nephew Otto I, Duke of Swabia and Bavaria, back to Germany with news of the defeat and to call the German nobles to the assembly, but his emissary died en route on November 1, 982, in Lucca. News of the battle did cross the Alps, however, reaching as far as Wessex in England, signifying the magnitude of the defeat. Duke Bernard I of Saxony was heading south for the assembly when Danish Viking raids forced him to return to face the threat.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 30599237, 263991, 45971, 2353923, 46169, 33658, 9316, 4701473, 76972, 32610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 87 ], [ 91, 97 ], [ 101, 110 ], [ 135, 169 ], [ 312, 317 ], [ 386, 392 ], [ 396, 403 ], [ 450, 469 ], [ 510, 516 ], [ 517, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the assembly, Otto II appointed Conrad (a distant relative of Otto II) and Henry III as the new Dukes of Swabia and Bavaria respectively. Henry III had previously been exiled by Otto II following his defeat as part of a two-year revolt against Otto II's rule. The defeat at Stilo cost the Empire many nobles, forcing Otto II to end Henry's banishment in order to stabilize domestic affairs in Germany while he campaigned against the Muslims and Byzantines in southern Italy. Also, the appointment of Conrad I allowed the House of the Conradines to return to power in Swabia for the first time since 948. Otto II and the assembled nobles agreed on a strategy of naval blockade and economic warfare until reinforcements from Germany could arrive. Otto II then prepared for a new campaign against the Muslims and obtained a settlement with the Republic of Venice, whose assistance he needed following the destruction of his army at Stilo. However, the death of Otto II the next year and the resulting civil war prevented the Empire from appropriately responding to the defeat.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 4059798, 4754671, 3196657, 1463463, 4588542, 16300619, 613492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 41 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 108, 114 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 223, 261 ], [ 524, 547 ], [ 844, 862 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most important action taken by Otto II at the assembly, however, was to secure the \"election\" of his son Otto III, who was then only three years old, as King of Germany and heir apparent to the Imperial throne. Otto III thus became the only German king elected south of the Alps. The exact reason for this unusual procedure has been lost to history. It is possible that the conditions in southern Italy following the defeat required Otto II to act quickly in designating an Imperial heir to ensure the Empire's future. It is also conceivable, however, that holding the election in Italy was a deliberate choice on the part of Otto II in order to demonstrate that Italy was an equal part of the Empire to Germany. His election secured, Otto III and his mother, the Empress Theophanu, traveled north across the Alps heading for Aachen, the traditional coronation site for the Ottonians, in order for Otto III to be officially crowned as king. Otto II stayed in Italy to further address his military campaigns.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 70449530, 38935, 302609, 213047, 31120, 1520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 97 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 157, 172 ], [ 177, 190 ], [ 776, 785 ], [ 830, 836 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around the year 982, Imperial authority in Slavic territory extended as far east as the Lusatian Neisse River and as far south as the Ore Mountains. Following the defeat of Otto II at Stilo in 983, the Lutici Federation of Polabian Slavs revolted against their German overlords, sparking the Great Slav Rising (Slawenaufstand). The Polabian Slavs destroyed the bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg. According to the German chronicler Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg, the decades-long forced Germanization and Christianization of the Slavs associated with these two churches was the reason for their destruction. Thietmar blames the uprising on maltreatment of the Slavs by the Germans: \"Warriors, who used to be our servants, now free as a consequence of our injustices.\" In the Obotrite territories along the Elbe River, the Luticians initiated a revolt aimed at the abolition of feudal rule and Christianity, drawing upon considerable support by the Obodrite populace and their leader Mstivoj. In part, the Obodrite revolt was successful: The princely family, though in part remaining Christian, dissolved Christian institutions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 391917, 194596, 27497535, 1298912, 30948504, 12330030, 4429, 2953769, 512728, 621178, 42235, 50759, 9207019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 109 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 202, 219 ], [ 223, 237 ], [ 292, 309 ], [ 375, 384 ], [ 389, 400 ], [ 444, 465 ], [ 491, 504 ], [ 509, 525 ], [ 779, 799 ], [ 810, 820 ], [ 987, 994 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soldiers from the Northern March, the March of Meissen, and the March of Lusatia, as well as from the Bishop of Halberstadt and the Archbishop of Magdeburg, joined forces to defeat the Slavs near Stendal. Nevertheless, the Empire was forced to withdraw to the western banks of the Elbe river. The successes of the Empire's Christianization policy towards the Slavs were nullified, and political control over the Billung March and the Northern March (territories east of the Elbe) was lost. In the decade since his death, Otto I's life work of converting the Slavs was undone. The Slavic territories east of the Elbe would remain pagan for over a century before further missionary work resumed: it would not be until the 12th century that the churches of Havelberg and Brandenburg would be reestablished.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 496924, 3211873, 11603057, 3391027, 258684, 243895, 11760910, 496924, 12330030, 4429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 38, 54 ], [ 64, 80 ], [ 102, 123 ], [ 132, 155 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 412, 425 ], [ 434, 448 ], [ 754, 763 ], [ 768, 779 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Danes took advantage of the Slavic revolt and invaded the March of Schleswig along the Empire's northern border while the Sorb Slavs invaded and conquered the March of Zeitz from the Saxons.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 419786, 45582, 150206, 11558438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 62, 80 ], [ 126, 130 ], [ 163, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 983, Pope Benedict VII, a longtime Ottonian supporter, died of natural causes after having reigned for almost ten years. Otto II returned to Rome in September to name a new Pope, selecting the Bishop of Pavia Pietro Canepanova (who reigned as Pope John XIV) in November or early December. While Otto II was in Rome, a malaria outbreak in central Italy prevented the resumption of military activity in southern Italy. The outbreak ultimately led to the death of the Emperor himself in his palace at Rome on December 7, 983, at the age of 28, after having reigned for just over a decade. Otto II's money and possessions were divided among the Catholic Church, the poor of the Empire, his mother Adelaide and sister Matilda, and those nobles loyal to him. Otto II was then buried in the atrium of St. Peter's Basilica, the only Holy Roman Emperor to be buried in St Peter's.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 24013, 11715007, 363828, 20423, 2519, 23540725, 73188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 251, 264 ], [ 326, 333 ], [ 701, 709 ], [ 721, 728 ], [ 802, 822 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II's three-year-old son Otto III was crowned as King of Germany in Aachen on Christmas Day in 983, three weeks after his father's death. Otto III was crowned by Willigis, the Archbishop of Mainz, and John, the Archbishop of Ravenna. News of Otto II's death first reached Germany after Otto III's coronation. The unresolved problems in southern Italy and the Slavic uprising on the Empire's eastern border made the Empire's political situation extremely unstable. The arrival of a minor on the Imperial throne threw the Empire into confusion, allowing Otto III's mother, the Byzantine Princess Theophanu, to reign as his regent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 38935, 302609, 1520, 1342867, 5436361, 7820544, 31120, 35348624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 37 ], [ 53, 68 ], [ 72, 78 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 180, 199 ], [ 215, 236 ], [ 598, 607 ], [ 625, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 976, Otto II had deposed Henry II as Duke of Bavaria and imprisoned him. In early 984, Henry II escaped from his imprisonment by the Bishop of Utrecht. Free from his confinement, he seized the infant Otto III and, as a member of the ruling Ottonian dynasty, claimed the regency of the Empire for himself. Henry II eventually went so far as to claim the German throne outright, obtaining the allegiance of Mieszko I of Poland and Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia. Henry II's claims were supported by Archbishop Egbert of Trier, Archbishop Gisilher of Magdeburg, and Bishop Dietrich I of Metz. Otto III's right to the throne, however, was supported by Archbishop Willigis of Mainz and the Dukes of Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia. The threat of war from Willigis and Conrad I, Duke of Swabia forced Henry II to relinquish Otto III on June 29, 984 and to respect the regency of Theophanu.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 227817, 222076, 43248316, 22644, 20597, 446165, 11778490, 11557524, 8885472, 1342867, 29662, 222076, 663122, 4059798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 36 ], [ 40, 55 ], [ 136, 153 ], [ 243, 259 ], [ 408, 427 ], [ 432, 461 ], [ 499, 525 ], [ 527, 559 ], [ 572, 590 ], [ 650, 678 ], [ 696, 702 ], [ 704, 711 ], [ 717, 723 ], [ 761, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early death of Otto II and the ensuing events proved to be a serious test for the Empire. Despite having a child under the regency of his mother as a ruler, the structure established by Emperor Otto the Great remained strong as most of the Empire's most powerful officials stayed loyal to the Imperial system.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 25605367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto was a man of small stature, by nature brave and impulsive, and by training an accomplished knight. He was generous to the church and aided the spread of Christianity in many ways. According to one of the chroniclers of the time, he was given the epithet of the \"Red\" when in 981 he invited the most troublesome of the Roman families to a banquet, and proceeded to butcher them at dinner. More sympathetic chroniclers said that it was due to his reddish complexion. In fact, Otto is much more likely to have inherited the epithet from his half-uncle Conrad the Red, who died the year he was born and from whom he is also likely to have inherited some property.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Character", "target_page_ids": [ 1318269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 555, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II was a member of the Ottonian dynasty, which ruled Germany (and later the Holy Roman Empire) from 919 to 1024. In relation to the other members of his dynasty, Otto II was the grandson of Henry I, son of Otto I, father of Otto III, and a first-cousin once removed to Henry II.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 22644, 13957, 25605367, 38935, 27485516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 44 ], [ 195, 202 ], [ 211, 217 ], [ 229, 237 ], [ 274, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II had only one known wife. On 14 April 972, Otto II married Theophanu, a Byzantine princess of the Phokas family who was the cousin of reigning Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes. The two had at least five children:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 31120, 16972981, 29359211, 159769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 168, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adelheid I, Abbess of Quedlinburg and Gandersheim, born 973/974, died 1045.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 23540265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sophie I, Abbess of Gandersheim and Essen, born October 975, died 1039.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 23571688, 9178194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Matilda, born summer 978, died 1025; who married Ezzo, count palatine of Lotharingia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 25839038, 308485, 183760, 183853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 50, 54 ], [ 56, 70 ], [ 74, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, born end June/early July 980.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 38935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A daughter, a twin to Otto, who died before October 8, 980.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kings of Germany family tree.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17767437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comyn, Robert. History of the Western Empire, from its Restoration by Charlemagne to the Accession of Charles V, Vol. I. 1851", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Duckett, Eleanor (1968). Death and Life in the Tenth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Norwich, John J. (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee. London: BCA.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sismondi, J. C. L. History of the Italian Republics in the Middle Ages. 1906", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tomb of Otto II in St Peter's Basilica", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "955_births", "983_deaths", "10th-century_Holy_Roman_Emperors", "10th-century_kings_of_Italy", "Ottonian_dynasty", "10th-century_Saxon_people", "Burials_at_St._Peter's_Basilica", "Sons_of_emperors" ]

[ "Otto II.", "Otto the Red", "Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor (967-983)" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Caprera is an island in the Maddalena archipelago off the coast of Sardinia, Italy. In the area of La Maddalena island in the Strait of Bonifacio, it is a tourist destination and the place to which Giuseppe Garibaldi retired from 1854 until his death in 1882. Scarcely populated, the majority of the inhabitants live in Borgo di Stagnali. The island of Caprera is entirely included in the La Maddalena Archipelago National Park: a marine and land protected area of national and community interest. In particular, the marine zone in front of the area of Punta Rossa, a southern extension of the island, is an area with maximum environmental protection, with Cala Andreani and Spiaggia del Relitto. The eastern ridge of the island is a land zone of full protection, while the marine area in front of Punta Coticcio, including Cala Coticcio, is protected by the managing authority of the National Park.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2889297, 29376, 161300, 29555, 21486576, 18245260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 49 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 99, 118 ], [ 155, 174 ], [ 198, 216 ], [ 389, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The island was probably given its name because of the numerous wild goats living on it (capra means \"goat\" in Italian). It is the second largest island in the archipelago and has an area of and of coastline. Monte Tejalone is the highest point (212 m). On the south-western side is a sailing centre and the many coves and anchorages along the coastline make the landing easy. This island has been declared a natural reserve for the resident seabirds, the royal seagull, cormorant and peregrine falcon. Caprera is linked to La Maddalena island by a causeway.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 208318, 157626, 320323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 472, 481 ], [ 486, 502 ], [ 551, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The island is associated with Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian patriot and fighter who lived in the 19th century and was one of the fathers of Italian unification. He bought about half of the island in 1855 and died there in 1882. His house is now a museum and a memorial chapel, and the island is a national monument.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Giuseppe Garibaldi", "target_page_ids": [ 21486576, 59642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 48 ], [ 141, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Roman occupation, Caprera remained deserted for centuries before being inhabited by groups of shepherds at the beginning of the 19th century. In the second half of the same century, an English family settled there, the Collins, owners of some lands on the island. Many remains of Roman cargo ships have been found here. In 1855, Garibaldi decided to settle there and planted the first trees of the blooming pinewood which covers the island today. A century after Garibaldi's death, the island was freed from military restrictions and is completely open to the public.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The island is known especially for having been Giuseppe Garibaldi’s last abode for over 20 years and the place of his death. Indeed, with the inheritance of his brother Felix, he acquired the northern half of Caprera in 1856, having initially lived in a hut.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A few years later, the famous Casa Bianca was built in accordance with Garibaldi’s will, in the South American fazenda style, nowadays a museum; some years after, funds raised by his sons and fans allowed him to buy also the other half of the island, which until then had belonged to the English spouses Richard and Emma Collins.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the big estate, Piana della Tola, Garibaldi planted a lot of trees and started living the life of a farmer, cultivating fields and breeding chickens, sheep, horses (his famous white mare Marsala is buried not far from the house) and a lot of donkeys, to whom he gave his enemies’ names out of amusement. The most unruly of them was called after Pope Pius IX.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 54161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inside the Casa Bianca, Garibaldi lived with the sons that he had with Anita, the ones he had with a servant and the ones he had with his third wife, .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2421816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Garibaldi’s room, the clock and the calendars, which are hanging on a wall, still mark the date and time of his death: 2 June 1882 at 6.21 pm. Despite his last wishes, his remains were embalmed and buried in a grave (made of rough granite) just behind the house.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His house, boats and objects, which have become relics of one of the best known and visited museums in Italy, have remained in Caprera. The Garibaldi Compendium of Caprera is open for visit, except for weekly closure on Mondays. Garibaldi’s life on the island and how he cultivated it are described in the memoir written by his daughter Clelia, entitled Mio Padre.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982, Caprera was declared an Oriented Nature Reserve, until the establishment of the National Park.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Caprera's Porto Palma gulf is home to the Centro Velico Caprera school since 1967.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sailing", "target_page_ids": [ 36721191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of islands of Italy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 330114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sito web istituzionale del Parco Nazionale dell'Arcipelago La Maddalena", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mio Padre, ricordi di Clelia Garibaldi", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Islands_of_Sardinia", "Giuseppe_Garibaldi" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav I Igorevich (; ; ; ; (943 – 26 March 972), also spelled Svyatoslav, was Grand Prince of Kiev famous for his persistent campaigns in the east and south, which precipitated the collapse of two great powers of Eastern Europe, Khazaria and the First Bulgarian Empire. He also conquered numerous East Slavic tribes, defeated the Alans and attacked the Volga Bulgars, and at times was allied with the Pechenegs and Magyars (Hungarians).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 158407, 16635, 2843775, 44661, 45121, 470955, 682784, 17106358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 103 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 251, 273 ], [ 302, 313 ], [ 335, 340 ], [ 358, 371 ], [ 406, 415 ], [ 420, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His decade-long reign over the Kievan Rus' was marked by rapid expansion into the Volga River valley, the Pontic steppe, and the Balkans. By the end of his short life, Sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in Europe, eventually moving his capital in 969 from Kiev (modern-day Ukraine) to Pereyaslavets (identified as the modern village of Nufăru, Romania) on the Danube. In contrast with his mother's conversion to Christianity, Sviatoslav remained a staunch pagan all of his life. Due to his abrupt death in ambush, his conquests, for the most part, were not consolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to a fratricidal feud among his three sons, resulting in two of them being killed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21486360, 63639, 2476426, 4829, 9239, 585629, 1157077, 16981469, 25445, 21209639, 14117, 23340, 518119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ], [ 82, 93 ], [ 106, 119 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 223, 229 ], [ 273, 277 ], [ 302, 315 ], [ 353, 359 ], [ 361, 368 ], [ 377, 383 ], [ 429, 441 ], [ 473, 478 ], [ 674, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Primary Chronicle records Sviatoslav as the first ruler of the Kievan Rus' with a name of Slavic origin (as opposed to his predecessors, whose names had Old Norse forms). Some scholars see the name of Sviatoslav, composed of the Slavic roots for \"holy\" and \"glory\", as an artificial derivation combining the names of his predecessors Oleg and Rurik, but modern researchers question the possibility of such a translation of names from one language to another. Sveinald or Sveneld is identical to Sviatoslav, as the Norse rendition of the Slavic name.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 45675, 21486360, 26757, 22666, 158410, 26560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 67, 78 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 338, 342 ], [ 347, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 10th-century Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine VII in Greek-language work De Administrando Imperio (\"On the Governance of the Empire\") records his name as Σφενδοσθλάβος (\"Sfendostlabos\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 253480, 305263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ], [ 78, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Virtually nothing is known about Sviatoslav's childhood and youth, which he spent reigning in Novgorod. Sviatoslav's father, Igor, was killed by the Drevlians around 945, and his mother, Olga, ruled as regent in Kiev until Sviatoslav reached maturity (ca. 963). Sviatoslav was tutored by a Varangian named Asmud. The tradition of employing Varangian tutors for the sons of ruling princes survived well into the 11th century. Sviatoslav appears to have had little patience for administration. His life was spent with his druzhina (roughly, \"company\") in permanent warfare against neighboring states. According to the Primary Chronicle, he carried neither wagons nor kettles on his expeditions, and he boiled no meat, rather cutting off small strips of horseflesh, game, or beef to eat after roasting it on the coals. Nor did he have a tent, rather spreading out a horse-blanket under him and setting his saddle under his head, and all his retinue did likewise.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early life and personality", "target_page_ids": [ 21488120, 158412, 944789, 22817, 35348624, 585629, 21487063, 2625416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 102 ], [ 125, 129 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 187, 191 ], [ 202, 208 ], [ 212, 216 ], [ 290, 299 ], [ 520, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav's appearance has been described very clearly by Leo the Deacon, who himself attended the meeting of Sviatoslav with John I Tzimiskes. Following Deacon's memories, Sviatoslav was a bright-eyed man of average height but of stalwart build, much more sturdy than Tzimiskes. He had a bald head and a wispy beard and wore a bushy mustache and a sidelock as a sign of his nobility. He preferred to dress in white, and it was noted that his garments were much cleaner than those of his men, although he had a lot in common with his warriors. He wore a single large gold earring bearing a carbuncle and two pearls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early life and personality", "target_page_ids": [ 7484986, 159769, 48845128, 8899765, 24007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 73 ], [ 127, 143 ], [ 350, 358 ], [ 591, 600 ], [ 609, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav's mother, Olga, converted to Orthodox Christianity at the court of Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus in 957, at the approximate age of 67. However, Sviatoslav remained a pagan all of his life. In the treaty of 971 between Sviatoslav and the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes, the Rus' swore by the gods Perun and Veles. According to the Primary Chronicle, he believed that his warriors (druzhina) would lose respect for him and mock him if he became a Christian. The allegiance of his warriors was of paramount importance in his conquest of an empire that stretched from the Volga to the Danube.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious beliefs", "target_page_ids": [ 22817, 16972981, 253480, 23340, 33576199, 292079, 2625416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 96, 123 ], [ 194, 199 ], [ 328, 333 ], [ 338, 343 ], [ 412, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Very little is known of Sviatoslav's family life. It is possible that he was not the only (or the eldest) son of his parents. The Rus'-Byzantine treaty of 945 mentions a certain Predslava, Volodislav's wife, as the noblest of the Rus' women after Olga. The fact that Predslava was Oleg's mother is presented by Vasily Tatishchev. He also speculated that Predslava came from the Hungarian nobility. George Vernadsky was among many historians to speculate that Volodislav was Igor's eldest son and heir who died at some point during Olga's regency. Another chronicle told that Oleg (? - 977?) was the eldest son of Igor. At the time of Igor's death, Sviatoslav was still a child, and he was raised by his mother or under her instructions. Her influence, however, did not extend to his religious observance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 8217114, 1004359, 6966590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 158 ], [ 311, 328 ], [ 398, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav had several children, but the origin of his wives is not specified in the chronicle. By his wives, he had Yaropolk and Oleg. By Malusha, a woman of indeterminate origins, Sviatoslav had Vladimir, who would ultimately break with his father's paganism and convert Rus' to Christianity. John Skylitzes reported that Vladimir had a brother named Sfengus; whether this Sfengus was a son of Sviatoslav, a son of Malusha by a prior or subsequent husband, or an unrelated Rus' nobleman is unclear.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 158416, 12488130, 5176760, 40575, 604601, 3770499, 7530504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 125 ], [ 130, 134 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 197, 205 ], [ 265, 293 ], [ 295, 309 ], [ 353, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Children", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Predslava", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oleg of Drelinia (died 977?)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yaropolk I of Kiev (952 - 978)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 158416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Malusha", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 5176760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vladimir the Great (c. 958 - 1015)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 40575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sfengus?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 7530504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after his accession to the throne, Sviatoslav began campaigning to expand Rus' control over the Volga valley and the Pontic steppe region. His greatest success was the conquest of Khazaria, which for centuries had been one of the strongest states of Eastern Europe. The sources are not clear about the roots of the conflict between Khazaria and Rus', so several possibilities have been suggested. The Rus' had an interest in removing the Khazar hold on the Volga trade route because the Khazars collected duties from the goods transported by the Volga. Historians have suggested that the Byzantine Empire may have incited the Rus' against the Khazars, who fell out with the Byzantines after the persecutions of the Jews in the reign of Romanus I Lecapenus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Eastern campaigns", "target_page_ids": [ 2476426, 16635, 37403, 7569422, 210710, 74017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 138 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 465, 482 ], [ 723, 727 ], [ 744, 763 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav began by rallying the East Slavic vassal tribes of the Khazars to his cause. Those who would not join him, such as the Vyatichs, were attacked and forced to pay tribute to the Kievan Rus' rather than to the Khazars. According to a legend recorded in the Primary Chronicle, Sviatoslav sent a message to the Vyatich rulers, consisting of a single phrase: \"I want to come at you!\" (Old East Slavic ) This phrase is used in modern Russian and Ukrainian (usually misquoted as ) to denote an unequivocal declaration of one's intentions. Proceeding by the Oka and Volga rivers, he attacked Volga Bulgaria. He employed Oghuz and Pecheneg mercenaries in this campaign, perhaps to counter the superior cavalry of the Khazars and Bulgars.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Eastern campaigns", "target_page_ids": [ 44661, 1483299, 377689, 470955, 216685, 682784, 6816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 130, 138 ], [ 560, 563 ], [ 594, 608 ], [ 622, 627 ], [ 632, 640 ], [ 703, 710 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav destroyed the Khazar city of Sarkel around 965, possibly sacking (but not occupying) the Khazar city of Kerch on the Crimea as well. At Sarkel he established a Rus' settlement called Belaya Vyezha (\"the white tower\" or \"the white fortress\", the East Slavic translation for \"Sarkel\"). He subsequently destroyed the Khazar capital of Atil. A visitor to Atil wrote soon after Sviatoslav's campaign: \"The Rus' attacked, and no grape or raisin remained, not a leaf on a branch.\" The exact chronology of his Khazar campaign is uncertain and disputed; for example, Mikhail Artamonov and David Christian proposed that the sack of Sarkel came after the destruction of Atil.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Eastern campaigns", "target_page_ids": [ 28680, 47638, 163045, 47629, 2444777, 2692306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 46 ], [ 115, 120 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 343, 347 ], [ 569, 586 ], [ 591, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Ibn Haukal reports the sack of Samandar by Sviatoslav, the Rus' leader did not bother to occupy the Khazar heartlands north of the Caucasus Mountains permanently. On his way back to Kiev, Sviatoslav chose to strike against the Ossetians and force them into subservience. Therefore, Khazar successor statelets continued their precarious existence in the region. The destruction of Khazar imperial power paved the way for Kievan Rus' to dominate north–south trade routes through the steppe and across the Black Sea, routes that formerly had been a major source of revenue for the Khazars. Moreover, Sviatoslav's campaigns led to increased Slavic settlement in the region of the Saltovo-Mayaki culture, greatly changing the demographics and culture of the transitional area between the forest and the steppe.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Eastern campaigns", "target_page_ids": [ 3178013, 47634, 230497, 307675, 3386, 1776128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ], [ 40, 48 ], [ 140, 158 ], [ 236, 245 ], [ 512, 521 ], [ 685, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The annihilation of Khazaria was undertaken against the background of the Rus'-Byzantine alliance, concluded in the wake of Igor's Byzantine campaign in 944. Close military ties between the Rus' and Byzantium are illustrated by the fact, reported by John Skylitzes, that a Rus' detachment accompanied Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros Phokas in his victorious naval expedition to Crete.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Campaigns in the Balkans", "target_page_ids": [ 8202271, 74005, 6591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 149 ], [ 319, 336 ], [ 375, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 967 or 968, Nikephoros sent his agent, Kalokyros, to persuade Sviatoslav to assist the Byzantines in a war against Bulgaria. Sviatoslav was paid 15,000 pounds of gold and set sail with an army of 60,000 men, including thousands of Pecheneg mercenaries.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Campaigns in the Balkans", "target_page_ids": [ 7553151, 2843775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 51 ], [ 118, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav defeated the Bulgarian ruler Boris II and proceeded to occupy the whole of northern Bulgaria. Meanwhile, the Byzantines bribed the Pechenegs to attack and besiege Kiev, where Olga stayed with Sviatoslav's son Vladimir. The siege was relieved by the druzhina of Pretich, and immediately following the Pecheneg retreat, Olga sent a reproachful letter to Sviatoslav. He promptly returned and defeated the Pechenegs, who continued to threaten Kiev.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Campaigns in the Balkans", "target_page_ids": [ 7807812, 1093059, 7531498, 7531498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 40, 48 ], [ 155, 178 ], [ 272, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav refused to turn his Balkan conquests over to the Byzantines, and the parties fell out as a result. To the chagrin of his boyars and his mother (who died within three days after learning about his decision), Sviatoslav decided to move his capital to Pereyaslavets in the mouth of the Danube due to the great potential of that location as a commercial hub. In the Primary Chronicle record for 969, Sviatoslav explains that it is to Pereyaslavets, the centre of his lands, \"all the riches flow: gold, silks, wine, and various fruits from Greece, silver and horses from Hungary and Bohemia, and from Rus' furs, wax, honey, and slaves\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Campaigns in the Balkans", "target_page_ids": [ 64696, 1157077, 12108, 13275, 4345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 137 ], [ 260, 273 ], [ 546, 552 ], [ 577, 584 ], [ 589, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In summer 969, Sviatoslav left Rus' again, dividing his dominion into three parts, each under a nominal rule of one of his sons. At the head of an army that included Pecheneg and Magyar auxiliary troops, he invaded Bulgaria again, devastating Thrace, capturing the city of Philippopolis, and massacring its inhabitants. Nikephoros responded by repairing the defenses of Constantinople and raising new squadrons of armored cavalry. In the midst of his preparations, Nikephoros was overthrown and killed by John Tzimiskes, who thus became the new Byzantine emperor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Campaigns in the Balkans", "target_page_ids": [ 36857, 182553, 159769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 249 ], [ 273, 286 ], [ 505, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Tzimiskes first attempted to persuade Sviatoslav to leave Bulgaria, but he was unsuccessful. Challenging Byzantine authority, Sviatoslav crossed the Danube and laid siege to Adrianople, causing panic in the streets of Constantinople in summer 970. Later that year, the Byzantines launched a counteroffensive. Being occupied with suppressing a revolt brought by Bardas Phokas in Asia Minor, John Tzimiskes sent his commander-in-chief, Bardas Skleros, who defeated the coalition of Rus', Pechenegs, Magyars, and Bulgarians in the Battle of Arcadiopolis. Meanwhile, John, having quelled the revolt of Bardas Phokas, came to the Balkans with a large army and promoting himself as the liberator of Bulgaria from Sviatoslav, penetrated the impracticable mountain passes and shortly thereafter captured Marcianopolis, where the Rus' were holding a number of Bulgar princes hostage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Campaigns in the Balkans", "target_page_ids": [ 216887, 3254552, 854, 3235626, 7551607, 6880622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 189 ], [ 366, 379 ], [ 383, 393 ], [ 439, 453 ], [ 533, 555 ], [ 801, 814 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav retreated to Dorostolon, which the Byzantine armies besieged for sixty-five days. Cut off and surrounded, Sviatoslav came to terms with John and agreed to abandon the Balkans, renounce his claims to the southern Crimea, and return west of the Dnieper River. In return, the Byzantine emperor supplied the Rus' with food and safe passage home. Sviatoslav and his men set sail and landed on Berezan Island at the mouth of the Dnieper, where they made camp for the winter. Several months later, according to the Primary Chronicle, their camp was devastated by famine, so that even a horse's head could not be bought for less than a half-grivna. While Sviatoslav's campaign brought no tangible results for the Rus', it weakened the Bulgarian state and left it vulnerable to the attacks of Basil the Bulgar-Slayer four decades later.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Campaigns in the Balkans", "target_page_ids": [ 296915, 3194148, 380138, 3289370, 898023, 46426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 34 ], [ 63, 91 ], [ 254, 267 ], [ 399, 413 ], [ 644, 650 ], [ 795, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fearing that the peace with Sviatoslav would not endure, the Byzantine emperor induced the Pecheneg khan Kurya to kill Sviatoslav before he reached Kiev. This was in line with the policy outlined by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in De Administrando Imperio of fomenting strife between the Rus' and the Pechenegs. According to the Slavic chronicle, Sveneld attempted to warn Sviatoslav to avoid the Dnieper rapids, but the prince slighted his wise advice and was ambushed and slain by the Pechenegs when he tried to cross the cataracts near Khortytsia early in 972. The Primary Chronicle reports that his skull was made into a chalice by the Pecheneg khan.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Death and aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 682784, 185015, 5549754, 253480, 305263, 5516810, 3943888, 3943888, 3342733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 99 ], [ 100, 104 ], [ 105, 110 ], [ 199, 214 ], [ 234, 258 ], [ 350, 357 ], [ 400, 414 ], [ 542, 552 ], [ 616, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Sviatoslav's death, tensions among his sons grew. A war broke out between his legitimate sons, Oleg and Yaropolk, in 976, at the conclusion of which Oleg was killed. In 977 Vladimir fled Novgorod to escape Oleg's fate and went to Scandinavia, where he raised an army of Varangians and returned in 980. Yaropolk was killed, and Vladimir became the sole ruler of Kievan Rus'.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Death and aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 158416, 40575, 26740, 21487063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 122 ], [ 183, 191 ], [ 240, 251 ], [ 280, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav has long been a hero of Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian patriots due to his great military successes. His figure first attracted attention of Russian artists and poets during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), which provided obvious parallels with Sviatoslav's push towards Constantinople. Russia's southward expansion and the imperialistic ventures of Catherine II in the Balkans seemed to have been legitimized by Sviatoslav's campaigns eight centuries earlier.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 37976, 59510, 145144, 402734, 44240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 45 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 60, 69 ], [ 193, 222 ], [ 367, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the works created during the war was Yakov Knyazhnin's tragedy Olga (1772). The Russian playwright chose to introduce Sviatoslav as his protagonist, although his active participation in the events following Igor's death is out of sync with the traditional chronology. Knyazhnin's rival Nikolai Nikolev (1758–1815) also wrote a play on the subject of Sviatoslav's life. Ivan Akimov's painting Sviatoslav's Return from the Danube to Kiev (1773) explores the conflict between military honour and family attachment. It is a vivid example of Poussinesque rendering of early medieval subject matter.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 5571402, 7982950, 7983050, 62131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ], [ 292, 307 ], [ 375, 386 ], [ 543, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interest in Sviatoslav's career increased in the 19th century. Klavdiy Lebedev depicted an episode of Sviatoslav's meeting with Emperor John in his well-known painting, while Eugene Lanceray sculpted an equestrian statue of Sviatoslav in the early 20th century. Sviatoslav appears in the 1913 poem of Velimir Khlebnikov Written before the war (#70. Написанное до войны) as an epitome of militant Slavdom:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 3087545, 159769, 4298705, 344845, 916341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 78 ], [ 128, 140 ], [ 175, 190 ], [ 203, 220 ], [ 301, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav is the villain of the novel The Lost Kingdom, or the Passing of the Khazars, by Samuel Gordon, a fictionalised account of the destruction of Khazaria by the Rus'. The Slavic warrior figures in a more positive context in the story \"Chernye Strely Vyaticha\" by Vadim Viktorovich Kargalov; the story is included in his book Istoricheskie povesti.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Art and literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, reports circulated that a village in the Belgorod region had erected a monument to Sviatoslav's victory over the Khazars by the Russian sculptor Vyacheslav Klykov. The reports described the 13-meter tall statue as depicting a Rus' cavalryman trampling a supine Khazar bearing a Star of David and Kolovrat. This created an outcry within the Jewish community of Russia. The controversy was further exacerbated by Klykov's connections with Pamyat and other anti-Semitic organizations, as well as by his involvement in the \"letter of 500\", a controversial appeal to the Prosecutor General to review all Jewish organizations in Russia for extremism. The Press Centre of the Belgorod Regional Administration responded by stating that a planned monument to Sviatoslav had not yet been constructed but would show \"respect towards representatives of all nationalities and religions.\" When the statue was unveiled, the shield bore a twelve-pointed star.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 478861, 7983210, 209643, 45943, 210710, 810296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 154, 171 ], [ 287, 300 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 349, 365 ], [ 446, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sviatoslav is the main character of the books Knyaz () and The Hero (), written by Russian writer Alexander Mazin. Sviatoslav plays a major role in the Soviet historical anthology film The Legend of Princess Olga, which tells the story of his mother, Olga. Sviatoslav appears in various segments, both as a child as an adult. The adult prince Sviatoslav is played by Les Serdyuk.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 20546825, 26779, 50452934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 113 ], [ 152, 158 ], [ 367, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 November 2011, a Ukrainian fisherman found a one metre long sword in the waters of the Dnieper on Khortytsia near where Sviatoslav is believed to have been killed in 972. The handle is made out of four different metals including gold and silver, and could possibly have belonged to Sviatoslav himself, but this is speculation—the sword could have belonged to any nobleman from that period.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 3943888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Russian rulers", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 971988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Ukrainian rulers", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19768852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Artamonov, Mikhail Istoriya Khazar. Leningrad, 1962.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 2444777, 24320051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 36, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barthold, W. \"Khazar\". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Brill Online). Eds.: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 1996.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 2473609, 1791208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 23, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chertkov A. D. . Moscow, 1843.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chlenov, A. M. (.) \".\" () (Moscow, 1970).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Christian, David. A History of Russia, Mongolia and Central Asia. Blackwell, 1999.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 2692306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cross, S. H., and O. P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor. The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text. Cambridge, Mass.: Medieval Academy of America, 1953.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dunlop, D. M. History of the Jewish Khazars. Princeton Univ. Press, 1954.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1769476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Franklin, Simon and Jonathan Shepard. The Emergence of Rus 750-1200. London: Longman, 1996. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 7324789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Golden, P. B. \"Rus.\" Encyclopaedia of Islam (Brill Online). Eds.: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3540551, 1791208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 21, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grekov, Boris. Kiev Rus. tr. Sdobnikov, Y., ed. Ogden, Denis. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 8349750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kendrick, Thomas D. A History of the Vikings. Courier Dover Publications, 2004. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 7776899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Logan, Donald F. The Vikings in History 2nd ed. Routledge, 1992. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Manteuffel Th. \"\". . Warsaw, t. 22, 1970. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nazarenko, A. N. (). (). Moscow, Russian Academy of Sciences, World History Institute, 2001. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 7500848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pletneva, Svetlana. Polovtsy Moscow: Nauka, 1990. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3689805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sakharov, Andrey. The Diplomacy of Svyatoslav. Moscow: Nauka, 1982. (online)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 7501316, 2198792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 55, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 6761551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vernadsky, G. V. The Origins of Russia. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 6966590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "Medieval_child_rulers", "Murdered_Russian_monarchs", "Grand_Princes_of_Kiev", "Rurikids", "Rurik_dynasty", "940s_births", "972_deaths", "10th-century_conflicts", "10th-century_princes_in_Kievan_Rus'", "10th-century_murdered_monarchs", "Slavic_pagans" ]

[ "Sviatoslav I Igorevich", "Svyatoslav", "Sviatoslav I", "Sviatoslav I Ihorovych", "Svjatoslav Ihorovyč", "Sviatoslav Khorobryi", "Sviatoslav the Brave", "Sviatoslav Zavoiovnyk", "Sviatoslav the Conqueror" ]

[ { "plaintext": "William Jennings Bryan (March 19, 1860– July 26, 1925) was an American lawyer, orator and politician. Beginning in 1896, he emerged as a dominant force in the Democratic Party, running three times as the party's nominee for President of the United States in the 1896, 1900, and the 1908 elections. He served in the House of Representatives from 1891 to 1895 and as the Secretary of State under Woodrow Wilson. Because of his faith in the wisdom of the common people, Bryan was often called \"The Great Commoner\", and because of his rhetorical power and early notoriety \"The Boy Orator\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3088213, 24113, 40529, 40531, 40533, 19468510, 32293, 33523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 175 ], [ 224, 254 ], [ 262, 266 ], [ 268, 272 ], [ 282, 286 ], [ 315, 339 ], [ 369, 387 ], [ 394, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born and raised in Illinois, Bryan moved to Nebraska in the 1880s. He won election to the House of Representatives in the 1890 elections, served two terms, and made an unsuccessful run for the Senate in 1894. At the 1896 Democratic National Convention, Bryan delivered his \"Cross of Gold\" speech which attacked the gold standard and the eastern moneyed interests and crusaded for inflationary policies built around the expanded coinage of silver coins. In a repudiation of incumbent President Grover Cleveland and his conservative Bourbon Democrats, the Democratic convention nominated Bryan for president, making Bryan the youngest major party presidential nominee in U.S. history. Subsequently, Bryan was also nominated for president by the left-wing Populist Party, and many Populists would eventually follow Bryan into the Democratic Party. In the intensely-fought 1896 presidential election, the Republican nominee, William McKinley, emerged triumphant. At age 36, Bryan remains the youngest person in United States history to receive an electoral vote for president. Bryan gained fame as an orator, as he invented the national stumping tour when he reached an audience of 5 million people in 27 states in 1896.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14849, 21647, 1431450, 24909346, 3878285, 38725, 37412, 1762386, 12495, 4199901, 177019, 40529, 32070, 33521, 8085243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 122, 136 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 216, 251 ], [ 273, 295 ], [ 315, 328 ], [ 415, 451 ], [ 493, 509 ], [ 531, 548 ], [ 753, 767 ], [ 869, 895 ], [ 901, 911 ], [ 921, 937 ], [ 1133, 1141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan retained control of the Democratic Party and again won the presidential nomination in 1900. After the Spanish–American War, Bryan became a fierce opponent of American imperialism, and much of his campaign centered on that issue. In the election, McKinley again defeated Bryan and won several Western states that Bryan had won in 1896. Bryan's influence in the party weakened after the 1900 election, and the Democrats nominated the conservative Alton B. Parker in the 1904 presidential election. Bryan regained his stature in the party after Parker's resounding defeat by Theodore Roosevelt and voters from both parties increasingly embraced some of the progressive reforms that had long been championed by Bryan. Bryan won his party's nomination in the 1908 presidential election, but he was defeated by Roosevelt's chosen successor, William Howard Taft. Along with Henry Clay, Bryan is one of the two individuals who never won a presidential election despite receiving electoral votes in three separate presidential elections held after the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40531, 28265, 215140, 368456, 40532, 30535, 40533, 33522, 47620, 85533, 31664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 96 ], [ 108, 128 ], [ 164, 184 ], [ 451, 466 ], [ 474, 500 ], [ 578, 596 ], [ 760, 786 ], [ 841, 860 ], [ 873, 883 ], [ 977, 992 ], [ 1069, 1086 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Democrats won the presidency in the 1912 election, Woodrow Wilson rewarded Bryan's support with the important cabinet position of Secretary of State. Bryan helped Wilson pass several progressive reforms through Congress. In 1915, he considered that Wilson was too harsh on Germany and finally resigned after Wilson had sent Germany a note of protest with a veiled threat of war in response to the sinking of the by a German U-boat. After leaving office, Bryan retained some of his influence within the Democratic Party, but he increasingly devoted himself to Prohibition, religious matters, and anti-evolution activism. He opposed Darwinism on religious and humanitarian grounds, most famously in the 1925 Scopes Trial, dying soon after. Bryan has elicited mixed reactions from various commentators, but is acknowledged by historians as one of the most influential figures of the Progressive Era.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40534, 31888, 8787159, 8411, 28406, 560252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 59 ], [ 435, 441 ], [ 606, 620 ], [ 642, 651 ], [ 717, 729 ], [ 891, 906 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Jennings Bryan was born in Salem, Illinois, on March 19, 1860, to Silas Lillard Bryan and Mariah Elizabeth (Jennings) Bryan. Silas Bryan had been born in 1822 and had established a legal practice in Salem in 1851. He married Mariah, a former student of his at McKendree College, in 1852. Of Scots-Irish and English ancestry, Silas Bryan was an avid Jacksonian Democrat. He won election as a state circuit judge and in 1866 moved his family to a farm north of Salem. He lived in a ten-room house that was the envy of Marion County. Silas served in various local positions and sought election to Congress in 1872, but was narrowly defeated by the Republican candidate. An admirer of Andrew Jackson and Stephen A. Douglas, Silas passed on his Democratic affiliation to his son, William, who would remain a life-long Democrat. William's cousin, William Sherman Jennings, was also a prominent Democrat.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 65969, 37609576, 1702844, 1883734, 20557093, 372347, 96206, 1623, 22418929, 773179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 74, 93 ], [ 268, 285 ], [ 299, 310 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 357, 376 ], [ 525, 538 ], [ 690, 704 ], [ 709, 727 ], [ 851, 875 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William was the fourth child of Silas and Mariah, but all three of his older siblings died during infancy. He also had five younger siblings, four of whom lived to adulthood. William was home-schooled by his mother until the age of ten. Demonstrating a precocious talent for oratory, he gave public speeches as early as the age of four. Silas was a Baptist and Mariah was a Methodist, but William's parents allowed him to choose his own church. At age fourteen, he had a conversion experience at a revival. He said that it was the most important day of his life. At 15, he was sent to attend Whipple Academy, a private school in Jacksonville, Illinois.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 6639076, 39158821, 111737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 349, 356 ], [ 374, 383 ], [ 629, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After graduating from Whipple Academy, Bryan entered Illinois College, which was also located in Jacksonville. During his time at Illinois College, Bryan served as chaplain of the Sigma Pi literary society. He also continued to hone his public speaking skills, taking part in numerous debates and oratorical contests. Bryan graduated from Illinois College in 1881 at the top of his class. In 1879, while still in college, Bryan met Mary Elizabeth Baird, the daughter of an owner of a nearby general store, and began courting her. Bryan and Mary Elizabeth married on October 1, 1884. Mary Elizabeth would emerge as an important part of Bryan's career by managing his correspondence and helping him prepare speeches and articles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 1681516, 9217916, 62445965, 874564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ], [ 180, 205 ], [ 432, 452 ], [ 491, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan then studied law in Chicago at Union Law College (now Northwestern University School of Law). While attending law school, Bryan worked for the attorney Lyman Trumbull, a former senator and friend of Silas Bryan who would serve as an important political ally to the younger Bryan until his death in 1896. Bryan graduated from law school in 1883 with a Bachelor of Laws and returned to Jacksonville to take a position with a local law firm. Frustrated by the lack of political and economic opportunities in Jacksonville, Bryan and his wife moved west to Lincoln in 1887, the capital of the fast-growing state of Nebraska.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 3893597, 2011485, 299903, 17653, 21647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 97 ], [ 158, 172 ], [ 357, 373 ], [ 558, 565 ], [ 616, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan established a successful legal practice in Lincoln with partner Adolphus Talbot, a Republican whom Bryan had known in law school. Bryan also entered local politics by campaigning for Democrats like Julius Sterling Morton and Grover Cleveland. After earning notoriety for his effective speeches in 1888, Bryan ran for Congress in the 1890 election. Bryan called for a reduction in tariff rates, the coinage of silver at a ratio equal to that of gold and action to stem the power of trusts. In part because of a series of strong debate performances, Bryan defeated incumbent Republican Republican William James Connell, who had campaigned on the orthodox Republican platform, centered around the protective tariff. Bryan's victory made him only the second Democrat who ever represented Nebraska in Congress. Nationwide, Democrats picked up 76 seats in the House and so obtained a majority in that chamber. The Populist Party, a third party that drew support from agrarian voters in the West, also won several seats in Congress.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 723930, 12495, 1431450, 3873491, 31043, 4146947, 46789041, 177019, 319501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 226 ], [ 231, 247 ], [ 339, 352 ], [ 386, 392 ], [ 487, 493 ], [ 601, 622 ], [ 700, 717 ], [ 914, 928 ], [ 932, 943 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the help of Representative William McKendree Springer, Bryan secured a coveted spot on the House Ways and Means Committee. He quickly earned a reputation as a talented orator and set out to gain a strong understanding of the key economic issues of the day. During the Gilded Age, the Democratic Party had begun to separate into two groups. The conservative northern \"Bourbon Democrats,\" along with some allies in the South, sought to limit the size and power of the federal government. Another group of Democrats, drawing its membership largely from the agrarian movements of the South and West, favored greater federal intervention to help farmers, regulate railroads, and limit the power of large corporations. Bryan became affiliated with the latter group and advocated for the free coinage of silver (\"free silver\") and the establishment of a progressive federal income tax. That endeared him to many reformers, but Bryan's call for free silver cost him the support of Morton and some other conservative Nebraska Democrats. Free silver advocates were opposed by banks and bondholders who feared the effects of inflation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 5327695, 465643, 485133, 4199901, 1762386, 301892, 3136256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 58 ], [ 96, 126 ], [ 273, 283 ], [ 372, 389 ], [ 811, 822 ], [ 852, 863 ], [ 872, 882 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan sought re-election in 1892 with the support of many Populists and backed the Populist presidential candidate James B. Weaver over the Democratic presidential candidate, Grover Cleveland. Bryan won re-election by just 140 votes, and Cleveland defeated Weaver and incumbent Republican President Benjamin Harrison in the 1892 presidential election. Cleveland appointed a cabinet consisting largely of conservative Democrats like Morton, who became Cleveland's secretary of agriculture. Shortly after Cleveland had taken office, a series of bank closures brought on the Panic of 1893, a major economic crisis. In response, Cleveland called a special session of Congress to call for the repeal of the 1890 Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which required the federal government to purchase several million ounces of silver every month. Bryan mounted a campaign to save the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, but a coalition of Republicans and Democrats successfully repealed it. Bryan, however, was successful in passing an amendment that provided for the establishment of the first peacetime federal income tax.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 149246, 7766419, 40528, 42646, 217756, 2062702, 55708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 130 ], [ 299, 316 ], [ 324, 350 ], [ 463, 487 ], [ 572, 585 ], [ 644, 659 ], [ 707, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the economy declined after 1893, the reforms favored by Bryan and the Populists became more popular among many voters. Rather than running for re-election in 1894, Bryan sought election to the United States Senate. He also became the editor-in-chief of the Omaha World-Herald although most editorial duties were performed by Richard Lee Metcalfe and Gilbert Hitchcock. Nationwide, the Republican Party won a huge victory in the elections of 1894 by gaining over 120 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. In Nebraska, despite Bryan's popularity, the Republicans elected a majority of the state legislators, and Bryan lost the Senate election to Republican John Mellen Thurston. Bryan, nonetheless, was pleased with the result of the 1894 election, as the Cleveland wing of the Democratic Party had been discredited, and Bryan's preferred gubernatorial candidate, Silas A. Holcomb, had been elected by a coalition of Democrats and Populists.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 24909346, 1639392, 3531841, 3676503, 40206418, 3668847, 3616609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 216 ], [ 260, 278 ], [ 328, 348 ], [ 353, 370 ], [ 431, 448 ], [ 664, 684 ], [ 871, 887 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the 1894 elections, Bryan embarked on a nationwide speaking tour designed to boost free silver, move his party away from the conservative policies of the Cleveland administration, lure Populists and free silver Republicans into the Democratic Party, and raise Bryan's public profile before the next election. Speaking fees allowed Bryan to give up his legal practice and devote himself full-time to oratory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By 1896, free silver forces were ascendant within the party. Though many Democratic leaders were not as enthusiastic about free silver as Bryan was, most recognized the need to distance the party from the unpopular policies of the Cleveland administration. By the start of the 1896 Democratic National Convention, Representative Richard P. Bland, a long-time champion of free silver, was widely perceived to be the frontrunner for the party's presidential nomination. Bryan hoped to offer himself as a presidential candidate, but his youth and relative inexperience gave him a lower profile than veteran Democrats like Bland, Governor Horace Boies of Iowa, and Vice President Adlai Stevenson. The free silver forces quickly established dominance over the convention, and Bryan helped draft a party platform that repudiated Cleveland, attacked the conservative rulings of the Supreme Court, and called the gold standard \"not only un-American but anti-American.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 3878285, 1793669, 2060124, 92199, 284941, 37412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 312 ], [ 329, 345 ], [ 635, 647 ], [ 676, 691 ], [ 792, 806 ], [ 905, 918 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conservative Democrats demanded a debate on the party platform, and on the third day of the convention, each side put forth speakers to debate free silver and the gold standard. Bryan and Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina were chosen as the speakers who would advocate for free silver, but Tillman's speech was poorly received by delegates from outside the South because of its sectionalism and references to the Civil War. Charged with delivering the convention's last speech on the topic of monetary policy, Bryan seized his opportunity to emerge as the nation's leading Democrat. In his \"Cross of Gold\" speech, Bryan argued that the debate over monetary policy was part of a broader struggle for democracy, political independence and the welfare of the \"common man.\" Bryan's speech was met with rapturous applause and a celebration on the floor of the convention that lasted for over half an hour.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 200643, 38725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 212 ], [ 599, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following day, the Democratic Party held its presidential ballot. With the continuing support of Governor John Altgeld of Illinois, Bland led the first ballot of the convention, but he fell far short of the necessary two-thirds vote. Bryan finished in a distant second on the convention's first ballot, but his Cross of Gold speech had left a strong impression on many delegates. Despite the distrust of party leaders like Altgeld, who was wary of supporting an untested candidate, Bryan's strength grew over the next four ballots. He gained the lead on the fourth ballot and won his party's presidential nomination on the fifth ballot. At the age of 36, Bryan became and still remains the youngest presidential nominee of a major party in American history. The convention nominated Arthur Sewall, a wealthy Maine shipbuilder who also favored free silver and the income tax, as Bryan's running mate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 418931, 981192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 122 ], [ 787, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conservative Democrats, known as the \"Gold Democrats,\" nominated a separate ticket. Cleveland himself did not publicly attack Bryan but privately favored the Republican candidate, William McKinley, over Bryan. Many urban newspapers in the Northeast and Midwest that had supported previous Democratic tickets also opposed Bryan's candidacy. Bryan, however, won the support of the Populist Party, which nominated a ticket consisting of Bryan and Thomas E. Watson of Georgia. Though Populist leaders feared that the nomination of the Democratic candidate would damage the party in the long term, they shared many of Bryan's political views and had developed a productive working relationship with Bryan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 4202760, 33521, 404806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 52 ], [ 180, 196 ], [ 444, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Republican campaign painted McKinley as the \"advance agent of prosperity\" and social harmony and warned of the supposed dangers of electing Bryan. McKinley and his campaign manager, Mark Hanna, knew that McKinley could not match Bryan's oratorical skills. Rather than giving speeches on the campaign trail, the Republican nominee conducted a front porch campaign. Hanna, meanwhile, raised an unprecedented amount of money, dispatched campaign surrogates and organized the distribution of millions of pieces of campaign literature.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 162249, 1845294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 196 ], [ 346, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Facing a huge campaign finance disadvantage, the Democratic campaign relied largely on Bryan's oratorical skills. Breaking with the precedent set by most major party nominees, Bryan gave some 600 speeches, primarily in the hotly-contested Midwest. Bryan invented the national stumping tour, reaching an audience of 5 million in 27 states. He was building a coalition of the white South, poor northern farmers and industrial workers and silver miners against banks and railroads and the \"money power.\" Free silver appealed to farmers, who would be paid more for their products, but not to industrial workers, who would not get higher wages but would pay higher prices. The industrial cities voted for McKinley, who won nearly the entire East and industrial Midwest and did well along the border and the West Coast. Bryan swept the South and Mountain states and the wheat growing regions of the Midwest. Revivalistic Protestants cheered at Bryan's semi-religious rhetoric. Ethnic voters supported McKinley, who promised they would not be excluded from the new prosperity, as did more prosperous farmers and the fast-growing middle class.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 8085243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 276, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "McKinley won the election by a fairly comfortable margin by taking 51 percent of the popular vote and 271 electoral votes. Democrats remained loyal to their champion after his defeat; many letters urged him to run again in the 1900 presidential election. William's younger brother, Charles W. Bryan, created a card file of supporters to whom the Bryans would send regular mailings to for the next thirty years. The Populist Party fractured after the election; many Populists, including James Weaver, followed Bryan into the Democratic Party, and others followed Eugene V. Debs into the Socialist Party.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 85533, 40531, 980942, 50538, 243594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 121 ], [ 227, 253 ], [ 282, 298 ], [ 562, 576 ], [ 586, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of better economic conditions for farmers and the effects of the Klondike Gold Rush in raising prices, free silver lost its potency as an electoral issue in the years after 1896. In 1900, President McKinley signed the Gold Standard Act, which put the United States on the gold standard. Bryan remained popular in the Democratic Party and his supporters took control of party organizations throughout the country, but he initially resisted shifting his political focus from free silver. Foreign policy emerged as an important issue due to the ongoing Cuban War of Independence against Spain, as Bryan and many Americans supported Cuban independence. After the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, the United States declared war on Spain in April 1898, which began the Spanish–American War. Though wary of militarism, Bryan had long favored Cuban independence and so supported the war. He argued that \"universal peace cannot come until justice is enthroned throughout the world. Until the right has triumphed in every land and love reigns in every heart, government must, as a last resort, appeal to force.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 192748, 55719, 37412, 3635027, 26667, 189610, 18243378, 28265, 199160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 91 ], [ 226, 243 ], [ 280, 293 ], [ 558, 583 ], [ 592, 597 ], [ 684, 693 ], [ 697, 710 ], [ 783, 803 ], [ 820, 830 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Governor Silas A. Holcomb's request, Bryan recruited a 2000-man regiment for the Nebraska National Guard and the soldiers of the regiment elected Bryan as their leader. Under Colonel Bryan's command, the regiment was transported to Camp Cuba Libre in Florida, but the fighting between Spain and the United States ended before the regiment had been deployed to Cuba. Bryan's regiment remained in Florida for months after the end of the war, which prevented Bryan from taking an active role in the 1898 midterm elections. Bryan resigned his commission and left Florida in December 1898 after the United States and Spain had signed the Treaty of Paris.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 3616609, 43277797, 18933066, 43148488, 191930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 235, 250 ], [ 254, 261 ], [ 499, 521 ], [ 636, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan had supported the war to gain Cuba's independence, but he was outraged that the Treaty of Paris granted the United States control over the Philippines. Many Republicans believed that the United States had an obligation to \"civilize\" the Philippines, but Bryan strongly opposed what he saw as American imperialism. Despite his opposition to the annexation of the Philippines, Bryan urged his supporters to ratify the Treaty of Paris. He wanted to quickly bring an official end to the war and then to grant independence to the Philippines as soon as possible. With Bryan's support, the treaty was ratified in a close vote, bringing an official end to the Spanish–American War. In early 1899, the Philippine–American War broke out as the established Philippine government, under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, sought to stop the American invasion of the archipelago.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 23440, 215140, 184779, 144026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 156 ], [ 298, 318 ], [ 700, 723 ], [ 800, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1900 Democratic National Convention met in Kansas City, Missouri, where some Democratic leaders opposed to Bryan had hoped to nominate Admiral George Dewey for president. Nevertheless, Bryan faced no significant opposition by the time of the convention and he won his party's nomination unanimously. Bryan did not attend the convention but exercised control of the convention's proceedings via telegraph. Bryan faced a decision regarding which issue his campaign would focus on. Many of his most fervent supporters wanted Bryan to continue his crusade for free silver, and Democrats from the Northeast advised Bryan to center his campaign on the growing power of trusts. Bryan, however, decided that his campaign would focus on anti-imperialism, partly to unite the factions of the party and win over some Republicans. The party platform contained planks supporting free silver and opposing the power of trusts, but imperialism was labeled as the \"paramount issue\" of the campaign. The party nominated former Vice President Adlai Stevenson to serve as Bryan's running mate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 6122173, 17454, 146875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 39 ], [ 47, 68 ], [ 147, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his speech accepting the Democratic nomination, Bryan argued that the election represented \"a contest between democracy and plutocracy.\" He also strongly criticized the U.S. annexation of the Philippines and compared it to the British rule of the Thirteen Colonies. Bryan argued that the United States should refrain from imperialism and should seek to become the \"supreme moral factor in the world's progress and the accepted arbiter of the world's disputes.\" By 1900, the American Anti-Imperialist League, which included individuals like Benjamin Harrison, Andrew Carnegie, Carl Schurz and Mark Twain, had emerged as the primary domestic organization opposed to the continued American control of the Philippines. Many of the leaders of the League had opposed Bryan in 1896 and continued to distrust Bryan and his followers. Despite the distrust, Bryan's strong stance against imperialism convinced most of the league's leadership to throw their support behind the Democratic nominee.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 40867229, 34681, 919365, 1938, 217320, 154450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 250, 267 ], [ 477, 509 ], [ 562, 577 ], [ 579, 590 ], [ 595, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once again, the McKinley campaign established a massive financial advantage, and the Democratic campaign relied largely on Bryan's oratory. In a typical day Bryan gave four hour-long speeches and shorter talks that added up to six hours of speaking. At an average rate of 175 words a minute, he turned out 63,000 words a day, enough to fill 52 columns of a newspaper. The Republican Party's superior organization and finances boosted McKinley's candidacy and, as in the previous campaign, most major newspapers favored McKinley. Bryan also had to contend with the Republican vice presidential nominee, Theodore Roosevelt, who had emerged a national celebrity in the Spanish–American War and proved to be a strong public speaker. Bryan's anti-imperialism failed to register with many voters and as the campaign neared its end, Bryan increasingly shifted to attacks on corporate power. He once again sought the voter of urban laborers by telling them to vote against the business interests that had \"condemn[ed] the boys of this country to perpetual clerkship.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 30535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 602, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By election day, few believed that Bryan would win, and McKinley ultimately prevailed once again over Bryan. Compared to the results of the 1896 election, McKinley increased his popular vote margin and picked up several Western states, including Bryan's home state of Nebraska. The Republican platform of victory in war and a strong economy proved to be more important to voters than Bryan's questioning the morality of annexing the Philippines. The election also confirmed the continuing organizational advantage of the Republican Party outside of the South.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the election, Bryan returned to journalism and oratory and frequently appeared on the Chautauqua circuits to give well-attended lectures across the country. In January 1901, Bryan published the first issue of his weekly newspaper, The Commoner, which echoed his favorite political and religious themes. Bryan served as the editor and publisher of the newspaper; Charles Bryan, Mary Bryan and Richard Metcalfe also performed editorial duties when Bryan was traveling. The Commoner became one of the most widely-read newspapers of its era and boasted 145,000 subscribers approximately five years after its founding. Though the paper's subscriber base heavily overlapped with Bryan's political base in the Midwest, content from the papers was frequently reprinted by major newspapers in the Northeast. In 1902, Bryan, his wife and his three children moved into Fairview, a mansion located in Lincoln; Bryan referred to the house as the \"Monticello of the West,\" and frequently invited politicians and diplomats to visit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 215924, 52097052, 16781990, 52302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 102 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 864, 872 ], [ 940, 950 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan's defeat in 1900 cost him his status as the clear leader of the Democratic Party and conservatives such as David B. Hill and Arthur Pue Gorman moved to re-establish their control over the party and return it to the policies of the Cleveland era. Meanwhile, Roosevelt succeeded McKinley as president after the latter's assassination in September 1901. Roosevelt prosecuted antitrust cases and implemented other progressive policies, but Bryan argued that Roosevelt did not fully embrace progressive causes. Bryan called for a package of reforms, including a federal income tax, pure food and drug laws, a ban on corporate financing of campaigns, a constitutional amendment providing for the direct election of senators, local ownership of utilities, and the state adoption of the initiative and the referendum, and provisions for old age. He also criticized Roosevelt's foreign policy and attacked Roosevelt's decision to invite Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 673717, 1391795, 14157520, 2035730, 159500, 51582, 37242, 33057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ], [ 131, 148 ], [ 315, 337 ], [ 416, 427 ], [ 785, 795 ], [ 804, 814 ], [ 934, 954 ], [ 970, 981 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the 1904 Democratic National Convention, Alton B. Parker, a New York judge and conservative ally of David Hill, was seen as the frontrunner for the Democratic presidential nomination. Conservatives feared that Bryan would join with the publisher William Randolph Hearst to block Parker's nomination. Seeking to appease Bryan and other progressives, Hill agreed to a party platform that omitted mention of the gold standard and criticized trusts. Parker won the Democratic nomination, but Roosevelt won the election by the largest popular vote margin since the Civil War. Parker's crushing defeat vindicated Bryan, who published a post-election edition of The Commoner that advised its readers: \"Do not Compromise with Plutocracy.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 12731816, 368456, 33536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 48 ], [ 50, 65 ], [ 255, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan traveled to Europe in 1903, meeting with figures such as Leo Tolstoy, who shared some of Bryan's religious and political views. In 1905, Bryan and his family embarked on a trip around the globe and visited eighteen countries in Asia and Europe. Bryan funded the trip with public speaking fees and a travelogue that was published on a weekly basis. Bryan was greeted by a large crowd upon his return to the United States in 1906 and was widely seen as the likely 1908 Democratic presidential nominee. Partly due to the efforts of muckraking journalists, voters had become increasingly open to progressive ideas since 1904. President Roosevelt himself had moved to the left, favoring federal regulation of railroad rates and meatpacking plants. However, Bryan continued to favor more far-reaching reforms, including federal regulation of banks and securities, protections for union organizers and federal spending on highway construction and education. Bryan also briefly expressed support for the state and federal ownership of railroads in a manner similar to Germany but backed down from that policy in the face of an intra-party backlash.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 18622119, 207676, 42162, 11867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 74 ], [ 535, 545 ], [ 852, 862 ], [ 1066, 1073 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roosevelt, who enjoyed wide popularity among most voters even while he alienated some corporate leaders, anointed Secretary of War William Howard Taft as his successor. Meanwhile, Bryan re-established his control over the Democratic Party and won the endorsement of numerous local and state organizations. Conservative Democrats again sought to prevent Bryan's nomination, but were unable to unite around an alternative candidate. Bryan was nominated for president on the first ballot of the 1908 Democratic National Convention. He was joined by John W. Kern, a senator from the swing state of Indiana.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 33522, 5592650, 980962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 150 ], [ 492, 527 ], [ 546, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan campaigned on a party platform that reflected his long-held beliefs, but the Republican platform also advocated for progressive policies, which left relatively few major differences between the two major parties. One issue that the two parties differed on concerned deposit insurance, as Bryan favored requiring national banks to provide deposit insurance. Bryan largely unified the leaders of his own party and his pro-labor policies won him the first presidential endorsement ever issued by the American Federation of Labor. As in previous campaigns, Bryan embarked on a public speaking tour to boost his candidacy but was later joined on the trail by Taft.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 55596, 1662004, 350020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 332 ], [ 344, 361 ], [ 503, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Defying Bryan's confidence in his own victory, Taft decisively won the 1908 presidential election. Bryan won just a handful of states outside of the Solid South, as he failed to galvanize the support of urban laborers. Bryan remains the only individual since the Civil War to lose three separate U.S. presidential elections as a major party nominee. Since the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment, Bryan and Henry Clay are the lone individuals who received electoral votes in three separate presidential elections but lost all three elections. The 493 cumulative electoral votes cast for Bryan across three separate elections are the most received by a presidential candidate who was never elected.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 31664, 47620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 380, 397 ], [ 409, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan remained an influential figure in Democratic politics, and after Democrats took control of the House of Representatives in the 1910 midterm elections, he appeared in the House of Representatives to argue for tariff reduction. In 1909, Bryan came out publicly for the first time in favor of Prohibition. A lifelong teetotaler, Bryan had refrained from embracing Prohibition earlier because of the issue's unpopularity among many Democrats. According to biographer Paolo Colletta, Bryan \"sincerely believed that prohibition would contribute to the physical health and moral improvement of the individual, stimulate civic progress and end the notorious abuses connected with the liquor traffic.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 43146667, 24856, 47840877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 155 ], [ 296, 307 ], [ 320, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1910, he also came out in favor of women's suffrage. Bryan crusaded as well for legislation to support the introduction of the initiative and referendum as a means of giving voters a direct voice while he made a whistle-stop campaign tour of Arkansas in 1910. Although some observers, including President Taft, speculated that Bryan would make a fourth run for the presidency, Bryan repeatedly denied that he had any such intention.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presidential candidate and party leader", "target_page_ids": [ 175581, 159500, 51582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 145, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An escalating split in the Republican Party gave Democrats their best chance in decades to win the presidency. Bryan did not seek the Democratic presidential nomination; his continuing influence gave him a major voice in choosing the nominee. Bryan was intent on preventing the conservatives in the party from nominating their candidate, as they had done in 1904. For a mix of practical and ideological reasons, Bryan ruled out supporting the candidacies of Oscar Underwood, Judson Harmon, and Joseph W. Folk, which left two major candidates competing for his backing: New Jersey Governor Woodrow Wilson and Speaker of the House Champ Clark. As Speaker, Clark could lay claim to progressive accomplishments, including the passage of constitutional amendments providing for the direct election of senators and the establishment of a federal income tax. However, Clark had alienated Bryan for his failure to lower the tariff and Bryan viewed the Speaker as overly friendly to conservative business interests. Wilson had criticized Bryan but had compiled a strong progressive record as governor. As the 1912 Democratic National Convention approached, Bryan continued to deny that he would seek the presidency, but many journalists and politicians suspected that Bryan hoped a deadlocked convention would turn to him.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Wilson presidency", "target_page_ids": [ 734611, 699528, 2453861, 33523, 466580, 15065973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 458, 473 ], [ 475, 488 ], [ 494, 508 ], [ 589, 603 ], [ 629, 640 ], [ 1100, 1135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the start of the convention, Bryan engineered the passage of a resolution stating that the party was \"opposed to the nomination of any candidate who is a representative of, or under any obligation to, J. Pierpont Morgan, Thomas F. Ryan, August Belmont, or any other member of the privilege-hunting and favor-seeking class.\" Clark and Wilson won the support of most delegates on the first several presidential ballots of the Democratic convention, but each fell short of the necessary two-thirds majority. After Tammany Hall came out in favor of Clark and the New York delegation threw its support behind the Speaker, Bryan announced that he would support Wilson. In explaining his decision, Bryan stated that he could \"not be a party to the nomination of any man... who will not, when elected, be absolutely free to carry out the anti-Morgan-Ryan-Belmont resolution.\" Bryan's speech marked the start of a long shift away from Clark: Wilson would finally clinch the presidential nomination after over 40 ballots. Journalists attributed much of the credit for Wilson's victory to Bryan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Wilson presidency", "target_page_ids": [ 181579, 747853, 1273771, 172077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 225 ], [ 227, 241 ], [ 243, 257 ], [ 517, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1912 presidential election, Wilson faced off against President Taft and former President Roosevelt, the latter of whom ran on the Progressive Party ticket. Bryan campaigned throughout the West for Wilson and also offered advice to the Democratic nominee on various issues. The split in the Republican ranks helped give Wilson the presidency; he won over 400 electoral votes but only 41.8 percent of the popular vote. In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats expanded their majority in the House and gained control of the Senate, which gave the party unified control of Congress and the presidency for the first time since the early 1890s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Wilson presidency", "target_page_ids": [ 40534, 3976239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 33 ], [ 137, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "President Wilson named Bryan as Secretary of State, the most prestigious appointive position. Bryan's extensive travels, popularity in the party, and support for Wilson in the election made him the obvious choice. Bryan took charge of a State Department that employed 150 officials in Washington and an additional 400 employees in embassies abroad. Early in Wilson's tenure, the president and the secretary of state broadly agreed on foreign policy goals, including the rejection of Taft's Dollar diplomacy. They also shared many priorities in domestic affairs and, with Bryan's help, Wilson orchestrated passage of laws that reduced tariff rates, imposed a progressive income tax, introduced new antitrust measures, and established the Federal Reserve System. Bryan proved particularly influential in ensuring that the president, rather than private bankers, was empowered to appoint the members of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Wilson presidency", "target_page_ids": [ 32293, 31975, 4616844, 10819, 1838417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 50 ], [ 237, 253 ], [ 490, 506 ], [ 737, 759 ], [ 904, 938 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Secretary of State Bryan pursued a series of bilateral treaties that required both signatories to submit all disputes to an investigative tribunal. He quickly won approval from the president and the Senate to proceed with his initiative. In mid-1913, El Salvador became the first nation to sign one of Bryan's treaties, and 29 other countries, including every great power in Europe other than Germany and Austria-Hungary, also agreed to sign the treaties. Despite Bryan's stated aversion to conflict, he oversaw U.S. interventions in Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Mexico.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Wilson presidency", "target_page_ids": [ 9356, 372836, 2983, 13373, 8060, 3966054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 262 ], [ 361, 372 ], [ 406, 421 ], [ 535, 540 ], [ 546, 564 ], [ 569, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War I broke out in Europe, Bryan consistently advocated for American neutrality between the Entente and the Central Powers. With Bryan's support, Wilson initially sought to stay out of the conflict, urging Americans to be \"impartial in thought as well as action.\" For much of 1914, Bryan attempted to bring a negotiated end to the war, but the leaders of both the Entente and the Central Powers were ultimately uninterested in American mediation. Bryan remained firmly committed to neutrality, but Wilson and others within the administration became increasingly sympathetic to the Entente.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Wilson presidency", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 290941, 6673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 120, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The March 1915 Thrasher incident, in which a German U-boat sank a British passenger ship with an American citizen on board, provided a major blow to the cause of American neutrality. The May 1915 sinking of RMS Lusitania by another German U-boat further galvanized anti-German sentiment, as 128 Americans died in the incident. Bryan argued that the British blockade of Germany was as offensive as the German U-boat Campaign. He also maintained that by traveling on British vessels, \"an American citizen can, by putting his own business above his regard for this country, assume for his own advantage unnecessary risks and thus involve his country in international complications.\" After Wilson sent an official message of protest to Germany and refused to warn Americans publicly not to travel on British ships, Bryan delivered his letter of resignation to Wilson on June 8, 1915.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Wilson presidency", "target_page_ids": [ 8078890, 31888, 35695594, 17310823, 22620358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ], [ 52, 58 ], [ 196, 220 ], [ 357, 376 ], [ 408, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1916 presidential election, members of the Prohibition Party attempted to place Bryan into consideration for its presidential nomination, but he rejected the offer via telegram.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 40535, 307316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 37 ], [ 54, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan supported Wilson's 1916 re-election campaign. Bryan did not attend as an official delegate, but the 1916 Democratic National Convention suspended its own rules to allow Bryan to address the convention; Bryan delivered a well-received speech that strongly defended Wilson's domestic record. Bryan served as a campaign surrogate for Wilson by delivering dozens of speeches, primarily to audiences west of the Mississippi River. Ultimately, Wilson narrowly prevailed over the Republican candidate, Charles Evans Hughes. When the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Bryan wrote to Wilson: \"Believing it to be the duty of the citizen to bear his part of the burden of war and his share of the peril, I hereby tender my services to the Government. Please enroll me as a private whenever I am needed and assign me to any work that I can do.\" Wilson declined to appoint Bryan to a federal position, but Bryan agreed to Wilson's request to provide public support for the war effort through his speeches and articles. After the war, despite some reservations, Bryan supported Wilson's unsuccessful effort to bring the United States into the League of Nations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 40535, 15289986, 19579, 7525, 17926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 106, 141 ], [ 413, 430 ], [ 501, 521 ], [ 1150, 1167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After leaving office, Bryan spent much of his time advocating for the eight-hour day, a minimum wage, the right of unions to strike and increasingly women's suffrage. His main crusades forcused on support for prohibition and opposition to the teaching of evolution. Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment, which provided for nationwide Prohibition, in 1917. Two years later, Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment, which granted women the right to vote nationwide. Both amendments were ratified in 1920. In 1916 Bryan expressed his belief to John Reed that the government “may properly impose a minimum wage, regulate hours of labor, pass usury laws, and enforce inspection of food, sanitation and housing conditions.” During the 1920s, Bryan called for further reforms, including agricultural subsidies, the guarantee of a living wage, full public financing of political campaigns and an end to legal gender discrimination.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 2100109, 11477230, 175581, 31671, 31670, 572849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 84 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 149, 165 ], [ 286, 306 ], [ 397, 417 ], [ 828, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some Prohibitionists and other Bryan supporters tried to convince the three-time presidential candidate to enter the 1920 presidential election, and a Literary Digest poll taken in mid-1920 ranked Bryan as the fourth-most popular potential Democratic candidate. Bryan, however, declined to seek public office and wrote, \"if I can help this world to banish alcohol and after that to banish war... no office, no Presidency, can offer the honors that will be mine.\" He attended the 1920 Democratic National Convention as a delegate from Nebraska but was disappointed by the nomination of Governor James M. Cox, who had not supported ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment. Bryan declined the presidential nomination of the Prohibition Party and refused to campaign for Cox, which made the 1920 campaign the first presidential contest in over thirty years in which he did not actively campaign.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 40536, 1907261, 9276613, 148088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 143 ], [ 151, 166 ], [ 479, 514 ], [ 594, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though he became less involved in Democratic politics after 1920, Bryan attended the 1924 Democratic National Convention as a delegate from Florida. He helped defeat a resolution condemning the Ku Klux Klan because he expected that the organization would soon fold. Bryan disliked the Klan but never publicly attacked it. He also strongly opposed the candidacy of Al Smith due to Smith's hostility towards Prohibition. After over 100 ballots, the Democratic convention nominated John W. Davis, a conservative Wall Street lawyer. To balance the conservative Davis with a progressive, the convention nominated Bryan's brother, Charles W. Bryan, for vice president. Bryan was disappointed by the nomination of Davis but strongly approved of the nomination of his brother and he delivered numerous campaign speeches in support of the Democratic ticket. Davis suffered one of the worst losses in the Democratic Party's history, taking just 29 percent of the vote against Republican President Calvin Coolidge and the third-party candidate Robert M. La Follette.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 867217, 16779, 172040, 261850, 37274, 980942, 6195, 255189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 120 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 364, 372 ], [ 479, 492 ], [ 509, 520 ], [ 625, 641 ], [ 987, 1002 ], [ 1033, 1054 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To help Mary cope with her worsening health during the harsh winters of Nebraska, the Bryans bought a farm in Mission, Texas, in 1909. Due to Mary's arthritis the Bryans in 1912 began to build a new home in Miami, Florida, known as Villa Serena. The Bryans made Villa Serena their permanent home, and Charles Bryan continued to oversee The Commoner from Lincoln. The Bryans were active citizens in Miami, leading a fundraising drive for the YMCA and frequently hosting the public at their home. Bryan undertook lucrative speaking engagements, often serving as a spokesman for George E. Merrick's new planned community of Coral Gables. His promotions probably contributed to the Florida real estate boom of the 1920s, which collapsed within months of Bryan's death in 1925.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 136100, 53846, 18933066, 37724321, 87241, 3099703, 109416, 5411575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 124 ], [ 207, 212 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 232, 244 ], [ 441, 445 ], [ 576, 593 ], [ 621, 633 ], [ 678, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan served as a member of the Board of Trustees at American University in Washington, D.C., from 1914 to his death. For some of these years, he served concurrently with Warren G. Harding and Theodore Roosevelt.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 80734, 33060, 30535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ], [ 171, 188 ], [ 193, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1920s, Bryan shifted his focus away from politics, becoming one of the most prominent religious figures in the country. He held a weekly Bible class in Miami and published several religiously-themed books. He was one of the first individuals to preach religious faith on the radio, which let him reach audiences across the country. Bryan welcomed the proliferation of faiths other than Protestant Christianity, but he was deeply concerned by the rejection of Biblical literalism by many Protestants. According to the historian Ronald L. Numbers, Bryan was not nearly as much a fundamentalist as many modern-day creationists of the 21st century. Instead, he is more accurately described as a \"day-age creationist\". Bradley J. Longfield posits Bryan was a \"theologically conservative Social Gospeler\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 15368428, 2100861, 4613955, 11582, 5326, 403395, 638252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 287 ], [ 466, 485 ], [ 534, 551 ], [ 584, 598 ], [ 618, 629 ], [ 699, 718 ], [ 789, 802 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the final years of his life, Bryan became the unofficial leader of a movement that sought to prevent public schools from teaching Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Bryan had long expressed skepticism and concern regarding Darwin's theory; in his famous 1909 Chautauqua lecture, \"The Prince of Peace\", Bryan had warned that the theory of evolution could undermine the foundations of morality. Bryan opposed Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection for two reasons. He believed what he considered a materialistic account of the descent of man (and all life) through evolution to be directly contrary to the Biblical creation account. Also, he considered Darwinism as applied to society (social Darwinism) to be a great evil force in the world by promoting hatred and conflicts and inhibiting upward social and economic mobility of the poor and oppressed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 8145410, 9236, 21147, 8411, 45541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 147 ], [ 160, 169 ], [ 450, 467 ], [ 673, 682 ], [ 706, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of his crusade against Darwinism, Bryan called for state and local laws banning public schools from teaching evolution. He requested that lawmakers refrain from attaching a criminal penalty to the anti-evolution laws and also urged that educators be allowed to teach evolution as a \"hypothesis,\" rather than as a fact. Only five southern states responded to Bryan's call to bar the teaching of evolution in public schools.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan was worried that the theory of evolution was gaining ground not only in the universities, but also within the church. The developments of 19th century liberal theology, specifically higher criticism, had allowed many clergymen to be willing to embrace the theory of evolution and claim that it was not contradictory to Christianity. Determined to put an end to this, Bryan, who had long served as a Presbyterian elder, decided to run for the position of Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, which was at the time embroiled in the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy. Bryan's main competition in the race was the Rev. Charles F. Wishart, president of the College of Wooster in Ohio, who had loudly endorsed the teaching of the theory of evolution in the college. Bryan lost to Wishart by a vote of 451–427. Bryan failed in gaining approval for a proposal to cut off funds to schools in which the theory of evolution was taught. Instead, the General Assembly announced disapproval of materialistic, as opposed to theistic, evolution.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 1172493, 33543260, 9034599, 2224779, 1408123, 5815374, 35897194, 663514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 173 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 418, 423 ], [ 460, 493 ], [ 501, 552 ], [ 593, 629 ], [ 681, 699 ], [ 718, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From July 10 to 21, 1925, Bryan participated in the highly-publicized Scopes Trial, which tested the Butler Act, a Tennessee law barring the teaching of evolution in public schools. The defendant, John T. Scopes, had violated the Butler Act while serving as a substitute biology teacher in Dayton, Tennessee. His defense was funded by the American Civil Liberties Union and led in court by the famed lawyer Clarence Darrow. No one disputed that Scopes had violated the Butler Act, but Darrow argued that the statute violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Bryan defended the right of parents to choose what schools teach, argued that Darwinism was merely a \"hypothesis,\" and claimed that Darrow and other intellectuals were trying to invalidate \"every moral standard that the Bible gives us.\" The defense called Bryan as a witness and asked him about his belief in the literal word of the Bible, though the judge later expunged Bryan's testimony.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 28406, 37858, 163519, 135332, 1950, 159917, 1384931, 31653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 82 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 197, 211 ], [ 290, 307 ], [ 339, 369 ], [ 407, 422 ], [ 529, 549 ], [ 557, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultimately, the judge instructed the jury to render a verdict of guilty, and Scopes was fined $100 for violating the Butler Act. The national media reported the trial in great detail, with H. L. Mencken ridiculing Bryan as a symbol of Southern ignorance and anti-intellectualism. Even many Southern newspapers criticized Bryan's performance in the trial; the Memphis Commercial Appeal reported that \"Darrow succeeded in showing that Bryan knows little about the science of the world.\" Bryan had not been allowed to deliver a final argument at trial, but he arranged for the publication of the speech he had intended to give. In that publication, Bryan wrote that \"science is a magnificent material force, but it is not a teacher of morals.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later career", "target_page_ids": [ 54219, 18947899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 202 ], [ 258, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the days following the Scopes Trial, Bryan delivered several speeches in Tennessee. On Sunday, July 26, 1925, Bryan died in his sleep from apoplexy after he had attended a church service in Dayton. Bryan's body was transported by rail from Dayton to Washington, D.C. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, with an epitaph that read, \"Statesman, yet Friend to Truth! Of Soul Sincere, in Action Faithful, and in Honor Clear\" and on the other side \"He Kept the Faith.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 303386, 83390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 150 ], [ 287, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan remained married to his wife, Mary, until his death in 1925. Mary served as an important adviser to her husband; she passed the bar exam and learned German to help his career. She was buried next to Bryan after her death in 1930. William and Mary had three children: Ruth (1886–1954), William Jr. (1889–1978), and Grace Dexter (1891–1945). Ruth won election to Congress from Florida in 1928 and later served as ambassador to Denmark during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. William Jr. graduated from Georgetown Law, established a legal practice in Los Angeles, later held several federal positions, and became an important figure in the Los Angeles Democratic Party. Grace also moved to Southern California and wrote a biography of her father. William Sr.'s brother, Charles, was an important supporter of his brother until William's death, as well as an influential politician in his own right. Charles served two terms as the mayor of Lincoln and three terms as the governor of Nebraska and was the Democratic vice presidential nominee in the 1924 presidential election.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 6240335, 10979, 573185, 18110, 62520, 980942, 40537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 277 ], [ 464, 485 ], [ 514, 528 ], [ 562, 573 ], [ 701, 720 ], [ 781, 788 ], [ 1059, 1085 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan elicited mixed views during his lifetime and his legacy remains complicated. Author Scott Farris argues that \"many fail to understand Bryan because he occupies a rare space in society ... too liberal for today's religious [and] too religious for today's liberals.\" Jeff Taylor rejects the view that Bryan was a \"pioneer of the welfare state\" and a \"forerunner of the New Deal\", but argues that Bryan was more accepting of an interventionist federal government than his Democratic predecessors had been. Biographer Michael Kazin, however, opines that", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 222839, 19283361, 27901927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 346 ], [ 373, 381 ], [ 520, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan was the first leader of a major party to argue for permanently expanding the power of the federal government to serve the welfare of ordinary Americans from the working and middle classes ... he did more than any other man—between the fall of Grover Cleveland and the election of Woodrow Wilson—to transform his party from a bulwark of laissez-faire to the citadel of liberalism we identify with Franklin D. Roosevelt and his ideological descendants.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kazin argues that, compared to Bryan, \"only Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson had a greater impact on politics and political culture during the era of reform that began in the mid-1890s and lasted until the early 1920s.\" Writing in 1931, former Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo stated that \"with the exception of the men who have occupied the White House, Bryan... had more to do with the shaping of the public policies of the last forty years than any other American citizen.\" Historian Robert D. Johnston notes that Bryan was \"arguably [the] most influential politician from the Great Plains.\" In 2015, political scientist Michael G. Miller and historian Ken Owen ranked Bryan as one of the four most influential American politicians who never served as president, alongside Alexander Hamilton, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 562937, 51464, 40597, 47620, 52110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 295 ], [ 599, 611 ], [ 795, 813 ], [ 815, 825 ], [ 831, 846 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kazin also emphasizes the limits of Bryan's influence by noting that \"for decades after [Bryan]'s death, influential scholars and journalists depicted him as a self-righteous simpleton who longed to preserve an age that had already passed.\" Writing in 2006, editor Richard Lingeman noted that \"William Jennings Bryan is mainly remembered as the fanatical old fool Fredric March played in Inherit the Wind.\" Similarly, in 2011, John McDermott wrote that \"Bryan is perhaps best known as the sweaty crank of a lawyer who represented Tennessee in the Scopes trial. After his defence of creationism, he became a mocked caricature, a sweaty possessor of avoirdupois, bereft of bombast.\" Kazin writes that \"scholars have increasingly warmed to Bryan's motives, if not his actions\" in the Scopes Trial because of Bryan's rejection of eugenics, a practice that many evolutionists of the 1920s favored.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 63556, 22653289, 9737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 364, 377 ], [ 388, 404 ], [ 826, 834 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kazin also notes the stain that Bryan's acceptance of the Jim Crow system places on his legacy, writing", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His one great flaw was to support, with a studied lack of reflection, the abusive system of Jim Crow—a view that was shared, until the late 1930s, by nearly every white Democrat.... After Bryan's death in 1925, most intellectuals and activists on the broad left rejected the amalgam that had inspired him: a strict populist morality based on a close read reading of Scripture.... Liberals and radicals from the age of FDR to the present have tended to scorn that credo as naïve and bigoted, a remnant of an era of white Protestant supremacy that has, or should have, passed.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 19481110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nonetheless, prominent individuals from both parties have praised Bryan and his legacy. In 1962, former President Harry Truman said Bryan \"was a great one—one of the greatest.\" Truman also claimed, \"If it wasn't for old Bill Bryan, there wouldn't be any liberalism at all in the country now. Bryan kept liberalism alive, he kept it going.\" Tom L. Johnson, the progressive mayor of Cleveland, Ohio, referred to Bryan's campaign in 1896 as \"the first great struggle of the masses in our country against the privileged classes.\" In a 1934 speech dedicating a memorial to Bryan, President Franklin D. Roosevelt said:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 3418303, 904259, 5951, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 126 ], [ 340, 354 ], [ 381, 396 ], [ 585, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "I think that we would choose the word 'sincerity' as fitting him [Bryan] most of all... it was that sincerity that served him so well in his life-long fight against sham and privilege and wrong. It was that sincerity that made him a force for good in his own generation and kept alive many of the ancient faiths on which we are building today. We... can well agree that he fought the good fight; that he finished the course; and that he kept the faith.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More recently, conservative Republicans such as Ralph Reed have hailed Bryan's legacy. Reed described Bryan as \"the most consequential evangelical politician of the twentieth century.\" Bryan's career has also been compared to that of Donald Trump.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1235535, 4848272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ], [ 234, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been suggested by some economists, historians, and literary critics that L. Frank Baum satirized Bryan as the Cowardly Lion in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, which was published in 1900. Those assertions are based partly on Baum's history as a Republican supporter who advocated in his role as a journalist on behalf of William McKinley and his policies. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 18188, 42835364, 3641559, 33521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 93 ], [ 117, 130 ], [ 134, 160 ], [ 324, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vachel Lindsay's 1919 \"singing poem\" \"Bryan, Bryan, Bryan, Bryan\" is a lengthy tribute to the idol of the poet's youth.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 161034, 1265524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 38, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan played a minor role in Thomas Wolfe's Look Homeward Angel (1929). ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 165654, 6174418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 44, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan also has a biographical part in \"The 42nd Parallel\" (1930) in John Dos Passos' USA Trilogy. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 258775, 839178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ], [ 85, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edwin Maxwell played Bryan in the 1944 film Wilson. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2108580, 773973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 44, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inherit the Wind, a 1955 play by Jerome Lawrence and Robert Edwin Lee, is a highly fictionalized account of the Scopes Trial written in response to McCarthyism. A populist thrice-defeated presidential candidate from Nebraska named Matthew Harrison Brady (based on Bryan) comes to a small town to help prosecute a young teacher for teaching evolution to his schoolchildren. He is opposed by a famous trial lawyer, Henry Drummond (based on Darrow) and mocked by a cynical newspaperman (based on Mencken) as the trial assumes a national profile. The 1960 film adaptation was directed by Stanley Kramer and starred Fredric March as Brady and Spencer Tracy as Drummond.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 22653185, 516801, 363143, 43805, 22653289, 265248, 63556, 45782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 33, 48 ], [ 53, 69 ], [ 148, 159 ], [ 547, 567 ], [ 584, 598 ], [ 611, 624 ], [ 638, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan appears as a character in Douglas Moore's 1956 opera The Ballad of Baby Doe. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 488813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ainslie Pryor played Bryan in a 1956 episode of the CBS anthology series You Are There. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 57490113, 37653, 3585109, 10187561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 52, 55 ], [ 56, 72 ], [ 73, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan also appears in And Having Writ (1978) by Donald R. Bensen. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2847572, 6140035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 48, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan appears in Gore Vidal's 1987 novel Empire.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 62169, 1990956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 27 ], [ 41, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1992 short story \"Plowshare\" by Martha Soukup and part of the 1984 novel A Comedy of Justice by Robert A. Heinlein are set in worlds where Bryan became president.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 20020033, 2277031, 25389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 36, 49 ], [ 101, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The William Jennings Bryan House, in Nebraska, was named a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1963. The Bryan Home Museum is an appointment-only museum at his birthplace in Salem, Illinois. Salem is also home to Bryan Park and a large statue of Bryan. His home at Asheville, North Carolina, from 1917 to 1920, the William Jennings Bryan House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. Villa Serena, Bryan's property in Miami, Florida, is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 16781990, 404013, 127718, 37724301, 64065, 37724321, 53846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ], [ 64, 90 ], [ 264, 289 ], [ 314, 342 ], [ 362, 398 ], [ 408, 420 ], [ 442, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "President Franklin D. Roosevelt delivered an address on May 3, 1934, dedicating a statue of William Jennings Bryan created by Gutzon Borglum, the sculptor of Mount Rushmore. This Bryan statue by Borglum originally stood in Washington, D.C., but was displaced by highway construction and moved by an Act of Congress in 1961 to Salem, Illinois, Bryan's birthplace.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 10979, 361180, 185973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ], [ 126, 140 ], [ 158, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A statue of Bryan represented the state of Nebraska in the National Statuary Hall in the United States Capitol, as part of the National Statuary Hall Collection. In 2019, a statue of Chief Standing Bear replaced the statue of Bryan in the National Statuary Hall.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 55468312, 346223, 31979, 700241, 1584663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ], [ 59, 81 ], [ 89, 110 ], [ 127, 160 ], [ 189, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bryan was named to the Nebraska Hall of Fame in 1971 and a bust of him resides in the Nebraska State Capitol. Bryan was honored by the United States Postal Service with a $2 Great Americans series postage stamp.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2648638, 1100536, 50591, 3488942, 25126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 44 ], [ 86, 108 ], [ 135, 163 ], [ 174, 196 ], [ 197, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerous objects, places and people have been named after Bryan, including Bryan County, Oklahoma, Bryan Medical Center in Lincoln, Nebraska, and Bryan College, located in Dayton, Tennessee. Omaha Bryan High School and Bryan Middle School in Bellevue, Nebraska, are also named for Bryan. During World War II the Liberty ship was built in Panama City, Florida, and named in his honor.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 92113, 27278363, 17653, 1573242, 135332, 3688244, 124173, 198201, 108975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 97 ], [ 99, 119 ], [ 123, 140 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 172, 189 ], [ 191, 214 ], [ 242, 260 ], [ 312, 324 ], [ 339, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5815374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Progressive Era", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 560252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coletta, Paolo E. William Jennings Bryan 3 vols. online vol 1; online vol 2; online vol 3", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ashby, LeRoy. William Jennings Bryan: champion of democracy (1987) online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " . brief scholarly overview; online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Clements, Kendrick A. William Jennings Bryan, missionary isolationist (U of Tennessee Press, 1982) online; focus on foreign policy.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coletta, Paolo E. William Jennings Bryan. I: Political Evangelist, 1860–1908 (U of Nebraska Press, 1964), the most detailed of the standard scholarly biographies; online review", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coletta, Paolo E. William Jennings Bryan. Volume II, Progressive Politician and Moral Statesman, 1909 1915 (1969)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coletta, Paolo E. William Jennings Bryan\". Vol. 3: Political Puritan, 1915–1925 1969)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kazin, Michael. A godly hero : the life of William Jennings Bryan (2006) online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Levine, Lawrence W. Defender of the faith: William Jennings Bryan, the last decade, 1915-1925 (Oxford UP, 1965) online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , outdated.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " on 1896", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Analysis of the historiography.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Argues that fundamentalists thought they had won Scopes trial but death of Bryan shook their confidence.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hannigan, Robert E. The New World Power (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. excerpt", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hannigan, Robert E. The Great War and American Foreign Policy, 1914–24 (2016) excerpt", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Puts Scopes in larger religious context.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maddux, Kristy. \"Fundamentalist fool or populist paragon? William Jennings Bryan and the campaign against evolutionary theory.\" Rhetoric and Public Affairs 16.3 (2013): 489–520.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morton, Richard Allen. \"'It Was Bryan and Sullivan Who did the Trick' How William Jennings Bryan and Illinois' Roger C. Sullivan Brought About the Nomination of Woodrow Wilson in 1912.\" Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 108.2 (2015): 147–181. online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rove, Karl. (2015) The Triumph of William McKinley: Why the Election of 1896 Still Matters, Simon & Schuster, . Detailed popular narrative of the entire campaign by Karl Rove, a prominent 21st-century Republican campaign advisor.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 19329135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Taylor, Jeff. Where did the party go? : William Jennings Bryan, Hubert Humphrey, and the Jeffersonian legacy (2006) online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bryan, William Jennings. William Jennings Bryan: selections ed. by Ray Ginger (1967) 259 pp", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bryan, William Jennings. The first battle: a story of the campaign of 1896 (1897), 693 pp; campaign speeches online edition", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Commoner Condensed, annual compilation of The Commoner magazine; full text online for 1901, 1902, 1903, 1907, 1907, 1908", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bryan, William Jennings. The old world and its ways (1907) 560 pages full text online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bryan, William Jennings. Speeches of William Jennings Bryan edited by Mary Baird Bryan (1909) full text online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bryan, William Jennings. In His image (1922) 226 pp. full text online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bryan, William Jennings. The Memoirs: of William Jennings Bryan, by himself and his wife (1925) 560 pp; online edition", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bryan, William Jennings. British Rule in India (1906) Online Edition", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Luke Schleif: Bryan, William Jennings, in: 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William Jennings Bryan cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 3346273, 211917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 100 ], [ 108, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Deity of Christ\" – paper by Bryan on the subject", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William Jennings Bryan Recognition Project (WJBP)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"William Jennings Bryan, Presidential Contender\" from C-SPAN's The Contenders", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 77799, 9297780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 61 ], [ 64, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "William_Jennings_Bryan", "1860_births", "1925_deaths", "19th-century_American_politicians", "19th-century_Presbyterians", "20th-century_American_politicians", "20th-century_Presbyterians", "Candidates_in_the_1896_United_States_presidential_election", "Candidates_in_the_1900_United_States_presidential_election", "Candidates_in_the_1908_United_States_presidential_election", "Candidates_in_the_1912_United_States_presidential_election", "Candidates_in_the_1920_United_States_presidential_election", "American_Christian_creationists", "American_Christian_pacifists", "American_newspaper_editors", "American_newspaper_publishers_(people)", "American_people_of_English_descent", "American_people_of_Scotch-Irish_descent", "American_Presbyterians", "American_temperance_activists", "American_evangelicals", "Burials_at_Arlington_National_Cemetery", "Calvinist_pacifists", "Christian_fundamentalists", "Deaths_in_Tennessee", "Democratic_Party_(United_States)_presidential_nominees", "Democratic_Party_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_from_Nebraska", "Illinois_College_alumni", "Nebraska_lawyers", "Nebraska_Populists", "Nebraska_Silverites", "Newspaper_founders", "Newspaper_people_from_Omaha,_Nebraska", "Non-interventionism", "Northwestern_University_Pritzker_School_of_Law_alumni", "People_from_Salem,_Illinois", "People_of_the_Philippine–American_War", "People_of_the_Spanish–American_War", "Politicians_from_Jacksonville,_Illinois", "Politicians_from_Lincoln,_Nebraska", "Populism_in_the_United_States", "Right-wing_populism_in_the_United_States", "Left-wing_populism_in_the_United_States", "Progressive_Era_in_the_United_States", "Scopes_Trial", "Populism", "United_States_Secretaries_of_State", "William_Jennings_Bryan_family", "Woodrow_Wilson_administration_cabinet_members", "Members_of_the_Odd_Fellows" ]

[ "William J. Bryan", "W. J. Bryan", "William Bryan" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Watergate is the Watergate scandal, a 1972 break-in at the Watergate Hotel by members of President Richard Nixon's administration and the resulting cover-up.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 52382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Watergate may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate (architecture), a gate opening onto water, or only or mainly accessible by water", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Gates", "target_page_ids": [ 40002070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Traitors' Gate, an entrance to the Tower of London, England", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Gates", "target_page_ids": [ 8120739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " York Watergate or Buckingham Watergate, names for the York House Watergate, London, England", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Gates", "target_page_ids": [ 4094164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate, Florida", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 42951001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate complex, an office-apartment-hotel complex built in 1967 in Washington, D.C. near a watergate onto the Potomac River", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 625197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate, a former area of Oxford known for its College of the Franciscans; See Haymo of Faversham", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 4451172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate, Chester, Cheshire", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 16657029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate, Cornwall", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 33326293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate Bay, Cornwall", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 8180853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate Beach, Cornwall", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 6219287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate Halt railway station, a defunct station in Devon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 13925891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate Theatre, London, a former theatre in London, England", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 43082891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate (album), by American hip hop group Thirsty Fish", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 31747571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate (documentary series), a 1994 Emmy award-winning documentary by Mick Gold", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 42773553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Watergate\" (Stargate SG-1), an episode from Season 4", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 15431411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate, a 2012 novel by Thomas Mallon", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2620911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate, an alias used by DJ Quicksilver for some of his EP's", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 26027365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate salad, a dish made with pistachio pudding and whipped cream", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6059105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watergate tapes, also known as the Nixon tapes, a collection of conversations between U.S. President Richard Nixon and various White House staff members", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3188742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gate (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1883286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gate (water transport)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 165585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of scandals with \"-gate\" suffix", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 243541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oceangate (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60871630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rivergate (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60879515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seagate (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 212042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Water (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5243992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gate valve", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 615385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Unitatis redintegratio (Restoration of unity) is the Second Vatican Council's decree on ecumenism. It was passed by a vote of 2,137 to 11 of the bishops assembled at the Council, and was promulgated by Pope Paul VI on 21 November 1964.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28134, 5503518, 8799424, 24028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 75 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 145, 152 ], [ 202, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The title of the document is taken from the opening words of the Latin text. The opening words of the official English translation are: \"The restoration of unity among all Christians is one of the principal concerns of the Second Vatican Council.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unitatis Redintegratio calls for the reunion of Christendom and is similar to a previous call for unity by Pope Leo XIII in his 1894 encyclical letter Praeclara gratulationis publicae. However, Unitatis articulates a different kind of ecclesiology from Praeclara. It focuses on the unity of the people of God and on separated Christian brethren rather than insisting according to the classical formulation that schismatics must return to the fold under the unity of the Vicar of Christ.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 50614, 349189, 4504321, 651997, 21222179, 1077576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 120 ], [ 133, 150 ], [ 151, 183 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 295, 308 ], [ 470, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unitatis acknowledges that there are serious problems facing prospects of reunion with Reformation communities that make no attempt to claim apostolic succession as the Anglican communion does. Ecclesial communities which adhere to Calvinism are a particularly challenging case because they and Catholicism have important doctrinal differences on key issues such as ecclesiology, liturgy and mariology. Other communities have insoluble doctrinal differences with Catholic Christianity because their theology of the Holy Trinity is manifestly incompatible with the doctrine as articulated by the council of Nicea in the early Church.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 2257, 6024, 651997, 86364, 16961765, 30511, 11118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 161 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 366, 378 ], [ 380, 387 ], [ 392, 401 ], [ 515, 527 ], [ 595, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope John Paul II refers to and builds on the teaching of Unitatis Redintegratio in his encyclical letter of 25 May 1995, Ut unum sint.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subsequent developments", "target_page_ids": [ 23805, 3058892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 122, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cardinal Walter Kasper discussed the status of the problems by the document on the 40th anniversary of the promulgation of Unitatis in remarks entitled \"The Decree on Ecumenism – Read Anew After Forty Years\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subsequent developments", "target_page_ids": [ 1687936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Separated brethren", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27008978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Satis Cognitum, Pope Leo XIII, 29 June 1896", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2467757, 50614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mortalium animos, Pope Pius XI, 1928", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2467804, 147858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 19, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ut unum sint, Pope John Paul II, 25 May 1995", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3058892, 23805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unitatis Redintegratio", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Documents_of_the_Second_Vatican_Council", "Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism", "1964_documents", "1964_in_Christianity" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A logic analyzer is an electronic instrument that captures and displays multiple signals from a digital system or digital circuit. A logic analyzer may convert the captured data into timing diagrams, protocol decodes, state machine traces, assembly language, or may correlate assembly with source-level software. Logic analyzers have advanced triggering capabilities, and are useful when a user needs to see the timing relationships between many signals in a digital system.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 275871, 27753031, 7139215, 10931, 1368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 88 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 183, 198 ], [ 218, 231 ], [ 240, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Presently, there are three distinct categories of logic analyzers available on the market:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Modular LAs, which consist of both a chassis or mainframe and logic analyzer modules. The mainframe/chassis contains the display, controls, control computer, and multiple slots into which the actual data-capturing hardware is installed. The modules each have a specific number of channels, and multiple modules may be combined to obtain a very high channel count. While modular logic analyzers are typically more expensive, the ability to combine multiple modules to obtain a high channel count and the generally higher performance of modular logic analyzers often justifies the price. For the very high end modular logic analyzers, the user often must provide their own host PC or purchase an embedded controller compatible with the system.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Portable LAs, sometimes referred to as standalone LAs. Portable logic analyzers integrate everything into a single package, with options installed at the factory. While portable logic analyzers generally have lower performance than their modular counterparts, they are often used for general purpose debugging by cost conscious users.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC-based LAs. The hardware connects to a computer through a USB or Ethernet connection and relays the captured signals to the software on the computer. These devices are typically much smaller and less expensive because they make use of a PC's existing keyboard, display and CPU.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 32073, 9499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 64 ], [ 68, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A logic analyzer can be triggered on a complicated sequence of digital events, then capture a large amount of digital data from the system under test (SUT).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 30873703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When logic analyzers first came into use, it was common to attach several hundred \"clips\" to a digital system. Later, specialized connectors came into use. The evolution of logic analyzer probes has led to a common footprint that multiple vendors support, which provides added freedom to end users. Introduced in April, 2002, connectorless technology (identified by several vendor-specific trade names: Compression Probing; Soft Touch; D-Max) has become popular. These probes provide a durable, reliable mechanical and electrical connection between the probe and the circuit board with less than 0.5 to 0.7 pF loading per signal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once the probes are connected, the user programs the analyzer with the names of each signal, and can group several signals together for easier manipulation. Next, a capture mode is chosen, either \"timing\" mode, where the input signals are sampled at regular intervals based on an internal or external clock source, or \"state\" mode, where one or more of the signals are defined as \"clocks\", and data are taken on the rising or falling edges of these clocks, optionally using other signals to qualify these clocks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the mode is chosen, a trigger condition must be set. A trigger condition can range from simple (such as triggering on a rising or falling edge of a single signal) to the very complex (such as configuring the analyzer to decode the higher levels of the TCP/IP stack and triggering on a certain HTTP packet).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At this point, the user sets the analyzer to \"run\" mode, either triggering once, or repeatedly triggering.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once the data are captured, they can be displayed several ways, from the simple (showing waveforms or state listings) to the complex (showing decoded Ethernet protocol traffic). Some analyzers can also operate in a \"compare\" mode, where they compare each captured data set to a previously recorded data set, and halt capture or visually notify the operator when this data set is either matched or not. This is useful for long-term empirical testing. Recent analyzers can even be set to email a copy of the test data to the engineer on a successful trigger.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 8495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many digital designs, including those of ICs, are simulated to detect defects before the unit is constructed. The simulation usually provides logic analysis displays. Often, complex discrete logic is verified by simulating inputs and testing outputs using boundary scan. Logic analyzers can uncover hardware defects that are not found in simulation. These problems are typically too difficult to model in simulation, or too time-consuming to simulate and often cross multiple clock domains.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 15150, 1452497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 43 ], [ 256, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Field-programmable gate arrays have become a common measurement point for logic analyzers and are also used to debug the logic circuit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 10969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As digital computing and integrated circuits emerged in the 1960s, new and difficult problems began to arise, problems that oscilloscopes had trouble handling. For the first time in computing history, it became essential to simultaneously view large numbers of signals. Early solutions attempted to combine hardware from multiple oscilloscopes into one package, but screen clutter, a lack of definite data interpretation, as well as probing constraints made this solution only marginally usable.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The HP 5000A Logic Analyzer, introduced in the October 1973 issue of the Hewlett-Packard Journal, was probably the first commercially available instrument to be called a \"Logic Analyzer\". However, the HP 5000A was limited to two channels and presented information by means of two rows of 32 LEDs. The first truly parallel instrument was the twelve channel HP 1601L, it was a plug-in for the HP 180 series oscilloscope mainframes and used the oscilloscope screen to present 16 rows of 12 bit words as 1s and 0s. It was introduced in the January 1974 Hewlett-Packard Journal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mixed-signal oscilloscopes combine the functionality of a digital storage oscilloscope with a logic analyzer. The several benefits of these include the ability to view analog and digital signals together in time, and to trigger on either digital or analog signals and capture on the other. A few limitations of mixed signal oscilloscopes are that they do not capture state-mode data, they have a limited channel count, and do not provide the analytical depth and insight of a logic analyzer.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mixed-signal oscilloscopes", "target_page_ids": [ 15361791, 33353907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 58, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bus analyzer", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2988582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Feeling Comfortable with Logic Analyzers - Keysight", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Digital_electronics", "Embedded_systems", "Electronic_test_equipment" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, and, by the IEEE, MAC bridge) is networking hardware that connects devices on a computer network by using packet switching to receive and forward data to the destination device.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 56938, 1699254, 4122592, 43339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 75 ], [ 92, 111 ], [ 139, 155 ], [ 165, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses MAC addresses to forward data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches can also forward data at the network layer (layer 3) by additionally incorporating routing functionality. Such switches are commonly known as layer-3 switches or multilayer switches.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2702169, 20668, 152949, 22747, 85024, 25750, 235110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ], [ 57, 68 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 127, 136 ], [ 181, 194 ], [ 235, 242 ], [ 314, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Switches for Ethernet are the most common form of network switch. The first MAC Bridge was invented in 1983 by Mark Kempf, an engineer in the Networking Advanced Development group of Digital Equipment Corporation. The first 2 port Bridge product (LANBridge 100) was introduced by that company shortly after. The company subsequently produced multi-port switches for both Ethernet and FDDI such as GigaSwitch. Digital decided to license its MAC Bridge patent in a royalty-free, non-discriminatory basis that allowed IEEE standardization. This permitted a number of other companies to produce multi-port switches, including Kalpana. Ethernet was initially a shared-access medium, but the introduction of the MAC bridge began its transformation into its most-common point-to-point form without a collision domain. Switches also exist for other types of networks including Fibre Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, and InfiniBand.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9499, 7952, 41149, 2302328, 13748865, 200823, 143327, 2499, 143309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ], [ 183, 212 ], [ 385, 389 ], [ 625, 632 ], [ 659, 679 ], [ 796, 812 ], [ 873, 886 ], [ 888, 914 ], [ 920, 930 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike repeater hubs, which broadcast the same data out of each port and let the devices pick out the data addressed to them, a network switch learns the identities of connected devices and then only forwards data to the port connected to the device to which it is addressed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1937926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A switch is a device in a computer network that connects other devices together. Multiple data cables are plugged into a switch to enable communication between different networked devices. Switches manage the flow of data across a network by transmitting a received network packet only to the one or more devices for which the packet is intended. Each networked device connected to a switch can be identified by its network address, allowing the switch to direct the flow of traffic maximizing the security and efficiency of the network.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 4122592, 43734, 8168925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 42 ], [ 266, 280 ], [ 416, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A switch is more intelligent than an Ethernet hub, which simply retransmits packets out of every port of the hub except the port on which the packet was received, unable to distinguish different recipients, and achieving an overall lower network efficiency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 1937926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer (layer2) of the OSI model to create a separate collision domain for each switch port. Each device connected to a switch port can transfer data to any of the other ports at any time and the transmissions will not interfere. Because broadcasts are still being forwarded to all connected devices by the switch, the newly formed network segment continues to be a broadcast domain. Switches may also operate at higher layers of the OSI model, including the network layer and above. A device that also operates at these higher layers is known as a multilayer switch.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 152949, 200823, 2704540, 219558, 4279, 235110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 98, 114 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 376, 391 ], [ 410, 426 ], [ 593, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Segmentation involves the use of a switch to split a larger collision domain into smaller ones in order to reduce collision probability and to improve overall network throughput. In the extreme case (i.e. micro-segmentation), each device is located on a dedicated switch port. In contrast to an Ethernet hub, there is a separate collision domain on each of the switch ports. This allows computers to have dedicated bandwidth on point-to-point connections to the network and also to run in full-duplex mode. Full-duplex mode has only one transmitter and one receiver per collision domain, making collisions impossible.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The network switch plays an integral role in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office/home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose device such as a residential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable Internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for Voice over IP (VoIP).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 17739, 304173, 6959783, 147184, 41038, 3453760, 25748, 75028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 84 ], [ 163, 187 ], [ 274, 293 ], [ 322, 331 ], [ 349, 352 ], [ 356, 370 ], [ 427, 433 ], [ 569, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Switches are most commonly used as the network connection point for hosts at the edge of a network. In the hierarchical internetworking model and similar network architectures, switches are also used deeper in the network to provide connections between the switches at the edge.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in a network", "target_page_ids": [ 14581096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, RapidIO, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While the layer-2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and Token Ring is performed more easily at layer 3 or via routing. Devices that interconnect at the layer3 are traditionally called routers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in a network", "target_page_ids": [ 143327, 1452173, 2499, 14744, 17216326, 14739, 7016168, 25748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 165 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 176, 179 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 187, 191 ], [ 196, 202 ], [ 401, 411 ], [ 529, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall, network intrusion detection, and performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in a network", "target_page_ids": [ 26173989, 113021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 195 ], [ 205, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through port mirroring, a switch can create a mirror image of data that can go to an external device such as intrusion detection systems and packet sniffers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in a network", "target_page_ids": [ 702709, 113021, 59114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 109, 135 ], [ 141, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A modern switch may implement power over Ethernet (PoE), which avoids the need for attached devices, such as a VoIP phone or wireless access point, to have a separate power supply. Since switches can have redundant power circuits connected to uninterruptible power supplies, the connected device can continue operating even when regular office power fails.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in a network", "target_page_ids": [ 782836, 2079056, 192397, 41834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 49 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 125, 146 ], [ 243, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern commercial switches primarily use Ethernet interfaces. The core function of an Ethernet switch is to provide multiple ports of layer-2 bridging. Layer-1 functionality is required in all switches in support of the higher layers. Many switches also perform operations at other layers. A device capable of more than bridging is known as a multilayer switch.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bridging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A layer 2 network device is a multiport device that uses hardware addresses (MAC addresses) to process and forward data at the data link layer (layer 2).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bridging", "target_page_ids": [ 20668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A switch operating as a network bridge may interconnect otherwise separate layer 2 networks. The bridge learns the MAC address of each connected device. Bridges also buffer an incoming packet and adapt the transmission speed to that of the outgoing port. While there are specialized applications, such as storage area networks, where the input and output interfaces are the same bandwidth, this is not always the case in general LAN applications. In LANs, a switch used for end-user access typically concentrates lower bandwidth and uplinks into a higher bandwidth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bridging", "target_page_ids": [ 41837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 533, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interconnects between switches may be regulated using the spanning tree protocol (STP) that disables forwarding on links so that the resulting local area network is a tree without switching loops. In contrast to routers, spanning tree bridges must have topologies with only one active path between two points. Shortest path bridging and TRILL (TRansparent Interconnection of Lots of Links) are layer 2 alternatives to STP which allow all paths to be active with multiple equal cost paths.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bridging", "target_page_ids": [ 98761, 48560, 8178484, 23094504, 25002510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 80 ], [ 167, 171 ], [ 180, 194 ], [ 310, 332 ], [ 337, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Switches are available in many form factors, including stand-alone, desktop units which are typically intended to be used in a home or office environment outside a wiring closet; rack-mounted switches for use in an equipment rack or an enclosure; DIN rail mounted for use in industrial environments; and small installation switches, mounted into a cable duct, floor box or communications tower, as found, for example, in fiber to the office infrastructures.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 14353361, 35836, 2796079, 2245806, 2125485, 51046897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 177 ], [ 215, 229 ], [ 236, 245 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 275, 298 ], [ 421, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rack-mounted switches may be standalone units, stackable switches or large chassis units with swappable line cards.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 16936858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unmanaged switches have no configuration interface or options. They are plug and play. They are typically the least expensive switches, and therefore often used in a small office/home office environment. Unmanaged switches can be desktop or rack mounted.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 158859, 304173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 85 ], [ 166, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Managed switches have one or more methods to modify the operation of the switch. Common management methods include: a command-line interface (CLI) accessed via serial console, telnet or Secure Shell, an embedded Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) agent allowing management from a remote console or management station, or a web interface for management from a web browser. Examples of configuration changes that one can do from a managed switch include: enabling features such as Spanning Tree Protocol or port mirroring, setting port bandwidth, creating or modifying VLANs (virtual LANs), etc. Two sub-classes of managed switches are smart and enterprise managed switches.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 28338635, 361571, 31062, 28814, 41710, 33173, 98761, 272290, 101416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 140 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 212, 246 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 486, 508 ], [ 536, 550 ], [ 574, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smart switches (aka intelligent switches) are managed switches with a limited set of management features. Likewise, \"web-managed\" switches are switches that fall into a market niche between unmanaged and managed. For a price much lower than a fully managed switch they provide a web interface (and usually no CLI access) and allow configuration of basic settings, such as VLANs, port-bandwidth and duplex.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Enterprise managed switches (aka managed switches) have a full set of management features, including CLI, SNMP agent, and web interface. They may have additional features to manipulate configurations, such as the ability to display, modify, backup and restore configurations. Compared with smart switches, enterprise switches have more features that can be customized or optimized and are generally more expensive than smart switches. Enterprise switches are typically found in networks with a larger number of switches and connections, where centralized management is a significant savings in administrative time and effort. A stackable switch is a type of an enterprise-managed switch.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 16936858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 628, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Enable and disable ports", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Link bandwidth and duplex settings", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 2112491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quality of service configuration and monitoring", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 25315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MAC filtering and other access control list features", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 8043223, 61589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 25, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Configuration of Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) and Shortest Path Bridging (SPB) features", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 98761, 23094504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 40 ], [ 51, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) monitoring of device and link health", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 41710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Port mirroring for monitoring traffic and troubleshooting", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 702709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Link aggregation configuration to set up multiple ports for the same connection to achieve higher data transfer rates and reliability", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1952952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " VLAN configuration and port assignments including IEEE 802.1Q tagging", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1379565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Network Access Control features such as IEEE 802.1X ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 5913627, 346883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 41, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IGMP snooping for control of multicast traffic", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 11585483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is difficult to monitor traffic that is bridged using a switch because only the sending and receiving ports can see the traffic.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Traffic monitoring", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Methods that are specifically designed to allow a network analyst to monitor traffic include:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Traffic monitoring", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Port mirroring the switch sends a copy of network packets to a monitoring network connection.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Traffic monitoring", "target_page_ids": [ 702709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SMON \"Switch Monitoring\" is described by RFC 2613 and is a protocol for controlling facilities such as port mirroring.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Traffic monitoring", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RMON", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Traffic monitoring", "target_page_ids": [ 11839689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " sFlow", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Traffic monitoring", "target_page_ids": [ 2440001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These monitoring features are rarely present on consumer-grade switches. Other monitoring methods include connecting a layer-1 hub or network tap between the monitored device and its switch port.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Traffic monitoring", "target_page_ids": [ 1933660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Console server", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1852072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Energy-Efficient Ethernet", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25757910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fibre Channel switch", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 991398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fully switched network", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5724671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Load-balanced switch", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1514954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Modular computer network switch", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60252975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Packet switch", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stackable switch", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16936858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telephone exchange", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26668156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Turing switch", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12192262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wide area network", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " What to consider when buying an Ethernet Switch", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ethernet", "Networking_hardware" ]

[ "switching hub", "bridging hub", "MAC bridge", "switch", "networking switch", "computer network switch", "Ethernet switch" ]

[ { "plaintext": "There are at least four main types of competitive pigeon sport:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pigeon racing", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 233930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tumbling", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12986425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Highflying", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tippler (Endurance)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2670978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though not quite a sport, fancy breeds of pigeons are also bred to standards and judged in a competitive fashion. Levi in his book The Pigeon describes all aspects of pigeon keeping. For exhibition purposes sport pigeons are sometimes grouped as Flying/Sporting Pigeons.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1578728, 63355, 801773, 4328917, 16853490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 38 ], [ 42, 48 ], [ 67, 76 ], [ 167, 181 ], [ 246, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Birmingham Roller", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11711374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of pigeon breeds", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16626399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] } ]

[ "Pigeon_sport" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance (the opposition offered by a circuit or component to the flow of electric current). Multimeters also function as ohmmeters when in resistance-measuring mode. An ohmmeter applies current to the circuit or component whose resistance is to be measured. It then measures the resulting voltage and calculates the resistance using Ohm’s law .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9550, 27643777, 61577, 6207, 49090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 29, 39 ], [ 54, 75 ], [ 141, 157 ], [ 402, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An ohmmeter should not be connected to a circuit or component that is carrying a current or is connected to a power source. Power should be disconnected before connecting the ohmmeter. Ohmmeters can be either connected in series or parallel based on requirements (whether resistance being measured is part of circuit or is a shunt resistance.)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Micro-ohmmeters (microhmmeter or micro ohmmeter) make measurements of low resistance. Megohmmeters (also a trademarked device Megger) measure large values of resistance. The unit of measurement for resistance is the ohm (Ω).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21192225, 4462484, 22616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 132 ], [ 216, 219 ], [ 221, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first ohmmeters were based on a type of meter movement known as a 'ratiometer'. These were similar to the galvanometer type movement encountered in later instruments, but instead of hairsprings to supply a restoring force they used conducting 'ligaments'. These provided no net rotational force to the movement. Also, the movement was wound with two coils. One was connected via a series resistor to the battery supply. The second was connected to the same battery supply via a second resistor and the resistor under test. The indication on the meter was proportional to the ratio of the currents through the two coils. This ratio was determined by the magnitude of the resistor under test. The advantages of this arrangement were twofold. First, the indication of the resistance was completely independent of the battery voltage (as long as it actually produced some voltage) and no zero adjustment was required. Second, although the resistance scale was non linear, the scale remained correct over the full deflection range. By interchanging the two coils a second range was provided. This scale was reversed compared to the first. A feature of this type of instrument was that it would continue to indicate a random resistance value once the test leads were disconnected (the action of which disconnected the battery from the movement). Ohmmeters of this type only ever measured resistance as they could not easily be incorporated into a multimeter design. Insulation testers that relied on a hand cranked generator operated on the same principle. This ensured that the indication was wholly independent of the voltage actually produced.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design evolution", "target_page_ids": [ 40365, 40623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 123 ], [ 1459, 1469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subsequent designs of ohmmeter provided a small battery to apply a voltage to a resistance via a galvanometer to measure the current through the resistance (battery, galvanometer and resistance all connected in series). The scale of the galvanometer was marked in ohms, because the fixed voltage from the battery assured that as resistance is increased, the current through the meter (and hence deflection) would decrease. Ohmmeters form circuits by themselves, therefore they cannot be used within an assembled circuit. This design is much simpler and cheaper than the former design, and was simple to integrate into a multimeter design and consequently was by far the most common form of analogue ohmmeter. This type of ohmmeter suffers from two inherent disadvantages. First, the meter needs to be zeroed by shorting the measurement points together and performing an adjustment for zero ohms indication prior to each measurement. This is because as the battery voltage decreases with age, the series resistance in the meter needs to be reduced to maintain the zero indication at full deflection. Second, and consequent on the first, the actual deflection for any given resistor under test changes as the internal resistance is altered. It remains correct at the centre of the scale only, which is why such ohmmeter designs always quote the accuracy \"at centre scale only\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design evolution", "target_page_ids": [ 32549, 270770, 40623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 74 ], [ 211, 217 ], [ 621, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more accurate type of ohmmeter has an electronic circuit that passes a constant current (I) through the resistance, and another circuit that measures the voltage (V) across the resistance. These measurements are then digitized with an analog digital converter (adc) after which a microcontroller or microprocessor make the division of the current and voltage according to Ohm's Law and then decode these to a display to offer the user a reading of the resistance value they're measuring at that instant. Since these type of meters already measure current, voltage and resistance all at once, these type of circuits are often used in digital multimeters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design evolution", "target_page_ids": [ 40367, 21017, 19553, 49090, 40623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 267 ], [ 282, 297 ], [ 301, 315 ], [ 374, 383 ], [ 635, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For high-precision measurements of very small resistances, the above types of meter are inadequate. This is partly because the change in deflection itself is small when the resistance measured is too small in proportion to the intrinsic resistance of the ohmmeter (which can be dealt with through current division), but mostly because the meter's reading is the sum of the resistance of the measuring leads, the contact resistances and the resistance being measured. To reduce this effect, a precision ohmmeter has four terminals, called Kelvin contacts. Two terminals carry the current from and to the meter, while the other two allow the meter to measure the voltage across the resistor. In this arrangement, the power source is connected in series with the resistance to be measured through the external pair of terminals, while the second pair connects in parallel with the galvanometer which measures the voltage drop. With this type of meter, any voltage drop due to the resistance of the first pair of leads and their contact resistances is ignored by the meter. This four terminal measurement technique is called Kelvin sensing, after William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, who invented the Kelvin bridge in 1861 to measure very low resistances. The Four-terminal sensing method can also be utilized to conduct accurate measurements of low resistances.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Precision ohmmeters", "target_page_ids": [ 3389593, 7154495, 33302, 11680848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 313 ], [ 1075, 1100 ], [ 1143, 1171 ], [ 1190, 1203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DC Metering Circuits chapter from Lessons In Electric Circuits Vol 1 DC free ebook and Lessons In Electric Circuits series.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Electrical_resistance_and_conductance", "Electrical_meters", "Electrical_safety", "Safety_engineering", "Electronic_test_equipment", "Impedance_measurements" ]

[ "resistance meter" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A multimeter is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current, in which case it is also known as a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM), as the unit is equipped with voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter functionality. Some feature the measurement of Additional_scales such as temperature and capacitance.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27643777, 32549, 61577, 6207, 32743, 2866, 40622, 140711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 38 ], [ 121, 128 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 249, 258 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 273, 281 ], [ 371, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analog multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have numeric displays and have made analog multimeters virtually obsolete as they are cheaper, more precise, and more physically robust than analog multimeters.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multimeters vary in size, features, and price. They can be portable handheld devices or highly-precise bench instruments. Cheap multimeters can cost under , while laboratory-grade models with certified calibration can cost over .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 47502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first moving-pointer current-detecting device was the galvanometer in 1820. These were used to measure resistance and voltage by using a Wheatstone bridge, and comparing the unknown quantity to a reference voltage or resistance. While useful in the lab, the devices were very slow and impractical in the field. These galvanometers were bulky and delicate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40365, 33894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 70 ], [ 141, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The D'Arsonval–Weston meter movement uses a moving coil which carries a pointer and rotates on pivots or a taut band ligament. The coil rotates in a permanent magnetic field and is restrained by fine spiral springs which also serve to carry current into the moving coil. It gives proportional measurement rather than just detection, and deflection is independent of the orientation of the meter. Instead of balancing a bridge, values could be directly read off the instrument's scale, which made measurement quick and easy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The basic moving coil meter is suitable only for direct current measurements, usually in the range of 10μA to 100mA. It is easily adapted to read heavier currents by using shunts (resistances in parallel with the basic movement) or to read voltage using series resistances known as multipliers. To read alternating currents or voltages, a rectifier is needed. One of the earliest suitable rectifiers was the copper oxide rectifier developed and manufactured by Union Switch & Signal Company, Swissvale, Pennsylvania, later part of Westinghouse Brake and Signal Company, from 1927.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first attested usage of the word \"multimeter\" listed by the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1907.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The invention of the first multimeter is attributed to British Post Office engineer, Donald Macadie, who became dissatisfied with the need to carry many separate instruments required for maintenance of telecommunications circuits. Macadie invented an instrument which could measure amperes (amps), volts and ohms, so the multifunctional meter was then named Avometer. The meter comprised a moving coil meter, voltage and precision resistors, and switches and sockets to select the range.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44312, 33094374, 772, 4462484, 4276759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 202, 219 ], [ 282, 289 ], [ 308, 311 ], [ 358, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Automatic Coil Winder and Electrical Equipment Company (ACWEECO), founded in 1923, was set up to manufacture the Avometer and a coil winding machine also designed and patented by MacAdie. Although a shareholder of ACWEECO, Mr MacAdie continued to work for the Post Office until his retirement in 1933. His son, Hugh S. MacAdie, joined ACWEECO in 1927 and became Technical Director. The first AVO was put on sale in 1923, and many of its features remained almost unaltered through to the last Model 8.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Any meter will load the circuit under test to some extent. For example, a multimeter using a moving coil movement with full-scale deflection current of 50 microamps (μA), the highest sensitivity commonly available, must draw at least 50μA from the circuit under test for the meter to reach the top end of its scale. This may load a high-impedance circuit so much as to affect the circuit, thereby giving a low reading. The full-scale deflection current may also be expressed in terms of \"ohms per volt\" (Ω/V). The ohms per volt figure is often called the \"sensitivity\" of the instrument. Thus a meter with a 50μA movement will have a \"sensitivity\" of 20,000Ω/V. \"Per volt\" refers to the fact that the impedance the meter presents to the circuit under test will be 20,000Ω multiplied by the full-scale voltage to which the meter is set. For example, if the meter is set to a range of 300V full scale, the meter's impedance will be 6MΩ. 20,000Ω/V is the best (highest) sensitivity available for typical analog multimeters that lack internal amplifiers. For meters that do have internal amplifiers (VTVMs, FETVMs, etc.), the input impedance is fixed by the amplifier circuit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General properties of multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Avometer had a sensitivity of 60Ω/V, three direct current ranges (12mA, 1.2A, and 12A), three direct voltage ranges (12, 120, and 600V or optionally 1,200V), and a 10,000Ω resistance range. An improved version of 1927 increased this to 13 ranges and 166.6Ω/V (6mA) movement. A \"Universal\" version having additional alternating current and alternating voltage ranges was offered from 1933 and in 1936 the dual-sensitivity Avometer Model 7 offered 500 and 100Ω/V. Between the mid 1930s until the 1950s, 1,000Ω/V became a de facto standard of sensitivity for radio work and this figure was often quoted on service sheets. However, some manufacturers such as Simpson, Triplett and Weston, all in the USA, produced 20,000Ω/V VOMs before the Second World War and some of these were exported. After 1945–46, 20,000Ω/V became the expected standard for electronics, but some makers offered even more sensitive instruments. For industrial and other \"heavy-current\" use low sensitivity multimeters continued to be produced and these were considered more robust than the more sensitive types.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General properties of multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 455092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High-quality analog (analogue) multimeters continue to be made by several manufacturers, including Chauvin Arnoux (France), Gossen Metrawatt (Germany), and Simpson and Triplett (USA).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General properties of multimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pocket-watch-style meters were in widespread use in the 1920s. The metal case was typically connected to the negative connection, an arrangement that caused numerous electric shocks. The technical specifications of these devices were often crude, for example the one illustrated has a resistance of just 25Ω/V, a non-linear scale and no zero adjustment on both ranges.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General properties of multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 61577, 146103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 295 ], [ 313, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vacuum tube voltmeters or valve voltmeters (VTVM, VVM) were used for voltage measurements in electronic circuits where high input impedance was necessary. The VTVM had a fixed input impedance of typically 1MΩ or more, usually through use of a cathode follower input circuit, and thus did not significantly load the circuit being tested. VTVMs were used before the introduction of electronic high-impedance analog transistor and field effect transistor voltmeters (FETVOMs). Modern digital meters (DVMs) and some modern analog meters also use electronic input circuitry to achieve high input impedance—their voltage ranges are functionally equivalent to VTVMs. The input impedance of some poorly designed DVMs (especially some early designs) would vary over the course of a sample-and-hold internal measurement cycle, causing disturbances to some sensitive circuits under test.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General properties of multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 32743, 41957, 9931, 30011, 41228216, 571325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 243, 259 ], [ 413, 423 ], [ 428, 451 ], [ 773, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additional scales such as decibels, and measurement functions such as capacitance, transistor gain, frequency, duty cycle, display hold, and continuity which sounds a buzzer when the measured resistance is small have been included on many multimeters. While multimeters may be supplemented by more specialized equipment in a technician's toolkit, some multimeters include additional functions for specialized applications (temperature with a thermocouple probe, inductance, connectivity to a computer, speaking measured value, etc.).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "General properties of multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 8410, 140711, 30011, 10779, 41078, 662462, 30990, 165146, 7878457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 70, 81 ], [ 83, 98 ], [ 100, 109 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 442, 454 ], [ 462, 472 ], [ 492, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A multimeter is the combination of a DC voltmeter, AC voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog multimeter combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches; VTVMs are amplified analog meters and contain active circuitry.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 2866, 40622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 72 ], [ 78, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. A switch (usually rotary) allows greater resistance to be inserted in series with the meter movement to read higher voltages. The product of the basic full-scale deflection current of the movement, and the sum of the series resistance and the movement's own resistance, gives the full-scale voltage of the range.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As an example, a meter movement that required 1mA for full-scale deflection, with an internal resistance of 500Ω, would, on a 10V range of the multimeter, have 9,500Ω of series resistance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For analog current ranges, matched low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a hypothetical 1mA, 500Ω movement on a 1A range, the shunt resistance would be just over 0.5Ω.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 1717012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moving coil instruments can respond only to the average value of the current through them. To measure alternating current, which changes up and down repeatedly, a rectifier is inserted in the circuit so that each negative half cycle is inverted; the result is a varying and nonzero DC voltage whose maximum value will be half the AC peak to peak voltage, assuming a symmetrical waveform. Since the rectified average value and the root mean square (RMS) value of a waveform are only the same for a square wave, simple rectifier-type circuits can only be calibrated for sinusoidal waveforms. Other wave shapes require a different calibration factor to relate RMS and average value. This type of circuit usually has fairly limited frequency range. Since practical rectifiers have non-zero voltage drop, accuracy and sensitivity is poor at low AC voltage values.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 60569, 66819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 173 ], [ 433, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To measure resistance, switches arrange for a small battery within the instrument to pass a current through the device under test and the meter coil. Since the current available depends on the state of charge of the battery which changes over time, a multimeter usually has an adjustment for the ohm scale to zero it. In the usual circuits found in analog multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance, so full-scale will be 0Ω, and higher resistance will correspond to smaller deflections. The ohms scale is compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor networks. The internal resistance of the coil is decoupled from the selection of the series and shunt range resistors; the series network thus becomes a voltage divider. Where AC measurements are required, the rectifier can be placed after the amplifier stage, improving precision at low range.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 393519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Digital instruments, which necessarily incorporate amplifiers, use the same principles as analog instruments for resistance readings. For resistance measurements, usually a small constant current is passed through the device under test and the digital multimeter reads the resultant voltage drop; this eliminates the scale compression found in analog meters, but requires a source of precise current. An autoranging digital multimeter can automatically adjust the scaling network so the measurement circuits use the full precision of the A/D converter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In all types of multimeters, the quality of the switching elements is critical to stable and accurate measurements. The best DMMs use gold plated contacts in their switches; less expensive meters use nickel plating or none at all, relying on printed circuit board solder traces for the contacts. Accuracy and stability (e.g., temperature variation, or aging, or voltage/current history) of a meter's internal resistors (and other components) is a limiting factor in long-term accuracy and precision of the instrument.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Contemporary multimeters can measure many values. The most common are:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 32549, 42986, 47713, 32567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 21 ], [ 26, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Current, alternating and direct, in amperes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 6207, 772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 37, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate is important, depends on the circuitry design and construction, and should be specified, so users can evaluate the readings they take. Some meters measure currents as low as milliamps or even microamps. All meters have a burden voltage (caused by the combination of the shunt used and the meter's circuit design), and some (even expensive ones) have sufficiently high burden voltages that low current readings are seriously impaired. Meter specifications should include the burden voltage of the meter.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 10779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Resistance in ohms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 61577, 4462484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, some multimeters also measure:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Capacitance in farads, but usually the limitations of the range are between a few hundred or thousand micro farads and a few pico farads. Very few general purpose multimeters can measure other important aspects of capacitor status such as ESR, dissipation factor, or leakage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 140711, 82355, 497684, 634785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 16, 21 ], [ 240, 243 ], [ 245, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conductance in siemens, which is the inverse of the resistance measured.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 61577, 31109470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 16, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Decibels in circuitry, rarely in sound.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 8410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duty cycle as a percentage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 41078, 64493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 17, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frequency in hertz.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 488815, 14121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 14, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Inductance in henries. Like capacitance measurement, this is usually better handled by a purpose designed inductance / capacitance meter.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 165146, 82354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate temperature test probe, often a thermocouple.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 20647050, 19593040, 11524, 5260820, 30990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 24, 31 ], [ 35, 45 ], [ 79, 89 ], [ 99, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Digital multimeters may also include circuits for:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Continuity tester; a buzzer sounds when a circuit's resistance is low enough (just how low is enough varies from meter to meter), so the test must be treated as inexact.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 3183132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 8254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transistors (measuring current gain and other parameters in some kinds of transistors)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 30011, 41968, 25065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 47, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battery checking for simple 1.5V and 9V batteries. This is a current-loaded measurement, which simulates in-use battery loads; normal voltage ranges draw very little current from the battery.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Various sensors can be attached to (or included in) multimeters to take measurements such as:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 235757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " light level", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 18365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " sound pressure level", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 495884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " acidity/alkalinity(pH)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 24530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " relative humidity", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 52812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " very small current flow (down to nanoamps with some adapters)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " very small resistances (down to micro ohms for some adapters)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " large currents– adapters are available which use inductance (AC current only) or Hall effect sensors (both AC and DC current), usually through insulated clamp jaws to avoid direct contact with high current capacity circuits which can be dangerous, to the meter and to the operator", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 14307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " very high voltages– adapters are available which form a voltage divider with the meter's internal resistance, allowing measurement into the thousands of volts. However, very high voltages often have surprising behavior, aside from effects on the operator (perhaps fatal); high voltages which actually reach a meter's internal circuitry may internal damage parts, perhaps destroying the meter or permanently ruining its performance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measured values", "target_page_ids": [ 393519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The resolution of a multimeter is the smallest part of the scale which can be shown, which is scale dependent. On some digital multimeters it can be configured, with higher resolution measurements taking longer to complete. For example, a multimeter that has a 1mV resolution on a 10V scale can show changes in measurements in 1mV increments.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Absolute accuracy is the error of the measurement compared to a perfect measurement. Relative accuracy is the error of the measurement compared to the device used to calibrate the multimeter. Most multimeter datasheets provide relative accuracy. To compute the absolute accuracy from the relative accuracy of a multimeter add the absolute accuracy of the device used to calibrate the multimeter to the relative accuracy of the multimeter.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in the number of decimal digits resolved and displayed. If the most significant digit cannot take all values from 0 to 9 it is generally, and confusingly, termed a fractional digit. For example, a multimeter which can read up to 19999 (plus an embedded decimal point) is said to read digits.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [ 280582, 235757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 81 ], [ 82, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By convention, if the most significant digit can be either 0 or 1, it is termed a half-digit; if it can take higher values without reaching 9 (often 3 or 5), it may be called three-quarters of a digit. A -digit multimeter would display one \"half digit\" that could only display 0 or 1, followed by five digits taking all values from 0 to 9. Such a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to 199999. A -digit meter can display a quantity from 0 to 3999 or 5999, depending on the manufacturer.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While a digital display can easily be extended in resolution, the extra digits are of no value if not accompanied by care in the design and calibration of the analog portions of the multimeter. Meaningful (i.e., high-accuracy) measurements require a good understanding of the instrument specifications, good control of the measurement conditions, and traceability of the calibration of the instrument. However, even if its resolution exceeds the accuracy, a meter can be useful for comparing measurements. For example, a meter reading stable digits may indicate that one nominally 100kΩ resistor is about 7Ω greater than another, although the error of each measurement is 0.2% of reading plus 0.05% of full-scale value.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [ 601399, 41932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ], [ 446, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specifying \"display counts\" is another way to specify the resolution. Display counts give the largest number, or the largest number plus one (to include the display of all zeros) the multimeter's display can show, ignoring the decimal separator. For example, a -digit multimeter can also be specified as a 199999 display count or 200000 display count multimeter. Often the display count is just called the 'count' in multimeter specifications.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [ 80503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accuracy of a digital multimeter may be stated in a two-term form, such as \"±1% of reading +2 counts\", reflecting the different sources of error in the instrument.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Analog meters are older designs, but despite being technically surpassed by digital meters with bargraphs, may still be preferred by engineers and troubleshooters. One reason given is that analog meters are more sensitive (or responsive) to changes in the circuit that is being measured. A digital multimeter samples the quantity being measured over time, and then displays it. Analog multimeters continuously read the test value. If there are slight changes in readings, the needle of an analog multimeter will attempt to track it, as opposed to the digital meter having to wait until the next sample, giving delays between each discontinuous reading (plus the digital meter may additionally require settling time to converge on the value). The digital display value as opposed to an analog display is subjectively more difficult to read. This continuous tracking feature becomes important when testing capacitors or coils, for example. A properly functioning capacitor should allow current to flow when voltage is applied, then the current slowly decreases to zero and this \"signature\" is easy to see on an analog multimeter but not on a digital multimeter. This is similar when testing a coil, except the current starts low and increases.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Resistance measurements on an analog meter, in particular, can be of low precision due to the typical resistance measurement circuit which compresses the scale heavily at the higher resistance values. Inexpensive analog meters may have only a single resistance scale, seriously restricting the range of precise measurements. Typically, an analog meter will have a panel adjustment to set the zero-ohms calibration of the meter, to compensate for the varying voltage of the meter battery, and the resistance of the meter's test leads.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Digital multimeters generally take measurements with accuracy superior to their analog counterparts. Standard analog multimeters measure with typically ±3% accuracy, though instruments of higher accuracy are made. Standard portable digital multimeters are specified to have an accuracy of typically ±0.5% on the DC voltage ranges. Mainstream bench-top multimeters are available with specified accuracy of better than ±0.01%. Laboratory grade instruments can have accuracies of a few parts per million.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accuracy", "target_page_ids": [ 41932, 145865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ], [ 483, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accuracy figures need to be interpreted with care. The accuracy of an analog instrument usually refers to full-scale deflection; a measurement of 30V on the 100V scale of a 3% meter is subject to an error of 3V, 10% of the reading. Digital meters usually specify accuracy as a percentage of reading plus a percentage of full-scale value, sometimes expressed in counts rather than percentage terms.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accuracy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Quoted accuracy is specified as being that of the lower millivolt (mV) DC range, and is known as the \"basic DC volts accuracy\" figure. Higher DC voltage ranges, current, resistance, AC and other ranges will usually have a lower accuracy than the basic DC volts figure. AC measurements only meet specified accuracy within a specified range of frequencies.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accuracy", "target_page_ids": [ 10779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 342, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manufacturers can provide calibration services so that new meters may be purchased with a certificate of calibration indicating the meter has been adjusted to standards traceable to, for example, the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), or other national standards organization.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accuracy", "target_page_ids": [ 47502, 21888, 541680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ], [ 203, 249 ], [ 276, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Test equipment tends to drift out of calibration over time, and the specified accuracy cannot be relied upon indefinitely. For more expensive equipment, manufacturers and third parties provide calibration services so that older equipment may be recalibrated and recertified. The cost of such services is disproportionate for inexpensive equipment; however extreme accuracy is not required for most routine testing. Multimeters used for critical measurements may be part of a metrology program to assure calibration.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accuracy", "target_page_ids": [ 65637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 475, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A multimeter can be assumed to be \"average responding\" to AC waveforms unless stated as being a \"true RMS\" type. An average responding multimeter will only meet its specified accuracy on AC volts and amps for purely sinusoidal waveforms. A True RMS responding multimeter on the other hand will meet its specified accuracy on AC volts and current with any waveform type up to a specified crest factor; RMS performance is sometimes claimed for meters which report accurate RMS readings only at certain frequencies (usually low) and with certain waveforms (essentially always sine waves).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accuracy", "target_page_ids": [ 1432608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A meter's AC voltage and current accuracy may have different specifications at different frequencies.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Accuracy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When used for measuring voltage, the input impedance of the multimeter must be very high compared to the impedance of the circuit being measured; otherwise circuit operation may be affected and the reading will be inaccurate.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sensitivity and input impedance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Meters with electronic amplifiers (all digital multimeters and some analog meters) have a fixed input impedance that is high enough not to disturb most circuits. This is often either one or ten megohms; the standardization of the input resistance allows the use of external high-resistance probes which form a voltage divider with the input resistance to extend voltage range up to tens of thousands of volts. High-end multimeters generally provide an input impedance greater than 10GΩ for ranges less than or equal to 10V. Some high-end multimeters provide >10Gigaohms of impedance to ranges greater than 10V.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sensitivity and input impedance", "target_page_ids": [ 4462484, 27065, 5260820, 393519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 200 ], [ 207, 222 ], [ 290, 296 ], [ 310, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most analog multimeters of the moving-pointer type are unbuffered, and draw current from the circuit under test to deflect the meter pointer. The impedance of the meter varies depending on the basic sensitivity of the meter movement and the range which is selected. For example, a meter with a typical 20,000Ω/V sensitivity will have an input resistance of 2MΩ on the 100V range (100V × 20,000Ω/V = 2,000,000Ω). On every range, at full-scale voltage of the range, the full current required to deflect the meter movement is taken from the circuit under test. Lower sensitivity meter movements are acceptable for testing in circuits where source impedances are low compared to the meter impedance, for example, power circuits; these meters are more rugged mechanically. Some measurements in signal circuits require higher sensitivity movements so as not to load the circuit under test with the meter impedance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sensitivity and input impedance", "target_page_ids": [ 429442, 41957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ], [ 146, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sensitivity should not be confused with resolution of a meter, which is defined as the lowest signal change (voltage, current, resistance and so on) that can change the observed reading.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sensitivity and input impedance", "target_page_ids": [ 235757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For general-purpose digital multimeters, the lowest voltage range is typically several hundred millivolts AC or DC, but the lowest current range may be several hundred microamperes, although instruments with greater current sensitivity are available. Multimeters designed for (mains) \"electrical\" use instead of general electronics engineering use will typically forego the microamps current ranges.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sensitivity and input impedance", "target_page_ids": [ 28923910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Measurement of low resistance requires lead resistance (measured by touching the test probes together) to be subtracted for best accuracy. This can be done with the \"delta\", \"zero\", or \"null\" feature of many digital multimeters. Contact pressure to the device under test and cleanliness of the surfaces can affect measurements of very low resistances. Some meters offer a four wire test where two probes supply the source voltage and the others take measurement. Using a very high impedance allows for very low voltage drop in the probes and resistance of the source probes is ignored resulting in very accurate results.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sensitivity and input impedance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The upper end of multimeter measurement ranges varies considerably; measurements over perhaps 600volts, 10amperes, or 100megohms may require a specialized test instrument.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sensitivity and input impedance", "target_page_ids": [ 4462484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every inline series-connected ammeter, including a multimeter in a current range, has a certain resistance. Most multimeters inherently measure voltage, and pass a current to be measured through a shunt resistance, measuring the voltage developed across it. The voltage drop is known as the burden voltage, specified in volts per ampere. The value can change depending on the range the meter sets, since different ranges usually use different shunt resistors.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Burden voltage", "target_page_ids": [ 1717012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The burden voltage can be significant in very low-voltage circuit areas. To check for its effect on accuracy and on external circuit operation the meter can be switched to different ranges; the current reading should be the same and circuit operation should not be affected if burden voltage is not a problem. If this voltage is significant it can be reduced (also reducing the inherent accuracy and precision of the measurement) by using a higher current range.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Burden voltage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the basic indicator system in either an analog or digital meter responds to DC only, a multimeter includes an AC to DC conversion circuit for making alternating current measurements. Basic meters utilize a rectifier circuit to measure the average or peak absolute value of the voltage, but are calibrated to show the calculated root mean square (RMS) value for a sinusoidal waveform; this will give correct readings for alternating current as used in power distribution. User guides for some such meters give correction factors for some simple non-sinusoidal waveforms, to allow the correct root mean square (RMS) equivalent value to be calculated. More expensive multimeters include an AC to DC converter that measures the true RMS value of the waveform within certain limits; the user manual for the meter may indicate the limits of the crest factor and frequency for which the meter calibration is valid. RMS sensing is necessary for measurements on non-sinusoidal periodic waveforms, such as found in audio signals and variable-frequency drives.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Alternating current sensing", "target_page_ids": [ 60569, 66819, 324749, 47592, 324749, 47592, 66819, 1432608, 10779, 1845708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 229 ], [ 334, 350 ], [ 369, 379 ], [ 380, 388 ], [ 554, 564 ], [ 565, 573 ], [ 597, 613 ], [ 845, 857 ], [ 974, 982 ], [ 1029, 1053 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern multimeters are often digital due to their accuracy, durability and extra features. In a digital multimeter the signal under test is converted to a voltage and an amplifier with electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal. A digital multimeter displays the quantity measured as a number, which eliminates parallax errors.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 23253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern digital multimeters may have an embedded computer, which provides a wealth of convenience features. Measurement enhancements available include:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 46630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auto-ranging, which selects the correct range for the quantity under test so that the most significant digits are shown. For example, a four-digit multimeter would automatically select an appropriate range to display 12.34 mV instead of 0.012 V, or overloading. Auto-ranging meters usually include a facility to hold the meter to a particular range, because a measurement that causes frequent range changes can be distracting to the user.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 317062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auto-polarity for direct-current readings, shows if the applied voltage is positive (agrees with meter lead labels) or negative (opposite polarity to meter leads).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sample and hold, which will latch the most recent reading for examination after the instrument is removed from the circuit under test.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 571325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Current-limited tests for voltage drop across semi conductor junctions. While not a replacement for a proper transistor tester, and most certainly not for a swept curve tracer type, this facilitates testing diodes and a variety of transistor types.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 2608394, 571755, 3036189, 7313208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 47, 71 ], [ 110, 127 ], [ 164, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A graphic representation of the quantity under test, as a bar graph. This makes go/no-go testing easy, and also allows spotting of fast-moving trends.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 393311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A low-bandwidth oscilloscope.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 15361791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Automotive circuit testers, including tests for automotive timing and dwell signals (dwell and engine rpm testing is usually available as an option and is not included in the basic automotive DMMs).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Simple data acquisition features to record maximum and minimum readings over a given period, or to take a number of samples at fixed intervals.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 155319, 160361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ], [ 117, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Integration with tweezers for surface-mount technology.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 232333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A combined LCR meter for small-size SMD and through-hole components.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 17081959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern meters may be interfaced with a personal computer by IrDA links, RS-232 connections, USB, or an instrument bus such as IEEE-488. The interface allows the computer to record measurements as they are made. Some DMMs can store measurements and upload them to a computer.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [ 18457137, 71589, 26023, 32073, 162183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ], [ 60, 64 ], [ 72, 78 ], [ 92, 95 ], [ 126, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first digital multimeter was manufactured in 1955 by Non Linear Systems. It is claimed that the first handheld digital multimeter was developed by Frank Bishop of Intron Electronics in 1977, which at the time presented a major breakthrough for servicing and fault finding in the field.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A multimeter may be implemented with a galvanometer meter movement, or less often with a bargraph or simulated pointer such as an liquid-crystal display (LCD) or vacuum fluorescent display. Analog multimeters were common; a quality analog instrument would cost about the same as a DMM. Analog multimeters had the precision and reading accuracy limitations described above, and so were not built to provide the same accuracy as digital instruments.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Analog multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 40365, 393311, 17932, 497899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 130, 152 ], [ 162, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analog meters were intuitive where the trend of a measurement was more important than an exact value obtained at a particular moment. A change in angle or in a proportion was easier to interpret than a change in the value of a digital readout. For this reason, some digital multimeters additionally have a bargraph as a second display, typically with a more rapid sampling rate than used for the primary readout. These fast sampling rate bar graphs have a superior response than the physical pointer of analog meters, obsoleting the older technology. With rapidly fluctuating DC, AC or a combination of both, advanced digital meters were able to track and display fluctuations better than analog meters whilst also having the ability to separate and simultaneously display DC and AC components.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Analog multimeters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Analog meter movements are inherently more fragile physically and electrically than digital meters. Many analog multimeters feature a range switch position marked \"off\" to protect the meter movement during transportation which places a low resistance across the meter movement, resulting in dynamic braking. Meter movements as separate components may be protected in the same manner by connecting a shorting or jumper wire between the terminals when not in use. Meters which feature a shunt across the winding such as an ammeter may not require further resistance to arrest uncontrolled movements of the meter needle because of the low resistance of the shunt.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Analog multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 456930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The meter movement in a moving pointer analog multimeter is practically always a moving-coil galvanometer of the d'Arsonval type, using either jeweled pivots or taut bands to support the moving coil. In a basic analog multimeter the current to deflect the coil and pointer is drawn from the circuit being measured; it is usually an advantage to minimize the current drawn from the circuit, which implies delicate mechanisms. The sensitivity of an analog multimeter is given in units of ohms per volt. For example, a very low-cost multimeter with a sensitivity of 1,000Ω/V would draw 1mA from a circuit at full-scale deflection. More expensive, (and mechanically more delicate) multimeters typically have sensitivities of 20,000 ohms per volt and sometimes higher, with 50,000 ohms per volt (drawing 20microamperes at full scale) being about the upper limit for a portable, general purpose, non-amplified analog multimeter.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Analog multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 40365, 772395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 105 ], [ 113, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To avoid the loading of the measured circuit by the current drawn by the meter movement, some analog multimeters use an amplifier inserted between the measured circuit and the meter movement. While this increases the expense and complexity of the meter, by use of vacuum tubes or field effect transistors the input resistance can be made very high and independent of the current required to operate the meter movement coil. Such amplified multimeters are called VTVMs (vacuum tube voltmeters), TVMs (transistor volt meters), FET-VOMs, and similar names.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Analog multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 32496, 41228216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 275 ], [ 280, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the absence of amplification, ordinary analog multimeter are typically less susceptible to radio frequency interference, and so continue to have a prominent place in some fields even in a world of more accurate and flexible electronic multimeters.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Analog multimeters", "target_page_ids": [ 1072324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A multimeter can use many different test probes to connect to the circuit or device under test. Crocodile clips, retractable hook clips, and pointed probes are the three most common types. Tweezer probes are used for closely spaced test points, as for instance surface-mount devices. The connectors are attached to flexible, well insulated leads terminated with connectors appropriate for the meter. Probes are connected to portable meters typically by shrouded or recessed banana jacks, while benchtop meters may use banana jacks or BNC connectors. 2mm plugs and binding posts have also been used at times, but are less commonly used today. Indeed, safety ratings now require shrouded banana jacks.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Probes", "target_page_ids": [ 762111, 645586, 232333, 810554, 810554, 79115, 5390932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 110 ], [ 189, 203 ], [ 261, 281 ], [ 474, 486 ], [ 518, 530 ], [ 534, 547 ], [ 564, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The banana jacks are typically placed with a standardized center-to-center distance of , to allow standard adapters or devices such as voltage multiplier or thermocouple probes to be plugged in.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Probes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Clamp meters clamp around a conductor carrying a current to measure without the need to connect the meter in series with the circuit, or make metallic contact at all. Those for AC measurement use the transformer principle; clamp-on meters to measure small current or direct current require more exotic sensors like for example hall effect based systems that measure the nonchanging magnetic field to determine the current.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Probes", "target_page_ids": [ 4468348, 198984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 28, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most multimeters include a fuse, or two fuses, which will sometimes prevent damage to the multimeter from a current overload on the highest current range. (For added safety, test leads with fuses built in are available.) A common error when operating a multimeter is to set the meter to measure resistance or current, and then connect it directly to a low-impedance voltage source. Unfused meters are often quickly destroyed by such errors; fused meters often survive. Fuses used in meters must carry the maximum measuring current of the instrument, but are intended to disconnect if operator error exposes the meter to a low-impedance fault. Meters with inadequate or unsafe fusing were not uncommon; this situation has led to the creation of the IEC61010 categories to rate the safety and robustness of meters.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [ 683342, 30543902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 31 ], [ 748, 767 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Digital meters are rated into four categories based on their intended application, as set forth by IEC 61010-1 and echoed by country and regional standards groups such as the CEN EN61010 standard.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [ 627291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Category I: used where equipment is not directly connected to the mains", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Category II: used on single phase mains final subcircuits", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Category III: used on permanently installed loads such as distribution panels, motors, and three-phase appliance outlets", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Category IV: used on locations where fault current levels can be very high, such as supply service entrances, main panels, supply meters, and primary over-voltage protection equipment", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each Category rating also specifies maximum safe transient voltages for selected measuring ranges in the meter. Category-rated meters also feature protections from over-current faults. On meters that allow interfacing with computers, optical isolation may be used to protect attached equipment against high voltage in the measured circuit.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [ 41460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Good quality multimeters designed to meet Category II and above standards include high rupture capacity (HRC) ceramic fuses typically rated at more than 20kA capacity; these are much less likely to fail explosively than more common glass fuses. They will also include high energy overvoltage MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor) protection, and circuit over-current protection in the form of a Polyswitch.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [ 142257, 982095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 317 ], [ 384, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meters intended for testing in hazardous locations or for use on blasting circuits may require use of a manufacturer-specified battery to maintain their safety rating.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Safety features", "target_page_ids": [ 2542454, 36375856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 50 ], [ 65, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A quality general-purpose electronics DMM is generally considered adequate for measurements at signal levels greater than 1mV or 1μA, or below about 100MΩ; these values are far from the theoretical limits of sensitivity, and are of considerable interest in some circuit design situations. Other instruments—essentially similar, but with higher sensitivity—are used for accurate measurements of very small or very large quantities. These include nanovoltmeters, electrometers (for very low currents, and voltages with very high source resistance, such as 1TΩ) and picoammeters. Accessories for more typical multimeters permit some of these measurements, as well. Such measurements are limited by available technology, and ultimately by inherent thermal noise.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "DMM alternatives", "target_page_ids": [ 40364, 2866, 182745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 461, 473 ], [ 563, 575 ], [ 745, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analog meters can measure voltage and current by using power from the test circuit, but require a supplementary internal voltage source for resistance testing, while electronic meters always require an internal power supply to run their internal circuitry. Hand-held meters use batteries, while bench meters usually use mains power; either arrangement allows the meter to test devices. Testing often requires that the component under test be isolated from the circuit in which they are mounted, as otherwise stray or leakage current paths may distort measurements. In some cases, the voltage from the multimeter may turn active devices on, distorting a measurement, or in extreme cases even damage an element in the circuit being investigated.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Power supply", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electronic test equipment", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 273959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electricity meter", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1138590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] } ]

[ "Electronic_test_equipment", "Electrical_test_equipment", "Electrical_meters", "Electronics_work_tools", "Measuring_instruments" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Hayley Wickenheiser (born August 12, 1978) is a Canadian former ice hockey player, resident physician and assistant general manager for the Toronto Maple Leafs. She was the first woman to play full-time professional men’s hockey in a position other than goalie. Wickenheiser was a member of Canada women's national ice hockey team for 23 years, from 1994 until announcing her retirement on January 13, 2017, and is the team's career points leader with 168 goals and 211 assists in 276 games. She represented Canada at the Winter Olympics five times, capturing four gold and one silver medal and twice being named tournament MVP, and one time at the Summer Olympics in softball, and is a seven-time winner of the world championships. She is tied with teammates Caroline Ouellette and Jayna Hefford for the record for the most gold medals of any Canadian Olympian, and is widely considered to be the greatest female ice hockey player of all time. On February 20, 2014, Wickenheiser was elected to the International Olympic Committee's Athletes' Commission. In 2019 she was named to the Hockey Hall of Fame, in her first year of eligibility.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14790, 1147690, 70155, 1329942, 34069, 27566, 80763, 4042187, 4057241, 40497978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 75 ], [ 84, 102 ], [ 141, 160 ], [ 292, 331 ], [ 523, 538 ], [ 650, 665 ], [ 669, 677 ], [ 761, 779 ], [ 784, 797 ], [ 1000, 1054 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser began playing minor ice hockey on outdoor rinks in her hometown of Shaunavon, Saskatchewan when she was five years old. She played exclusively on boys' teams until she was 13. Wickenheiser continued playing minor hockey in Calgary, Alberta after moving there with her family. In 1991, she represented Alberta at the 18-and-under Canada Winter Games. Alberta captured the gold medal in the tournament, with Wickenheiser scoring the game-winning goal and being named the Most Valuable Player of the final game.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 4565511, 3261090, 15895358, 853642, 235000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 43 ], [ 80, 89 ], [ 238, 245 ], [ 345, 364 ], [ 486, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 15 (1994), Wickenheiser was named to Canada's National Women's Team for the first time and remained a member until her retirement in 2017. Her first international tournament was the 1994 World Championship, held in Lake Placid, New York. She played three games, and picked up her first international point – an assist, and Canada won gold. Her second World Championship in 1997 also produced a gold medal and she earned a spot on the tournament All-Star team, the first of four such honours (1997, 1999, 2000, 2005). In 1999, Wickenheiser helped Canada to another gold medal and was named tournament MVP. Wickenheiser has seven World Championship gold medals (1994, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2012) and three silver medals (2005, 2008, 2009). She was named to Team Canada in 2001, but was unable to compete due to an injury, and was also on Canada's roster for the 2003 World Championship which was cancelled.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 126436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser was a member of Team Canada at the 1998 Winter Olympics, when women's hockey was introduced as a medal sport. She also played 21 games for Team Canada during their pre-Olympic tour. Canada won a silver medal at the event and Wickenheiser was named to the tournament all-star team. Her performance at the 1998 Olympics impressed Men's Team Canada General Manager Bobby Clarke so much, that he invited her to participate in the Philadelphia Flyers rookie camps in 1998 and 1999. 2002 was another chance at Olympic gold, and Wickenheiser was named to Canada's roster for the 2002 Winter Olympics held in Salt Lake City, Utah. On Team Canada's pre-Olympic tour, Wickenheiser played 26 games and racked up 36 points. In a bit of redemption for 1998, Canada won the gold medal by defeating Team USA in the final game. Wickenheiser was named Tournament MVP and she was the top scorer on the Women's side. At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Canada was defending its gold medal status. When the final match was set, Canada was facing off against Sweden, a surprise finalist. They won gold again, and Wickenheiser once more was named tournament MVP, Top Forward, and to a berth on the all-star team. She also led the tournament in scoring,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 40159394, 8533908, 66941, 40343807, 53837, 4057903, 5058739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 68 ], [ 379, 391 ], [ 443, 462 ], [ 590, 610 ], [ 619, 639 ], [ 927, 947 ], [ 1054, 1060 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "with five goals and 17 points in five games.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser captained Canada to a gold medal at the 1998 Christmas Cup (World Women's Under-22 Championship). She has also contributed to at least 10 gold medals for Canada at the 4 Nations Cup tournaments (1996, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010). At the 2006 Four Nations Cup, she served as team captain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On February 17, 2010, Wickenheiser became the all-time leading Olympic goal scorer as Canada defeated Sweden 13–1 at the Vancouver Olympics. Wickenheiser reached her record total of 16 career Olympic goals by scoring once on Wednesday as Canada followed up their 18–0 win over Slovakia and 10–1 defeat of Switzerland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 18803620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser attended the World Hockey Summit in 2010, to address the status of women's hockey internationally. International Olympic Committee president Jacques Rogge stated that the tournament might be eliminated from the Olympics since the event was not competitively balanced. Either Canada and the United States had won the gold since the event began in 1998, and the two countries had also won each IIHF World Women's Championship since the event began in 1990. She explained that the talent gap between the North American and European countries was due to the presence of women's professional leagues in North America, along with year-round training facilities. She stated the European players were talented, but their respective national team programs were not given the same level of support as the European men's national teams, or the North American women's national teams.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 64066292, 15147, 92886, 1264114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 112, 143 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 405, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With a third and fourth consecutive Olympic gold medal in women's hockey won by defeating the United States of America 2–0 in Vancouver and 3-2 in Sochi, Hayley now has 5 Olympic medals: 4 gold, 1 silver. She is one of only five athletes to win gold in four consecutive Winter Games, along with teammates Jayna Hefford and Caroline Ouellette. At her retirement in 2017 she was the Olympic tournament’s all-time leading scorer with 18 goals and 51 points. Wickenheiser took the athlete's oath in English at the 2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Vancouver, British Columbia and was Canada's flagbearer at the Sochi Winter Olympics in 2014.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 38480229, 4057241, 4042187, 24030631, 33528103, 893219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 152 ], [ 305, 318 ], [ 323, 341 ], [ 510, 547 ], [ 596, 606 ], [ 614, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, Wickenheiser was named MVP of the Esso women's hockey nationals, helping Alberta to a fourth-place finish. In 1997 and 1998, Wickenheiser won Nationals with the Edmonton Chimos and Calgary Oval X-Treme respectively. She was named tournament MVP both years. Between 1999 and 2001, Wickenheiser continued to play for her club teams at the Esso Women's National Championships, winning a gold medal and two silvers. She played 2004–05 with the Calgary Oval X-Treme, in the inaugural season of the Western Women's Hockey League. The X-Treme were league champions. Wickenheiser was the regular season leading scorer and named to the league's all-star team. She also played for Alberta at the Esso National Championships, where they won gold. She led the tournament in scoring and was named MVP.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 9984942, 8595981, 5188049, 2728975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 72 ], [ 171, 186 ], [ 191, 211 ], [ 505, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, Wickenheiser became the first woman to score a goal playing in a men's semi-professional league (for HC Salamat in Suomi-sarja, Finland's third-division league). Over the course of the season, Wickenheiser played 23 games, scoring 2 goals and adding 10 assists. Wickenheiser joined a European league to play professional hockey, as the game is more open and less physical than North American leagues. This attempt to play professional hockey was not an entirely smooth process, as Wickenheiser was initially slated to play in Italy, until the Italian Winter Sports Federation ruled that women were ineligible to play in a men's league. She also turned down an offer from Phil Esposito to play for the Cincinnati Cyclones of the ECHL. Finland's Hockey Federation unanimously supported letting women play in a men's league, allowing her to debut with HC Salamat in the Suomi-sarja, the third highest hockey league in Finland, on January 10, 2003. Wickenheiser played briefly with Salamat in 2004. They had won promotion to Mestis, Finland's second tier of professional hockey, and this was not as good a fit for her. She left the team after ten games.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 2470880, 3456940, 14532, 320206, 2233872, 330872, 2470880, 3456940, 3144620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 120 ], [ 124, 135 ], [ 537, 542 ], [ 683, 696 ], [ 713, 732 ], [ 740, 744 ], [ 861, 871 ], [ 879, 890 ], [ 1034, 1040 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Wickenheiser had a week-long tryout contract with Swedish club IFK Arboga IK in the Swedish male third league. After two practice games, where Wickenheiser scored two goals in the first game, she was not offered a contract. In 2008, Wickenheiser signed a one-year contract with Eskilstuna Linden, also in the Swedish men's third league.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 5058739, 8820044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 66 ], [ 72, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser was named one of the \"Top 100 Most Influential People in Hockey\" by The Hockey News (ranked #59 on the 2011 List), one of the \"25 Toughest Athletes\" by Sports Illustrated and one of the \"Top 50 Most Powerful Women in Canada\" by The Globe and Mail.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 3083324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser scored a goal as a member of Team Black in the 2nd Canadian Women's Hockey League All-Star Game. Appearing with the Calgary Inferno in the 2016 Clarkson Cup finals, she logged two assists as the Inferno emerged victorious in a convincing 8-3 final.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 49163271, 32540648, 2680399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 108 ], [ 129, 144 ], [ 157, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser joined the 2010–11 Calgary Dinos women's ice hockey team that competes in the Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS). The Dinos were playing their second season of CIS hockey, and Wickenheiser was expected to provide leadership to a young team. While with the Dinos, Wickenheiser played for her former teammate, Danielle Goyette, the team's head coach. Wickenheiser also completed a degree in kinesiology at Calgary. The Dinos were Wickenheiser's choice because the team practices every day, and she was able to stay in Calgary with her family. Under CIS rules, Wickenheiser began her first year of eligibility in 2010 because she had never played university hockey. Players have up to five years of eligibility. In her CIS debut against the University of Regina, Wickenheiser scored two goals and added an assist in a 4–3 victory. A crowd of over 500 people attended her CIS debut in Regina. Wickenheiser was named the Canada West female athlete of the week on November 2, 2010 after scoring three goals and adding an assist in two games against the University of Alberta. Despite only playing in 15 of the Dino's 24 regular season games, Wickenheiser finished tied for the conference lead in scoring with 40 points (17 goals and 23 assists), and finishing with a plus-minus of +22. She scored four short handed goals, and had five game winners. At the end of the year, Wickenheiser was named the Canada West Most Valuable Player, and captured a spot on the conference's First All-Star Team. On March 9, 2011, Wickenheiser was named the Canadian Interuniversity Sport player of the year in women's hockey. She then became the first ever Dino to win the Brodrick Trophy as CIS MVP.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 32014982, 383355, 32014982, 3874874, 545909, 434157, 5805889, 242057, 434842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 64 ], [ 91, 121 ], [ 273, 278 ], [ 325, 341 ], [ 407, 418 ], [ 760, 780 ], [ 940, 951 ], [ 1071, 1092 ], [ 1286, 1296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the aftermath of the 2012-13 season, Wickenheiser was named to the CIS First Team All-Canadians. Among the other players named as First Team All-Canadians were Melodie Daoust and Katelyn Gosling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 32945402, 53200374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 177 ], [ 182, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 13, 2017, Wickenheiser announced her retirement from professional hockey to pursue medical school. On August 23, 2018, Wickenheiser was hired as the assistant director of player development for the Toronto Maple Leafs. On May 17, 2021, Wickenheiser was promoted to senior director of player development for the Toronto Maple Leafs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 70155, 70155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 228 ], [ 322, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021 she collaborated with sports equipment maker Verbero Hockey and owner/CEO Andy Sutton in developing the \"Wick Stick\", the first time a hockey stick was constructed specifically with her input, part of an program to create branded equipment targeted toward women.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 3622859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2022, Bell Media and Uninterrupted announced that a documentary film chronicling her life to be released in 2022.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 441508, 240940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 25 ], [ 30, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2022, she was named assistant general manager for the Toronto Maple Leafs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ice hockey career", "target_page_ids": [ 70155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser is an accomplished softball player. On June 24, 2000, she was named to the Canadian softball team for the 2000 Summer Olympics. This was the culmination of a long ball career. In 1994, she participated at Canadian Midget Nationals, where she was named All-Canadian Shortstop and Top Batter. In 1995, Wickenheiser was a member of Team Canada at the World Junior Fastball Championships, held in Normal, Illinois. Canada finished fifth at this event. In 1997, Wickenheiser participated at Midget Nationals with the Silver Springs 76ers. Her team finished second and Wickenheiser was again named All Star Shortstop and Top Batter. In 1999, she also participated at Senior Nationals, where her team finished fourth. In 2000, Wickenheiser attended and competed for Simon Fraser University, and helped lead the team to a 38 and 13 record, en route to a 3rd-place finish at the NAIA National Championships. Later that summer she competed in the Summer Olympic games in Sydney, Australia, where she led Canada with the team's highest batting average. Canada was competitive, but finished the tournament with a 1–6 record, losing three games by one run. Since that Olympics, Wickenheiser has not been as active in softball.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Softball and fastball career", "target_page_ids": [ 80763, 71432, 173555, 111690, 14849, 28525, 393991, 27862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ], [ 119, 139 ], [ 279, 288 ], [ 407, 413 ], [ 415, 423 ], [ 773, 796 ], [ 884, 888 ], [ 975, 992 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser is the daughter of physical education teachers, Tom and Marilyn, and has a brother and a sister. Wickenheiser lives in Calgary with her adopted son, Noah. Former professional hockey player Doug Wickenheiser, was her cousin. He died of cancer in 1999.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 3112201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wickenheiser graduated with a degree in kinesiology in 2013 and completed medical school at the University of Calgary's Cumming School of Medicine in 2021. On July 15, 2011, her hometown of Shaunavon named a new 14 million dollar recreational complex after her, Crescent Point Wickenheiser Centre. On June 30, 2011, she was named an Officer of the Order of Canada by Governor General David Johnston.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 545909, 465584, 89668, 4162619, 160112, 38152, 1915692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 51 ], [ 74, 88 ], [ 96, 117 ], [ 120, 146 ], [ 349, 364 ], [ 368, 384 ], [ 385, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hayley is the author of Gold Medal Diary – Inside the World's Greatest Sports Event, outlining her training with Team Canada and the events leading up to, during, and following the 2010 Olympic Games.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "She is the founder of WickFest, an annual event showcasing girls' and women's hockey, inviting female players from all over the world to several days of workshops, clinics and games learning from leading instructors, coaches and players.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 25809241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "EA Sports officially announced that Wickenheiser would be among the first two real female hockey players in NHL 13. Along with Angela Ruggiero, she has a playable character in the game which can be added to any team of the user's choice.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Video game appearance", "target_page_ids": [ 35841356, 1445252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 114 ], [ 127, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source for all stats: EliteProspects", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Career statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Honorary Degree Recipient, Nipissing University", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Most Valuable Player, Pool A, 2007 Esso Canadian Women's Nationals", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Bobbie Rosenfeld Award", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 8630661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Canada West Player of the Year", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Brodrick Trophy Winner (awarded to the Most Outstanding Player in Canadian Interuniversity Sport women's ice hockey)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gave the athlete's Olympic Oath at the 2010 Olympic Games.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 72319, 178749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 39, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Media All-Star team, 2011 IIHF Women's World Championship", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 27368852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, she was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 252381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2014, Wickenheiser received the Athletes in Excellence Award from The Foundation for Global Sports Development, in recognition of her community service efforts and work with youth.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 52251392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CAAWS Wall of Influence Award (awarded in 2017) ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On June 25, 2019, Wickenheiser was elected (in her first year of eligibility) to the Hockey Hall of Fame.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 74098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2021 Inductee Canada West Hall of Fame ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 5805889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of athletes with the most appearances at Olympic Games", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24528524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hayley Wickenheiser on men's versus women's hockey in Maclean's magazine, October 14, 2010.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hayley Wickenheiser Video produced by Women Who Make America", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1978_births", "Living_people", "Calgary_Oval_X-Treme_players", "Canadian_softball_players", "Canadian_women's_ice_hockey_centres", "Canadian_women_physicians", "Clarkson_Cup_champions", "Edmonton_Chimos_players", "HC_Salamat_players", "Ice_hockey_people_from_Saskatchewan", "Ice_hockey_players_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Ice_hockey_players_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Ice_hockey_players_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Ice_hockey_players_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics", "Ice_hockey_players_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics", "IIHF_Hall_of_Fame_inductees", "International_Olympic_Committee_members", "Medalists_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics", "Officers_of_the_Order_of_Canada", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_Canada", "Olympic_ice_hockey_players_of_Canada", "Olympic_medalists_in_ice_hockey", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_Canada", "Olympic_softball_players_of_Canada", "People_from_Shaunavon,_Saskatchewan", "Softball_players_at_the_2000_Summer_Olympics", "Calgary_Inferno_players", "Canadian_expatriate_ice_hockey_players_in_Finland", "Oath_takers_at_the_Olympic_Games" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Marc Gagnon (born May 24, 1975) is a Canadian former short track speed skater. He is a four-time Overall World Champion for 1993, 1994, 1996 and 1998, and winner of three Olympic gold medals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40058, 10165924, 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 77 ], [ 97, 119 ], [ 171, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in Chicoutimi, Quebec, Gagnon started his Olympic career in 1994, when he had already won the 1993 World Championships. He won a bronze in the 1000m event. Four years later, in Nagano, Japan, Gagnon won a gold medal with the Canadian relay team. The 2002 Salt Lake City Games proved to be Gagnon's best Olympics, with a total of three medals. A bronze in the inaugural 1500m event, and two golds; in the 500m and again as a part of the relay team. Even his disqualification in the 1000m was memorable, as it was the first of an improbable series of events that led to Australian Steven Bradbury winning arguably the most unlikely gold medal in Olympic history.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 184442, 7954867, 6792932, 53837, 1799036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 18 ], [ 20, 26 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 584, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winning a total of five medals in three consecutive Winter Games made him the most decorated Canadian athlete in Winter Olympic history until 2006. He has now been overtaken by long track speed skater Cindy Klassen, long track speed skater/road cyclist Clara Hughes and short track speed skater Charles Hamelin, who each have a total of 6 medals. Tied with track and field athlete Phil Edwards and fellow short track speed skater François-Louis Tremblay, he is one of the five most decorated Canadian athletes in all Olympic Games.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3206899, 102190, 4057580, 3952811, 4196971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 214 ], [ 253, 265 ], [ 295, 310 ], [ 381, 393 ], [ 431, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gagnon won his World Championships in 1993, 1994, 1996 and 1998. He is the first man to have become a four-time Overall World Champion. In addition, he finished 2nd twice, and third once.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Gagnon was inducted into the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame and inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 2008.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3673752, 2234841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 67 ], [ 86, 114 ] ] } ]

[ "1975_births", "Living_people", "Canadian_male_speed_skaters", "Canadian_male_short_track_speed_skaters", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_Canada", "Olympic_bronze_medalists_for_Canada", "Olympic_short_track_speed_skaters_of_Canada", "Olympic_medalists_in_short_track_speed_skating", "Short_track_speed_skaters_at_the_1994_Winter_Olympics", "Short_track_speed_skaters_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Short_track_speed_skaters_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_1994_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "French_Quebecers", "Sportspeople_from_Saguenay,_Quebec" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A beach is a landform alongside a body of water which consists of loose particles. The particles composing a beach are typically made from rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, etc., or biological sources, such as mollusc shells or coralline algae. Sediments settle in different densities and structures, depending on the local wave action and weather, creating different textures, colors and gradients or layers of material.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 250515, 199661, 18994037, 167120, 11811193, 314610, 9127632, 18457910, 1583146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 153, 157 ], [ 159, 165 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 194, 204 ], [ 222, 235 ], [ 240, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though some beaches form on inland freshwater locations such as lakes and rivers, most beaches are in coastal areas where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments. Erosion and changing of beach geologies happens through natural processes, like wave action and extreme weather events. Where wind conditions are correct, beaches can be backed by coastal dunes which offer protection and regeneration for the beach. However, these natural forces have become more extreme due to climate change, permanently altering beaches at very rapid rates. Some estimates describe as much as 50 percent of the earth's sandy beaches disappearing by 2100 due to climate-change driven sea level rise.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 710251, 376476, 406430, 149261, 710251, 69902, 7890, 26515241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 126 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 145, 153 ], [ 177, 184 ], [ 257, 268 ], [ 273, 295 ], [ 358, 371 ], [ 483, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sandy beaches occupy about one third of global coastlines. These beaches are popular for recreation, playing important economic and cultural roles—often driving local tourism industries. To support these uses, some beaches have man-made infrastructure, such as lifeguard posts, changing rooms, showers, shacks and bars. They may also have hospitality venues (such as resorts, camps, hotels, and restaurants) nearby or housing, both for permanent and seasonal residents.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25381, 29789, 329949, 1004372, 1800838, 2383439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 99 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 261, 270 ], [ 278, 291 ], [ 303, 308 ], [ 339, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Human forces have significantly changed beaches globally: direct impacts include bad construction practices on dunes and coastlines, while indirect human impacts include water pollution, plastic pollution and coastal erosion from sea level rise and climate change. Some coastal management practices are designed to preserve or restore natural beach processes, while some beaches are actively restored through practices like beach nourishment.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 312266, 37201518, 149261, 21171721, 5042951, 2833267, 1018637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 185 ], [ 187, 204 ], [ 209, 224 ], [ 230, 244 ], [ 249, 263 ], [ 270, 288 ], [ 424, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wild beaches, also known as undeveloped or undiscovered beaches, are not developed for tourism or recreation. Preserved beaches are important biomes with important roles in aquatic or marine biodiversity, such as for breeding grounds for sea turtles or nesting areas for seabirds or penguins. Preserved beaches and their associated dune are important for protection from extreme weather for inland ecosystems and human infrastructure.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22862011, 142905, 147019, 23878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 148 ], [ 238, 248 ], [ 271, 278 ], [ 283, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word beach, beaches are also found by lakes and alongside large rivers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [ 47777152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beach may refer to:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " small systems where rock material moves onshore, offshore, or alongshore by the forces of waves and currents; or", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " geological units of considerable size.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The former are described in detail below; the larger geological units are discussed elsewhere under bars.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [ 295148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several conspicuous parts to a beach that relate to the processes that form and shape it. The part mostly above water (depending upon tide), and more or less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The berm is the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a crest (top) and a face—the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, and further seaward one or more long shore bars: slightly raised, underwater embankments formed where the waves first start to break.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [ 615574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a dune.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [ 7890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 505, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These geomorphic features compose what is called the beach profile. The beach profile changes seasonally due to the change in wave energy experienced during summer and winter months. In temperate areas where summer is characterised by calmer seas and longer periods between breaking wave crests, the beach profile is higher in summer. The gentle wave action during this season tends to transport sediment up the beach towards the berm where it is deposited and remains while the water recedes. Onshore winds carry it further inland forming and enhancing dunes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Conversely, the beach profile is lower in the storm season (winter in temperate areas) due to the increased wave energy, and the shorter periods between breaking wave crests. Higher energy waves breaking in quick succession tend to mobilise sediment from the shallows, keeping it in suspension where it is prone to be carried along the beach by longshore currents, or carried out to sea to form longshore bars, especially if the longshore current meets an outflow from a river or flooding stream. The removal of sediment from the beach berm and dune thus decreases the beach profile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If storms coincide with unusually high tides, or with a freak wave event such as a tidal surge or tsunami which causes significant coastal flooding, substantial quantities of material may be eroded from the coastal plain or dunes behind the berm by receding water. This flow may alter the shape of the coastline, enlarge the mouths of rivers and create new deltas at the mouths of streams that had not been powerful enough to overcome longshore movement of sediment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [ 31546082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The line between beach and dune is difficult to define in the field. Over any significant period of time, sediment is always being exchanged between them. The drift line (the high point of material deposited by waves) is one potential demarcation. This would be the point at which significant wind movement of sand could occur, since the normal waves do not wet the sand beyond this area. However, the drift line is likely to move inland under assault by storm waves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Location and profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beaches are the result of wave action by which waves or currents move sand or other loose sediments of which the beach is made as these particles are held in suspension. Alternatively, sand may be moved by saltation (a bouncing movement of large particles). Beach materials come from erosion of rocks offshore, as well as from headland erosion and slumping producing deposits of scree. A coral reef offshore is a significant source of sand particles. Some species of fish that feed on algae attached to coral outcrops and rocks can create substantial quantities of sand particles over their lifetime as they nibble during feeding, digesting the organic matter, and discarding the rock and coral particles which pass through their digestive tracts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 33516, 376476, 18994037, 60343, 354618, 4132010, 9696, 4404095, 712625, 240844, 633, 1246718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 51 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 90, 98 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 336, 343 ], [ 348, 356 ], [ 379, 384 ], [ 388, 398 ], [ 485, 490 ], [ 645, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The composition of the beach depends upon the nature and quantity of sediments upstream of the beach, and the speed of flow and turbidity of water and wind. Sediments are moved by moving water and wind according to their particle size and state of compaction. Particles tend to settle and compact in still water. Once compacted, they are more resistant to erosion. Established vegetation (especially species with complex network root systems) will resist erosion by slowing the fluid flow at the surface layer. When affected by moving water or wind, particles that are eroded and held in suspension will increase the erosive power of the fluid that holds them by increasing the average density, viscosity, and volume of the moving fluid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 60343, 9696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 78 ], [ 357, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coastlines facing very energetic wind and wave systems will tend to hold only large rocks as smaller particles will be held in suspension in the turbid water column and carried to calmer areas by longshore currents and tides. Coastlines that are protected from waves and winds will tend to allow finer sediments such as clay and mud to precipitate creating mud flats and mangrove forests. The shape of a beach depends on whether the waves are constructive or destructive, and whether the material is sand or shingle. Waves are constructive if the period between their wave crests is long enough for the breaking water to recede and the sediment to settle before the succeeding wave arrives and breaks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 5236, 36980, 551217, 73448, 1565136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 320, 324 ], [ 357, 365 ], [ 371, 379 ], [ 568, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fine sediment transported from lower down the beach profile will compact if the receding water percolates or soaks into the beach. Compacted sediment is more resistant to movement by turbulent water from succeeding waves. Conversely, waves are destructive if the period between the wave crests is short. Sediment that remains in suspension when the following wave crest arrives will not be able to settle and compact and will be more susceptible to erosion by longshore currents and receding tides. The nature of sediments found on a beach tends to indicate the energy of the waves and wind in the locality.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 297209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 460, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constructive waves move material up the beach while destructive waves move the material down the beach. During seasons when destructive waves are prevalent, the shallows will carry an increased load of sediment and organic matter in suspension. On sandy beaches, the turbulent backwash of destructive waves removes material forming a gently sloping beach. On pebble and shingle beaches the swash is dissipated more quickly because the large particle size allows greater percolation, thereby reducing the power of the backwash, and the beach remains steep. Compacted fine sediments will form a smooth beach surface that resists wind and water erosion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 314610, 299184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 365 ], [ 470, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During hot calm seasons, a crust may form on the surface of ocean beaches as the heat of the sun evaporates the water leaving the salt which crystallises around the sand particles. This crust forms an additional protective layer that resists wind erosion unless disturbed by animals or dissolved by the advancing tide. Cusps and horns form where incoming waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form cusps. This forms the uneven face on some sand shorelines. White sand beaches look white because the quartz or eroded limestone in the sand reflects or scatters sunlight without absorbing other colors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 1266658, 7396149, 47777152, 17748, 164483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 153 ], [ 320, 325 ], [ 472, 481 ], [ 543, 552 ], [ 577, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The composition of the sand varies depending on the local minerals and geology. Some of the types of sand found in beaches around the world are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " White sand: Mostly made of quartz and limestone , it can also contain other minerals like feldspar and gypsum .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 25233, 17748, 37955, 13040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 39, 48 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 104, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Light-colored sand: This sand gets its color from quartz and iron , and is the most common sand color in Southern Europe and other regions of the Mediterranean Basin , such as Tunisia .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 14734, 410666, 2454408, 30188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 66 ], [ 106, 121 ], [ 147, 166 ], [ 177, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tropical white sand: On tropical islands, the sand is composed of calcium carbonate from the shells and skeletons of marine organisms, like corals and mollusks , as found in Aruba .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 44731, 47700, 19773328, 690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 84 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 175, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pink coral sand: Like the above, is composed of calcium carbonate and gets its pink hue from fragments of coral, such as in Bermuda and the Bahama Islands .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 44731, 3460, 3451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 66 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 141, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black sand: Black sand is composed of volcanic rock, like basalt and obsidian, which give it its gray-black color. Hawaii 's Punaluu Beach, Madeira's Praia Formosa and Fuerteventura's Ajuy beach are examples of this type of sand.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 316414, 43534, 22721, 13270, 863835, 19898, 11981966, 11475, 24729906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 52 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 126, 139 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 169, 182 ], [ 185, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Red sand: This kind of sand is created by the oxidation of iron from volcanic rocks. Santorini 's Kokkini Beach or the beaches on Prince Edward Island in Canada are examples of this kind of sand.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 28377, 23071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 95 ], [ 131, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orange sand: Orange sand is high on iron. It can also me a combination of orange limestone, crushed shells, and volcanic deposits. Ramla Bay in Gozo , Malta or Porto Ferro in Sardinia are examples of each, respectively.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 2644146, 26267696, 29376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 141 ], [ 145, 149 ], [ 176, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Green sand: In this kind of sand, the mineral olivine has been separated from other volcanic fragments by erosive forces. A famous example is Hawaii's Papakolea Beach , which has sand containing basalt and coral fragments. Olivine beaches have high potential for carbon sequestration , and artificial greensand beaches are being explored for this process by Project Vesta .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 45159, 3416598, 4535852, 65773805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ], [ 152, 167 ], [ 264, 284 ], [ 359, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beaches are changed in shape chiefly by the movement of water and wind. Any weather event that is associated with turbid or fast-flowing water or high winds will erode exposed beaches. Longshore currents will tend to replenish beach sediments and repair storm damage. Tidal waterways generally change the shape of their adjacent beaches by small degrees with every tidal cycle. Over time these changes can become substantial leading to significant changes in the size and location of the beach.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Changes in the shape of the beach may undermine the roots of large trees and other flora. Many beach adapted species (such as coconut palms) have a fine root system and large root ball which tends to withstand wave and wind action and tends to stabilize beaches better than other trees with a lesser root ball.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Erosion of beaches can expose less resilient soils and rocks to wind and wave action leading to undermining of coastal headlands eventually resulting in catastrophic collapse of large quantities of overburden into the shallows. This material may be distributed along the beach front leading to a change in the habitat as sea grasses and corals in the shallows may be buried or deprived of light and nutrients.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Coastal areas settled by man inevitably become subject to the effects of man-made structures and processes. Over long periods of time, these influences may substantially alter the shape of the coastline, and the character of the beach.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beachfront flora plays a major role in stabilizing the foredunes and preventing beach head erosion and inland movement of dunes. If flora with network root systems (creepers, grasses, and palms) are able to become established, they provide an effective coastal defense as they trap sand particles and rainwater and enrich the surface layer of the dunes, allowing other plant species to become established. They also protect the berm from erosion by high winds, freak waves and subsiding floodwaters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Over long periods of time, well-stabilized foreshore areas will tend to accrete, while unstabilized foreshores will tend to erode, leading to substantial changes in the shape of the coastline. These changes usually occur over periods of many years. Freak wave events such as tsunami, tidal waves, and storm surges may substantially alter the shape, profile and location of a beach within hours.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Destruction of flora on the berm by the use of herbicides, excessive pedestrian or vehicle traffic, or disruption to freshwater flows may lead to erosion of the berm and dunes. While the destruction of flora may be a gradual process that is imperceptible to regular beach users, it often becomes immediately apparent after storms associated with high winds and freak wave events that can rapidly move large volumes of exposed and unstable sand, depositing them further inland, or carrying them out into the permanent water forming offshore bars, lagoons or increasing the area of the beach exposed at low tide.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Large and rapid movements of exposed sand can bury and smother flora in adjacent areas, aggravating the loss of habitat for fauna, and enlarging the area of instability. If there is an adequate supply of sand, and weather conditions do not allow vegetation to recover and stabilize the sediment, wind-blown sand can continue to advance, engulfing and permanently altering downwind landscapes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sediment moved by waves or receding floodwaters can be deposited in coastal shallows, engulfing reed beds and changing the character of underwater flora and fauna in the coastal shallows.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Burning or clearance of vegetation on the land adjacent to the beach head, for farming and residential development, changes the surface wind patterns, and exposes the surface of the beach to wind erosion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Farming and residential development are also commonly associated with changes in local surface water flows. If these flows are concentrated in stormwater drains emptying onto the beach head, they may erode the beach creating a lagoon or delta.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dense vegetation tends to absorb rainfall reducing the speed of runoff and releasing it over longer periods of time. Destruction by burning or clearance of the natural vegetation tends to increase the speed and erosive power of runoff from rainfall. This runoff will tend to carry more silt and organic matter from the land onto the beach and into the sea. If the flow is constant, runoff from cleared land arriving at the beach head will tend to deposit this material into the sand changing its color, odor and fauna.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The concentration of pedestrian and vehicular traffic accessing the beach for recreational purposes may cause increased erosion at the access points if measures are not taken to stabilize the beach surface above high-water mark. Recognition of the dangers of loss of beach front flora has caused many local authorities responsible for managing coastal areas to restrict beach access points by physical structures or legal sanctions, and fence off foredunes in an effort to protect the flora. These measures are often associated with the construction of structures at these access points to allow traffic to pass over or through the dunes without causing further damage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beaches provide a filter for runoff from the coastal plain. If the runoff is naturally dispersed along the beach, water borne silt and organic matter will be retained on the land and will feed the flora in the coastal area. Runoff that is dispersed along the beach will tend to percolate through the beach and may emerge from the beach at low tide.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The retention of the freshwater may also help to maintain underground water reserves and will resist salt water incursion. If the surface flow of the runoff is diverted and concentrated by drains that create constant flows over the beach above the sea or river level, the beach will be eroded and ultimately form an inlet unless longshore flows deposit sediments to repair the breach.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once eroded, an inlet may allow tidal inflows of salt water to pollute areas inland from the beach and may also affect the quality of underground water supplies and the height of the water table.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some flora naturally occurring on the beach head requires freshwater runoff from the land. Diversion of freshwater runoff into drains may deprive these plants of their water supplies and allow sea water incursion, increasing the saltiness of the groundwater. Species that are not able to survive in salt water may die and be replaced by mangroves or other species adapted to salty environments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beach nourishment is the importing and deposition of sand or other sediments in an effort to restore a beach that has been damaged by erosion. Beach nourishment often involves excavation of sediments from riverbeds or sand quarries. This excavated sediment may be substantially different in size and appearance to the naturally occurring beach sand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In extreme cases, beach nourishment may involve placement of large pebbles or rocks in an effort to permanently restore a shoreline subject to constant erosion and loss of foreshore. This is often required where the flow of new sediment caused by the longshore current has been disrupted by construction of harbors, breakwaters, causeways or boat ramps, creating new current flows that scour the sand from behind these structures and deprive the beach of restorative sediments. If the causes of the erosion are not addressed, beach nourishment can become a necessary and permanent feature of beach maintenance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During beach nourishment activities, care must be taken to place new sediments so that the new sediments compact and stabilize before aggressive wave or wind action can erode them. Material that is concentrated too far down the beach may form a temporary groyne that will encourage scouring behind it. Sediments that are too fine or too light may be eroded before they have compacted or been integrated into the established vegetation. Foreign unwashed sediments may introduce flora or fauna that are not usually found in that locality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brighton Beach, on the south coast of England, is a shingle beach that has been nourished with very large pebbles in an effort to withstand the erosion of the upper area of the beach. These large pebbles made the beach unwelcoming for pedestrians for a period of time until natural processes integrated the naturally occurring shingle into the pebble base.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Erosion and accretion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Even in Roman times, wealthy people spent their free time on the coast. They also built large villa complexes with bathing facilities (so-called maritime villas) in particularly beautiful locations. Excavations of Roman architecture can still be found today, for example on the Amalfi Coast near Naples and in Barcola in Trieste.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 924070, 3112837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 290 ], [ 310, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development of the beach as a popular leisure resort from the mid-19th century was the first manifestation of what is now the global tourist industry. The first seaside resorts were opened in the 18th century for the aristocracy, who began to frequent the seaside as well as the then fashionable spa towns, for recreation and health. One of the earliest such seaside resorts, was Scarborough in Yorkshire during the 1720s; it had been a fashionable spa town since a stream of acidic water was discovered running from one of the cliffs to the south of the town in the 17th century. The first rolling bathing machines were introduced by 1735.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 381565, 36637, 270993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 384, 395 ], [ 399, 408 ], [ 603, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The opening of the resort in Brighton and its reception of royal patronage from King George IV, extended the seaside as a resort for health and pleasure to the much larger London market, and the beach became a centre for upper-class pleasure and frivolity. This trend was praised and artistically elevated by the new romantic ideal of the picturesque landscape; Jane Austen's unfinished novel Sanditon is an example of that. Later, Queen Victoria's long-standing patronage of the Isle of Wight and Ramsgate in Kent ensured that a seaside residence was considered as a highly fashionable possession for those wealthy enough to afford more than one home.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 49796, 504974, 40225, 17867, 26094, 15782, 913971, 47923, 15102, 324352, 16766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 37 ], [ 59, 74 ], [ 80, 94 ], [ 172, 178 ], [ 317, 325 ], [ 362, 373 ], [ 393, 401 ], [ 432, 446 ], [ 480, 493 ], [ 498, 506 ], [ 510, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extension of this form of leisure to the middle and working classes began with the development of the railways in the 1840s, which offered cheap fares to fast-growing resort towns. In particular, the completion of a branch line to the small seaside town of Blackpool from Poulton led to a sustained economic and demographic boom. A sudden influx of visitors, arriving by rail, led entrepreneurs to build accommodation and create new attractions, leading to more visitors and a rapid cycle of growth throughout the 1850s and 1860s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 25715, 4570793, 232894, 2415041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 113 ], [ 220, 231 ], [ 261, 270 ], [ 276, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The growth was intensified by the practice among the Lancashire cotton mill owners of closing the factories for a week every year to service and repair machinery. These became known as wakes weeks. Each town's mills would close for a different week, allowing Blackpool to manage a steady and reliable stream of visitors over a prolonged period in the summer. A prominent feature of the resort was the promenade and the pleasure piers, where an eclectic variety of performances vied for the people's attention. In 1863, the North Pier in Blackpool was completed, rapidly becoming a centre of attraction for upper class visitors. Central Pier was completed in 1868, with a theatre and a large open-air dance floor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 885351, 5891659, 1019810, 277353, 5742177, 6375063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 75 ], [ 185, 195 ], [ 401, 410 ], [ 419, 432 ], [ 523, 533 ], [ 628, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the popular beach resorts were equipped with bathing machines, because even the all-covering beachwear of the period was considered immodest. By the end of the century the English coastline had over 100 large resort towns, some with populations exceeding 50,000.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 270993, 223338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 101, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development of the seaside resort abroad was stimulated by the well-developed English love of the beach. The French Riviera alongside the Mediterranean had already become a popular destination for the British upper class by the end of the 18th century. In 1864, the first railway to Nice was completed, making the Riviera accessible to visitors from all over Europe. By 1874, residents of foreign enclaves in Nice, most of whom were British, numbered 25,000. The coastline became renowned for attracting the royalty of Europe, including Queen Victoria and King Edward VII.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 266388, 19006, 47088, 47923, 46721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 127 ], [ 142, 155 ], [ 287, 291 ], [ 541, 555 ], [ 560, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Continental European attitudes towards gambling and nakedness tended to be more lax than in Britain, so British and French entrepreneurs were quick to exploit the possibilities. In 1863, Charles III, Prince of Monaco, and François Blanc, a French businessman, arranged for steamships and carriages to take visitors from Nice to Monaco, where large luxury hotels, gardens and casinos were built. The place was renamed Monte Carlo.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 11921, 18841893, 1494231, 19261, 30230953, 146635, 137721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 47 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 187, 198 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 222, 236 ], [ 273, 282 ], [ 417, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commercial sea bathing spread to the United States and parts of the British Empire by the end of the 19th century. The first public beach in the United States was Revere Beach, which opened in 1896. During that same time, Henry Flagler developed the Florida East Coast Railway, which linked the coastal sea resorts developing at St. Augustine, FL and Miami Beach, FL, to winter travelers from the northern United States and Canada on the East Coast Railway. By the early 20th century surfing was developed in Hawaii and Australia; it spread to southern California by the early 1960s. By the 1970s cheap and affordable air travel led to the growth of a truly global tourism market which benefited areas such as the Mediterranean, Australia, South Africa, and the coastal Sun Belt regions of the United States.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 4721, 2300174, 390047, 864689, 109790, 109449, 3434750, 5042916, 454480, 13270, 4689264, 62520, 19006, 4689264, 17416221, 445569, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 163, 175 ], [ 222, 235 ], [ 250, 276 ], [ 329, 342 ], [ 351, 362 ], [ 406, 419 ], [ 424, 430 ], [ 438, 456 ], [ 509, 515 ], [ 520, 529 ], [ 544, 563 ], [ 714, 727 ], [ 729, 738 ], [ 740, 752 ], [ 770, 778 ], [ 794, 807 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beaches can be popular on warm sunny days. In the Victorian era, many popular beach resorts were equipped with bathing machines because even the all-covering beachwear of the period was considered immodest. This social standard still prevails in many Muslim countries. At the other end of the spectrum are topfree beaches and nude beaches where clothing is optional or not allowed. In most countries social norms are significantly different on a beach in hot weather, compared to adjacent areas where similar behavior might not be tolerated and might even be prosecuted .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 32798, 293990, 270993, 223338, 1243208, 19660402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ], [ 78, 91 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 306, 321 ], [ 326, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In more than thirty countries in Europe, South Africa, New Zealand, Canada, Costa Rica, South America and the Caribbean, the best recreational beaches are awarded Blue Flag status, based on such criteria as water quality and safety provision. Subsequent loss of this status can have a severe effect on tourism revenues.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 18956035, 3292621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 119 ], [ 163, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beaches are often dumping grounds for waste and litter, necessitating the use of beach cleaners and other cleanup projects. More significantly, many beaches are a discharge zone for untreated sewage in most underdeveloped countries; even in developed countries beach closure is an occasional circumstance due to sanitary sewer overflow. In these cases of marine discharge, waterborne disease from fecal pathogens and contamination of certain marine species are a frequent outcome.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 20646971, 7836937, 209428, 78255, 7250472, 24536042, 35038133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 43 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 207, 231 ], [ 241, 260 ], [ 312, 335 ], [ 397, 402 ], [ 403, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some beaches are artificial; they are either permanent or temporary (For examples, see Copenhagen, Hong Kong, Manila, Monaco, Nottingham, Paris, Rotterdam, Singapore, Tianjin, and Toronto).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 5166, 267450, 65361794, 19261, 39470, 22989, 26049, 1615500, 10850810, 64646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 97 ], [ 99, 108 ], [ 110, 116 ], [ 118, 124 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 138, 143 ], [ 145, 154 ], [ 156, 165 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 180, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The soothing qualities of a beach and the pleasant environment offered to the beachgoer are replicated in artificial beaches, such as \"beach style\" pools with zero-depth entry and wave pools that recreate the natural waves pounding upon a beach. In a zero-depth entry pool, the bottom surface slopes gradually from above water down to depth. Another approach involves so-called urban beaches, a form of public park becoming common in large cities. Urban beaches attempt to mimic natural beaches with fountains that imitate surf and mask city noises, and in some cases can be used as a play park.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 19824126, 1013817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 272 ], [ 378, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beach nourishment involves pumping sand onto beaches to improve their health. Beach nourishment is common for major beach cities around the world; however the beaches that have been nourished can still appear quite natural and often many visitors are unaware of the works undertaken to support the health of the beach. Such beaches are often not recognized by consumers as artificial. A famous example of beach nourishment came with the replenishment of Waikīkī Beach in Honolulu, Hawaii, where sand from Manhattan Beach, California was transported via ship and barge throughout most of the 20th century in order to combat Waikiki's erosion problems. The Surfrider Foundation has debated the merits of artificial reefs with members torn between their desire to support natural coastal environments and opportunities to enhance the quality of surfing waves. Similar debates surround beach nourishment and snow cannon in sensitive environments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 1018637, 59649, 13887, 13270, 107656, 5407, 2840778, 1048922, 1018637, 2502462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 454, 467 ], [ 471, 479 ], [ 481, 487 ], [ 505, 520 ], [ 522, 532 ], [ 651, 675 ], [ 702, 717 ], [ 882, 899 ], [ 904, 915 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Public access to beaches is restricted in some parts of the world. For example, most beaches on the Jersey Shore are restricted to people who can purchase beach tags. Many beaches in Indonesia, both private and public, require admission fees.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 442163, 4150921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 112 ], [ 155, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some beaches also restrict dogs for some periods of the year.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Private beaches may belong to owners of abutting land, or neighborhood associations. Signs are usually posted the entrance. A permit or special use occasion event may be granted upon executing the proper channels to legally obtain one.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In some places, such as Florida, it is not always clear which parts of a beach are public or private.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first public beach in the United States opened on 12 July 1896, in the town of Revere, Massachusetts, with over 45,000 people attending on the opening day. The beach was run bay the Metropolitan Parks Commission and the new beach had a bandstand, public bathhouses, shade pavilions, and lined by a broad boulevard that ran along the beach.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 2300174, 116919, 25356392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 83, 104 ], [ 186, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Public access to beaches is protected by law in the U.S. State of Oregon, thanks to a 1967 state law, the Oregon Beach Bill, which guaranteed public access from the Columbia River to the California state line, \"so that the public may have the free and uninterrupted use\". Public access to beaches in Hawaii (other than those owned by the federal government) is also protected by state law. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use for recreation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beach access is an important consideration where substantial numbers of pedestrians or vehicles require access to the beach. Allowing random access across delicate foredunes is seldom considered good practice as it is likely to lead to destruction of flora and consequent erosion of the fore dunes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A well-designed beach access should:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " provide a durable surface able to withstand the traffic flow;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " aesthetically complement the surrounding structures and natural landforms;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " be located in an area that is convenient for users and consistent with safe traffic flows;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " be scaled to match the traffic flow (i.e. wide and strong enough to safely carry the size and quantity of pedestrians and vehicles intended to use it);", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " be maintained appropriately; and", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " be signed and lit to discourage beach users from creating their own alternative crossings that may be more destructive to the beachhead.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A concrete ramp should follow the natural profile of the beach to prevent it from changing the normal flow of waves, longshore currents, water and wind. A ramp that is below the beach profile will tend to become buried and cease to provide a good surface for vehicular traffic. A ramp or stair that protrudes above the beach profile will tend to disrupt longshore currents creating deposits in front of the ramp, and scouring behind. Concrete ramps are the most expensive vehicular beach accesses to construct requiring use of a quick-drying concrete or a cofferdam to protect them from tidal water during the concrete curing process. Concrete is favored where traffic flows are heavy and access is required by vehicles that are not adapted to soft sand (e.g. road registered passenger vehicles and boat trailers). Concrete stairs are commonly favored on beaches adjacent to population centers where beach users may arrive on the beach in street shoes, or where the foreshore roadway is substantially higher than the beach head and a ramp would be too steep for safe use by pedestrians. A composite stair ramp may incorporate a central or side stair with one or more ramps allowing pedestrians to lead buggies or small boat dollies onto the beach without the aid of a powered vehicle or winch. Concrete ramps and steps should be maintained to prevent a buildup of moss or algae that may make their wet surfaces slippery and dangerous to pedestrians and vehicles.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A corduroy road or beach ladder (or board and chain) is an array of planks (usually hardwood or treated timber) laid close together and perpendicular to the direction of traffic flow, and secured at each end by a chain or cable to form a pathway or ramp over the sand dune. Corduroys are cheap and easy to construct and quick to deploy or relocate. They are commonly used for pedestrian access paths and light duty vehicular access ways. They naturally conform to the shape of the underlying beach or dune profile, and adjust well to moderate erosion, especially longshore drift. However, they can cease to be an effective access surface if they become buried or undermined by erosion by surface runoff coming from the beach head. If the corduroy is not wide enough for vehicles using it, the sediment on either side may be displaced creating a spoon drain that accelerates surface runoff and can quickly lead to serious erosion. Significant erosion of the sediment beside and under the corduroy can render it completely ineffective and make it dangerous to pedestrian users who may fall between the planks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [ 2504826, 4400374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ], [ 692, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fabric ramps are commonly employed by the military for temporary purposes where the underlying sediment is stable and hard enough to support the weight of the traffic. A sheet of porous fabric is laid over the sand to stabilize the surface and prevent vehicles from bogging. Fabric Ramps usually cease to be useful after one tidal cycle as they are easily washed away, or buried in sediment.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A foliage ramp is formed by planting resilient species of hardy plants such as grasses over a well-formed sediment ramp. The plants may be supported while they become established by placement of layers of mesh, netting, or coarse organic material such as vines or branches. This type of ramp is ideally suited for intermittent use by vehicles with a low wheel loading such as dune buggies or agricultural vehicles with large tyres. A foliage ramp should require minimal maintenance if initially formed to follow the beach profile, and not overused.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A gravel ramp is formed by excavating the underlying loose sediment and filling the excavation with layers of gravel of graduated sizes as defined by John Loudon McAdam. The gravel is compacted to form a solid surface according to the needs of the traffic. Gravel ramps are less expensive to construct than concrete ramps and are able to carry heavy road traffic provided the excavation is deep enough to reach solid subsoil. Gravel ramps are subject to erosion by water. If the edges are retained with boards or walls and the profile matches the surrounding beach profile, a gravel ramp may become more stable as finer sediments are deposited by percolating water.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Access design", "target_page_ids": [ 387880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amongst the world's longest beaches are:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eighty Mile Beach () in north-west Australia;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [ 2831097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Praia do Cassino () in Brazil;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [ 4483478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Padre Island beach (about ) in Gulf of Mexico, Texas.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [ 2276037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ninety Mile Beach, Victoria () in Victoria, Australia;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [ 1638251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh ( unbroken);", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [ 15099953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Playa Novillera beach (about ) in Mexico.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 90 Mile Beach in New Zealand ();", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [ 671890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fraser Island beach (about ) in Queensland, Australia;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [ 225700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Troia-Sines Beach () in Portugal;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the Jersey Shore, 204km/127 miles; and", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Long Beach, Washington (which is about ).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Longest beaches", "target_page_ids": [ 138118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A beach is an unstable environment that exposes plants and animals to changeable and potentially harsh conditions. Some animals burrow into the sand and feed on material deposited by the waves. Crabs, insects and shorebirds feed on these beach dwellers. The endangered piping plover and some tern species rely on beaches for nesting. Sea turtles also bury their eggs in ocean beaches. Seagrasses and other beach plants grow on undisturbed areas of the beach and dunes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Wildlife", "target_page_ids": [ 204559, 276111, 210782, 142905, 234143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 222 ], [ 269, 282 ], [ 292, 296 ], [ 334, 344 ], [ 385, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ocean beaches are habitats with organisms adapted to salt spray, tidal overwash, and shifting sands. Some of these organisms are found only on beaches. Examples of these beach organisms in the southeast US include plants like sea oats, sea rocket, beach elder, beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae), and beach peanut, and animals such as mole crabs (Hippoidea), coquina clams (Donax), ghost crabs, and white beach tiger beetles.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Wildlife", "target_page_ids": [ 3750936, 2533810, 5600116, 13046964, 4702651, 356046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 234 ], [ 236, 246 ], [ 282, 300 ], [ 353, 362 ], [ 380, 385 ], [ 388, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beach advisory", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44291025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beach ball", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 855214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beach cleaner", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7836937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beach evolution", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9502903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beach polo", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22892823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coast", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of beaches", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 297114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sand art and play", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 207091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shore", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47777152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Smart beach", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69219504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strand plain", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5021022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Urban beach", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1013817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bascom, W. 1980. Waves and Beaches. Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York. 366 p.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coping with beach erosion – UNESCO", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Beaches", "Coastal_and_oceanic_landforms", "Oceanographical_terminology", "Erosion_landforms", "Tourist_attractions" ]

[ "beaches" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Redundancy or redundant may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Redundant\" (song), 1997 song by American rock band Green Day", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Language and arts", "target_page_ids": [ 2917646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Redundancy (linguistics), information that is expressed more than once", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Language and arts", "target_page_ids": [ 1953585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Redundant (play), 2001 drama by Leo Butler", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Language and arts", "target_page_ids": [ 23927619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Data redundancy, database systems which have a field that is repeated in two or more tables", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering and computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 5380838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Logic redundancy, a digital gate network containing circuitry that does not affect the static logic function", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering and computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 12220009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Redundancy (engineering), the duplication of critical components or functions of a system with the intention of increasing reliability", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering and computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 1953581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Redundancy (information theory), the number of bits used to transmit a message minus the number of bits of actual information in the message", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering and computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 1953582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Redundancy in total quality management, quality which exceeds the required quality level, creating unnecessarily high costs", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering and computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 143996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The same task executed by several different methods in a user interface", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering and computer science", "target_page_ids": [ 45249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Codon redundancy, the redundancy of the genetic code exhibited as the multiplicity of three-codon combinations", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biology", "target_page_ids": [ 40150317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cytokine redundancy, a term in immunology referring to the phenomenon in which, and the ability of, multiple cytokines to exert similar actions", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biology", "target_page_ids": [ 40150331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gene redundancy, the existence of several genes in the genome of an organism that perform the same role to some extent", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biology", "target_page_ids": [ 19224530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Redundant church, no longer used for worship", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 17359072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Redundancy in United Kingdom law, dismissal for economic reasons", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 31623965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Voluntary redundancy, termination of employment by agreement between employee and employer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8177848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

[]

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[ { "plaintext": "In geometry, the convex hull or convex envelope or convex closure of a shape is the smallest convex set that contains it. The convex hull may be defined either as the intersection of all convex sets containing a given subset of a Euclidean space, or equivalently as the set of all convex combinations of points in the subset. For a bounded subset of the plane, the convex hull may be visualized as the shape enclosed by a rubber band stretched around the subset.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18973446, 6292, 9697, 794534, 48258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 93, 103 ], [ 230, 245 ], [ 281, 299 ], [ 332, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Convex hulls of open sets are open, and convex hulls of compact sets are compact. Every compact convex set is the convex hull of its extreme points. The convex hull operator is an example of a closure operator, and every antimatroid can be represented by applying this closure operator to finite sets of points.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39358, 6042, 454968, 483120, 667063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 133, 146 ], [ 193, 209 ], [ 221, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The algorithmic problems of finding the convex hull of a finite set of points in the plane or other low-dimensional Euclidean spaces, and its dual problem of intersecting half-spaces, are fundamental problems of computational geometry. They can be solved in time for two or three dimensional point sets, and in time matching the worst-case output complexity given by the upper bound theorem in higher dimensions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 775, 539925, 647297, 176927, 40964551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 142, 146 ], [ 171, 182 ], [ 212, 234 ], [ 372, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As well as for finite point sets, convex hulls have also been studied for simple polygons, Brownian motion, space curves, and epigraphs of functions. Convex hulls have wide applications in mathematics, statistics, combinatorial optimization, economics, geometric modeling, and ethology. Related structures include the orthogonal convex hull, convex layers, Delaunay triangulation and Voronoi diagram, and convex skull.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1059530, 4436, 89246, 5744061, 7847685, 52621851, 8864, 177668, 22021760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 88 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 126, 148 ], [ 318, 340 ], [ 342, 355 ], [ 357, 379 ], [ 384, 399 ], [ 405, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A set of points in a Euclidean space is defined to be convex if it contains the line segments connecting each pair of its points. The convex hull of a given set may be defined as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 9697, 6292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ], [ 54, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The (unique) minimal convex set containing ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The intersection of all convex sets containing ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The set of all convex combinations of points in ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 794534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The union of all simplices with vertices in ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 39781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For bounded sets in the Euclidean plane, not all on one line, the boundary of the convex hull is the simple closed curve with minimum perimeter containing . One may imagine stretching a rubber band so that it surrounds the entire set and then releasing it, allowing it to contract; when it becomes taut, it encloses the convex hull of . This formulation does not immediately generalize to higher dimensions: for a finite set of points in three-dimensional space, a neighborhood of a spanning tree of the points encloses them with arbitrarily small surface area, smaller than the surface area of the convex hull. However, in higher dimensions, variants of the obstacle problem of finding a minimum-energy surface above a given shape can have the convex hull as their solution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 48258, 267444, 23636, 512470, 455770, 19487617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 101, 120 ], [ 134, 143 ], [ 186, 197 ], [ 484, 497 ], [ 660, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For objects in three dimensions, the first definition states that the convex hull is the smallest possible convex bounding volume of the objects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 657106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The definition using intersections of convex sets may be extended to non-Euclidean geometry, and the definition using convex combinations may be extended from Euclidean spaces to arbitrary real vector spaces or affine spaces; convex hulls may also be generalized in a more abstract way, to oriented matroids.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 58610, 32370, 298834, 24338041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 91 ], [ 189, 206 ], [ 211, 223 ], [ 290, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is not obvious that the first definition makes sense: why should there exist a unique minimal convex set containing , for every ? However, the second definition, the intersection of all convex sets containing , is well-defined. It is a subset of every other convex set that contains , because is included among the sets being intersected. Thus, it is exactly the unique minimal convex set containing . Therefore, the first two definitions are equivalent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each convex set containing must (by the assumption that it is convex) contain all convex combinations of points in , so the set of all convex combinations is contained in the intersection of all convex sets containing . Conversely, the set of all convex combinations is itself a convex set containing , so it also contains the intersection of all convex sets containing , and therefore the second and third definitions are equivalent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In fact, according to Carathéodory's theorem, if is a subset of a -dimensional Euclidean space, every convex combination of finitely many points from is also a convex combination of at most points in . The set of convex combinations of a -tuple of points is a simplex; in the plane it is a triangle and in three-dimensional space it is a tetrahedron. Therefore, every convex combination of points of belongs to a simplex whose vertices belong to , and the third and fourth definitions are equivalent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 892014, 39781, 30654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 44 ], [ 263, 270 ], [ 293, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In two dimensions, the convex hull is sometimes partitioned into two parts, the upper hull and the lower hull, stretching between the leftmost and rightmost points of the hull. More generally, for convex hulls in any dimension, one can partition the boundary of the hull into upward-facing points (points for which an upward ray is disjoint from the hull), downward-facing points, and extreme points. For three-dimensional hulls, the upward-facing and downward-facing parts of the boundary form topological disks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The closed convex hull of a set is the closure of the convex hull, and the open convex hull is the interior (or in some sources the relative interior) of the convex hull.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 42309, 55610, 8612907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 132, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The closed convex hull of is the intersection of all closed half-spaces containing .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 647297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the convex hull of is already a closed set itself (as happens, for instance, if is a finite set or more generally a compact set), then it equals the closed convex hull. However, an intersection of closed half-spaces is itself closed, so when a convex hull is not closed it cannot be represented in this way.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 47279, 11742, 6042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 121, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the open convex hull of a set is -dimensional, then every point of the hull belongs to an open convex hull of at most points of . The sets of vertices of a square, regular octahedron, or higher-dimensional cross-polytope provide examples where exactly points are needed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 716401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Topologically, the convex hull of an open set is always itself open, and the convex hull of a compact set is always itself compact. However, there exist closed sets for which the convex hull is not closed. For instance, the closed set", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 39358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(the set of points that lie on or above the witch of Agnesi) has the open upper half-plane as its convex hull.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 407764, 287826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 59 ], [ 74, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The compactness of convex hulls of compact sets, in finite-dimensional Euclidean spaces, is generalized by the Krein–Smulian theorem, according to which the closed convex hull of a weakly compact subset of a Banach space (a subset that is compact under the weak topology) is weakly compact.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 64247707, 3989, 33662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 132 ], [ 208, 220 ], [ 257, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An extreme point of a convex set is a point in the set that does not lie on any open line segment between any other two points of the same set.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 454968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a convex hull, every extreme point must be part of the given set, because otherwise it cannot be formed as a convex combination of given points.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Krein–Milman theorem, every compact convex set in a Euclidean space (or more generally in a locally convex topological vector space) is the convex hull of its extreme points. However, this may not be true for convex sets that are not compact; for instance, the whole Euclidean plane and the open unit ball are both convex, but neither one has any extreme points. Choquet theory extends this theory from finite convex combinations of extreme points to infinite combinations (integrals) in more general spaces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topological properties", "target_page_ids": [ 3206654, 518844, 3655598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 37 ], [ 109, 148 ], [ 380, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convex-hull operator has the characteristic properties of a closure operator:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geometric and algebraic properties", "target_page_ids": [ 483120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is extensive, meaning that the convex hull of every set is a superset of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geometric and algebraic properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is non-decreasing, meaning that, for every two sets and with , the convex hull of is a subset of the convex hull of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geometric and algebraic properties", "target_page_ids": [ 48260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is idempotent, meaning that for every , the convex hull of the convex hull of is the same as the convex hull of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geometric and algebraic properties", "target_page_ids": [ 14972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When applied to a finite set of points, this is the closure operator of an antimatroid, the shelling antimatroid of the point set.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geometric and algebraic properties", "target_page_ids": [ 667063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every antimatroid can be represented in this way by convex hulls of points in a Euclidean space of high-enough dimension.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geometric and algebraic properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The operations of constructing the convex hull and taking the Minkowski sum commute with each other, in the sense that the Minkowski sum of convex hulls of sets gives the same result as the convex hull of the Minkowski sum of the same sets. This provides a step towards the Shapley–Folkman theorem bounding the distance of a Minkowski sum from its convex hull.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geometric and algebraic properties", "target_page_ids": [ 504105, 29237460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 75 ], [ 274, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The projective dual operation to constructing the convex hull of a set of points is constructing the intersection of a family of closed halfspaces that all contain the origin (or any other designated point).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geometric and algebraic properties", "target_page_ids": [ 539925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convex hull of a finite point set forms a convex polygon when , or more generally a convex polytope in . Each extreme point of the hull is called a vertex, and (by the Krein–Milman theorem) every convex polytope is the convex hull of its vertices. It is the unique convex polytope whose vertices belong to and that encloses all of .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special cases", "target_page_ids": [ 660019, 1817885, 11308417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 89, 104 ], [ 153, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For sets of points in general position, the convex hull is a simplicial polytope.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special cases", "target_page_ids": [ 383736, 8853373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ], [ 61, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the upper bound theorem, the number of faces of the convex hull of points in -dimensional Euclidean space is . In particular, in two and three dimensions the number of faces is at most linear in .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special cases", "target_page_ids": [ 40964551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convex hull of a simple polygon encloses the given polygon and is partitioned by it into regions, one of which is the polygon itself. The other regions, bounded by a polygonal chain of the polygon and a single convex hull edge, are called pockets. Computing the same decomposition recursively for each pocket forms a hierarchical description of a given polygon called its convex differences tree. Reflecting a pocket across its convex hull edge expands the given simple polygon into a polygon with the same perimeter and larger area, and the Erdős–Nagy theorem states that this expansion process eventually terminates.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special cases", "target_page_ids": [ 1059530, 12056032, 20852937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 170, 185 ], [ 546, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The curve generated by Brownian motion in the plane, at any fixed time, has probability 1 of having a convex hull whose boundary forms a continuously differentiable curve. However, for any angle in the range , there will be times during the Brownian motion where the moving particle touches the boundary of the convex hull at a point of angle . The Hausdorff dimension of this set of exceptional times is (with high probability) .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special cases", "target_page_ids": [ 4436, 493403, 14294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 137, 170 ], [ 350, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the convex hull of a space curve or finite set of space curves in general position in three-dimensional space, the parts of the boundary away from the curves are developable and ruled surfaces. Examples include the oloid, the convex hull of two circles in perpendicular planes, each passing through the other's center, the sphericon, the convex hull of two semicircles in perpendicular planes with a common center, and D-forms, the convex shapes obtained from Alexandrov's uniqueness theorem for a surface formed by gluing together two planar convex sets of equal perimeter.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special cases", "target_page_ids": [ 89246, 2878111, 705158, 12599909, 572813, 29103307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 166, 177 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 327, 336 ], [ 464, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convex hull or lower convex envelope of a function on a real vector space is the function whose epigraph is the lower convex hull of the epigraph of .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special cases", "target_page_ids": [ 3165509, 5744061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 40 ], [ 101, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is the unique maximal convex function majorized by . The definition can be extended to the convex hull of a set of functions (obtained from the convex hull of the union of their epigraphs, or equivalently from their pointwise minimum) and, in this form, is dual to the convex conjugate operation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special cases", "target_page_ids": [ 245568, 67739924, 1001490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ], [ 219, 236 ], [ 272, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In computational geometry, a number of algorithms are known for computing the convex hull for a finite set of points and for other geometric objects.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 176927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Computing the convex hull means constructing an unambiguous, efficient representation of the required convex shape. Output representations that have been considered for convex hulls of point sets include a list of linear inequalities describing the facets of the hull, an undirected graph of facets and their adjacencies, or the full face lattice of the hull. In two dimensions, it may suffice more simply to list the points that are vertices, in their cyclic order around the hull.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 8519, 19575563, 7186647, 325806, 1817885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 85 ], [ 214, 233 ], [ 249, 255 ], [ 272, 288 ], [ 334, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For convex hulls in two or three dimensions, the complexity of the corresponding algorithms is usually estimated in terms of , the number of input points, and , the number of points on the convex hull, which may be significantly smaller than . For higher-dimensional hulls, the number of faces of other dimensions may also come into the analysis. Graham scan can compute the convex hull of points in the plane in time . For points in two and three dimensions, more complicated output-sensitive algorithms are known that compute the convex hull in time . These include Chan's algorithm and the Kirkpatrick–Seidel algorithm. For dimensions , the time for computing the convex hull is , matching the worst-case output complexity of the problem. The convex hull of a simple polygon in the plane can be constructed in linear time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 393372, 12127990, 8320430, 11699089, 405944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 359 ], [ 479, 505 ], [ 570, 586 ], [ 595, 623 ], [ 815, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dynamic convex hull data structures can be used to keep track of the convex hull of a set of points undergoing insertions and deletions of points, and kinetic convex hull structures can keep track of the convex hull for points moving continuously.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 11543042, 35772899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 151, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The construction of convex hulls also serves as a tool, a building block for a number of other computational-geometric algorithms such as the rotating calipers method for computing the width and diameter of a point set.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 16951539, 18542, 8007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 159 ], [ 185, 190 ], [ 195, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several other shapes can be defined from a set of points in a similar way to the convex hull, as the minimal superset with some property, the intersection of all shapes containing the points from a given family of shapes, or the union of all combinations of points for a certain type of combination. For instance:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The affine hull is the smallest affine subspace of a Euclidean space containing a given set, or the union of all affine combinations of points in the set.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 3416209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The linear hull is the smallest linear subspace of a vector space containing a given set, or the union of all linear combinations of points in the set.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 56353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conical hull or positive hull of a subset of a vector space is the set of all positive combinations of points in the subset.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 19634578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The visual hull of a three-dimensional object, with respect to a set of viewpoints, consists of the points such that every ray from a viewpoint through intersects the object. Equivalently it is the intersection of the (non-convex) cones generated by the outline of the object with respect to each viewpoint. It is used in 3D reconstruction as the largest shape that could have the same outlines from the given viewpoints.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 7692767, 16234982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 324, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The circular hull or alpha-hull of a subset of the plane is the intersection of all disks with a given radius that contain the subset.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The relative convex hull of a subset of a two-dimensional simple polygon is the intersection of all relatively convex supersets, where a set within the same polygon is relatively convex if it contains the geodesic between any two of its points.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 62687611, 1059530, 91096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 58, 72 ], [ 205, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The orthogonal convex hull or rectilinear convex hull is the intersection of all orthogonally convex and connected supersets, where a set is orthogonally convex if it contains all axis-parallel segments between pairs of its points.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 7847685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The orthogonal convex hull is a special case of a much more general construction, the hyperconvex hull, which can be thought of as the smallest injective metric space containing the points of a given metric space.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 7817822, 7840768, 20018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 102 ], [ 144, 166 ], [ 200, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The holomorphically convex hull is a generalization of similar concepts to complex analytic manifolds, obtained as an intersection of sublevel sets of holomorphic functions containing a given set.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 360243, 509742, 14110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 75, 100 ], [ 151, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Delaunay triangulation of a point set and its dual, the Voronoi diagram, are mathematically related to convex hulls: the Delaunay triangulation of a point set in can be viewed as the projection of a convex hull in ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 8864, 609737, 177668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 50, 54 ], [ 60, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The alpha shapes of a finite point set give a nested family of (non-convex) geometric objects describing the shape of a point set at different levels of detail.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 33029175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each of alpha shape is the union of some of the features of the Delaunay triangulation, selected by comparing their circumradius to the parameter alpha. The point set itself forms one endpoint of this family of shapes, and its convex hull forms the other endpoint.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 1926432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convex layers of a point set are a nested family of convex polygons, the outermost of which is the convex hull, with the inner layers constructed recursively from the points that are not vertices of the convex hull.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 52621851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convex skull of a polygon is the largest convex polygon contained inside it. It can be found in polynomial time, but the exponent of the algorithm is high.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related structures", "target_page_ids": [ 22021760, 405944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Convex hulls have wide applications in many fields. Within mathematics, convex hulls are used to study polynomials, matrix eigenvalues, and unitary elements, and several theorems in discrete geometry involve convex hulls. They are used in robust statistics as the outermost contour of Tukey depth, are part of the bagplot visualization of two-dimensional data, and define risk sets of randomized decision rules. Convex hulls of indicator vectors of solutions to combinatorial problems are central to combinatorial optimization and polyhedral combinatorics. In economics, convex hulls can be used to apply methods of convexity in economics to non-convex markets. In geometric modeling, the convex hull property Bézier curves helps find their crossings, and convex hulls are part of the measurement of boat hulls. And in the study of animal behavior, convex hulls are used in a standard definition of the home range.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 23000, 2161429, 20402624, 386468, 2885691, 34627868, 40745990, 54431035, 41904209, 420555, 19696519, 30643278, 4664, 8892818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 113 ], [ 123, 133 ], [ 140, 155 ], [ 182, 199 ], [ 239, 256 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 314, 321 ], [ 385, 409 ], [ 428, 444 ], [ 500, 526 ], [ 531, 555 ], [ 616, 638 ], [ 710, 722 ], [ 903, 913 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Newton polygons of univariate polynomials and Newton polytopes of multivariate polynomials are convex hulls of points derived from the exponents of the terms in the polynomial, and can be used to analyze the asymptotic behavior of the polynomial and the valuations of its roots. Convex hulls and polynomials also come together in the Gauss–Lucas theorem, according to which the roots of the derivative of a polynomial all lie within the convex hull of the roots of the polynomial.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 742477, 23000, 31041066, 641995, 9397319, 264210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 30, 40 ], [ 46, 61 ], [ 208, 218 ], [ 334, 353 ], [ 378, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In spectral analysis, the numerical range of a normal matrix is the convex hull of its eigenvalues.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 506713, 15581094, 170366, 2161429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 26, 41 ], [ 47, 60 ], [ 87, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Russo–Dye theorem describes the convex hulls of unitary elements in a C*-algebra.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 20403479, 20402624, 7184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 52, 67 ], [ 74, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In discrete geometry, both Radon's theorem and Tverberg's theorem concern the existence of partitions of point sets into subsets with intersecting convex hulls.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 386468, 1406385, 3115869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 27, 42 ], [ 47, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The definitions of a convex set as containing line segments between its points, and of a convex hull as the intersection of all convex supersets, apply to hyperbolic spaces as well as to Euclidean spaces. However, in hyperbolic space, it is also possible to consider the convex hulls of sets of ideal points, points that do not belong to the hyperbolic space itself but lie on the boundary of a model of that space. The boundaries of convex hulls of ideal points of three-dimensional hyperbolic space are analogous to ruled surfaces in Euclidean space, and their metric properties play an important role in the geometrization conjecture in low-dimensional topology. Hyperbolic convex hulls have also been used as part of the calculation of canonical triangulations of hyperbolic manifolds, and applied to determine the equivalence of knots.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 318742, 4995922, 705158, 220642, 621774, 515096, 1440970, 1589135, 366808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 171 ], [ 295, 306 ], [ 518, 531 ], [ 611, 636 ], [ 640, 664 ], [ 740, 749 ], [ 750, 764 ], [ 768, 787 ], [ 834, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See also the section on Brownian motion for the application of convex hulls to this subject, and the section on Space curves for their application to the theory of developable surfaces.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2878111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In robust statistics, the convex hull provides one of the key components of a bagplot, a method for visualizing the spread of two-dimensional sample points. The contours of Tukey depth form a nested family of convex sets, with the convex hull outermost, and the bagplot also displays another polygon from this nested family, the contour of 50% depth.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2885691, 40745990, 34627868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 78, 85 ], [ 173, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In statistical decision theory, the risk set of a randomized decision rule is the convex hull of the risk points of its underlying deterministic decision rules.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 446216, 54431035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 50, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In combinatorial optimization and polyhedral combinatorics, central objects of study are the convex hulls of indicator vectors of solutions to a combinatorial problem. If the facets of these polytopes can be found, describing the polytopes as intersections of halfspaces, then algorithms based on linear programming can be used to find optimal solutions. In multi-objective optimization, a different type of convex hull is also used, the convex hull of the weight vectors of solutions. One can maximize any quasiconvex combination of weights by finding and checking each convex hull vertex, often more efficiently than checking all possible solutions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 420555, 19696519, 41904209, 43730, 10251864, 5781226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 29 ], [ 34, 58 ], [ 109, 125 ], [ 297, 315 ], [ 358, 386 ], [ 507, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Arrow–Debreu model of general economic equilibrium, agents are assumed to have convex budget sets and convex preferences. These assumptions of convexity in economics can be used to prove the existence of an equilibrium.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1239556, 45938, 1706527, 8012046, 30643278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 29, 57 ], [ 93, 103 ], [ 109, 127 ], [ 150, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When actual economic data is non-convex, it can be made convex by taking convex hulls. The Shapley–Folkman theorem can be used to show that, for large markets, this approximation is accurate, and leads to a \"quasi-equilibrium\" for the original non-convex market.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 30618217, 29237460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 91, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In geometric modeling, one of the key properties of a Bézier curve is that it lies within the convex hull of its control points. This so-called \"convex hull property\" can be used, for instance, in quickly detecting intersections of these curves.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 4577462, 4664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 54, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the geometry of boat and ship design, chain girth is a measurement of the size of a sailing vessel, defined using the convex hull of a cross-section of the hull of the vessel. It differs from the skin girth, the perimeter of the cross-section itself, except for boats and ships that have a convex hull.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 13587080, 13755, 13587053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 52 ], [ 159, 163 ], [ 199, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convex hull is commonly known as the minimum convex polygon in ethology, the study of animal behavior, where it is a classic, though perhaps simplistic, approach in estimating an animal's home range based on points where the animal has been observed. Outliers can make the minimum convex polygon excessively large, which has motivated relaxed approaches that contain only a subset of the observations, for instance by choosing one of the convex layers that is close to a target percentage of the samples, or in the local convex hull method by combining convex hulls of neighborhoods of points.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 9425, 8892818, 160951, 6385832, 1775388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 75 ], [ 192, 202 ], [ 255, 262 ], [ 519, 536 ], [ 573, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In quantum physics, the state space of any quantum system — the set of all ways the system can be prepared — is a convex hull whose extreme points are positive-semidefinite operators known as pure states and whose interior points are called mixed states. The Schrödinger–HJW theorem proves that any mixed state can in fact be written as a convex combination of pure states in multiple ways.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 25202, 546101, 40326, 61422206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 24, 35 ], [ 151, 182 ], [ 259, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A convex hull in thermodynamics was identified by Josiah Willard Gibbs (1873), although the paper was published before the convex hull was so named.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 29952, 37332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ], [ 50, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a set of energies of several stoichiometries of a material, only those measurements on the lower convex hull will be stable. When removing a point from the hull and then calculating its distance to the hull, its distance to the new hull represents the degree of stability of the phase.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 28650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lower convex hull of points in the plane appears, in the form of a Newton polygon, in a letter from Isaac Newton to Henry Oldenburg in 1676. The term \"convex hull\" itself appears as early as the work of , and the corresponding term in German appears earlier, for instance in Hans Rademacher's review of . Other terms, such as \"convex envelope\", were also used in this time frame. By 1938, according to Lloyd Dines, the term \"convex hull\" had become standard; Dines adds that he finds the term unfortunate, because the colloquial meaning of the word \"hull\" would suggest that it refers to the surface of a shape, whereas the convex hull includes the interior and not just the surface.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14627, 1240423, 11884, 1864916, 47924017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 116 ], [ 120, 135 ], [ 239, 245 ], [ 279, 294 ], [ 406, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "; reprinted in The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Vol. I: Thermodynamics, Longmans, Green, & Co., 1906, pp. 33–54", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "; see p. 143", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "; see also review by Hans Rademacher (1922), ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1864916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", translated in Journal of Soviet Mathematics 33 (4): 1140–1153, 1986, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Convex Hull\" by Eric W. Weisstein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 836189, 13989702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ], [ 37, 67 ] ] } ]

[ "Convex_hulls", "Closure_operators", "Convex_analysis", "Computational_geometry", "Geometry_processing" ]

[ "convex envelope", "convex closure" ]

[ { "plaintext": "NeXTSTEP is a discontinued object-oriented, multitasking operating system based on the Mach kernel and the UNIX-derived BSD. It was developed by NeXT Computer in the late 1980s and early 1990s and was initially used for its range of proprietary workstation computers such as the NeXTcube. It was later ported to several other computer architectures.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27471338, 6857, 22194, 21028, 21347364, 18932622, 21694, 68181, 2886717, 25652303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 42 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 57, 73 ], [ 87, 98 ], [ 107, 111 ], [ 120, 123 ], [ 145, 158 ], [ 245, 256 ], [ 279, 287 ], [ 326, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although relatively unsuccessful at the time, it attracted interest from computer scientists and researchers. It was used as the original platform for the development of the Electronic AppWrapper, the first commercial electronic software distribution catalog to collectively manage encryption and provide digital rights for application software and digital media, a forerunner of the modern \"app store\" concept. It was also the platform on which Tim Berners-Lee created the first web browser, and on which id Software developed the video games Doom and Quake.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 47327601, 454746, 53723, 32183000, 30034, 33173, 15526, 8521, 25266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 195 ], [ 324, 344 ], [ 349, 362 ], [ 392, 401 ], [ 446, 461 ], [ 480, 491 ], [ 506, 517 ], [ 544, 548 ], [ 553, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, NeXT was acquired by Apple Computer. The NeXTSTEP platform and OpenStep later became components of the Unix-based architecture of Mac OS X (now macOS) — a successor to the classic Mac OS that leveraged a combination of Unix supplemented by NeXTSTEP components and Apple's own technologies. Unix derivatives incorporating NeXTSTEP would eventually power all of Apple's platforms, including iPhone.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 856, 53114, 20640, 46728817, 8841749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 44 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 139, 147 ], [ 181, 195 ], [ 399, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NeXTSTEP (also stylized as NeXTstep, NeXTStep, and NEXTSTEP) is a combination of several parts:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a Unix operating system based on the Mach kernel, plus source code from BSD", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 21347364, 21028, 18932622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 38, 49 ], [ 73, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Display PostScript and a proprietary windowing engine", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 61012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Objective-C language and runtime", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 39809523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " an object-oriented (OO) application layer, including several \"kits\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 27471338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " development tools for the OO layers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NeXTSTEP is notable for having been a preeminent implementation of the last three items. The toolkits offer considerable power, and are the canonical development system for all of the software on the machine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It introduced the idea of the Dock (carried through OpenStep and into today's macOS) and the Shelf. NeXTSTEP also originated or innovated a large number of other GUI concepts which became common in other operating systems: 3D \"chiseled\" widgets, large full-color icons, system-wide drag and drop of a wide range of objects beyond file icons, system-wide piped services, real-time scrolling and window dragging, properties dialog boxes called \"inspectors\", and window modification notices (such as the saved status of a file). The system is among the first general-purpose user interfaces to handle publishing color standards, transparency, sophisticated sound and music processing (through a Motorola 56000 DSP), advanced graphics primitives, internationalization, and modern typography, in a consistent manner across all applications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 455410, 53114, 20640, 277017, 12293, 355011, 4903417, 89974, 154505, 18567210, 31217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 34 ], [ 52, 60 ], [ 78, 83 ], [ 93, 98 ], [ 162, 165 ], [ 263, 267 ], [ 360, 368 ], [ 692, 706 ], [ 707, 710 ], [ 722, 741 ], [ 776, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additional kits were added to the product line to make the system more attractive. These include Portable Distributed Objects (PDO), which allow easy remote invocation, and Enterprise Objects Framework, a powerful object-relational database system. The kits made the system particularly interesting to custom application programmers, and NeXTSTEP had a long history in the financial programming community.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 15710221, 59561, 68960, 8377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 167 ], [ 173, 201 ], [ 214, 231 ], [ 232, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A preview release of NeXTSTEP (version 0.8) was shown with the launch of the NeXT Computer on October 12, 1988. The first full release, NeXTSTEP 1.0, shipped on September 18, 1989. The last version, 3.3, was released in early 1995, by which time it ran on not only the Motorola 68000 family processors used in NeXT computers, but also on Intel x86, Sun SPARC, and HP PA-RISC-based systems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 61616, 20319, 64826, 14617, 34198, 26980, 36954, 24970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 90 ], [ 269, 277 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 338, 343 ], [ 344, 347 ], [ 349, 352 ], [ 353, 358 ], [ 364, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NeXTSTEP was later modified to separate the underlying operating system from the higher-level object libraries. The result was the OpenStep API, which ran on multiple underlying operating systems, including NeXT's own OPENSTEP, Windows NT and Solaris. NeXTSTEP's legacy stands today in the form of its direct descendants, Apple's macOS, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS operating systems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 53114, 21291483, 46145, 20640, 16161443, 43787294, 47770289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 139 ], [ 228, 238 ], [ 243, 250 ], [ 330, 335 ], [ 337, 340 ], [ 342, 349 ], [ 355, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From day one, the operating system of NeXTSTEP was built upon Mach/BSD.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It was initially built on 4.3BSD-Tahoe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 54224652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " It changed to 4.3BSD-Reno after the release of NeXTSTEP 3.0.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 54224652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " It changed to 4.4BSD during the development of Rhapsody.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 54224652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first web browser, WorldWideWeb, and the first-ever app store were all invented on the NeXTSTEP platform.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 33173, 189791, 32183000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 23, 35 ], [ 56, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some features and keyboard shortcuts now commonly found in web browsers can be traced back to NeXTSTEP conventions. The basic layout options of HTML 1.0 and 2.0 are attributable to those features available in NeXT's Text class.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 423419, 13191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 144, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lighthouse Design Ltd. developed Diagram!, a drawing tool, originally called BLT (for Box-and-Line Tool) in which objects (boxes) are connected together using \"smart links\" (lines) to construct diagrams such a flow charts. This basic design could be enhanced by the simple addition of new links and new documents, located anywhere in the local area network, that foreshadowed Tim Berners-Lee's initial prototype that was written in NeXTStep (October–December 1990).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 472375, 527453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 211, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s, the pioneering PC games Doom (with its WAD level editor), Doom II, and Quake (with its respective level editor) were developed by id Software on NeXT machines. Other games based on the Doom engine such as Heretic and its sequel Hexen by Raven Software as well as Strife by Rogue Entertainment were also developed on NeXT hardware using id's tools.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 8521, 1050801, 341331, 25266, 1825874, 15526, 398480, 13611, 25764, 106430, 1835411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 42 ], [ 53, 56 ], [ 72, 79 ], [ 85, 90 ], [ 131, 140 ], [ 144, 155 ], [ 199, 210 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 251, 265 ], [ 277, 283 ], [ 287, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Altsys made a NeXTSTEP application called Virtuoso, version 2 of which was ported to Mac OS and Windows to become Macromedia FreeHand version 4. The modern \"Notebook\" interface for Mathematica, and the advanced spreadsheet Lotus Improv, were developed using NeXTSTEP. The software that controlled MCI's Friends and Family calling plan program was developed using NeXTSTEP.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2782542, 24095253, 49024, 84179, 187482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 114, 133 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 223, 235 ], [ 297, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About the time of the release of NeXTSTEP 3.2, NeXT partnered with Sun Microsystems to develop OpenStep. It is the product of an effort to separate the underlying operating system from the higher-level object libraries to create a cross-platform object-oriented API standard derived from NeXTSTEP. The OpenStep API targets multiple underlying operating systems, including NeXT's own OPENSTEP. Implementations of that standard were released for Sun's Solaris, Windows NT, and NeXT's version of the Mach kernel. NeXT's implementation is called \"OPENSTEP for Mach\" and its first release (4.0) superseded NeXTSTEP 3.3 on NeXT, Sun, and Intel IA-32 systems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26980, 53114, 53114, 46145, 21291483, 21028, 15046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 83 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 302, 310 ], [ 450, 457 ], [ 459, 469 ], [ 497, 508 ], [ 638, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following an announcement on December 20, 1996, Apple Computer acquired NeXT on February 4, 1997, for $429 million. Based upon the \"OPENSTEP for Mach\" operating system, and developing the OPENSTEP API to become Cocoa, Apple created the basis of Mac OS X, and eventually, in turn, of iOS/iPadOS, watchOS, and tvOS.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 856, 53114, 55890, 20640, 16161443, 33194455, 43787294, 47770289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 211, 216 ], [ 245, 253 ], [ 283, 286 ], [ 287, 293 ], [ 295, 302 ], [ 308, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A free software implementation of the OpenStep standard, GNUstep, also exists.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 10635, 55891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ], [ 57, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Versions up to 4.1 are general releases. OPENSTEP 4.2 pre-release 2 is a bug-fix release published by Apple and supported for five years after its September 1997 release.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Release history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OpenStep, the object-oriented application programming interface derived from NeXTSTEP", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53114, 27471338, 27697009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 15, 30 ], [ 31, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GNUstep, an open-source implementation of Cocoa API respectively OpenStep API", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55891, 55890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 43, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Window Maker, a window manager designed to emulate the NeXT GUI for the X Window System", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 432163, 876217, 34147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 17, 31 ], [ 73, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bundle (macOS)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2487670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miller Columns, the method of directory browsing that NeXTSTEP's File Viewer used", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2710690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Multi-architecture binary", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 595695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NeXT character set", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53159801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Previous, an emulator for NeXT hardware capable of running some versions of NeXTSTEP", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36048342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A complete guide to the confusing series of names applied to the system", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NeXTComputers.org", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Next Step BYTE Magazine 14-03, Object Oriented Programming with NextStep", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A modern NextStep inspired desktop environment.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1989_software", "Berkeley_Software_Distribution", "Discontinued_operating_systems", "Mach_(kernel)", "NeXT", "Object-oriented_operating_systems", "Unix_variants", "Window-based_operating_systems" ]

[ "NeXTStep", "NEXTSTEP", "OPENSTEP" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Non-uniform memory access (NUMA) is a computer memory design used in multiprocessing, where the memory access time depends on the memory location relative to the processor. Under NUMA, a processor can access its own local memory faster than non-local memory (memory local to another processor or memory shared between processors). The benefits of NUMA are limited to particular workloads, notably on servers where the data is often associated strongly with certain tasks or users.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5300, 64020, 27361576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ], [ 69, 84 ], [ 216, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NUMA architectures logically follow in scaling from symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) architectures. They were developed commercially during the 1990s by Unisys, Convex Computer (later Hewlett-Packard), Honeywell Information Systems Italy (HISI) (later Groupe Bull), Silicon Graphics (later Silicon Graphics International), Sequent Computer Systems (later IBM), Data General (later EMC, now Dell Technologies), and Digital (later Compaq, then HP, now HPE). Techniques developed by these companies later featured in a variety of Unix-like operating systems, and to an extent in Windows NT.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50318, 61274, 78379, 21347024, 225721, 945024, 28013, 22235777, 222458, 40379651, 157959, 515707, 51377115, 7952, 7742, 21347024, 44929752, 21347057, 22194, 21291483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 77 ], [ 152, 158 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 183, 198 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 251, 262 ], [ 265, 281 ], [ 289, 319 ], [ 322, 346 ], [ 354, 357 ], [ 360, 372 ], [ 380, 383 ], [ 389, 406 ], [ 413, 420 ], [ 428, 434 ], [ 441, 443 ], [ 449, 452 ], [ 526, 535 ], [ 536, 552 ], [ 575, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first commercial implementation of a NUMA-based Unix system was the Symmetrical Multi Processing XPS-100 family of servers, designed by Dan Gielan of VAST Corporation for Honeywell Information Systems Italy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 225721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern CPUs operate considerably faster than the main memory they use. In the early days of computing and data processing, the CPU generally ran slower than its own memory. The performance lines of processors and memory crossed in the 1960s with the advent of the first supercomputers. Since then, CPUs increasingly have found themselves \"starved for data\" and having to stall while waiting for data to arrive from memory (e.g. for Von-Neumann architecture-based computers, see Von Neumann bottleneck). Many supercomputer designs of the 1980s and 1990s focused on providing high-speed memory access as opposed to faster processors, allowing the computers to work on large data sets at speeds other systems could not approach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 37153, 478091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 283 ], [ 478, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Limiting the number of memory accesses provided the key to extracting high performance from a modern computer. For commodity processors, this meant installing an ever-increasing amount of high-speed cache memory and using increasingly sophisticated algorithms to avoid cache misses. But the dramatic increase in size of the operating systems and of the applications run on them has generally overwhelmed these cache-processing improvements. Multi-processor systems without NUMA make the problem considerably worse. Now a system can starve several processors at the same time, notably because only one processor can access the computer's memory at a time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 6829, 6829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 211 ], [ 269, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NUMA attempts to address this problem by providing separate memory for each processor, avoiding the performance hit when several processors attempt to address the same memory. For problems involving spread data (common for servers and similar applications), NUMA can improve the performance over a single shared memory by a factor of roughly the number of processors (or separate memory banks). Another approach to addressing this problem is the multi-channel memory architecture, in which a linear increase in the number of memory channels increases the memory access concurrency linearly.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 42116, 2024036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 229 ], [ 446, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of course, not all data ends up confined to a single task, which means that more than one processor may require the same data. To handle these cases, NUMA systems include additional hardware or software to move data between memory banks. This operation slows the processors attached to those banks, so the overall speed increase due to NUMA heavily depends on the nature of the running tasks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AMD implemented NUMA with its Opteron processor (2003), using HyperTransport. Intel announced NUMA compatibility for its x86 and Itanium servers in late 2007 with its Nehalem and Tukwila CPUs. Both Intel CPU families share a common chipset; the interconnection is called Intel QuickPath Interconnect (QPI), which provides extremely high bandwidth to enable high on-board scalability and was replaced by a new version called Intel UltraPath Interconnect with the release of Skylake (2017).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 2400, 165237, 143270, 14617, 15454, 6833322, 484631, 302224, 1626918, 55267661, 31555577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 30, 37 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 78, 83 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 179, 186 ], [ 232, 239 ], [ 277, 299 ], [ 430, 452 ], [ 473, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nearly all CPU architectures use a small amount of very fast non-shared memory known as cache to exploit locality of reference in memory accesses. With NUMA, maintaining cache coherence across shared memory has a significant overhead. Although simpler to design and build, non-cache-coherent NUMA systems become prohibitively complex to program in the standard von Neumann architecture programming model.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cache coherent NUMA (ccNUMA)", "target_page_ids": [ 849181, 64028, 176865, 478091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 93 ], [ 105, 126 ], [ 170, 185 ], [ 361, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typically, ccNUMA uses inter-processor communication between cache controllers to keep a consistent memory image when more than one cache stores the same memory location. For this reason, ccNUMA may perform poorly when multiple processors attempt to access the same memory area in rapid succession. Support for NUMA in operating systems attempts to reduce the frequency of this kind of access by allocating processors and memory in NUMA-friendly ways and by avoiding scheduling and locking algorithms that make NUMA-unfriendly accesses necessary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cache coherent NUMA (ccNUMA)", "target_page_ids": [ 22194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alternatively, cache coherency protocols such as the MESIF protocol attempt to reduce the communication required to maintain cache coherency. Scalable Coherent Interface (SCI) is an IEEE standard defining a directory-based cache coherency protocol to avoid scalability limitations found in earlier multiprocessor systems. For example, SCI is used as the basis for the NumaConnect technology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cache coherent NUMA (ccNUMA)", "target_page_ids": [ 24591443, 152109, 56938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ], [ 142, 169 ], [ 182, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One can view NUMA as a tightly coupled form of cluster computing. The addition of virtual memory paging to a cluster architecture can allow the implementation of NUMA entirely in software. However, the inter-node latency of software-based NUMA remains several orders of magnitude greater (slower) than that of hardware-based NUMA.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "NUMA vs. cluster computing", "target_page_ids": [ 18949896, 32354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ], [ 83, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since NUMA largely influences memory access performance, certain software optimizations are needed to allow scheduling threads and processes close to their in-memory data.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Microsoft Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 added support for NUMA architecture over 64 logical cores.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [ 19001, 326123, 16090138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 11, 20 ], [ 25, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Java 7 added support for NUMA-aware memory allocator and garbage collector.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [ 7771171, 6734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 58, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Linux kernel:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [ 21347315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Version 2.5 provided a basic NUMA support, which was further improved in subsequent kernel releases.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Version 3.8 of the Linux kernel brought a new NUMA foundation that allowed development of more efficient NUMA policies in later kernel releases. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Version 3.13 of the Linux kernel brought numerous policies that aim at putting a process near its memory, together with the handling of cases such as having memory pages shared between processes, or the use of transparent huge pages; new sysctl settings allow NUMA balancing to be enabled or disabled, as well as the configuration of various NUMA memory balancing parameters.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [ 11254911, 11254911, 2665298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 168 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 238, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " OpenSolaris models NUMA architecture with lgroups.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [ 1178658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " FreeBSD added support for NUMA architecture in version 9.0.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [ 7580554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Silicon Graphics IRIX (discontinued as of 2021) support for ccNUMA architecture over 1240 CPU with Origin server series.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [ 28013, 14537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 17, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2011, ccNUMA systems are multiprocessor systems based on the AMD Opteron processor, which can be implemented without external logic, and the Intel Itanium processor, which requires the chipset to support NUMA. Examples of ccNUMA-enabled chipsets are the SGI Shub (Super hub), the Intel E8870, the HP sx2000 (used in the Integrity and Superdome servers), and those found in NEC Itanium-based systems. Earlier ccNUMA systems such as those from Silicon Graphics were based on MIPS processors and the DEC Alpha 21364 (EV7) processor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Hardware support", "target_page_ids": [ 165237, 15454, 21347024, 28013, 20170, 7952, 20133112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 78 ], [ 153, 170 ], [ 303, 305 ], [ 448, 464 ], [ 479, 483 ], [ 503, 506 ], [ 507, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Uniform memory access (UMA)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4346277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cache-only memory architecture (COMA)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 910307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scratchpad memory (SPM)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5164981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Partitioned global address space", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9000089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HiperDispatch", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19820372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NUMA FAQ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Page-based distributed shared memory", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OpenSolaris NUMA Project", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Introduction video for the Alpha EV7 system architecture", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " More videos related to EV7 systems: CPU, IO, etc", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NUMA optimization in Windows Applications", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NUMA Support in Linux at SGI", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Intel Tukwila", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Intel QPI (CSI) explained", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " current Itanium NUMA systems", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Parallel_computing", "Computer_memory" ]

[ "NUMA" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematical analysis, the Haar measure assigns an \"invariant volume\" to subsets of locally compact topological groups, consequently defining an integral for functions on those groups.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48396, 1651204, 15532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 24 ], [ 87, 120 ], [ 148, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This measure was introduced by Alfréd Haar in 1933, though its special case for Lie groups had been introduced by Adolf Hurwitz in 1897 under the name \"invariant integral\". Haar measures are used in many parts of analysis, number theory, group theory, representation theory, statistics, probability theory, and ergodic theory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19873, 491228, 17945, 771690, 48396, 21527, 41890, 19378200, 888711, 23542, 258986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 31, 42 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 213, 221 ], [ 223, 236 ], [ 238, 250 ], [ 252, 273 ], [ 275, 285 ], [ 287, 305 ], [ 311, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be a locally compact Hausdorff topological group. The -algebra generated by all open subsets of is called the Borel algebra. An element of the Borel algebra is called a Borel set. If is an element of and is a subset of , then we define the left and right translates of by g as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Preliminaries", "target_page_ids": [ 48632, 13637, 42315, 29586, 43327, 43327, 98759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 26, 35 ], [ 36, 53 ], [ 61, 69 ], [ 118, 131 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 267, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Left translate: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Preliminaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Right translate: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Preliminaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Left and right translates map Borel sets onto Borel sets.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Preliminaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A measure on the Borel subsets of is called left-translation-invariant if for all Borel subsets and all one has", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Preliminaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A measure on the Borel subsets of is called right-translation-invariant if for all Borel subsets and all one has", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Preliminaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is, up to a positive multiplicative constant, a unique countably additive, nontrivial measure on the Borel subsets of satisfying the following properties:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [ 44787, 1073567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ], [ 61, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The measure is left-translation-invariant: for every and all Borel sets .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The measure is finite on every compact set: for all compact .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The measure is outer regular on Borel sets : ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [ 521933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The measure is inner regular on open sets : ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [ 6703320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Such a measure on is called a left Haar measure. It can be shown as a consequence of the above properties that for every non-empty open subset . In particular, if is compact then is finite and positive, so we can uniquely specify a left Haar measure on by adding the normalization condition .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In complete analogy, one can also prove the existence and uniqueness of a right Haar measure on . The two measures need not coincide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some authors define a Haar measure on Baire sets rather than Borel sets. This makes the regularity conditions unnecessary as Baire measures are automatically regular. Halmos rather confusingly uses the term \"Borel set\" for elements of the -ring generated by compact sets, and defines Haar measures on these sets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [ 3976202, 318598, 6928351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 239, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The left Haar measure satisfies the inner regularity condition for all -finite Borel sets, but may not be inner regular for all Borel sets. For example, the product of the unit circle (with its usual topology) and the real line with the discrete topology is a locally compact group with the product topology and a Haar measure on this group is not inner regular for the closed subset . (Compact subsets of this vertical segment are finite sets and points have measure , so the measure of any compact subset of this vertical segment is . But, using outer regularity, one can show the segment has infinite measure.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [ 4316174, 24910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 78 ], [ 291, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The existence and uniqueness (up to scaling) of a left Haar measure was first proven in full generality by André Weil.<ref></ref> Weil's proof used the axiom of choice and Henri Cartan furnished a proof that avoided its use. Cartan's proof also establishes the existence and the uniqueness simultaneously. A simplified and complete account of Cartan's argument was given by Alfsen in 1963. The special case of invariant measure for second-countable locally compact groups had been shown by Haar in 1933.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Haar's theorem", "target_page_ids": [ 2019, 840, 362536, 24892046, 901459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 117 ], [ 152, 167 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 374, 380 ], [ 432, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following method of constructing Haar measure is essentially the method used by Haar and Weil.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For any subsets with nonempty define to be the smallest number of left translates of that cover (so this is a non-negative integer or infinity). This is not additive on compact sets , though it does have the property that for disjoint compact sets provided that is a sufficiently small open neighborhood of the identity (depending on and ). The idea of Haar measure is to take a sort of limit of as becomes smaller to make it additive on all pairs of disjoint compact sets, though it first has to be normalized so that the limit is not just infinity. So fix a compact set with non-empty interior (which exists as the group is locally compact) and for a compact set define", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the limit is taken over a suitable directed set of open neighborhoods of the identity eventually contained in any given neighborhood; the existence of a directed set such that the limit exists follows using Tychonoff's theorem.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [ 82739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The function is additive on disjoint compact subsets of , which implies that it is a regular content. From a regular content one can construct a measure by first extending to open sets by inner regularity, then to all sets by outer regularity, and then restricting it to Borel sets. (Even for open sets , the corresponding measure need not be given by the lim sup formula above. The problem is that the function given by the lim sup formula is not countably subadditive in general and in particular is infinite on any set without compact closure, so is not an outer measure.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [ 9999200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cartan introduced another way of constructing Haar measure as a Radon measure (a positive linear functional on compactly supported continuous functions) which is similar to the construction above except that , , and are positive continuous functions of compact support rather than subsets of . In this case we define to be the infimum of numbers such that is less than the linear combination of left translates of for some .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [ 521933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As before we define", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The fact that the limit exists takes some effort to prove, though the advantage of doing this is that the proof avoids the use of the axiom of choice and also gives uniqueness of Haar measure as a by-product. The functional extends to a positive linear functional on compactly supported continuous functions and so gives a Haar measure. (Note that even though the limit is linear in , the individual terms are not usually linear in .)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Von Neumann gave a method of constructing Haar measure using mean values of functions, though it only works for compact groups. The idea is that given a function on a compact group, one can find a convex combination (where ) of its left translates that differs from a constant function by at most some small number . Then one shows that as tends to zero the values of these constant functions tend to a limit, which is called the mean value (or integral) of the function .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [ 794534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For groups that are locally compact but not compact this construction does not give Haar measure as the mean value of compactly supported functions is zero. However something like this does work for almost periodic functions on the group which do have a mean value, though this is not given with respect to Haar measure.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [ 405512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On an n-dimensional Lie group, Haar measure can be constructed easily as the measure induced by a left-invariant n-form. This was known before Haar's theorem.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It can also be proved that there exists a unique (up to multiplication by a positive constant) right-translation-invariant Borel measure satisfying the above regularity conditions and being finite on compact sets, but it need not coincide with the left-translation-invariant measure . The left and right Haar measures are the same only for so-called unimodular groups (see below). It is quite simple, though, to find a relationship between and .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Indeed, for a Borel set , let us denote by the set of inverses of elements of . If we define ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "then this is a right Haar measure. To show right invariance, apply the definition:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because the right measure is unique, it follows that is a multiple of and so", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "for all Borel sets , where is some positive constant.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The left translate of a right Haar measure is a right Haar measure. More precisely, if is a right Haar measure, then for any fixed choice of a group element g,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "is also right invariant. Thus, by uniqueness up to a constant scaling factor of the Haar measure, there exists a function from the group to the positive reals, called the Haar modulus, modular function or modular character, such that for every Borel set ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since right Haar measure is well-defined up to a positive scaling factor, this equation shows the modular function is independent of the choice of right Haar measure in the above equation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The modular function is a continuous group homomorphism from G to the multiplicative group of positive real numbers. A group is called unimodular if the modular function is identically , or, equivalently, if the Haar measure is both left and right invariant. Examples of unimodular groups are abelian groups, compact groups, discrete groups (e.g., finite groups), semisimple Lie groups and connected nilpotent Lie groups. An example of a non-unimodular group is the group of affine transformations", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [ 47172571, 2974, 750326, 468536, 323707, 1337587, 144569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 115 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 309, 322 ], [ 325, 339 ], [ 348, 360 ], [ 364, 384 ], [ 400, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "on the real line. This example shows that a solvable Lie group need not be unimodular.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In this group a left Haar measure is given by , and a right Haar measure by .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The right Haar measure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the locally compact group acts transitively on a homogeneous space , one can ask if this space has an invariant measure, or more generally a semi-invariant measure with the property that for some character of . A necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of such a measure is that the restriction is equal to , where and are the modular functions of and respectively. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Measures on homogeneous spaces", "target_page_ids": [ 363325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In particular an invariant measure on exists if and only if the modular function of restricted to is the modular function of .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Measures on homogeneous spaces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If is the group and is the subgroup of upper triangular matrices, then the modular function of is nontrivial but the modular function of is trivial. The quotient of these cannot be extended to any character of , so the quotient space (which can be thought of as 1-dimensional real projective space) does not have even a semi-invariant measure.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Measures on homogeneous spaces", "target_page_ids": [ 1014694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using the general theory of Lebesgue integration, one can then define an integral for all Borel measurable functions on . This integral is called the Haar integral and is denoted as:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Haar integral", "target_page_ids": [ 26064288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the Haar measure.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Haar integral", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One property of a left Haar measure is that, letting be an element of , the following is valid:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Haar integral", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "for any Haar integrable function on . This is immediate for indicator functions:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Haar integral", "target_page_ids": [ 240790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which is essentially the definition of left invariance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Haar integral", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the same issue of Annals of Mathematics and immediately after Haar's paper, the Haar theorem was used to solve Hilbert's fifth problem for compact groups by John von Neumann.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2785, 152760, 15942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ], [ 114, 137 ], [ 160, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unless is a discrete group, it is impossible to define a countably additive left-invariant regular measure on all subsets of , assuming the axiom of choice, according to the theory of non-measurable sets.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 840, 620134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 156 ], [ 186, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Haar measures are used in harmonic analysis on locally compact groups, particularly in the theory of Pontryagin duality. To prove the existence of a Haar measure on a locally compact group it suffices to exhibit a left-invariant Radon measure on .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 14147, 366136, 521933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 47 ], [ 105, 123 ], [ 234, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mathematical statistics, Haar measures are used for prior measures, which are prior probabilities for compact groups of transformations. These prior measures are used to construct admissible procedures, by appeal to the characterization of admissible procedures as Bayesian procedures (or limits of Bayesian procedures) by Wald. For example, a right Haar measure for a family of distributions with a location parameter results in the Pitman estimator, which is best equivariant. When left and right Haar measures differ, the right measure is usually preferred as a prior distribution. For the group of affine transformations on the parameter space of the normal distribution, the right Haar measure is the Jeffreys prior measure. Unfortunately, even right Haar measures sometimes result in useless priors, which cannot be recommended for practical use, like other methods of constructing prior measures that avoid subjective information.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 472877, 1776726, 404412, 1239430, 17516, 16959378, 1583470, 16959378, 1901158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 100 ], [ 183, 203 ], [ 268, 287 ], [ 326, 330 ], [ 403, 421 ], [ 437, 453 ], [ 464, 468 ], [ 469, 480 ], [ 709, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another use of Haar measure in statistics is in conditional inference, in which the sampling distribution of a statistic is conditioned on another statistic of the data. In invariant-theoretic conditional inference, the sampling distribution is conditioned on an invariant of the group of transformations (with respect to which the Haar measure is defined). The result of conditioning sometimes depends on the order in which invariants are used and on the choice of a maximal invariant, so that by itself a statistical principle of invariance fails to select any unique best conditional statistic (if any exist); at least another principle is needed.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 16069052, 46498403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 69 ], [ 508, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For non-compact groups, statisticians have extended Haar-measure results using amenable groups.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 657430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1936, André Weil proved a converse (of sorts) to Haar's theorem, by showing that if a group has a left invariant measure with a certain separating property, then one can define a topology on the group, and the completion of the group is locally compact and the given measure is essentially the same as the Haar measure on this completion.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Weil's converse theorem", "target_page_ids": [ 2019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Invariant measure", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7635201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pontryagin duality", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 366136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Riesz–Markov–Kakutani representation theorem", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38948504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " André Weil, Basic Number Theory'', Academic Press, 1971.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The existence and uniqueness of the Haar integral on a locally compact topological group - by Gert K. Pedersen", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On the Existence and Uniqueness of Invariant Measures on Locally Compact Groups - by Simon Rubinstein-Salzedo", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Lie_groups", "Topological_groups", "Measures_(measure_theory)", "Harmonic_analysis" ]

[ "left Haar measure", "right Haar measure", "Haar integral" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Viggo Brun (13 October 1885 15 August 1978) was a Norwegian professor, mathematician and number theorist. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21241, 18902, 21527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 60 ], [ 72, 85 ], [ 90, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1915, he introduced a new method, based on Legendre's version of the sieve of Eratosthenes, now known as the Brun sieve, which addresses additive problems such as Goldbach's conjecture and the twin prime conjecture. He used it to prove that there exist infinitely many integers n such that n and n+2 have at most nine prime factors, and that all large even integers are the sum of two numbers with at most nine prime factors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 49695, 73415, 18731525, 44758, 41997, 23666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 72, 93 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 166, 187 ], [ 196, 217 ], [ 321, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He also showed that the sum of the reciprocals of twin primes converges to a finite value, now called Brun's constant: by contrast, the sum of the reciprocals of all primes is divergent. He developed a multi-dimensional continued fraction algorithm in 1919–1920 and applied this to problems in musical theory. He also served as praeses of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters in 1946.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 41997, 2796181, 249208, 46802, 54783, 541633, 20461508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 132, 185 ], [ 220, 238 ], [ 294, 308 ], [ 328, 335 ], [ 343, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brun was born at Lier in Buskerud, Norway. He studied at the University of Oslo and began research at the University of Göttingen in 1910. In 1923, Brun became a professor at the ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 171180, 31800, 180763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 61, 79 ], [ 106, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Technical University in Trondheim and in 1946 a professor at the University of Oslo.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 295967, 31800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 65, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He retired in 1955 at the age of 70 and died in 1978 (at 92 years-old) at Drøbak in Akershus, Norway.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 194004, 171179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 80 ], [ 84, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brun's theorem", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2796181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brun-Titchmarsh theorem", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18253221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brun sieve", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18731525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sieve theory", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1035915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " H. Halberstam and H. E. Richert, Sieve methods, Academic Press (1974) . Gives an account of Brun's sieve.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other sources", "target_page_ids": [ 4872223, 18541613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 19, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " C.J. Scriba, Viggo Brun, Historia Mathematica 7 (1980) 1–6.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " C.J. Scriba, Zur Erinnerung an Viggo Brun, Mitt. Math. Ges. Hamburg 11 (1985) 271-290", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brun's Constant", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brun's Pure Sieve", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Viggo Brun personal archive exists at NTN University Library Dorabiblioteket", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1885_births", "1978_deaths", "People_from_Lier,_Norway", "Norwegian_mathematicians", "20th-century_Norwegian_mathematicians", "Number_theorists", "University_of_Oslo_alumni", "Norwegian_Institute_of_Technology_faculty", "University_of_Oslo_faculty", "Royal_Norwegian_Society_of_Sciences_and_Letters", "People_from_Frogn" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Buffy Anne Summers is the title character of the Buffy the Vampire Slayer franchise. She first appeared in the 1992 film Buffy the Vampire Slayer before going on to appear in The WB/UPN 1997–2003 television series and subsequent 1998–2018 Dark Horse and 2019–present Boom! Studios comic series of the same name. The character has also appeared in the spin-off series Angel, as well as numerous expanded universe materials such as novels and video games. Buffy was portrayed by Kristy Swanson in the film and by Sarah Michelle Gellar in the television series. Giselle Loren has lent her voice to the character in both the Buffy video games and an unproduced animated series, while Kelly Albanese lent her voice to the character in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight motion comics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1221008, 47542, 4231, 178240, 32306, 47542, 184181, 5618813, 3603219, 7285190, 143433, 2209256, 3603179, 3603132, 692698, 27611, 4602783, 4578671, 95673, 9327429, 21891124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 41 ], [ 49, 73 ], [ 121, 145 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 182, 185 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 239, 249 ], [ 267, 280 ], [ 281, 310 ], [ 351, 359 ], [ 367, 372 ], [ 394, 411 ], [ 430, 436 ], [ 441, 452 ], [ 477, 491 ], [ 511, 532 ], [ 559, 572 ], [ 646, 672 ], [ 704, 709 ], [ 734, 771 ], [ 772, 784 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buffy Summers is the protagonist of the series, which depicts her life and adventures as she grows up. In the film, she is a high school cheerleader who learns that she is the Slayer (a Chosen One gifted with the strength and skills to fight vampires and the forces of darkness, as a vampire hunter and demon hunter). The television series shows Buffy carrying out her destiny in the small town of Sunnydale, built atop a portal to hell (Hellmouth), surrounded by a group of friends and family who support her in her mission. In the comic book continuation, she is a young woman who has accepted her duties and is now responsible for training others like her.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 68315, 6749, 870049, 4018103, 2437200, 71308220, 5098574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 137, 148 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 242, 250 ], [ 284, 298 ], [ 303, 315 ], [ 432, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buffy was created by Joss Whedon to subvert the stereotypical female horror film victim—Whedon wanted to create a strong female cultural icon. In 2004, Buffy was ranked 13th on Bravo's list of The 100 Greatest TV Characters. In June 2010, Entertainment Weekly ranked her third in its list of the 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years. AOL named her the sixth Most Memorable Female TV Character. She was ranked at No. 5 in AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18956166, 5974844, 351810, 541239, 1397, 25120345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 128, 141 ], [ 177, 182 ], [ 239, 259 ], [ 342, 345 ], [ 429, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The character of Buffy first appears in the 1992 film, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, played by Kristy Swanson. The film, written by Joss Whedon, depicts Buffy as a shallow high school cheerleader who is informed by a man named Merrick (Donald Sutherland) that she has been chosen by fate to battle the undead. Buffy reluctantly undergoes training in her abilities by Merrick, and as her responsibility as the Slayer causes her to become alienated from her valley girl peers, she finds friendship and romance with fellow outcast Pike (Luke Perry). Merrick eventually comes to respect Buffy's rebellious nature, and she defeats vampire king Lothos (Rutger Hauer) by relying on her own contemporary style as opposed to traditional Slayer conventions. Although this film is not in continuity with the later television series, in 1999, author Christopher Golden adapted Joss Whedon's original script into a comic book entitled \"The Origin\", which Whedon later confirmed to be \"pretty much\" canonical.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 4231, 692698, 3390086, 129237, 469691, 31938, 105925, 3390086, 220441, 37500, 5899, 3556731, 3808234, 3637817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 79 ], [ 91, 105 ], [ 223, 230 ], [ 232, 249 ], [ 279, 283 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 452, 463 ], [ 524, 528 ], [ 530, 540 ], [ 643, 655 ], [ 773, 783 ], [ 834, 852 ], [ 919, 929 ], [ 981, 990 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 25, 2009, The Hollywood Reporter revealed Roy Lee and Doug Davison of Vertigo Entertainment would be working with Fran Rubel Kuzui and Kazi Kuzui on a relaunch of the Buffy series for the big screen. The series would not be a sequel or prequel to the existing movie or television franchise and Joss Whedon will have no involvement in the project. None of the cast or original characters from the television series will be featured. Television series executive producer Marti Noxon later reflected that this story might have been produced by the studio to frighten Joss into taking reins of the project. Studio interest in the project has continued, however. A script was rejected in 2011.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 791422, 7707155, 47809454, 3676994, 477963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 39 ], [ 49, 56 ], [ 77, 98 ], [ 121, 137 ], [ 476, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buffy returned in Joss Whedon's television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, this time played by Sarah Michelle Gellar for all of the show's 144 episodes. In season one (1997), Buffy begins to accept the responsibilities and dangers of her calling as the Slayer after moving to the small California town of Sunnydale. She becomes best friends with Xander Harris (Nicholas Brendon) and Willow Rosenberg (Alyson Hannigan), and meets her new Watcher, the school librarian, Rupert Giles (Anthony Stewart Head). Together they form the Scooby Gang, and work together to battle various supernatural occurrences which plague Sunnydale High. In the season finale, Buffy battles the vampiric villain known as the Master (Mark Metcalf), and is drowned in the process. She is resuscitated by Xander and rises to defeat the vampire lord.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 47542, 27611, 158075, 170608, 184204, 213735, 37727, 43997, 706305, 156318, 18940639, 1360865, 170608, 625884, 1764518, 66392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 74 ], [ 96, 117 ], [ 140, 152 ], [ 306, 315 ], [ 347, 360 ], [ 362, 378 ], [ 384, 400 ], [ 402, 417 ], [ 438, 445 ], [ 469, 481 ], [ 483, 503 ], [ 570, 602 ], [ 616, 630 ], [ 702, 708 ], [ 710, 722 ], [ 763, 775 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the show's second season (1997–1998), Buffy continues to come to terms with her destiny, finds forbidden love with benevolent vampire Angel (David Boreanaz), and clashes with new villains Spike (James Marsters) and Drusilla (Juliet Landau). She also meets her Slayer replacement, Kendra (Bianca Lawson), who was called when Buffy was killed by the Master. Kendra is later killed by Drusilla, and the next replacement is seen in season 3. In the episode \"Surprise\", Buffy loses her virginity to Angel, an event which triggers the loss of his soul and unleashes his sadistic alter-ego, Angelus. Angelus proceeds to subject the characters to mental and physical torture for the remainder of the season. In the final episode of season two, Buffy is forced to reveal her identity as the Slayer to her mother (Kristine Sutherland), and send the newly good Angel to hell to save the world. She then leaves Sunnydale for Los Angeles in the hopes of escaping her life as the Slayer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 693254, 159269, 74953, 213728, 159443, 345768, 3390086, 1563699, 903431, 847644, 1156084, 5098574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 142 ], [ 144, 158 ], [ 191, 196 ], [ 198, 212 ], [ 218, 226 ], [ 228, 241 ], [ 283, 289 ], [ 291, 304 ], [ 457, 465 ], [ 799, 805 ], [ 807, 826 ], [ 862, 866 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Season three (1998–1999) sees Buffy reconnect to her calling, her friends, and her family after her departure, as well as make difficult life decisions regarding her relationship with the resurrected Angel. She must also deal with the introduction of rebellious new Slayer Faith (Eliza Dushku), who becomes increasingly destructive and disloyal over the course of the season. In the season finale, Buffy stabs Faith in an attempt to save Angel's life, and leads her classmates into a climactic battle against the demonic Mayor of Sunnydale (Harry Groener). Angel then leaves Sunnydale in hopes that Buffy can have a more normal life without him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 236444, 236447, 705037, 1866511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 278 ], [ 280, 292 ], [ 521, 539 ], [ 541, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the fourth season (1999–2000), Buffy balances her Slayer duties with her new life as a college student at UC Sunnydale. She experiences some difficulty adjusting to college life, and becomes increasingly disconnected from her friends, who all seem to be moving in different directions. Buffy eventually finds a new love interest in the form of Riley Finn (Marc Blucas), a soldier in the demon-hunting government task force known as The Initiative. She briefly joins forces with Riley's team, until they discover one of the Initiative's experiments, Adam (George Hertzberg), is creating an army of demon-human hybrids. Buffy unites with her friends to defeat Adam in a spell which invokes the power of the First Slayer. During Buffy season four, Buffy also appears in the first season of spin-off series Angel (1999–2000), guest starring in the episodes \"I Will Remember You\" and \"Sanctuary\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 31921, 236301, 1603875, 195149, 205394, 626913, 5752023, 870049, 1792278, 3462379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 111 ], [ 347, 357 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 404, 414 ], [ 415, 425 ], [ 552, 556 ], [ 558, 574 ], [ 708, 720 ], [ 857, 876 ], [ 883, 892 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In season five (2000–2001), Buffy battles the hell-goddess Glory (Clare Kramer), and fully embraces her destiny for the first time. A younger sister named Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg) mysteriously appears in Buffy's household, her existence having been seamlessly integrated with memories of the other characters. Buffy suffers emotional turmoil throughout this season, including the realization Dawn is not actually her sister, the deterioration of her relationship with Riley, the discovery that Spike has fallen obsessively in love with her, and her mother's death from a brain aneurysm. While on a quest to learn more about her nature as the Slayer, Buffy is told \"death is her gift, a message she has difficulty understanding until the episode \"The Gift\", in which she sacrifices herself to save Dawn and the world by diving into Glory's interdimensional portal and closing it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 242333, 569902, 158139, 256004, 7670972, 219906, 2752848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 64 ], [ 66, 78 ], [ 155, 159 ], [ 161, 182 ], [ 515, 534 ], [ 575, 589 ], [ 750, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Season six (2001–2002) depicts Buffy's struggle with depression after her friends, believing she was trapped in a Hell dimension, performed a spell to bring her back from the dead; however, she was actually in Heaven, and feels great loss after being ripped out. Forced to take a mundane and degrading job slinging burgers at the Doublemeat Palace after realizing her family were in financial ruin, she sinks into a deep depression amid feelings of self-loathing and spends much of the season on a downward spiral alienating her friends and family and embarking on a violent sexual relationship with the vampire Spike which leaves neither satisfied and spawns dire consequences for the both of them. Aside from dealing with her emotional and psychological demons in this season, Buffy is continually targeted by a group calling themselves The Trio - Warren Mears (Adam Busch), Andrew Wells (Tom Lenk), and Jonathan Levinson (Danny Strong). Initially satisfied with only wreaking havoc for personal gain in Sunnydale, the Trio soon become bent on becoming a powerful nemesis to the Slayer. At first, their activities are merely annoying to Buffy and the Scoobies, but Warren's intentions become darker as the season goes on, and by the end Buffy is forced to deal with the Trio as the Slayer, while Andrew and Jonathan must come to grips with Warren's betrayal against them. As the season draws to a close, Buffy is forced to battle her best friend when Willow becomes psychotic with dark magic after Warren shoots and kills Willow's girlfriend Tara (Amber Benson) and wounds Buffy in the process. Willow then tries to destroy the world to end all suffering, although Xander gets through to her in the end. Buffy then promises to change her self-destructive behavior to be there for her sister.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 5098574, 13811, 54923, 225766, 225766, 345562, 185089, 33696797, 33686027, 345678, 211256, 220250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 118 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 330, 347 ], [ 839, 847 ], [ 850, 862 ], [ 864, 874 ], [ 877, 889 ], [ 891, 899 ], [ 906, 923 ], [ 925, 937 ], [ 1544, 1548 ], [ 1550, 1562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the final season of the show (2002–2003), things start to come around for Buffy when Principal Robin Wood (D. B. Woodside) hires her as a school counselor for the newly rebuilt Sunnydale High School and she has repaired her relationships with Dawn and her friends. However, she is also confronted with the threat of the First Evil and becomes a reluctant leader to the Potential Slayers, who are initially respectful of her, but become increasingly more alienated by her tactics and decisions throughout the season. She unexpectedly becomes emotionally close with Spike, who has sought out his soul in an effort to prove himself to her. In the show's final episode \"Chosen\", Buffy shares her power with her fellow Slayers before leading them into an epic battle against an army of Turok-Han vampires. She also confesses her love to a disbelieving Spike before he sacrifices himself to save the world; as he dies, Buffy escapes Sunnydale's destruction with the surviving characters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 959259, 2334296, 702302, 870049, 1247013, 2585860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 108 ], [ 110, 124 ], [ 323, 333 ], [ 372, 389 ], [ 669, 675 ], [ 784, 793 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the end of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, the character maintains a presence in the fifth season of Angel (2003–2004), but does not appear onscreen. In the episode \"The Girl in Question\", Angel and a resurrected Spike travel to Rome to find her, where they learn she is apparently now dating the Immortal. Sarah Michelle Gellar was approached to appear as Buffy in Angels one hundredth episode, but declined, so the character of Cordelia Chase (Charisma Carpenter) was used instead. She was asked to appear in the second to last episode of the series, \"Power Play\", but had to decline due to outside conflicts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 2737448, 25458, 3333003, 997743, 37574, 159281, 1506906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 190 ], [ 233, 237 ], [ 301, 309 ], [ 377, 398 ], [ 434, 448 ], [ 450, 468 ], [ 558, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 2001 and 2004, Joss Whedon and Jeph Loeb developed a 4-minute pilot episode for Buffy the Animated Series, which was set during the show's first season. Had the series been picked up by a network, the series would have focused upon Buffy (voiced by Giselle Loren) in more high-school adventures. Following a 2008 leak of the pilot to YouTube, Loeb expressed some hope the series may be resurrected in some form.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 1321703, 4578671, 4602783, 2750352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 48 ], [ 88, 113 ], [ 257, 270 ], [ 321, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the main character of the franchise, Buffy appears in almost all Buffy the Vampire Slayer literature. This includes a Dark Horse ongoing comic book and a series of novels. Buffy's debut into literature came in the comic Dark Horse Presents 1998 Annual on August 26, 1998, while her first prose appearance was in Halloween Rain by Christopher Golden and Nancy Holder on October 5, 1998. Most of these stories occur between episodes and seasons of the television series, however, some are set outside the timeline of the show to explore in depth other areas of Buffy's history. Christopher Golden adapted the film into a comic entitled \"The Origin\" (1999) which more closely resembles Joss Whedon's original script. In 2003, Scott Lobdell and Fabian Nicieza wrote a Year One-style run on the Buffy comic book series which filled the gap between the film and the first season of the show. These stories explain how Buffy's relationship with Pike ended, as well as fleshing out events alluded to in the television series, such as the time she spent in a mental institution and her parents' divorce. The novel Queen of the Slayers (2005) by Nancy Holder offers a potential follow-up to the television series; set after season seven, it depicts Buffy living in Italy with the morally ambiguous Immortal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 184181, 6070947, 3603219, 3603179, 3603644, 3556731, 3556835, 935232, 2015404, 765897, 3676139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 131 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 157, 173 ], [ 315, 329 ], [ 333, 351 ], [ 356, 368 ], [ 726, 739 ], [ 744, 758 ], [ 767, 775 ], [ 1108, 1128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buffy also makes appearances in literature outside of her own titular series. In the Tales of the Slayers comic one-shot \"Broken Bottle of Djinn\" (2002) by Doug Petrie and Jane Espenson, Buffy battles a spirit in Sunnydale High, while the Tales of the Vampires comic book story \"Antique\" (2004) by Drew Goddard sees her breaking into Dracula's castle to rescue Xander from the infamous vampire. Volume II of the similar series of novels Tales of the Slayer (2003) features two stories about Buffy; the character battles a mummified spirit in Todd A. McIntosh's \"All That You Do Comes Back Unto Thee,\" while Jane Espenson's \"Again Sunnydale\" sees a season six-era Buffy sent back in time to high school, when her mother is still alive but Dawn does not exist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 3048160, 1023907, 3808669, 1499173, 1798535, 4238260, 3492335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 105 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 156, 167 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 239, 260 ], [ 298, 310 ], [ 437, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Buffy's story continued on from season seven when Joss Whedon revived Buffy the Vampire Slayer as a comic book, again published by Dark Horse. Whedon differentiated these comics from previous Buffy literature, stating \"We could do something and for once we could make it canon. We could make it officially what happened after the end of the show.\" The continuation series emulates the structure of a television series, with five \"seasons\" published between 2007 and 2018 and Whedon overseeing multiple writers in the role of \"executive producer\". ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Season Eight (2007–2011), it is quickly established that Buffy is not living with the Immortal in Rome as previously suggested in Angel; this is simply a cover story to ensure her safety as she is now the leader of an army which recruits and trains Slayers to deal with demonic threats worldwide. However, a mysterious group led by the masked villain Twilight believe the Slayers themselves pose a danger to mankind and the natural order. In \"Wolves at the Gate\", a lonely Buffy shares a sexual encounter with a younger Slayer Satsu; the relationship ends soon after when Satsu accepts that Buffy does not return her romantic feelings. The time travel story \"Time of Your Life\" acts as a crossover with Buffy spin-off Fray; Buffy is kidnapped two centuries into the future and meets her eventual successor Melaka Fray and Fray's vampire twin brother Harth. These events have been orchestrated by a villainous future version of Willow, whom Buffy reluctantly kills to return home. The tensions between Buffy and Twilight's respective armies eventually erupts into a full-scale war in Tibet; Twilight is unmasked as Angel being manipulated by enigmatic cosmic forces trying to destroy the universe and usher in a new dimension where Buffy and Angel will live together in paradise. However, Buffy rejects Twilight's influence and saves her world by returning to the ruins of Sunnydale and smashing the Seed of Wonder, cutting Earth off from the source of all magic in the process. During these events, Buffy reunites with Spike, Giles is killed by a Twilight-controlled Angel, and the Slayer army is dissolved; Buffy moves to San Francisco with her friends to grieve their losses.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 9327429, 14788738, 26314711, 2545650, 17756165, 18747191, 31516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 448, 466 ], [ 532, 537 ], [ 646, 657 ], [ 665, 682 ], [ 812, 823 ], [ 1091, 1096 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast to the global scale of Season Eight, Season Nine (2011–2013) follows Buffy living a more grounded civilian life in San Francisco; she works in a local coffee shop and shares an apartment with roommates Anaheed and Tumble. Buffy is now a pariah in the supernatural community due to her destruction of magic and must deal with \"zompires\", a feral new breed of vampires which have emerged since demons can no longer access Earth and fully possess human bodies. After getting blackout drunk at her housewarming party, Buffy has a pregnancy scare and turns to Spike for support when she decides to have an abortion; the pregnancy turns out to be a misunderstanding caused by Andrew, who switched Buffy's body with a robot as part of a misguided plan to keep her safe. In \"Guarded\", Buffy explores new career opportunities by temporarily joining Kennedy's private security company Deepscan and shutting down TinCan, an interdimensional social media site run by long-term Angel villains Wolfram & Hart. With most of her existing relationships strained, Buffy makes new allies in SFPD homicide detective Dowling and teenage vampire hunter Billy, and joins a magical council alongside demons D’Hoffryn and Illyria to battle the evil Slayer Simone and magic-siphoning Severin. When Dawn starts fading from existence due to the absence of magic, Buffy reunites with Willow and Xander in \"The Core\" to save her, journeying deep within the Earth to create a new Seed of Wonder and battling Maloker, an Old One and progenitor of all vampires, in the process. During Season Nine, Buffy also makes minor appearances in the spin-off comics Spike: A Dark Place, Willow: Wonderland, and Angel & Faith.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 26695512, 9660402, 1771587, 8070831, 8097974, 2754021, 2463611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 60 ], [ 486, 500 ], [ 540, 549 ], [ 865, 889 ], [ 995, 1009 ], [ 1087, 1091 ], [ 1416, 1448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having restored magic to the world, Season Ten (2014–2016) picks up with Buffy and her friends reluctantly responsible for creating the laws governing it; Buffy must guard the ancient grimoire Vampyr in which the new laws of magic are formalized when recorded in the book. Some rules have already materialized without Buffy's input (zompires are extinct and vampires now possess heightened strength and shapeshifting powers) and new rules tend to have unforeseen Monkey's Paw-style consequences. Daunted and tempted by this new-found power, Buffy seeks the advice of D’Hoffryn and his magical council, as well as lobbyists from various mystical and demonic communities pursuing their own conflicting agendas. Meanwhile, Buffy and Spike's decision to pursue an official romantic relationship is complicated by the manipulations of the demon Archaeus and the subsequent assistance by Angel; in the one-shot issue \"Triggers\", Buffy expresses her repressed trauma over the sexual assault she experienced from soulless Spike back in the television episode \"Seeing Red\". Following his resurrection in the spin-off series Angel & Faith, Giles reunites with Buffy, and the paternal relationship they share is reaffirmed when Buffy's father Hank excludes her from his wedding. D’Hoffryn eventually turns on Buffy and murders the rest of the council to seize the power of Vampyr for himself; finally accepting the responsibility she has been avoiding, Buffy outsmarts D’Hoffryn, commits to her relationship with Spike, and organizes her own council with whom to codify the laws of magic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 40827731, 12284, 333495, 48934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 464, 476 ], [ 615, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Season Eleven (2016–17) opens in disaster when a huge Shenlong dragon attacks San Francisco, killing thousands. In response to public outrage, the US President Malloy introduces the Supernatural Crisis Act, a set of new policies claiming to \"legalize and normalise\" the supernatural; this begins with a census and quickly leads to the relocation of magical individuals to the \"Safe Zone\", an internment camp in the Grand Canyon. Buffy rejects an opportunity to join a Slayer peacekeeping force alongside the antagonistic Jordan, and instead opts to join Willow and Spike at the Safe Zone, where she does her best to maintain peace and protect innocent or harmless inmates. Buffy and Willow eventually agree to have their powers removed to leave the camp and further investigate the Pandora Project, a government conspiracy to drain and abuse magical energy; they expose White House Press Secretary Joanna Wise for summoning the Shenlong in the first place to put her plans in motion. Buffy briefly reabsorbs the power of all the Slayers in the world to battle the magic-infused Wise, but returns the power by the season's final issue, warning a repentant Jordan not to misuse it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 51119778, 274101, 191537, 46989, 5530, 284101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 54, 62 ], [ 393, 408 ], [ 416, 428 ], [ 804, 825 ], [ 873, 900 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, it was announced that Dark Horse was losing the license to publish Buffy comics; Joss Whedon's intent for the final season was to \"give the Dark Horse era some closure\". The four-issue The Reckoning (2018) picks up one year after Season Eleven, with a thirty-year-old Buffy pondering her future; she is separated but on cordial terms with Spike, still working as a part-time police consultant, and a doting aunt to Dawn and Xander's baby daughter Joyce. Tying up story elements first alluded to in 2001's Fray, Buffy is warned about an apocalypse called \"the Reckoning\" led by time travelling vampire Harth, in which the Slayers are depowered and Buffy is banished to a hell dimension battling an army of demons. With help from her friends, and those of Angel and Fray, Buffy proactively takes the fight to Harth in an attempt to change her fate; Illyria sacrifices herself to banish the demons in Buffy's place, altering history. After the battle, Buffy becomes a fulltime member of the SFPD supernatural division alongside Faith, reconnects with Spike, and comforts a grieving Angel over Illyria. Meanwhile, unbeknownst to Buffy, Fray returns to the 23rd century to discover her world has been drastically improved by the continued presence of many Slayers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 44021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1210, 1230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, Buffy was reinvented by Boom! Studios in their ongoing comic Buffy the Vampire Slayer. This series is a complete reboot and has no continuity with any previous stories; Buffy is depicted as a teenager in 2019 rather than the 1990s. She is already aware of her destiny as the Slayer and has been living in Sunnydale for only three weeks when the series begins. She befriends Willow and Xander after saving them from a vampire outside Tunaverse, the fast food restaurant where she works.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 5618813, 60611630, 399675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 70, 94 ], [ 123, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An early influence for Buffy was Kelli Maroney's character in the 1984 science-fiction horror film Night of the Comet. The character of Buffy was conceived by Joss Whedon as a way of subverting the cliché of \"the little blonde girl who goes into a dark alley and gets killed in every horror film\". Whedon stated \"Rhonda the Immortal Waitress\" was the first incarnation of Buffy in his head, \"the idea of a seemingly insignificant female who in fact turns out to be extraordinary.\" When asked how he came up with the name of \"Buffy,\" Whedon states \"It was the name that I could think of that I could take the least seriously. There is no way you could hear the name Buffy and think, 'This is an important person.' To juxtapose that with Vampire Slayer, just felt like that kind of thing—a B movie. But a B movie that had something more going on. That was my dream.\" Whedon claims the title was criticized for being too silly, and the television network begged him to change it. He refused, insisting \"You don't understand. It has to be this. This is what it is.\" Jason Middleton feels that Buffy avoids the \"final girl\" character trope seen in horror films, where the androgynous and celibate heroine gets to outlive her friends and exact revenge on their killer; in Middleton's words, \"she... gets to have sex with boys and still kill the monster\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Concept and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 2387667, 2381862, 105391, 1739903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 99, 117 ], [ 788, 795 ], [ 1107, 1117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whedon always intended for the character to become an icon, claiming \"I wanted her to be a hero that existed in people's minds the way Wonder Woman or Spider-Man does, you know? I wanted her to be a doll or an action figure. I wanted Barbie with Kung Fu grip! I wanted her to enter the mass consciousness and the imaginations of growing kids because I think she's a cool character, and that was always the plan. I wanted Buffy to be a cultural phenomenon, period.\" In developing Buffy, Whedon was greatly inspired by Kitty Pryde, a character from the pages of the superhero comic X-Men. He admits, \"If there's a bigger influence on Buffy than Kitty, I don't know what it was... She was an adolescent girl finding out she has great power and dealing with it.\" In a 2009 interview, Whedon revealed he only recently realised how much he saw of himself in Buffy. After years of relating more to Xander, he says, \"Buffy was always the person that I was in that story because I'm not in every way.\" Whedon openly wonders why his identification figure is a woman, but describes it as \"a real autobiographical kind of therapy for me\" to be writing a strong female character like Buffy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Concept and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 111582, 27936, 164328, 394055, 43076, 34218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 147 ], [ 151, 161 ], [ 234, 240 ], [ 517, 528 ], [ 564, 573 ], [ 580, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Whedon, Buffy \"had been brewing in [him] for many years\" before finally appearing in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer film played by Kristy Swanson. However, he was not satisfied with the character's treatment in the film, feeling \"that's not quite her. It's a start, but it's not quite the girl.\" Although Whedon's vision of female empowerment was not as apparent as he would have liked in the 1992 film, he was given a second chance when Gail Berman approached him with the idea of re-creating it as a television series. Adapting the concept of the movie into a television series, Whedon decided to reinvent the character of Buffy slightly. The shallow cheerleader of the original film had grown more mature and open-minded, identifying with social outcasts such as Willow and Xander, and instead, the character of Cordelia was created to embody what Buffy once was. Early in the television series, make-up supervisor Todd McIntosh was instructed to make Buffy \"a soft and sort of earthy character.\" He gave Gellar a soft, muted green make-up and kept her look very natural. However, it was later decided this was inappropriate for the character, and Buffy needed to look more like a valley girl. McIntosh switched her make-up around, giving her frosted eyeshadow and lip colors, bright turquoise and aqua marines, bubblegum colored nails, and bleach-blonde hair, causing the character to \"blossom.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Concept and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 556515, 105925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 449, 460 ], [ 1195, 1206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Buffy Summers on IMDb", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2855554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 22 ] ] } ]

[ "Angel_(1999_TV_series)_characters", "Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer_characters", "Characters_created_by_Joss_Whedon", "American_female_characters_in_television", "Female_characters_in_television", "Television_characters_introduced_in_1992", "Female_superheroes", "Fictional_characters_with_post-traumatic_stress_disorder", "Fictional_characters_from_Los_Angeles", "Fictional_college_students", "Fictional_cheerleaders", "Fictional_demon_hunters", "Fictional_members_of_secret_societies", "Fictional_school_counselors", "Fictional_vampire_hunters", "Fictional_women_soldiers_and_warriors", "Fantasy_film_characters", "Female_horror_film_characters", "Slayers_(Buffyverse)", "Teenage_characters_in_film", "Teenage_characters_in_television", "Female_characters_in_comics", "Fictional_high_school_students" ]

[ "Buffy Anne Summers" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In most biological nomenclature, a scale (; ) is a small rigid plate that grows out of an animal's skin to provide protection. In lepidopteran (butterfly and moth) species, scales are plates on the surface of the insect wing, and provide coloration. Scales are quite common and have evolved multiple times through convergent evolution, with varying structure and function.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9127632, 391896, 50220795, 11039790, 27978, 53307, 48338, 66633, 4926056, 82804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 18 ], [ 19, 31 ], [ 63, 68 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 99, 103 ], [ 130, 141 ], [ 144, 153 ], [ 158, 162 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 314, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scales are generally classified as part of an organism's integumentary system. There are various types of scales according to shape and to class of animal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 59660, 61762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 77 ], [ 139, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fish scales are dermally derived, specifically in the mesoderm. This fact distinguishes them from reptile scales paleontologically.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [ 27978, 39044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 54, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genetically, the same genes involved in tooth and hair development in mammals are also involved in scale development.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "True cosmoid scales can only be found on the Sarcopterygians. The inner layer of the scale is made of lamellar bone. On top of this lies a layer of spongy or vascular bone and then a layer of dentine-like material called cosmine. The upper surface is keratin. The coelacanth has modified cosmoid scales that lack cosmine and are thinner than true cosmoid scales.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [ 235980, 1641702, 48530, 865922, 38697245, 43377, 45503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 59 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 158, 166 ], [ 192, 199 ], [ 221, 228 ], [ 251, 258 ], [ 264, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ganoid scales can be found on gars (family Lepisosteidae), bichirs, and reedfishes (family Polypteridae). Ganoid scales are similar to cosmoid scales, but a layer of ganoin lies over the cosmine layer and under the enamel. Ganoin scales are diamond shaped, shiny, and hard. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [ 247827, 247827, 235988, 235988, 38018770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 33 ], [ 43, 56 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 166, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within the ganoin are guanine compounds, iridescent derivatives of guanine found in a DNA molecule. The iridescent property of these chemicals provide the ganoin its shine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [ 12439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Placoid scales are found on cartilaginous fish including sharks and stingrays. These scales, also called denticles, are similar in structure to teeth, and have one median spine and two lateral spines. The modern jawed fish ancestors, the jawless ostracoderms and later jawed placoderms, may have had scales with the properties of both placoid and ganoid scales.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [ 26895290, 5232, 43617, 54195, 25631460, 1086573, 949620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 28, 46 ], [ 57, 62 ], [ 68, 76 ], [ 144, 149 ], [ 246, 257 ], [ 275, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leptoid scales are found on higher-order bony fish. As they grow they add concentric layers. They are arranged so as to overlap in a head-to-tail direction, like roof tiles, allowing a smoother flow of water over the body and therefore reducing drag. They come in two forms:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [ 2137292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cycloid scales have a smooth outer edge, and are most common on fish with soft fin rays, such as salmon and carp.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [ 36984, 60900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 103 ], [ 108, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ctenoid scales have a toothed outer edge, and are usually found on fish with spiny fin rays, such as bass and crappie.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Fish scales", "target_page_ids": [ 47344, 326656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 105 ], [ 110, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reptile scale types include: cycloid, granular (which appear bumpy), and keeled (which have a center ridge). Scales usually vary in size, the stouter, larger scales cover parts that are often exposed to physical stress (usually the feet, tail and head), while scales are small around the joints for flexibility. Most snakes have extra broad scales on the belly, each scale covering the belly from side to side.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reptilian scales", "target_page_ids": [ 25409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scales of all reptiles have an epidermal component (what one sees on the surface), but many reptiles, such as crocodilians and turtles, have osteoderms underlying the epidermal scale. Such scales are more properly termed scutes. Snakes, tuataras and many lizards lack osteoderms. All reptilian scales have a dermal papilla underlying the epidermal part, and it is there that the osteoderms, if present, would be formed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reptilian scales", "target_page_ids": [ 196020, 11168158, 1066212, 30786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 125 ], [ 145, 154 ], [ 225, 230 ], [ 241, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Birds' scales are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus, but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds. The scales and scutes of birds were thought to be homologous to those of reptiles, but are now agreed to have evolved independently, being degenerate feathers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Avian scales", "target_page_ids": [ 142431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a scaled mammal is the pangolin. Its scales are made of keratin and are used for protection, similar to an armadillo's armor. They have been convergently evolved, being unrelated to mammals' distant reptile-like ancestors (since therapsids lost scales), except that they use a similar gene.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mammalian scales", "target_page_ids": [ 51124, 2186, 204092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 121, 130 ], [ 243, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, the musky rat-kangaroo has scales on its feet and tail. The precise nature of its purported scales has not been studied in detail, but they appear to be structurally different from pangolin scales.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mammalian scales", "target_page_ids": [ 2298836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anomalures also have scales on their tail undersides.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mammalian scales", "target_page_ids": [ 363773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foot pad epidermal tissues in most mammal species have been compared to the scales of other vertebrates. They are likely derived from cornification processes or stunted fur much like avian reticulae are derived from stunted feathers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mammalian scales", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Butterflies and moths - the order Lepidoptera (Greek \"scale-winged\") - have membranous wings covered in delicate, powdery scales, which are modified setae. Each scale consists of a series of tiny stacked platelets of organic material, and butterflies tend to have the scales broad and flattened, while moths tend to have the scales narrower and more hair like. Scales are usually pigmented, but some types of scales are metallic, or iridescent, without pigments; because the thickness of the platelets is on the same order as the wavelength of visible light the plates lead to structural coloration and iridescence through the physical phenomenon described as thin-film optics. The most common color produced in this fashion is blue, such as in the Morpho butterflies. Other colors can be seen on the sunset moth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arthropod scales", "target_page_ids": [ 48338, 66633, 53307, 11887, 338271, 49598, 33125, 17939, 371786, 387489, 4543, 416549, 6276019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 16, 20 ], [ 34, 45 ], [ 47, 52 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 382, 389 ], [ 532, 542 ], [ 546, 559 ], [ 605, 616 ], [ 662, 678 ], [ 730, 734 ], [ 751, 757 ], [ 803, 814 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scale (insect anatomy)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24055339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armour (anatomy)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5768710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Psoriasis: a long-lasting autoimmune disease characterized by patches of thin pieces of hard skin like scale.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 101965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] } ]

[ "Animal_anatomy", "Marine_biology", "Integumentary_system" ]

[ "scales", "Animal Scale", "Animal Scales" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In music theory, a scale is any set of musical notes ordered by fundamental frequency or pitch. A scale ordered by increasing pitch is an ascending scale, and a scale ordered by decreasing pitch is a descending scale.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 54783, 22026, 11490, 77933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 47, 52 ], [ 64, 85 ], [ 89, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Often, especially in the context of the common practice period, most or all of the melody and harmony of a musical work is built using the notes of a single scale, which can be conveniently represented on a staff with a standard key signature.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 415263, 37735, 40258, 47962, 49229, 17394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 62 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 107, 119 ], [ 207, 212 ], [ 229, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the principle of octave equivalence, scales are generally considered to span a single octave, with higher or lower octaves simply repeating the pattern. A musical scale represents a division of the octave space into a certain number of scale steps, a scale step being the recognizable distance (or interval) between two successive notes of the scale. However, there is no need for scale steps to be equal within any scale and, particularly as demonstrated by microtonal music, there is no limit to how many notes can be injected within any given musical interval.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37726, 49171, 68276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 30 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 466, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A measure of the width of each scale step provides a method to classify scales. For instance, in a chromatic scale each scale step represents a semitone interval, while a major scale is defined by the interval pattern W–W–H–W–W–W–H, where W stands for whole step (an interval spanning two semitones, e.g. from C to D), and H stands for half-step (e.g. from C to D). Based on their interval patterns, scales are put into categories including diatonic, chromatic, major, minor, and others.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 415167, 20759, 415153, 8202, 49234, 20759, 20765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 152 ], [ 171, 182 ], [ 252, 262 ], [ 441, 449 ], [ 451, 460 ], [ 462, 467 ], [ 469, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A specific scale is defined by its characteristic interval pattern and by a special note, known as its first degree (or tonic). The tonic of a scale is the note selected as the beginning of the octave, and therefore as the beginning of the adopted interval pattern. Typically, the name of the scale specifies both its tonic and its interval pattern. For example, C major indicates a major scale with a C tonic.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 622802, 43191, 421402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 115 ], [ 120, 125 ], [ 363, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scales are typically listed from low to high pitch. Most scales are octave-repeating, meaning their pattern of notes is the same in every octave (the Bohlen–Pierce scale is one exception). An octave-repeating scale can be represented as a circular arrangement of pitch classes, ordered by increasing (or decreasing) pitch class. For instance, the increasing C major scale is C–D–E–F–G–A–B–[C], with the bracket indicating that the last note is an octave higher than the first note, and the decreasing C major scale is C–B–A–G–F–E–D–[C], with the bracket indicating an octave lower than the first note in the scale.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 37726, 321868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 74 ], [ 150, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distance between two successive notes in a scale is called a scale step.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 622802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the first degree of the scale. For example, in a C major scale the first note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes can also be numbered in relation to each other: C and E create an interval of a third (in this case a major third); D and F also create a third (in this case a minor third).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A single scale can be manifested at many different pitch levels. For example, a C major scale can be started at C4 (middle C; see scientific pitch notation) and ascending an octave to C5; or it could be started at C6, ascending an octave to C7.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1043937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scales may be described according to the number of different pitch classes they contain:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chromatic, or dodecatonic (12 notes per octave)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 49234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nonatonic (9 notes per octave): a chromatic variation of the heptatonic blues scale", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 156013, 49234, 156013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 34, 43 ], [ 61, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Octatonic (8 notes per octave): used in jazz and modern classical music", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 175974, 15613, 841986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 41, 45 ], [ 50, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heptatonic (7 notes per octave): the most common modern Western scale", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1496736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hexatonic (6 notes per octave): common in Western folk music", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1496737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pentatonic (5 notes per octave): the anhemitonic form (lacking semitones) is common in folk music, especially in Asian music; also known as the \"black note\" scale", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 88768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tetratonic (4 notes), tritonic (3 notes), and ditonic (2 notes): generally limited to prehistoric (\"primitive\") music", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 36208623, 36222151, 36248075, 1502471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 23, 31 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 87, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scales may also be described by their constituent intervals, such as being hemitonic, cohemitonic, or having imperfections. Many music theorists concur that the constituent intervals of a scale have a large role in the cognitive perception of its sonority, or tonal character.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 39174513, 39174513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 84 ], [ 86, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The number of the notes that make up a scale as well as the quality of the intervals between successive notes of the scale help to give the music of a culture area its peculiar sound quality.\" \"The pitch distances or intervals among the notes of a scale tell us more about the sound of the music than does the mere number of tones.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scales may also be described by their symmetry, such as being palindromic, chiral, or having rotational symmetry as in Messiaen's modes of limited transposition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 24147, 32703814, 1261255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ], [ 75, 81 ], [ 130, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The notes of a scale form intervals with each of the other notes of the chord in combination. A 5-note scale has 10 of these harmonic intervals, a 6-note scale has 15, a 7-note scale has 21, an 8-note scale has 28. Though the scale is not a chord, and might never be heard more than one note at a time, still the absence, presence, and placement of certain key intervals plays a large part in the sound of the scale, the natural movement of melody within the scale, and the selection of chords taken naturally from the scale.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 5308, 40258, 224256, 70640, 224256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 242, 247 ], [ 358, 361 ], [ 488, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A musical scale that contains tritones is called tritonic (though the expression is also used for any scale with just three notes per octave, whether or not it includes a tritone), and one without tritones is atritonic. A scale or chord that contains semitones is called hemitonic, and without semitones is anhemitonic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 70443, 224256, 39174513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 37 ], [ 232, 237 ], [ 308, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scales can be abstracted from performance or composition. They are also often used precompositionally to guide or limit a composition. Explicit instruction in scales has been part of compositional training for many centuries. One or more scales may be used in a composition, such as in Claude Debussy's L'Isle Joyeuse. To the right, the first scale is a whole-tone scale, while the second and third scales are diatonic scales. All three are used in the opening pages of Debussy's piece.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 224515, 47962, 427103, 6260, 933455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ], [ 45, 56 ], [ 83, 99 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 303, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scales in traditional Western music generally consist of seven notes and repeat at the octave. Notes in the commonly used scales (see just below) are separated by whole and half step intervals of tones and semitones. The harmonic minor scale includes a three-semitone step; the anhemitonic pentatonic includes two of those and no semitones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 6668778, 338960, 49171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 35 ], [ 163, 182 ], [ 183, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Western music in the Medieval and Renaissance periods (1100–1600) tends to use the white-note diatonic scale C–D–E–F–G–A–B. Accidentals are rare, and somewhat unsystematically used, often to avoid the tritone.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 19956, 25840, 8202, 40667, 70443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 34, 45 ], [ 94, 108 ], [ 124, 135 ], [ 201, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Music of the common practice periods (1600–1900) uses three types of scale:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The diatonic scale (seven notes)—this includes the major scale and the natural minor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 8202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The melodic and harmonic minor scales (seven notes)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 20765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These scales are used in all of their transpositions. The music of this period introduces modulation, which involves systematic changes from one scale to another. Modulation occurs in relatively conventionalized ways. For example, major-mode pieces typically begin in a \"tonic\" diatonic scale and modulate to the \"dominant\" scale a fifth above.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th century (to a certain extent), but more in the 20th century, additional types of scales were explored:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The chromatic scale (twelve notes)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 49234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The whole-tone scale (six notes)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 113040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The pentatonic scale (five notes)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 88768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The octatonic or diminished scales (eight notes)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 175974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large variety of other scales exists, some of the more common being:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Phrygian dominant scale (a mode of the harmonic minor scale)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 855541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Arabic scales", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 15541852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Hungarian minor scale", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 6869816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Byzantine music scales (called echoi)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 988707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Persian scale", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 11467819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scales such as the pentatonic scale may be considered gapped relative to the diatonic scale. An auxiliary scale is a scale other than the primary or original scale. See: modulation (music) and Auxiliary diminished scale.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Western music", "target_page_ids": [ 237665, 3942501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 188 ], [ 193, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many musical circumstances, a specific note of the scale is chosen as the tonic—the central and most stable note of the scale. In Western tonal music, simple songs or pieces typically start and end on the tonic note. Relative to a choice of a certain tonic, the notes of a scale are often labeled with numbers recording how many scale steps above the tonic they are. For example, the notes of the C major scale (C, D, E, F, G, A, B) can be labeled {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, reflecting the choice of C as tonic. The expression scale degree refers to these numerical labels. Such labeling requires the choice of a \"first\" note; hence scale-degree labels are not intrinsic to the scale itself, but rather to its modes. For example, if we choose A as tonic, then we can label the notes of the C major scale using A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, and so on. When we do so, we create a new scale called the A minor scale. See the musical note article for how the notes are customarily named in different countries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Note names", "target_page_ids": [ 43191, 20759, 622802, 20765, 22026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 82 ], [ 402, 413 ], [ 526, 538 ], [ 891, 902 ], [ 912, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scale degrees of a heptatonic (7-note) scale can also be named using the terms tonic, supertonic, mediant, subdominant, dominant, submediant, subtonic. If the subtonic is a semitone away from the tonic, then it is usually called the leading-tone (or leading-note); otherwise the leading-tone refers to the raised subtonic. Also commonly used is the (movable do) solfège naming convention in which each scale degree is denoted by a syllable. In the major scale, the solfège syllables are: do, re, mi, fa, so (or sol), la, ti (or si), do (or ut).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Note names", "target_page_ids": [ 43191, 424744, 424732, 203436, 23977230, 424740, 424749, 70638, 95323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 146, 154 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 366, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In naming the notes of a scale, it is customary that each scale degree be assigned its own letter name: for example, the A major scale is written A–B–C–D–E–F–G rather than A–B–D–D–E–E–G. However, it is impossible to do this in scales that contain more than seven notes, at least in the English-language nomenclature system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Note names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scales may also be identified by using a binary system of twelve zeros or ones to represent each of the twelve notes of a chromatic scale. It is assumed that the scale is tuned using 12-tone equal temperament (so that, for instance, C is the same as D), and that the tonic is in the leftmost position. For example, the binary number 101011010101, equivalent to the decimal number 2773, would represent any major scale (such as C–D–E–F–G–A–B). This system includes scales from 100000000000 (2048) to 111111111111 (4095), providing a total of 2048 possible species, but only 351 unique scales containing from 1 to 12 notes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Note names", "target_page_ids": [ 49234, 3350774, 238686, 8214, 160076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 137 ], [ 183, 208 ], [ 319, 332 ], [ 365, 379 ], [ 555, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scales may also be shown as semitones from the tonic. For instance, 0 2 4 5 7 9 11 denotes any major scale such as C–D–E–F–G–A–B, in which the first degree is, obviously, 0 semitones from the tonic (and therefore coincides with it), the second is 2 semitones from the tonic, the third is 4 semitones from the tonic, and so on. Again, this implies that the notes are drawn from a chromatic scale tuned with 12-tone equal temperament. For some fretted string instruments, such as the guitar and the bass guitar, scales can be notated in tabulature, an approach which indicates the fret number and string upon which each scale degree is played.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Note names", "target_page_ids": [ 415167, 3916, 18938651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ], [ 497, 508 ], [ 535, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Composers transform musical patterns by moving every note in the pattern by a constant number of scale steps: thus, in the C major scale, the pattern C–D–E might be shifted up, or transposed, a single scale step to become D–E–F. This process is called \"scalar transposition\" or \"shifting to a new key\" and can often be found in musical sequences and patterns. (It is D-E-F in Chromatic transposition). Since the steps of a scale can have various sizes, this process introduces subtle melodic and harmonic variation into the music. In Western tonal music, the simplest and most common type of modulation (or changing keys) is to shift from one major key to another key built on the first key's fifth (or dominant) scale degree. In the key of C major, this would involve moving to the key of G major (which uses an F). Composers also often modulate to other related keys. In some Romantic music era pieces and contemporary music, composers modulate to \"remote keys\" that are not related to or close to the tonic. An example of a remote modulation would be taking a song that begins in C major and modulating (changing keys) to F major.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transposition and modulation", "target_page_ids": [ 421402, 668181, 4209153, 25916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 130 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 328, 345 ], [ 878, 896 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through the introduction of blue notes, jazz and blues employ scale intervals smaller than a semitone. The blue note is an interval that is technically neither major nor minor but \"in the middle\", giving it a characteristic flavour. A regular piano cannot play blue notes, but with electric guitar, saxophone, trombone and trumpet, performers can \"bend\" notes a fraction of a tone sharp or flat to create blue notes. For instance, in the key of E, the blue note would be either a note between G and G or a note moving between both.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Jazz and blues", "target_page_ids": [ 155987, 3352, 49171, 1100075, 23034, 10272, 26795, 29837, 30353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 243, 248 ], [ 282, 297 ], [ 299, 308 ], [ 310, 318 ], [ 323, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In blues, a pentatonic scale is often used. In jazz, many different modes and scales are used, often within the same piece of music. Chromatic scales are common, especially in modern jazz.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Jazz and blues", "target_page_ids": [ 88768, 19556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 68, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Western music, scale notes are often separated by equally tempered tones or semitones, creating 12 intervals per octave. Each interval separates two tones; the higher tone has an oscillation frequency of a fixed ratio (by a factor equal to the twelfth root of two, or approximately 1.059463) higher than the frequency of the lower one. A scale uses a subset consisting typically of 7 of these 12 as scale steps.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Non-Western scales", "target_page_ids": [ 10307, 1129156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ], [ 247, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many other musical traditions use scales that include other intervals. These scales originate within the derivation of the harmonic series. Musical intervals are complementary values of the harmonic overtones series. Many musical scales in the world are based on this system, except most of the musical scales from Indonesia and the Indochina Peninsulae, which are based on inharmonic resonance of the dominant metalophone and xylophone instruments.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Non-Western scales", "target_page_ids": [ 14439, 49171, 41232, 41480, 14579, 52052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 138 ], [ 140, 157 ], [ 190, 198 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 315, 324 ], [ 333, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some scales use a different number of pitches. A common scale in Eastern music is the pentatonic scale, which consists of five notes that span an octave. For example, in the Chinese culture, the pentatonic scale is usually used for folk music and consists of C, D, E, G and A, commonly known as gong, shang, jue, chi and yu.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Non-Western scales", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some scales span part of an octave; Several such short scales are typically combined to form a scale spanning a full octave or more, and usually called with a third name of its own. The Turkish and Middle Eastern music has around a dozen such basic short scales that are combined to form hundreds of full-octave spanning scales. Among these scales Hejaz scale has one scale step spanning 14 intervals (of the middle eastern type found 53 in an octave) roughly similar to 3 semitones (of the western type found 12 in an octave), while Saba scale, another of these middle eastern scales, has 3 consecutive scale steps within 14 commas, i.e. separated by roughly one western semitone either side of the middle tone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Non-Western scales", "target_page_ids": [ 855541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gamelan music uses a small variety of scales including Pélog and Sléndro, none including equally tempered nor harmonic intervals. Indian classical music uses a moveable seven-note scale. Indian Rāgas often use intervals smaller than a semitone. Turkish music Turkish makams and Arabic music maqamat may use quarter tone intervals. In both rāgas and maqamat, the distance between a note and an inflection (e.g., śruti) of that same note may be less than a semitone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Non-Western scales", "target_page_ids": [ 101905, 411100, 411427, 223014, 4563819, 200339, 168783, 956970, 251740, 15541852, 639578, 597778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 55, 60 ], [ 65, 72 ], [ 130, 152 ], [ 169, 185 ], [ 194, 198 ], [ 245, 258 ], [ 259, 272 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 411, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of musical scales and modes", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31540557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Melodic pattern", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3147535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pitch circularity", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28998247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shepard tone", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Octave Frequency Sweep, Consonance & Dissonance", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " WolframTones—hear and play musical scales", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Visual representation of scales from WolframTones", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ScaleCoding", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Database in .xls and FileMaker formats of all 2048 possible unique scales in 12 tone equal temperament + meantone alternatives.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Musical_scales", "Musical_tuning", "Music_theory" ]

[ "musical scale", "gamut" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Leigh Douglass Brackett (December 7, 1915 – March 18, 1978) was an American science fiction writer called \"the Queen of Space Opera.\" She was also a screenwriter known for The Big Sleep (1946), Rio Bravo (1959), and The Long Goodbye (1973). She also worked on an early draft of The Empire Strikes Back (1980), elements of which remained in the film; she died before the film went into production. She was the first woman shortlisted for the Hugo Award. In 2020, she won a Retro Hugo for her novel The Nemesis From Terra, originally published as \"Shadow Over Mars\" (Startling Stories, Fall 1944).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1645598, 81100, 3624815, 53964, 28866471, 28866471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 185 ], [ 194, 203 ], [ 216, 232 ], [ 278, 301 ], [ 441, 451 ], [ 472, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leigh Brackett was born December 7, 1915, in Los Angeles, California, and grew up there. On December 31, 1946, at age 31, she married Edmond Hamilton in San Gabriel, California, and moved with him to Kinsman, Ohio. She died of cancer in 1978 in Lancaster, California.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 44285, 107678, 9629095, 107649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 150 ], [ 154, 177 ], [ 201, 214 ], [ 246, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brackett first published in her mid-20s; the science fiction story \"Martian Quest\" appeared in the February 1940 issue of Astounding Science Fiction. Her earliest years as a writer (1940–42) were her most productive. Some of her stories have social themes, such as \"The Citadel of Lost Ships\" (1943), which considers the effects on the native cultures of alien worlds of Earth's expanding trade empire. At the time, she was an active member of the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society (LASFS), and participated in local science fiction fandom by contributing to the second issue of Pogo's STF-ETTE, an all-female science fiction fanzine (probably the first such).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 18932608, 191638, 28925, 65686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 148 ], [ 449, 484 ], [ 520, 542 ], [ 613, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brackett's first novel, No Good from a Corpse (1944), was a hard-boiled mystery novel in the tradition of Raymond Chandler. The book resulted in her getting her first big screenwriting assignment. After this, Brackett's science fiction stories became more ambitious. Shadow Over Mars (1944) was her first novel-length science fiction story; though rough-edged, it marked the beginning of a new style influenced by the characterization of the 1940s detective story and film noir. It won a Retro Hugo for best novel in 2020.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 993916, 25663, 8192, 10802, 28866471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ], [ 106, 122 ], [ 448, 463 ], [ 468, 477 ], [ 488, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1946, Brackett married fellow science fiction author Edmond Hamilton (fellow LASFS member Ray Bradbury served as best man).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 44285, 26181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 71 ], [ 93, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Planet Stories published the novella \"Lorelei of the Red Mist\", in which the protagonist is a thief called Hugh Starke. Brackett finished the first half before turning it over to her close friend Bradbury, so that she could leave to work on the screenplay of the movie The Big Sleep.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1162294, 1645598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 269, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brackett returned to science fiction writing in 1948 after her movie work. Between 1948 and 1951, she produced a series of science fiction adventure stories that were longer than her previous work, including classic representations of her planetary settings as \"The Moon that Vanished\" and the novel Sea-Kings of Mars (1949). The latter was later published as The Sword of Rhiannon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In \"Queen of the Martian Catacombs\" (1949), Brackett created the character of Eric John Stark. Stark, an orphan from Earth, is raised by the semi-sentient aboriginals of Mercury, who are later killed by Earthmen. He is saved by a Terran official, who adopts and mentors Stark. When threatened, Stark reverts to the primitive N'Chaka, the \"man without a tribe\", who he was on Mercury. From 1949 to 1951, Brackett featured Stark (whose name echoes that of the hero in \"Lorelei of the Red Mist\") in three stories published in Planet Stories: \"Queen of the Martian Catacombs\", \"Enchantress of Venus\", and \"Black Amazon of Mars\". With this last story, Brackett's high adventure period of writing ended.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2197093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brackett adopted an elegiac tone in her stories, no longer celebrating the conflicts of frontier worlds but lamenting the passing of civilizations, and concentrating more on mood than plot. The reflective, introspective nature of these stories is indicated in the titles: \"The Last Days of Shandakor\", \"Shannach — the Last\", and \"Last Call from Sector 9G\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Last Call\" was published in the final issue (Summer 1955) of Planet Stories, which had been her most reliable publisher. After Planet Stories folded, and later in 1955, Startling Stories and Thrilling Wonder Stories, Brackett had lost all her magazine market. The first phase of her career as a science fiction author ended. She did produce other stories over the next decade, and she revised and published some as novels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1162294, 1456653, 1513496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 170, 187 ], [ 192, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A new production of this period was The Long Tomorrow (1955), one of Brackett's more critically acclaimed science fiction novels. This novel describes an agrarian, technophobic society that develops after a nuclear war.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 9081697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After 1955, Brackett concentrated on writing for the more lucrative film and television markets. In 1963 and 1964, she briefly returned to her old Martian milieu with a pair of stories. \"The Road to Sinharat\" was an affectionate farewell to the world of \"Queen of the Martian Catacombs\", and the other, with the intentionally ridiculous title of \"Purple Priestess of the Mad Moon\", borders on parody.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brackett and her husband shared Guest of Honor duties at the 22nd World Science Fiction Convention in 1965 in Oakland, California.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 9711119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After another decade-long hiatus, Brackett returned to science fiction in the 1970s with the publication of The Ginger Star (1974), The Hounds of Skaith (1974), and The Reavers of Skaith (1976), collected as The Book of Skaith in 1976. This trilogy brought Eric John Stark back for adventures upon the extra-solar planet of Skaith (rather than his old haunts of Mars and Venus).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Often referred to as the \"Queen of Space Opera\", Brackett also wrote planetary romance. Almost all her planetary romances take place in the Leigh Brackett solar system, which contains richly detailed fictional versions of the consensus Mars and Venus of science fiction from the 1930s to the 1950s. Mars appears as a marginally habitable desert world, populated by ancient, decadent and mostly humanoid races; Venus as a primitive, wet jungle planet, occupied by vigorous, primitive tribes and reptilian monsters. Brackett's Skaith combines elements of her other worlds with fantasy elements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 33544076, 1162325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ], [ 69, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though the influence of Edgar Rice Burroughs is apparent in Brackett's Mars stories, her Mars is set firmly in a world of interplanetary commerce and competition. A prominent theme of her stories is the clash of planetary civilizations; the stories illustrate and criticize the effects of colonialism on civilizations that are either older or younger than those of the colonizers. Burroughs' heroes set out to remake entire worlds according to their own codes; Brackett's heroes (often antiheroes) are at the mercy of trends and movements far bigger than they are.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 9657, 48533270, 7299, 185068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 44 ], [ 212, 234 ], [ 289, 300 ], [ 486, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Mariner missions indicated there was no life on Mars, she never returned to her solar system. When she started to write planetary romance again in the 1970s, she invented a new solar system outside our own.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 20174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after Brackett broke into science fiction writing, she wrote her first screenplays. Hollywood director Howard Hawks was so impressed by her novel No Good from a Corpse that he had his secretary call in \"this guy Brackett\" to help William Faulkner write the script for The Big Sleep (1946). The film was written by Brackett, William Faulkner, and Jules Furthman and starred Humphrey Bogart.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 13219, 33718, 1645598, 33718, 2705648, 14045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 123 ], [ 238, 254 ], [ 276, 289 ], [ 332, 348 ], [ 354, 368 ], [ 381, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After getting married, Brackett took a break from screenwriting. When she returned to screenwriting in the mid-1950s, she wrote for TV and movies. Howard Hawks hired her to write or co-write several John Wayne pictures, including Rio Bravo (1959), Hatari! (1962), El Dorado (1966), and Rio Lobo (1970). Because of her background with The Big Sleep, she later adapted Raymond Chandler's novel The Long Goodbye for the screen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 16103, 81100, 1955767, 1346469, 1948713, 417968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 209 ], [ 230, 239 ], [ 248, 255 ], [ 264, 273 ], [ 286, 294 ], [ 392, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brackett worked on the screenplay for The Empire Strikes Back, the first Star Wars sequel. The film won the Hugo Award in 1981. This script was a departure for Brackett; until then, all her science fiction had been in the form of novels and short stories. George Lucas said that he asked Brackett to write the screenplay based on his story outline. Brackett wrote a finished first draft titled \"Star Wars sequel\", which was delivered to Lucas shortly before her death from cancer on March 18, 1978; however, her version was rejected and two drafts of a new screenplay were written by Lucas and, following the delivery of the screenplay for Raiders of the Lost Ark, turned over to Lawrence Kasdan to rework some dialogues. Both Brackett and Kasdan (though not Lucas) were given credit for the final screenplay. Brackett was credited in tribute despite the fact that she was not involved in the final result of the film.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 53964, 26678, 28866471, 11857, 54166, 478614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 61 ], [ 73, 82 ], [ 108, 118 ], [ 256, 268 ], [ 640, 663 ], [ 680, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Laurent Bouzereau, in Star Wars: The Annotated Screenplays, said that Lucas disliked the direction of Brackett's screenplay, discarded it, and produced two more screenplays before turning the results over to Kasdan. io9's co-founder Charlie Jane Anders has written that while \"It's fashionable to disparage Brackett's contributions to Empire\", \"it's not true that none of Brackett's storyline winds up in the final movie — the basic story beats are the same.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 17881038, 8095002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 219 ], [ 233, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For over 30 years, Brackett's screenplay could only be read at the Jack Williamson Special Collections library at Eastern New Mexico University in Portales, New Mexico and the archives at Lucasfilm in California. It was officially published in February 2016. In this draft, there was a love triangle between Luke, Leia and Han Solo. Yoda was named Minch, Luke has a hidden sister named Nellith, Lando Calrissian was known as Lando Kaddar, Luke's father was still a distinct character from Darth Vader and appears as a Force ghost on Dagobah, and also, Han Solo, at the end of the script, is leaving to search for his uncle Ovan Marek, the most powerful man in the universe after the Emperor Palpatine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 362192, 1954283, 125965, 80872, 18426653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 82 ], [ 114, 143 ], [ 147, 167 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 691, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Saavedra of Den of Geek website says:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 60843921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most importantly, you see that Brackett's draft, while definitely in need of a rewrite and several tweaks, holds all of the big moments we'd eventually see on screen. We still get a version of the Battle of Hoth (a much more ridiculous one), the wise words of an old Jedi Master, the excitement of zooming through a deadly asteroid field, a love triangle (a MUCH more overt one), a majestic city in the clouds, unexpected betrayals, and the climactic duel between Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader that we would reenact on playgrounds for years to come.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Martian Quest\" (Astounding Science Fiction, February 1940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 18932608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Treasure of Ptakuth\" (Astounding Science Fiction, April 1940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Stellar Legion\" (Planet Stories, Winter 1940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1162294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Tapestry Gate\" (Strange Stories, August 1940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 38820753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Demons of Darkside\" (Startling Stories, January 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1456653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Water Pirate\" (Super Science Stories, January 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 11638311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Interplanetary Reporter\" (Startling Stories, May 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Dragon-Queen of Jupiter\" (Planet Stories, Summer 1941), also published as \"The Dragon-Queen of Venus\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Lord of the Earthquake\" (novelette; Science Fiction, June 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 30711077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"No Man's Land in Space\" (novelette; Amazing Stories July 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 255474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"A World Is Born\" (Comet Stories July 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Retreat to the Stars\" (Astonishing Stories, November 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 30617406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Child of the Green Light\" (Super Science Stories, February 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Sorcerer of Rhiannon\" (novelette; Astounding Science Fiction, February 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Child of the Sun\" (novelette; Planet Stories, Spring 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Out of the Sea\" (novelette; Astonishing Stories, June 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Cube from Space\" (Super Science Stories, August 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Outpost on Io\" (Planet Stories, Winter 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Halfling\" (novelette; Astonishing Stories, February 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Citadel of Lost Ships\" (Planet Stories, March 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Blue Behemoth\" (Planet Stories, May 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Thralls of the Endless Night\" (Planet Stories, Fall 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Jewel of Bas\" (novelette; Planet Stories, Spring 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Veil of Astellar\" (novelette; Thrilling Wonder Stories, Spring 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1513496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Terror Out of Space\" (Planet Stories, Summer 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Shadow Over Mars\" (Startling Stories, Fall 1944), published in book form as The Nemesis from Terra, winner of a best novel Retro Hugo in 2020.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 28866471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Vanishing Venusians\" (novelette; Planet Stories, Spring 1945)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Lorelei of the Red Mist\", with Ray Bradbury (novella; Planet Stories, Summer 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Moon That Vanished\" (novelette; Thrilling Wonder Stories, October 1948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Beast-Jewel of Mars\" (novelette; Planet Stories, Winter 1948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Quest of the Starhope\" (Thrilling Wonder Stories, April 1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Sea-Kings of Mars\" (Thrilling Wonder Stories, June 1949), published in book form as The Sword of Rhiannon", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Queen of the Martian Catacombs\" (Planet Stories, Summer 1949), expanded and published in book form as The Secret of Sinharat", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 4206153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Enchantress of Venus\" (novella; Planet Stories, Fall 1949), also published as \"City of the Lost Ones\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Lake of the Gone Forever\" (novelette; Thrilling Wonder Stories, October 1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Dancing Girl of Ganymede\" (novelette; Thrilling Wonder Stories, February 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Truants\" (novelette; Startling Stories, July 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Citadel of Lost Ages\" (novella; Thrilling Wonder Stories, December 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Black Amazon of Mars\" (Planet Stories, March 1951), expanded and published in book form as People of the Talisman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 4220629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Starmen of Llyrdis\" (Startling Stories, March 1951)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Woman from Altair\" (novelette; Startling Stories, July 1951)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Shadows\" ( Startling Stories, February 1952)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Last Days of Shandakor\" (novelette; Startling Stories, April 1952)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Shannach – The Last\" (novelette; Planet Stories, November 1952)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Ark of Mars\" (Planet Stories, September 1953), later published as part of the book Alpha Centauri or Die!", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Mars Minus Bisha\" (Planet Stories, January 1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Runaway\" (Startling Stories, Spring 1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Teleportress of Alpha C\" (Planet Stories, Winter 1954/1955), later published as part of the book Alpha Centauri or Die!", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Tweener\" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, February 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 405428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Last Call from Sector 9G\" (Planet Stories, Summer 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Other People\" (novelette; Venture Science Fiction Magazine March 1957), also published as \"The Queer Ones\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 8730603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"All the Colors of the Rainbow\" (novelette; Venture Science Fiction Magazine, November 1957)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Road to Sinharat\" (novelette; Amazing Stories, May 1963)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Purple Priestess of the Mad Moon\" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, October 1964)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Come Sing the Moons of Moravenn\" (The Other Side of Tomorrow, 1973)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"How Bright the Stars\" (Flame Tree Planet: An Anthology of Religious Science-Fantasy, 1973)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Mommies and Daddies\" (Crisis, 1974)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Stark and the Star Kings\", with Edmond Hamilton (in the collection of the same name, 2005)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shadow Over Mars (1951) – first published 1944; published in the U.S. as The Nemesis from Terra (1961)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 39673342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Starmen (1952) – also published as The Galactic Breed (1955, abridged), The Starmen of Llyrdis (1976)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 16018753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Sword of Rhiannon (1953) – first published as Sea-Kings of Mars (1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 38605501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Big Jump (1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 39185528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Long Tomorrow (1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 9081697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alpha Centauri or Die! (1963) – fixup of The Ark of Mars (1953) and Teleportress of Alpha C (1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 39673791, 6503287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 33, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Secret of Sinharat and People of the Talisman (1964)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 4206153, 4220629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 28, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Ginger Star (1974) – first published as a two-part serial in Worlds of If, February and April 1974", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 155571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Hounds of Skaith (1974)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Reavers of Skaith (1976)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Coming of the Terrans (1967)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Halfling and Other Stories (1973)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Book of Skaith (1976) – omnibus edition of the three Skaith novels", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Best of Leigh Brackett (1977), ed. Edmond Hamilton", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Martian Quest: The Early Brackett (2000) – Haffner Press", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stark and the Star Kings (2005), with Edmond Hamilton", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sea-Kings of Mars and Otherworldly Stories (2005) – #46 in the Fantasy Masterworks series.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 313666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lorelei of the Red Mist: Planetary Romances (2007) – Haffner Press", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shannach–the Last: Farewell to Mars (2011) – Haffner Press", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Best of Planet Stories No. 1 (anthology; 1975)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Best of Edmond Hamilton (collection; 1977)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 66546080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Vampire's Ghost (with John K. Butler), 1945", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 46678583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crime Doctor's Manhunt (with Eric Taylor), 1946", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 50177878, 36473202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 30, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Big Sleep (with William Faulkner and Jules Furthman), 1946", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1645598, 33718, 2705648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 21, 37 ], [ 42, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rio Bravo (with Jules Furthman and B.H. McCampbell), 1959", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 81100, 2705648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gold of the Seven Saints (with Leonard Freeman), 1961", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6460984, 1014954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 32, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hatari! (with Harry Kurnitz), 1962", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1955767, 23242857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Man's Favorite Sport? (uncredited), 1964", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2649865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " El Dorado, 1967", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1346469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rio Lobo (with Burton Wohl), 1970", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1948713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Long Goodbye, 1973", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 3624815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Empire Strikes Back (with George Lucas and Lawrence Kasdan), 1980", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 53964, 11857, 478614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 31, 43 ], [ 48, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " No Good from a Corpse (crime novel; 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"I Feel Bad Killing You\" (noir short story) - New Detective Magazine, November 1944", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stranger at Home (crime novel; 1946) – ghost-writer for the actor George Sanders", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 463180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An Eye for an Eye (crime novel; 1957) – adapted for television as Suspicion series episode (1958)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Tiger Among Us (crime novel; 1957; UK 1960 as Fear No Evil), filmed as 13 West Street (1962; dir. Philip Leacock)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 38196628, 1500499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 90 ], [ 103, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Follow the Free Wind (western novel; 1963) – received the Spur Award from Western Writers of America", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 947997, 2147901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 69 ], [ 75, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rio Bravo (western novel; 1959) – novelization based on the screenplay by Jules Furthman and Leigh Brackett", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Silent Partner (crime novel; 1969)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No Good from a Corpse (mystery collection; Dennis McMillan Publications, 1999) – reprints the titular novel featuring PI Ed Clive, and eight shorter crime stories.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eric John Stark", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2197093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lane, Carly. “Forgotten Women of Genre: Leigh Brackett.” SYFY WIRE, SYFY WIRE, March 15, 2019.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Books by Leigh Brackett from Haffner Press", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leigh Brackett at the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 102346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 63 ] ] } ]

[ "1915_births", "1978_deaths", "American_science_fiction_writers", "American_fantasy_writers", "American_mystery_writers", "Western_(genre)_writers", "American_women_novelists", "Screenwriters_from_California", "Science_Fiction_Hall_of_Fame_inductees", "Writers_from_Los_Angeles", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_California", "Hugo_Award-winning_writers", "Women_science_fiction_and_fantasy_writers", "Women_mystery_writers", "American_women_screenwriters", "20th-century_American_novelists", "20th-century_American_women_writers", "People_from_Kinsman,_Ohio", "Science_fiction_fans", "20th-century_American_screenwriters" ]

[ "Leigh Douglass Brackett" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The 13th century BC was the period from 1300 to 1201 BC.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1300–1046 BC: In China, the Shang dynasty flourishes as it settles its capital, Yin, near Anyang. Chinese settlers swarm in compact groups to create new clearing areas towards the Yangtze basin in the south, the Shanxi terraces in the northwest and the Wei River valley. The Shang then seem to frequently wage war with the still non-Sinicized populations who inhabit the Huai River valley. Graves in the form of cruciform pits have been discovered in Anyang containing chariots with their yokes, numerous bronze vases and the remains of human sacrifices, as well as the first Chinese inscriptions on oracle bones (Jiaguwen) or bronze vases. China's Shang armies are organized into infantry and archers in companies of one hundred men, supporting sections of five chariots.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 43465, 477948, 478502, 6613, 81262, 1097472, 1129773, 29134980, 480299, 399463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 84, 87 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 216, 222 ], [ 257, 266 ], [ 375, 385 ], [ 473, 481 ], [ 580, 600 ], [ 604, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1300 BC: The Aryans dominate northwest India as far as the Sarasvati River. The Vedas mention the Dasas (slaves) as their enemies. Dasas are interpreted as being a North Iranian tribe, Dahae. The Aryans are organized in tribal monarchies headed by a raja (king), who shares power with two councils or assemblies that will differentiate over time, the sabhā (court of justice) and the samiti (council of war). Only one raja is named in the Rigveda: Sudas of the Bharatas, a tribe established on the upper reaches of the Sarasvatî. He is described as the victor of the coalition of ten kings, the most powerful of which was Pûru. Subsequently, the Kurus take control of the Bharatas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 24558035, 32708, 1527181, 443118, 14653, 372447, 36692953, 2769626, 5629054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 22 ], [ 63, 78 ], [ 84, 89 ], [ 102, 106 ], [ 174, 187 ], [ 254, 258 ], [ 443, 450 ], [ 452, 457 ], [ 465, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1260 BC: Lapita pottery discovered at the Bourewa site southwest of Viti Levu dates back to this period.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 456506, 874995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 72, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1350–1210 BC: The Igihalkid dynasty in Elam. They resume the title of \"Kings of Anshan and Susa\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 206481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1306–1186 BC: The Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Memphis, then Pi-Ramesses, are the capitals of the New Kingdom of Egypt. It is a period of relative prosperity. During the reign of Ramesses II, the construction of the Great Hypostyle Hall of the temples of Karnak, the Luxor Temple and the temples of Abu Simbel are completed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 28830245, 96603, 4057999, 585058, 21476519, 4329906, 158386, 916726, 336297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 49 ], [ 51, 58 ], [ 65, 76 ], [ 102, 122 ], [ 183, 194 ], [ 220, 240 ], [ 259, 265 ], [ 271, 283 ], [ 303, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1307–1275 BC: The first Assyrian mention of the Ahlamu, proto-Aramaic people, during the reign of Adad-nirari I, in the region of the north of the Euphrates. The Aramaeans, a Semitic people reported from the 14th century BC by the archives of Amarna and then Ugarit, settled in North Mesopotamia, then in Aram (now Syria) and Lebanon where they formed kingdoms in the 11th century BC. The biblical tradition of the sons of Jacob, apparently originating from the Aram Naharayim or \"Aram of the two rivers\", in the loop of the Euphrates, around the towns of Harran and Nahur, seems to confirm that this region was populated by Proto-Aramaic pastors around the 13th century BC.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2303, 2769069, 733355, 79845, 203595, 20189, 616245, 7515849, 17771, 34857, 85547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 70 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 232, 240 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 260, 266 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 306, 310 ], [ 316, 321 ], [ 327, 334 ], [ 369, 384 ], [ 557, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Semitic tribes (including Israel) advance westward (Canaan). According to the Bible, Jacob bought his birthright from his brother Esau and then led the Israelites to Egypt at the call of his son Joseph. His twelve sons form the twelve tribes of Israel: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh), Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, and Asher. Jacob's group of descendants of Aramaic origin may have left the region of Harran in Upper Mesopotamia around 1275 BC during the Assyrian invasion of Hanigalbat, then probably entered Palestine by crossing the Jordan River between the valley of Yabboq and that of Wadi Far'ah. He settled down in the region north and northeast of Shechem. He does not mix with the locals. The group of descendants of Joseph / Israel, originally from Mount Ephraim, will stay for a while in Egypt in the land of Goshen, on the eastern edge of the Nile Delta. They would have worked on the construction of the Egyptian warehouse cities of Pithom and Pi-Ramesses. Towards the end of the century, a first group of Semites, led by Moses, would have left Egypt and merged with a second group which came more recently from Upper Mesopotamia, which also took Judaism as a revealed religion. They would have settled in the current West Bank, a sparsely populated region at the time, from which they will radiate and ally themselves with other Semitic peoples of Galilee and Transjordan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2400868, 50250, 3390, 16118, 171110, 8087628, 184794, 68938, 68931, 332804, 68952, 332559, 68924, 332572, 68957, 69618, 332555, 332563, 68944, 332565, 332568, 45900, 1114732, 47910, 20856181, 233369, 69721, 498611, 1791317, 19577, 1823869, 15624, 33209, 12639, 37997014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 83, 88 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 135, 139 ], [ 171, 176 ], [ 200, 206 ], [ 258, 264 ], [ 266, 272 ], [ 274, 278 ], [ 280, 285 ], [ 287, 295 ], [ 297, 304 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 314, 321 ], [ 326, 334 ], [ 337, 345 ], [ 347, 350 ], [ 352, 360 ], [ 362, 365 ], [ 371, 376 ], [ 488, 495 ], [ 562, 571 ], [ 588, 600 ], [ 623, 629 ], [ 708, 715 ], [ 811, 824 ], [ 907, 917 ], [ 998, 1004 ], [ 1087, 1092 ], [ 1105, 1115 ], [ 1212, 1219 ], [ 1283, 1292 ], [ 1414, 1421 ], [ 1426, 1437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1207 BC: Merneptah repels attacks by northern invaders (the \"Sea-Peoples\") in the 8th year of his reign, according to the Great Karnak Inscription. Eric Cline closely links this event with the beginning of the Late Bronze Age collapse.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 44873, 1168295, 324954, 15128704, 10768709, 5823212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 19 ], [ 62, 73 ], [ 123, 147 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 211, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1300–1200 BC: Bronze IIIB in Greece. The Lion Gate and the Treasury of Atreus are built in Mycenae. It is a time of peace and prosperity in the Aegean. Mycenaean imports to the Levant peak. A wreck found on the southern coast of Anatolia contained ingots of copper, tin, ivory, Syrian, Cypriot and Mycenaean vases, and pieces of elephant and hippo ivory. The Acropolis of Athens is developed: towards the end of the century, a Cyclopean wall four to six meters thick, known as the “pelasgic wall” (Pelargikon), is constructed, as well as a well to supply the citadel with water. Linear B tablets are created in Pylos.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2624, 12108, 6057943, 1402854, 37548, 842, 739150, 854, 2076, 2094245, 18551, 45770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 63, 81 ], [ 95, 102 ], [ 148, 154 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 363, 382 ], [ 431, 445 ], [ 583, 591 ], [ 615, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "c. 1300–1200 BC: Approximately 4,000 men fight a battle at a causeway over the Tollense valley in Northern Germany, the largest known prehistoric battle north of the Alps.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 57764801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1300–500 BC: The Lusatian culture in Poland, parts of the Czech Republic and Slovakia, eastern Germany and northern Ukraine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 488330, 22936, 5321, 26830, 11867, 31750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ], [ 41, 47 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 81, 89 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 120, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1250–850 BC: The Urnfield culture, characterized by vast cemeteries housing urns with the ashes of the deceased and offerings, marks the Late Bronze Age in Western Europe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 278159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1250–1000 BC: The culture of Pantalica develops inland in Sicily.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 5774027, 27619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 42 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1225–1190 BC: Late Helladic IIIB2 in mainland Greece. The perimeters of the defense systems of the Mycenaean palaces (Mycenae, Tiryns, Midea) are widely extended, a sign that insecurity is increasing. The end of the period was marked by widespread destruction on most sites: Mycenae, Tyrinth, Midéa, Thebes, Orchomenus, Dimini, and Pylos, whose unfortified palaces have not been rebuilt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1748869, 37548, 252193, 13065299, 65806, 1692046, 1355932, 45770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 136, 141 ], [ 301, 307 ], [ 309, 319 ], [ 321, 327 ], [ 333, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of sovereign states in the 13th century BC.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sovereign states", "target_page_ids": [ 26560065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 47 ] ] } ]

[ "13th_century_BC", "2nd_millennium_BC", "Centuries" ]

[ "13th-century BC" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The 14th century BC is a century that lasted from the year 1400 BC until 1301 BC.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1350 – 1250 BC: The Bajío phase of the San Lorenzo site in Mexico; large public buildings are constructed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 3780058, 3966054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 51 ], [ 60, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pastoral nomadism develops in the steppes of Central Asia; cattle are watched on horseback.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 6742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1400 – 1250 BC: The heyday of the Phoenician city of Ugarit. A written alphabet is attested by Ugaritic texts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34076091, 203595, 212347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 44 ], [ 54, 60 ], [ 62, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1380 – 1336 BC: The reign of Šuppiluliuma I, who leads the Hittite Empire to its peak. Šuppiluliuma I conquers the weakened Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in the second half of the century. Assyria is emancipated under Ashur-uballit I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 62715, 613741, 13308, 51681, 140389, 2085, 391442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 33, 47 ], [ 63, 77 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 147, 154 ], [ 190, 197 ], [ 219, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1372 – 1350 BC: Akhetaton (Amarna) is constructed as the ephemeral capital of the pharaoh Akhenaten and dedicated to the sun god Aten. It is abandoned a few years after Akhenaten's death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 79845, 89728, 47465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 91, 100 ], [ 130, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1325 BC: Pharaoh Tutankhamun dies and is buried in a richly furnished tomb in the Valley of the Kings.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 30437, 3036884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 86, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1320 – 1295 BC: The sinking of the Uluburun shipwreck in the Mediterranean Sea south of modern-day Kaş.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 739150, 19006, 4105099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 57 ], [ 65, 82 ], [ 103, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lycian pirates from southwest Anatolia raid the kingdom of Alashiya in Cyprus. They are employed as mercenaries by the Hittites and take part in the Battle of Kadesh.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 48451, 854, 1258873, 5593, 390045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 31, 39 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 72, 78 ], [ 150, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An Ugaritic patera, with its embossed decoration in concentric zones and hunting scenes, reveals an exceptional level in goldsmithing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 273303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1400 – 1300 BC:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A glacial rise is attested by the peat bog of the glacier of Tyrol.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 147341, 31121074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 43 ], [ 62, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Phase III A of the Greek Bronze Age. Contacts with the Mycenaean civilization are established at Thapsos, Syracuse, Scoglio del Tonno in the Gulf of Taranto, and Ischia on the Tyrrhenian coast.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 12108, 4620, 565602, 8367125, 28441, 1212342, 366378, 31549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 25 ], [ 26, 36 ], [ 56, 78 ], [ 98, 105 ], [ 107, 115 ], [ 142, 157 ], [ 163, 169 ], [ 177, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1400 – 1370 BC: Phase III A1 of the Late Helladic period in Greece. Palaces are constructed in Tiryns and Pylos. Linear B, which transcribes an archaic form of Greek, appears in the palace of Knossos at the end of Phase III A1 of the Late Minoan period.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1748869, 252193, 45770, 18551, 704006, 80252, 73327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 107, 112 ], [ 114, 122 ], [ 145, 166 ], [ 193, 200 ], [ 235, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1370 – 1340 BC: Phase III A2 of the Late Helladic period in Greece.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1748869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1340 – 1190 BC: Phase III B of the Late Helladic period in Greece. Beehive tombs are constructed in Epirus and Thessaly, and a palace is constructed in Athens.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1748869, 143961, 38260, 55804, 1216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 49 ], [ 68, 80 ], [ 101, 107 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 153, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1380 – 1120 BC: A Mycenaean sanctuary is built in Phylakopi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22375051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1370 BC: The Hagia Triada Sarcophagus is created in Crete.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22000721, 6591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 41 ], [ 56, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1350 – 1330 BC: The reconstruction of the palace and Cyclopean enclosure at Mycenae, then at its peak under the reign of the legendary king and queen Perseus and Andromeda.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2094245, 37548, 209446, 1925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 154, 161 ], [ 166, 175 ] ] } ]

[ "14th_century_BC", "2nd_millennium_BC", "Centuries" ]

[ "14th-century BC" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The 15th century BC is a century that lasted from 1500 BC to 1401 BC.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1504 BC – 1492 BC: Egypt conquers Nubia and the Levant.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 45407, 46019, 585058, 21492837, 18138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 20, 25 ], [ 35, 40 ], [ 49, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1500 BC – 1400 BC: The Battle of the Ten Kings took place around this time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 45407, 62743, 5621928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 24, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1500 BC: Coalescence of a number of cultural traits including undecorated pottery, megalithic burials, and millet-bean-rice agriculture indicate the beginning of the Mumun Pottery Period on the Korean peninsula. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 45407, 3505400, 16749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 167, 187 ], [ 195, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1490 BC: Cranaus, legendary King of Athens, is deposed after a reign of 10 years by his son-in-law Amphictyon of Thessaly, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 46019, 83775, 415282, 510900, 55804, 79423, 79424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 20 ], [ 32, 46 ], [ 103, 113 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 134, 143 ], [ 148, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1487 BC: Amphictyon, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha and legendary King of Athens, dies after a reign of 10 years and is succeeded by Erichthonius I of Athens, a grandson of Cranaus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 46151, 510900, 79423, 79424, 415282, 332748, 83775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 20 ], [ 29, 38 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 64, 78 ], [ 131, 155 ], [ 171, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1480 BC: Queen Hatshepsut succeeded by her stepson and nephew Thutmosis III. Period of greatest Egyptian expansion (4th Nile cataract to the Euphrates).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 46151, 60832, 155730, 21244, 10221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 19, 29 ], [ 66, 79 ], [ 124, 128 ], [ 146, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1469 BC: In the Battle of Megiddo, Egypt defeats Canaan (Low Chronology).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 63291, 636026, 585058, 50250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 20, 37 ], [ 39, 44 ], [ 53, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1460 BC: The Kassites overrun Babylonia and found a dynasty there that lasts for 576 years and nine months.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 63291, 93371, 46883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 17, 25 ], [ 34, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1437 BC: Legendary King Erichthonius I of Athens dies after a reign of 50 years and is succeeded by his son Pandion I. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 63288, 332748, 803679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 24, 48 ], [ 108, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1430 BC – 1160 BC: Hittite New Kingdom established. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 63288, 44864, 13308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 20, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1430 BC – 1178 BC: Beginning of Hittite empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 63288, 44870, 13308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 33, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1420 BC: Crete conquered by Mycenae—start of the Mycenaean period. First Linear B tablets. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 63287, 6591, 37548, 565602, 18551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 18 ], [ 32, 39 ], [ 53, 69 ], [ 77, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1400 BC: In Crete the use of bronze helmets (discovery at Knossos).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 62743, 6591, 80252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 13, 18 ], [ 59, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1400 BC: Palace of Minos destroyed by fire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 62743, 80252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1400 BC: Linear A reaches its peak of popularity. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 62743, 17989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. 1400 BC: The height of the Canaanite town of Ugarit. Royal Palace of Ugarit is built. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 62743, 50250, 203595, 37305272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 31, 37 ], [ 49, 55 ], [ 57, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Myceneans conquers Greece and border of Anatolia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 565602, 148363, 854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 20, 26 ], [ 41, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Tumulus culture flourishes. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1310587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Earliest traces of Olmec civilization.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 77260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Shang dynasty Chinese capital city at Ao had massive defensive walls of in width at the base and enclosed an area of some .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Inventions, discoveries, introductions", "target_page_ids": [ 43465, 5760, 26905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 18, 25 ], [ 49, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See: List of sovereign states in the 15th century BC.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sovereign states", "target_page_ids": [ 26560074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 52 ] ] } ]

[ "15th_century_BC", "2nd_millennium_BC", "Centuries" ]

[ "15th-century BC" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Kingsbury Commitment is a 1913 out-of-court settlement of the United States government's antitrust challenge against the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) for AT&T's then-growing vertical monopoly in the telephone industry. In return for the government's agreement not to pursue its case against the company as a monopolist, AT&T agreed to divest the controlling interest it had acquired in the Western Union telegraph company, and to allow non-competing independent telephone companies to interconnect with the AT&T long-distance network.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17555269, 206269, 1702294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 165 ], [ 197, 214 ], [ 508, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1907, Theodore N. Vail became president of AT&T for the second time. Immediately, he steered the company into a new direction, in terms of vision, company organization, and technology. He envisioned telephone service as a public utility, and the future of the American telephone industry as a unified system of companies under the lead of his company. This required technical standards understood and accepted by all players in the industry. He opened the market for the Western Electric Company, its manufacturing unit which the company had previously restricted to sell products only to the Bell System companies, so that independent operators could buy compatible apparatus. He organized a distinct research division within Western Electric to focus on basic research and development. AT&T had bought Bell-associated companies and organized them into new hierarchies. AT&T had also acquired many of the independents, and bought control of Western Union, giving it a monopolistic position in both telephone and telegraph communication. These efforts and Vail's vision were communicated to the public by marketing campaigns under the slogan One System — One Policy — Universal Service. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 751063, 229970, 193207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 474, 498 ], [ 945, 958 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AT&T increasingly became a vertically integrated conglomerate. The government had been increasingly worried that AT&T and the other Bell companies were monopolizing the industry. A key strategy by the Bell System was to refuse to connect its long-distance network—technologically, by far the finest and most extensive in the nation—with independent carriers. Without the prospect of long-distance services, the market position of many independent operators became untenable. AT&T's strategies prompted complaints and attracted the attention of the Justice Department.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21347591, 1394709, 11406701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 212 ], [ 242, 263 ], [ 548, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Faced with a government investigation and a possible suit for antitrust violations, AT&T entered into negotiations that carried on for several months in 1913. The conclusion came in form of a voluntary commitment in form of a letter by AT&T's Vice President Nathan Kingsbury, who secured approval by executives and the government representatives before submittal. In the letter, dated December 19, 1913, AT&T agreed with Attorney General James Clark McReynolds to divest itself of Western Union, to provide long-distance services to independent exchanges under certain conditions, and to refrain from acquisitions if the Interstate Commerce Commission objected. Justice Department officials opined that the plan gave the government everything and more than they could have hoped to obtain in court, and it found the approval of President Woodrow Wilson, who expressed his admiration for the attitude and vision of the telephone company:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Agreement", "target_page_ids": [ 666256, 21826428, 55678, 33523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 71 ], [ 438, 460 ], [ 621, 651 ], [ 838, 852 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Commitment did not settle all differences between independents and Bell companies, but it did avert the federal takeover many had expected. AT&T was allowed to buy market-share, as long as it sold an equal number of subscribers to independents. Crucially, while the Kingsbury Commitment obliged it to connect its long-distance service to independent local carriers, AT&T did not agree to interconnect its local services with other local providers. Nor did AT&T agree to any interconnection with independent long-distance carriers. AT&T's connection with the Western Electric Company was not addressed and the independent manufacturers still could not sell into Bell's market place, but operators had to buy Bell equipment for standard trunks to be able to connect to the Long Lines network.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Agreement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Consequently, AT&T was able to consolidate its control over both the most profitable urban markets and long-distance traffic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Continued monopoly", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All telephone networks in the United States were nationalized during World War I from June 1918 to July 1919. Following re-privatization, AT&T resumed its near-monopoly position. The Willis Graham Act of 1921 allowed AT&T to acquire more local telephone systems with the genial oversight of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), effectively declaring the telephone business as a natural monopoly. By 1924, the ICC approved AT&T's acquisition of 223 of the 234 independent telephone companies. Between 1921 and 1934, the ICC approved 271 of the 274 purchase requests of AT&T. With the creation of the Federal Communications Commission by the Communications Act of 1934, the government regulated the rates charged by AT&T.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Continued monopoly", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 31686333, 55678, 21143, 55974, 66040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 80 ], [ 183, 200 ], [ 295, 325 ], [ 383, 399 ], [ 604, 637 ], [ 645, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1956, AT&T and the Justice Department agreed on a consent decree to end an antitrust suit brought against AT&T in 1949. Under the decree, AT&T restricted its activities to those related to running the national telephone system, and special projects for the federal government.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Continued monopoly", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1968, FCC regulators intervened when the Bell System tried to prevent a mobile communications system, the Carterfone, from connecting to telephone lines. That decision established the principle that customers could connect any lawful device to the telephone network, even to offer a competing service. In the mid 1970s, emerging long-distance competitors like MCI and Sprint faced the same tactic of denying interconnection, which regulators quashed, followed by a series of efforts by the Bell System phone companies to escalate the costs of interconnection as an indirect means of excluding competition. These battles resulted a large amount of antitrust litigation and ultimately led to the 1982 breakup of the Bell System.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Continued monopoly", "target_page_ids": [ 882455, 2176583, 21347591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 119 ], [ 702, 709 ], [ 717, 728 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982, AT&T and the Justice Department agreed on tentative terms for settlement of antitrust suit filed against AT&T in 1974, under which AT&T divested itself of its local telephone operations, which became known as the \"Baby Bells.\" In return, the Justice Department agreed to lift the restrictions on AT&T activities contained in the 1956 Consent Decree.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Continued monopoly", "target_page_ids": [ 98680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " United States Independent Telephone Association", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1077486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sherman Antitrust Act", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telecommunications Act of 1996", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 196010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bell System divestiture", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2176583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Brooks (1976) Telephone: The First Hundred Years, p 136, Harper & Row .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 21256608, 1273102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 63, 75 ] ] } ]

[ "Legal_history_of_the_United_States", "United_States_communications_regulation", "Bell_System", "1913_in_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "USS Merrimack, or variant spelling USS Merrimac, may be any one of several ships commissioned in the United States Navy and named after the Merrimack River.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 176781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", a ship placed in service in 1798 and sold into mercantile service in 1801, renamed Monticello as a merchant ship and later sunk off Cape Cod", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", a brig laid down as USS Merrimack in 1803 but renamed prior to completion", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a screw frigate commissioned in 1856, decommissioned in 1860, and burned in 1861 to prevent capture by the Confederate States of America, best known as the hull upon which the Confederate States Navy ironclad was built during the American Civil War", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", a side-wheel steamer purchased in 1864 that foundered in 1865", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", a collier purchased in April 1898 and sunk as a blockship in June 1898 during the Spanish–American War", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", a Kennebec-class fleet oiler in commission from 1942 to 1950 and again from 1950 to 1954 which served in both the Atlantic and Pacific during World War II", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", a Cimarron-class fleet oiler in commission from 1981 to 1998", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "United_States_Navy_ship_names" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In music, an accidental is a note of a pitch (or pitch class) that is not a member of the scale or mode indicated by the most recently applied key signature. In musical notation, the sharp (), flat (), and natural () symbols, among others, mark such notes—and those symbols are also called accidentals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18839, 22026, 77933, 412388, 40651, 19556, 237665, 17394, 20201, 139920, 139950, 14205532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 29, 33 ], [ 39, 44 ], [ 49, 60 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 99, 103 ], [ 121, 142 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 161, 177 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 193, 197 ], [ 206, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the measure (bar) where it appears, an accidental sign raises or lowers the immediately following note (and any repetition of it in the bar) from its normal pitch, overriding the key signature. A note is usually raised or lowered by a semitone, and there are double sharps or flats, which raise or lower the indicated note by two semitones. Accidentals usually apply to all repetitions within the measure in which they appear, unless canceled by another accidental sign, or tied into the following measure. If a note has an accidental and the note is repeated in a different octave within the same measure the accidental is usually repeated, although this convention is far from universal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 415167, 387241, 426315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 246 ], [ 400, 407 ], [ 477, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modern accidental signs derive from the two forms of the lower-case letterb used in Gregorian chant manuscripts to signify the two pitches of B, the only note that could be altered. The \"round\" b became the flat sign, while the \"square\" b diverged into the sharp and natural signs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 155469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes the black keys on a musical keyboard are called \"accidentals\" (more usually sharps), and the white keys are called naturals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most cases, a sharp raises the pitch of a note one semitone while a flat lowers it one semitone. A natural is used to cancel the effect of a flat or sharp. This system of accidentals operates in conjunction with the key signature, whose effect continues throughout an entire piece, unless canceled by another key signature. An accidental can also be used to cancel a previous accidental or reinstate the flats or sharps of the key signature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 139920, 415167, 139950, 14205532, 17394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 22 ], [ 54, 62 ], [ 71, 75 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 219, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accidentals apply to subsequent notes on the same staff position for the remainder of the measure where they occur, unless explicitly changed by another accidental. Once a barline is passed, the effect of the accidental ends, except when a note affected by an accidental is tied to the same note across a barline. Subsequent notes at the same staff position in the second or later bars are not affected by the accidental carried through with the tied note. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 49229, 387241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ], [ 172, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under this system, the notes in the example above are: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1: G, G, G (the sharp carries over)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " m. 2: G (with courtesy accidental), G, G (the flat carries over)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 40667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " m. 3: G (which is tied from the previous note), G, G (the natural sign cancels the sharp sign)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Though this convention is still in use particularly in tonal music, it may be cumbersome in music that features frequent accidentals, as is often the case in atonal music. As a result, an alternative system of note-for-note accidentals has been adopted, with the aim of reducing the number of accidentals required to notate a bar. According to Kurt Stone, the system is as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 304572, 45678, 387241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 326, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Accidentals affect only those notes which they immediately precede.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Accidentals are not repeated on tied notes unless the tie goes from line to line or page to page.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Accidentals are not repeated for repeated notes unless one or more different pitches (or rests) intervene.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If a sharp or flat pitch is followed directly by its natural form, a natural is used.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Courtesy accidentals or naturals (in parentheses) may be used to clarify ambiguities but are kept to a minimum", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because seven of the twelve notes of the chromatic equal-tempered scale are naturals (the \"white notes\", A; B; C; D; E; F; and G on a piano keyboard) this system can significantly reduce the number of naturals required in a notated passage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Occasionally, an accidental may change the note by more than a semitone: for example, if a G is followed in the same measure by a G, the flat sign on the latter note means it is two semitones lower than if no accidental were present. Thus, the effect of the accidental must be understood in relation to the \"natural\" meaning of the note's staff position. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 49229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some atonal scores (particularly by composers of the Second Viennese School), an accidental is notated on every note, including natural notes and repeated pitches. This system was adopted for \"the specific intellectual reason that a note with an accidental was not simply an inflected version of a natural note but a pitch of equal status.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Standard use of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 67457, 10232935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 78 ], [ 278, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Double accidentals raise or lower the pitch of a note by two semitones, an innovation developed as early as 1615. This applies to the written note, ignoring key signature. An F with a double sharp applied raises it a whole step so it is enharmonically equivalent to a G. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Double accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 415153, 94707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 227 ], [ 237, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usage varies on how to notate the situation in which a note with a double sharp (or flat) is followed in the same measure by a note with a single sharp (or flat). Some publications simply use the single accidental for the latter note, whereas others use a combination of a natural and a sharp (shown below), with the natural being understood to apply to only the second sharp.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Double accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The double accidental with respect to a specific key signature raises or lowers the notes containing a sharp or flat by a semitone. For example, when in the key of C minor or E major, F, C, G, and D contain a sharp. Adding a double accidental (double sharp) to F in this case only raises F by one further semitone, creating G natural. Conversely, adding a double sharp to any other note not sharped or flatted in the key signature raises the note by two semitones with respect to the chromatic scale. For example, in the aforementioned key signature, any note that is not F, C, G, and D is raised by two semitones instead of one, so an A double sharp raises the note A natural to the enharmonic equivalent of B natural.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Double accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In modern scores, a barline cancels an accidental, with the exception of tied notes. Courtesy accidentals, also called cautionary accidentals or reminder accidentals are used to remind the musician of the correct pitch if the same note occurs in the following measure. The rules for applying courtesy accidentals (sometimes enclosed in parentheses) vary among publishers, though in a few situations they are customary:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Courtesy accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When the first note of a measure had an accidental in the previous measure", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Courtesy accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " After a tie carries an accidental across a barline, and the same note appears in the next measure", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Courtesy accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When a chord contains a diminished or augmented octave", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Courtesy accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When there is a cross relation with another part", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Courtesy accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 1826280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Publishers of free jazz music and some atonal music sometimes eschew all courtesy accidentals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Courtesy accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 99040, 45678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 39, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Composers of microtonal music have developed a number of notations for indicating the various pitches outside of standard notation. One such system for notating quarter tones, used by the Czech Alois Hába and other composers, is shown on the right.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Microtonal notation", "target_page_ids": [ 68276, 639578, 641060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 194, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th and early 20th centuries, when Turkish musicians switched from their traditional notation systems—which were not staff-based—to the European staff-based system, they refined the European accidental system so they could notate Turkish scales that use intervals smaller than a tempered semitone. There are several such systems, which vary as to how they divide the octave they presuppose or the graphical shape of the accidentals. The most widely used system (created by Rauf Yekta Bey) uses a system of four sharps (roughly +25 cents, +75 cents, +125 cents and +175 cents) and four flats (roughly −25 cents, −75 cents, −125 cents and −175 cents), none of which correspond to the tempered sharp and flat. They presuppose a Pythagorean division of the octave taking the Pythagorean comma (about an eighth of the tempered tone, actually closer to 24 cents, defined as the difference between seven octaves and 12 just-intonation fifths) as the basic interval. The Turkish systems have also been adopted by some Arab musicians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Microtonal notation", "target_page_ids": [ 1120376, 269036, 177721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 481, 495 ], [ 539, 543 ], [ 779, 796 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ben Johnston created a system of notation for pieces in just intonation where the unmarked C, F, and G major chords are just major chords (4:5:6) and accidentals create just tuning in other keys. Between 2000 and 2003, Wolfgang von Schweinitz and Marc Sabat developed the Extended Helmholtz-Ellis Just Intonation (JI) pitch notation, a modern adaptation and extension of the notation principles first used by Hermann von Helmholtz, Arthur von Oettingen, and Alexander John Ellis that some other musicians use for notating extended just intonation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Microtonal notation", "target_page_ids": [ 255556, 20201, 16493, 24477901, 53311, 17948414, 779267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 56, 71 ], [ 247, 257 ], [ 409, 430 ], [ 432, 452 ], [ 458, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The three principal symbols indicating whether a note should be raised or lowered in pitch are derived from variations of the small letterb: the sharp () and natural () signs from the square \"b quadratum\", and the flat sign () from the round \"b rotundum\" b.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of notation of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 139920, 14205532, 34635826, 139950, 34635826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 150 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 192, 203 ], [ 214, 218 ], [ 243, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The different kinds of B were eventually written differently, so as to distinguish them in music theory treatises and in notation. The flat sign derives from a round b that signified the soft hexachord, hexachordum molle, particularly the presence of B. The name of the flat sign in French is bémol from medieval French bé mol, which in modern French is bé mou (\"soft b\"). The natural sign and the sharp sign derive from variations of a square b that signified the hard hexachord, hexachordum durum, where the note in question is B. The name of the natural sign in French is bécarre from medieval French bé quarre, which in modern French is bé carré (\"square b\"). In German music notation, the letter B or b always designates B while the letter H or h – a deformation of a square b – designates B.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of notation of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the early Middle Ages, a widespread musical tradition was based on the hexachord system defined by Guido of Arezzo. The basic system, called musica recta, had three overlapping hexachords. Change from one hexachord to another was possible, called a mutation. A major problem with the system was that mutation from one hexachord to another could introduce intervals like the tritone that musicians of the time considered undesirable. To avoid the dissonance, a practice called musica ficta arose from the late 12th century onward. This introduced modifications of the hexachord, so that \"false\" or \"feigned\" notes could be sung, partly to avoid dissonance. At first only B could be flattened, moving from the hexachordum durum (the hard hexachord) G–A–B–C–D–E where B is natural, to the hexachordum molle (the soft hexachord) F–G–A–B–C–D where it is flat. The note B is not present in the third hexachord hexachordum naturale (the natural hexachord) C–D–E–F–G–A.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of notation of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 431082, 69402, 70443, 1380343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 74, 83 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 377, 384 ], [ 479, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strictly speaking the medieval signs and indicated that the melody is progressing inside a (fictive) hexachord of which the signed note is the mi or the fa respectively. That means they refer to a group of notes around the marked note, rather than indicating that the note itself is necessarily an accidental. For example, when a semitone relationship is indicated between F and G, either by placing a mi-sign () on F or a fa-sign () on G, only the context can determine whether this means, in modern terms, F-G or F-G, or even F–G. The use of either the mi-sign on F or the fa-sign on G means only that \"some kind of F goes to some kind of G, proceeding by a semitone\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of notation of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As polyphony became more complex, notes other than B required alteration to avoid undesirable harmonic or melodic intervals (especially the augmented fourth, or tritone, that music theory writers referred to as diabolus in musica, i.e., \"the devil in music\"). Nowadays \"ficta\" is used loosely to describe any such un-notated accidentals. The implied alterations can have more than one solution, but sometimes the intended pitches can be found in lute tablatures where a fret is specified. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of notation of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 70443, 18938651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 168 ], [ 451, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convention of an accidental remaining in force through a measure developed only gradually over the 18th century. Before then, accidentals only applied to immediately repeated notes or short groups when the composer felt it was obvious that the accidental should continue. The older practice continued in use well into the 18th century by many composers, notably Johann Sebastian Bach. The newer convention did not achieve general currency until early in the 19th century.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of notation of accidentals", "target_page_ids": [ 9906294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 366, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Just intonation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maneri-Sims notation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3324846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musical isomorphism, a mathematical concept which uses accidentals in its notation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3762980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "Musical_notation" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The following is a list of sports history organizations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Association of Track and Field Statisticians", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 6963386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Society for American Baseball Research", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 337090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Association for Professional Basketball Research", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 3355871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Professional Football Researchers Association", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 411465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English National Football Archive", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "International Federation of Football History & Statistics", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 3811166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 2597732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canadian Football Historical Association", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hockey Research Association", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Society for International Hockey Research", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 11488728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Society of Olympic Historians", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 15495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "H.J. Lutcher Stark Center for Physical Culture and Sports at The University of Texas at Austin", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 30785138, 32031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 57 ], [ 61, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "North American Society for Sport History", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_sports", "History_organizations" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Léon: The Professional (), titled Leon in the UK (and originally titled The Professional in the US), is a 1994 English-language French action-thriller film written and directed by Luc Besson. It stars Jean Reno and Gary Oldman, and features the film debut of Natalie Portman. The plot follows Léon (Reno), a professional hitman, who reluctantly takes in twelve-year-old Mathilda (Portman) after her family is murdered by corrupt Drug Enforcement Administration agent Norman Stansfield (Oldman). Léon and Mathilda form an unusual relationship, as she becomes his protégée and learns the hitman's trade.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 43564, 40676, 38253, 213163, 38459, 146720, 2971070, 227112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 155 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 215, 226 ], [ 259, 274 ], [ 429, 460 ], [ 467, 484 ], [ 562, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Léon is an Italian hitman (or \"cleaner\", as he refers to himself) in New York City's Little Italy working for a mafioso named \"Old Tony\". One day, Léon meets Mathilda Lando, a lonely 12-year-old girl. Mathilda lives with her dysfunctional family in an apartment down the hall from Leon, and has stopped attending class at her school for troubled girls. Mathilda's abusive father attracts the ire of corrupt DEA agents, who have been paying him to stash cocaine in his apartment. After they discover he has been stealing the cocaine, DEAagents storm the building, led by their boss, the sharply dressed drug addict Norman Stansfield. During the raid, Stansfield murders Mathilda's family while she is out shopping for groceries. When Mathilda returns, she realizes what has happened just in time to continue down the hall to Léon's apartment; he hesitantly gives her shelter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [ 250879, 265585, 18293303, 146720, 7701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 112, 119 ], [ 407, 410 ], [ 453, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mathilda quickly discovers that Léon is a hitman. She begs him to take care of her and to teach her his skills, as she wants to avenge the murder of her four-year-old brother. At first, Léon is unsettled by her presence and considers murdering her in her sleep but he eventually trains Mathilda and shows her how to use various weapons. In exchange, she runs his errands, cleans his apartment and teaches him how to read. Mathilda looks up to Léon and quickly develops a crush on him, often telling him she loves him but he does not reciprocate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Léon is out on a job, Mathilda fills a bag with guns from Léon's collection and sets out to kill Stansfield. She bluffs her way into the DEA office by posing as a delivery girl, and is ambushed by Stansfield in a bathroom. One of his men arrives and informs him that Léon killed Malky, one of the corrupt DEA agents, in Chinatown that morning. Léon, after discovering her plan in a note left for him, rescues Mathilda, killing two more of Stansfield's men in the process. An enraged Stansfield confronts Tony, who is tortured for Léon's whereabouts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Léon tells Mathilda about how he became a hitman. When Léon was 18 in Italy, he fell in love with a girl from a wealthy family, but Léon was from a poor family. The two made plans to elope but when the girl's father discovered their plans, he killed her out of anger. Léon killed the father in revenge and fled to New York, where he met Tony and trained to become a hitman.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Later, while Mathilda returns home from grocery shopping, an NYPD ESU team sent by Stansfield captures her and infiltrates Léon's apartment. Léon ambushes the ESU team and rescues Mathilda. Léon creates a quick escape for Mathilda by smashing a hole in an air shaft. He tells her that he loves her and to meet him at Tony's place in an hour, moments before the ESU team blow up the apartment. In the chaos, a wounded Léon sneaks out of the building disguised as a wounded ESU officer. He goes unnoticed by everyone except Stansfield, who follows him and shoots him in the back. As Léon dies, he presses a grenade pin in Stansfield's palm, saying that it is from Mathilda. Stansfield opens Léon's vest to find a cluster of grenades, which detonate, killing Stansfield.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [ 20516427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mathilda goes to Tony and tries to convince Tony to hire her but Tony flatly refuses to hire a twelve-year-old and tells Mathilda that Léon told him to give his money to her if anything happened to him. He gives Mathilda $100 as an allowance and sends her back to school, where the headmistress re-admits her after Mathilda reveals what has happened. Mathilda walks onto a field near the school to plant Léon's houseplant, as she had told Léon, to \"give it roots\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Léon: The Professional is to some extent an expansion of an idea in Besson's earlier 1990 film, La Femme Nikita (in some countries Nikita). In La Femme Nikita, Jean Reno plays a similar character named Victor. Besson described Léon as \"Now maybe Jean is playing the American cousin of Victor. This time he's more human.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 264943, 38253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 111 ], [ 160, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While most of the interior footage was shot in France, the rest of the film was shot on location in New York City. The final scene at school was filmed at Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 292132, 125235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 186 ], [ 190, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A soundtrack for the film was released in October 1994 by TriStar Music. It was commercially successful in Japan, being certified gold for 100,000 copies shipped in December 1999.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Soundtrack", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Léon: The Professional was released in France on 14 September 1994. The film was a commercial success, grossing over $45 million worldwide on a $16 million budget. It grossed 26.8 million French Franc ($5.1 million) in its opening week in France and was number one for three weeks. In France, it sold 3,330,703 tickets in total.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Release", "target_page_ids": [ 67361933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 73% based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critics consensus reads, \"Pivoting on the unusual relationship between seasoned hitman and his 12-year-old apprentice—a breakout turn by young Natalie Portman—Luc Besson's Léon is a stylish and oddly affecting thriller.\" At Metacritic, the film received an average score of 64 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B\" on an A+ to F scale.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 832482, 805870, 18525704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 350, 360 ], [ 497, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mark Salisbury of Empire magazine awarded the film a full five stars. He said, \"Oozing style, wit and confidence from every sprocket, and offering a dizzyingly, fresh perspective on the Big Apple that only Besson could bring, this is, in a word, wonderful\". Mark Deming at AllMovie awarded the film four stars out of five, describing it as \"As visually stylish as it is graphically violent\", and featuring \"a strong performance from Jean Reno, a striking debut by Natalie Portman, and a love-it-or-hate-it, over-the-top turn by Gary Oldman\". Richard Schickel of Time magazine lauded the film, writing, \"this is a Cuisinart of a movie, mixing familiar yet disparate ingredients, making something odd, possibly distasteful, undeniably arresting out of them\". He praised Oldman's performance as \"divinely psychotic\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 898017, 31710756, 3743362, 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 273, 281 ], [ 542, 558 ], [ 562, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roger Ebert awarded the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, writing: \"It is a well-directed film, because Besson has a natural gift for plunging into drama with a charged-up visual style. And it is well acted.\" However, he was not entirely complimentary: \"Always at the back of my mind was the troubled thought that there was something wrong about placing a 12-year-old character in the middle of this action. ... In what is essentially an exercise—a slick urban thriller—it seems to exploit the youth of the girl without really dealing with it.\"The New York Times Janet Maslin wrote, \"The Professional is much too sentimental to sound shockingly amoral in the least. Even in a finale of extravagant violence, it manages to be maudlin ... Mr. Oldman expresses most of the film's sadism as well as many of its misguidedly poetic sentiments.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 50908, 30680, 4123754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 549, 567 ], [ 568, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honorable mention– Betsy Pickle, Knoxville News-Sentinel", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 3795569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2013 book, Poseur: A Memoir of Downtown New York City in the '90s, Marc Spitz wrote that the film is \"considered a cult classic\". In 2014, Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films; Léon: The Professional was listed at No. 42. The character Norman Stansfield has since been named as one of cinema's greatest villains.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6811799, 5645, 26391751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 146, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English band Alt-J released a song about the film, titled \"Matilda\" [sic]. The first line in the lyrics, \"this is from Matilda\", refer to Léon's last words to Stansfield, shortly before the grenades detonate and kills them.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 36355679, 43110783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 22 ], [ 63, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South Korean comedian Park Myeong-su and singer-songwriter IU released and performed a song inspired by the film, \"Leon\", for a bi-annual music festival of South Korea's highly popular variety show, Infinite Challenge, in 2015.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 11795665, 24385427, 10977899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 59, 61 ], [ 199, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson wrote a script for a sequel, Mathilda, but filming was delayed until Portman was older. In the script, Mathilda was described as \"older\" and \"more mature\", and was working as a cleaner. However, in the meantime, Besson left Gaumont Film Company to start his own movie studio, EuropaCorp. Unhappy at Besson's departure, Gaumont Film Company \"has held The Professional rights close to the vest – and will not budge\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sequel", "target_page_ids": [ 188844, 20126431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 251 ], [ 283, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, director Olivier Megaton told reporters that he and Besson used the script for Mathilda as the basis for Colombiana, a film about a young cleaner played by Zoe Saldaña. Like Mathilda, her character goes to war with a drug cartel as revenge for the murder of her family when she was a child.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sequel", "target_page_ids": [ 28372980, 28763446, 1713217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ], [ 114, 124 ], [ 165, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also an extended version of the film, referred to as \"international version\", \"version longue\", or \"version intégrale\". Containing 25minutes of additional footage, it is sometimes called the \"Director's Cut\" but Besson refers to the original version as the Director's Cut and the new version as \"The Long Version\". According to Besson, this is the version he wanted to release, but for the fact that the extra scenes tested poorly with Los Angeles preview audiences. The additional material is found in the film's second act, and it depicts more of the interactions and relationship between Léon and Mathilda, as well as explicitly demonstrating how Mathilda accompanies Léon on several of his hits as \"a full co-conspirator\", to further her training as a contracted killer.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Extended version", "target_page_ids": [ 8731, 18110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 215 ], [ 445, 456 ] ] } ]

[ "1994_films", "1994_action_thriller_films", "1990s_buddy_films", "1990s_English-language_films", "Czech_Lion_Awards_winners_(films)", "English-language_French_films", "Fiction_about_familicide", "Films_about_the_American_Mafia", "Films_about_contract_killing_in_the_United_States", "Films_about_corruption_in_the_United_States", "Films_about_the_Drug_Enforcement_Administration", "Films_about_dysfunctional_families", "Films_about_the_New_York_City_Police_Department", "Films_about_orphans", "Films_directed_by_Luc_Besson", "Films_scored_by_Éric_Serra", "Films_set_in_apartment_buildings", "Films_set_in_Manhattan", "Films_set_in_New_Jersey", "Films_shot_in_New_Jersey", "Films_shot_in_New_York_City", "Films_shot_in_Paris", "Films_with_screenplays_by_Luc_Besson", "French_action_thriller_films", "French_buddy_films", "French_films_about_revenge", "Gaumont_Film_Company_films", "Juvenile_sexuality_in_films" ]

[ "The Professional", "Léon" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch (Spinus tristis) is a small North American bird in the finch family. It is migratory, ranging from mid-Alberta to North Carolina during the breeding season, and from just south of the Canada–United States border to Mexico during the winter.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3410, 11711, 56276, 201943, 717, 21650, 23792299, 630260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ], [ 78, 83 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 98, 107 ], [ 126, 133 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 163, 178 ], [ 207, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The only finch in its subfamily to undergo a complete molt, the American goldfinch displays sexual dichromatism: the male is a vibrant yellow in the summer and an olive color during the winter, while the female is a dull yellow-brown shade which brightens only slightly during the summer. The male displays brightly colored plumage during the breeding season to attract a mate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 151983, 317695, 197179, 34368, 880974, 944625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 54, 58 ], [ 92, 111 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 163, 168 ], [ 324, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch is a granivore and adapted for the consumption of seedheads, with a conical beak to remove the seeds and agile feet to grip the stems of seedheads while feeding. It is a social bird and will gather in large flocks while feeding and migrating. It may behave territorially during nest construction, but this aggression is short-lived. Its breeding season is tied to the peak of food supply, beginning in late July, which is relatively late in the year for a finch. This species is generally monogamous and produces one brood each year.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6984635, 942048, 198154, 501364, 21351296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ], [ 42, 49 ], [ 99, 103 ], [ 280, 293 ], [ 512, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Human activity has generally benefited the American goldfinch. It is often found in residential areas, attracted to bird feeders which increase its survival rate in these areas. Deforestation also creates open meadow areas, which are its preferred habitat.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 633365, 8103, 371406, 1596317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 128 ], [ 178, 191 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 248, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch was one of the many species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his work, Systema Naturae, where he classified it in the genus Fringilla. It was later placed in the genus Spinus, a group containing New World goldfinches and siskins. In 1976, Spinus was merged into the genus Carduelis as a subgenus. Recent studies have resurrected the genus Spinus. Its closest relatives are the lesser goldfinch (S. psaltria), Lawrence's goldfinch (S. lawrencei), and the siskins. Although it shares a name with the European goldfinch, the two are in separate genera and are not closely related. Carduelis is derived from carduus, the Latin word for 'thistle'; the species name tristis is Latin for 'sorrowful'. There are four recognized subspecies of the American goldfinch:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5233, 28292088, 1478634, 38493, 35863956, 247367, 185907, 2280298, 3098113, 224623, 17730, 2193890, 185901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ], [ 110, 122 ], [ 136, 151 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 286, 292 ], [ 337, 346 ], [ 352, 360 ], [ 442, 458 ], [ 474, 494 ], [ 563, 581 ], [ 682, 687 ], [ 698, 705 ], [ 785, 795 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The eastern goldfinch (S. t. tristis) is the most common of the subspecies. Its summer range is from southern Canada to Colorado, and east to the Carolinas. Its winter range is from southern Canada south to Florida and central Mexico.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5399, 340152, 18933066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 128 ], [ 146, 155 ], [ 207, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pale goldfinch (S. t. pallidus) is differentiated from other subspecies by its paler body color, stronger white markings and, in males, a larger black cap. It is slightly larger than C. t. tristis. The summer range is from British Columbia to western Ontario, south to Colorado and west to Oregon. In winter, the range extends from southern Canada and northern California, south to Mexico.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 3392, 22218, 5399, 26811621, 5407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 243 ], [ 255, 262 ], [ 273, 281 ], [ 294, 300 ], [ 365, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The northwestern goldfinch (S. t. jewetti) is smaller and darker than the other subspecies. It occurs on the coastal slope of the Cascade Mountains from southern British Columbia to central California, overlapping with the range of C. t. pallidus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 76227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The willow goldfinch (S. t. salicamans) occurs west of the Sierra Nevada range during the summer and in the central and southern Baja California Peninsula to the Mojave Desert and the Colorado Desert in the winter. In winter, the plumage of both sexes is browner than the other subspecies and in summer, the male's black cap is smaller than that of the other subspecies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 50413, 62706, 239055, 751147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 72 ], [ 129, 154 ], [ 162, 175 ], [ 184, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This seems to be the most ancient extant species of the Meso-American Spinus/Carduelis evolutive radiation, whose parental species is Lawrence's goldfinch (Spinus lawrencei).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch is a small finch, long, with a wingspan of . It weighs between . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is , the culmen is and the tarsus is .} The beak is small, conical, and pink for most of the year, but turns bright orange with the spring molt in both sexes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 11711, 100439, 36937808, 2260429, 198154, 1605738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 39 ], [ 55, 63 ], [ 122, 132 ], [ 142, 146 ], [ 156, 162 ], [ 175, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The shape and size of the beak aid in the extraction of seeds from the seed heads of thistles, sunflowers, and other plants.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 37694, 57622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 60 ], [ 95, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch undergoes a molt in the spring and autumn. It is the only cardueline finch to undergo a molt twice a year. During the winter molt it sheds all its feathers; in the spring, it sheds all but the wing and tail feathers, which are dark brown in the female and black in the male. The markings on these feathers remain through each molt, with bars on the wings and white under and at the edges of the short, notched tail. The sexual dimorphism displayed in plumage coloration is especially pronounced after the spring molt, when the bright color of the male's summer plumage is needed to attract a mate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 317695, 197179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 39 ], [ 443, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once the spring molt is complete, the body of the male is a brilliant lemon yellow, a color produced by carotenoid pigments from plant materials in its diet, with a striking jet black cap and white rump that is visible during flight. The female is mostly brown, lighter on the underside with a yellow bib. After the autumn molt, the bright summer feathers are replaced by duller plumage, becoming buff below and olive-brown above, with a pale yellow face and bib. The autumn plumage is almost identical in both sexes, but the male has yellow shoulder patches.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 294943, 49598, 2230239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 114 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 397, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The immature bird has a dull brown back, and the underside is pale yellow. The shoulders and tail are a dull black with buff-colored, rather than white, markings on wings and rump. This coloration is the same in both sexes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The song is a series of musical warbles and twitters, often with a long note. A tsee-tsi-tsi-tsit call is often given in flight; it may also be described as per-chic-o-ree. While the female incubates the eggs, she calls to her returning mate with a soft continuous tee-tee-tee-tee-tee sound. The young begin to use a call of chick-kee or chick-wee shortly before fledging, which they use until they have left the nest entirely. There are two defense calls made by adults during nesting; a sweet call made to rally other goldfinches to the nest and distract predators, and a bearbee used to signal to the nestlings to quiet them and get them to crouch down in the nest to become less conspicuous.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 369978, 523737, 213319, 57559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 190, 199 ], [ 363, 371 ], [ 557, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch prefers open country where weeds thrive, such as fields, meadows, flood plains, as well as roadsides, orchards, and gardens. It may also be found in open deciduous and riparian woodlands and areas of secondary growth. This habitat preference continues during the spring and autumn migrations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 4239514, 70117, 168008, 66722, 3345336, 1506399, 1596317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 78 ], [ 89, 100 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 223, 239 ], [ 246, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The summer breeding range stretches across North America from coast to coast. It is bounded on the north by Saskatchewan and stretches south across North America to North Carolina on the east coast, and northern California on the west coast. The American goldfinch is a short-distance migrant, moving south in response to colder weather and lessened food supply. This responsive, southerly migratory pattern is thought to begin to occur as daily low temperatures approach freezing, and particularly as these temperatures near 0 °F. The migration is completed in compact flocks, which travel in an erratic, wavelike flight pattern.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 5509703, 26840, 21650, 5407, 8809081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 108, 120 ], [ 165, 179 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 570, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its winter range includes southern Canada and stretches south through the United States to parts of Mexico. In winter, in the northern part of its range, the finch may move nearer to feeders if they are available. In southern ranges, during winter, they remain in areas like fields and flood plains where they live during the summer months.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 633365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attempts were made to introduce the American goldfinch into Bermuda in the 19th century and Tahiti in 1938, but the species failed to become established in either place.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 3460, 65153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 67 ], [ 92, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch flies in a distinctive undulating pattern, creating a wave-shaped path. This normally consists of a series of wing beats to lift the bird, then folding in the wings and gliding in an arc before repeating the pattern. Birds often vocalize during the flapping phase of the pattern and then go silent during the coasting phase. The call made during flight is \"per-twee-twee-twee\", or \"ti-di-di-di\", punctuated by the silent periods. They communicate with several distinct vocalizations, including one that sounds like \"po-ta-to-chip\" to the listener.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Birds do not act aggressively toward predators within their territory; their only reaction is alarm calling. Predators include snakes, weasels, squirrels, and blue jays, which may destroy eggs or kill young, and hawks and cats, which pose a threat to both young and adults. The oldest known American goldfinch was 10 years and 5 months old.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 2136757, 29370, 37595, 28492, 213498, 56890, 6678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 104 ], [ 127, 132 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 144, 152 ], [ 159, 167 ], [ 212, 216 ], [ 222, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch is gregarious during the non-breeding season when it is often found in large flocks, usually with other finches. The social hierarchy, measured by how many aggressive encounters are won by each individual, tends towards the male being dominant in the non-breeding season. During the breeding season, this finch lives in loose colonies. While the nest is being constructed, the male will act aggressively toward other males who intrude into his territory, driving them away, and the female reacts in the same way toward other females. This aggressiveness subsides once the eggs have been laid. The social hierarchy in the breeding season generally has the female dominant over the male. Dominance may change based on the value of a resource; a study published in 1987 found that starved subordinate birds were sometimes dominant in competitions over feeder access.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 5781408, 11924709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ], [ 349, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Birds indicate their level of aggression through a range of displays. The head-up display, where the neck and legs are slightly extended, shows mild aggression and is often performed by the victor of an encounter. The carpals-raised display has the neck retracted and the carpals raised; displayers are likely to attack their opponent. The head-forward display is where the legs are flexed, the neck extended, and the beak closed. At higher intensities, the neck is lowered, the beak is pointed at the opponent, and one or both wings are raised. In extreme cases, the neck is retracted, the bill opened, the body feathers sleeked, and the tail is fanned and raised slightly. Aggression is also displayed by showing the front of the body to another individual. Attacks include pecking at feathers, supplanting the opponent by landing next to it, and flying vertically with legs and feet extended, beaks open, and necks extended. Avoidance behaviors include showing only the side of the body to an aggressor, leaning away, flexing the legs, retracting the neck, and pointing the beak down.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The breeding season begins later in the year than for any other finch and later than any other native North American bird, besides occasionally the sedge wren. This may be related to the abundance of seeds in the late summer months, as seeds represent most of their diet.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 432680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The courtship rituals include aerial maneuvers and singing by males, who begin courtship in late July. The flight displays begin as the male pursues the female, who flies in zigzagging evasive patterns. The male can signal his quality and fitness, both in the short term (current body condition) and long term (genes), through ornamentation (bill color and plumage). If a female accepts the male as a mate, the pair will fly in wide circles, as the male warbles throughout the flight.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once a male has found a mate, he selects a territory, marking the boundaries by warbling as he flies from perch to perch. After circling the perimeter, he performs two flight displays, first repeating a low, flat flight, then flying in an exaggerated version of normal flight, tucking his wings close to his body, plummeting earthwards and catching himself as he spreads his wings to glide upward in a series of loops. Two or three pairs may group their territories together in a loose colony, perhaps to aid in defense against predators.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The nest is built in late summer by the female in the branches of a deciduous shrub or tree at a height of up to . The nest-building lasts approximately six days, during which time the female works in 10–40minute increments. The male frequently flies with the female as she collects nesting materials, and though he may carry some materials back to the nest, he leaves its construction to the female. The outer shell of the nest is built of bark, weeds, vines, and grass. The inside diameter of the finished nest is about . The rim is reinforced with bark bound by spiderwebs and caterpillar silk, and the cup is lined with plant down from milkweed, thistle, or cattail. The nest is so tightly woven that it can hold water, and it is possible for nestlings to drown following a rainstorm if the parents do not cover the nest.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 19048968, 479942, 66962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 565, 575 ], [ 640, 648 ], [ 662, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The clutch is four to six bluish-white eggs, which are oval in shape and about , roughly the size of a peanut. It is thought that they are laid during the night. The eggs are incubated by the female alone, though the male brings her food as she nests, and most mating pairs raise only one brood each year.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 484939, 55602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 43 ], [ 103, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chicks hatch 12–14days after incubation begins. Like all passerines, the chicks are altricial; they are hatched naked, with reddish bodies, pale grey down, and closed eyes. The mother bird feeds her young regurgitated seeds and insects as they grow. The hatchlings develop quickly, opening their eyes after three days, and completing the growth of olive-brown juvenile plumage after 11–15days, at which time they begin to practice short flights close to the nest. For up to three weeks after fledging, they are still fed by the male, who locates them by listening for their fledging call. The chicks stop giving this call when they become entirely independent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 46336, 69746055, 1084904, 6171868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 70 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 209, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch is occasionally victim to brood parasites, particularly brown-headed cowbirds. One study found that 9% of nests had brown-headed cowbird eggs in them. It likely evades parasitism partly because of its late breeding season. The American goldfinch also makes a very poor host for brood parasites, with studies showing low hatching rates of brown-headed cowbird eggs and no fledging success. This is despite the lack of known behavioral adaptations against brood parasites in this finch. It is thought that the inability of brown-headed cowbird chicks to survive is due to a failure to get enough nutrition; the seed-rich diet of American goldfinch chicks varies from the usual insect-rich diet of other hosts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 380851, 21525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 99 ], [ 617, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch is a diurnal feeder. According to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, the species is one of the strictest vegetarians in the bird world. It is mainly granivorous, but will occasionally eat insects, which are also fed to its young to provide protein. Its diet consists of the seeds from a wide variety of plants, often those of weeds, grasses, and trees, such as thistle, teasel, dandelion, ragweed, mullein, cosmos, goatsbeard, sunflower, and alder. However, it also consumes tree buds, maple sap, and berries. It will eat at bird feeders provided by humans, particularly in the winter months, preferring Niger seed (commonly and erroneously called thistle seed).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 3104473, 2559332, 6984635, 23634, 639924, 468291, 19230414, 346809, 652135, 313906, 82670, 1383, 2423986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 35 ], [ 61, 87 ], [ 169, 180 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 273, 277 ], [ 390, 396 ], [ 398, 407 ], [ 409, 416 ], [ 418, 425 ], [ 427, 433 ], [ 435, 445 ], [ 462, 467 ], [ 624, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike some finch species, the American goldfinch uses its feet extensively in feeding. It frequently hangs from seedheads while feeding to reach the seeds more easily. In the spring, the American goldfinch feeds on the catkins hanging from birches and alders by pulling one up with its beak and using its toes to hold the catkin still against the branch. This dexterity enables it to take advantage of food sources relatively inaccessible to potential competitors, increasing its chances of survival.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 1373051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch has a large range, with an estimated global extent of about and an increasing population. The species is evaluated as least concern on the 2016 IUCN Red List.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Status", "target_page_ids": [ 5529962, 153625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 155 ], [ 168, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch is found in residential areas throughout its range. Backyard birders attract it using feeders containing niger seed, or by planting grasses and perennial plants, such as zinnias, cosmos, bee balm, or globe thistle, which produce seedheads favored by finches.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Relationship with humans", "target_page_ids": [ 173575, 2423986, 733199, 340602, 1548538, 697496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ], [ 128, 138 ], [ 167, 182 ], [ 193, 200 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 223, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch is not threatened by human activity and is widespread throughout its range. The clearing of forests by humans, though harmful to many species, has benefited the American goldfinch. Clearing of woodlands causes declines in numbers of neotropical migrants, while favoring short-distance migrants and permanent residents. This benefits the American goldfinch both as a short-distance migrant, and because the created open areas are the preferred environment of the bird, where weeds thrive which produce the primary food source of the American goldfinch.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Relationship with humans", "target_page_ids": [ 45394, 201943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 267 ], [ 268, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American goldfinch is the state bird of Iowa and New Jersey, where it is called the eastern goldfinch, and Washington, where it is called the willow goldfinch. It was chosen by schoolchildren in Washington in 1951.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "State bird", "target_page_ids": [ 346365, 26810748, 21648, 13015878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 111, 121 ] ] } ]

[ "Spinus_(genus)", "Birds_of_North_America", "Birds_of_the_United_States", "Least_concern_biota_of_North_America", "Least_concern_biota_of_the_United_States", "Birds_described_in_1758", "Taxa_named_by_Carl_Linnaeus", "Symbols_of_New_Jersey", "Extant_Late_Pleistocene_first_appearances" ]

[ "Spinus tristis" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Meissen (in German orthography: Meißen, ) is a town of approximately 30,000 about northwest of Dresden on both banks of the Elbe river in the Free State of Saxony, in eastern Germany. Meissen is the home of Meissen porcelain, the Albrechtsburg castle, the Gothic Meissen Cathedral and the Meissen Frauenkirche. The Große Kreisstadt is the capital of the Meissen district.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 467946, 52911, 37410, 50759, 28395, 11867, 2546440, 1884681, 54044, 30872986, 3421439, 315416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 30 ], [ 47, 51 ], [ 96, 103 ], [ 125, 129 ], [ 143, 163 ], [ 176, 183 ], [ 208, 225 ], [ 231, 244 ], [ 257, 263 ], [ 264, 281 ], [ 316, 332 ], [ 355, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , ou, selon l'orthographe allemande: Meißen; en français suranné: Misnie", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (pinyin: )", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 23588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meissen is sometimes known as the \"cradle of Saxony\". It grew out of the early West Slavic settlement of Misni inhabited by the Glomacze tribe and was founded as a German town by King Henry the Fowler in 929. In 968, the Diocese of Meissen was founded, and Meissen became the episcopal see of a bishop. The Catholic bishopric was suppressed in 1581 after the diocese accepted the Protestant Reformation (1559), but re-created in 1921 with its seat first at Bautzen and now at the Katholische Hofkirche in Dresden.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1298912, 24042653, 5030127, 13957, 6819207, 199657, 4092, 37857, 355774, 3212165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 90 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 164, 175 ], [ 184, 200 ], [ 221, 239 ], [ 276, 289 ], [ 295, 301 ], [ 380, 402 ], [ 457, 464 ], [ 480, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 965, the Margraviate of Meissen, a frontier march of the Holy Roman Empire, was founded, with Meissen as its capital. A market town by 1000, Meissen passed to the Duchy of Poland in 1002 under Boleslaw I the Brave, afterwards into hands of Henry II a few months later and to the House of Wettin in 1089. In 1015, Meissen was besieged by the Poles led by future King Mieszko II.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3211873, 317549, 13277, 145965, 23631024, 38999, 27485516, 578487, 20596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 34 ], [ 38, 52 ], [ 60, 77 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 196, 216 ], [ 243, 251 ], [ 282, 297 ], [ 369, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1241, the town was attacked in the Mongol raid on Meissen. The small Mongol force under Orda Khan defeated Meissens's defenders and much of the town was destroyed. The Mongols withdrew from Germany after the death of Ögedei Khan, sparing the region from further destruction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64946826, 3394353, 739857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ], [ 91, 100 ], [ 220, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The town was at the forefront of the Ostsiedlung, or intensive German settlement of the rural Slavic lands east of the Elbe, and its reception of town rights dates to 1332.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38268832, 5030127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 48 ], [ 146, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The construction of Meissen Cathedral was begun in 1260 on the same hill as the Albrechtsburg castle. The resulting lack of space led to the cathedral being one of the smallest cathedrals in Europe. The church is also known as being one of the purest examples of Gothic architecture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30872986, 1884681, 45883, 9239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 37 ], [ 80, 93 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 191, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1423, Meissen became capital of the Electorate of Saxony. In 1464, the capital was moved to Dresden.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6488945, 37410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 95, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1759, the Austrians defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Meissen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 446485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, a subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp was located in Meissen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 355180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 34, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meissen served as an important place of religious dialogue in 1988 when the agreement on mutual recognition between the German Evangelical Church (both East and West German) and the Church of England was signed in the town in 1988.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meissen is famous for the manufacture of porcelain, based on extensive local deposits of china clay (kaolin) and potter's clay (potter's earth). Meissen porcelain was the first high-quality porcelain to be produced outside of the Orient.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Porcelain", "target_page_ids": [ 2546440, 16938, 241261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 50 ], [ 101, 107 ], [ 226, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first European porcelain was manufactured in Meissen in 1710, when by decree of King Augustus II the Strong the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Porcelain Factory (Königlich-Polnische und Kurfürstlich-Sächsische Porzellan-Manufaktur) was opened in the Albrechtsburg. In 1861, it was moved to the Triebisch river valley of Meissen, where the porcelain factory can still be found today. Along with porcelain, other ceramics are also manufactured in the town. In the old town streets, there have been set up numerous porcelain stores, often selling antique Meissen porcelain and sometimes offering repair of broken porcelain. In Meissen and the surrounding area, several former painters from the manufacturer have set up porcelain painting workshops and galleries with their own pieces of porcelain art.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Porcelain", "target_page_ids": [ 247724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Albrechtsburg, the former residence of the House of Wettin, is regarded as being the first castle to be used as a royal residence in the German-speaking world. Built between 1472 and 1525, it is a fine example of late Gothic style. It was redecorated in the 19th century with a range of murals depicting Saxon history. Today the castle is a museum. Nearby is the 13th-century Gothic Meissen Cathedral (Meißner Dom), whose chapel is one of the most famous burial places of the Wettin family. The hill on which the castle and the cathedral are built offers a view over the roofs of the old town.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 578487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meissen's historical district is located mostly around the market at the foot of the castle hill. It contains many buildings of Renaissance architecture. Also imposing is the view from the 57-metre-high tower of the Frauenkirche (Church of Our Lady), situated in the old market-place. This church, not to be confused with the Dresden Frauenkirche, was first mentioned in a 1205 deed issued by Bishop Dietrich II and after a blaze about 1450 rebuilt in the Late Gothic style of a hall church. Its tower hosts the world's first porcelain carillon, manufactured in 1929 on the occasion of the town's 1000-years-jubilee. Another popular tourist sight is the world-famous Meissen porcelain factory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 41524, 188921, 4706248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 152 ], [ 326, 346 ], [ 479, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From spring to autumn, several festivals take place in Meissen, such as the pottery market or the Weinfest, which celebrates the wine harvest. Meissen wine is produced at the vineyards in the river valley (Elbtal) around the town, part of the Saxonian wine region, one of the northernmost in Europe.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 24619, 32961, 167276, 14340099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 83 ], [ 129, 133 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 243, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meissen is the home of the Saxon public elite college Sächsisches Landesgymnasium Sankt Afra zu Meißen.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Educational institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 12260677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also the Saxon Civil Servants Academy and the Academy of the Evangelical Church of Saxony are located in the town.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Educational institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Benno (c. 1010–1106), Bishop of Meissen", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3087689, 1128970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 28, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adam of Bremen (before 1050 – 1081/1085), medieval chronicler", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heinrich Frauenlob (1250/60–1318), poet", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1802945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anna of Saxony, Landgravine of Hesse (1420–1462)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 31551122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heinrich von Sachsen (1422–1435), Margrave of Meissen and Duke of Saxony", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Klaj (1616–1656), poet", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1448834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Elias Schlegel (1719–1749), critic and poet", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1269115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Adolf Schlegel (1721–1793), poet and clergyman", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 11697843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843), physician and founder of Homoeopathy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 184549, 14229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 55, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louise Otto-Peters (1819–1895), suffragist and women's rights movement activist", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 15242444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karl G. Maeser (1828–1901), Mormon academic", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3264525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Erich Naumann (1905–1951), Nazi SS-Brigadeführer and Einsatzgruppe commander, executed for war crimes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1803017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hans Philipp (1917–1943), combat pilot", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 10474825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peter Schreier (1935–2019), opera singer and conductor", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 854650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ralf Schumann (born 1962), shooter, Olympic winner", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 637160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jörg Urban (born 1964), politician (AfD)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 61615841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephan Matthias Lademann, classical pianist", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 68406502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kaspar Eberhard (1523–1575), superintendent of Meissen 1564–1574", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 32345073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Friedrich Böttger (1682–1719), co-inventor of the European porcelain", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2707961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Gregor Herold (1696–1775), porcelain painter and superintendent of the factory", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 53352649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Joachim Kändler (1706–1775), porcelain modeller", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7304575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), writer, pupil of the Sächsisches Landesgymnasium", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 12305, 12260677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 59, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Willy Ascherl (1902–1929), footballer", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 37329030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Erich Schmidt (1910–2005), church musician, in 1950–1980 Domkantor in Meissen", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hans-Ulrich Thomale (born 1944), football player and manager", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 34687534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Matthias Müller (born 1954), football player and manager", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 21413807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meissen is twinned with:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vitry-sur-Seine, France (1973)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 458871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arita, Japan (1979)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 469440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fellbach, Germany (1987)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1880676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Litoměřice, Czech Republic (1996)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 838782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Corfu, Greece (1996)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 3558276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Provo, United States (2001)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 82131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legnica, Poland (2017)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 18115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of margraves of Meissen", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3107662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proschwitz", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4536427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rulers of Saxony", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saxon Switzerland", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 619940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meissen groschen", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70842271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Official website ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "GCatholic.org", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further information on Tourism ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Meissen", "Towns_in_Saxony", "Wine_regions_of_Germany", "Meissen_(district)", "Populated_riverside_places_in_Germany", "Populated_places_on_the_Elbe" ]

[ "Meißen" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Luc Paul Maurice Besson (; born 18 March 1959) is a French film director, screenwriter and producer. He directed or produced the films Subway (1985), The Big Blue (1988), and La Femme Nikita (1990). Besson is associated with the Cinéma du look film movement. He has been nominated for a César Award for Best Director and Best Picture for his films The Professional (1994) and the English-language The Story of Joan of Arc (1999). He won Best Director and Best French Director for his sci-fi action film The Fifth Element (1997). He wrote and directed the 2014 sci-fi action film Lucy and the 2017 space opera film Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6244430, 64657, 264943, 5254037, 101349, 143809, 40740387, 33544076, 49027117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 141 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 175, 190 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 287, 298 ], [ 505, 522 ], [ 581, 585 ], [ 599, 610 ], [ 616, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Near the beginning of his career, in 1980 he founded his own production company, Les Films du Loup, later renamed as Les Films du Dauphin. These were superseded in 2000 when he co-founded EuropaCorp with his longtime collaborator . As writer, director, or producer, Besson has been involved in the creation of more than 50 films. Multiple women have accused Besson of sexual abuse.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20126431, 20718525, 7397019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 198 ], [ 310, 328 ], [ 368, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson was born in Paris, to parents who both worked as Club Med scuba-diving instructors. Influenced by this milieu, as a child Besson planned to become a marine biologist. He spent much of his youth traveling with his parents to tourist resorts in Italy, Yugoslavia, and Greece. The family returned to France when Besson was 10. His parents divorced, and both of them remarried.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 22989, 1937483, 1266475, 20021, 14532, 297809, 12108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 24 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 65, 77 ], [ 156, 172 ], [ 250, 255 ], [ 257, 267 ], [ 273, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Here there is two families, and I am the only bad souvenir of something that doesn't work,\" he said in the International Herald Tribune. \"And if I disappear, then everything is perfect. The rage to exist comes from here. I have to do something! Otherwise I am going to die.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 40438388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 17, Besson had a diving accident that left him unable to dive.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Besson reportedly worked on the first drafts of Le Grand Bleu while still in his teens. Out of boredom, he started writing stories, including the background to what he later developed as The Fifth Element (1997), one of his most popular movies. The film is inspired by the French comic books which Besson read as a teenager. Besson directed and co-wrote the screenplay of this science fiction thriller with American screenwriter Robert Mark Kamen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 64657, 143809, 87391, 11872930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 187, 204 ], [ 273, 291 ], [ 429, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 18, Besson returned to his birthplace of Paris. There he took odd jobs in film to get a feel for the industry. He worked as an assistant to directors including Claude Faraldo and Patrick Grandperret. Besson directed three short films, a commissioned documentary, and several commercials. After this, he moved to the United States for three years, but returned to Paris, where he formed his own production company. He first named it Les Films du Loup, but changed it to Les Films du Dauphin. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 35673960, 25446960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 177 ], [ 182, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1980s, Besson met Éric Serra and asked him to compose the score for his first short film, L'Avant dernier. He later used Serra as a composer for other films of his. Since the late 20th century, Besson has written and produced numerous action movies, including the Taxi series (1998–2007), the Transporter series (2002–2008; another collaboration with Robert Mark Kamen), and the Jet Li films Kiss of the Dragon and Unleashed. His English-language films Taken, Taken 2, and Taken 3, all co-written with Kamen and starring Liam Neeson, have been major successes, with Taken 2 becoming the largest-grossing export French film. Besson produced the promotional movie for the Paris 2012 Olympic bid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1095917, 413207, 972958, 16308, 1374014, 1686031, 15593618, 35874076, 38964482, 64182, 1601189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ], [ 277, 281 ], [ 306, 317 ], [ 392, 398 ], [ 405, 423 ], [ 428, 437 ], [ 467, 472 ], [ 474, 481 ], [ 487, 494 ], [ 535, 546 ], [ 684, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson won the Lumières Award for Best Director and the César Award for Best Director, for his film The Fifth Element (1997). He was nominated for Best Director and Best Picture César Awards for his films The Professional (1994) and The Story of Joan of Arc (1999). French actor Jean Reno has appeared in several films by Besson, including Le dernier combat (1983), Subway (1985), The Big Blue (1988), La Femme Nikita (1990), and The Professional (1994).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 44447963, 1039438, 143809, 642289, 101349, 38253, 1769468, 6244430, 64657, 264943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 47 ], [ 56, 85 ], [ 100, 117 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 178, 189 ], [ 281, 290 ], [ 342, 359 ], [ 368, 374 ], [ 383, 395 ], [ 404, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critics such as Raphaël Bassan and Guy Austin cite Besson as a pivotal figure in the Cinéma du look movement, a specific, highly visual style produced from the 1980s into the early 1990s. Subway (1985), The Big Blue (1988) and La Femme Nikita (1990) are all considered to be of this stylistic school. The term was coined by critic Raphaël Bassan in a 1989 essay in La Revue du Cinema n° 449. A partisan of the experimental cinema and friend of the New Wave (\"nouvelle vague\") directors, Bassan grouped Besson with Jean-Jacques Beineix and Leos Carax as three directors who shared the style of \"le look.\" These directors were later described critically as favouring style over substance, and spectacle over narrative.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5254037, 6244430, 64657, 264943, 20954195, 450526, 450526, 1353644, 2547656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ], [ 188, 194 ], [ 203, 215 ], [ 227, 242 ], [ 331, 345 ], [ 448, 456 ], [ 459, 473 ], [ 514, 534 ], [ 539, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson, along with most of the filmmakers so categorised, was uncomfortable with the label. He contrasted their work with France's New Wave. \"Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut were rebelling against existing cultural values and used cinema as a means of expression simply because it was the most avant-garde medium at the time,\" said Besson in a 1985 interview in The New York Times. \"Today, the revolution is occurring entirely within the industry and is led by people who want to change the look of movies by making them better, more convincing and pleasurable to watch.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 450526, 60368, 10770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 139 ], [ 142, 157 ], [ 162, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Because it's becoming increasingly difficult to break into this field, we have developed a psychological armor and are ready to do anything in order to work,\" he added. \"I think our ardor alone is going to shake the pillars of the moviemaking establishment.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Besson directed a biopic of Aung San Suu Kyi called The Lady (2011) (original title Dans la Lumiere). He also worked on Lockout (2012).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2847, 31855265, 31229320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 44 ], [ 52, 60 ], [ 120, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of Besson's films have achieved popular, if not critical, success. One such release was Le Grand Bleu. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 64657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"When the film had its premiere on opening night at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival, it was mercilessly drubbed, but no matter; it was a smash,\" observed the International Herald Tribune in a 2007 profile of Besson. \"Embraced by young people who kept returning to see it again, the movie sold 10million tickets and quickly became what the French call a 'film générationnel,' a defining moment in the culture.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 21308954, 40438388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 81 ], [ 156, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson created the Arthur series, which comprises Arthur and the Minimoys, Arthur and the Forbidden City, Arthur and the Vengeance of Maltazard and Arthur and the War of the Two Worlds. He directed Arthur and the Invisibles, an adaptation of the first two books of the collection. A film with live action and animation, it was released in the UK and the US.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 30877321, 24043885, 2554585, 2226784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ], [ 106, 143 ], [ 198, 223 ], [ 283, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson has been described as \"the most Hollywood of French filmmakers.\" Scott Tobias wrote that his \"slick, commercial\" action movies were \"so interchangeable—drugs, sleaze, chuckling supervillainy, and Hong Kong-style effects—that each new project probably starts with white-out on the title page.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 99212, 422001, 511084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 196 ], [ 203, 212 ], [ 270, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American film critic Armond White has praised Besson, whom he ranks as one of the best film producers, for refining and revolutionizing action film. He wrote that Besson dramatizes the struggle of his characters \"as a conscientious resistance to human degradation\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2573243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson has been married four times; first, in 1986, to actress Anne Parillaud. Besson and Parillaud had a daughter, Juliette, born in 1987. Parillaud starred in Besson's La Femme Nikita (1990). The couple divorced in 1991.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 261395, 264943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 77 ], [ 170, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson's second wife was actress and director Maïwenn Le Besco, whom he started dating when he was 31 and she was 15. They married in late 1992 when Le Besco, 16, was pregnant with their daughter Shanna, who was born on 3 January 1993. Le Besco later claimed that their relationship inspired Besson's film Léon (1994), where the plot involved the emotional relationship between an adult man and a 12-year-old girl. Their marriage ended in 1997, after Besson became involved with actress Milla Jovovich during the filming of The Fifth Element (1997). ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 5792849, 50503301, 159547, 143809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ], [ 196, 202 ], [ 487, 501 ], [ 524, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He married the 21-year-old Jovovich on 14 December 1997, when he was . They divorced in 1999.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 28 August 2004, at the age of , Besson married film producer Virginie Silla. The couple have three children: Thalia, Sateen, and Mao Besson.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 34180191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, actress Sand Van Roy, who had worked with him on films, accused Besson of rape, as did several other actresses who wished to remain anonymous. The director's lawyer Thierry Marembert stated that Besson \"categorically denies these fantasist accusations\" and that the accuser was \"someone he knows, towards whom he has never behaved inappropriately\". Five women have made similar statements against Besson, including a former assistant, two students of Cité du Cinéma studio, and a former employee of Besson's EuropaCorp.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rape allegations", "target_page_ids": [ 54576113, 38120077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ], [ 460, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2019, French prosecutors dropped the case against Luc Besson, citing lack of evidence. In December 2021, a judge dismissed the case against Besson following a second investigation. In April 2022, Sand Van Roy submitted a complaint against the magistrate in charge of the case.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rape allegations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Among Besson's awards are the Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film Critics Prize, Fantasporto Audience Jury Award-Special Mention, Best Director, and Best Film, for Le Dernier Combat in 1983; the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists Silver Ribbon-Best Director-Foreign Film, for La Femme Nikita, 1990; the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film, Nil by Mouth, 1997; and the Best Director Cesar Award, for The Fifth Element, 1997.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 167967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besson was awarded the Inkpot Award in 2016.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 4391209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, Besson superseded his production company by co-founding EuropaCorp with Pierre-Ange Le Pogam, with whom he had frequently worked since 1985. Le Pogam had then been Distribution Director with Gaumont. EuropaCorp has had strong growth based on several English-language films, with international distribution. It has production facilities in Paris, Normandy, and Hollywood, and is establishing distribution partnerships in Japan and China.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Film company", "target_page_ids": [ 188844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Pull Marine\": Isabelle Adjani (1983)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Music videos", "target_page_ids": [ 101318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Mon légionnaire\": Serge Gainsbourg (1988)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Music videos", "target_page_ids": [ 5290480, 79505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ], [ 20, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Que mon cœur lâche\": Mylène Farmer (1992)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Music videos", "target_page_ids": [ 15186554, 473437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ], [ 23, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Love Profusion\": Madonna (2003)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Music videos", "target_page_ids": [ 2235303, 142056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 16 ], [ 19, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"L'impasse\": Kery James", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Music videos", "target_page_ids": [ 14648902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"I Feel Everything\": Cara Delevingne (2017)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Music videos", "target_page_ids": [ 49027117, 35189147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 19 ], [ 22, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luc Besson Interview, Angel-A", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " JewReview.net video interview with Luc Besson and Rie Rasmussen about Angel-A", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In-depth interview with Luc Besson", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The films of Luc Besson, Hell Is for Hyphenates, February 28, 2014", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Les Films du Loup (France)—uniFrance Films", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 30677596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Les Films du Dauphin - uniFrance Films", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 30677596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 39 ] ] } ]

[ "Luc_Besson", "1959_births", "20th-century_French_screenwriters", "21st-century_French_screenwriters", "Living_people", "Film_directors_from_Paris", "BAFTA_winners_(people)", "Best_Director_César_Award_winners", "Best_Director_Lumières_Award_winners", "Science_fiction_film_directors", "French_male_screenwriters", "French-language_film_directors", "French_music_video_directors", "Inkpot_Award_winners" ]

[ "Luc Paul Maurice Besson" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Cornish is the adjective and demonym associated with Cornwall, the most southwesterly part of the United Kingdom. It may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish language, a Brittonic Southwestern Celtic language of the Indo-European language family, spoken in Cornwall", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish people", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2300559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Americans", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21222952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Australians", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21390644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Canadians", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38954751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish diaspora", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5045232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Culture of Cornwall", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2032040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cornish may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish, Colorado", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 50919609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish, Maine, a town", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 116270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish (CDP), Maine, the primary village", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 67691261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish, New Hampshire", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 124937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish, Oklahoma", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 130270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish, Utah", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 136938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Township, Aitkin County, Minnesota", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 119315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Township, Sibley County, Minnesota", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 121682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish (surname)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 38815706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Aromatic, apple cultivar", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Animals and plants", "target_page_ids": [ 48604125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish chicken", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Animals and plants", "target_page_ids": [ 1802809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), a species in the family Corvidae", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Animals and plants", "target_page_ids": [ 195765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish game hen", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Animals and plants", "target_page_ids": [ 1802734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Rex, a breed of cat", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Animals and plants", "target_page_ids": [ 63258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lucas Terrier, a Cornish breed of dog", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Animals and plants", "target_page_ids": [ 38698862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Wrestling, the ancient martial art, the \"national sport of Cornwall\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1391711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Pirates, a rugby union team", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 3373095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Launceston RUFC, known as the Cornish All Blacks", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 11519672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Art Colony, in Cornish, New Hampshire", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 20115713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish Assembly", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4534320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish College of the Arts, an institution in Seattle, Washington", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 205960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornish pilot gig, a type of rowing boat", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 948991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Cornish Trilogy, three related novels by Canadian novelist Robertson Davies", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1106228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kornis, a family of the Hungarian nobility", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 998432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of topics related to Cornwall", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47412691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] } ]

[ "Language_and_nationality_disambiguation_pages" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Abort can mean:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The early termination of some process or relationship:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Abort (computing), to terminate a computer processing or data transfer activity", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [ 60478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeronautics, a last-minute decision to cancel a landing attempt is referred to as a go-around or an aborted landing", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [ 315940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paper abortion (also known as a financial abortion or a statutory abort), the proposed ability of a biological father, before the birth of the child, to opt out of any rights, privileges, and responsibilities toward the child, including financial support", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [ 49769402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pregnancy", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Abortion, the termination of pregnancy", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [ 765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Late-term abortion", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [ 492759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abortion debate, ongoing debate surrounding abortion", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [ 256025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spaceflight, particularly a mode resulting in the return of the spacecraft to Earth:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo abort modes", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [ 1072096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Space Shuttle abort modes", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Termination", "target_page_ids": [ 3910120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abort (album), a 1991 album by the band Tribe", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 23295446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abort (film), a 1970 Norwegian film", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 28353137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abort, antiquated German for a toilet", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 19167644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Absolute gain may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gain (electronics), an increase in power or amplitude of a signal across a two-port circuit", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antenna gain, a performance measure combining an antenna's directivity and electrical efficiency", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 49693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absolute gain (international relations), in liberal international relations theory", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7139438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Access may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ACCESS (Australia), an Australian youth network", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Companies and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 3780679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access (credit card), a former credit card in the United Kingdom", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Companies and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2601643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access Co., a Japanese software company", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Companies and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 33843132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access International Advisors, a hedge fund", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Companies and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 38491474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AirCraft Casualty Emotional Support Services", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Companies and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 16823652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arab Community Center for Economic and Social Services", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Companies and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 867780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access, the Alphabet division containing Google Fiber", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Companies and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 26668052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access, the Southwest Ohio Regional Transit Authority's paratransit service", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Companies and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 5462130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access 2.3, a sailing keelboat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sailing", "target_page_ids": [ 25955376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access 303, a sailing keelboat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sailing", "target_page_ids": [ 25955692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access Liberty, a sailing keelboat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sailing", "target_page_ids": [ 31612602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access Hollywood, formerly Access, an American entertainment newsmagazine", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 905485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access (UK TV programme), a British entertainment television programme", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 56595696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access (Canadian TV series), a Canadian television series (1974–1982)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 28175731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CTV 2 Alberta, a former Canadian educational television channel named Access", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 9099065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access Television Network, an American infomercial channel", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 851320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Access\" (The West Wing), an episode of The West Wing", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 34302042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access (group), a Japanese pop duo", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3754314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Access\" (song), a 2018 song by Martin Garrix", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 58752873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access 5, a NASA program", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2671406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access Linux Platform, an operating system for mobile devices", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4636520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access network, the process of signing onto a network", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 810183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Access Virus, a German musical device", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3368266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Experimental Assembly of Structures in EVA and Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structures (EASE and ACCESS), a pair of space shuttle flight experiments", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 8617294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Internet access, the hardware and connections needed to use the internet", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 300602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Microsoft Access, a database program which is part of the Office suite", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 20935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Accessibility", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 302109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AccessNow.org, a U.S.-based non-profit organization", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32109909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Advanced Civil Speed Enforcement System (ACSES)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19442385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Axes (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1252523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Axess (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49214533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Axxess (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34775261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Computer data storage", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coverage (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 527005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " File system permissions", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1347955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Public, educational, and government access, American public, educational and government (PEG) access cable TV channels", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 428710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] } ]

[]

[ "Acesso" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In the fields of physical security and information security, access control (AC) is the selective restriction of access to a place or other resource, while access management describes the process. The act of accessing may mean consuming, entering, or using. Permission to access a resource is called authorization.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Locks and login credentials are two analogous mechanisms of access control.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Geographical access control may be enforced by personnel (e.g. border guard, bouncer, ticket checker), or with a device such as a turnstile. There may be fences to avoid circumventing this access control. An alternative of access control in the strict sense (physically controlling access itself) is a system of checking authorized presence, see e.g. Ticket controller (transportation). A variant is exit control, e.g. of a shop (checkout) or a country.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 3410409, 889153, 9958345, 369603, 42273, 2319404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 130, 139 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 351, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term access control refers to the practice of restricting entrance to a property, a building, or a room to authorized persons. Physical access control can be achieved by a human (a guard, bouncer, or receptionist), through mechanical means such as locks and keys, or through technological means such as access control systems like the mantrap. Within these environments, physical key management may also be employed as a means of further managing and monitoring access to mechanically keyed areas or access to certain small assets.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 45995, 42095354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 96 ], [ 339, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Physical access control is a matter of who, where, and when. An access control system determines who is allowed to enter or exit, where they are allowed to exit or enter, and when they are allowed to enter or exit. Historically, this was partially accomplished through keys and locks. When a door is locked, only someone with a key can enter through the door, depending on how the lock is configured. Mechanical locks and keys do not allow restriction of the key holder to specific times or dates. Mechanical locks and keys do not provide records of the key used on any specific door, and the keys can be easily copied or transferred to an unauthorized person. When a mechanical key is lost or the key holder is no longer authorized to use the protected area, the locks must be re-keyed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electronic access control (EAC) uses computers to solve the limitations of mechanical locks and keys. A wide range of credentials can be used to replace mechanical keys. The electronic access control system grants access based on the credential presented. When access is granted, the door is unlocked for a predetermined time and the transaction is recorded. When access is refused, the door remains locked and the attempted access is recorded. The system will also monitor the door and alarm if the door is forced open or held open too long after being unlocked.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 2158184, 233953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 129 ], [ 334, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a credential is presented to a reader, the reader sends the credential's information, usually a number, to a control panel, a highly reliable processor. The control panel compares the credential's number to an access control list, grants or denies the presented request, and sends a transaction log to a database. When access is denied based on the access control list, the door remains locked. If there is a match between the credential and the access control list, the control panel operates a relay that in turn unlocks the door. The control panel also ignores a door open signal to prevent an alarm. Often the reader provides feedback, such as a flashing red LED for an access denied and a flashing green LED for an access granted.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 8377, 61589, 18290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 317 ], [ 354, 373 ], [ 668, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The above description illustrates a single factor transaction. Credentials can be passed around, thus subverting the access control list. For example, Alice has access rights to the server room, but Bob does not. Alice either gives Bob her credential, or Bob takes it; he now has access to the server room. To prevent this, two-factor authentication can be used. In a two factor transaction, the presented credential and a second factor are needed for access to be granted; another factor can be a PIN, a second credential, operator intervention, or a biometric input.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 13472894, 22772421, 290622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 193 ], [ 324, 349 ], [ 552, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are three types (factors) of authenticating information:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " something the user knows, e.g. a password, pass-phrase or PIN", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " something the user has, such as smart card or a key fob", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 59957, 884781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 49, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " something the user is, such as fingerprint, verified by biometric measurement", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Passwords are a common means of verifying a user's identity before access is given to information systems. In addition, a fourth factor of authentication is now recognized: someone you know, whereby another person who knows you can provide a human element of authentication in situations where systems have been set up to allow for such scenarios. For example, a user may have their password, but have forgotten their smart card. In such a scenario, if the user is known to designated cohorts, the cohorts may provide their smart card and password, in combination with the extant factor of the user in question, and thus provide two factors for the user with the missing credential, giving three factors overall to allow access.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A credential is a physical/tangible object, a piece of knowledge, or a facet of a person's physical being that enables an individual access to a given physical facility or computer-based information system. Typically, credentials can be something a person knows (such as a number or PIN), something they have (such as an access badge), something they are (such as a biometric feature), something they do (measurable behavioural patterns), or some combination of these items. This is known as multi-factor authentication. The typical credential is an access card or key-fob, and newer software can also turn users' smartphones into access devices.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 9267751, 22772421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 334 ], [ 493, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many card technologies including magnetic stripe, bar code, Wiegand, 125kHz proximity, 26-bit card-swipe, contact smart cards, and contactless smart cards. Also available are key-fobs, which are more compact than ID cards, and attach to a key ring. Biometric technologies include fingerprint, facial recognition, iris recognition, retinal scan, voice, and hand geometry. The built-in biometric technologies found on newer smartphones can also be used as credentials in conjunction with access software running on mobile devices. In addition to older more traditional card access technologies, newer technologies such as Near field communication (NFC), Bluetooth low energy or Ultra-wideband (UWB) can also communicate user credentials to readers for system or building access.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 24031904, 4579112, 290622, 602401, 366418, 407749, 397763, 21575068, 166428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ], [ 141, 163 ], [ 259, 281 ], [ 303, 321 ], [ 323, 339 ], [ 341, 353 ], [ 631, 655 ], [ 663, 683 ], [ 687, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Components of an access control system include:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An access control panel (also known as a Access control system topologies)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An access-controlled entry, such as a door, turnstile, parking gate, elevator, or other physical barrier", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 8637, 369603, 19373997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 43 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 70, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Types of readers installed near the entry. (In cases where the exit is also controlled, a second reader is used on the opposite side of the entry.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Locking hardware, such as electric door strikes and electromagnetic locks", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 5397397, 22686339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 48 ], [ 53, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A magnetic door switch for monitoring door position", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 28284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Request-to-exit (RTE) devices for allowing egress. When a RTE button is pushed, or the motion detector detects motion at the door, the door alarm is temporarily ignored while the door is opened. Exiting a door without having to electrically unlock the door is called mechanical free egress. This is an important safety feature. In cases where the lock must be electrically unlocked on exit, the request-to-exit device also unlocks the door.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Access control decisions are made by comparing the credentials to an access control list. This look-up can be done by a host or server, by an access control panel, or by a reader. The development of access control systems has observed a steady push of the look-up out from a central host to the edge of the system, or the reader. The predominant topology circa 2009 is hub and spoke with a control panel as the hub, and the readers as the spokes. The look-up and control functions are by the control panel. The spokes communicate through a serial connection; usually RS-485. Some manufactures are pushing the decision making to the edge by placing a controller at the door. The controllers are IP enabled, and connect to a host and database using standard networks", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 15323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 694, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Access control readers may be classified by the functions they are able to perform:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Basic (non-intelligent) readers: simply read card number or PIN, and forward it to a control panel. In case of biometric identification, such readers output the ID number of a user. Typically, Wiegand protocol is used for transmitting data to the control panel, but other options such as RS-232, RS-485 and Clock/Data are not uncommon. This is the most popular type of access control readers. Examples of such readers are RF Tiny by RFLOGICS, ProxPoint by HID, and P300 by Farpointe Data.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 3077717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semi-intelligent readers: have all inputs and outputs necessary to control door hardware (lock, door contact, exit button), but do not make any access decisions. When a user presents a card or enters a PIN, the reader sends information to the main controller, and waits for its response. If the connection to the main controller is interrupted, such readers stop working, or function in a degraded mode. Usually semi-intelligent readers are connected to a control panel via an RS-485 bus. Examples of such readers are InfoProx Lite IPL200 by CEM Systems, and AP-510 by Apollo.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 1179248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 478, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Intelligent readers: have all inputs and outputs necessary to control door hardware; they also have memory and processing power necessary to make access decisions independently. Like semi-intelligent readers, they are connected to a control panel via an RS-485 bus. The control panel sends configuration updates, and retrieves events from the readers. Examples of such readers could be InfoProx IPO200 by CEM Systems, and AP-500 by Apollo. There is also a new generation of intelligent readers referred to as \"IP readers\". Systems with IP readers usually do not have traditional control panels, and readers communicate directly to a PC that acts as a host.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some readers may have additional features such as an LCD and function buttons for data collection purposes (i.e. clock-in/clock-out events for attendance reports), camera/speaker/microphone for intercom, and smart card read/write support.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1. Serial controllers. Controllers are connected to a host PC via a serial RS-485 communication line (or via 20mA current loop in some older systems). External RS-232/485 converters or internal RS-485 cards have to be installed, as standard PCs do not have RS-485 communication ports.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 1179248, 1174172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 81 ], [ 114, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Advantages:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RS-485 standard allows long cable runs, up to 4000 feet (1200 m)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Relatively short response time. The maximum number of devices on an RS-485 line is limited to 32, which means that the host can frequently request status updates from each device, and display events almost in real time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " High reliability and security as the communication line is not shared with any other systems.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Disadvantages: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RS-485 does not allow Star-type wiring unless splitters are used", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RS-485 is not well suited for transferring large amounts of data (i.e. configuration and users). The highest possible throughput is 115.2 kbit/sec, but in most system it is downgraded to 56.2 kbit/sec, or less, to increase reliability.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RS-485 does not allow the host PC to communicate with several controllers connected to the same port simultaneously. Therefore, in large systems, transfers of configuration, and users to controllers may take a very long time, interfering with normal operations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Controllers cannot initiate communication in case of an alarm. The host PC acts as a master on the RS-485 communication line, and controllers have to wait until they are polled.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Special serial switches are required, in order to build a redundant host PC setup.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Separate RS-485 lines have to be installed, instead of using an already existing network infrastructure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cable that meets RS-485 standards is significantly more expensive than regular Category 5 UTP network cable.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Operation of the system is highly dependent on the host PC. In the case that the host PC fails, events from controllers are not retrieved, and functions that require interaction between controllers (i.e. anti-passback) stop working.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2. Serial main and sub-controllers. All door hardware is connected to sub-controllers (a.k.a. door controllers or door interfaces). Sub-controllers usually do not make access decisions, and instead forward all requests to the main controllers. Main controllers usually support from 16 to 32 sub-controllers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Advantages:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Work load on the host PC is significantly reduced, because it only needs to communicate with a few main controllers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The overall cost of the system is lower, as sub-controllers are usually simple and inexpensive devices.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " All other advantages listed in the first paragraph apply.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Disadvantages: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Operation of the system is highly dependent on main controllers. In case one of the main controllers fails, events from its sub-controllers are not retrieved, and functions that require interaction between sub-controllers (i.e. anti-passback) stop working.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Some models of sub-controllers (usually lower cost) do not have the memory or processing power to make access decisions independently. If the main controller fails, sub-controllers change to degraded mode in which doors are either completely locked or unlocked, and no events are recorded. Such sub-controllers should be avoided, or used only in areas that do not require high security.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Main controllers tend to be expensive, therefore such a topology is not very well suited for systems with multiple remote locations that have only a few doors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " All other RS-485-related disadvantages listed in the first paragraph apply.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "3. Serial main controllers & intelligent readers. All door hardware is connected directly to intelligent or semi-intelligent readers. Readers usually do not make access decisions, and forward all requests to the main controller. Only if the connection to the main controller is unavailable, will the readers use their internal database to make access decisions and record events. Semi-intelligent reader that have no database and cannot function without the main controller should be used only in areas that do not require high security. Main controllers usually support from 16 to 64 readers. All advantages and disadvantages are the same as the ones listed in the second paragraph. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "4. Serial controllers with terminal servers. In spite of the rapid development and increasing use of computer networks, access control manufacturers remained conservative, and did not rush to introduce network-enabled products. When pressed for solutions with network connectivity, many chose the option requiring less efforts: addition of a terminal server, a device that converts serial data for transmission via LAN or WAN.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 1852072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 342, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Advantages:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allows utilizing the existing network infrastructure for connecting separate segments of the system.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Provides a convenient solution in cases when the installation of an RS-485 line would be difficult or impossible.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Disadvantages:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Increases complexity of the system.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Creates additional work for installers: usually terminal servers have to be configured independently, and not through the interface of the access control software.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Serial communication link between the controller and the terminal server acts as a bottleneck: even though the data between the host PC and the terminal server travels at the 10/100/1000Mbit/sec network speed, it must slow down to the serial speed of 112.5 kbit/sec or less. There are also additional delays introduced in the process of conversion between serial and network data.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All the RS-485-related advantages and disadvantages also apply.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "5. Network-enabled main controllers. The topology is nearly the same as described in the second and third paragraphs. The same advantages and disadvantages apply, but the on-board network interface offers a couple of valuable improvements. Transmission of configuration and user data to the main controllers is faster, and may be done in parallel. This makes the system more responsive, and does not interrupt normal operations. No special hardware is required in order to achieve redundant host PC setup: in the case that the primary host PC fails, the secondary host PC may start polling network controllers. The disadvantages introduced by terminal servers (listed in the fourth paragraph) are also eliminated. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "6. IP controllers. Controllers are connected to a host PC via Ethernet LAN or WAN.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 20792856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Advantages:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An existing network infrastructure is fully utilized, and there is no need to install new communication lines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " There are no limitations regarding the number of controllers (as the 32 per line in cases of RS-485).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Special RS-485 installation, termination, grounding and troubleshooting knowledge is not required.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Communication with the controllers may be done at the full network speed, which is important if transferring a lot of data (databases with thousands of users, possibly including biometric records).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In case of an alarm, controllers may initiate connection to the host PC. This ability is important in large systems, because it serves to reduce network traffic caused by unnecessary polling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Simplifies installation of systems consisting of multiple sites that are separated by large distances. A basic Internet link is sufficient to establish connections to the remote locations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wide selection of standard network equipment is available to provide connectivity in various situations (fiber, wireless, VPN, dual path, PoE)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Disadvantages: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The system becomes susceptible to network related problems, such as delays in case of heavy traffic and network equipment failures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Access controllers and workstations may become accessible to hackers if the network of the organization is not well protected. This threat may be eliminated by physically separating the access control network from the network of the organization. Most IP controllers utilize either Linux platform or proprietary operating systems, which makes them more difficult to hack. Industry standard data encryption is also used.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maximum distance from a hub or a switch to the controller (if using a copper cable) is 100 meters (330ft).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Operation of the system is dependent on the host PC. In case the host PC fails, events from controllers are not retrieved and functions that require interaction between controllers (i.e. anti-passback) stop working. Some controllers, however, have a peer-to-peer communication option in order to reduce dependency on the host PC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "7. IP readers. Readers are connected to a host PC via Ethernet LAN or WAN.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Advantages:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Most IP readers are PoE capable. This feature makes it very easy to provide battery backed power to the entire system, including the locks and various types of detectors (if used).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IP readers eliminate the need for controller enclosures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " There is no wasted capacity when using IP readers (e.g. a 4-door controller would have 25% of unused capacity if it was controlling only 3 doors).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IP reader systems scale easily: there is no need to install new main or sub-controllers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Failure of one IP reader does not affect any other readers in the system.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Disadvantages:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In order to be used in high-security areas, IP readers require special input/output modules to eliminate the possibility of intrusion by accessing lock and/or exit button wiring. Not all IP reader manufacturers have such modules available.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Being more sophisticated than basic readers, IP readers are also more expensive and sensitive, therefore they should not be installed outdoors in areas with harsh weather conditions, or high probability of vandalism, unless specifically designed for exterior installation. A few manufacturers make such models.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The advantages and disadvantages of IP controllers apply to the IP readers as well.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most common security risk of intrusion through an access control system is by simply following a legitimate user through a door, and this is referred to as tailgating. Often the legitimate user will hold the door for the intruder. This risk can be minimized through security awareness training of the user population or more active means such as turnstiles. In very high-security applications this risk is minimized by using a sally port, sometimes called a security vestibule or mantrap, where operator intervention is required presumably to assure valid identification.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 13670513, 1797841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 170 ], [ 431, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second most common risk is from levering a door open. This is relatively difficult on properly secured doors with strikes or high holding force magnetic locks. Fully implemented access control systems include forced door monitoring alarms. These vary in effectiveness, usually failing from high false positive alarms, poor database configuration, or lack of active intrusion monitoring. Most newer access control systems incorporate some type of door prop alarm to inform system administrators of a door left open longer than a specified length of time. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The third most common security risk is natural disasters. In order to mitigate risk from natural disasters, the structure of the building, down to the quality of the network and computer equipment vital. From an organizational perspective, the leadership will need to adopt and implement an All Hazards Plan, or Incident Response Plan. The highlights of any incident plan determined by the National Incident Management System must include Pre-incident planning, during incident actions, disaster recovery, and after-action review.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 1600536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 390, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar to levering is crashing through cheap partition walls. In shared tenant spaces, the divisional wall is a vulnerability. A vulnerability along the same lines is the breaking of sidelights.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Spoofing locking hardware is fairly simple and more elegant than levering. A strong magnet can operate the solenoid controlling bolts in electric locking hardware. Motor locks, more prevalent in Europe than in the US, are also susceptible to this attack using a doughnut-shaped magnet. It is also possible to manipulate the power to the lock either by removing or adding current, although most Access Control systems incorporate battery back-up systems and the locks are almost always located on the secure side of the door. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Access cards themselves have proven vulnerable to sophisticated attacks. Enterprising hackers have built portable readers that capture the card number from a user's proximity card. The hacker simply walks by the user, reads the card, and then presents the number to a reader securing the door. This is possible because card numbers are sent in the clear, no encryption being used. To counter this, dual authentication methods, such as a card plus a PIN should always be used.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many access control credentials unique serial numbers are programmed in sequential order during manufacturing. Known as a sequential attack, if an intruder has a credential once used in the system they can simply increment or decrement the serial number until they find a credential that is currently authorized in the system. Ordering credentials with random unique serial numbers is recommended to counter this threat.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, most electric locking hardware still has mechanical keys as a fail-over. Mechanical key locks are vulnerable to bumping.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [ 6685241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The need to know principle can be enforced with user access controls and authorization procedures and its objective is to ensure that only authorized individuals gain access to information or systems necessary to undertake their duties.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In computer security, general access control includes authentication, authorization, and audit. A more narrow definition of access control would cover only access approval, whereby the system makes a decision to grant or reject an access request from an already authenticated subject, based on what the subject is authorized to access. Authentication and access control are often combined into a single operation, so that access is approved based on successful authentication, or based on an anonymous access token. Authentication methods and tokens include passwords, biometric analysis, physical keys, electronic keys and devices, hidden paths, social barriers, and monitoring by humans and automated systems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 7398, 47967, 151617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 54, 68 ], [ 70, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In any access-control model, the entities that can perform actions on the system are called subjects, and the entities representing resources to which access may need to be controlled are called objects (see also Access Control Matrix). Subjects and objects should both be considered as software entities, rather than as human users: any human users can only have an effect on the system via the software entities that they control.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 4796976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although some systems equate subjects with userIDs, so that all processes started by a user by default have the same authority, this level of control is not fine-grained enough to satisfy the principle of least privilege, and arguably is responsible for the prevalence of malware in such systems (see computer insecurity).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 30864970, 20901, 7398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 220 ], [ 272, 279 ], [ 301, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some models, for example the object-capability model, any software entity can potentially act as both subject and object.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 8784464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", access-control models tend to fall into one of two classes: those based on capabilities and those based on access control lists (ACLs).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 539717, 61589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 89 ], [ 109, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In a capability-based model, holding an unforgeable reference or capability to an object provides access to the object (roughly analogous to how possession of one's house key grants one access to one's house); access is conveyed to another party by transmitting such a capability over a secure channel", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In an ACL-based model, a subject's access to an object depends on whether its identity appears on a list associated with the object (roughly analogous to how a bouncer at a private party would check an ID to see if a name appears on the guest list); access is conveyed by editing the list. (Different ACL systems have a variety of different conventions regarding who or what is responsible for editing the list and how it is edited.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both capability-based and ACL-based models have mechanisms to allow access rights to be granted to all members of a group of subjects (often the group is itself modeled as a subject).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Access control systems provide the essential services of authorization, identification and authentication (I&A), access approval, and accountability where:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " authorization specifies what a subject can do", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " identification and authentication ensure that only legitimate subjects can log on to a system", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " access approval grants access during operations, by association of users with the resources that they are allowed to access, based on the authorization policy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " accountability identifies what a subject (or all subjects associated with a user) did", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Access to accounts can be enforced through many types of controls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Attribute-based Access Control (ABAC) An access control paradigm whereby access rights are granted to users through the use of policies which evaluate attributes (user attributes, resource attributes and environment conditions)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 11353293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Discretionary Access Control (DAC)In DAC, the data owner determines who can access specific resources. For example, a system administrator may create a hierarchy of files to be accessed based on certain permissions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 881518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Graph-based Access Control (GBAC)Compared to other approaches like RBAC or ABAC, the main difference is that in GBAC access rights are defined using an organizational query language instead of total enumeration.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 47143238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History-Based Access Control (HBAC)Access is granted or declined based on the real-time evaluation of a history of activities of the inquiring party, e.g. behavior, time between requests, content of requests. For example, the access to a certain service or data source can be granted or declined on the personal behavior, e.g. the request interval exceeds one query per second.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History-of-Presence Based Access Control (HPBAC)Access control to resources is defined in terms of presence policies that need to be satisfied by presence records stored by the requestor. Policies are usually written in terms of frequency, spread and regularity. An example policy would be \"The requestor has made k separate visitations, all within last week, and no two consecutive visitations are apart by more than T hours.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Identity-Based Access Control (IBAC)Using this network administrators can more effectively manage activity and access based on individual needs. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 42342018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lattice-Based Access Control (LBAC)A lattice is used to define the levels of security that an object may have and that a subject may have access to. The subject is only allowed to access an object if the security level of the subject is greater than or equal to that of the object.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 4765142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mandatory Access Control (MAC)In MAC, users do not have much freedom to determine who has access to their files. For example, security clearance of users and classification of data (as confidential, secret or top secret) are used as security labels to define the level of trust.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 879900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Organization-Based Access Control (OrBAC) OrBAC model allows the policy designer to define a security policy independently of the implementation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 10218632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)RBAC allows access based on the job title. RBAC largely eliminates discretion when providing access to objects. For example, a human resources specialist should not have permissions to create network accounts; this should be a role reserved for network administrators.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [ 66181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rule-Based Access Control (RAC)RAC method, also referred to as Rule-Based Role-Based Access Control (RB-RBAC), is largely context based. Example of this would be allowing students to use labs only during a certain time of day; it is the combination of students' RBAC-based information system access control with the time-based lab access rules. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Responsibility Based Access Control Information is accessed based on the responsibilities assigned to an actor or a business role", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, the term access control is defined in U.S. Federal Standard 1037C with the following meanings: ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Telecommunication", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 65, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A service feature or technique used to permit or deny use of the components of a communication system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Telecommunication", "target_page_ids": [ 417914, 8286675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 97, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A technique used to define or restrict the rights of individuals or application programs to obtain data from, or place data onto, a storage device.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Telecommunication", "target_page_ids": [ 18985040, 28174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 105 ], [ 134, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The definition or restriction of the rights of individuals or application programs to obtain data from, or place data into, a storage device.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Telecommunication", "target_page_ids": [ 28174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The process of limiting access to the resources of an AIS (Automated Information System) to authorized users, programs, processes, or other systems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Telecommunication", "target_page_ids": [ 40746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " That function performed by the resource controller that allocates system resources to satisfy user requests.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Telecommunication", "target_page_ids": [ 2052479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This definition depends on several other technical terms from Federal Standard 1037C.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Telecommunication", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Special public member methods – accessors (aka getters) and mutator methods (often called setters) are used to control changes to class variables in order to prevent unauthorized access and data corruption.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Telecommunication", "target_page_ids": [ 1113819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In public policy, access control to restrict access to systems (\"authorization\") or to track or monitor behavior within systems (\"accountability\") is an implementation feature of using trusted systems for security or social control.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Public policy", "target_page_ids": [ 375091, 151617, 161973, 55888, 41684, 81682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 130, 144 ], [ 185, 200 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 217, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alarm device, Alarm management, Security alarm", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68630, 963881, 1294759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 33, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Card reader, Common Access Card, Magnetic stripe card, Proximity card, Smart card, Optical turnstile, Access badge", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4397518, 2460204, 45532780, 270072, 59957, 8089507, 9267751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 34, 54 ], [ 56, 70 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 103, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Castle, Fortification", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49557, 204118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Computer security, Logical security, .htaccess, Wiegand effect, XACML, Credential", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7398, 2003317, 554518, 24031904, 2365219, 2158184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 20, 36 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 49, 63 ], [ 65, 70 ], [ 72, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Door security, Lock picking, Lock (security device), Electronic lock, Safe, Safe-cracking, Bank vault", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10814801, 142763, 525465, 3034286, 697411, 1251889, 744143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 28 ], [ 30, 52 ], [ 54, 69 ], [ 71, 75 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 92, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fingerprint scanner, Photo identification, Biometrics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57111064, 3209158, 290622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 22, 42 ], [ 44, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Key management, Key cards", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 631063, 525465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lock screen", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38510010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Physical security information management", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23863484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Physical Security Professional", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7327029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prison, Barbed tape, Mantrap", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19008450, 44716, 42095354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 20 ], [ 22, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Security, Security engineering, Security lighting, Security management, Security policy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41684, 28730, 2501933, 41686, 2842539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 33, 50 ], [ 52, 71 ], [ 73, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. Federal 1037C", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. MIL-188", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 41882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. National Information Systems Security Glossary", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1011395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harris, Shon, All-in-one CISSP Exam Guide, 6th Edition, McGraw Hill Osborne, Emeryville, California, 2012.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 44166212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Integrated Security Systems Design\" – Butterworth/Heinenmann – 2007 – Thomas L. Norman, CPP/PSP/CSC Author", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NIST.gov – Computer Security Division – Computer Security Resource Center – ATTRIBUTE BASED ACCESS CONTROL (ABAC) – OVERVIEW", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Access Control Markup Language. An OASIS standard language/model for access control. Also XACML.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Access_control", "Identity_management", "Perimeter_security", "Physical_security" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Access time is the time delay or latency between a request to an electronic system, and the access being completed or the requested data returned", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In a computer, it is the time interval between the instant at which an instruction control unit initiates a call for data or a request to store data, and the instant at which delivery of the data is completed or the storage is started.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7878457, 47772, 18985040, 5300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 14 ], [ 72, 83 ], [ 118, 122 ], [ 139, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Memory latency", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5016872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mechanical latency", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rotational latency", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32279697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seek time", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32279697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] } ]

[ "Network_access" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunication and electronics, baud (; symbol: Bd) is a common unit of measurement of symbol rate, which is one of the components that determine the speed of communication over a data channel.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 9663, 21347678, 2518170, 41730, 156700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 25, 36 ], [ 70, 89 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 156, 178 ], [ 186, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is the unit for symbol rate or modulation rate in symbols per second or pulses per second. It is the number of distinct symbol changes (signalling events) made to the transmission medium per second in a digitally modulated signal or a bd rate line code.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20637, 2518170, 41812, 41317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 44 ], [ 123, 129 ], [ 170, 189 ], [ 246, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baud is related to gross bit rate, which can be expressed in bits per second. If there are precisely two symbols in the system (typically 0 and 1), then baud and bit per second (bit/s) are equivalent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 272290, 272290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ], [ 61, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The baud unit is named after Émile Baudot, the inventor of the Baudot code for telegraphy, and is represented according to the rules for SI units. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naming", "target_page_ids": [ 10207, 4748, 30010, 26764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 63, 74 ], [ 79, 89 ], [ 137, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "That is, the first letter of its symbol is uppercase (Bd), but when the unit is spelled out, it should be written in lowercase (baud) except when it begins a sentence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naming", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was defined by the CCITT (now the ITU) in November 1926. The earlier standard had been the number of words per minute, which was a less robust measure since word length can vary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naming", "target_page_ids": [ 14836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The symbol duration time, can be directly measured as the time between transitions by looking at an eye diagram of the signal on an oscilloscope. The symbol duration time Ts can be calculated as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 2078753, 41131, 15361791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 100, 111 ], [ 132, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where fs is the symbol rate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is also a chance of miscommunication which leads to ambiguity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example: Communication at the baud rate 1000Bd means communication by means of sending 1000symbols per second. In the case of a modem, this corresponds to 1000tones per second; similarly, in the case of a line code, this corresponds to 1000pulses per second. The symbol duration time is second (thatis, 1millisecond).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 20647197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In digital systems (i.e., using discrete/discontinuous values) with binary code, 1Bd = 1bit/s. By contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous range of values to represent information and in these systems the exact informational size of 1Bd varies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 8276, 219202, 993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 124, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The baud is scaled using standard metric prefixes, so that for example", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 26874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1 kBd (kilobaud) = 1000 Bd", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 MBd (megabaud) = 1000 kBd", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 GBd (gigabaud) = 1000 MBd.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The symbol rate is related to gross bit rate expressed in bit/s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [ 272290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term baud has sometimes incorrectly been used to mean bit rate, since these rates are the same in old modems as well as in the simplest digital communication links using only one bit per symbol, such that binary digit \"0\" is represented by one symbol, and binary digit \"1\" by another symbol. In more advanced modems and data transmission techniques, a symbol may have more than two states, so it may represent more than one bit. A bit (binary digit) always represents one of two states.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [ 272290, 20647197, 3364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 428, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If bits are conveyed per symbol, and the gross bit rate is , inclusive of channel coding overhead, the symbol rate can be calculated as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By taking information per pulse N in bit/pulse to be the base-2-logarithm of the number of distinct messages M that could be sent, Hartley constructed a measure of the gross bit rate R as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [ 17860, 184525, 272290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 73 ], [ 131, 138 ], [ 168, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " where ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here, the denotes the ceiling function of . Where is taken to be any real number greater than zero, then the ceiling function rounds up to the nearest natural number (e.g. ).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In that case, different symbols are used. In a modem, these may be time-limited sinewave tones with unique combinations of amplitude, phase and/or frequency. For example, in a 64QAM modem, , and so the bit rate is times the baud rate. In a line code, these may be M different voltage levels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [ 25316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ratio is not necessarily even an integer; in 4B3T coding, the bit rate is of the baud rate. (A typical basic rate interface with a 160kbit/s raw data rate operates at 120kBd.) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [ 2383344, 64519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 53 ], [ 109, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Codes with many symbols, and thus a bit rate higher than the symbol rate, are most useful on channels such as telephone lines with a limited bandwidth but a high signal-to-noise ratio within that bandwidth. In other applications, the bit rate is less than the symbol rate. Eight-to-fourteen modulation as used on audio CDs has bit rate of the baud rate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Relationship to gross bit rate", "target_page_ids": [ 15612827, 41706, 1210782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 150 ], [ 162, 183 ], [ 274, 302 ] ] } ]

[ "Data_transmission", "Units_of_frequency" ]

[ "Bd" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunications, an acoustic coupler is an interface device for coupling electrical signals by acoustical means—usually into and out of a telephone.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 41409, 4249694, 30003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 49, 58 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 144, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The link is achieved through converting electric signals from the phone line to sound and reconvert sound to electric signals needed for the end terminal, such as a teletypewriter, and back, rather than through direct electrical connection.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 152654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to its breakup in 1984, Bell System's legal monopoly over telephony in the United States allowed the company to impose strict rules on how consumers could access their network. Customers were prohibited from connecting equipment not made or sold by Bell to the network. The same set-up was operative in nearly all countries, where the telephone companies were nationally owned. In many households, telephones were hard-wired to wall terminals before connectors like RJ11 and BS 6312 became standardized.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2176583, 21347591, 41831, 324132, 13522458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 30, 41 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 472, 476 ], [ 481, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The situation was similar in other countries. In Australia, until 1975 the PMG, a Government monopoly, owned all telephone wiring and equipment in user premises and prohibited attachment of third party devices, and while most handsets were connected by 600 series connectors, these were rare in Australia so imported equipment could not be directly connected in any case, despite the general electrical compatibility.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2025981, 1341882, 64817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 78 ], [ 82, 101 ], [ 253, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was not until a landmark U.S. court ruling regarding the Hush-A-Phone in 1956 that the use of a phone attachment (by a third party vendor) was allowed for the first time; though AT&T's right to regulate any device connected to the telephone system was upheld by the courts, they were instructed to cease interference towards Hush-A-Phone users. A second court decision in 1968 regarding the Carterfone further allowed any device not harmful to the system to be connected directly to the AT&T network. This decision enabled the proliferation of later innovations like answering machines, fax machines, and modems.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2175790, 24536639, 882455, 254857, 10826, 20647197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ], [ 181, 185 ], [ 394, 404 ], [ 570, 587 ], [ 590, 593 ], [ 608, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When inventors began developing devices to send non-voice signals over a telephone line, the need for a workaround for the Bell restrictions was apparent. As early as 1937, telefax machines used by newspapers were using some kind of couplers, possibly acoustic but more likely magnetic for single-directional communication. Multiplexed bidirectional telephone coupling was not needed by these early fax machines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 10826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Weitbrecht created a workaround for the Bell restrictions in 1963. He developed a coupling device that converted sound from the ear piece of the telephone handset to electrical signals, and converted the electrical pulses coming from the teletypewriter to sound that goes into the mouth piece of the telephone handset. His acoustic coupler is known as the Weitbrecht Modem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 7155715, 31247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 245, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Weitbrecht Modem inspired other engineers to develop other modems to work with 8-bit ASCII terminals at a faster rate. Such modems or couplers were developed around 1966 by John van Geen at the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International), that mimicked handset operations. An early commercial model was built by Livermore Data Systems in 1968. One would dial the computer system (which would have telephone company datasets) on one's phone, and when the connection was established, place the handset into the acoustic modem. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 9464260, 481262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 190 ], [ 231, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the handsets were all supplied by the telephone company, most had the same shape, simplifying the physical interface. A microphone and a speaker inside the modem box would pick up and transmit the signaling tones, and circuitry would convert those audio frequency-shift keying encoded binary signals for an RS232 output socket. With luck one could get 300 baud (~bits/second) transmission rates, but 150 baud was more typical. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 41193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "That speed was sufficient for typewriter-based terminals, as the IBM 2741, running at 134.5 baud, or a teleprinter, running at 110 baud.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 23861711, 31247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ], [ 103, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The practical upper limit for acoustic-coupled modems was 1200 baud, first made available in 1973 by Vadic and 1977 by AT&T. 1200 baud endpoints became widespread in 1985 with the advent of the Hayes Smartmodem 1200A, though it used an RJ11 jack and was not an acoustic coupler. Such devices facilitated the creation of dial-up bulletin board systems, a forerunner of modern internet chat rooms, message boards, and e-mail.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and applications", "target_page_ids": [ 3430, 38892, 294813, 9738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 328, 349 ], [ 384, 394 ], [ 396, 409 ], [ 416, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usually, a standard telephone handset was placed into a cradle that had been engineered to fit closely (by the use of rubber seals) around the microphone and earpiece of the handset. A modem would modulate a loudspeaker in the cup attached to the handset's microphone, and sound from the loudspeaker in the telephone handset's earpiece would be picked up by a microphone in the cup attached to the earpiece. In this way signals could be passed in both directions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 65886, 45871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 153 ], [ 208, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acoustic couplers were sensitive to external noise and depended on the widespread standardization of the dimensions of telephone handsets. Once they were made legal and the AT command set became standard for modems, direct electrical connections to telephone networks rapidly became the preferred method of attaching modems, and the use of acoustic couplers dwindled. Acoustic couplers were still used until at least the late 1990s by people travelling in areas of the world where electrical connection to the telephone network is illegal or impractical. Many models of TDDs (Telecommunications Device for the Deaf) still have a built-in acoustic coupler, which allow more universal use with pay phones and for 911 calls by deaf people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 334420, 163387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 577, 615 ], [ 693, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An acoustic coupler (a Novation CAT 300 baud model) is prominently shown early in the 1983 film WarGames, when character David Lightman (portrayed by actor Matthew Broderick) places a telephone handset into the cradle of a film prop acoustic modem to accentuate the act of using telephone lines for interconnection to the developing computer networks of the period—in this case, a military command computer. The earliest major motion picture depicting an acoustic coupler was probably the 1968 Steve McQueen film Bullitt.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 34130, 199714, 433285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 104 ], [ 156, 173 ], [ 513, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carterfone", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 882455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Federal Standard 1037C", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MIL-STD-188", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telecommunications device for the deaf", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 334420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964 Livermore Data Systems Model A acoustic coupler modem surfs the web", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Digitronics acoustic coupler patent, January 5, 1971", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Модем", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Modems", "Network_access" ]

[ "Acoustic modem", "Acoustic data coupler" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The active laser medium (also called gain medium or lasing medium) is the source of optical gain within a laser. The gain results from the stimulated emission of photons through electronic or molecular transitions to a lower energy state from a higher energy state previously populated by a pump source.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10547121, 17556, 28469, 3245664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 96 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 140, 159 ], [ 292, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Examples of active laser media include:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Certain crystals, typically doped with rare-earth ions (e.g. neodymium, ytterbium, or erbium) or transition metal ions (titanium or chromium); most often yttrium aluminium garnet (Y3Al5O12), yttrium orthovanadate (YVO4), or sapphire (Al2O3); and not often Caesium cadmium bromide (CsCdBr3) (Solid-state lasers)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6015, 145440, 18963787, 21276, 34240, 9478, 30364, 30040, 5669, 1731136, 20373503, 904, 22303, 1917522, 29469, 7586367, 5879, 5672, 3756, 3184580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ], [ 40, 50 ], [ 51, 54 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 73, 82 ], [ 87, 93 ], [ 98, 114 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 133, 141 ], [ 155, 179 ], [ 181, 182 ], [ 183, 185 ], [ 186, 187 ], [ 192, 213 ], [ 225, 233 ], [ 257, 280 ], [ 282, 284 ], [ 284, 286 ], [ 286, 288 ], [ 292, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Glasses, e.g. silicate or phosphate glasses, doped with laser-active ions;", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gases, e.g. mixtures of helium and neon (HeNe), nitrogen, argon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or metal vapors; (Gas lasers)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18993869, 13256, 21273, 21175, 896, 6136, 5906, 1193370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 59, 64 ], [ 66, 81 ], [ 83, 97 ], [ 117, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semiconductors, e.g. gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), or gallium nitride (GaN).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27709, 144143, 2141015, 467198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 22, 38 ], [ 47, 70 ], [ 84, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liquids, in the form of dye solutions as used in dye lasers. (Dye lasers)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 387512, 387512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ], [ 63, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to fire a laser, the active gain medium must be in a nonthermal energy distribution known as a population inversion. The preparation of this state requires an external energy source and is known as laser pumping. Pumping may be achieved with electrical currents (e.g. semiconductors, or gases via high-voltage discharges) or with light, generated by discharge lamps or by other lasers (semiconductor lasers). More exotic gain media can be pumped by chemical reactions, nuclear fission, or with high-energy electron beams.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24065, 3245664, 870857, 2925786, 142258, 6271, 22054, 6943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 124 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 308, 331 ], [ 361, 375 ], [ 397, 416 ], [ 461, 479 ], [ 481, 496 ], [ 518, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest model of optical gain in real systems includes just two, energetically well separated, groups of sub-levels. Within each sub-level group, fast transitions ensure that thermal equilibrium is reached quickly. Stimulated emissions between upper and lower groups, essential for gain, require the upper levels to be more populated than the corresponding lower ones. This is more readily achieved if unstimulated transition rates between the two groups are slow, i.e. the upper levels are metastable. Population inversions are more easily produced when only the lowest sublevels are occupied, requiring either low temperatures or well energetically split groups. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [ 466192, 19833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 199 ], [ 496, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of amplification of optical signals, the lasing frequency is called signal frequency. If the externally provided energy required for the signal's amplification is optical, it would necessarily be at the same or higher pump frequency. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [ 9931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The simple medium can be characterized with effective cross-sections of absorption and emission at frequencies and .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [ 7480, 1384005, 292420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 68 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 87, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Have be concentration of active centers in the solid-state lasers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Have be concentration of active centers in the ground state.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Have be concentration of excited centers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Have .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The relative concentrations can be defined as and .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The rate of transitions of an active center from ground state to the excited state can be expressed with and", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The rate of transitions back to the ground state can be expressed with ,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where and are effective cross-sections of absorption at the frequencies of the signal and the pump.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [ 8802094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " and are the same for stimulated emission;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is rate of the spontaneous decay of the upper level.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Then, the kinetic equation for relative populations can be written as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, these equations keep .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The absorption at the pump frequency and the gain at the signal frequency can be written ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases the gain medium works in a continuous-wave or quasi-continuous regime, causing the time derivatives of populations to be negligible.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [ 931978, 7921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 102, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The steady-state solution can be written:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dynamic saturation intensities can be defined:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The absorption at strong signal:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The gain at strong pump:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "is determinant of cross-section.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gain never exceeds value , and absorption never exceeds value .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At given intensities , of pump and signal, the gain and absorption", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "can be expressed as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following identities take place:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The state of gain medium can be characterized with a single parameter, such as population of the upper level, gain or absorption.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The efficiency of a gain medium can be defined as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Within the same model, the efficiency can be expressed as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the efficient operation both intensities, pump and signal should exceed their saturation intensities;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", and .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The estimates above are valid for a medium uniformly filled with pump and signal light. Spatial hole burning may slightly reduce the efficiency because some regions are pumped well, but the pump is not efficiently withdrawn by the signal in the nodes of the interference of counter-propagating waves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Example of a model of gain medium", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Population inversion", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Laser construction", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Laser science", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of laser articles", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34620288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of laser types", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 408243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gain media Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Laser_gain_media", "Laser_science" ]

[ "Laser medium, lasing medium" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Adaptive communications can mean any communications system, or portion thereof, that automatically uses feedback information obtained from the system itself or from the signals carried by the system to modify dynamically one or more of the system operational parameters to improve system performance or to resist degradation. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40925, 11545, 18985062, 7876158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 58 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 113, 124 ], [ 313, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modification of a system parameter may be discrete, as in hard-switched diversity reception, or may be continuous, as in a ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7397903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "predetection combining algorithm.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Automatic Link Establishment", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Channel use", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2719109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CALM M5", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10330843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_techniques" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Adaptive predictive coding (APC) is a narrowband analog-to-digital conversion that uses a one-level or multilevel sampling system in which the value of the signal at each sampling instant is predicted according to a linear function of the past values of the quantized signals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 274798, 40367, 201605, 275871, 317018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ], [ 49, 77 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 156, 162 ], [ 258, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "APC is related to linear predictive coding (LPC) in that both use adaptive predictors. However, APC uses fewer prediction coefficients, thus requiring a higher sampling rate than LPC.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 36682, 201605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 42 ], [ 160, 173 ] ] } ]

[ "Digital_signal_processing" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In digital circuits, an adder–subtractor is a circuit that is capable of adding or subtracting numbers (in particular, binary). Below is a circuit that adds or subtracts depending on a control signal. It is also possible to construct a circuit that performs both addition and subtraction at the same time.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27753031, 426856, 8453671, 238686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 83, 94 ], [ 119, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having an n-bit adder for A and B, then . Then, assume the numbers are in two's complement. Then to perform , two's complement theory says to invert each bit of A with a NOT gate then add one. This yields , which is easy to do with a slightly modified adder.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 307145, 100625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 90 ], [ 170, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By preceding each A input bit on the adder with a 2-to-1 multiplexer where:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 38542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Input 0 (I0) is A", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Input 1 (I1) is ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "that has control input D that is also connected to the initial carry, then the modified adder performs", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " addition when , or", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " subtraction when .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This works because when the A input to the adder is really and the carry in is 1. Adding B to and 1 yields the desired subtraction of .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A way you can mark number A as positive or negative without using a multiplexer on each bit is to use an XOR gate to precede each bit instead. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 3521050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The first input to the XOR gate is the actual input bit", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The second input to the XOR gate for each is the control input D", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This produces the same truth table for the bit arriving at the adder as the multiplexer solution does since the XOR gate output will be what the input bit is when and the inverted input bit when .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 25512250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adders are a part of the core of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The control unit decides which operations an ALU should perform (based on the op code being executed) and sets the ALU operation. The D input to the adder–subtractor above would be one such control line from the control unit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [ 27046146, 6557, 230470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 57 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 143, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adder–subtractor above could easily be extended to include more functions. For example, a 2-to-1 multiplexer could be introduced on each Bi that would switch between zero and Bi; this could be used (in conjunction with ) to yield the two's complement of A since .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [ 307145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A further step would be to change the 2-to-1 multiplex on A to a 4-to-1 with the third input being zero, then replicating this on Bi thus yielding the following output functions:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 0 (with both the Ai and Bi inputs set to zero and )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1 (with both the Ai and Bi inputs set to zero and )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A (with the Bi input set to zero)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " B (with the Ai input set to zero)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (with the Bi input set to zero and )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (with the Ai input set to zero and )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (with Ai set to invert; Bi set to zero; and )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " −A (with Ai set to invert; Bi set to zero; and )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (with Bi set to invert; Ai set to zero; and )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " −B (with Bi set to invert; Ai set to zero; and )", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By adding more logic in front of the adder, a single adder can be converted into much more than just an adder—an ALU.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Role in the arithmetic logic unit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adder (electronics)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 426856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carry-lookahead adder", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2737739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carry-save adder", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4337178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adding machine", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 74133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Subtractor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8453671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_equipment", "Binary_arithmetic", "Adders_(electronics)", "Arithmetic_logic_circuits" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An address is a collection of information used to give the location of a building or a plot of land.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 979149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Address or The Address may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Address (film), a 2014 film by Ken Burns", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45617529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Address Boulevard, a hotel in Dubai ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Buildings", "target_page_ids": [ 37506191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Address Downtown, a hotel in Dubai", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Buildings", "target_page_ids": [ 7085933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", an HTML element", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 274393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An (often-virtual) location in an address space which corresponds to a logical or physical entity", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 507144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Public speaking, the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 25084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Style (manner of address), a legal, official, or recognized title", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 157101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In golf, to line up the club with the ball", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 19568112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Addressee (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1646169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Term of address (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40294369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] } ]

[]

[ "Address" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Adjacent-channel interference (ACI) is interference caused by extraneous power from a signal in an adjacent channel. ACI may be caused by inadequate filtering (such as incomplete filtering of unwanted modulation products in FM systems), improper tuning or poor frequency control (in the reference channel, the interfering channel or both).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2889864, 24236, 9426, 272421, 20637, 10835, 903897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 73, 78 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 99, 115 ], [ 201, 211 ], [ 224, 226 ], [ 246, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ACI is distinguished from crosstalk.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2995499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adjacent-channel interference which receiver A experiences from a transmitter B is the sum of the power that B emits into A's channel—known as the \"unwanted emission\", and represented by the ACLR (Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio)—and the power that A picks up from B's channel, which is represented by the ACS (Adjacent Channel Selectivity). B emitting power into A's channel is called adjacent-channel leakage (unwanted emissions). It occurs for two reasons. First, because RF filters require a roll-off, and do not eliminate a signal completely. Second, due to intermodulation in B's amplifiers, which cause the transmitted spectrum to spread beyond what was intended. Therefore, B emits some power in the adjacent channel which is picked up by A. A receives some emissions from B's channel due to the roll off of A's selectivity filters. Selectivity filters are designed to \"select\" a channel. Similarly, B's signal suffers intermodulation distortion passing through A's RF input amplifiers, leaking more power into adjacent frequencies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 23487062, 590995, 231538, 23434533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 499, 507 ], [ 566, 581 ], [ 844, 855 ], [ 856, 863 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Broadcast regulators frequently manage the broadcast spectrum in order to minimize adjacent-channel interference. For example, in North America, FM radio stations in a single region cannot be licensed on adjacent frequencies — that is, if a station is licensed on 99.5MHz in a city, the first-adjacent frequencies of 99.3MHz and 99.7MHz cannot be used anywhere within a certain distance of that station's transmitter, and the second-adjacent frequencies of 99.1MHz and 99.9MHz are restricted to specialized usages such as low-power stations. Similar restrictions formerly applied to third-adjacent frequencies as well (i.e. 98.9MHz and 100.1MHz in the example above), but these are no longer observed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Avoidance procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 1607203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adjacent channel power ratio", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17854576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Federal Standard 1037C", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MIL-STD-188", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] } ]

[ "Interference", "Electrical_parameters" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, Advanced Data Communication Control Procedures (or Protocol) (ADCCP) is a bit-oriented data link layer protocol developed by the American National Standards Institute. It is functionally equivalent to the ISO High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) protocol.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 3096721, 152949, 28030850, 659, 78261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 109, 124 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 151, 188 ], [ 232, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the ISO and ANSI standards writers coordinated their work, so the differences between the standards are mainly editorial, there is one meaningful difference: ADCCP's definition of the basic subset required to implement balanced asynchronous mode includes the RSET frame, while HDLC makes it optional.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One major difference between the two is the unnumbered (U) format. When extended (7-bit) sequence numbers are used, I and S frames have two-byte control fields. Like early versions of HDLC, ADCCP specifies a 2-byte control field format with the P/F flag duplicated. Later HDLC specifications, in particular ISO/IEC 13239, changed that to specify that U frames have 1-byte control fields in all cases. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Data link layer", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 152949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " High-Level Data Link Control", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 78261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alt URL", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Link_protocols" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunications an aerial insert is a segment of cabling that rises from ground to a point above ground, followed by an overhead run, e.g. on poles, followed by a drop back into the ground. An aerial insert is used in places where it is not possible or practical to place a cable underground. Aerial inserts might be encountered in crossing deep ditches, canals, rivers, or subway lines.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 946963, 232403, 5623, 18842395, 18361733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 352, 357 ], [ 361, 366 ], [ 369, 374 ], [ 380, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aerial cable", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14617000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_equipment", "Local_loop" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, the Aeronautical Emergency Communications System Plan (AECS) provides for the operation of aeronautical communications stations, on a voluntary, organized basis, to provide the President and the Federal Government, as well as multiple heads of state and local governments, or their designated representatives, and the aeronautical industry with an expeditious means of communications during an emergency.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 33094374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 126, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 53687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ] ] } ]

[ "Emergency_communication", "Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In land-line telephony, AIOD leads are Terminal equipment leads used solely to transmit automatic identified outward dialing (AIOD) data from a PBX to the public switched telephone network or to switched service networks (e.g., EPSCS), so that a vendor can provide a detailed monthly bill identifying long distance calling usage by individual PBX stations, tie trunks, or the attendant console. It resembles common channel signalling in that the AIOD leads provide data for all trunks, but is used only for billing, thus resembling automatic number identification.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41786, 18985040, 1017561, 468436, 1394709, 10179436, 378018, 250906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ], [ 133, 137 ], [ 145, 148 ], [ 156, 189 ], [ 302, 323 ], [ 358, 367 ], [ 410, 435 ], [ 534, 565 ] ] } ]

[ "Telephony" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Airborne radio relay is a technique employing aircraft fitted with radio relay stations for the purpose of increasing the range, flexibility, or physical security of communications systems. The aircraft may be manned or unmanned aerial vehicles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16280255, 41684, 33094374, 58900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 78 ], [ 154, 162 ], [ 166, 180 ], [ 220, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first uses of airborne radio relay was by the United States Army's 1st Cavalry Division in the Battle of Ia Drang during the Vietnam War, which employed the technique to improve communications with commanders at headquarters. The action of war had shifted to the borders of Laos and Cambodia, where the hilly terrain made the monetary and human cost of seizing and holding high ground, and airlifting and installing radio relay equipment prohibitive. In 1968, the Department of the Army provided four specially-equipped relay aircraft to the Division, which proved invaluable throughout the country, in particular, during the 1st Cavalry Division's relief of Khe Sanh in 1968.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Use in Vietnam", "target_page_ids": [ 32087, 330002, 983126, 32611, 17752, 334751, 798348, 348162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 75 ], [ 78, 98 ], [ 106, 124 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 285, 289 ], [ 294, 302 ], [ 475, 497 ], [ 670, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of airborne radio relay was a great success, although two problems arose during the Vietnam War. The first was the limitations of the aircraft used as relays. The 1st Cavalry Division had originally used C-7 Caribous as the relay aircraft, but when these planes were turned over to the Air Force, the equipment was installed in single-engine Otter aircraft, which were too underpowered to carry the heavy equipment required for relay. Eventually, the 1st Signal Brigade was provided with six specially-equipped U-21 aircraft for use in relay operations. The second problem was that of radio frequency interference: the limited frequency spectrum in use for combat radios meant that relay aircraft often interfered with the communication of ground units when their frequencies were overridden by the airborne units. The Army eventually assigned certain frequencies for airborne relay only, although this further limited the frequencies available to ground units.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Use in Vietnam", "target_page_ids": [ 493850, 32090, 718797, 27171054, 729142, 1072324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 223 ], [ 294, 303 ], [ 350, 355 ], [ 459, 477 ], [ 519, 523 ], [ 593, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battlefield Airborne Communications Node", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7445411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_techniques", "Aviation_communications" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, the term alarm sensor has the following meanings:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1. In communications systems, a device that can sense an abnormal condition within the system and provide a signal indicating the presence or nature of the abnormality to either a local or remote alarm indicator, and (b) may detect events ranging from a simple contact opening or closure to a time-phased automatic shutdown and restart cycle.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 8286675, 41367, 30012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 294, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2. In a physical security system, an approved device used to indicate a change in the physical environment of a facility or a part thereof.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41684, 45995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ], [ 113, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "3. In electronic security systems, a physical device or change/presence of any electronic signal/logic which causes trigger to electronic circuit to perform application specific operation. In electronic alarm systems the use of this trigger event done by such devices is to turn on the alarm or siren producing sound and/or perform a security calling through telephone lines.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note: Alarm sensors may also be redundant or chained, such as when one alarm sensor is used to protect the housing, cabling, or power protected by another alarm sensor.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 235757, 24236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 84 ], [ 129, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source: from Federal Standard 1037C and from MIL-STD-188 and from TRISHAM Software Systems", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37310, 41882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 35 ], [ 45, 56 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_equipment" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An A-law algorithm is a standard companding algorithm, used in European 8-bit PCM digital communications systems to optimize, i.e. modify, the dynamic range of an analog signal for digitizing. It is one of two versions of the G.711 standard from ITU-T, the other version being the similar μ-law, used in North America and Japan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40927, 9239, 25513330, 8276, 33094374, 41079, 993, 104113, 14744, 41382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 63, 69 ], [ 78, 81 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 163, 176 ], [ 226, 231 ], [ 246, 251 ], [ 289, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a given input , the equation for A-law encoding is as follows,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the compression parameter. In Europe, .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A-law expansion is given by the inverse function,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The reason for this encoding is that the wide dynamic range of speech does not lend itself well to efficient linear digital encoding. A-law encoding effectively reduces the dynamic range of the signal, thereby increasing the coding efficiency and resulting in a signal-to-distortion ratio that is superior to that obtained by linear encoding for a given number of bits.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41079, 2917649, 4237207, 41052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 59 ], [ 63, 69 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 272, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The μ-law algorithm provides a slightly larger dynamic range than the A-law at the cost of worse proportional distortion for small signals. By convention, A-law is used for an international connection if at least one country uses it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Comparison to μ-law", "target_page_ids": [ 41382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " μ-law algorithm", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Audio level compression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 262733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Signal compression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Companding", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " G.711", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 104113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DS0", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tapered floating point", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57865301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Waveform Coding Techniques - Has details of implementation (but note that the A-law equation is incorrect)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A-law implementation in C-language with example code", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Audio_codecs" ]

[ "A-law", "A law", "Alaw", "ALaw", "A-Law", "PCMA" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Allan variance (AVAR), also known as two-sample variance, is a measure of frequency stability in clocks, oscillators and amplifiers. It is named after David W. Allan and expressed mathematically as .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5439832, 6449, 22522, 9931, 43677463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 97 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 109, 119 ], [ 125, 134 ], [ 155, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Allan deviation (ADEV), also known as sigma-tau, is the square root of the Allan variance, .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The M-sample variance is a measure of frequency stability using M samples, time T between measurements and observation time . M-sample variance is expressed as", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Allan variance is intended to estimate stability due to noise processes and not that of systematic errors or imperfections such as frequency drift or temperature effects. The Allan variance and Allan deviation describe frequency stability. See also the section Interpretation of value below.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are also different adaptations or alterations of Allan variance, notably the modified Allan variance MAVAR or MVAR, the total variance, and the Hadamard variance. There also exist time-stability variants such as time deviation (TDEV) or time variance (TVAR). Allan variance and its variants have proven useful outside the scope of timekeeping and are a set of improved statistical tools to use whenever the noise processes are not unconditionally stable, thus a derivative exists.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27120293, 27201658, 30012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 107 ], [ 219, 233 ], [ 338, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The general M-sample variance remains important, since it allows dead time in measurements, and bias functions allow conversion into Allan variance values. Nevertheless, for most applications the special case of 2-sample, or \"Allan variance\" with is of greatest interest.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1246675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When investigating the stability of crystal oscillators and atomic clocks, it was found that they did not have a phase noise consisting only of white noise, but also of flicker frequency noise. These noise forms become a challenge for traditional statistical tools such as standard deviation, as the estimator will not converge. The noise is thus said to be divergent. Early efforts in analysing the stability included both theoretical analysis and practical measurements.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 40979, 25453985, 41549, 46182, 6799095, 27590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 54 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 113, 124 ], [ 144, 155 ], [ 169, 192 ], [ 273, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important side consequence of having these types of noise was that, since the various methods of measurements did not agree with each other, the key aspect of repeatability of a measurement could not be achieved. This limits the possibility to compare sources and make meaningful specifications to require from suppliers. Essentially all forms of scientific and commercial uses were then limited to dedicated measurements, which hopefully would capture the need for that application.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To address these problems, David Allan introduced the M-sample variance and (indirectly) the two-sample variance. While the two-sample variance did not completely allow all types of noise to be distinguished, it provided a means to meaningfully separate many noise-forms for time-series of phase or frequency measurements between two or more oscillators. Allan provided a method to convert between any M-sample variance to any N-sample variance via the common 2-sample variance, thus making all M-sample variances comparable. The conversion mechanism also proved that M-sample variance does not converge for large M, thus making them less useful. IEEE later identified the 2-sample variance as the preferred measure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An early concern was related to time- and frequency-measurement instruments that had a dead time between measurements. Such a series of measurements did not form a continuous observation of the signal and thus introduced a systematic bias into the measurement. Great care was spent in estimating these biases. The introduction of zero-dead-time counters removed the need, but the bias-analysis tools have proved useful.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1246675, 22346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 96 ], [ 223, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another early aspect of concern was related to how the bandwidth of the measurement instrument would influence the measurement, such that it needed to be noted. It was later found that by algorithmically changing the observation , only low values would be affected, while higher values would be unaffected. The change of is done by letting it be an integer multiple of the measurement timebase :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 3967, 43245211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 64 ], [ 388, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The physics of crystal oscillators were analyzed by D. B. Leeson, and the result is now referred to as Leeson's equation. The feedback in the oscillator will make the white noise and flicker noise of the feedback amplifier and crystal become the power-law noises of white frequency noise and flicker frequency noise respectively. These noise forms have the effect that the standard variance estimator does not converge when processing time-error samples. This mechanics of the feedback oscillators was unknown when the work on oscillator stability started, but was presented by Leeson at the same time as the set of statistical tools was made available by David W. Allan. For a more thorough presentation on the Leeson effect, see modern phase-noise literature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 40979, 34157634, 22522, 46182, 6799095, 1366807, 27590, 43677463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ], [ 103, 120 ], [ 142, 152 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 246, 261 ], [ 375, 392 ], [ 658, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Allan variance is defined as one half of the time average of the squares of the differences between successive readings of the frequency deviation sampled over the sampling period. The Allan variance depends on the time period used between samples, therefore, it is a function of the sample period, commonly denoted as τ, likewise the distribution being measured, and is displayed as a graph rather than a single number. A low Allan variance is a characteristic of a clock with good stability over the measured period.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Interpretation of value", "target_page_ids": [ 41187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Allan deviation is widely used for plots (conventionally in log–log format) and presentation of numbers. It is preferred, as it gives the relative amplitude stability, allowing ease of comparison with other sources of errors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Interpretation of value", "target_page_ids": [ 1659215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Allan deviation of 1.3 at observation time 1 s (i.e. τ = 1 s) should be interpreted as there being an instability in frequency between two observations 1second apart with a relative root mean square (RMS) value of 1.3. For a 10MHz clock, this would be equivalent to 13mHz RMS movement. If the phase stability of an oscillator is needed, then the time deviation variants should be consulted and used.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Interpretation of value", "target_page_ids": [ 66819, 27201658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 201 ], [ 349, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One may convert the Allan variance and other time-domain variances into frequency-domain measures of time (phase) and frequency stability.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Interpretation of value", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The -sample variance is defined (here in a modernized notation form) as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the clock reading (in seconds) measured at time , or with Average fractional frequency time series", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the number of frequency samples used in variance, is the time between each frequency sample, and is the time length of each frequency estimate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An important aspect is that -sample variance model can include dead-time by letting the time be different from that of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative (and equivalent) way to view this formula that makes the connection to the typical sample variance formula more explicit is obtained by multiplying by and dividing the 2 terms inside the curly braces by :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Now, the coefficient can be interpreted as Bessel's correction to the biased sample variance which is what appears inside the curly braces in the form .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 13384414, 32344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 63 ], [ 71, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Allan variance is defined as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where denotes the expectation operator. This can be conveniently expressed as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the observation period, is the nth Fractional frequency average over the observation time .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The samples are taken with no dead-time between them, which is achieved by letting", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Just as with standard deviation and variance, the Allan deviation is defined as the square root of the Allan variance:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 27590, 32344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 31 ], [ 36, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oscillator being analysed is assumed to follow the basic model of", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The oscillator is assumed to have a nominal frequency of , given in cycles per second (SI unit: hertz). The nominal angular frequency (in radians per second) is given by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 14121, 199829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 101 ], [ 116, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The total phase can be separated into a perfectly cyclic component , along with a fluctuating component :", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The time-error function x(t) is the difference between expected nominal time and actual normal time:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For measured values a time-error series TE(t) is defined from the reference time function T(t) as", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The frequency function is the frequency over time, defined as", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The fractional frequency y(t) is the normalized difference between the frequency and the nominal frequency :", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The average fractional frequency is defined as", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the average is taken over observation time τ, the y(t) is the fractional-frequency error at time t, and τ is the observation time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since y(t) is the derivative of x(t), we can without loss of generality rewrite it as", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Supporting definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This definition is based on the statistical expected value, integrating over infinite time. The real-world situation does not allow for such time-series, in which case a statistical estimator needs to be used in its place. A number of different estimators will be presented and discussed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [ 9653, 10043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 58 ], [ 182, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A first simple estimator would be to directly translate the definition into", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or for the time series:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These formulas, however, only provide the calculation for the τ = τ0 case. To calculate for a different value of τ, a new time-series needs to be provided.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Taking the time-series and skipping past n − 1 samples, a new (shorter) time-series would occur with τ0 as the time between the adjacent samples, for which the Allan variance could be calculated with the simple estimators. These could be modified to introduce the new variable n such that no new time-series would have to be generated, but rather the original time series could be reused for various values of n. The estimators become", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with ,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and for the time series:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These estimators have a significant drawback in that they will drop a significant amount of sample data, as only 1/n of the available samples is being used.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A technique presented by J. J. Snyder provided an improved tool, as measurements were overlapped in n overlapped series out of the original series. The overlapping Allan variance estimator was introduced by Howe, Allan and Barnes. This can be shown to be equivalent to averaging the time or normalized frequency samples in blocks of n samples prior to processing. The resulting predictor becomes", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or for the time series:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The overlapping estimators have far superior performance over the non-overlapping estimators, as n rises and the time-series is of moderate length. The overlapped estimators have been accepted as the preferred Allan variance estimators in IEEE, ITU-T and ETSI standards for comparable measurements such as needed for telecommunication qualification.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In order to address the inability to separate white phase modulation from flicker phase modulation using traditional Allan variance estimators, an algorithmic filtering reduces the bandwidth by n. This filtering provides a modification to the definition and estimators and it now identifies as a separate class of variance called modified Allan variance. The modified Allan variance measure is a frequency stability measure, just as is the Allan variance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [ 27120293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A time stability (σx) statistical measure, which is often called the time deviation (TDEV), can be calculated from the modified Allan deviation (MDEV). The TDEV is based on the MDEV instead of the original Allan deviation, because the MDEV can discriminate between white and flicker phase modulation (PM). The following is the time variance estimation based on the modified Allan variance:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and similarly for modified Allan deviation to time deviation:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [ 27201658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The TDEV is normalized so that it is equal to the classical deviation for white PM for time constant τ =τ0. To understand the normalization scale factor between the statistical measures, the following is the relevant statistical rule: For independent random variables X and Y, the variance (σz2) of a sum or difference (z = x − y) is the sum square of their variances (σz2 = σx2 + σy2). The variance of the sum or difference (y = x2τ − xτ) of two independent samples of a random variable is twice the variance of the random variable (σy2 = 2σx2). The MDEV is the second difference of independent phase measurements (x) that have a variance (σx2). Since the calculation is the double difference, which requires three independent phase measurements (x2τ − 2xτ + x), the modified Allan variance (MVAR) is three times the variances of the phase measurements.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further developments have produced improved estimation methods for the same stability measure, the variance/deviation of frequency, but these are known by separate names such as the Hadamard variance, modified Hadamard variance, the total variance, modified total variance and the Theo variance. These distinguish themselves in better use of statistics for improved confidence bounds or ability to handle linear frequency drift.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Estimators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Statistical estimators will calculate an estimated value on the sample series used. The estimates may deviate from the true value and the range of values which for some probability will contain the true value is referred to as the confidence interval. The confidence interval depends on the number of observations in the sample series, the dominant noise type, and the estimator being used. The width is also dependent on the statistical certainty for which the confidence interval values forms a bounded range, thus the statistical certainty that the true value is within that range of values. For variable-τ estimators, the 0 multiple n is also a variable.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [ 280911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The confidence interval can be established using chi-squared distribution by using the distribution of the sample variance:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [ 280911, 113424, 32344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 49, 73 ], [ 87, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where s2 is the sample variance of our estimate, σ2 is the true variance value, df is the degrees of freedom for the estimator, and χ2 is the degrees of freedom for a certain probability. For a 90% probability, covering the range from the 5% to the 95% range on the probability curve, the upper and lower limits can be found using the inequality", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which after rearrangement for the true variance becomes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The degrees of freedom represents the number of free variables capable of contributing to the estimate. Depending on the estimator and noise type, the effective degrees of freedom varies. Estimator formulas depending on N and n has been found empirically:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [ 2321606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "{| class=\"wikitable\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|+ Allan variance degrees of freedom", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!Noise type", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!degrees of freedom", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|white phase modulation (WPM)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|flicker phase modulation (FPM)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|white frequency modulation (WFM)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|flicker frequency modulation (FFM)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|random-walk frequency modulation (RWFM)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Confidence intervals and equivalent degrees of freedom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Allan variance will treat various power-law noise types differently, conveniently allowing them to be identified and their strength estimated. As a convention, the measurement system width (high corner frequency) is denoted fH.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [ 1366807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As found in and in modern forms.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Allan variance is unable to distinguish between WPM and FPM, but is able to resolve the other power-law noise types. In order to distinguish WPM and FPM, the modified Allan variance needs to be employed.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [ 27120293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The above formulas assume that", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and thus that the bandwidth of the observation time is much lower than the instruments bandwidth. When this condition is not met, all noise forms depend on the instrument's bandwidth.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The detailed mapping of a phase modulation of the form", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or frequency modulation of the form", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "into the Allan variance of the form", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "can be significantly simplified by providing a mapping between α and μ. A mapping between α and Kα is also presented for convenience:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "{| class=\"wikitable\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|+ Allan variance α–μ mapping", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!α", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!β", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!μ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!Kα", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −2", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −4", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 1", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −1", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −3", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 0", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 0", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −2", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −1", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 1", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −1", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −2", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 2", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 0", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| −2", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A signal with spectral phase noise with units rad2/Hz can be converted to Allan Variance by", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Power-law noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While Allan variance is intended to be used to distinguish noise forms, it will depend on some but not all linear responses to time. They are given in the table:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "{| class=\"wikitable\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|+ Allan variance linear response", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Linear effect", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! time response", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! frequency response", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Allan variance", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Allan deviation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| phase offset", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| frequency offset", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| linear drift", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, linear drift will contribute to output result. When measuring a real system, the linear drift or other drift mechanism may need to be estimated and removed from the time-series prior to calculating the Allan variance.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Linear response", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In analysing the properties of Allan variance and friends, it has proven useful to consider the filter properties on the normalize frequency. Starting with the definition for Allan variance for", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Time and frequency filter properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Time and frequency filter properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Replacing the time series of with the Fourier-transformed variant the Allan variance can be expressed in the frequency domain as", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Time and frequency filter properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus the transfer function for Allan variance is", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Time and frequency filter properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The M-sample variance, and the defined special case Allan variance, will experience systematic bias depending on different number of samples M and different relationship between T and τ. In order to address these biases, the bias-functions B1 and B2 has been defined and allows conversion between different M and T values.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [ 22346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These bias functions are not sufficient for handling the bias resulting from concatenating M samples to the Mτ0 observation time over the MT0 with the dead-time distributed among the M measurement blocks rather than at the end of the measurement. This rendered the need for the B3 bias.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bias functions are evaluated for a particular µ value, so the α–µ mapping needs to be done for the dominant noise form as found using noise identification. Alternatively, the µ value of the dominant noise form may be inferred from the measurements using the bias functions.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The B1 bias function relates the M-sample variance with the 2-sample variance (Allan variance), keeping the time between measurements T and time for each measurements τ constant. It is defined as", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bias function becomes after analysis", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The B2 bias function relates the 2-sample variance for sample time T with the 2-sample variance (Allan variance), keeping the number of samples N = 2 and the observation time τ constant. It is defined as", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bias function becomes after analysis", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The B3 bias function relates the 2-sample variance for sample time MT0 and observation time Mτ0 with the 2-sample variance (Allan variance) and is defined as", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The B3 bias function is useful to adjust non-overlapping and overlapping variable τ estimator values based on dead-time measurements of observation time τ0 and time between observations T0 to normal dead-time estimates.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bias function becomes after analysis (for the N=2 case)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While formally not formulated, it has been indirectly inferred as a consequence of the α–µ mapping. When comparing two Allan variance measure for different τ, assuming same dominant noise in the form of same µ coefficient, a bias can be defined as", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bias function becomes after analysis", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In order to convert from one set of measurements to another the B1, B2 and τ bias functions can be assembled. First the B1 function converts the (N1, T1, τ1) value into (2, T1, τ1), from which the B2 function converts into a (2, τ1, τ1) value, thus the Allan variance at τ1. The Allan variance measure can be converted using the τ bias function from τ1 to τ2, from which then the (2, T2, τ2) using B2 and then finally using B1 into the (N2, T2, τ2) variance. The complete conversion becomes", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, for concatenated measurements using M sections, the logical extension becomes", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bias functions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When making measurements to calculate Allan variance or Allan deviation, a number of issues may cause the measurements to degenerate. Covered here are the effects specific to Allan variance, where results would be biased.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A measurement system is expected to have a bandwidth at or below that of the Nyquist rate, as described within the Shannon–Hartley theorem. As can be seen in the power-law noise formulas, the white and flicker noise modulations both depends on the upper corner frequency (these systems is assumed to be low-pass filtered only). Considering the frequency filter property, it can be clearly seen that low-frequency noise has greater impact on the result. For relatively flat phase-modulation noise types (e.g. WPM and FPM), the filtering has relevance, whereas for noise types with greater slope the upper frequency limit becomes of less importance, assuming that the measurement system bandwidth is wide relative the as given by", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [ 41435, 71085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 89 ], [ 115, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When this assumption is not met, the effective bandwidth needs to be notated alongside the measurement. The interested should consult NBS TN394.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If, however, one adjust the bandwidth of the estimator by using integer multiples of the sample time , then the system bandwidth impact can be reduced to insignificant levels. For telecommunication needs, such methods have been required in order to ensure comparability of measurements and allow some freedom for vendors to do different implementations. The ITU-T Rec. G.813 for the TDEV measurement.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It can be recommended that the first multiples be ignored, such that the majority of the detected noise is well within the passband of the measurement systems bandwidth.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further developments on the Allan variance was performed to let the hardware bandwidth be reduced by software means. This development of a software bandwidth allowed addressing the remaining noise, and the method is now referred to modified Allan variance. This bandwidth reduction technique should not be confused with the enhanced variant of modified Allan variance, which also changes a smoothing filter bandwidth.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [ 27120293, 27120293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 255 ], [ 344, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many measurement instruments of time and frequency have the stages of arming time, time-base time, processing time and may then re-trigger the arming. The arming time is from the time the arming is triggered to when the start event occurs on the start channel. The time-base then ensures that minimal amount of time goes prior to accepting an event on the stop channel as the stop event. The number of events and time elapsed between the start event and stop event is recorded and presented during the processing time. When the processing occurs (also known as the dwell time), the instrument is usually unable to do another measurement. After the processing has occurred, an instrument in continuous mode triggers the arm circuit again. The time between the stop event and the following start event becomes dead time, during which the signal is not being observed. Such dead time introduces systematic measurement biases, which needs to be compensated for in order to get proper results. For such measurement systems will the time T denote the time between the adjacent start events (and thus measurements), while denote the time-base length, i.e. the nominal length between the start and stop event of any measurement.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [ 1246675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 808, 817 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dead-time effects on measurements have such an impact on the produced result that much study of the field have been done in order to quantify its properties properly. The introduction of zero-dead-time counters removed the need for this analysis. A zero-dead-time counter has the property that the stop event of one measurement is also being used as the start event of the following event. Such counters create a series of event and time timestamp pairs, one for each channel spaced by the time-base. Such measurements have also proved useful in order forms of time-series analysis.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Measurements being performed with dead time can be corrected using the bias function B1, B2 and B3. Thus, dead time as such is not prohibiting the access to the Allan variance, but it makes it more problematic. The dead time must be known, such that the time between samples T can be established.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Studying the effect on the Confidence interval that the length N of the sample series have, and the effect of the variable τ parameter n the confidence intervals may become very large, since the Effective degree of freedom may become small for some combination of N and n for the dominant noise form (for that τ).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The effect may be that the estimated value may be much smaller or much greater than the real value, which may lead to false conclusions of the result.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is recommended that the confidence interval is plotted along with the data, such that the reader of the plot is able to be aware of the statistical uncertainty of the values.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is recommended that the length of the sample sequence, i.e. the number of samples N is kept high to ensure that confidence interval is small over the τ range of interest.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is recommended that the τ range as swept by the τ0 multiplier n is limited in the upper end relative N, such that the read of the plot is not being confused by highly unstable estimator values.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is recommended that estimators providing better degrees of freedom values be used in replacement of the Allan variance estimators or as complementing them where they outperform the Allan variance estimators. Among those the total variance and Theo variance estimators should be considered.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A large number of conversion constants, bias corrections and confidence intervals depends on the dominant noise type. For proper interpretation shall the dominant noise type for the particular τ of interest be identified through noise identification. Failing to identify the dominant noise type will produce biased values. Some of these biases may be of several order of magnitude, so it may be of large significance.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Systematic effects on the signal is only partly cancelled. Phase and frequency offset is cancelled, but linear drift or other high-degree forms of polynomial phase curves will not be cancelled and thus form a measurement limitation. Curve fitting and removal of systematic offset could be employed. Often removal of linear drift can be sufficient. Use of linear-drift estimators such as the Hadamard variance could also be employed. A linear drift removal could be employed using a moment-based estimator.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Traditional instruments provided only the measurement of single events or event pairs. The introduction of the improved statistical tool of overlapping measurements by J. J. Snyder allowed much improved resolution in frequency readouts, breaking the traditional digits/time-base balance. While such methods is useful for their intended purpose, using such smoothed measurements for Allan variance calculations would give a false impression of high resolution, but for longer τ the effect is gradually removed, and the lower-τ region of the measurement has biased values. This bias is providing lower values than it should, so it is an overoptimistic (assuming that low numbers is what one wishes) bias, reducing the usability of the measurement rather than improving it. Such smart algorithms can usually be disabled or otherwise circumvented by using time-stamp mode, which is much preferred if available.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Measurement issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While several approaches to measurement of Allan variance can be devised, a simple example may illustrate how measurements can be performed.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Practical measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All measurements of Allan variance will in effect be the comparison of two different clocks. Consider a reference clock and a device under test (DUT), and both having a common nominal frequency of 10MHz. A time-interval counter is being used to measure the time between the rising edge of the reference (channel A) and the rising edge of the device under test.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Practical measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In order to provide evenly spaced measurements, the reference clock will be divided down to form the measurement rate, triggering the time-interval counter (ARM input). This rate can be 1Hz (using the 1 PPS output of a reference clock), but other rates like 10Hz and 100Hz can also be used. The speed of which the time-interval counter can complete the measurement, output the result and prepare itself for the next arm will limit the trigger frequency.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Practical measurements", "target_page_ids": [ 4957366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A computer is then useful to record the series of time differences being observed.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Practical measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The recorded time-series require post-processing to unwrap the wrapped phase, such that a continuous phase error is being provided. If necessary, logging and measurement mistakes should also be fixed. Drift estimation and drift removal should be performed, the drift mechanism needs to be identified and understood for the sources. Drift limitations in measurements can be severe, so letting the oscillators become stabilized, by long enough time being powered on, is necessary.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Practical measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Allan variance can then be calculated using the estimators given, and for practical purposes the overlapping estimator should be used due to its superior use of data over the non-overlapping estimator. Other estimators such as total or Theo variance estimators could also be used if bias corrections is applied such that they provide Allan variance-compatible results.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Practical measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To form the classical plots, the Allan deviation (square root of Allan variance) is plotted in log–log format against the observation intervalτ.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Practical measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The time-interval counter is typically an off-the-shelf counter commercially available. Limiting factors involve single-shot resolution, trigger jitter, speed of measurements and stability of reference clock. The computer collection and post-processing can be done using existing commercial or public-domain software. Highly advanced solutions exists, which will provide measurement and computation in one box.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Practical measurements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The field of frequency stability has been studied for a long time. However, during the 1960s it was found that coherent definitions were lacking. A NASA-IEEE Symposium on Short-Term Stability in November 1964 resulted in the special February 1966 issue of the IEEE Proceedings on Frequency Stability.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The NASA-IEEE Symposium brought together many fields and uses of short- and long-term stability, with papers from many different contributors. The articles and panel discussions concur on the existence of the frequency flicker noise and the wish to achieve a common definition for both short-term and long-term stability.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Important papers, including those of David Allan, James A. Barnes, L. S. Cutler and C. L. Searle and D. B. Leeson, appeared in the IEEE Proceedings on Frequency Stability and helped shape the field.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "David Allan's article analyses the classical M-sample variance of frequency, tackling the issue of dead-time between measurements along with an initial bias function. Although Allan's initial bias function assumes no dead-time, his formulas do include dead-time calculations. His article analyses the case of M frequency samples (called N in the article) and variance estimators. It provides the now standard α–µ mapping, clearly building on James Barnes' work in the same issue.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 2-sample variance case is a special case of the M-sample variance, which produces an average of the frequency derivative. Allan implicitly uses the 2-sample variance as a base case, since for arbitrary chosen M, values may be transferred via the 2-sample variance to the M-sample variance. No preference was clearly stated for the 2-sample variance, even if the tools were provided. However, this article laid the foundation for using the 2-sample variance as a way of comparing other M-sample variances.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "James Barnes significantly extended the work on bias functions, introducing the modern B1 and B2 bias functions. Curiously enough, it refers to the M-sample variance as \"Allan variance\", while referring to Allan's article \"Statistics of Atomic Frequency Standards\". With these modern bias functions, full conversion among M-sample variance measures of various M, T and τ values could be performed, by conversion through the 2-sample variance.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "James Barnes and David Allan further extended the bias functions with the B3 function to handle the concatenated samples estimator bias. This was necessary to handle the new use of concatenated sample observations with dead-time in between.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1970, the IEEE Technical Committee on Frequency and Time, within the IEEE Group on Instrumentation & Measurements, provided a summary of the field, published as NBS Technical Notice 394. This paper was first in a line of more educational and practical papers helping fellow engineers grasp the field. This paper recommended the 2-sample variance with T = τ, referring to it as Allan variance (now without the quotes). The choice of such parametrisation allows good handling of some noise forms and getting comparable measurements; it is essentially the least common denominator with the aid of the bias functions B1 and B2.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "J. J. Snyder proposed an improved method for frequency or variance estimation, using sample statistics for frequency counters. To get more effective degrees of freedom out of the available dataset, the trick is to use overlapping observation periods. This provides a improvement, and was incorporated in the overlapping Allan variance estimator. Variable-τ software processing was also incorporated. This development improved the classical Allan variance estimators, likewise providing a direct inspiration for the work on modified Allan variance.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [ 27120293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 524, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Howe, Allan and Barnes presented the analysis of confidence intervals, degrees of freedom, and the established estimators.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Research history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The field of time and frequency and its use of Allan variance, Allan deviation and friends is a field involving many aspects, for which both understanding of concepts and practical measurements and post-processing requires care and understanding. Thus, there is a realm of educational material stretching about 40 years available. Since these reflect the developments in the research of their time, they focus on teaching different aspect over time, in which case a survey of available resources may be a suitable way of finding the right resource.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Educational and practical resources", "target_page_ids": [ 40708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first meaningful summary is the NBS Technical Note 394 \"Characterization of Frequency Stability\". This is the product of the Technical Committee on Frequency and Time of the IEEE Group on Instrumentation & Measurement. It gives the first overview of the field, stating the problems, defining the basic supporting definitions and getting into Allan variance, the bias functions B1 and B2, the conversion of time-domain measures. This is useful, as it is among the first references to tabulate the Allan variance for the five basic noise types.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Educational and practical resources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A classical reference is the NBS Monograph 140 from 1974, which in chapter 8 has \"Statistics of Time and Frequency Data Analysis\". This is the extended variant of NBS Technical Note 394 and adds essentially in measurement techniques and practical processing of values.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Educational and practical resources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An important addition will be the Properties of signal sources and measurement methods. It covers the effective use of data, confidence intervals, effective degree of freedom, likewise introducing the overlapping Allan variance estimator. It is a highly recommended reading for those topics.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Educational and practical resources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The IEEE standard 1139 Standard definitions of Physical Quantities for Fundamental Frequency and Time Metrology is beyond that of a standard a comprehensive reference and educational resource.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Educational and practical resources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A modern book aimed towards telecommunication is Stefano Bregni \"Synchronisation of Digital Telecommunication Networks\". This summarises not only the field, but also much of his research in the field up to that point. It aims to include both classical measures and telecommunication-specific measures such as MTIE. It is a handy companion when looking at measurements related to telecommunication standards.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Educational and practical resources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The NIST Special Publication 1065 \"Handbook of Frequency Stability Analysis\" of W. J. Riley is a recommended reading for anyone wanting to pursue the field. It is rich of references and also covers a wide range of measures, biases and related functions that a modern analyst should have available. Further it describes the overall processing needed for a modern tool.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Educational and practical resources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Allan variance is used as a measure of frequency stability in a variety of precision oscillators, such as crystal oscillators, atomic clocks and frequency-stabilized lasers over a period of a second or more. Short-term stability (under a second) is typically expressed as phase noise. The Allan variance is also used to characterize the bias stability of gyroscopes, including fiber optic gyroscopes, hemispherical resonator gyroscopes and MEMS gyroscopes and accelerometers.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 40979, 25453985, 17556, 41549, 44125, 1958422, 42057256, 19638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 124 ], [ 127, 139 ], [ 166, 171 ], [ 272, 283 ], [ 355, 365 ], [ 377, 398 ], [ 401, 434 ], [ 440, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, IEEE-UFFC is going to be publishing a \"Special Issue to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Allan Variance (1966–2016)\". A guest editor for that issue will be David's former colleague at NIST, Judah Levine, who is the most recent recipient of the I. I. Rabi Award.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "50th Anniversary", "target_page_ids": [ 21888, 43678078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 202 ], [ 258, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Variance", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semivariance", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1802050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Variogram", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1802050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Metrology", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 65637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Network time protocol", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 159886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precision Time Protocol", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2142269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Synchronization", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UFFC Frequency Control Teaching Resources", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NIST Publication search tool", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "David W. Allan's Allan Variance Overview", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "David W. Allan's official web site", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "JPL Publications – Noise Analysis and Statistics", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "William Riley publications", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stable32, Software for Frequency Stability Analysis, by William Riley", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stefano Bregni publications", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Enrico Rubiola publications", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Allanvar: R package for sensor error characterization using the Allan Variance", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alavar windows software with reporting tools; Freeware", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AllanTools open-source python library for Allan variance", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "MATLAB AVAR open-source MATLAB application", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Clocks", "Signal_processing_metrics", "Measurement" ]

[ "two-sample variance", "AVAR" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In atmospheric sounding and noise pollution, ambient noise level (sometimes called background noise level, reference sound level, or room noise level) is the background sound pressure level at a given location, normally specified as a reference level to study a new intrusive sound source.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5145147, 66599, 3296057, 495884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 23 ], [ 28, 43 ], [ 83, 99 ], [ 169, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ambient sound levels are often measured in order to map sound conditions over a spatial regime to understand their variation with locale. In this case the product of the investigation is a sound level contour map. Alternatively ambient noise levels may be measured to provide a reference point for analyzing an intrusive sound to a given environment. For example, sometimes aircraft noise is studied by measuring ambient sound without presence of any overflights, and then studying the noise addition by measurement or computer simulation of overflight events. Or roadway noise is measured as ambient sound, prior to introducing a hypothetical noise barrier intended to reduce that ambient noise level. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 650086, 247935, 375416, 4491258, 4049625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 213 ], [ 377, 391 ], [ 522, 541 ], [ 568, 581 ], [ 648, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ambient noise level is measured with a sound level meter. It is usually measured in dB relative to a reference pressure of 0.00002 Pa, i.e., 20 μPa (micropascals) in SI units. This is because 20 μPa is the faintest sound the human ear can detect. A pascal is a newton per square meter. The centimeter-gram-second system of units, the reference sound pressure for measuring ambient noise level is 0.0002 dyn/cm2, or 0.00002 N/m2. Most frequently ambient noise levels are measured using a frequency weighting filter, the most common being the A-weighting scale, such that resulting measurements are denoted dB(A), or decibels on the A-weighting scale.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 236943, 3969529, 8410, 26764, 8286675, 11217018, 11217018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ], [ 39, 56 ], [ 84, 86 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 314, 320 ], [ 543, 554 ], [ 633, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A-weighting", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11217018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Background noise", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3296057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Environmental noise", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 236943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Noise barrier", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4049625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Noise health effects", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4450529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Noise pollution", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Noise regulation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4324783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Umgebungslärm", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Noise", "Noise_pollution", "Sound", "Acoustics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Amplitude distortion is distortion occurring in a system, subsystem, or device when the output amplitude is not a linear function of the input amplitude under specified conditions. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41052, 8286675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 34 ], [ 50, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Generally, output is a linear function of input only for a fixed portion of the transfer characteristics. In this region, Ic=βIb where Ic is collector current and Ib is base current, following linear relation y=mx.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 91591, 91591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 193, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When output is not in this portion, two forms of amplitude distortion might arise", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harmonic distortion : The creation of harmonics of the fundamental frequency of a sine wave input to a system.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41052, 41232, 11490, 324749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 39, 48 ], [ 56, 77 ], [ 83, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Intermodulation distortion : This form of distortion occurs when two sine waves of frequencies X and Y are present at the input, resulting in the creation of several other frequency components, whose frequencies include (X+Y), (X-Y), (2X-Y), (2Y-X), and generally (mX ± nY) for integer m and n. Generally the size of the unwanted output falls rapidly as m and n increase.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 590995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the additional outputs, this form of distortion is definitely unwanted in audio, radio and telecommunication amplifiers, and it occurs for more than two waves as well.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a narrowband system such as a radio communication system, unwanted outputs such as X-Y and 2X+Y will be remote from the wanted band and so be ignored by the system. In contrast, 2X-Y and 2Y-X will be close to the wanted signals. These so-called third order distortion products (third order as m+n = 3) tend to dominante the non-linear distortion of narrowband systems.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amplitude distortion is measured with the system operating under steady-state conditions with a sinusoidal input signal. When other frequencies are present, the term \"amplitude\" refers to that of the fundamental only.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 275871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Audio quality measurement", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 302052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Noise measurement", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3340052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Headroom", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1635317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Programme levels", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3969205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arcane Radio Trivia amplitude distortion article w/ examples", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "RF article with trigonometry", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Electrical_parameters" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In waveguide design and construction, angular misalignment loss is power loss caused by the deviation from optimum angular alignment of the axes of source-to-waveguide, waveguide-to-waveguide, or waveguide-to-detector. The waveguide may be dielectric (an optical fiber) or metallic. Angular misalignment loss does not include lateral offset loss and longitudinal offset loss.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41863, 24236, 235757, 41026, 3372377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 67, 72 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 240, 250 ], [ 255, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source: from Federal Standard 1037C", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 35 ] ] } ]

[ "Microwave_technology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunications, antenna blind cone (sometimes called a cone of silence or antenna blind spot) is the volume of space, usually approximately conical with its vertex at the antenna, that cannot be scanned by an antenna because of limitations of the antenna radiation pattern and mount.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 187317, 41620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 262, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR) is an example of an antenna blind cone. The horizontal radiation pattern of an ARSR antenna is very narrow, and the vertical radiation pattern is fan-shaped, reaching approximately 70° of elevation above the horizontal plane. As the fan antenna is rotated about a vertical axis, it can illuminate targets only if they are 70° or less from the horizontal plane. Above that elevation, they are in the antenna blind cone.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2538025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The antenna blind cone is also referred to as the \"cone of silence\", especially in America. This term is also used for weather radars. NEXRAD radars make two-dimensional scans at varying angles ranging from 0.5° above level to 19.5° above level (during a significant weather event). These levels become much closer to the ground, and closer to each other, as they get closer to the radar site, rendering them of little use for the three-dimensional profiling such multi-level scanning is meant to provide. Thus, a weather event located very close to and/or directly overhead of the radar site will be mostly situated in the \"cone of silence.\" This is part of the reason why most U.S. weather radars partially overlap each other's territories.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 675776, 314409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 132 ], [ 135, 141 ] ] } ]

[ "Antennas", "Radar" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In radio frequency (RF) applications such as radio, radar and telecommunications, noise temperature of an antenna is a measure of the noise power density contributed by the antenna to the overall RF receiver system. It is defined as \"The temperature of a resistor having an available thermal noise power per unit bandwidth equal to that at the antenna’s output at a specified frequency.\" In other words, antenna noise temperature is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given environment. This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna. Moreover, an antenna does not have an intrinsic \"antenna temperature\" associated with it; rather the temperature depends on its gain pattern, pointing direction, and the thermal environment that it is placed in.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15368428, 25676, 33094374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ], [ 52, 57 ], [ 62, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In RF applications, noise power is defined using the relationship , where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the noise temperature, and B is the noise bandwidth. Typically the noise bandwidth is determined by the bandwidth of the intermediate frequency (IF) filter of the radio receiver. Thus, we can define the noise temperature as:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 41419, 53702, 41420, 545288, 545288, 83139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ], [ 79, 99 ], [ 110, 127 ], [ 142, 157 ], [ 174, 189 ], [ 228, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because is a constant, we can effectively think of as noise power spectral density (in ,) normalized by .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antenna noise is only one of the contributors to the overall noise temperature of an RF receiver system, so it is typically subscripted, such as . It is added directly to the effective noise temperature of the receiver to obtain the overall system noise temperature:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 41420, 41420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 203 ], [ 242, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antenna noise temperature has contributions from many sources, including:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cosmic background radiation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [ 25778520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galactic radiation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Earth heating", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sun", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [ 26751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The moon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [ 19331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electrical devices", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The antenna itself", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Galactic noise is high below 1000MHz. At around 150MHz, it is approximately 1000 K. At 2500MHz, it has leveled off to around 10 K.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Earth has an accepted standard temperature of 288 K.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The level of the sun's contribution depends on the solar flux. It is given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the solar flux,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the wavelength,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and is the gain of the antenna in decibels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The antenna noise temperature depends on antenna coupling to all noise sources in its environment as well as on noise generated within the antenna. That is, in a directional antenna, the portion of the noise source that the antenna's main and side lobes intersect contribute proportionally.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [ 41420, 4249694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 49, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, a satellite antenna may not receive noise contribution from the earth in its main lobe, but sidelobes will contribute a portion of the 288K earth noise to its overall noise temperature.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sources of antenna noise", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Noise Temperature", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson–Nyquist noise", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 182745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Federal Standard 1037C", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MIL-STD-188", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] } ]

[ "Temperature", "Noise_(electronics)" ]

[ "Antenna noise temperature" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, aperture-to-medium coupling loss is the difference between the theoretical antenna gain of a very large antenna, such as the antennas in beyond-the-horizon microwave links, and the gain that can be realized in practice. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 2888093, 49693, 187317, 20097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 41, 54 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 126, 133 ], [ 178, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note 1: Aperture-to-medium coupling loss is related to the ratio of the scatter angle to the antenna beamwidth. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1470583, 1553317, 2888093, 40780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 21, 27 ], [ 28, 41 ], [ 102, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note 2: The \"very large antennas\" are referred to in wavelengths; thus, this loss can apply to line-of-sight systems also. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coupling loss", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2888093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] } ]

[ "Antennas" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In computer programming, an arithmetic shift is a shift operator, sometimes termed a signed shift (though it is not restricted to signed operands). The two basic types are the arithmetic left shift and the arithmetic right shift. For binary numbers it is a bitwise operation that shifts all of the bits of its operand; every bit in the operand is simply moved a given number of bit positions, and the vacant bit-positions are filled in. Instead of being filled with all 0s, as in logical shift, when shifting to the right, the leftmost bit (usually the sign bit in signed integer representations) is replicated to fill in all the vacant positions (this is a kind of sign extension).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5311, 264399, 238686, 264399, 1893663, 1068955, 3349272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 23 ], [ 50, 64 ], [ 235, 248 ], [ 258, 275 ], [ 482, 495 ], [ 555, 563 ], [ 668, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some authors prefer the terms sticky right-shift and zero-fill right-shift for arithmetic and logical shifts respectively.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arithmetic shifts can be useful as efficient ways to perform multiplication or division of signed integers by powers of two. Shifting left by n bits on a signed or unsigned binary number has the effect of multiplying it by 2n. Shifting right by n bits on a two's complement signed binary number has the effect of dividing it by 2n, but it always rounds down (towards negative infinity). This is different from the way rounding is usually done in signed integer division (which rounds towards 0). This discrepancy has led to bugs in a number of compilers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 307145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, in the x86 instruction set, the SAR instruction (arithmetic right shift) divides a signed number by a power of two, rounding towards negative infinity. However, the IDIV instruction (signed divide) divides a signed number, rounding towards zero. So a SAR instruction cannot be substituted for an IDIV by power of two instruction nor vice versa.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 628229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The formal definition of an arithmetic shift, from Federal Standard 1037C is that it is:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A shift, applied to the representation of a number in a fixed radix numeration system and in a fixed-point representation system, and in which only the characters representing the fixed-point part of the number are moved. An arithmetic shift is usually equivalent to multiplying the number by a positive or a negative integral power of the radix, except for the effect of any rounding; compare the logical shift with the arithmetic shift, especially in the case of floating-point representation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 701207, 449736, 1893663, 11376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 398, 411 ], [ 465, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important word in the FS 1073C definition is \"usually\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arithmetic left shifts are equivalent to multiplication by a (positive, integral) power of the radix (e.g., a multiplication by a power of 2 for binary numbers). Logical left shifts are also equivalent, except multiplication and arithmetic shifts may trigger arithmetic overflow whereas logical shifts do not.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 2151421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, arithmetic right shifts are major traps for the unwary, specifically in treating rounding of negative integers. For example, in the usual two's complement representation of negative integers, −1 is represented as all 1's. For an 8-bit signed integer this is 11111111. An arithmetic right-shift by 1 (or 2, 3, ..., 7) yields 11111111 again, which is still −1. This corresponds to rounding down (towards negative infinity), but is not the usual convention for division.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 307145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is frequently stated that arithmetic right shifts are equivalent to division by a (positive, integral) power of the radix (e.g., a division by a power of 2 for binary numbers), and hence that division by a power of the radix can be optimized by implementing it as an arithmetic right shift. (A shifter is much simpler than a divider. On most processors, shift instructions will execute faster than division instructions.) Large number of 1960s and 1970s programming handbooks, manuals, and other specifications from companies and institutions such as DEC, IBM, Data General, and ANSI make such incorrect statements .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 53696, 7952, 40379651, 157959, 659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 556, 559 ], [ 561, 564 ], [ 566, 578 ], [ 584, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Logical right shifts are equivalent to division by a power of the radix (usually 2) only for positive or unsigned numbers. Arithmetic right shifts are equivalent to logical right shifts for positive signed numbers. Arithmetic right shifts for negative numbers in N1's complement (usually two's complement) is roughly equivalent to division by a power of the radix (usually 2), where for odd numbers rounding downwards is applied (not towards 0 as usually expected).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 307145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arithmetic right shifts for negative numbers are equivalent to division using rounding towards 0 in one's complement representation of signed numbers as was used by some historic computers, but this is no longer in general use.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 30670886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The (1999) ISO standard for the programming language C defines the right shift operator in terms of divisions by powers of 2. Because of the above-stated non-equivalence, the standard explicitly excludes from that definition the right shifts of signed numbers that have negative values. It does not specify the behaviour of the right shift operator in such circumstances, but instead requires each individual C compiler to define the behaviour of shifting negative values right.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 6021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In applications where consistent rounding down is desired, arithmetic right shifts for signed values are useful. An example is in downscaling raster coordinates by a power of two, which maintains even spacing. For example, right shift by 1 sends 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... to 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, ..., and −1, −2, −3, −4, ... to −1, −1, −2, −2, ..., maintaining even spacing as −2, −2, −1, −1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, ... In contrast, integer division with rounding towards zero sends −1, 0, and 1 all to 0 (3 points instead of 2), yielding −2, −1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, ... instead, which is irregular at 0.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 7637953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 141 ] ] } ]

[ "Binary_arithmetic", "Operators_(programming)" ]

[ "arithmetic bit shift" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Automatic repeat request (ARQ), also known as automatic repeat query, is an error-control method for data transmission that uses acknowledgements (messages sent by the receiver indicating that it has correctly received a packet) and timeouts (specified periods of time allowed to elapse before an acknowledgment is to be received) to achieve reliable data transmission over an unreliable communication channel. If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment before the timeout, it re-transmits the packet until it receives an acknowledgment or exceeds a predefined number of retransmissions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10375, 42168, 29145018, 43734, 1657639, 2563492, 156700, 2667648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 89 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 129, 144 ], [ 221, 227 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 342, 368 ], [ 388, 409 ], [ 483, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Variations of ARQ protocols include Stop-and-wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ, and Selective Repeat ARQ. All three protocols usually use some form of sliding window protocol to help the sender determine which (if any) packets need to be retransmitted. These protocols reside in the data link or transport layers (layers 2 and 4) of the OSI model.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1088971, 1740187, 1740222, 12824727, 152949, 146145, 22747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 74, 94 ], [ 141, 164 ], [ 273, 282 ], [ 286, 301 ], [ 327, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Transmission Control Protocol uses a variant of Go-Back-N ARQ to ensure reliable transmission of data over the Internet Protocol, which does not provide guaranteed delivery of packets; with Selective Acknowledgement (SACK), it uses Selective Repeat ARQ.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 30538, 1740187, 15323, 1740222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ], [ 52, 65 ], [ 115, 132 ], [ 236, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IEEE 802.11 wireless networking uses ARQ retransmissions at the data-link layer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 14739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ITU-T G.hn uses hybrid ARQ, a mixture of high-rate forward error correction (FEC) and ARQ. It is a high-speed local area network standard that can operate at data rates up to 1Gbit/s over existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables). G.hn uses CRC-32C for Error Detection, LDPC for FEC and selective repeat for ARQ.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 17216326, 3546973, 4237207, 17739, 238420, 17518144, 38838, 516393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 16, 26 ], [ 51, 75 ], [ 110, 128 ], [ 210, 221 ], [ 239, 253 ], [ 266, 273 ], [ 295, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ARQ systems were widely used on shortwave radio to ensure reliable delivery of data such as for telegrams. These systems came in forms called ARQ-E and ARQ-M, which also included the ability to multiplex two or four channels.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 43582567, 43545647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 148 ], [ 153, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of patents exist for the use of ARQ in live video contribution environments. In these high throughput environments negative acknowledgements are used to drive down overheads.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hybrid automatic repeat request", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3546973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peterson and Davie, Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, Third Edition, 2003", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "RFC 3366 - Advice to link designers on link Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Negative acknowledgement ARQ for live video", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Logical_link_control", "Error_detection_and_correction" ]

[ "ARQ", "ARQ protocol", "Automatic Repeat Query", "Automatic repeat-request, ARQ" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, an articulation score (AS) is a subjective measure of the intelligibility of a voice system in terms of the percentage of words correctly understood over a channel perturbed by interference.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 2430604, 8286675, 156700, 2889864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 80, 95 ], [ 107, 113 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 199, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Articulation scores have been experimentally obtained as functions of varying word content, bandwidth, audio signal-to-noise ratio and the experience of the talkers and listeners involved.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1449866, 3967, 41706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 82 ], [ 92, 101 ], [ 109, 130 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunication_theory" ]

[ "Articulation" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, an artificial transmission line is a two-port electrical network that has the characteristic impedance, transmission time delay, phase shift, or other parameter(s) of a real transmission line. It can be used to simulate a real transmission line in one or more of these respects.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 1301093, 40866, 6426596, 41662, 24047, 41811, 43444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 59, 86 ], [ 100, 124 ], [ 126, 143 ], [ 144, 149 ], [ 151, 162 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 233, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early artificial lines were used in telephony research and took the form of a cascade of lattice phase equalisers to provide the necessary delay. The lattice phase circuit was invented by Otto Zobel in the 1920s.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16637905, 16144107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 112 ], [ 189, 199 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_equipment" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunications, asynchronous operation or asynchronous working is where a sequence of operations is executed such that the operations are executed out of time coincidence with any event. It can also be an operation that occurs without a regular or predictable time relationship to a specified event; e.g., the calling of an error diagnostic routine that may receive control at any time during the execution of a computer program.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 27838, 4140245, 30012, 62599, 41118, 32177451, 5783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 81, 89 ], [ 93, 103 ], [ 161, 165 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 332, 337 ], [ 349, 356 ], [ 420, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From Federal Standard 1037C and from MIL-STD-188", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 37310, 41882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ], [ 37, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asynchronous Operations", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ " Telecommunication_theory" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunications, an atmospheric duct is a horizontal layer in the lower atmosphere in which the vertical refractive index gradients are such that radio signals (and light rays) are guided or ducted, tend to follow the curvature of the Earth, and experience less attenuation in the ducts than they would if the ducts were not present. The duct acts as an atmospheric dielectric waveguide and limits the spread of the wavefront to only the horizontal dimension.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 25880, 15368428, 233668, 40735, 41026, 41863, 1484541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 111, 127 ], [ 152, 157 ], [ 224, 246 ], [ 268, 279 ], [ 372, 382 ], [ 383, 392 ], [ 422, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atmospheric ducting is a mode of propagation of electromagnetic radiation, usually in the lower layers of Earth’s atmosphere, where the waves are bent by atmospheric refraction. In over-the-horizon radar, ducting causes part of the radiated and target-reflection energy of a radar system to be guided over distances far greater than the normal radar range. It also causes long distance propagation of radio signals in bands that would normally be limited to line of sight.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 271195, 9426, 202898, 1784072, 1694703, 15368428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 48, 73 ], [ 106, 124 ], [ 154, 176 ], [ 181, 203 ], [ 401, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Normally radio \"ground waves\" propagate along the surface as creeping waves. That is, they are only diffracted around the curvature of the earth. This is one reason that early long distance radio communication used long wavelengths. The best known exception is that HF (3–30MHz.) waves are reflected by the ionosphere.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41219, 2635189, 8603, 15097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 61, 74 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 310, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reduced refractive index due to lower densities at the higher altitudes in the Earth's atmosphere bends the signals back toward the Earth. Signals in a higher refractive index layer, i.e., duct, tend to remain in that layer because of the reflection and refraction encountered at the boundary with a lower refractive index material. In some weather conditions, such as inversion layers, density changes so rapidly that waves are guided around the curvature of the earth at constant altitude.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 202898, 521267, 25948, 33978, 52141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 101 ], [ 243, 253 ], [ 258, 268 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 373, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phenomena of atmospheric optics related to atmospheric ducting include the green flash, Fata Morgana, superior mirage, mock mirage of astronomical objects and the Novaya Zemlya effect.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 43234, 2454447, 55695, 20020609, 2034949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 86 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 111, 117 ], [ 124, 154 ], [ 163, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anomalous propagation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 229446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earth-Ionosphere waveguide", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11047538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sky wave", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 276281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thermal fade", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7764737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Temperature inversion", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tropospheric ducting", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22416553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "Electromagnetic_radiation", "Atmosphere", "Radio_frequency_propagation" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, attack time is the time between the instant that a signal at the input of a device or circuit exceeds the activation threshold of the device or circuit and the instant that the device or circuit reacts in a specified manner, or to a specified degree, to the input. Attack time occurs in devices such as clippers, peak limiters, compressors, and voxes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 30012, 275871, 346001, 3375566, 262733, 41859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 41, 45 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 108, 115 ], [ 326, 334 ], [ 351, 361 ], [ 368, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transmitter attack-time delay", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Federal Standard 1037C", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fall time", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Overshoot (signal)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22376472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ADSR envelope", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36525983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunication_theory", "Audio_engineering" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "ARJ (Archived by Robert Jung) is a software tool designed by Robert K. Jung for creating high-efficiency compressed file archives. ARJ is currently on version 2.86 for MS-DOS and 3.20 for Microsoft Windows and supports 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit Intel architectures.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8013, 21291954, 18890, 14617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 120 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 188, 205 ], [ 245, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ARJ was one of many file compression utilities for MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows during the early and mid-1990s. Parts of ARJ were covered by (expired). ARJ is well-documented and includes over 150 command line switches.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21291954, 18890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 62, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ARJ archives can be unpacked with various tools other than the ARJ software. There exists a free software re-implementation of the tool. A number of software utilities, including 7-Zip, Zipeg, and WinRAR can also unpack .arj files. For macOS, standalone utilities, such as DeArj and UnArjMac, are available.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "File format support in other software", "target_page_ids": [ 322689, 15138570, 887427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 184 ], [ 186, 191 ], [ 197, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of archive formats", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 519460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Comparison of file archivers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1504233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ARJ Software", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Open-source ARJ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Archive_formats", "File_archivers", "Windows_compression_software", "Data_compression_software", "Data_compression" ]

[ "Arj", "Robert K. Jung", ".arj" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In physics, attenuation or, in some contexts, extinction is the gradual loss of flux intensity through a medium. For instance, dark glasses attenuate sunlight, lead attenuates X-rays, and water and air attenuate both light and sound at variable attenuation rates.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22939, 43590, 41812, 74844, 27979, 17747, 34197, 33306, 202898, 17939, 18994087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 80, 84 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 160, 164 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 188, 193 ], [ 198, 201 ], [ 217, 222 ], [ 227, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hearing protectors help reduce acoustic flux from flowing into the ears. This phenomenon is called acoustic attenuation and is measured in decibels (dBs).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9491192, 497219, 35537980, 8410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 31, 44 ], [ 99, 119 ], [ 139, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In electrical engineering and telecommunications, attenuation affects the propagation of waves and signals in electrical circuits, in optical fibers, and in air. Electrical attenuators and optical attenuators are commonly manufactured components in this field.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9531, 33094374, 5017866, 275871, 9559, 3372377, 4232047, 41455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 25 ], [ 30, 47 ], [ 74, 94 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 110, 128 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 162, 183 ], [ 189, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases, attenuation is an exponential function of the path length through the medium. In optics and in chemical spectroscopy, this is known as the Beer–Lambert law. In engineering, attenuation is usually measured in units of decibels per unit length of medium (dB/cm, dB/km, etc.) and is represented by the attenuation coefficient of the medium in question. Attenuation also occurs in earthquakes; when the seismic waves move farther away from the hypocenter, they grow smaller as they are attenuated by the ground.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 9678, 27752, 4476, 8410, 51203, 10106, 89830, 679582, 9228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 53 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 154, 170 ], [ 232, 239 ], [ 326, 337 ], [ 392, 402 ], [ 414, 427 ], [ 455, 465 ], [ 515, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One area of research in which attenuation plays a prominent role, is in ultrasound physics. Attenuation in ultrasound is the reduction in amplitude of the ultrasound beam as a function of distance through the imaging medium. Accounting for attenuation effects in ultrasound is important because a reduced signal amplitude can affect the quality of the image produced. By knowing the attenuation that an ultrasound beam experiences traveling through a medium, one can adjust the input signal amplitude to compensate for any loss of energy at the desired imaging depth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [ 31780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultrasound attenuation measurement in heterogeneous systems, like emulsions or colloids, yields information on particle size distribution. There is an ISO standard on this technique.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [ 3180547, 10290, 5346, 11815157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 111, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultrasound attenuation can be used for extensional rheology measurement. There are acoustic rheometers that employ Stokes' law for measuring extensional viscosity and volume viscosity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [ 25453, 13808007, 13792019, 13860656, 13793480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 83, 101 ], [ 115, 126 ], [ 141, 162 ], [ 167, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wave equations which take acoustic attenuation into account can be written on a fractional derivative form.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [ 35537980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In homogeneous media, the main physical properties contributing to sound attenuation are viscosity and thermal conductivity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation coefficients are used to quantify different media according to how strongly the transmitted ultrasound amplitude decreases as a function of frequency. The attenuation coefficient () can be used to determine total attenuation in dB in the medium using the following formula:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [ 12328822, 51203, 8410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 179, 190 ], [ 240, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation is linearly dependent on the medium length and attenuation coefficient, as well as – approximately – the frequency of the incident ultrasound beam for biological tissue (while for simpler media, such as air, the relationship is quadratic). Attenuation coefficients vary widely for different media. In biomedical ultrasound imaging however, biological materials and water are the most commonly used media. The attenuation coefficients of common biological materials at a frequency of 1MHz are listed below:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [ 10779, 13792019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 126 ], [ 240, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two general ways of acoustic energy losses: absorption and scattering.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [ 2951506, 164483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 64 ], [ 69, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultrasound propagation through homogeneous media is associated only with absorption and can be characterized with absorption coefficient only. Propagation through heterogeneous media requires taking into account scattering.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ultrasound", "target_page_ids": [ 286069, 12328822, 3180547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ], [ 114, 136 ], [ 163, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortwave radiation emitted from the Sun have wavelengths in the visible spectrum of light that range from 360nm (violet) to 750nm (red). When the Sun's radiation reaches the sea surface, the shortwave radiation is attenuated by the water, and the intensity of light decreases exponentially with water depth. The intensity of light at depth can be calculated using the Beer-Lambert Law.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Light attenuation in water", "target_page_ids": [ 154581, 41464, 4476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 65, 81 ], [ 369, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In clear mid-ocean waters, visible light is absorbed most strongly at the longest wavelengths. Thus, red, orange, and yellow wavelengths are totally absorbed at shallower depths, while blue and violet wavelengths reach deeper in the water column. Because the blue and violet wavelengths are absorbed least compared to the other wavelengths, open-ocean waters appear deep blue to the eye.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Light attenuation in water", "target_page_ids": [ 6169303, 9619285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 245 ], [ 366, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Near the shore, coastal water contains more phytoplankton than the very clear mid-ocean waters. Chlorophyll-a pigments in the phytoplankton absorb light, and the plants themselves scatter light, making coastal waters less clear than mid-ocean waters. Chlorophyll-a absorbs light most strongly in the shortest wavelengths (blue and violet) of the visible spectrum. In coastal waters where high concentrations of phytoplankton occur, the green wavelength reaches the deepest in the water column and the color of water appears blue-green or green.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Light attenuation in water", "target_page_ids": [ 50557, 6985, 2420418, 2557571, 1960695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 57 ], [ 96, 107 ], [ 501, 515 ], [ 524, 534 ], [ 538, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The energy with which an earthquake affects a location depends on the running distance. The attenuation in the signal of ground motion intensity plays an important role in the assessment of possible strong groundshaking. A seismic wave loses energy as it propagates through the earth (seismic attenuation). This phenomenon is tied into the dispersion of the seismic energy with the distance. There are two types of dissipated energy:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Seismic", "target_page_ids": [ 10106, 39378, 89830, 9649, 9228, 60931, 1907770, 164572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 223, 235 ], [ 242, 248 ], [ 278, 283 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 340, 350 ], [ 415, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " geometric dispersion caused by distribution of the seismic energy to greater volumes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Seismic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " dispersion as heat, also called intrinsic attenuation or anelastic attenuation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Seismic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In porous fluid—saturated sedimentary rocks such as sandstones, intrinsic attenuation of seismic waves is primarily caused by the wave-induced flow of the pore fluid relative to the solid frame.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Seismic", "target_page_ids": [ 19461794, 44412, 27772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 26, 43 ], [ 52, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation decreases the intensity of electromagnetic radiation due to absorption or scattering of photons. Attenuation does not include the decrease in intensity due to inverse-square law geometric spreading. Therefore, calculation of the total change in intensity involves both the inverse-square law and an estimation of attenuation over the path.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [ 9426, 1384005, 164483, 23535, 41288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 64 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 86, 96 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 172, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary causes of attenuation in matter are the photoelectric effect, compton scattering, and, for photon energies of above 1.022 MeV, pair production.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [ 23579, 55236, 140858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 72 ], [ 74, 92 ], [ 139, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The attenuation of RF cables is defined by:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the input power into a 100 m long cable terminated with the nominal value of its characteristic impedance, and", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the output power at the far end of this cable.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation in a coaxial cable is a function of the materials and the construction.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The beam of X-ray is attenuated when photons are absorbed when the x-ray beam passes through the tissue. Interaction with matter varies between high energy photons and low energy photons. Photons travelling at higher energy are more capable of travelling through a tissue specimen as they have less chances of interacting with matter. This is mainly due to the photoelectric effect which states that \"the probability of photoelectric absorption is approximately proportional to (Z/E)3, where Z is the atomic number of the tissue atom and E is the photon energy. In context of this, an increase in photon energy (E) will result in a rapid decrease in the interaction with matter.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance travelled through a transmission medium. Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to the relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission . The medium is typically a fiber of silica glass that confines the incident light beam to the inside. Attenuation is an important factor limiting the transmission of a digital signal across large distances. Thus, much research has gone into both limiting the attenuation and maximizing the amplification of the optical signal.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Empirical research has shown that attenuation in optical fiber is caused primarily by both scattering and absorption.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation in fiber optics can be quantified using the following equation:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The propagation of light through the core of an optical fiber is based on total internal reflection of the lightwave. Rough and irregular surfaces, even at the molecular level of the glass, can cause light rays to be reflected in many random directions. This type of reflection is referred to as \"diffuse reflection\", and it is typically characterized by wide variety of reflection angles. Most objects that can be seen with the naked eye are visible due to diffuse reflection. Another term commonly used for this type of reflection is \"light scattering\". Light scattering from the surfaces of objects is our primary mechanism of physical observation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Light scattering from many common surfaces can be modelled by reflectance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Light scattering depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Thus, limits to spatial scales of visibility arise, depending on the frequency of the incident lightwave and the physical dimension (or spatial scale) of the scattering center, which is typically in the form of some specific microstructural feature. For example, since visible light has a wavelength scale on the order of one micrometer, scattering centers will have dimensions on a similar spatial scale.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, attenuation results from the incoherent scattering of light at internal surfaces and interfaces. In (poly)crystalline materials such as metals and ceramics, in addition to pores, most of the internal surfaces or interfaces are in the form of grain boundaries that separate tiny regions of crystalline order. It has recently been shown that, when the size of the scattering center (or grain boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of the light being scattered, the scattering no longer occurs to any significant extent. This phenomenon has given rise to the production of transparent ceramic materials.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Likewise, the scattering of light in optical quality glass fiber is caused by molecular-level irregularities (compositional fluctuations) in the glass structure. Indeed, one emerging school of thought is that a glass is simply the limiting case of a polycrystalline solid. Within this framework, \"domains\" exhibiting various degrees of short-range order become the building-blocks of both metals and alloys, as well as glasses and ceramics. Distributed both between and within these domains are microstructural defects that will provide the most ideal locations for the occurrence of light scattering. This same phenomenon is seen as one of the limiting factors in the transparency of IR missile domes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to light scattering, attenuation or signal loss can also occur due to selective absorption of specific wavelengths, in a manner similar to that responsible for the appearance of color. Primary material considerations include both electrons and molecules as follows:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " At the electronic level, it depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or \"quantized\") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific wavelength or frequency in the ultraviolet (UV) or visible ranges. This is what gives rise to color.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " At the atomic or molecular level, it depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular vibrations or chemical bonds, how close-packed its atoms or molecules are, and whether or not the atoms or molecules exhibit long-range order. These factors will determine the capacity of the material transmitting longer wavelengths in the infrared (IR), far IR, radio and microwave ranges.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The selective absorption of infrared (IR) light by a particular material occurs because the selected frequency of the light wave matches the frequency (or an integral multiple of the frequency) at which the particles of that material vibrate. Since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of infrared (IR) light.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In optical fibers, attenuation is the rate at which the signal light decreases in intensity. For this reason, glass fiber (which has a low attenuation) is used for long-distance fiber optic cables; plastic fiber has a higher attenuation and, hence, shorter range. There also exist optical attenuators that decrease the signal in a fiber optic cable intentionally.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [ 3372377, 41455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ], [ 283, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation of light is also important in physical oceanography. This same effect is an important consideration in weather radar, as raindrops absorb a part of the emitted beam that is more or less significant, depending on the wavelength used.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [ 387440, 675776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 63 ], [ 116, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the damaging effects of high-energy photons, it is necessary to know how much energy is deposited in tissue during diagnostic treatments involving such radiation. In addition, gamma radiation is used in cancer treatments where it is important to know how much energy will be deposited in healthy and in tumorous tissue.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [ 25081142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In computer graphics attenuation defines the local or global influence of light sources and force fields.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [ 18567210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In CT imaging, attenuation describes the density or darkness of the image.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [ 50982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation is an important consideration in the modern world of wireless telecommunication. Attenuation limits the range of radio signals and is affected by the materials a signal must travel through (e.g., air, wood, concrete, rain). See the article on path loss for more information on signal loss in wireless communication.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Electromagnetic", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 41492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 257, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acoustic attenuation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35537980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Air mass (astronomy)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 705635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomical filter", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29722340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomical seeing", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 267362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atmospheric refraction", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1784072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuation length", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1629320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attenuator (genetics)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4232119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cross section (physics)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electrical impedance", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Environmental remediation for natural attenuation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 406260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Extinction (astronomy)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1231797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ITU-R P.525", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26177291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mean free path", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 170097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Path loss", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radar horizon", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32728264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radiation length", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1629461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radiography", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 95807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rain fade", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 767065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Twinkling", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 212146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wave propagation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5017866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NIST's XAAMDI: X-Ray Attenuation and Absorption for Materials of Dosimetric Interest Database", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NIST's XCOM: Photon Cross Sections Database", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NIST's FAST: Attenuation and Scattering Tables", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Underwater Radio Communication", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_engineering", "Acoustics" ]

[ "extinction" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Attenuator could mean:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Attenuator (electronics), an electronic device that reduces the amplitude of an electronic signal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4232047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Optical attenuator, an electronic device that reduces the amplitude of an optical signal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attenuator (genetics), a specific regulatory sequence transcribed into RNA.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4232119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Impact attenuator, used on highways as a crumple zone in case of a car crash.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4527796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attenuation (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22816461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Attribute may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Attribute (philosophy), an extrinsic property of an object", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 508057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attribute (research), a characteristic of an object", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30423282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grammatical modifier, in natural languages", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 210058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attribute (computing), a specification that defines a property of an object, element, or file", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6054720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attribute (role-playing games), a type of statistic for a fictional character", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3783878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attribute clash, a display artefact on some home computers", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 927017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attribute hierarchy method, a cognitively based psychometric procedure", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19978374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attribution (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 552687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Property (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] } ]

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[]

[ { "plaintext": "In telecommunications, an audit is one of:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The act of conducting a review, examination and reconciliation of Telecom, Wireless and Network customer service records, invoicing and contract agreements in order to ensure the accuracy of budgetary forecasting.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Independent review and examination of records and activities to assess the adequacy of system controls, to ensure compliance with established policies and operational procedures, and to recommend necessary changes in controls, policies, or procedures.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Analysis of invoices, lines, rates, tariffs, taxes, plans, usage, call volume, systems, and contracts resulting in cost reduction, proper invoicing and optimization of telecommunication systems often conducted by an independent telecommunications consultant or firm.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest audits consist of comparing current telecommunications billing and usage to the underlying rate structure whether that is dictated by contract, tariff, or price list. Complex audits utilize software applications, direct bargaining with service providers and activity reports that include detail down to an individual employee's usage.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34793528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In business, companies with significant telecommunications costs or a telecommunications focus normally either conduct audits internally or hire a consultant. No matter the method, typical audits encompass one or more of the following:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Auditing methods and consultants", "target_page_ids": [ 39206, 542306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 147, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telecom Expense Management (TEM): An ongoing analysis and adjustment of internal telecommunications procedures and billing designed to maximize savings. See also Wireless Expense Management", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Auditing methods and consultants", "target_page_ids": [ 28811518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telecom RFP (Request For Proposals): A proposed management plan designed to maximize efficiency, security and reliability in the business' communications. Consultants typically present an RFP for approval by their clients.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Auditing methods and consultants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Management and Reporting: Ongoing telecommunications cost and activity analytics. Internal auditors and consultants both use software as part of the process: either a generalized database application or specialized applications designed for auditing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Auditing methods and consultants", "target_page_ids": [ 487132, 5309, 8377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 80 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 179, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telecom audits can encompass every communications service that a business expends its budget on. Audits may focus on mobile phones and devices, Internet service or land line telephony, or they may encompass all three.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Auditing methods and consultants", "target_page_ids": [ 377116, 19644137, 14539, 1042259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 92 ], [ 117, 130 ], [ 144, 152 ], [ 164, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Internal Audit: A business accounting department will generally only conduct a telecom bill review in the months that trigger a red flag due to the sudden spike in the expense of a communications service. This is usually contained to the one telecom service provider who triggered the red flag and the rest of the invoices are left unexamined because they fall within the considered norm of a small monthly cost increase.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Current methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Contingency Fee Based Audit: ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Current methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In exchange for telecom consulting and bill auditing services a business can pay a percentage of all savings realized. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Current methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Business Process Outsourcing BPO, telecom consultant companies can provide a contingency fee based independent review and examination of records and activities to assess the compliance of telecom service providers with telecommunication contracts and State and Federal Tariffs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Current methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Information Systems Security Glossary", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1011395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 46 ] ] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_economics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An audit trail (also called audit log) is a security-relevant chronological record, set of records, and/or destination and source of records that provide documentary evidence of the sequence of activities that have affected at any time a specific operation, procedure, event, or device. Audit records typically result from activities such as financial transactions, scientific research and health care data transactions, or communications by individual people, systems, accounts, or other entities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 697301, 26833, 5177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 342, 363 ], [ 366, 385 ], [ 424, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The process that creates an audit trail is typically required to always run in a privileged mode, so it can access and supervise all actions from all users; a normal user should not be allowed to stop/change it. Furthermore, for the same reason, the trail file or database table with a trail should not be accessible to normal users. Another way of handling this issue is through the use of a role-based security model in the software. The software can operate with the closed-looped controls, or as a 'closed system', as required by many companies when using audit trail functionality.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3446185, 1701163, 402048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ], [ 264, 278 ], [ 503, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In telecommunication, the term means a record of both completed and attempted accesses and service, or data forming a logical path linking a sequence of events, used to trace the transactions that have affected the contents of a record. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Industry uses", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374, 18985040, 27838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 103, 107 ], [ 141, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In information or communications security, information audit means a chronological record of system activities to enable the reconstruction and examination of the sequence of events and/or changes in an event. Information put away or transmitted in paired structure that might be depended upon in court. An audit trail is a progression of records of computer data about a working framework, an application, or client exercises. Computer frameworks may have a few audit trails each gave to a specific sort of action. Related to proper apparatuses and systems, audit trails can help with distinguishing security infringement, execution issues and application issues. Routine log audits and investigation are valuable for distinguishing security episodes, approach infringement, fake movement, and operational issues soon after they have happened, and for giving information valuable to settling such issues. Audit logs can likewise be valuable for performing forensic investigation, supporting the associations inside examinations, setting up baselines, and distinguishing operational patterns and long run issues.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Industry uses", "target_page_ids": [ 15036, 40922, 7154152, 8286675, 75358, 45710, 1655299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 18, 41 ], [ 43, 60 ], [ 93, 99 ], [ 297, 302 ], [ 957, 979 ], [ 1041, 1050 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In nursing research, it refers to the act of maintaining a running log or journal of decisions relating to a research project, thus making clear the steps taken and changes made to the original protocol.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Industry uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1726106, 25498357, 1294685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 74, 81 ], [ 194, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In accounting, it refers to documentation of detailed transactions supporting summary ledger entries. This documentation may be on paper or on electronic records.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Industry uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2593, 164430, 3174242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 28, 41 ], [ 86, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In online proofing, it pertains to the version history of a piece of artwork, design, photograph, video, or web design proof in a project.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Industry uses", "target_page_ids": [ 27047924, 920901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 39, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In clinical research, server based systems such as clinical trial management systems (CTMS) require audit trails. Anything regulatory or QA/QC related also requires audit trails.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Industry uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4857593, 7393456, 19974239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 51, 83 ], [ 137, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In pharmaceutical manufacturing, it is a Good Manufacturing Practice regulatory requirement software generate audit trails, but not all software have audit trail functionality built-in. The first 'generic' audit trail generating software came out late 2021. The software is called Audit Trail Control, capable of fulfilling regulatory requirements for any software used in pharmaceutical manufacturing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Industry uses", "target_page_ids": [ 24613998, 614085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 31 ], [ 41, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In voting, a voter-verified paper audit trail is a method of providing feedback to voters using a ballotless voting system.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Industry uses", "target_page_ids": [ 99860, 1168380, 193553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 13, 45 ], [ 98, 104 ] ] } ]

[ "Auditing_terms" ]

[ "audit log" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An aurora is a natural light display in the sky on Earth seen predominantly in the high latitudes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 49658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aurora may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (mythology), the Roman goddess of dawn", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Common uses", "target_page_ids": [ 713060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (given name), a feminine given name (and list of people with the name)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Common uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3933363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (heraldry), the heraldic display of an aurora", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Common uses", "target_page_ids": [ 45341748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aurora on Mars, the atmospheric phenomenon on Mars", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Common uses", "target_page_ids": [ 70242225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Ceará", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 25496945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Santa Catarina", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 25469784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (province), a province in the Philippines", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 261926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Isabela", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2069774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Zamboanga del Sur", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2144089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Cujmir, Mehedinţi County", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 15632978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cap Aurora, Mangalia, Constanţa County", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 22368903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Arkansas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 27930149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Colorado", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 108353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Illinois", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 111115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Indiana", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 112192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Iowa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 112787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Kansas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 114483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Kentucky", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 20118636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, New Orleans, Louisiana", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 8197989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Maine", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 115975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Minnesota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 121710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Township, Steele County, Minnesota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 121856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Missouri", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 122844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Nebraska", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 123949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Nevada", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3209356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Cayuga County, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 126184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Erie County, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 126398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, North Carolina", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 127655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Ohio", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 129732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Oregon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 130891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora County, South Dakota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 91846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, South Dakota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 134740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Texas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 136831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Utah", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 137103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, West Virginia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3065253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Florence County, Wisconsin, a town", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 139029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (community), Florence County, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 31858378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Kenosha County, Wisconsin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 5768317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Taylor County, Wisconsin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 139811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Washington County, Wisconsin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 31858521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Waushara County, Wisconsin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 139992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Victoria, Australia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 11974511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Ontario, Canada", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 178845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Turin), Italy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 14068008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Cave, New Zealand", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 21804837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Western Cape, South Africa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2937731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Suriname", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 6448390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Island or Maéwo, Vanuatu", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 4423788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Islands, phantom isles (once considered near the Falklands)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 948899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora University, Illinois, United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3632802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora College, Northwest Territories, Canada", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 1721668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora College (Invercargill), New Zealand", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 17253973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Community College of Aurora, Colorado, United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 8241546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Spencer, Virginia), a historic home near Spencer, Patrick County, Virginia, United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 40473261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Apartment Hotel, a historic high-rise building located in San Antonio, Texas, United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 33330789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Bridge, Seattle, Washington, United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 845142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, Dichteren, a windmill in Gelderland, Netherlands", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 44408087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Melbourne Central, a skyscraper in Melbourne, Australia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 45227856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Place, a skyscraper in Sydney, Australia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 5139879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Stadium, Launceston, Australia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 864510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Tower, a skyscraper in Brisbane, Australia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 1352806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Wheel, a Ferris wheel in Kuwana, Mie Prefecture, Japan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 6925527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Artemisia Gentileschi), a c1625-1627 painting by Artemisia Gentileschi", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 70053538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Reni), a 1614 Baroque ceiling fresco by Guido Reni", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 49431216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (sculpture), a 1992 sculpture by Mark di Suvero", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 31015587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prix Aurora Awards, a Canadian literature award", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 1119678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a novel by Michel Leiris", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2368692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (novel), a 2015 novel by Kim Stanley Robinson", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 47580669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, an airship in the novel Airborn", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2914384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora-Verlag, a New York-based German language publisher co-founded in 1944 by Lion Feuchtwanger", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 567174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (comics), a Marvel comics character", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 733410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (literary journal), a literary journal published from 1821 to 1837", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 23422681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (newspaper), an 1899–1957 Swedish publication", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 23455403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora de Chile, the first periodical in Chilean history", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 11267409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philadelphia Aurora, a newspaper published from 1794 to 1824", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 27543828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (1984 film), an Italian drama", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 28828624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (2006 film), a Ukrainian film", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 15868613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (2010 film), a Romanian crime story", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 26942761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (2014 film), a Chilean film", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 44319046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (2018 film), a Philippine film", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 58096961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (2018 Kyrgyz film), a Kyrgyzstani film", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 61791871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (telenovela)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 29078945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\" (Stargate Atlantis), an episode of Stargate Atlantis", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 16305419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Community Channel, an Australian TV channel", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2782580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Disney), the title character from the Disney film Sleeping Beauty", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 19827696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Princess Aurora, the Sleeping Beauty character in Once Upon a Time", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 4704229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (strategy game), a freeware 4X space strategy game designed by Steve Walmsley, released in 2004", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 11592, 705620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 35 ], [ 36, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Engine, a BioWare game engine", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 69400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sega Aurora, a gaming hardware platform", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 16622047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a gaming PC brand by Alienware", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 1060779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, the main protagonist from the role-playing video game Child of Light", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 40498390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Aurora, a crashed spaceship in the survival adventure game Subnautica", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 47611751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (opera), a 1908 opera by Ettore Panizza", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 26939638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (tone poem), an orchestral tone poem by William Lloyd Webber", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 18770918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (singer) (born 1996), Norwegian singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 45680658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Christian band), an American/British girl group", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 14353322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (electronic music group), a British group", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 8932587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (punk band), a Hungarian group", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 14368660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a German dark wave band later known as Aurora Sutra", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 38950879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Angela Chang album), 2004", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 5784667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Antiskeptic album), 2003", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 34796141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Asia album), 1986", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 17599067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Aurora album), 2000", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 14353322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Bada album), 2004", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 9947167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Breaking Benjamin album), 2020", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 62183513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Esmerine album), 2005", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 6504254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Jean-Luc Ponty album), 1976", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 22335114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Nico Touches the Walls album), 2009", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 25209414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Susumu Hirasawa album), 1994", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 6866702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Ben Frost album), 2014", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 44771436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (Bea Miller album), 2018", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 56521858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a 2009 album by Avishai Cohen", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 1234555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a 1995 album by Crash Vegas", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 1220223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a 2013 album by Joey Moe", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 31290732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\" (Foo Fighters song), 1999", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 311788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\" (Lights Action song), 2008", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 18112217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by 36 Crazyfists from Rest Inside the Flames", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 4676513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by The Andrews Sisters", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 162155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by Björk from Vespertine", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 486995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"L'aurora\", a song by Eros Ramazzotti from Dove c'è musica", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 25476949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by Gloria Trevi from De Película", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 43295143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by Hans Zimmer ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 159381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by Lapush from Someplace Closer to Here", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 24228277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by Susumu Hirasawa from Aurora", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 6866702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora 2\", a Susumu Hirasawa remix of \"Aurora\" from Solar Ray", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 9643760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by Vanessa Mae from Storm", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 14366653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aurora\", a song by Veruca Salt from Tank Girl", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 9415710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (pen manufacturer), an Italian manufacturer", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 4690831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Cannabis, a Canadian licensed producer of medical cannabis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 56355273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Energy (disambiguation), various electricity companies", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 67156512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Film Corporation, an Indian film production and distribution company", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 41309886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Flight Sciences (a.k.a. Aurora), flight research subsidiary of Boeing", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 23984481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Health Care, a health care system in Wisconsin, United States", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 10431819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Innovation, an American self-driving car company", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 66415908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (university network), a network of European universities", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 52995998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Plastics Corporation, an American toy and hobby company", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 17388142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Productions, Hollywood, an American film production house", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 9317812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Publishing (Hungary), a German-Hungarian publishing company", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 50737174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Publishing (United States), the American subsidiary of Japanese publisher Ohzora Publishing", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 15550399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 94 Aurora, an asteroid", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 738001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora 7, the second American spacecraft to orbit the Earth", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 213240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Flight Sciences (a.k.a. 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enzyme", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 2336228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (grape) or Aurore, a hybrid wine grape variety", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 262853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (typeface), a serif font", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 19944667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mobile OS Aurora, a Russian operating system spun off from Sailfish", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 36520368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora OS, formerly named Eeebuntu OS, a discontinued Ubuntu-based OS for netbooks", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 22490214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (protocol), a communications protocol from Xilinx", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 14483033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Generator Test, a 2007 experiment by Idaho National Laboratory", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 43276293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora HDR, high-dynamic-range software for photography", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 48596865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operation Aurora, a 2009 cyber attack", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 25837464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a tablet in the NOVO7 series", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 34399592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a version of the Firefox 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Aurora), flight research subsidiary of Boeing", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 23984481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (1957 automobile), an American automobile", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 862088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Solar Car", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 26537473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oldsmobile Aurora, a full-size sedan made from 1995 to 2003", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 622469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora station (disambiguation), stations named Aurora", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 49069272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora (train), a domestic Trans Europ Express in Italy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4994881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Winter Train, seasonal passenger service on the Alaska Railroad", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 24172486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora, a South Devon Railway Comet class locomotive", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 6153149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brand name to be applied to the British Rail Class 810", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 62324765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Boulevard, a major thoroughfare in Quezon City and San Juan City, Metro Manila", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 34984798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Avenue, Seattle, Washington", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 626345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of ships named Aurora", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 58050284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Formula One, a motor racing championship", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 10628119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora F.C., a Guatemalan football club", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1952291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora FC (Canada), a Canadian soccer club", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 64523987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Club Aurora, a Bolivian football club", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 5261157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " FBC Aurora, a Peruvian football club", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 22883123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Seriate Calcio, a defunct Italian football club", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 32786316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Pro Patria 1919, an Italian football club", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 2876425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " S.P. Aurora, a defunct Sammarinese football club", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 49071609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jagjit Singh Aurora (1916–2005), Indian soldier", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 20940403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Prize for Awakening Humanity, an international humanitarian award", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 50270745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Solar Thermal Power Project, a proposed solar-powered electricity generator in South Australia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 54905554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La Aurora (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14685310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora Airport (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7056611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurora station (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49069272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aurore (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22681839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arora (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17882303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avrora (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9207389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "An authenticator is a means used to confirm a user's identity, that is, to perform digital authentication. A person authenticates to a computer system or application by demonstrating that he or she has possession and control of an authenticator. In the simplest case, the authenticator is a common password.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using the terminology of the NIST Digital Identity Guidelines, the party to be authenticated is called the claimant while the party verifying the identity of the claimant is called the verifier. When the claimant successfully demonstrates possession and control of one or more authenticators to the verifier through an established authentication protocol, the verifier is able to infer the claimant's identity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Authenticators may be characterized in terms of secrets, factors, and physical forms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Every authenticator is associated with at least one secret that the claimant uses to demonstrate possession and control of the authenticator. Since an attacker could use this secret to impersonate the user, an authenticator secret must be protected from theft or loss.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The type of secret is an important characteristic of the authenticator. There are three basic types of authenticator secret: a memorized secret and two types of cryptographic keys, either a symmetric key or a private key.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A memorized secret is intended to be memorized by the user. A well-known example of a memorized secret is the common password, also called a passcode, a passphrase, or a personal identification number (PIN).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 24304, 152420, 337220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 125 ], [ 153, 163 ], [ 170, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An authenticator secret known to both the claimant and the verifier is called a shared secret. For example, a memorized secret may or may not be shared. A symmetric key is shared by definition. A private key is not shared.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 7111246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important type of secret that is both memorized and shared is the password. In the special case of a password, the authenticator is the secret.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A cryptographic authenticator is one that uses a cryptographic key. Depending on the key material, a cryptographic authenticator may use symmetric-key cryptography or public-key cryptography. Both avoid memorized secrets, and in the case of public-key cryptography, there are no shared secrets as well, which is an important distinction.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 53039, 18934432, 18934432, 7111246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 66 ], [ 137, 163 ], [ 167, 190 ], [ 279, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Examples of cryptographic authenticators include OATH authenticators and FIDO authenticators. By way of counterexample, a password authenticator is not a cryptographic authenticator. See the Examples section for details.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A symmetric key is a shared secret used to perform symmetric-key cryptography. The claimant stores their copy of the shared key in a dedicated hardware-based authenticator or a software-based authenticator implemented on a smartphone. The verifier holds a copy of the symmetric key.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A public-private key pair is used to perform public-key cryptography. The public key is known to (and trusted by) the verifier while the corresponding private key is bound securely to the authenticator. In the case of a dedicated hardware-based authenticator, the private key never leaves the confines of the authenticator.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An authenticator is something unique or distinctive to a user (something that one has), is activated by either a PIN (something that one knows), or is a biometric (\"something that is unique to oneself\"). An authenticator that provides only one of these factors is called a single-factor authenticator whereas a multi-factor authenticator incorporates two or more factors. A multi-factor authenticator is one way to achieve multi-factor authentication. A combination of two or more single-factor authenticators is not a multi-factor authentication, yet may be suitable in certain conditions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 337220, 290622, 22772421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 116 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 423, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Authenticators may take a variety of physical forms (except for a memorized secret, which is intangible). One can, for example, hold an authenticator in one's hand or wear one on the face, wrist, or finger.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is convenient to describe an authenticator in terms of its hardware and software components. An authenticator is hardware-based or software-based depending on whether the secret is stored in hardware or software, respectively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An important type of hardware-based authenticator is called a security key, also called a security token (not to be confused with access tokens, session tokens, or other types of security tokens). A security key stores its secret in hardware, which prevents the secret from being exported. A security key is also resistant to malware since the secret is at no time accessible to software running on the host machine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 1209826, 13628514, 8513076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 104 ], [ 130, 142 ], [ 145, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A software-based authenticator (sometimes called a software token) may be implemented on a general-purpose electronic device such as a laptop, a tablet computer, or a smartphone. For example, a software-based authenticator implemented as a mobile app on the claimant's smartphone is a type of phone-based authenticator. To prevent access to the secret, a software-based authenticator may use a processor's trusted execution environment or a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) on the client device.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 3011741, 198584, 4182449, 167079, 33496160, 39802440, 2936835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 65 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 145, 160 ], [ 167, 177 ], [ 240, 250 ], [ 406, 435 ], [ 441, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A platform authenticator is built into a particular client device platform, that is, it is implemented on device. In contrast, a roaming authenticator is a cross-platform authenticator that is implemented off device. A roaming authenticator connects to a device platform via a transport protocol such as USB.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 32073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following sections describe narrow classes of authenticators. For a more comprehensive classification, see the NIST Digital Identity Guidelines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To use an authenticator, the claimant must explicitly indicate their intent to authenticate. For example, each of the following gestures is sufficient to establish intent:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The claimant types a password into a password field, or", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The claimant places their finger on a fingerprint reader, or", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The claimant presses a button to indicate approval", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The latter is called a test of user presence (TUP). To activate a single-factor authenticator (something that one has), the claimant may be required to perform a TUP, which avoids unintended operation of the authenticator.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A password is a secret that is intended to be memorized by the claimant and shared with the verifier. Password authentication is the process whereby the claimant demonstrates knowledge of the password by transmitting it over the network to the verifier. If the transmitted password agrees with the previously shared secret, user authentication is successful.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 24304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One-time passwords (OTPs) have been used since the 1980s. In 2004, an Open Authentication Reference Architecture for the secure generation of OTPs was announced at the annual RSA Conference. The Initiative for Open Authentication (OATH) launched a year later. Two IETF standards grew out of this work, the HMAC-based One-time Password (HOTP) algorithm and the Time-based One-time Password (TOTP) algorithm specified by RFC4226 and RFC6238, respectively. By OATH OTP, we mean either HOTP or TOTP. OATH certifies conformance with the HOTP and TOTP standards.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 53401031, 2732574, 2741879, 24945887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 189 ], [ 195, 229 ], [ 306, 351 ], [ 360, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A traditional password (something that one knows) is often combined with a one-time password (something that one has) to provide two-factor authentication. Both the password and the OTP are transmitted over the network to the verifier. If the password agrees with the previously shared secret, and the verifier can confirm the value of the OTP, user authentication is successful.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One-time passwords are generated on demand by a dedicated OATH OTP authenticator that encapsulates a secret that was previously shared with the verifier. Using the authenticator, the claimant generates an OTP using a cryptographic method. The verifier also generates an OTP using the same cryptographic method. If the two OTP values match, the verifier can conclude that the claimant possesses the shared secret.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A well-known example of an OATH authenticator is the open-source Google Authenticator, a phone-based authenticator that implements both HOTP and TOTP.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 34417419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A mobile push authenticator is essentially a native app running on the claimant's mobile phone. The app uses public-key cryptography to respond to push notifications. In other words, a mobile push authenticator is a single-factor cryptographic software authenticator. A mobile push authenticator (something that one has) is usually combined with a password (something that one knows) to provide two-factor authentication. Unlike one-time passwords, mobile push does not require a shared secret beyond the password.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the claimant authenticates with a password, the verifier makes an out-of-band authentication request to a trusted third party that manages a public-key infrastructure on behalf of the verifier. The trusted third party sends a push notification to the claimant's mobile phone. The claimant demonstrates possession and control of the authenticator by pressing a button in the user interface, after which the authenticator responds with a digitally signed assertion. The trusted third party verifies the signature on the assertion and returns an authentication response to the verifier.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The proprietary mobile push authentication protocol runs on an out-of-band secondary channel, which provides flexible deployment options. Since the protocol requires an open network path to the claimant's mobile phone, if no such path is available (due to network issues, e.g.), the authentication process can not proceed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A FIDO Universal 2nd Factor (U2F) authenticator (something that one has) is a single-factor cryptographic authenticator that is intended to be used in conjunction with an ordinary web password. Since the authenticator relies on public-key cryptography, U2F does not require an additional shared secret beyond the password.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 40943724, 44534881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 6 ], [ 7, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To access a U2F authenticator, the claimant is required to perform a test of user presence (TUP), which helps prevent unauthorized access to the authenticator's functionality. In practice, a TUP consists of a simple button push.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A U2F authenticator interoperates with a conforming web user agent that implements the U2F JavaScript API. A U2F authenticator necessarily implements the CTAP1/U2F protocol, one of the two protocols specified in the FIDO Client to Authenticator Protocol.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 487303, 59819128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ], [ 221, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike mobile push authentication, the U2F authentication protocol runs entirely on the front channel. Two round trips are required. The first round trip is ordinary password authentication. After the claimant authenticates with a password, the verifier sends a challenge to a conforming browser, which communicates with the U2F authenticator via a custom JavaScript API. After the claimant performs the TUP, the authenticator signs the challenge and returns the signed assertion to the verifier via the browser.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To use a multi-factor authenticator, the claimant performs full user verification. The multi-factor authenticator (something that one has) is activated by a PIN (something that one knows), or a biometric (something that is unique to oneself\"; e.g. fingerprint, face or voice recognition), or some other verification technique.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 337220, 290622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 160 ], [ 194, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To withdraw cash from an automated teller machine (ATM), a bank customer inserts an ATM card into a cash machine and types a Personal Identification Number (PIN). The input PIN is compared to the PIN stored on the card's chip. If the two match, the ATM withdrawal can proceed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 46628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note that an ATM withdrawal involves a memorized secret (i.e., a PIN) but the true value of the secret is not known to the ATM in advance. The machine blindly passes the input PIN to the card, which compares the customer's input to the secret PIN stored on the card's chip. If the two match, the card reports success to the ATM and the transaction continues.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An ATM card is an example of a multi-factor authenticator. The card itself is something that one has while the PIN stored on the card's chip is presumably something that one knows. Presenting the card to the ATM and demonstrating knowledge of the PIN is a kind of multi-factor authentication.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Secure Shell (SSH) is a client-server protocol that uses public-key cryptography to create a secure channel over the network. In contrast to a traditional password, an SSH key is a cryptographic authenticator. The primary authenticator secret is the SSH private key, which is used by the client to digitally sign a message. The corresponding public key is used by the server to verify the message signature, which confirms that the claimant has possession and control of the private key.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 28814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To avoid theft, the SSH private key (something that one has) may be encrypted using a passphrase (something that one knows). To initiate a two-factor authentication process, the claimant supplies the passphrase to the client system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 152420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like a password, the SSH passphrase is a memorized secret but that is where the similarity ends. Whereas a password is a shared secret that is transmitted over the network, the SSH passphrase is not shared, and moreover, use of the passphrase is strictly confined to the client system. Authentication via SSH is an example of passwordless authentication since it avoids the transmission of a shared secret over the network. In fact, SSH authentication does not require a shared secret at all.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 63521436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The FIDO U2F protocol standard became the starting point for the FIDO2 Project, a joint effort between the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and the FIDO Alliance. Project deliverables include the W3C Web Authentication (WebAuthn) standard and the FIDO Client to Authenticator Protocol (CTAP). Together WebAuthn and CTAP provide a strong authentication solution for the web.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 59810909, 57396855, 59819128, 1619599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 78 ], [ 219, 227 ], [ 251, 283 ], [ 329, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A FIDO2 authenticator, also called a WebAuthn authenticator, uses public-key cryptography to interoperate with a WebAuthn client, that is, a conforming web user agent that implements the WebAuthn JavaScript API. The authenticator may be a platform authenticator, a roaming authenticator, or some combination of the two. For example, a FIDO2 authenticator that implements the CTAP2 protocol is a roaming authenticator that communicates with a WebAuthn client via one or more of the following transport options: USB, near-field communication (NFC), or Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). Concrete examples of FIDO2 platform authenticators include Windows Hello and the Android operating system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 487303, 9845, 32073, 397763, 21575068, 12610483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 166 ], [ 196, 206 ], [ 510, 513 ], [ 515, 539 ], [ 550, 570 ], [ 659, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A FIDO2 authenticator may be used in either single-factor mode or multi-factor mode. In single-factor mode, the authenticator is activated by a simple test of user presence (e.g., a button push). In multi-factor mode, the authenticator (something that one has) is activated by either a PIN (something that one knows) or a biometric (\"something that is unique to oneself\").", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 337220, 290622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 289 ], [ 322, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "First and foremost, strong authentication begins with multi-factor authentication. The best thing one can do to protect a personal online account is to enable multi-factor authentication. There are two ways to achieve multi-factor authentication:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [ 22772421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Use a multi-factor authenticator", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Use a combination of two or more single-factor authenticators", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In practice, a common approach is to combine a password authenticator (something that one knows) with some other authenticator (something that one has) such as a cryptographic authenticator.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Generally speaking, a Cryptographic key is preferred over an authenticator that does not use cryptographic methods. All else being equal, a cryptographic authenticator that uses public-key cryptography is better than one that uses symmetric-key cryptography since the latter requires shared keys (which may be stolen or misused).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Again all else being equal, a hardware-based authenticator is better than a software-based authenticator since the authenticator secret is presumably better protected in hardware. This preference is reflected in the NIST requirements outlined in the next section.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NIST defines three levels of assurance with respect to authenticators. The highest authenticator assurance level (AAL3) requires multi-factor authentication using either a multi-factor authenticator or an appropriate combination of single-factor authenticators. At AAL3, at least one of the authenticators must be a cryptographic hardware-based authenticator. Given these basic requirements, possible authenticator combinations used at AAL3 include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A multi-factor cryptographic hardware-based authenticator", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A single-factor cryptographic hardware-based authenticator used in conjunction with some other authenticator (such as a password authenticator)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "See the NIST Digital Identity Guidelines for further discussion of authenticator assurance levels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like authenticator assurance levels, the notion of a restricted authenticator is a NIST concept. The term refers to an authenticator with a demonstrated inability to resist attacks, which puts the reliability of the authenticator in doubt. Federal agencies mitigate the use a restricted authenticator by offering subscribers an alternative authenticator that is not restricted and by developing a migration plan in the event that a restricted authenticator is prohibited from use at some point in the future.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Currently, the use of the public switched telephone network is restricted by NIST. In particular, the out-of-band transmission of one-time passwords (OTPs) via recorded voice messages or SMS messages is restricted. Moreover, if an agency chooses to use voice- or SMS-based OTPs, that agency must verify that the OTP is being transmitted to a phone and not an IP address since Voice over IP (VoIP) accounts are not routinely protected with multi-factor authentication.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Security code", "target_page_ids": [ 468436, 28207, 75028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 59 ], [ 187, 190 ], [ 376, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is convenient to use passwords as a basis for comparison since it is widely understood how to use a password. On computer systems, passwords have been used since at least the early 1960s. More generally, passwords have been used since ancient times.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, Bonneau et al. evaluated two decades of proposals to replace passwords by systematically comparing web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. (The cited technical report is an extended version of the peer-reviewed paper by the same name.) They found that most schemes do better than passwords on security while every scheme does worse than passwords on deployability. In terms of usability, some schemes do better and some schemes do worse than passwords.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Google used the evaluation framework of Bonneau et al. to compare security keys to passwords and one-time passwords. They concluded that security keys are more usable and deployable than one-time passwords, and more secure than both passwords and one-time passwords.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electronic authentication", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7363430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] } ]

[ "Authentication" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An automated information system (AIS) is an assembly of computer hardware, software, firmware, or any combination of these, configured to accomplish specific information-handling operations, such as communication, computation, dissemination, processing, and storage of information. Included are computers, word processing systems, networks, or other electronic information handling systems, and associated equipment. Management information systems are a common example of automated information systems.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21808348, 5309, 41155, 18985062, 315578, 57307464, 237494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 73 ], [ 75, 83 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 158, 169 ], [ 242, 252 ], [ 306, 321 ], [ 417, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of this is an industrial robot.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Also an Automated Information System (AIS) refers to any piece of equipment or interconnected system of equipment utilized in the automated collection, storage, manipulation, management, movement, control, display, switching, interchange, transmission, or receiving of data, and includes computer software, firmware, and hardware. Computers, word processing systems, networks, or other electronic information handling systems, as well as accompanying equipment, are included.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The usage of an automated information system, also known as an automated information management system, may be extremely beneficial to both government agencies and commercial businesses. The practice of swiftly distributing information via an automated system can save several hours of tiresome labor, resulting in a cost savings for the organization in need of that information. This sort of technology may do everything from remind individuals when their bills are due to notifying them about a potentially dangerous scenario.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Importance of AIS", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Information Assurance Glossary", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Federal Standard 1037C", "target_page_ids": [ 1011395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Автоматизированная информационная система", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Information_systems" ]

[ "AIS" ]