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who plays at the honda center in anaheim california | The Who (2022) | Honda Center | Legendary rock band The Who have announced a brand new tour for 2022, THE WHO HITS BACK ! The iconic band’s upcoming trek promises to be another rock n’ roll knockout, bringing singer Roger Daltrey and guitarist/songwriter Pete Townshend back to U.S. venues years after their acclaimed MOVING ON! Tour , which wowed audiences with a series of sold-out dates. THE WHO HITS BACK! Tour will again share the stage with some of the finest orchestras in the U.S. and Canada. Don’t miss The Who in Anaheim this October! | https://www.hondacenter.com/events/the-who-2022/ | 127 |
can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | Aldol Condensation - Definition, Reaction and Applications | In organic synthesis, aldol condensations are a very important class of reactions. Charles - Adolph Wurtz and Alexander Porfyrevich Borodin discovered the reaction independently in 1872. The name aldol was chosen because there is often an aldehyde and an alcohol group in the product of an aldol condensation.
Generally speaking, an aldol condensation is a nucleophile attack on a carbonyl to make a ketone or aldehyde of β-hydroxy. The nucleophile is generally an enolate of an aldehyde or ketone attacking another aldehyde or ketone molecule. An acidic or basic solution can catalyze the condensation of aldol.
By bases such as hydroxide ions and alcoxide ions, an aldehyde is partially converted to its enolate anion.
RCH₂CHO + HO- RCH=CHO- + H₂O
Aldehyde Water Enolate Water
The enolate is subjected to nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl group in a solution that contains both an aldehyde and its enolate ion. This addition is similar to the addition of reactions to aldehydes and ketones from other nucleophilic reagents.
O
||
RCH₂CH
O- O-O OH O
/ | || H₂O | ||
RCH₂CH RCH₂CH—RCHCH RCH₂CH—RCHCH
Product of Aldol Addition
The alkoxide formed in the nucleophilic addition step then abstracts a proton from the solvent (usually water or ethanol) to yield the product of aldol addition. This product is known as an aldol because it comprises a function of aldehyde and a group of hydroxyl(ald+ ol = aldol)
An important feature of aldol addition is that carbon–carbon bond formation occurs between the α-carbon atom of one aldehyde and the carbonyl group of another. This was because the generation of carbanion (enolate) can involve only proton abstraction from the α-carbon atom.
Figure 1: The reactive sites in aldol addition are the carbonyl group of one aldehyde molecule and the α-carbon atom of another.
One of these protons is removed by base to form an enolate
O O OH O
|| || base || ||
RCH₂CH + RCH₂CH RCH₂CH--RCHCH
Carbonyl group to which this is the carbon–carbon that is formed in formed in the reaction
Aldol Addition Occurs Readily with Aldehydes:
O
|| NaOH, H₂O
2 CH₃CH CH₃CHCH₂CHO 4 - 5°C |
OH
Acetaldehyde 3-Hydroxybutanal (50%) (Acetaldol)
O O
|| KOH, H₂O ||
2CH₃CH₂CH₂CH CH₃CH₂CH₂CHCHCH
6 - 8°C | |
OH CH₂CH₃
Butanal 2-Ethyl-3-hydroxyhexanal (75%)
The α-hydroxy aldehyde products of aldol addition undergo dehydration on heating,to yield α, β-unsaturated aldehydes:
OH O O
| || Heat ||
RCH₂CHCHCH RCH₂CH=CCH + H₂O
| 6 - 8°C |
R R
β -Hydroxy aldehyde α, β-unsaturated aldehydes Water
The combination of the newly formed dual bond with the carbonyl group stabilizes α, β - unsaturated aldehyde, provides the driving force for dehydration and controls the selectivity of its region. Dehydration can be done by acid or base heating the aldol. Normally, if α, β -unsaturated aldehyde is the desired product, all that is done is to carry out the base-catalyzed aldol addition reaction at elevated temperature. Under these conditions, once the aldol addition product is formed, it rapidly loses water to form α, β-unsaturated aldehyde.
O O
|| NaOH, H₂O ||
2CH₃CH₂CH₂CH CH₃CH₂CH₂CH=CCH |
CH₂CH₃
Butanal 2-Ethyl-2-hexenal (86%)
(Major Product)
Reactions in which two molecules of an aldehyde combine to form α, β– unsaturated aldehyde and a molecule of water are called aldol condensations.
To be dehydrated to alkenes, alcohols require acid catalysis. It may, therefore, seem strange that products to add aldol may be dehydrated in the base. This is another example of how increased proton acidity at α - carbon atom affects carbonyl compound reactions. Elimination may occur in a concerted E2 fashion or may be progressive and proceed through an enolate ion.
1. Dehydration of Aldol Products
Aldol reaction products are often subjected to subsequent water removal, consisting of a α-hydrogen group and beta - hydroxyl group. The product of this beta - elimination reaction, as shown in the following diagram, is α, β-unsaturated aldehyde or ketone. For this elimination, acid - catalyzed conditions are more commonly used (e.g. # 1, 2 & 5), but base - catalyzed elimination also occurs, particularly in heating (e.g. # 3, 4 & 5). The additional stability provided by the product's conjugated carbonyl system makes some thermodynamically favorable ketone aldol reactions (# 4 & 5) and stereoisomer (E & Z) mixtures are obtained from reaction #4. Reaction #5 is an interesting example of a reaction of intramolecular aldol; these reactions create a new ring.
Condensations are called reactions in which a larger molecule is formed from smaller components, eliminating a very small by-product such as water. The following examples are therefore properly referred to as condensations of aldols. In the presence of acid and base catalysts, the dehydration step of an aldol condensation is also reversible. Therefore, when heating with aqueous solutions of strong acids or bases, many α, β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds fragment into smaller aldehydes or ketones, a process known as the retro-aldehyde reaction.
The Acid -
catalyzed water removal is not exceptional, as this has been noted as a common alcohol reaction. Nevertheless, it is found that the conditions required for beta-elimination are less than those used for simple alcohols. The most surprising aspect of beta-elimination, however, is that it can be base-catalyzed.
As the equations show these eliminations could proceed from either the beta-hydroxy aldol product's keto or enol tautomers. Although the keto tautomer route is not unreasonable (remember the increased acidity in carbonyl compounds of the α-hydrogens), the enol tautomer provides a more favourable pathway for both acid and base-catalyzed elimination of beta oxygen.
2. Mixed Aldol Condensations
As both the enolic donor and the electrophilic acceptor, the previous examples of aldol reactions and condensations used a common reactant. The product is always a dimer of the carbonyl reactant compound in such cases. Crossed or mixed reactions are called aldol condensations between different carbonyl reactants, and under certain conditions, such crossed aldol condensations may be effective. Some examples are shown below, and in most cases, under the conditions used, beta - elimination of water occurs. The exception, reaction # 3, is carried out under mild conditions with excess reactive aldehyde formaldehyde serving as an electrophilic acceptor. The first reaction shows that ketones with two sets of α-hydrogens can react at both sites if they are supplied with sufficient acceptor co-reactant. The interesting difference in regioselectivity in the second reaction (the reactants in the central shaded region) shows some subtle differences between the reactions of acid and base-catalyzed aldol. The base-catalyzed reaction is performed by an enolate anion donor species and the kinetically favoured removal of the proton is from the less replaced α-carbon. The acid-catalyzed aldol goes through the tautomer of the enol, and the more stable of the two tautomers of the enol is the double bond with the more replaced.Finally, there are two reactive α-carbons in reaction #4 and there may be a reversible aldol reaction in both. Only one of the two aldol products can undergo water beta-elimination, so the eventual isolated product is derived from this sequence of reaction. The Claisen-Schmidt reaction is called the aldol condensation of ketones with aryl aldehydes into α,β-unsaturated derivatives.
Two factors are responsible for the success of these mixed aldol reactions. First, aldehydes are more reactive electrophiles than ketones, and more reactive than other aldehydes is formaldehyde. Second, aldehydes that lack α-hydrogens can only function as acceptor reactants, thereby reducing by half the number of possible products.Mixed aldols in which both reactants can serve as donors and acceptors generally provide complex mixtures of dimeric (homo) aldols as well as crossed aldols. In such a case, the following abbreviated formulas illustrate the possible products, red letters representing the component of the acceptor and the donor blue.If all reactions occurred at the same rate, the same quantity would be obtained for the four products. It would be difficult to separate and purify the components of such a mixture.
Application of Aldol Condensation
The reaction enables carbon - carbon bonds to be formed. The reaction leads to the establishment of a C - C bond in Gluconeogenesis and Photosynthesis. This is regarded as an important reaction in metabolism biochemistry, where glycolysis is the fifth step. However, it works in the opposite way in glycolysis and serves to end the carbon - carbon bond. The reaction is commonly used to produce solvents such as alcohol isophorone and diacetone. It works as an intermediate for perfume production. It is also used in pharmaceutical manufacturing, unsaturated ketones and chalcones known as aromatic ketones. Usually, it is used to create plasticizers as well.
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can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | Aldol condensation of aldehydes and ketones, mechanism | Aldol condensation is occurred only in carbonyl compounds which have alpha hydrogen and alpha carbon atoms. Both aldehyde and ketone compounds are defined as carbonyl compounds. Aldol condesation can used to extend the carbon chain. Tha alpha hydrogen in carbonyl compounds has acidic charcteristics. Therefore they are removed easily with bases (alkalis) and give carbanion. Then this carbanion reacts with another carbonyl molecule to give the aldol product.
In this tutorial, we study about followings of aldol condensation.
- Reagents used and products of the reaction
- Examples of aldol reaction
- Aldol condensation mechanism
- Questions: In this categoty we will look why some aldehyde and ketone compounds do not show the aldol condensation. You have to find which compounds behave like that.
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Dilute strong alkalis such as NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH) 2 are used. These alkalis start the reaction. You will see how it happens in mechanism part.
β-hydroxyketone or β-hydroxyaldehyde is given as the product. These compounds contains a hydroxyl group and a carbonyl group. If these priducts are heated alone or with I 2 , hydroxyl group is eliminated and form a double bond between carbon atoms (alkene group).
The carbon atoms where they are existing next to the carbonyl carbon. As example acetaldehyde has one alpha carbon. Propanone has two alpha carbons. But formaldehyde does not have alpha carbon.
All H atoms existing on alpha carbon (α carbon) are defined as α H. All carbon atoms which are adjacent to carbonyl carbon are defined as alpha carbon. Alpha hydrogen and alpha carbon are required for aldol condensation.
Aldehyde or ketone which has alpha hydrogen reacts with any strong bases such as NaOH, KOH and Ba(OH) 2 and give aldol as the product. This reaction doubles the number of carbon atoms of initial aldehyde or ketone. To dehydrate the aldol compound, it is heated alone or with I 2 .
If two or more aldehydes or ketones are mixed together with strong alkali, it gives a product mixture, not a single product.
- Mixture of ethanal and propanal with NaOH (aq) gives mixture of four products.
- Propanone and propanl also react with KOH (aq) and give four products in the mixture.
Ethanal is an aldehyde. Ethanal reacts with dilute NaOH or KOH in aldol condensation. There are two carbon atoms in ethanal molecule. But in the product, there are four carbon. After aldol condensation , aldol product is heated with I 2 or heated alone. The -OH group is eliminated (dehydrtion) and give double bond.
Propanone is a ketone. Propanone contains three carbon atoms. After aldol condensation of propanone , there are six carbon atoms in the carbon chain. First gives the aldol product with dilute NaOH or KOH. Then aldol product is heated alone or heated with I 2 . Alcohol group in the aldol product is eliminated (dehydration) by forming a double bond.
Aldol condensation of propanal also gives an aldol product.
Now, we discuss some examples about aldol condensation of mixture of aldehydes and ketones. When there are two or more aldehydes or ketones, it gives mixture of products.
Ethanal and propanone both are aldehydes. This ethanal and propanone mixture with NaOH (aq) forms four different products.
- Two carboanions can be given in the initial step (from ethanal and propanone).
- One carboanion can attack ethanal or propanone to give two products.
- Also other carboanion can attack with ethanal or propanone to give two products.
Four products can be given as a product mixture.
Dilue NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH) 2 can be used as reagents for aldol condensation. Reaction is stared by OH - ions provided from strong alkali. At the end of reaction, OH - ions are regenerated again.
Therefore OH - ions are behaved as a catalyst .
Also OH - ions are behaved as nucleophiles . They can attack at positively charged parts such as carbonyl carbon atom.
Mechanism is very hard and complex to understand in mixture of aldehyde and ketone compounds. So try to understand the first mechanism when only one aldehyde or ketone is in the reaction.
- Hydroxyl ions attack alpha hydrogen atom in the carbonyl compound. Then bond between alpha hydrogen and alpha carbon is broken and electrons of that bond are concentrated to alpha carbon. That forms a carbanion. Now that alpha hydrogen atom connects with hydroxyl ion and forms a water molecule.
- Next, carbanion attacks the carbonyl carbon of another molecule of aldehyde or ketone. A new carbon carbon bond is formed. Due to form of new carbon carbon bond, C=O bond is turned to C-O with negative charge on oxygen atom.
- Finally, O - attacks a water molecule and get a hydrogen atom to form alcohol group. It forms OH - ion.
- Propanal - CH 3 CHCHO - Aldehyde
- Acetaldehyde - CH 3 CHO - aldehyde
Two carboanions are formed from propanal and acetaldehyde. So those two carboanions can react with both propanal and acetaldehyde to give four different products.
Formaldehyde does not have alpha carbon because it has only one carbon atom. therefore we cannot do aldol condensation of formaldehyde.
formaldehyde: HCHO
Benzaldehyde has alpha carbon. But that alpha carbon does not have alpha hydrogen. So benzaldehyde also cannot show aldol condensation.
In a acidic medium too, self condensation of acetaldehyde is occurred through a different mechanism. Acid behaves as the catalyst. But, as the product, aldol is not given always. As the reason we can think, in the presence of acidic medium, aldol is dehydrated and give crotanaldehyde as the product.
Questions
Two carbonyl compounds exist to show the aldol condensation. You know formaldehyde cannot show aldol condensation itself. Therefore, 4-pentanone is the compound which has the capability of producing the nucleophile to start the reaction. Reaction happens as below.
- Reaction between 4-pentanone molecules and formed nucleophiles by 4-pentanone molecules
- Reaction between formaldehyde molecules and formed nucleophiles by 4-pentanone molecules
Aldehydes without alpha carbon and alpha hydrogen does not have the ability to do aldol condensation. As examples, formaldehyde and benzaldehyde can be given. Formaldehyde does not have alpha carbon and benzaldehyde does not have alpha hydrogen.
yes. In aldol condensation two molecules of carbonyl compound is participated. Alpha carbon of one molecule is oxidized and carbinol carbon of other molecule is reduced during the reaction.
Formaldehyde does not have alpha carbon. Therefore, there is no alpha hydrogen. Without alpha hydrogen aldol condensation is not occurred.
Yes. Carbonol carbon is positively charged and it is attacked by carbanion. And a new carbon group is attached to the aldehyde or ketone.
A ketone molecule become a carboanion due to attck of OH - . Carboanion attacks the carbonyl carbon atom of another ketone molecule. Water also contribute to the mechanism to form the alcohol group. As the product, a compound which has more carbon atoms than previous ketone is given.
To occur the aldol condensation, there should be both alpha hydrogen and alpha carbon atom in the aldehydde or ketone. In the benzaldehyde, there is an alpha carbon atom. But there is no alpha hydrogen atoms. So benzldehyde does not have chance to react with dilute NaOH to show aldol condensation reaction.
Methanal do nt have both alpha hydrogen and alpha carbon atom. So no aldol condensation for methanal.
When only one aldehyde compound is with dilute NaOH, one product is given. If there are two different aldehyde compounds, four different products are given.
Dilute strong alkalis such as NaOH or KOH or Ba(OH) 2 are used as aldol reagents.
Mixture of products are given as the result when aldehyde and ketone are together and react with sodium hydroxide.
Due to acidity of those hydrogen atoms, these type of reactions are occurred. A base can react with these alpha hydrogen atoms.
Formaldehyde do not have an alpha carbon or alpha hydrogen atoms. Therefore, carbanion cannot be made by formaldehyde. But, formaldehyde can be attached by the carbanion made by methyl ketone compound. | https://www.chemistryscl.com/reactions/aldol-condensation/main.html | 128 |
can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | Reactions of Enols - Acid-Catalyzed Aldol, Halogenation, and Mannich Reactions | In a previous post we explored keto- enol tautomerism [ See post: Keto-Enol Tautomerism ] and described how the enol tautomer is the nucleophilic alter-ego of the electrophilic keto tautomer. In this article we’ll get into some more practical aspects, namely: what kinds of reactions do enols undergo?
Although not nearly as nucleophilic as enolates [ Note 1 ], enols do play a key role in several important organic reactions.
In this article we’ll look at three important examples:
- Halogenation of ketones
- The acid-catalyzed aldol condensation.
- The Mannich reaction (which is a lot like the aldol except that the enol adds to a C-N pi bond instead of a C-O pi bond)
If you look closely at each of the three reactions above, you will note that each of them are catalyzed by acid .
Why is that? Let’s have a closer look.
Let’s set the stage with a reaction that doesn’t really seem to accomplish all that much.
If you take a solution of an enantiomerically pure, optically active ketone like this one [ (S) -2-methylcyclohexanone] add a few drops of strong acid and stir overnight, you’ll come back the next morning to find that its optical activity has completely disappeared . [ Note 2 – acetic acid isn’t strong enough, but a few drops of HBr will do ]
It’s still 2-methylcyclohexanone, but it’s become an equal mixture of the ( R ) and ( S ) enantiomers . A racemic mixture in other words. (See post: What’s a racemic mixture ?)
In contrast, if you take a very similar enantiomerically pure ketone (3-methyl cyclohexanone) and perform the exact same sequence, the optical activity will remain unchanged .
What’s going on here?
Both ketones can undergo tautomerism to give the enol form, where C-2 is trigonal planar (sp 2 hybridized). However, the enol form of 2-methylcyclohexanone, no longer has a chiral center. The enol form is achiral.
When this flat, achiral enol is then protonated by acid to regenerate 2-methylcyclohexanone, it will do so with equal likelihood from the top and bottom face, resulting in an equal (i.e. racemic) mixture of the (R) and (S) enantiomers .
On the other hand, ( S )-3-methylcyclohexanone retains its optical activity since its chiral center isn’t destroyed when the enol is formed.
A reaction where two substituents on a chiral center are interchanged (with one of them usually being H) is called epimerization.
Epimerization of the alpha-carbon of ketones and aldehydes can readily occur in the presence of acid and base. Carbons further down the chain are not affected since it is only the alpha carbon that is acidic.
Could the same experiment have been performed without acid? Yes – but it would have been much slower.
Acid helps to catalyze keto- enol tautomerism, allowing for rapid equilibrium between the keto and enol forms.
How specifically does acid help here?
If you go way back in time to Org 1, you might find a reaction buried deep in your memory banks called the E1 reaction. (See post: The E1 Reaction and Its Mechanism )
After the leaving group leaves, the next step in the E1 is deprotonation of the carbon next to the carbocation to give a new pi bond. The E1 requires only a weak base for this step ( even water will do! ) since the leaving group has already left and the carbon has an empty p-orbital available to form the new pi-bond. (Remember that the E2 requires a stronger base in order to get that leaving group to leave – See post: The E2 Mechanism ).
The carbon of a protonated aldehyde or ketone is very similar to a carbocation . It has a significant resonance form where the formal charge is on carbon and the oxygen is neutral. [ Note 3 ]
Deprotonation of the C-H next to the carbonyl (pK a <0 ) is therefore considerably easier than it would be in the case of the neutral aldehyde / ketone ( pK a = 16)
TL: DR Adding acid makes it easier to deprotonate C-H and therefore makes formation of the enol much easier.
Acid also helps with the conversion of the enol back to the ketone , which involves (slow) protonation of the alpha-carbon followed by (fast) deprotonation of O-H.
For the acid-catalyzed conversion of enol to keto, hover here and an image will pop up or click on this link .
Since both the forward and backward reactions are accelerated, that’s what we mean when we say that acid “helps to establish the equilibrium”.
Now let’s look at some of the reactions of enols.
Enols are really just electron-rich alkenes , and will undergo many of the same reactions. You might recall that alkenes will readily attack halogens such as Br 2 to give dihalides, for example. ( See post: Bromination of alkenes )
If you add strong acid to a ketone , and mix in a halogen (Cl 2 , Br 2 , I 2 ), you obtain a new alpha-halo ketone .
In the absence of acid, the reaction is “exceedingly slow”. [ Note 4 ] Furthermore, careful measurements show that adding an excess of Br 2 does not increase the reaction rate.
Knowing this, a mechanism that makes sense is a (slow) conversion of the ketone to its enol form, followed by (fast) halogenation.
When more than one enol can be formed from the same ketone , the halogen will add to whichever enol form is the most favored at equilibrium (generally the most substituted – see previous post on keto- enol tautomerism for more details).
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Previously we saw how the conjugate base of enols (known as “ enolates “) can add to aldehydes and ketones, a reaction known as the aldol reaction . (See post: The Aldol Addition and Condensation )
Enols can also perform the aldol reaction aldehydes and ketones, if an acid catalyst is present to help move things along. The acid-catalyzed aldol reaction almost always results in the condensation product (loss of H 2 O), even without heat.
Being harder to control, the acid-catalyzed aldol tends to get less use than the base-catalyzed version. [ Note 5 ] Still, it’s instructive because it actually highlights three key ways that acid can catalyze reactions, which roughly highlights the three stages of this reaction.
In the first stage, acid catalyzes keto- enol tautomerism , which provides us with our nucleophile (the enol ) as seen previously.
In the second stage, acid protonates the oxygen of an aldehyde or ketone . The resulting conjugate acid of the aldehyde / ketone is a much better electrophile at carbon, owing to a contribution from a key resonance form with a positive charge on carbon [ Note 3 ].
The protonated aldehyde / ketone then undergoes addition from the nucleophilic enol , resulting in the aldol addition product (after deprotonation).
The third stage of the acid-catalyzed aldol highlights how the conjugate acid is a better leaving group . Protonation of the hydroxyl group (OH) of the addition product results in the much better leaving group H 2 O.
In one version of this mechanism, water is “pushed out” by the enol form of the addition product. Simultaneous formation of C-O (pi) and migration of C-C (pi) in what can be called a “1,4-elimination” or “conjugate elimination” step. There are other ways to show this occurring, which are detailed in the notes. [ Note 6 ]
Deprotonation of oxygen then results in the neutral aldol condensation product.
Here are a few examples of aldol condensation reactions, including an example of an intramolecular acid-catalyzed aldol condensation.
The acid-catalyzed aldol reaction can also happen intramolecularly. There is a variant of the Robinson Annulation that uses acid, for example. (See post: The Robinson Annulation )
The Mannich reaction is a close relative of the aldol reaction, except the electrophile is a C=N bond instead of a C=O.
The electrophile in the Mannich is generally not a neutral imine, but a positively charged iminium ion .
The first stage of the Mannich reaction is – you guessed it! – formation of the enol tautomer.
In the second stage, the enol adds to the iminium ion. Deprotonation then leads to the neutral product.
Like the aldol, if it’s done under acidic conditions, the reaction will proceed through the more-substituted enol .
So what have we learned? A few things.
- Enols are the key nucleophilic intermediate in halogenation , the acid-catalyzed aldol reaction , and the Mannich reaction .
- Acid catalyzes keto- enol tautomerism ; the alpha-carbon of the protonated carbonyl is considerably more acidic than that of the neutral aldehyde or ketone .
- An aldehyde or ketone with a chiral center on the alpha carbon will undergo epimerization in the presence of strong acid.
- Treating an aldehyde or ketone with Br 2 in the presence of strong acid (HBr) will form a new C-Br bond on the alpha carbon . No reaction occurs in the absence of strong acid.
- Acid can catalyze the aldol condensation . Acid assists in 1)promoting keto- enol tautomerism, 2) in activating the carbonyl towards attack by the enol nucleophile , and 3) facilitates elimination through making the resulting OH group into a better leaving group .
- The Mannich reaction is similar to the aldol reaction but involves addition of an enol to a C=N bond instead of a C=O bond. It is also catalyzed by acid.
Note 1 – “Enols not as nucleophlic as enolates.” The conjugate base is always a better nucleophile than the corresponding neutral species. One quantification for RO(-) versus ROH, for example, has CH 3 CH 2 O(–) at about 10 orders of magnitude more nucleophilic than CH 3 CH 2 OH [see Mayr’s website here for the source – you might have to dig around].
There isn’t a similar treatment for comparing the nucleophilicity of similar enolates versus enols (they are harder to study) but 10 orders of magnitude is probably a good guess.
Note 2 – “ acetic acid isn’t strong enough, but a few drops of HBr will do”. In one study, it was found that the speed of racemization of an enantiomerically pure ketone was extremely slow in acetic acid / chloroform but very rapid in the presence of traces of HBr. ( the ketone was 2-o-carboxybenzylindan-1-one , see J. Chem. Soc. 1934 773 ).
Note 3 – “ It has a significant resonance form where the formal charge is on carbon and the oxygen is neutral” .
One intuitive way of gauging how much “carbocation” character the ketone has is to compare the relative contributions made by the carbocation-containing resonance form to the overall resonance hybrid. (The intuitive rules for gauging the relative importance of resonance forms is covered here, 4 Rules For Evaluating Resonance Structure s). Two key items relevant here are the number of point charges (zero is preferred) and the number of atoms with full octets (zero is preferred).
In the case of the neutral ketone , the resonance form with the carbocation has two point charges (versus zero for the C=O form) in addition to the lack of a full octet on C.
Once the carbonyl is protonated, both resonance forms have the same number of point charges (one). Therefore the resonance form where carbon lacks a full octet (the carbocation) will be less bad overall , and therefore the carbocation will make a greater contribution to the resonance hybrid, relative to non-protonated carbonyl .
One way to quantify this effect is to examine C=O stretches in IR spectroscopy, since the stronger the bond, the higher the wavenumber. Neutral acetone has a C=O stretch at 1765 cm -1 whereas protonated acetone has a C=O stretch at 1580 cm -1 . That demonstrates a significant weakening of the C-O pi bond.
The same argument can be made for why the positively charged iminium ion is a better electrophile than a neutral imine .
Note 4 – “ in the absence of acid, bromination is exceedingly slow”. This is a direct quote from Lapworth ( ref ) in his seminal study on acid-catalyzed bromination.
Note 5 – “ the acid-catalyzed aldol tends to get less use than the base-catalyzed version.” The base-promoted aldol gets more use because it’s much easier to control which enolate you can form through use of the appropriate base. In the acid-catalyzed aldol you are held hostage to whichever enol form is more thermodynamically stable.
However there is a version of the aldol reaction called the Mukaiyama aldol reaction which proceeds with an enol ether as the nucleophile , and employs strong Lewis acids (e.g. TiCl 4 , which smokes in the presence of air) to assist their reactions with aldehydes.
Note 6 – “ There are other ways to show this occurring, which are detailed in the notes. “
The elimination going through a conjugate elimination process is was determined in this study of the self-condensation of acetaldehyde (see ref ).
There is some variation on how this step is shown in textbooks, and furthermore, there is also variation on how this happens in real life.
One way this is sometimes shown is as an E1 -type reaction where water leaves, and there is a subsequent deprotonation event. This can happen; it’s most correct in cases where that would lead to a resonance stabilized carbocation (e.g. adjacent to an electron-rich aromatic ring). One prominent example can be found here. [ Ref ]
This goes way beyond what anyone reading this would likely care about, but there is also precedent for the OH group to undergo substitution (likely via S N 1) to a good leaving group , which subsequently is removed with weak base (or via E1 ). This is known for the self-aldol condensation of cyclohexanone with HCl, for example.
One thing I can feel comfortable saying is that you should not draw this as an E2 type reaction. It requires an anti-periplanar arrangement of the C-H and C-OH2 bonds, and I’m not aware of any evidence that this process depends on stereochemistry (the same way you see in the E2 ).
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Volume 2 of Comprehensive Organic Synthesis was useful for this article, as were March’s Advanced Organic Chemistry, Carey & Sundberg, and Ingold’s Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry.
The acid-catalyzed aldol reaction has been known since 1838, which makes it one of the longest-known organic reactions of all time. The first example was the dimerization of acetone , from J. Prakt. Chem 1838, 15, 129 .
1. Optically Active Esters of B-Ketonic and B-Aldehydic Acids. Part II. Menthyl Acetoacetate
Arthur Lapworth and A. C. Osborn Hann.
J. Chem. Soc. , Trans . 1903 , 83 , 1114-1129
DOI: 10.1039/CT9038301114
A very instructive paper and one of the earliest examples containing a definitive proof of the role of acid in accelerating keto- enol tautomerism. The authors prepared the me n thyl ( not methyl) ester of acetoacetic acid [(+)-menthol is an optically active alcohol readily available from natural sources] and measured its optical activity. They found that the me n thyl ester underwent mutarotation to an extent that was dependent on the solvent, with the rate of mutarotation being highly dependent on acid. This demonstrates the establishment of an equilibrium between the keto and enol forms.
2. The Action of Halogens on Compounds Containing The Carbonyl Group
Arthur Lapworth
J. Chem. Soc., Trans . , 1904 ,85, 30-42
DOI: 10.1039/CT9048500030
Pioneering study on halogenation of carbonyl compounds.
“Bromination of acetone under the conditions maintained is best regarded as the result of a slow, reversible change effected in the acetone by the hydrogen ions, followed by an almost instantaneous bromination of the product, a change which is not appreciably reversible. This intermediate product is perhaps the enolic form of the ketone , as it has been already shown that in many cases the rapid attainment of equilibrium between the tautomeric forms of carbonyl compounds is brought about by acids.”
3. Ueber die Condensation von Aethylmethylketon mit Benzaldehyd (Condensation of Ethyl Methyl Ketone With Benzaldehyde)
C. Harries, G. Hans Muller
Ber. 1902 , 35(1), 966-971
DOI: 10.1002/cber.190203501156
Condensation of ethyl methyl ketone with benzaldehyde under acidic conditions results in the more-substituted aldol condensation product in high yield!
4. Optical Activity In Relation to Tautomeric Change. Part IV. Comparison of the Rates of Racemization and of Bromination of a Ketone
C. K. Ingold and C. L. Wilson
J. Chem. Soc. 1934 , 773.
DOI : 10.1039/JR9340000773
Rate of bromination is essentially the same as the rate of racemization, consistent with enol formation as the rate-limiting step. “In chloroform and glacial acetic acid, racemization of the d - ketone was extremely slow but became very rapid in the presence of traces of hydrogen bromide”.
5. Carbonyl Reactions. VI. Evidence for Alternate Mechanisms for the Dehydration of β-Hydroxy Ketones 1
Donald S. Noyce and Wilmer L. Reed
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1958 80 (20), 5539-5542
DOI : 10.1021/ja01553a056
This paper studies the acid-catalyzed aldol reaction of methyl ethyl ketone and various substituted benzaldehydes. The key nugget here is that the final dehydration step is proposed to occur through the enol form of the addition product when the aromatic ring has an electron-neutral (Ph) or electron poor (NO 2 ) group in the para position, but through ionization (i.e. benzyl carbocation formation) with an electron-rich (OCH3) group in the para position. Stated reason is that there is only a 3fold change in rate for elimination step from p-methyoxyl to 3-nitro, inconsistent with what one would see if it involved a benzyl carbonium ion.
Worth noting that Donald Noyce’s brother was physicist Robert Noyce , the co-founder of Intel.
6. Carbonyl Reactions. VIII. The Kinetics of the Acid-catalyzed Condensation of Benzaldehyde and p-Nitrobenzaldehyde with Methyl Ethyl Ketone . Some Observations on ρ-σ Correlations 1
Donald S. Noyce and Lloyd R. Snyder
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1959 81 (3), 620-624
DOI : 10.1021/ja01512a029
Part 8 of a series of papers from 1958-59 from the Noyce laboratory studying the acid-catalyzed aldol reaction between methyl ethyl ketone and substituted benzaldehydes.
7. Acid-catalyzed enolization and aldol condensation of acetaldehyde
Lynn M. Baigrie, Robin A. Cox, Henryka Slebocka-Tilk, Michal Tencer, and Thomas T. Tidwell
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1985 107 (12), 3640-3645
DOI : 10.1021/ja00298a039
Extensive physical-organic-chemistry study on the acid-catalyzed aldol condensation of the simple aldehyde , ethanal (acetaldehyde). The rate-limiting step is addition of the enol to protonated acetaldehyde. Notably their work is also consistent with the elimination of water occurring from the enol form of the addition product.
Two other useful snippets: “acetaldehyde is completely protonated to its conjugate acid in H 2 SO 4 stronger than 64%. “Enolization of ketones is known to involve two water molecules acting together as a base”.
8. Acid-catalyzed Robinson Annelations
Clayton H. Heathcock, John E. Ellis, John E. McMurry, Anthony Coppolino,
Tetrahedron Letters, 12(52), 1971 , 4995-4996
DOI: 10.1016/S0040-4039(01)97609-9.
This study contains several examples of acid-catalyzed Robinson annulations.
9. The Mannich Reaction with 2-Methylcyclopentanone and 2-Methylcyclo hexanone 1a
Herbert O. House and Barry M. Trost
The Journal of Organic Chemistry 1964 29 (6), 1339-1341
DOI : 10.1021/jo01029a016
Several useful examples of Mannich reactions which show that they tend to go through the more substituted enol . | https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2010/06/02/the-acid-catalyzed-aldol-reaction/ | 128 |
can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | Reactions of Enols - Acid-Catalyzed Aldol, Halogenation, and Mannich Reactions | In a previous post we explored keto- enol tautomerism [ See post: Keto-Enol Tautomerism ] and described how the enol tautomer is the nucleophilic alter-ego of the electrophilic keto tautomer. In this article we’ll get into some more practical aspects, namely: what kinds of reactions do enols undergo?
Although not nearly as nucleophilic as enolates [ Note 1 ], enols do play a key role in several important organic reactions.
In this article we’ll look at three important examples:
- Halogenation of ketones
- The acid-catalyzed aldol condensation.
- The Mannich reaction (which is a lot like the aldol except that the enol adds to a C-N pi bond instead of a C-O pi bond)
If you look closely at each of the three reactions above, you will note that each of them are catalyzed by acid .
Why is that? Let’s have a closer look.
Let’s set the stage with a reaction that doesn’t really seem to accomplish all that much.
If you take a solution of an enantiomerically pure, optically active ketone like this one [ (S) -2-methylcyclohexanone] add a few drops of strong acid and stir overnight, you’ll come back the next morning to find that its optical activity has completely disappeared . [ Note 2 – acetic acid isn’t strong enough, but a few drops of HBr will do ]
It’s still 2-methylcyclohexanone, but it’s become an equal mixture of the ( R ) and ( S ) enantiomers . A racemic mixture in other words. (See post: What’s a racemic mixture ?)
In contrast, if you take a very similar enantiomerically pure ketone (3-methyl cyclohexanone) and perform the exact same sequence, the optical activity will remain unchanged .
What’s going on here?
Both ketones can undergo tautomerism to give the enol form, where C-2 is trigonal planar (sp 2 hybridized). However, the enol form of 2-methylcyclohexanone, no longer has a chiral center. The enol form is achiral.
When this flat, achiral enol is then protonated by acid to regenerate 2-methylcyclohexanone, it will do so with equal likelihood from the top and bottom face, resulting in an equal (i.e. racemic) mixture of the (R) and (S) enantiomers .
On the other hand, ( S )-3-methylcyclohexanone retains its optical activity since its chiral center isn’t destroyed when the enol is formed.
A reaction where two substituents on a chiral center are interchanged (with one of them usually being H) is called epimerization.
Epimerization of the alpha-carbon of ketones and aldehydes can readily occur in the presence of acid and base. Carbons further down the chain are not affected since it is only the alpha carbon that is acidic.
Could the same experiment have been performed without acid? Yes – but it would have been much slower.
Acid helps to catalyze keto- enol tautomerism, allowing for rapid equilibrium between the keto and enol forms.
How specifically does acid help here?
If you go way back in time to Org 1, you might find a reaction buried deep in your memory banks called the E1 reaction. (See post: The E1 Reaction and Its Mechanism )
After the leaving group leaves, the next step in the E1 is deprotonation of the carbon next to the carbocation to give a new pi bond. The E1 requires only a weak base for this step ( even water will do! ) since the leaving group has already left and the carbon has an empty p-orbital available to form the new pi-bond. (Remember that the E2 requires a stronger base in order to get that leaving group to leave – See post: The E2 Mechanism ).
The carbon of a protonated aldehyde or ketone is very similar to a carbocation . It has a significant resonance form where the formal charge is on carbon and the oxygen is neutral. [ Note 3 ]
Deprotonation of the C-H next to the carbonyl (pK a <0 ) is therefore considerably easier than it would be in the case of the neutral aldehyde / ketone ( pK a = 16)
TL: DR Adding acid makes it easier to deprotonate C-H and therefore makes formation of the enol much easier.
Acid also helps with the conversion of the enol back to the ketone , which involves (slow) protonation of the alpha-carbon followed by (fast) deprotonation of O-H.
For the acid-catalyzed conversion of enol to keto, hover here and an image will pop up or click on this link .
Since both the forward and backward reactions are accelerated, that’s what we mean when we say that acid “helps to establish the equilibrium”.
Now let’s look at some of the reactions of enols.
Enols are really just electron-rich alkenes , and will undergo many of the same reactions. You might recall that alkenes will readily attack halogens such as Br 2 to give dihalides, for example. ( See post: Bromination of alkenes )
If you add strong acid to a ketone , and mix in a halogen (Cl 2 , Br 2 , I 2 ), you obtain a new alpha-halo ketone .
In the absence of acid, the reaction is “exceedingly slow”. [ Note 4 ] Furthermore, careful measurements show that adding an excess of Br 2 does not increase the reaction rate.
Knowing this, a mechanism that makes sense is a (slow) conversion of the ketone to its enol form, followed by (fast) halogenation.
When more than one enol can be formed from the same ketone , the halogen will add to whichever enol form is the most favored at equilibrium (generally the most substituted – see previous post on keto- enol tautomerism for more details).
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Previously we saw how the conjugate base of enols (known as “ enolates “) can add to aldehydes and ketones, a reaction known as the aldol reaction . (See post: The Aldol Addition and Condensation )
Enols can also perform the aldol reaction aldehydes and ketones, if an acid catalyst is present to help move things along. The acid-catalyzed aldol reaction almost always results in the condensation product (loss of H 2 O), even without heat.
Being harder to control, the acid-catalyzed aldol tends to get less use than the base-catalyzed version. [ Note 5 ] Still, it’s instructive because it actually highlights three key ways that acid can catalyze reactions, which roughly highlights the three stages of this reaction.
In the first stage, acid catalyzes keto- enol tautomerism , which provides us with our nucleophile (the enol ) as seen previously.
In the second stage, acid protonates the oxygen of an aldehyde or ketone . The resulting conjugate acid of the aldehyde / ketone is a much better electrophile at carbon, owing to a contribution from a key resonance form with a positive charge on carbon [ Note 3 ].
The protonated aldehyde / ketone then undergoes addition from the nucleophilic enol , resulting in the aldol addition product (after deprotonation).
The third stage of the acid-catalyzed aldol highlights how the conjugate acid is a better leaving group . Protonation of the hydroxyl group (OH) of the addition product results in the much better leaving group H 2 O.
In one version of this mechanism, water is “pushed out” by the enol form of the addition product. Simultaneous formation of C-O (pi) and migration of C-C (pi) in what can be called a “1,4-elimination” or “conjugate elimination” step. There are other ways to show this occurring, which are detailed in the notes. [ Note 6 ]
Deprotonation of oxygen then results in the neutral aldol condensation product.
Here are a few examples of aldol condensation reactions, including an example of an intramolecular acid-catalyzed aldol condensation.
The acid-catalyzed aldol reaction can also happen intramolecularly. There is a variant of the Robinson Annulation that uses acid, for example. (See post: The Robinson Annulation )
The Mannich reaction is a close relative of the aldol reaction, except the electrophile is a C=N bond instead of a C=O.
The electrophile in the Mannich is generally not a neutral imine, but a positively charged iminium ion .
The first stage of the Mannich reaction is – you guessed it! – formation of the enol tautomer.
In the second stage, the enol adds to the iminium ion. Deprotonation then leads to the neutral product.
Like the aldol, if it’s done under acidic conditions, the reaction will proceed through the more-substituted enol .
So what have we learned? A few things.
- Enols are the key nucleophilic intermediate in halogenation , the acid-catalyzed aldol reaction , and the Mannich reaction .
- Acid catalyzes keto- enol tautomerism ; the alpha-carbon of the protonated carbonyl is considerably more acidic than that of the neutral aldehyde or ketone .
- An aldehyde or ketone with a chiral center on the alpha carbon will undergo epimerization in the presence of strong acid.
- Treating an aldehyde or ketone with Br 2 in the presence of strong acid (HBr) will form a new C-Br bond on the alpha carbon . No reaction occurs in the absence of strong acid.
- Acid can catalyze the aldol condensation . Acid assists in 1)promoting keto- enol tautomerism, 2) in activating the carbonyl towards attack by the enol nucleophile , and 3) facilitates elimination through making the resulting OH group into a better leaving group .
- The Mannich reaction is similar to the aldol reaction but involves addition of an enol to a C=N bond instead of a C=O bond. It is also catalyzed by acid.
Note 1 – “Enols not as nucleophlic as enolates.” The conjugate base is always a better nucleophile than the corresponding neutral species. One quantification for RO(-) versus ROH, for example, has CH 3 CH 2 O(–) at about 10 orders of magnitude more nucleophilic than CH 3 CH 2 OH [see Mayr’s website here for the source – you might have to dig around].
There isn’t a similar treatment for comparing the nucleophilicity of similar enolates versus enols (they are harder to study) but 10 orders of magnitude is probably a good guess.
Note 2 – “ acetic acid isn’t strong enough, but a few drops of HBr will do”. In one study, it was found that the speed of racemization of an enantiomerically pure ketone was extremely slow in acetic acid / chloroform but very rapid in the presence of traces of HBr. ( the ketone was 2-o-carboxybenzylindan-1-one , see J. Chem. Soc. 1934 773 ).
Note 3 – “ It has a significant resonance form where the formal charge is on carbon and the oxygen is neutral” .
One intuitive way of gauging how much “carbocation” character the ketone has is to compare the relative contributions made by the carbocation-containing resonance form to the overall resonance hybrid. (The intuitive rules for gauging the relative importance of resonance forms is covered here, 4 Rules For Evaluating Resonance Structure s). Two key items relevant here are the number of point charges (zero is preferred) and the number of atoms with full octets (zero is preferred).
In the case of the neutral ketone , the resonance form with the carbocation has two point charges (versus zero for the C=O form) in addition to the lack of a full octet on C.
Once the carbonyl is protonated, both resonance forms have the same number of point charges (one). Therefore the resonance form where carbon lacks a full octet (the carbocation) will be less bad overall , and therefore the carbocation will make a greater contribution to the resonance hybrid, relative to non-protonated carbonyl .
One way to quantify this effect is to examine C=O stretches in IR spectroscopy, since the stronger the bond, the higher the wavenumber. Neutral acetone has a C=O stretch at 1765 cm -1 whereas protonated acetone has a C=O stretch at 1580 cm -1 . That demonstrates a significant weakening of the C-O pi bond.
The same argument can be made for why the positively charged iminium ion is a better electrophile than a neutral imine .
Note 4 – “ in the absence of acid, bromination is exceedingly slow”. This is a direct quote from Lapworth ( ref ) in his seminal study on acid-catalyzed bromination.
Note 5 – “ the acid-catalyzed aldol tends to get less use than the base-catalyzed version.” The base-promoted aldol gets more use because it’s much easier to control which enolate you can form through use of the appropriate base. In the acid-catalyzed aldol you are held hostage to whichever enol form is more thermodynamically stable.
However there is a version of the aldol reaction called the Mukaiyama aldol reaction which proceeds with an enol ether as the nucleophile , and employs strong Lewis acids (e.g. TiCl 4 , which smokes in the presence of air) to assist their reactions with aldehydes.
Note 6 – “ There are other ways to show this occurring, which are detailed in the notes. “
The elimination going through a conjugate elimination process is was determined in this study of the self-condensation of acetaldehyde (see ref ).
There is some variation on how this step is shown in textbooks, and furthermore, there is also variation on how this happens in real life.
One way this is sometimes shown is as an E1 -type reaction where water leaves, and there is a subsequent deprotonation event. This can happen; it’s most correct in cases where that would lead to a resonance stabilized carbocation (e.g. adjacent to an electron-rich aromatic ring). One prominent example can be found here. [ Ref ]
This goes way beyond what anyone reading this would likely care about, but there is also precedent for the OH group to undergo substitution (likely via S N 1) to a good leaving group , which subsequently is removed with weak base (or via E1 ). This is known for the self-aldol condensation of cyclohexanone with HCl, for example.
One thing I can feel comfortable saying is that you should not draw this as an E2 type reaction. It requires an anti-periplanar arrangement of the C-H and C-OH2 bonds, and I’m not aware of any evidence that this process depends on stereochemistry (the same way you see in the E2 ).
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Volume 2 of Comprehensive Organic Synthesis was useful for this article, as were March’s Advanced Organic Chemistry, Carey & Sundberg, and Ingold’s Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry.
The acid-catalyzed aldol reaction has been known since 1838, which makes it one of the longest-known organic reactions of all time. The first example was the dimerization of acetone , from J. Prakt. Chem 1838, 15, 129 .
1. Optically Active Esters of B-Ketonic and B-Aldehydic Acids. Part II. Menthyl Acetoacetate
Arthur Lapworth and A. C. Osborn Hann.
J. Chem. Soc. , Trans . 1903 , 83 , 1114-1129
DOI: 10.1039/CT9038301114
A very instructive paper and one of the earliest examples containing a definitive proof of the role of acid in accelerating keto- enol tautomerism. The authors prepared the me n thyl ( not methyl) ester of acetoacetic acid [(+)-menthol is an optically active alcohol readily available from natural sources] and measured its optical activity. They found that the me n thyl ester underwent mutarotation to an extent that was dependent on the solvent, with the rate of mutarotation being highly dependent on acid. This demonstrates the establishment of an equilibrium between the keto and enol forms.
2. The Action of Halogens on Compounds Containing The Carbonyl Group
Arthur Lapworth
J. Chem. Soc., Trans . , 1904 ,85, 30-42
DOI: 10.1039/CT9048500030
Pioneering study on halogenation of carbonyl compounds.
“Bromination of acetone under the conditions maintained is best regarded as the result of a slow, reversible change effected in the acetone by the hydrogen ions, followed by an almost instantaneous bromination of the product, a change which is not appreciably reversible. This intermediate product is perhaps the enolic form of the ketone , as it has been already shown that in many cases the rapid attainment of equilibrium between the tautomeric forms of carbonyl compounds is brought about by acids.”
3. Ueber die Condensation von Aethylmethylketon mit Benzaldehyd (Condensation of Ethyl Methyl Ketone With Benzaldehyde)
C. Harries, G. Hans Muller
Ber. 1902 , 35(1), 966-971
DOI: 10.1002/cber.190203501156
Condensation of ethyl methyl ketone with benzaldehyde under acidic conditions results in the more-substituted aldol condensation product in high yield!
4. Optical Activity In Relation to Tautomeric Change. Part IV. Comparison of the Rates of Racemization and of Bromination of a Ketone
C. K. Ingold and C. L. Wilson
J. Chem. Soc. 1934 , 773.
DOI : 10.1039/JR9340000773
Rate of bromination is essentially the same as the rate of racemization, consistent with enol formation as the rate-limiting step. “In chloroform and glacial acetic acid, racemization of the d - ketone was extremely slow but became very rapid in the presence of traces of hydrogen bromide”.
5. Carbonyl Reactions. VI. Evidence for Alternate Mechanisms for the Dehydration of β-Hydroxy Ketones 1
Donald S. Noyce and Wilmer L. Reed
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1958 80 (20), 5539-5542
DOI : 10.1021/ja01553a056
This paper studies the acid-catalyzed aldol reaction of methyl ethyl ketone and various substituted benzaldehydes. The key nugget here is that the final dehydration step is proposed to occur through the enol form of the addition product when the aromatic ring has an electron-neutral (Ph) or electron poor (NO 2 ) group in the para position, but through ionization (i.e. benzyl carbocation formation) with an electron-rich (OCH3) group in the para position. Stated reason is that there is only a 3fold change in rate for elimination step from p-methyoxyl to 3-nitro, inconsistent with what one would see if it involved a benzyl carbonium ion.
Worth noting that Donald Noyce’s brother was physicist Robert Noyce , the co-founder of Intel.
6. Carbonyl Reactions. VIII. The Kinetics of the Acid-catalyzed Condensation of Benzaldehyde and p-Nitrobenzaldehyde with Methyl Ethyl Ketone . Some Observations on ρ-σ Correlations 1
Donald S. Noyce and Lloyd R. Snyder
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1959 81 (3), 620-624
DOI : 10.1021/ja01512a029
Part 8 of a series of papers from 1958-59 from the Noyce laboratory studying the acid-catalyzed aldol reaction between methyl ethyl ketone and substituted benzaldehydes.
7. Acid-catalyzed enolization and aldol condensation of acetaldehyde
Lynn M. Baigrie, Robin A. Cox, Henryka Slebocka-Tilk, Michal Tencer, and Thomas T. Tidwell
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1985 107 (12), 3640-3645
DOI : 10.1021/ja00298a039
Extensive physical-organic-chemistry study on the acid-catalyzed aldol condensation of the simple aldehyde , ethanal (acetaldehyde). The rate-limiting step is addition of the enol to protonated acetaldehyde. Notably their work is also consistent with the elimination of water occurring from the enol form of the addition product.
Two other useful snippets: “acetaldehyde is completely protonated to its conjugate acid in H 2 SO 4 stronger than 64%. “Enolization of ketones is known to involve two water molecules acting together as a base”.
8. Acid-catalyzed Robinson Annelations
Clayton H. Heathcock, John E. Ellis, John E. McMurry, Anthony Coppolino,
Tetrahedron Letters, 12(52), 1971 , 4995-4996
DOI: 10.1016/S0040-4039(01)97609-9.
This study contains several examples of acid-catalyzed Robinson annulations.
9. The Mannich Reaction with 2-Methylcyclopentanone and 2-Methylcyclo hexanone 1a
Herbert O. House and Barry M. Trost
The Journal of Organic Chemistry 1964 29 (6), 1339-1341
DOI : 10.1021/jo01029a016
Several useful examples of Mannich reactions which show that they tend to go through the more substituted enol . | https://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2010/06/02/the-acid-catalyzed-aldol-reaction/ | 128 |
can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | Aldol condensation - Wikipedia | An aldol condensation is a condensation reaction in organic chemistry in which two carbonyl moieties (of aldehydes or ketones ) react to form a β-hydroxyaldehyde or β-hydroxyketone (an aldol reaction ), and this is then followed by dehydration to give a conjugated enone .
The overall reaction equation is as follows (where the Rs can be H)
Aldol condensations are important in organic synthesis and biochemistry as ways to form carbon–carbon bonds . [2] [3] [4] [5]
In its usual form, it involves the nucleophilic addition of a ketone enolate to an aldehyde to form a β-hydroxy ketone, or aldol ( ald ehyde + alcoh ol ), a structural unit found in many naturally occurring molecules and pharmaceuticals . [6] [7] [8]
The term aldol condensation is also commonly used, especially in biochemistry , to refer to just the first (addition) stage of the process—the aldol reaction itself—as catalyzed by aldolases . However, the first step is formally an addition reaction rather than a condensation reaction because it does not involve the loss of a small molecule.
This section needs expansion with: actually discuss the dehydration mechanisms, not just present an image of them. You can help by . ( June 2018 )
The first part of this reaction is an Aldol reaction , the second part a dehydration—an elimination reaction (Involves removal of a water molecule or an alcohol molecule). Dehydration may be accompanied by decarboxylation when an activated carboxyl group is present. The aldol addition product can be dehydrated via two mechanisms; a strong base like potassium t -butoxide , potassium hydroxide or sodium hydride deprotonates the product to an enolate , which eliminates via the E1cB mechanism , [9] [10] while dehydration in acid proceeds via an E1 reaction mechanism. Depending on the nature of the desired product, the aldol condensation may be carried out under two broad types of conditions: kinetic control or thermodynamic control . [11] Both ketones & aldehydes are suitable for aldol condensation reactions. In the examples below, aldehydes are used.
|animation, base catalyzed||animation, acid catalyzed|
A crossed aldol condensation is a result of two dissimilar carbonyl compounds containing α-hydrogen(s) undergoing aldol condensation. Ordinarily, this leads to four possible products as either carbonyl compound can act as the nucleophile and self-condensation is possible, which makes a synthetically useless mixture. However, this problem can be avoided if one of the compounds does not contain an α-hydrogen, rendering it non-enolizable. In an aldol condensation between an aldehyde and a ketone, the ketone acts as the nucleophile, as its carbonyl carbon does not possess high electrophilic character due to the +I effect and steric hindrance . Usually, the crossed product is the major one. Any traces of the self-aldol product from the aldehyde may be disallowed by first preparing a mixture of a suitable base and the ketone and then adding the aldehyde slowly to the said reaction mixture. Using too concentrated base could lead to a competing Cannizzaro reaction . [12]
In the Aldox process developed by Royal Dutch Shell and Exxon , converts propene and syngas to 2-ethylhexanol via hydroformylation to butyraldehyde , aldol condensation to 2-ethylhexenal and finally hydrogenation . [13]
Pentaerythritol is produced on a large scale beginning with crossed aldol condensation of acetaldehyde and three equivalents of formaldehyde to give pentaerythrose, which is further reduced in a Cannizzaro reaction . [14]
Ethyl 2-methylacetoacetate and campholenic aldehyde react in an Aldol condensation. [15] The synthetic procedure [16] is typical for this type of reaction. In the process, in addition to water, an equivalent of ethanol and carbon dioxide are lost in decarboxylation .
Ethyl glyoxylate 2 and glutaconate (diethyl-2-methylpent-2-enedioate) 1 react to isoprenetricarboxylic acid 3 ( isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene) skeleton) with sodium ethoxide . This reaction product is very unstable with initial loss of carbon dioxide and followed by many secondary reactions. This is believed to be due to steric strain resulting from the methyl group and the carboxylic group in the cis -dienoid structure. [17]
Occasionally, an aldol condensation is buried in a multistep reaction or in catalytic cycle as in the following example: [18]
In this reaction an alkynal 1 is converted into a cycloalkene 7 with a ruthenium catalyst and the actual condensation takes place with intermediate 3 through 5 . Support for the reaction mechanism is based on isotope labeling . [19]
The reaction between menthone ((2 S ,5 R )-2-isopropyl-5-methylcyclohexanone) and anisaldehyde (4-methoxybenzaldehyde) is complicated due to steric shielding of the ketone group. This obstacle is overcome by using a strong base such as potassium hydroxide and a very polar solvent such as DMSO in the reaction below: [20]
The product can epimerize by way of a common intermediate— enolate A —to convert between the original ( S , R ) and the ( R , R ) epimers. The ( R , R ) product is insoluble in the reaction solvent whereas the ( S , R ) is soluble. The precipitation of the ( R , R ) product drives the epimerization equilibrium reaction to form this as the major product.
There are other reactions of carbonyl compounds similar to aldol condensation:
- When the base is an amine and the active hydrogen compound is sufficiently activated the reaction is called a Knoevenagel condensation .
- In a Perkin reaction the aldehyde is aromatic and the enolate generated from an anhydride .
- Claisen-Schmidt condensation between an aldehyde or ketone having an α-hydrogen with an aromatic carbonyl compound lacking an α-hydrogen.
- A Claisen condensation involves two ester compounds.
- A Dieckmann condensation involves two ester groups in the same molecule and yields a cyclic molecule
- In the Japp–Maitland condensation water is removed not by an elimination reaction but by a nucleophilic displacement
- A Robinson annulation involves an α,β- unsaturated ketone and a carbonyl group, which first engage in a Michael reaction prior to the aldol condensation. [3]
- In the Guerbet reaction , an aldehyde, formed in situ from an alcohol, self-condenses to the dimerized alcohol.
- ^ Wade, L. G. (2005). Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 1056 –1066. ISBN 0-13-236731-9 .
- ^ Mahrwald, R. (2004). Modern Aldol Reactions . Vol. 1, 2. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH. pp. 1218–1223. ISBN 3-527-30714-1 .
- ^ Heathcock, C. H. (1991). Additions to C-X π-Bonds, Part 2 . Comprehensive Organic Synthesis. Selectivity, Strategy and Efficiency in Modern Organic Chemistry. Vol. 2. Oxford: Pergamon. pp. 133–179. ISBN 0-08-040593-2 .
- ^ Mukaiyama T. (1982). "The Directed Aldol Reaction". Organic Reactions . 28 : 203–331. doi : 10.1002/0471264180.or028.03 . ISBN 0471264180 .
- ^ Paterson, I. (1988). "New Asymmetric Aldol Methodology Using Boron Enolates". Chemistry and Industry . London: Paterson Group. 12 : 390–394.
- ^ Nielsen, A. T.; Houlihan., W. J. (1968). "The Aldol Condensation". Organic Reactions . 16 : 1–438. doi : 10.1002/0471264180.or016.01 . ISBN 0471264180 .
- ^ Perrin, C. L.; Chang, K. L. (2016). "The Complete Mechanism of an Aldol Condensation" . J. Org. Chem . 81 (13): 5631–5. doi : 10.1021/acs.joc.6b00959 . PMID 27281298 .
- ^ Carey, Francis A.; Sundberg, Richard J. (1993). Advanced Organic Chemistry Part A: Structure and Mechanisms (3rd ed.). New York, N.Y.: Plenum. pp. 458 . ISBN 0-306-43440-7 .
- ^ Sanyal, S.N. (2003). Reactions, Rearrangements and Reagents (4th ed.). Daryagunj, New Delhi: Bharati Bhavan Publishers (P&D). p. 80. ISBN 978-81-7709-605-7 .
- ^ For example, BG 881979
- ^ Schurink, H. B. J. (1925). "Pentaerythritol" . Organic Syntheses . 4 : 53. doi : 10.15227/orgsyn.004.0053 . ; Collective Volume , vol. 1, p. 425
- ^ Badía, C.; Castro, J. M.; Linares-Palomino, P. J.; Salido, S.; Altarejos, J.; Nogueras, M.; Sánchez, A. (2004). "(E)-6-(2,2,3-Trimethyl-cyclopent-3-enyl)-hex-4-en-3-one" . Molbank . 2004 (1): M388. doi : 10.3390/M388 .
- ^ Ethyl 2-methylacetoacetate ( 2 ) is added to a stirred solution of sodium hydride in dioxane . Then campholenic aldehyde ( 1 ) is added and the mixture refluxed for 15 h. Then 2N hydrochloric acid is added and the mixture extracted with diethyl ether . The combined organic layers are washed with 2N hydrochloric acid , saturated sodium bicarbonate and brine . The organic phase is dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and the solvent evaporated under reduced pressure to yield a residue that is purified by vacuum distillation to give 3 (58%).
- ^ Goren, M. B.; Sokoloski, E. A.; Fales, H. M. (2005). "2-Methyl-(1 Z ,3 E )-butadiene-1,3,4-tricarboxylic Acid, "Isoprenetricarboxylic Acid"". Journal of Organic Chemistry . 70 (18): 7429–7431. doi : 10.1021/jo0507892 . PMID 16122270 .
- ^ Varela, J. A.; Gonzalez-Rodriguez, C.; Rubin, S. G.; Castedo, L.; Saa, C. (2006). "Ru-Catalyzed Cyclization of Terminal Alkynals to Cycloalkenes". Journal of the American Chemical Society . 128 (30): 9576–9577. doi : 10.1021/ja0610434 . PMID 16866480 .
- ^ The ruthenium catalyst , [CpRu(CH 3 CN) 3 ]PF 6 , has a cyclopentadienyl ligand , three acetonitrile ligands and a phosphorus hexafluoride counterion ; the acidic proton in the solvent ( acetic acid ) is replaced by deuterium for isotopic labeling . Reaction conditions: 90°C, 24 hrs. 80% chemical yield . The first step is formation of the Transition metal carbene complex 2 . Acetic acid adds to this intermediate in a nucleophilic addition to form enolate 3 followed by aldol condensation to 5 at which stage a molecule of carbon monoxide is lost to 6 . The final step is reductive elimination to form the cycloalkene.
- ^ Vashchenko, V.; Kutulya, L.; Krivoshey, A. (2007). "Simple and Effective Protocol for Claisen–Schmidt Condensation of Hindered Cyclic Ketones with Aromatic Aldehydes". Synthesis . 2007 (14): 2125–2134. doi : 10.1055/s-2007-983746 .
- ^ Heat is usually added manually through the use of a hot plate, or is already present through the use of an exothermic catalyst reaction, such as when - OCH 3 is used as the base.
This drives the second step, by removing water, it allows the reactions equilibrium to continually favor the dehydration mechanism, converting the temporary addition product present to its final condensation product. Otherwise a significant amount of unwanted aldol addition side product would be formed alongside the aldol condensation product. [1] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldol_condensation | 128 |
can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | Aldol Condensation Reaction | ChemTalk | In this organic chemistry tutorial, you will learn the basics of the aldol condensation reaction, its mechanisms, the enol intermediate, and the Claisen Condensation.
The aldol condensation involves the reaction of two carbonyl -containing molecules to form an unsaturated carbonyl molecule, with a C=C double bond between two carbons adjacent to the carbonyl, as shown below. Generally, the aldol condensation must involve at least one ketone , while the other molecule can be either a ketone or an aldehyde as starting material. The structure of the unsaturated carbonyl product depends on the structure of the reactant carbonyls.
Though aldol condensations can occur with a variety of R groups, the most common form of the reaction involves a methyl ketone and an aldehyde, which form an unbranching unsaturated carbonyl.
Additionally, all aldol condensations result in a net loss of two hydrogens and one oxygen. Essentially, this net loss is equivalent to one water molecule, which is why chemists call this reaction a “ condensation .”
The enol molecule is an important intermediate in aldol condensations and shows up in many other organic reactions. By definition, the structure involves a C=C double bond (-ene-) and an adjacent alcohol (-ol), forming what chemists call an enol (-ene- plus -ol).
Ultimately, this combination of functional groups tends to be unstable , due to the favorability of carbonyl groups relative to enol groups. Consequently, enol molecules quickly undergo keto-enol tautomerization under basic or neutral conditions, forming what chemists call an enolate ion, containing a carbonyl and a carbanion. Alternatively, acidic conditions stabilize the enol molecule somewhat, but enol molecules tend to be particularly reactive.
Interestingly, aldol condensations can occur in either acidic or basic conditions , but the reaction mechanisms under either condition are different. In either condition, both mechanisms involve the deprotonation of the carbon next to the carbonyl . This is because the electron-withdrawing effect of the carbonyl increases the acidity of the adjacent carbon’s hydrogens. Note that both mechanisms involve the molecules HA and B, which indicate a generic acid and generic base, respectively.
To begin the condensation reaction, a base deprotonates the carbon next to the carbonyl group on the first molecule, forming an enolate molecule. This creates a nucleophilic carbon , due to the newly freed electron pair as a result of the deprotonation.
Second, the nucleophilic carbon attacks the second molecule at the carbon double bonded to oxygen, which is electrophilic due to the oxygen’s electronegativity. This pushes an electron pair from the carbonyl double bond onto the oxygen, forming an anion. However, this oxygen is quickly protonated, resulting in an alcohol.
Third, an elimination reaction occurs where the acidic carbon is deprotonated a second time, forming another carbanion intermediate. The free electron pair proceeds to form a double bond with the carbon carrying the alcohol, ejecting the alcohol . Notably, chemists call this step an E1cB reaction, characterized by a strong acid deprotonation (the central carbon) and a relatively poor leaving group (the alcohol). The “E1″ means that it is a unimolecular elimination, while the “cB” means “conjugate base,” which relates to the carbanion intermediate.
Finally, the unsaturated carbonyl product is formed.
To begin, the carbonyl of the first molecule is protonated while the adjacent carbon is deprotonated , forming an enol molecule.
Second, one electron pair from the double bond then attacks the carbonyl of the second molecule. This forms an oxygen ion which is quickly protonated, similar to the mechanism under basic conditions. Additionally, this nucleophilic attack allows the reformation of the carbonyl on the first molecule.
Third, an elimination reaction occurs. Unlike under basic conditions, this step proceeds predominantly through an E1 reaction pathway (although little amounts of E2 reactions might be present), which involves a strong leaving group and carbocation formation. To begin, the newly formed alcohol is protonated a second time, creating a strong leaving group of a water molecule. As the water molecule leaves , a carbocation forms, which makes the hydrogens of the central carbon more acidic. This allows for a second deprotonation, freeing another pair of electrons that form a double bond .
One important aldol condensation example is the Claisen Condensation . Specifically, this reaction involves ester molecules and follows the base condition mechanism. However, a carboxy salt with the same alkyl group as the esters must serve as the base. This is to prevent the replacement of the carboxy group of the carbonyl molecules. Another important distinction is that the end product is a dicarbonyl molecule, rather than an unsaturated monocarbonyl.
To begin a Claisen Condensation, the carbon next to the first molecule’s carbonyl is deprotonated . The resulting carbanion then attacks the electrophilic carbonyl carbon of the second molecule. Consequently, the C=O bond reforms, ejecting the carboxy group .
Next, if the Claisen Condensation takes place in water , then an alcohol group replaces the remaining ester group. This results in a carboxylic acid group .
However, this carboxylic acid molecule lacks stability and will break down at high temperatures. Specifically, a decarboxylation occurs, involving a circular movement of electrons that cleaves the carboxylic acid, releasing carbon dioxide . The resulting enol molecule then tautomerizes into a ketone . Decarboxylation occurs in many important biological pathways, most notably in the citric acid cycle. | https://chemistrytalk.org/aldol-condensation-reaction/ | 128 |
can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | Aldol Condensation - Acid Catalyzed | Notes | PharmaXChange.info | Aldol condensation reaction can be either acid catalyzed or base catalyzed . This page deals with the acid catalysis mechanism of the aldol reaction. Earlier, this reaction was thought to occur only with aldehydes. However, it has been realized that a similar reaction would occur with ketones and reactive carbonyl compounds with available α-hydrogens (the need for which will be apparent with the mechanism below).
The reaction proceeds with the condensation of an aldehyde (or carbonyl compound) with an enol. The product formed has an aldehyde (or carbonyl) group and a β-hydroxy (alcohol) group, giving the product the name aldol (or if the carbonyl compound is a ketone it maybe called a ketol). This condensation is often followed by spontaneous dehydration due to β-elimination to produce an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde or α,β-unsaturated ketone.
The mechanisms for acid catalyzed aldol condensation and base catalyzed aldol condensation is significantly different. While bases activate the nucleophile, acids activate the electrophile in the reaction.
It must be noted that aldol condensation is an integral mechanism of Robinson annulation as well.
In step 1 of the reaction, the acid acts as a proton donor and activates the carbonyl oxygen into a protonated form.
In step 2, the intermediate 1 reacts with the conjugate base of the acid (i.e. A-) to produce the enol (intermediate 2).
This step involves the conjugation of the enol (intermediate 2) with another molecule of the activated carbonyl compound (intermediate 1) to produce the aldol (or ketol).
In step 4, the aldol (or ketol) undergoes spontaneous dehydration due to base catalyzed dehydration to yield the α,β-unsaturated aldehyde or α,β-unsaturated ketone.
Check out some of the best textbooks for Organic Chemistry
- Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions and synthesis. By Francis A. Carey, Richard J. Sundberg
- Organic Chemistry, 6th Edition. By Robert T. Morrison and Robert N. Boyd
- Organic-Chemistry.org – http://www.organic-chemistry.org/namedreactions/aldol-condensation.shtm(accessed on June 29, 2011) | https://pharmaxchange.info/2011/06/aldol-condensation-acid-catalyzed/ | 128 |
can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | 23.8: The Aldol Reaction and Condensation of Ketones and Aldehydes | A useful carbon-carbon bond-forming reaction known as the Aldol Reaction is yet another example of electrophilic substitution at the alpha carbon in enolate anions. The fundamental transformation in this reaction is a dimerization of an aldehyde (or ketone) to a beta-hydroxy aldehyde (or ketone) by alpha C–H addition of one reactant molecule to the carbonyl group of a second reactant molecule. Due to the carbanion like nature of enolates they can add to carbonyls in a similar manner as Grignard reagents. For this reaction to occur at least one of the reactants must have alpha hydrogens.
The aldol reactions for acetaldehyde and acetone are shown as examples.
Example: Aldol Reactions
Step 1: Enolate formation
Step 2: Nucleophilic reaction by the enolate
Step 3: Protonation
The products of aldol reactions often undergo a subsequent elimination of water, made up of an alpha-hydrogen and the beta-hydroxyl group. The product of this
-elimination reaction is an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde or ketone. Base-catalyzed elimination occurs with heating. The additional stability provided by the conjugated carbonyl system of the product makes some aldol reactions thermodynamically driven and mixtures of stereoisomers ( E & Z ) are obtained from some reactions. Reactions in which a larger molecule is formed from smaller components, with the elimination of a very small by-product such as water, are termed Condensations . Hence, the following examples are properly referred to as aldol condensations . Overall the general reaction involves a dehydration of an aldol product to form an alkene:
Going from reactants to products simply
Example: Aldol Condensation from an Aldol Reaction Product
1) Form enolate
2) Form enone
Under acidic conditions an enol is formed and the hydroxy group is protonated. Water is expelled by either and E1 or E2 reaction.
When performing both reactions together always consider the aldol product first then convert to the enone. Note! The double bond always forms in conjugation with the carbonyl.
Example: Aldol Condensation Directly from the Ketones or Aldehydes
Aldol reactions are excellent methods for the synthesis of many enones or beta hydroxy carbonyls. Because of this, being able to predict when an aldol reaction might be used in a synthesis in an important skill. This accomplished by mentally breaking apart the target molecule and then considering what the starting materials might be.
Fragments which are easily made by an aldol reaction
Steps to 'reverse' the aldol reaction (from the final aldol product towards identifying the starting compounds).
1) From an enone break the double bond and form two single bonds. Place and OH on the bond furthest from the carbonyl and an H on the bond closest to the carbonyl.
2) From the aldol product break the C-C bond between the alpha carbon and the carbon attached to the OH. Then turn the OH into a carbonyl and add an hydrogen to the other carbon.
Example: Determining the Reactant when given the Aldol Condensation Product
What reactant must be used to make the following molecule using an aldol condensation?
Solution
The previous examples of aldol reactions and condensations used a common reactant as both the enolic donor and the electrophilic acceptor. The product in such cases is always a dimer of the reactant carbonyl compound. Aldol condensations between different carbonyl reactants are called crossed or mixed reactions, and under certain conditions such crossed aldol condensations can be effective.
Example: Mixed Aldol Reaction (One Product)
The success of these mixed aldol reactions is due to two factors. First, aldehydes are more reactive acceptor electrophiles than ketones, and formaldehyde is more reactive than other aldehydes. Second, aldehydes lacking alpha-hydrogens can only function as acceptor reactants, and this reduces the number of possible products by half. Mixed aldols in which both reactants can serve as donors and acceptors generally give complex mixtures of both dimeric (homo) aldols and crossed aldols. Because of this most mixed aldol reactions are usually not performed unless one reactant has no alpha hydrogens.
The following abbreviated formulas illustrate the possible products in such a case, red letters representing the acceptor component and blue the donor. If all the reactions occurred at the same rate, equal quantities of the four products would be obtained. Separation and purification of the components of such a mixture would be difficult.
A CH 2 CHO + B CH 2 CHO + NaOH
A – A + B – B + A – B + B – A
Example: Products of a Mixed Aldol Reaction
The aldol condensation of ketones with aryl aldehydes to form α,β-unsaturated derivatives is called the Claisen-Schmidt reaction.
Example: Claisen-Schmidt Reaction
Molecules which contain two carbonyl functionalities have the possibility of forming a ring through an intramolecular aldol reaction. In most cases two sets of
hydrogens need to be considered. As with most ring forming reaction five and six membered rings are preferred (less ring strain).
As with other aldol reaction the addition of heat causes an aldol condensation to occur.
Exercise
12. Draw the bond-line structures for the products of the reactions below. Note: One of the reactions is a poorly designed aldol condensation producing four different products. | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)_Complete_and_Semesters_I_and_II/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)/23%3A_Alpha_Substitutions_and_Condensations_of_Carbonyl_Compounds/23.08%3A_The_Aldol_Reaction_and_Condensation_of_Ketones_and_Aldehydes | 128 |
can aldol condensation take place in acidic medium | 23.8: The Aldol Reaction and Condensation of Ketones and Aldehydes | A useful carbon-carbon bond-forming reaction known as the Aldol Reaction is yet another example of electrophilic substitution at the alpha carbon in enolate anions. The fundamental transformation in this reaction is a dimerization of an aldehyde (or ketone) to a beta-hydroxy aldehyde (or ketone) by alpha C–H addition of one reactant molecule to the carbonyl group of a second reactant molecule. Due to the carbanion like nature of enolates they can add to carbonyls in a similar manner as Grignard reagents. For this reaction to occur at least one of the reactants must have alpha hydrogens.
The aldol reactions for acetaldehyde and acetone are shown as examples.
Example: Aldol Reactions
Step 1: Enolate formation
Step 2: Nucleophilic reaction by the enolate
Step 3: Protonation
The products of aldol reactions often undergo a subsequent elimination of water, made up of an alpha-hydrogen and the beta-hydroxyl group. The product of this
-elimination reaction is an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde or ketone. Base-catalyzed elimination occurs with heating. The additional stability provided by the conjugated carbonyl system of the product makes some aldol reactions thermodynamically driven and mixtures of stereoisomers ( E & Z ) are obtained from some reactions. Reactions in which a larger molecule is formed from smaller components, with the elimination of a very small by-product such as water, are termed Condensations . Hence, the following examples are properly referred to as aldol condensations . Overall the general reaction involves a dehydration of an aldol product to form an alkene:
Going from reactants to products simply
Example: Aldol Condensation from an Aldol Reaction Product
1) Form enolate
2) Form enone
Under acidic conditions an enol is formed and the hydroxy group is protonated. Water is expelled by either and E1 or E2 reaction.
When performing both reactions together always consider the aldol product first then convert to the enone. Note! The double bond always forms in conjugation with the carbonyl.
Example: Aldol Condensation Directly from the Ketones or Aldehydes
Aldol reactions are excellent methods for the synthesis of many enones or beta hydroxy carbonyls. Because of this, being able to predict when an aldol reaction might be used in a synthesis in an important skill. This accomplished by mentally breaking apart the target molecule and then considering what the starting materials might be.
Fragments which are easily made by an aldol reaction
Steps to 'reverse' the aldol reaction (from the final aldol product towards identifying the starting compounds).
1) From an enone break the double bond and form two single bonds. Place and OH on the bond furthest from the carbonyl and an H on the bond closest to the carbonyl.
2) From the aldol product break the C-C bond between the alpha carbon and the carbon attached to the OH. Then turn the OH into a carbonyl and add an hydrogen to the other carbon.
Example: Determining the Reactant when given the Aldol Condensation Product
What reactant must be used to make the following molecule using an aldol condensation?
Solution
The previous examples of aldol reactions and condensations used a common reactant as both the enolic donor and the electrophilic acceptor. The product in such cases is always a dimer of the reactant carbonyl compound. Aldol condensations between different carbonyl reactants are called crossed or mixed reactions, and under certain conditions such crossed aldol condensations can be effective.
Example: Mixed Aldol Reaction (One Product)
The success of these mixed aldol reactions is due to two factors. First, aldehydes are more reactive acceptor electrophiles than ketones, and formaldehyde is more reactive than other aldehydes. Second, aldehydes lacking alpha-hydrogens can only function as acceptor reactants, and this reduces the number of possible products by half. Mixed aldols in which both reactants can serve as donors and acceptors generally give complex mixtures of both dimeric (homo) aldols and crossed aldols. Because of this most mixed aldol reactions are usually not performed unless one reactant has no alpha hydrogens.
The following abbreviated formulas illustrate the possible products in such a case, red letters representing the acceptor component and blue the donor. If all the reactions occurred at the same rate, equal quantities of the four products would be obtained. Separation and purification of the components of such a mixture would be difficult.
A CH 2 CHO + B CH 2 CHO + NaOH
A – A + B – B + A – B + B – A
Example: Products of a Mixed Aldol Reaction
The aldol condensation of ketones with aryl aldehydes to form α,β-unsaturated derivatives is called the Claisen-Schmidt reaction.
Example: Claisen-Schmidt Reaction
Molecules which contain two carbonyl functionalities have the possibility of forming a ring through an intramolecular aldol reaction. In most cases two sets of
hydrogens need to be considered. As with most ring forming reaction five and six membered rings are preferred (less ring strain).
As with other aldol reaction the addition of heat causes an aldol condensation to occur.
Exercise
12. Draw the bond-line structures for the products of the reactions below. Note: One of the reactions is a poorly designed aldol condensation producing four different products. | https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)_Complete_and_Semesters_I_and_II/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)/23%3A_Alpha_Substitutions_and_Condensations_of_Carbonyl_Compounds/23.08%3A_The_Aldol_Reaction_and_Condensation_of_Ketones_and_Aldehydes | 128 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | Monetary policy of the United States | Core CPI
The monetary policy of The United States is the set of policies related to the minting and printing of United States dollars , plus the legal exchange of currency , demand deposits , the money supply , etc. In the United States , the central bank , The Federal Reserve System , colloquially known as "The Fed" is the monetary authority .
It is significant to point out that the United States uses a fiat currency as of 1933, whereas from 1873 - 1933 a precious metal standard or gold standard was in use.
The Federal Reserve's board of governors , along with the Open Market Committee are the principle arbiters of monetary policy in the United States, though the U.S. is unique in that the monetary policy role is ultimately shared along with the United States Treasury ( US Treasury Securities ). The Treasury is the penultimate agency on fiscal policy , though it is directly involved in monetary policy through printing & minting federal reserve notes and treasurys .
The Fed is largely concerned with policies related to the issuance of loans (including reserve rate and interest rates ), along with other policies that determine the size and rate of growth of the money supply (such as buying and selling government bonds), whereas the Treasury deals directly with minting and printing as well as budgeting the government. The U.S. Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long-term interest rates.
The Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve System in 1913 as the central bank of the United States . Its primary task is to "conduct the nation's monetary policy to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates in the U.S. economy". It is also tasked to promote the stability of the financial system and regulate financial institutions, and to act as lender of last resort . [1] [2]
The monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which is composed of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors and 5 out of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents, and is implemented by all twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks .
Monetary policy refers to actions made by central banks which determine the size and growth rate of the money supply available in the economy, and which would result in desired objectives like low inflation, low unemployment and stable financial systems. The economy's aggregate money supply is the total of
- M0 money, or Monetary Base - "dollars" in currency and bank money balances credited to the central bank's depositors, which are backed by the central bank's assets,
- plus M1, M2, M3 money - "dollars" in the form of bank money balances credited to banks' depositors, which are backed by the bank's assets and investments.
The FOMC influences the level of money available to the economy by the following means:
- Reserve requirements - specifies a required minimum percentage of deposits in a commercial bank that should be held as reserve (i.e. as deposits with the Federal Reserve), with the rest available to loan or invest. Higher requirements mean less money loaned or invested, helping keep inflation in check. Raising the federal funds rate earned on those reserves also helps achieve this objective.
- Open market operations - the Federal Reserve buys or sells US Treasury bonds and other securities held by banks in exchange for reserves; more reserves increase a bank's capacity to loan or invest elsewhere.
- Discount window lending - banks can borrow from the Federal Reserve.
Monetary policy directly affects interest rates; it indirectly affects stock prices, wealth, and currency exchange rates. Through these channels, monetary policy influences spending, investment, production, employment, and inflation in the United States. Effective monetary policy complements fiscal policy to support economic growth.
The Federal Reserve 's monetary policy objectives to keep prices stable and unemployment low is often called the dual mandate . This replaces past practices under a gold standard where the main concern is the gold equivalent of the local currency, or under a gold exchange standard where the concern is fixing the exchange rate versus another gold-convertible currency (previously practiced worldwide under the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 via fixed exchange rates to the U.S. dollar).
Yearly M2 money supply increases
Monthly M2 money supply increases
Monthly M2 money supply decreases
M2
M1
The money supply has different components, generally broken down into "narrow" and "broad" money, reflecting the different degrees of liquidity ('spendability') of each different type, as broader forms of money can be converted into narrow forms of money (or may be readily accepted as money by others, such as personal checks). [3]
For example, demand deposits are technically promises to pay on demand, while savings deposits are promises to pay subject to some withdrawal restrictions, and Certificates of Deposit are promises to pay only at certain specified dates; each can be converted into money, but "narrow" forms of money can be converted more readily. The Federal Reserve directly controls only the most narrow form of money, physical cash outstanding along with the reserves of banks throughout the country (known as M0 or the monetary base); the Federal Reserve indirectly influences the supply of other types of money. [3]
Broad money includes money held in deposit balances in banks and other forms created in the financial system. Basic economics also teaches that the money supply shrinks when loans are repaid; [4] [5] however, the money supply will not necessarily decrease depending on the creation of new loans and other effects. Other than loans, investment activities of commercial banks and the Federal Reserve also increase and decrease the money supply. [6] Discussion of "money" often confuses the different measures and may lead to misguided commentary on monetary policy and misunderstandings of policy discussions. [7]
In August 2020, after undershooting its 2% inflation target for years, the Fed announced it would be allowing inflation to temporarily rise higher, in order to target an average of 2% over the longer term. [11] [12] It is still unclear if this change will make much practical difference in monetary policy anytime soon. [13]
Monetary policy in the US is determined and implemented by the US Federal Reserve System , commonly referred to as the Federal Reserve. Established in 1913 by the Federal Reserve Act to provide central banking functions, [14] the Federal Reserve System is a quasi-public institution. Ostensibly, the Federal Reserve Banks are 12 private banking corporations; [15] [16] [17] they are independent in their day-to-day operations, but legislatively accountable to Congress through the auspices of Federal Reserve Board of Governors .
The Board of Governors is an independent governmental agency consisting of seven officials and their support staff of over 1800 employees headquartered in Washington, D.C. [18] It is independent in the sense that the Board currently operates without official obligation to accept the requests or advice of any elected official with regard to actions on the money supply , [19] and its methods of funding also preserve independence. The Governors are nominated by the President of the United States , and nominations must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate . [20] There is very strong economic consensus that independence from political influence is good for monetary policy. [21]
The presidents of the Federal Reserve Banks are nominated by each bank's respective Board of Directors, but must also be approved by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve. The Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board is generally considered to have the most important position, followed by the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. [20] The Federal Reserve System is primarily funded by interest collected on their portfolio of securities from the US Treasury, and the Fed has broad discretion in drafting its own budget, [22] but, historically, nearly all the interest the Federal Reserve collects is rebated to the government each year. [23]
The Federal Reserve has four main mechanisms for manipulating the money supply. It can buy or sell treasury securities . Selling securities has the effect of reducing the monetary base (because it accepts money in return for purchase of securities), taking that money out of circulation. Purchasing treasury securities increases the monetary base (because it pays out hard currency in exchange for accepting securities). Secondly, the discount rate can be changed. Third, the Federal Reserve can adjust the reserve requirement , which can affect the money multiplier ; the reserve requirement is adjusted only infrequently, and was last adjusted in March 2020, at which time it was set to zero. [24] At a reserve requirement of zero, the money multiplier is undefined, because calculating it would involve division by zero . In October 2008 the Federal Reserve added a fourth mechanism by beginning to pay interest on reserves, which one year later the Fed Chairman described as the "most important tool" the Fed could use to raise interest rates. [25] [26]
In practice, the Federal Reserve uses open market operations to influence short-term interest rates, which is the primary tool of monetary policy. The federal funds rate , for which the Federal Open Market Committee announces a target on a regular basis, reflects one of the key rates for interbank lending. Open market operations change the supply of reserve balances, and the federal funds rate is sensitive to these operations. [27]
In theory, the Federal Reserve has unlimited capacity to influence this rate, and although the federal funds rate is set by banks borrowing and lending funds to each other, the federal funds rate generally stays within a limited range above and below the target (as participants are aware of the Fed's power to influence this rate).
Assuming a closed economy , where foreign capital or trade does not affect the money supply, when money supply increases, interest rates go down. Businesses and consumers have a lower cost of capital and can increase spending and capital improvement projects. This encourages short-term growth. Conversely, when the money supply falls, interest rates go up, increasing the cost of capital and leading to more conservative spending and investment. The Federal reserve increases interest rates to combat Inflation .
A United States Treasury security is an IOU from the US Government. It is a government debt instrument issued by the United States Department of the Treasury to finance government spending as an alternative to taxation. Treasury securities are often referred to simply as "Treasuries". Since 2012 the management of government debt has been arranged by the Bureau of the Fiscal Service , succeeding the Bureau of the Public Debt .
When money is deposited in a bank, it can then be lent out to another person. If the initial deposit was $100 and the bank lends out $100 to another customer the money supply has increased by $100. However, because the depositor can ask for the money back, banks have to maintain minimum reserves to service customer needs. If the reserve requirement is 10% then, in the earlier example, the bank can lend $90 and thus the money supply increases by only $90. The reserve requirement therefore acts as a limit on this multiplier effect. Because the reserve requirement only applies to the more narrow forms of money creation (corresponding to M1), but does not apply to certain types of deposits (such as time deposits ), reserve requirements play a limited role in monetary policy. [28]
As on Nov 2021 the US government maintains over US$2214.3 billion in cash money (primarily Federal Reserve Notes) in circulation throughout the world, [29] up from a sum of less than $30 billion in 1959. Below is an outline of the process which is currently used to control the amount of money in the economy. The amount of money in circulation generally increases to accommodate money demanded by the growth of the country's production . The process of money creation usually goes as follows:
- Banks go through their daily transactions. Of the total money deposited at banks, significant and predictable proportions often remain deposited, and may be referred to as "core deposits". Banks use the bulk of "non-moving" money (their stable or "core" deposit base) by loaning it out. [30] Banks have a legal obligation to keep a certain fraction of bank deposit money on-hand at all times. [31]
- In order to raise additional money to cover excess spending, Congress increases the size of the National Debt by issuing securities typically in the form of a Treasury Bond [32] (see United States Treasury security ). It offers the Treasury security for sale, and someone pays cash to the government in exchange. Banks are often the purchasers of these securities, and these securities currently play a crucial role in the process.
- The 12-person Federal Open Market Committee , which consists of the heads of the Federal Reserve System (the seven Federal governors and five bank presidents), meets eight times a year to determine how they would like to influence the economy. [33] They create a plan called the country's "monetary policy" which sets targets for things such as interest rates. [34]
- Every business day, the Federal Reserve System engages in Open market operations . [35] If the Federal Reserve wants to increase the money supply, it will buy securities (such as U.S. Treasury Bonds) anonymously from banks in exchange for dollars. If the Federal Reserve wants to decrease the money supply, it will sell securities to the banks in exchange for dollars, taking those dollars out of circulation. [36] [37] When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). The money that it deposits into the seller's account is not transferred from any existing funds, therefore it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created High-powered money .
- By means of open market operations, the Federal Reserve affects the free reserves of commercial banks in the country. [38] Anna Schwartz explains that "if the Federal Reserve increases reserves, a single bank can make loans up to the amount of its excess reserves, creating an equal amount of deposits". [36] [37] [39]
- Since banks have more free reserves, they may loan out the money, because holding the money would amount to accepting the cost of foregone interest [38] [40] When a loan is granted, a person is generally granted the money by adding to the balance on their bank account. [41]
- This is how the Federal Reserve's high-powered money is multiplied into a larger amount of broad money, through bank loans; as written in a particular case study, "as banks increase or decrease loans, the nation's (broad) money supply increases or decreases." [5] Once granted these additional funds, the recipient has the option to withdraw physical currency (dollar bills and coins) from the bank, which will reduce the amount of money available for further on-lending (and money creation) in the banking system. [42]
- In many cases, account-holders will request cash withdrawals, so banks must keep a supply of cash handy. When they believe they need more cash than they have on hand, banks can make requests for cash with the Federal Reserve. In turn, the Federal Reserve examines these requests and places an order for printed money with the US Treasury Department. [43] The Treasury Department sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to make dollar bills ) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).
- The U.S. Treasury sells this newly printed money to the Federal Reserve for the cost of printing. [44] This is about 6 cents per bill for any denomination . [45] Aside from printing costs, the Federal Reserve must pledge collateral (typically government securities such as Treasury bonds) to put new money, which does not replace old notes, into circulation. [46] This printed cash can then be distributed to banks, as needed.
Though the Federal Reserve authorizes and distributes the currency printed by the Treasury (the primary component of the narrow monetary base), the broad money supply is primarily created by commercial banks through the money multiplier mechanism. [39] [41] [47] [48] One textbook summarizes the process as follows:
"The Fed" controls the money supply in the United States by controlling the amount of loans made by commercial banks. New loans are usually in the form of increased checking account balances, and since checkable deposits are part of the money supply, the money supply increases when new loans are made ... [49]
This type of money is convertible into cash when depositors request cash withdrawals, which will require banks to limit or reduce their lending. [50] [42] The vast majority of the broad money supply throughout the world represents current outstanding loans of banks to various debtors . [49] [51] [52] A very small amount of U.S. currency still exists as " United States Notes ", which have no meaningful economic difference from Federal Reserve notes in their usage, although they departed significantly in their method of issuance into circulation. The currency distributed by the Federal Reserve has been given the official designation of " Federal Reserve Notes ". [53]
In 2005, the Federal Reserve held approximately 9% of the national debt [54] as assets against the liability of printed money. In previous periods, the Federal Reserve has used other debt instruments, such as debt securities issued by private corporations. During periods when the national debt of the United States has declined significantly (such as happened in fiscal years 1999 and 2000), monetary policy and financial markets experts have studied the practical implications of having "too little" government debt: both the Federal Reserve and financial markets use the price information, yield curve and the so-called risk free rate extensively. [55]
Experts are hopeful that other assets could take the place of National Debt as the base asset to back Federal Reserve notes, and Alan Greenspan , long the head of the Federal Reserve, has been quoted as saying, "I am confident that U.S. financial markets, which are the most innovative and efficient in the world, can readily adapt to a paydown of Treasury debt by creating private alternatives with many of the attributes that market participants value in Treasury securities." [56] In principle, the government could still issue debt securities in significant quantities while having no net debt, and significant quantities of government debt securities are also held by other government agencies.
Although the U.S. government receives income overall from seigniorage , there are costs associated with maintaining the money supply. [52] [57] Leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly , claims that "over 95% of our [broad] money supply [in the United States] is created by the private banking system (demand deposits) and bears interest as a condition of its existence", [52] a conclusion drawn from the Federal Reserve's ultimate dependence on increased activity in fractional reserve lending when it exercises open market operations. [58] Economist Eric Miller criticizes Daly's logic because money is created in the banking system in response to demand for the money, [59] which justifies cost. [ citation needed ]
Thus, use of expansionary open market operations typically generates more debt in the private sector of society (in the form of additional bank deposits). [60] The private banking system charges interest to borrowers as a cost to borrow the money. [5] [41] [61] The interest costs are borne by those that have borrowed, [5] [41] and without this borrowing, open market operations would be unsuccessful in maintaining the broad money supply, [40] though alternative implementations of monetary policy could be used. Depositors of funds in the banking system are paid interest on their savings (or provided other services, such as checking account privileges or physical security for their "cash"), as compensation for "lending" their funds to the bank.
Increases (or contractions) of the money supply corresponds to growth (or contraction) in interest-bearing debt in the country. [5] [40] [52] The concepts involved in monetary policy may be widely misunderstood in the general public, as evidenced by the volume of literature on topics such as "Federal Reserve conspiracy" and "Federal Reserve fraud". [62]
A few of the uncertainties involved in monetary policy decision making are described by the federal reserve: [63]
- While these policy choices seem reasonably straightforward, monetary policy makers routinely face certain notable uncertainties. First, the actual position of the economy and growth in aggregate demand at any time are only partially known, as key information on spending, production, and prices becomes available only with a lag. Therefore, policy makers must rely on estimates of these economic variables when assessing the appropriate course of policy, aware that they could act on the basis of misleading information. Second, exactly how a given adjustment in the federal funds rate will affect growth in aggregate demand—in terms of both the overall magnitude and the timing of its impact—is never certain. Economic models can provide rules of thumb for how the economy will respond, but these rules of thumb are subject to statistical error. Third, the growth in aggregate supply, often called the growth in potential output, cannot be measured with certainty.
- In practice, as previously noted, monetary policy makers do not have up-to-the-minute information on the state of the economy and prices. Useful information is limited not only by lags in the collection and availability of key data but also by later revisions, which can alter the picture considerably. Therefore, although monetary policy makers will eventually be able to offset the effects that adverse demand shocks have on the economy, it will be some time before the shock is fully recognized and—given the lag between a policy action and the effect of the action on aggregate demand—an even longer time before it is countered. Add to this the uncertainty about how the economy will respond to an easing or tightening of policy of a given magnitude, and it is not hard to see how the economy and prices can depart from a desired path for a period of time.
- The statutory goals of maximum employment and stable prices are easier to achieve if the public understands those goals and believes that the Federal Reserve will take effective measures to achieve them.
- Although the goals of monetary policy are clearly spelled out in law, the means to achieve those goals are not. Changes in the FOMC's target federal funds rate take some time to affect the economy and prices, and it is often far from obvious whether a selected level of the federal funds rate will achieve those goals.
The Federal Reserve is lauded by some economists, while being the target of scathing criticism by other economists, legislators, and sometimes members of the general public. The former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, Ben Bernanke , is one of the leading academic critics of the Federal Reserve's policies during the Great Depression . [64]
One of the functions of a central bank is to facilitate the transfer of funds through the economy, and the Federal Reserve System is largely responsible for the efficiency in the banking sector. There have also been specific instances which put the Federal Reserve in the spotlight of public attention. For instance, after the stock market crash in 1987, the actions of the Fed are generally believed to have aided in recovery. Also, the Federal Reserve is credited for easing tensions in the business sector with the reassurances given following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States. [65]
The Federal Reserve has been the target of various criticisms , involving: accountability, effectiveness, opacity, inadequate banking regulation, and potential market distortion . Federal Reserve policy has also been criticized for directly and indirectly benefiting large banks instead of consumers. For example, regarding the Federal Reserve's response to the 2007–2010 financial crisis, Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz explained how the U.S. Federal Reserve was implementing another monetary policy—creating currency—as a method to combat the liquidity trap . [66]
By creating $600 billion and inserting this directly into banks the Federal Reserve intended to spur banks to finance more domestic loans and refinance mortgages. However, banks instead were spending the money in more profitable areas by investing internationally in emerging markets. Banks were also investing in foreign currencies which Stiglitz and others point out may lead to currency wars while China redirects its currency holdings away from the United States. [67]
The Federal Reserve is subject to different requirements for transparency and audits than other government agencies, which its supporters claim is another element of the Fed's independence. Although the Federal Reserve has been required by law to publish independently audited financial statements since 1999, the Federal Reserve is not audited in the same way as other government agencies. Some confusion can arise because there are many types of audits, including: investigative or fraud audits; and financial audits, which are audits of accounting statements; there are also compliance, operational, and information system audits.
The Federal Reserve's annual financial statements are audited by an outside auditor. Similar to other government agencies, the Federal Reserve maintains an Office of the Inspector General, whose mandate includes conducting and supervising "independent and objective audits, investigations, inspections, evaluations, and other reviews of Board programs and operations". [68] The Inspector General's audits and reviews are available on the Federal Reserve's website. [69] [70]
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) has the power to conduct audits, subject to certain areas of operations that are excluded from GAO audits; other areas may be audited at specific Congressional request, and have included bank supervision, government securities activities, and payment system activities. [71] [72] The GAO is specifically restricted any authority over monetary policy transactions ; [71] the New York Times reported in 1989 that "such transactions are now shielded from outside audit, although the Fed influences interest rates through the purchase of hundreds of billions of dollars in Treasury securities." [73] As mentioned above, it was in 1999 that the law governing the Federal Reserve was amended to formalize the already-existing annual practice of ordering independent audits of financial statements for the Federal Reserve Banks and the Board; [74] the GAO's restrictions on auditing monetary policy continued, however. [72]
Congressional oversight on monetary policy operations, foreign transactions, and the FOMC operations is exercised through the requirement for reports and through semi-annual monetary policy hearings. [72] Scholars have conceded that the hearings did not prove an effective means of increasing oversight of the Federal Reserve, perhaps because "Congresspersons prefer to bash an autonomous and secretive Fed for economic misfortune rather than to share the responsibility for that misfortune with a fully accountable Central Bank", although the Federal Reserve has also consistently lobbied to maintain its independence and freedom of operation. [75]
By law, the goals of the Fed's monetary policy are: high employment, sustainable growth , and stable prices. [76]
Critics say that monetary policy in the United States has not achieved consistent success in meeting the goals that have been delegated to the Federal Reserve System by Congress. Congress began to review more options with regard to macroeconomic influence beginning in 1946 (after World War II), with the Federal Reserve receiving specific mandates in 1977 (after the country suffered a period of stagflation ).
Throughout the period of the Federal Reserve following the mandates, the relative weight given to each of these goals has changed, depending on political developments. [ citation needed ] In particular, the theories of Keynesianism and monetarism have had great influence on both the theory and implementation of monetary policy, and the "prevailing wisdom" or consensus view of the economic and financial communities has changed over the years. [77]
- Elastic currency (magnitude of the money multiplier): the success of monetary policy is dependent on the ability to strongly influence the supply of money available to the citizens. If a currency is highly "elastic" (that is, has a higher money multiplier, corresponding to a tendency of the financial system to create more broad money for a given quantity of base money), plans to expand the money supply and accommodate growth are easier to implement. Low elasticity was one of many factors that contributed to the depth of the Great Depression : as banks cut lending, the money multiplier fell, and at the same time the Federal Reserve constricted the monetary base. The depression of the late 1920s is generally regarded as being the worst in the country's history, and the Federal Reserve has been criticized for monetary policy which worsened the depression. [78] Partly to alleviate problems related to the depression, the United States transitioned from a gold standard and now uses a fiat currency; elasticity is believed to have been increased greatly. [79]
- High employment – Unemployment has experienced significant increases on occasion, despite the efforts of the Federal Reserve. [80] These periods include the early 1990s recession caused by the savings and loan crisis , the bursting of the dot-com bubble and the 2006 bursting of the housing bubble plus the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis . In some cases, the Federal Reserve intentionally sacrificed employment levels in order to rein in spiralling inflation, as was the case for the Early 1980s recession , which was induced to alleviate a stagflation problem.
- Stable prices – While some economists would regard any consistent inflation as a sign of unstable prices, [82] policymakers could be satisfied with 1 or 2%; [83] the consensus of "price stability" constituting long-run inflation of 1–2% is, however, a relatively recent development, and a change that has occurred at other central banks throughout the world. Inflation has averaged a 4.2% increase annually following the mandates applied in 1977; historic inflation since the establishment of the Federal Reserve in 1913 has averaged 3.4%. [84] In contrast, some research indicates that average inflation for the 250 years before the system was near zero percent, though there were likely sharper upward and downward spikes in that timeframe as compared with more recent times. [85] Central banks in some other countries, notably the German Bundesbank , had considerably better records of achieving price stability drawing on experience from the two episodes of hyperinflation and economic collapse under the country's previous central bank .
Inflation worldwide has fallen significantly since former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker began his tenure in 1979, a period which has been called the Great Moderation; some commentators attribute this to improved monetary policy worldwide, particularly in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. [86] [87] BusinessWeek notes that inflation has been relatively low since mid-1980s [88] and it was during this time that Volcker wrote (in 1995), "It is a sobering fact that the prominence of central banks [such as the Federal Reserve] in this century has coincided with a general tendency towards more inflation, not less. By and large, if the overriding objective is price stability, we did better with the nineteenth-century gold standard and passive central banks, with currency boards, or even with 'free banking.'."
- Sustainable growth – The growth of the economy may not be sustainable as the ability for households to save money has been on an overall decline [89] and household debt is consistently rising. [90]
Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but that significant policy mistakes by monetary authorities (especially the Federal Reserve ) caused a shrinking of the money supply, which greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression.
The Federal Reserve has established a library of information on their websites, however, many experts have spoken about the general level of public confusion that still exists on the subject of the economy; this lack of understanding of macroeconomic questions and monetary policy, however, exists in other countries as well. Critics of the Fed widely regard the system as being " opaque ", and one of the Fed's most vehement opponents of his time, Congressman Louis T. McFadden , even went so far as to say that "Every effort has been made by the Federal Reserve Board to conceal its powers. ... " [91] [ unreliable source? ]
There are, on the other hand, many economists who support the need for an independent central banking authority, and some have established websites that aim to clear up confusion about the economy and the Federal Reserve's operations. The Federal Reserve website itself publishes various information and instructional materials for a variety of audiences.
Some economists, especially those belonging to the heterodox Austrian School , criticize the idea of even establishing monetary policy, believing that it distorts investment. Friedrich Hayek won the Nobel Prize for his elaboration of the Austrian business cycle theory .
Briefly, the theory holds that an artificial injection of credit, from a source such as a central bank like the Federal Reserve, sends false signals to entrepreneurs to engage in long-term investments due to a favorably low interest rate. However, the surge of investments undertaken represents an artificial boom, or bubble, because the low interest rate was achieved by an artificial expansion of the money supply and not by savings. Hence, the pool of real savings and resources have not increased and do not justify the investments undertaken.
These investments, which are more appropriately called "malinvestments", are realized to be unsustainable when the artificial credit spigot is shut off and interest rates rise. The malinvestments and unsustainable projects are liquidated, which is the recession. The theory demonstrates that the problem is the artificial boom which causes the malinvestments in the first place, made possible by an artificial injection of credit not from savings.
According to Austrian economics, without government intervention, interest rates will always be an equilibrium between the time-preferences of borrowers and savers, and this equilibrium is simply distorted by government intervention. This distortion, in their view, is the cause of the business cycle . Some Austrian economists—but by no means all—also support full reserve banking , a hypothetical financial/banking system where banks may not lend deposits. Others may advocate free banking , whereby the government abstains from any interference in what individuals may choose to use as money or the extent to which banks create money through the deposit and lending cycle.
The Federal Reserve regulates banking, and one regulation under its direct control is the reserve requirement which dictates how much money banks must keep in reserves, as compared to its demand deposits. Banks use their observation that the majority of deposits are not requested by the account holders at the same time.
Until March 2020 the Federal Reserve required that banks keep 10% of their deposits on hand, but in March 2020 the reserve requirement was reduced to zero. [92] [24] Some countries have no nationally mandated reserve requirements —banks use their own resources to determine what to hold in reserve, however their lending is typically constrained by other regulations. [93] Other factors being equal, lower reserve percentages increases the possibility of Bank runs , such as the widespread runs of 1931 . Low reserve requirements also allow for larger expansions of the money supply by actions of commercial banks—currently the private banking system has created much of the broad money supply of US dollars through lending activity. Monetary policy reform calling for 100% reserves has been advocated by economists such as: Irving Fisher , [94] Frank Knight , [95] many ecological economists along with economists of the Chicago School and Austrian School . Despite calls for reform, the nearly universal practice of fractional-reserve banking has remained in the United States.
Historically and to the present day, various social and political movements (such as social credit ) have criticized the involvement of the private sector in "creating money", claiming that only the government should have the power to "make money". Some proponents also support full reserve banking or other non-orthodox approaches to monetary policy. Various terminology may be used, including "debt money", which may have emotive or political connotations. These are generally considered to be akin to conspiracy theories by mainstream economists and ignored in academic literature on monetary policy. [ citation needed ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_policy_of_the_United_States | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | Monetary policy of the United States | Core CPI
The monetary policy of The United States is the set of policies related to the minting and printing of United States dollars , plus the legal exchange of currency , demand deposits , the money supply , etc. In the United States , the central bank , The Federal Reserve System , colloquially known as "The Fed" is the monetary authority .
It is significant to point out that the United States uses a fiat currency as of 1933, whereas from 1873 - 1933 a precious metal standard or gold standard was in use.
The Federal Reserve's board of governors , along with the Open Market Committee are the principle arbiters of monetary policy in the United States, though the U.S. is unique in that the monetary policy role is ultimately shared along with the United States Treasury ( US Treasury Securities ). The Treasury is the penultimate agency on fiscal policy , though it is directly involved in monetary policy through printing & minting federal reserve notes and treasurys .
The Fed is largely concerned with policies related to the issuance of loans (including reserve rate and interest rates ), along with other policies that determine the size and rate of growth of the money supply (such as buying and selling government bonds), whereas the Treasury deals directly with minting and printing as well as budgeting the government. The U.S. Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long-term interest rates.
The Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve System in 1913 as the central bank of the United States . Its primary task is to "conduct the nation's monetary policy to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates in the U.S. economy". It is also tasked to promote the stability of the financial system and regulate financial institutions, and to act as lender of last resort . [1] [2]
The monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which is composed of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors and 5 out of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents, and is implemented by all twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks .
Monetary policy refers to actions made by central banks which determine the size and growth rate of the money supply available in the economy, and which would result in desired objectives like low inflation, low unemployment and stable financial systems. The economy's aggregate money supply is the total of
- M0 money, or Monetary Base - "dollars" in currency and bank money balances credited to the central bank's depositors, which are backed by the central bank's assets,
- plus M1, M2, M3 money - "dollars" in the form of bank money balances credited to banks' depositors, which are backed by the bank's assets and investments.
The FOMC influences the level of money available to the economy by the following means:
- Reserve requirements - specifies a required minimum percentage of deposits in a commercial bank that should be held as reserve (i.e. as deposits with the Federal Reserve), with the rest available to loan or invest. Higher requirements mean less money loaned or invested, helping keep inflation in check. Raising the federal funds rate earned on those reserves also helps achieve this objective.
- Open market operations - the Federal Reserve buys or sells US Treasury bonds and other securities held by banks in exchange for reserves; more reserves increase a bank's capacity to loan or invest elsewhere.
- Discount window lending - banks can borrow from the Federal Reserve.
Monetary policy directly affects interest rates; it indirectly affects stock prices, wealth, and currency exchange rates. Through these channels, monetary policy influences spending, investment, production, employment, and inflation in the United States. Effective monetary policy complements fiscal policy to support economic growth.
The Federal Reserve 's monetary policy objectives to keep prices stable and unemployment low is often called the dual mandate . This replaces past practices under a gold standard where the main concern is the gold equivalent of the local currency, or under a gold exchange standard where the concern is fixing the exchange rate versus another gold-convertible currency (previously practiced worldwide under the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 via fixed exchange rates to the U.S. dollar).
Yearly M2 money supply increases
Monthly M2 money supply increases
Monthly M2 money supply decreases
M2
M1
The money supply has different components, generally broken down into "narrow" and "broad" money, reflecting the different degrees of liquidity ('spendability') of each different type, as broader forms of money can be converted into narrow forms of money (or may be readily accepted as money by others, such as personal checks). [3]
For example, demand deposits are technically promises to pay on demand, while savings deposits are promises to pay subject to some withdrawal restrictions, and Certificates of Deposit are promises to pay only at certain specified dates; each can be converted into money, but "narrow" forms of money can be converted more readily. The Federal Reserve directly controls only the most narrow form of money, physical cash outstanding along with the reserves of banks throughout the country (known as M0 or the monetary base); the Federal Reserve indirectly influences the supply of other types of money. [3]
Broad money includes money held in deposit balances in banks and other forms created in the financial system. Basic economics also teaches that the money supply shrinks when loans are repaid; [4] [5] however, the money supply will not necessarily decrease depending on the creation of new loans and other effects. Other than loans, investment activities of commercial banks and the Federal Reserve also increase and decrease the money supply. [6] Discussion of "money" often confuses the different measures and may lead to misguided commentary on monetary policy and misunderstandings of policy discussions. [7]
In August 2020, after undershooting its 2% inflation target for years, the Fed announced it would be allowing inflation to temporarily rise higher, in order to target an average of 2% over the longer term. [11] [12] It is still unclear if this change will make much practical difference in monetary policy anytime soon. [13]
Monetary policy in the US is determined and implemented by the US Federal Reserve System , commonly referred to as the Federal Reserve. Established in 1913 by the Federal Reserve Act to provide central banking functions, [14] the Federal Reserve System is a quasi-public institution. Ostensibly, the Federal Reserve Banks are 12 private banking corporations; [15] [16] [17] they are independent in their day-to-day operations, but legislatively accountable to Congress through the auspices of Federal Reserve Board of Governors .
The Board of Governors is an independent governmental agency consisting of seven officials and their support staff of over 1800 employees headquartered in Washington, D.C. [18] It is independent in the sense that the Board currently operates without official obligation to accept the requests or advice of any elected official with regard to actions on the money supply , [19] and its methods of funding also preserve independence. The Governors are nominated by the President of the United States , and nominations must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate . [20] There is very strong economic consensus that independence from political influence is good for monetary policy. [21]
The presidents of the Federal Reserve Banks are nominated by each bank's respective Board of Directors, but must also be approved by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve. The Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board is generally considered to have the most important position, followed by the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. [20] The Federal Reserve System is primarily funded by interest collected on their portfolio of securities from the US Treasury, and the Fed has broad discretion in drafting its own budget, [22] but, historically, nearly all the interest the Federal Reserve collects is rebated to the government each year. [23]
The Federal Reserve has four main mechanisms for manipulating the money supply. It can buy or sell treasury securities . Selling securities has the effect of reducing the monetary base (because it accepts money in return for purchase of securities), taking that money out of circulation. Purchasing treasury securities increases the monetary base (because it pays out hard currency in exchange for accepting securities). Secondly, the discount rate can be changed. Third, the Federal Reserve can adjust the reserve requirement , which can affect the money multiplier ; the reserve requirement is adjusted only infrequently, and was last adjusted in March 2020, at which time it was set to zero. [24] At a reserve requirement of zero, the money multiplier is undefined, because calculating it would involve division by zero . In October 2008 the Federal Reserve added a fourth mechanism by beginning to pay interest on reserves, which one year later the Fed Chairman described as the "most important tool" the Fed could use to raise interest rates. [25] [26]
In practice, the Federal Reserve uses open market operations to influence short-term interest rates, which is the primary tool of monetary policy. The federal funds rate , for which the Federal Open Market Committee announces a target on a regular basis, reflects one of the key rates for interbank lending. Open market operations change the supply of reserve balances, and the federal funds rate is sensitive to these operations. [27]
In theory, the Federal Reserve has unlimited capacity to influence this rate, and although the federal funds rate is set by banks borrowing and lending funds to each other, the federal funds rate generally stays within a limited range above and below the target (as participants are aware of the Fed's power to influence this rate).
Assuming a closed economy , where foreign capital or trade does not affect the money supply, when money supply increases, interest rates go down. Businesses and consumers have a lower cost of capital and can increase spending and capital improvement projects. This encourages short-term growth. Conversely, when the money supply falls, interest rates go up, increasing the cost of capital and leading to more conservative spending and investment. The Federal reserve increases interest rates to combat Inflation .
A United States Treasury security is an IOU from the US Government. It is a government debt instrument issued by the United States Department of the Treasury to finance government spending as an alternative to taxation. Treasury securities are often referred to simply as "Treasuries". Since 2012 the management of government debt has been arranged by the Bureau of the Fiscal Service , succeeding the Bureau of the Public Debt .
When money is deposited in a bank, it can then be lent out to another person. If the initial deposit was $100 and the bank lends out $100 to another customer the money supply has increased by $100. However, because the depositor can ask for the money back, banks have to maintain minimum reserves to service customer needs. If the reserve requirement is 10% then, in the earlier example, the bank can lend $90 and thus the money supply increases by only $90. The reserve requirement therefore acts as a limit on this multiplier effect. Because the reserve requirement only applies to the more narrow forms of money creation (corresponding to M1), but does not apply to certain types of deposits (such as time deposits ), reserve requirements play a limited role in monetary policy. [28]
As on Nov 2021 the US government maintains over US$2214.3 billion in cash money (primarily Federal Reserve Notes) in circulation throughout the world, [29] up from a sum of less than $30 billion in 1959. Below is an outline of the process which is currently used to control the amount of money in the economy. The amount of money in circulation generally increases to accommodate money demanded by the growth of the country's production . The process of money creation usually goes as follows:
- Banks go through their daily transactions. Of the total money deposited at banks, significant and predictable proportions often remain deposited, and may be referred to as "core deposits". Banks use the bulk of "non-moving" money (their stable or "core" deposit base) by loaning it out. [30] Banks have a legal obligation to keep a certain fraction of bank deposit money on-hand at all times. [31]
- In order to raise additional money to cover excess spending, Congress increases the size of the National Debt by issuing securities typically in the form of a Treasury Bond [32] (see United States Treasury security ). It offers the Treasury security for sale, and someone pays cash to the government in exchange. Banks are often the purchasers of these securities, and these securities currently play a crucial role in the process.
- The 12-person Federal Open Market Committee , which consists of the heads of the Federal Reserve System (the seven Federal governors and five bank presidents), meets eight times a year to determine how they would like to influence the economy. [33] They create a plan called the country's "monetary policy" which sets targets for things such as interest rates. [34]
- Every business day, the Federal Reserve System engages in Open market operations . [35] If the Federal Reserve wants to increase the money supply, it will buy securities (such as U.S. Treasury Bonds) anonymously from banks in exchange for dollars. If the Federal Reserve wants to decrease the money supply, it will sell securities to the banks in exchange for dollars, taking those dollars out of circulation. [36] [37] When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). The money that it deposits into the seller's account is not transferred from any existing funds, therefore it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created High-powered money .
- By means of open market operations, the Federal Reserve affects the free reserves of commercial banks in the country. [38] Anna Schwartz explains that "if the Federal Reserve increases reserves, a single bank can make loans up to the amount of its excess reserves, creating an equal amount of deposits". [36] [37] [39]
- Since banks have more free reserves, they may loan out the money, because holding the money would amount to accepting the cost of foregone interest [38] [40] When a loan is granted, a person is generally granted the money by adding to the balance on their bank account. [41]
- This is how the Federal Reserve's high-powered money is multiplied into a larger amount of broad money, through bank loans; as written in a particular case study, "as banks increase or decrease loans, the nation's (broad) money supply increases or decreases." [5] Once granted these additional funds, the recipient has the option to withdraw physical currency (dollar bills and coins) from the bank, which will reduce the amount of money available for further on-lending (and money creation) in the banking system. [42]
- In many cases, account-holders will request cash withdrawals, so banks must keep a supply of cash handy. When they believe they need more cash than they have on hand, banks can make requests for cash with the Federal Reserve. In turn, the Federal Reserve examines these requests and places an order for printed money with the US Treasury Department. [43] The Treasury Department sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to make dollar bills ) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).
- The U.S. Treasury sells this newly printed money to the Federal Reserve for the cost of printing. [44] This is about 6 cents per bill for any denomination . [45] Aside from printing costs, the Federal Reserve must pledge collateral (typically government securities such as Treasury bonds) to put new money, which does not replace old notes, into circulation. [46] This printed cash can then be distributed to banks, as needed.
Though the Federal Reserve authorizes and distributes the currency printed by the Treasury (the primary component of the narrow monetary base), the broad money supply is primarily created by commercial banks through the money multiplier mechanism. [39] [41] [47] [48] One textbook summarizes the process as follows:
"The Fed" controls the money supply in the United States by controlling the amount of loans made by commercial banks. New loans are usually in the form of increased checking account balances, and since checkable deposits are part of the money supply, the money supply increases when new loans are made ... [49]
This type of money is convertible into cash when depositors request cash withdrawals, which will require banks to limit or reduce their lending. [50] [42] The vast majority of the broad money supply throughout the world represents current outstanding loans of banks to various debtors . [49] [51] [52] A very small amount of U.S. currency still exists as " United States Notes ", which have no meaningful economic difference from Federal Reserve notes in their usage, although they departed significantly in their method of issuance into circulation. The currency distributed by the Federal Reserve has been given the official designation of " Federal Reserve Notes ". [53]
In 2005, the Federal Reserve held approximately 9% of the national debt [54] as assets against the liability of printed money. In previous periods, the Federal Reserve has used other debt instruments, such as debt securities issued by private corporations. During periods when the national debt of the United States has declined significantly (such as happened in fiscal years 1999 and 2000), monetary policy and financial markets experts have studied the practical implications of having "too little" government debt: both the Federal Reserve and financial markets use the price information, yield curve and the so-called risk free rate extensively. [55]
Experts are hopeful that other assets could take the place of National Debt as the base asset to back Federal Reserve notes, and Alan Greenspan , long the head of the Federal Reserve, has been quoted as saying, "I am confident that U.S. financial markets, which are the most innovative and efficient in the world, can readily adapt to a paydown of Treasury debt by creating private alternatives with many of the attributes that market participants value in Treasury securities." [56] In principle, the government could still issue debt securities in significant quantities while having no net debt, and significant quantities of government debt securities are also held by other government agencies.
Although the U.S. government receives income overall from seigniorage , there are costs associated with maintaining the money supply. [52] [57] Leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly , claims that "over 95% of our [broad] money supply [in the United States] is created by the private banking system (demand deposits) and bears interest as a condition of its existence", [52] a conclusion drawn from the Federal Reserve's ultimate dependence on increased activity in fractional reserve lending when it exercises open market operations. [58] Economist Eric Miller criticizes Daly's logic because money is created in the banking system in response to demand for the money, [59] which justifies cost. [ citation needed ]
Thus, use of expansionary open market operations typically generates more debt in the private sector of society (in the form of additional bank deposits). [60] The private banking system charges interest to borrowers as a cost to borrow the money. [5] [41] [61] The interest costs are borne by those that have borrowed, [5] [41] and without this borrowing, open market operations would be unsuccessful in maintaining the broad money supply, [40] though alternative implementations of monetary policy could be used. Depositors of funds in the banking system are paid interest on their savings (or provided other services, such as checking account privileges or physical security for their "cash"), as compensation for "lending" their funds to the bank.
Increases (or contractions) of the money supply corresponds to growth (or contraction) in interest-bearing debt in the country. [5] [40] [52] The concepts involved in monetary policy may be widely misunderstood in the general public, as evidenced by the volume of literature on topics such as "Federal Reserve conspiracy" and "Federal Reserve fraud". [62]
A few of the uncertainties involved in monetary policy decision making are described by the federal reserve: [63]
- While these policy choices seem reasonably straightforward, monetary policy makers routinely face certain notable uncertainties. First, the actual position of the economy and growth in aggregate demand at any time are only partially known, as key information on spending, production, and prices becomes available only with a lag. Therefore, policy makers must rely on estimates of these economic variables when assessing the appropriate course of policy, aware that they could act on the basis of misleading information. Second, exactly how a given adjustment in the federal funds rate will affect growth in aggregate demand—in terms of both the overall magnitude and the timing of its impact—is never certain. Economic models can provide rules of thumb for how the economy will respond, but these rules of thumb are subject to statistical error. Third, the growth in aggregate supply, often called the growth in potential output, cannot be measured with certainty.
- In practice, as previously noted, monetary policy makers do not have up-to-the-minute information on the state of the economy and prices. Useful information is limited not only by lags in the collection and availability of key data but also by later revisions, which can alter the picture considerably. Therefore, although monetary policy makers will eventually be able to offset the effects that adverse demand shocks have on the economy, it will be some time before the shock is fully recognized and—given the lag between a policy action and the effect of the action on aggregate demand—an even longer time before it is countered. Add to this the uncertainty about how the economy will respond to an easing or tightening of policy of a given magnitude, and it is not hard to see how the economy and prices can depart from a desired path for a period of time.
- The statutory goals of maximum employment and stable prices are easier to achieve if the public understands those goals and believes that the Federal Reserve will take effective measures to achieve them.
- Although the goals of monetary policy are clearly spelled out in law, the means to achieve those goals are not. Changes in the FOMC's target federal funds rate take some time to affect the economy and prices, and it is often far from obvious whether a selected level of the federal funds rate will achieve those goals.
The Federal Reserve is lauded by some economists, while being the target of scathing criticism by other economists, legislators, and sometimes members of the general public. The former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, Ben Bernanke , is one of the leading academic critics of the Federal Reserve's policies during the Great Depression . [64]
One of the functions of a central bank is to facilitate the transfer of funds through the economy, and the Federal Reserve System is largely responsible for the efficiency in the banking sector. There have also been specific instances which put the Federal Reserve in the spotlight of public attention. For instance, after the stock market crash in 1987, the actions of the Fed are generally believed to have aided in recovery. Also, the Federal Reserve is credited for easing tensions in the business sector with the reassurances given following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States. [65]
The Federal Reserve has been the target of various criticisms , involving: accountability, effectiveness, opacity, inadequate banking regulation, and potential market distortion . Federal Reserve policy has also been criticized for directly and indirectly benefiting large banks instead of consumers. For example, regarding the Federal Reserve's response to the 2007–2010 financial crisis, Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz explained how the U.S. Federal Reserve was implementing another monetary policy—creating currency—as a method to combat the liquidity trap . [66]
By creating $600 billion and inserting this directly into banks the Federal Reserve intended to spur banks to finance more domestic loans and refinance mortgages. However, banks instead were spending the money in more profitable areas by investing internationally in emerging markets. Banks were also investing in foreign currencies which Stiglitz and others point out may lead to currency wars while China redirects its currency holdings away from the United States. [67]
The Federal Reserve is subject to different requirements for transparency and audits than other government agencies, which its supporters claim is another element of the Fed's independence. Although the Federal Reserve has been required by law to publish independently audited financial statements since 1999, the Federal Reserve is not audited in the same way as other government agencies. Some confusion can arise because there are many types of audits, including: investigative or fraud audits; and financial audits, which are audits of accounting statements; there are also compliance, operational, and information system audits.
The Federal Reserve's annual financial statements are audited by an outside auditor. Similar to other government agencies, the Federal Reserve maintains an Office of the Inspector General, whose mandate includes conducting and supervising "independent and objective audits, investigations, inspections, evaluations, and other reviews of Board programs and operations". [68] The Inspector General's audits and reviews are available on the Federal Reserve's website. [69] [70]
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) has the power to conduct audits, subject to certain areas of operations that are excluded from GAO audits; other areas may be audited at specific Congressional request, and have included bank supervision, government securities activities, and payment system activities. [71] [72] The GAO is specifically restricted any authority over monetary policy transactions ; [71] the New York Times reported in 1989 that "such transactions are now shielded from outside audit, although the Fed influences interest rates through the purchase of hundreds of billions of dollars in Treasury securities." [73] As mentioned above, it was in 1999 that the law governing the Federal Reserve was amended to formalize the already-existing annual practice of ordering independent audits of financial statements for the Federal Reserve Banks and the Board; [74] the GAO's restrictions on auditing monetary policy continued, however. [72]
Congressional oversight on monetary policy operations, foreign transactions, and the FOMC operations is exercised through the requirement for reports and through semi-annual monetary policy hearings. [72] Scholars have conceded that the hearings did not prove an effective means of increasing oversight of the Federal Reserve, perhaps because "Congresspersons prefer to bash an autonomous and secretive Fed for economic misfortune rather than to share the responsibility for that misfortune with a fully accountable Central Bank", although the Federal Reserve has also consistently lobbied to maintain its independence and freedom of operation. [75]
By law, the goals of the Fed's monetary policy are: high employment, sustainable growth , and stable prices. [76]
Critics say that monetary policy in the United States has not achieved consistent success in meeting the goals that have been delegated to the Federal Reserve System by Congress. Congress began to review more options with regard to macroeconomic influence beginning in 1946 (after World War II), with the Federal Reserve receiving specific mandates in 1977 (after the country suffered a period of stagflation ).
Throughout the period of the Federal Reserve following the mandates, the relative weight given to each of these goals has changed, depending on political developments. [ citation needed ] In particular, the theories of Keynesianism and monetarism have had great influence on both the theory and implementation of monetary policy, and the "prevailing wisdom" or consensus view of the economic and financial communities has changed over the years. [77]
- Elastic currency (magnitude of the money multiplier): the success of monetary policy is dependent on the ability to strongly influence the supply of money available to the citizens. If a currency is highly "elastic" (that is, has a higher money multiplier, corresponding to a tendency of the financial system to create more broad money for a given quantity of base money), plans to expand the money supply and accommodate growth are easier to implement. Low elasticity was one of many factors that contributed to the depth of the Great Depression : as banks cut lending, the money multiplier fell, and at the same time the Federal Reserve constricted the monetary base. The depression of the late 1920s is generally regarded as being the worst in the country's history, and the Federal Reserve has been criticized for monetary policy which worsened the depression. [78] Partly to alleviate problems related to the depression, the United States transitioned from a gold standard and now uses a fiat currency; elasticity is believed to have been increased greatly. [79]
- High employment – Unemployment has experienced significant increases on occasion, despite the efforts of the Federal Reserve. [80] These periods include the early 1990s recession caused by the savings and loan crisis , the bursting of the dot-com bubble and the 2006 bursting of the housing bubble plus the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis . In some cases, the Federal Reserve intentionally sacrificed employment levels in order to rein in spiralling inflation, as was the case for the Early 1980s recession , which was induced to alleviate a stagflation problem.
- Stable prices – While some economists would regard any consistent inflation as a sign of unstable prices, [82] policymakers could be satisfied with 1 or 2%; [83] the consensus of "price stability" constituting long-run inflation of 1–2% is, however, a relatively recent development, and a change that has occurred at other central banks throughout the world. Inflation has averaged a 4.2% increase annually following the mandates applied in 1977; historic inflation since the establishment of the Federal Reserve in 1913 has averaged 3.4%. [84] In contrast, some research indicates that average inflation for the 250 years before the system was near zero percent, though there were likely sharper upward and downward spikes in that timeframe as compared with more recent times. [85] Central banks in some other countries, notably the German Bundesbank , had considerably better records of achieving price stability drawing on experience from the two episodes of hyperinflation and economic collapse under the country's previous central bank .
Inflation worldwide has fallen significantly since former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker began his tenure in 1979, a period which has been called the Great Moderation; some commentators attribute this to improved monetary policy worldwide, particularly in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. [86] [87] BusinessWeek notes that inflation has been relatively low since mid-1980s [88] and it was during this time that Volcker wrote (in 1995), "It is a sobering fact that the prominence of central banks [such as the Federal Reserve] in this century has coincided with a general tendency towards more inflation, not less. By and large, if the overriding objective is price stability, we did better with the nineteenth-century gold standard and passive central banks, with currency boards, or even with 'free banking.'."
- Sustainable growth – The growth of the economy may not be sustainable as the ability for households to save money has been on an overall decline [89] and household debt is consistently rising. [90]
Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but that significant policy mistakes by monetary authorities (especially the Federal Reserve ) caused a shrinking of the money supply, which greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression.
The Federal Reserve has established a library of information on their websites, however, many experts have spoken about the general level of public confusion that still exists on the subject of the economy; this lack of understanding of macroeconomic questions and monetary policy, however, exists in other countries as well. Critics of the Fed widely regard the system as being " opaque ", and one of the Fed's most vehement opponents of his time, Congressman Louis T. McFadden , even went so far as to say that "Every effort has been made by the Federal Reserve Board to conceal its powers. ... " [91] [ unreliable source? ]
There are, on the other hand, many economists who support the need for an independent central banking authority, and some have established websites that aim to clear up confusion about the economy and the Federal Reserve's operations. The Federal Reserve website itself publishes various information and instructional materials for a variety of audiences.
Some economists, especially those belonging to the heterodox Austrian School , criticize the idea of even establishing monetary policy, believing that it distorts investment. Friedrich Hayek won the Nobel Prize for his elaboration of the Austrian business cycle theory .
Briefly, the theory holds that an artificial injection of credit, from a source such as a central bank like the Federal Reserve, sends false signals to entrepreneurs to engage in long-term investments due to a favorably low interest rate. However, the surge of investments undertaken represents an artificial boom, or bubble, because the low interest rate was achieved by an artificial expansion of the money supply and not by savings. Hence, the pool of real savings and resources have not increased and do not justify the investments undertaken.
These investments, which are more appropriately called "malinvestments", are realized to be unsustainable when the artificial credit spigot is shut off and interest rates rise. The malinvestments and unsustainable projects are liquidated, which is the recession. The theory demonstrates that the problem is the artificial boom which causes the malinvestments in the first place, made possible by an artificial injection of credit not from savings.
According to Austrian economics, without government intervention, interest rates will always be an equilibrium between the time-preferences of borrowers and savers, and this equilibrium is simply distorted by government intervention. This distortion, in their view, is the cause of the business cycle . Some Austrian economists—but by no means all—also support full reserve banking , a hypothetical financial/banking system where banks may not lend deposits. Others may advocate free banking , whereby the government abstains from any interference in what individuals may choose to use as money or the extent to which banks create money through the deposit and lending cycle.
The Federal Reserve regulates banking, and one regulation under its direct control is the reserve requirement which dictates how much money banks must keep in reserves, as compared to its demand deposits. Banks use their observation that the majority of deposits are not requested by the account holders at the same time.
Until March 2020 the Federal Reserve required that banks keep 10% of their deposits on hand, but in March 2020 the reserve requirement was reduced to zero. [92] [24] Some countries have no nationally mandated reserve requirements —banks use their own resources to determine what to hold in reserve, however their lending is typically constrained by other regulations. [93] Other factors being equal, lower reserve percentages increases the possibility of Bank runs , such as the widespread runs of 1931 . Low reserve requirements also allow for larger expansions of the money supply by actions of commercial banks—currently the private banking system has created much of the broad money supply of US dollars through lending activity. Monetary policy reform calling for 100% reserves has been advocated by economists such as: Irving Fisher , [94] Frank Knight , [95] many ecological economists along with economists of the Chicago School and Austrian School . Despite calls for reform, the nearly universal practice of fractional-reserve banking has remained in the United States.
Historically and to the present day, various social and political movements (such as social credit ) have criticized the involvement of the private sector in "creating money", claiming that only the government should have the power to "make money". Some proponents also support full reserve banking or other non-orthodox approaches to monetary policy. Various terminology may be used, including "debt money", which may have emotive or political connotations. These are generally considered to be akin to conspiracy theories by mainstream economists and ignored in academic literature on monetary policy. [ citation needed ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_policy_of_the_United_States | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | Monetary policy of the United States | Core CPI
The monetary policy of The United States is the set of policies related to the minting and printing of United States dollars , plus the legal exchange of currency , demand deposits , the money supply , etc. In the United States , the central bank , The Federal Reserve System , colloquially known as "The Fed" is the monetary authority .
It is significant to point out that the United States uses a fiat currency as of 1933, whereas from 1873 - 1933 a precious metal standard or gold standard was in use.
The Federal Reserve's board of governors , along with the Open Market Committee are the principle arbiters of monetary policy in the United States, though the U.S. is unique in that the monetary policy role is ultimately shared along with the United States Treasury ( US Treasury Securities ). The Treasury is the penultimate agency on fiscal policy , though it is directly involved in monetary policy through printing & minting federal reserve notes and treasurys .
The Fed is largely concerned with policies related to the issuance of loans (including reserve rate and interest rates ), along with other policies that determine the size and rate of growth of the money supply (such as buying and selling government bonds), whereas the Treasury deals directly with minting and printing as well as budgeting the government. The U.S. Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long-term interest rates.
The Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve System in 1913 as the central bank of the United States . Its primary task is to "conduct the nation's monetary policy to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates in the U.S. economy". It is also tasked to promote the stability of the financial system and regulate financial institutions, and to act as lender of last resort . [1] [2]
The monetary policy of the United States is conducted by the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which is composed of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors and 5 out of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents, and is implemented by all twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks .
Monetary policy refers to actions made by central banks which determine the size and growth rate of the money supply available in the economy, and which would result in desired objectives like low inflation, low unemployment and stable financial systems. The economy's aggregate money supply is the total of
- M0 money, or Monetary Base - "dollars" in currency and bank money balances credited to the central bank's depositors, which are backed by the central bank's assets,
- plus M1, M2, M3 money - "dollars" in the form of bank money balances credited to banks' depositors, which are backed by the bank's assets and investments.
The FOMC influences the level of money available to the economy by the following means:
- Reserve requirements - specifies a required minimum percentage of deposits in a commercial bank that should be held as reserve (i.e. as deposits with the Federal Reserve), with the rest available to loan or invest. Higher requirements mean less money loaned or invested, helping keep inflation in check. Raising the federal funds rate earned on those reserves also helps achieve this objective.
- Open market operations - the Federal Reserve buys or sells US Treasury bonds and other securities held by banks in exchange for reserves; more reserves increase a bank's capacity to loan or invest elsewhere.
- Discount window lending - banks can borrow from the Federal Reserve.
Monetary policy directly affects interest rates; it indirectly affects stock prices, wealth, and currency exchange rates. Through these channels, monetary policy influences spending, investment, production, employment, and inflation in the United States. Effective monetary policy complements fiscal policy to support economic growth.
The Federal Reserve 's monetary policy objectives to keep prices stable and unemployment low is often called the dual mandate . This replaces past practices under a gold standard where the main concern is the gold equivalent of the local currency, or under a gold exchange standard where the concern is fixing the exchange rate versus another gold-convertible currency (previously practiced worldwide under the Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 via fixed exchange rates to the U.S. dollar).
Yearly M2 money supply increases
Monthly M2 money supply increases
Monthly M2 money supply decreases
M2
M1
The money supply has different components, generally broken down into "narrow" and "broad" money, reflecting the different degrees of liquidity ('spendability') of each different type, as broader forms of money can be converted into narrow forms of money (or may be readily accepted as money by others, such as personal checks). [3]
For example, demand deposits are technically promises to pay on demand, while savings deposits are promises to pay subject to some withdrawal restrictions, and Certificates of Deposit are promises to pay only at certain specified dates; each can be converted into money, but "narrow" forms of money can be converted more readily. The Federal Reserve directly controls only the most narrow form of money, physical cash outstanding along with the reserves of banks throughout the country (known as M0 or the monetary base); the Federal Reserve indirectly influences the supply of other types of money. [3]
Broad money includes money held in deposit balances in banks and other forms created in the financial system. Basic economics also teaches that the money supply shrinks when loans are repaid; [4] [5] however, the money supply will not necessarily decrease depending on the creation of new loans and other effects. Other than loans, investment activities of commercial banks and the Federal Reserve also increase and decrease the money supply. [6] Discussion of "money" often confuses the different measures and may lead to misguided commentary on monetary policy and misunderstandings of policy discussions. [7]
In August 2020, after undershooting its 2% inflation target for years, the Fed announced it would be allowing inflation to temporarily rise higher, in order to target an average of 2% over the longer term. [11] [12] It is still unclear if this change will make much practical difference in monetary policy anytime soon. [13]
Monetary policy in the US is determined and implemented by the US Federal Reserve System , commonly referred to as the Federal Reserve. Established in 1913 by the Federal Reserve Act to provide central banking functions, [14] the Federal Reserve System is a quasi-public institution. Ostensibly, the Federal Reserve Banks are 12 private banking corporations; [15] [16] [17] they are independent in their day-to-day operations, but legislatively accountable to Congress through the auspices of Federal Reserve Board of Governors .
The Board of Governors is an independent governmental agency consisting of seven officials and their support staff of over 1800 employees headquartered in Washington, D.C. [18] It is independent in the sense that the Board currently operates without official obligation to accept the requests or advice of any elected official with regard to actions on the money supply , [19] and its methods of funding also preserve independence. The Governors are nominated by the President of the United States , and nominations must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate . [20] There is very strong economic consensus that independence from political influence is good for monetary policy. [21]
The presidents of the Federal Reserve Banks are nominated by each bank's respective Board of Directors, but must also be approved by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve. The Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board is generally considered to have the most important position, followed by the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. [20] The Federal Reserve System is primarily funded by interest collected on their portfolio of securities from the US Treasury, and the Fed has broad discretion in drafting its own budget, [22] but, historically, nearly all the interest the Federal Reserve collects is rebated to the government each year. [23]
The Federal Reserve has four main mechanisms for manipulating the money supply. It can buy or sell treasury securities . Selling securities has the effect of reducing the monetary base (because it accepts money in return for purchase of securities), taking that money out of circulation. Purchasing treasury securities increases the monetary base (because it pays out hard currency in exchange for accepting securities). Secondly, the discount rate can be changed. Third, the Federal Reserve can adjust the reserve requirement , which can affect the money multiplier ; the reserve requirement is adjusted only infrequently, and was last adjusted in March 2020, at which time it was set to zero. [24] At a reserve requirement of zero, the money multiplier is undefined, because calculating it would involve division by zero . In October 2008 the Federal Reserve added a fourth mechanism by beginning to pay interest on reserves, which one year later the Fed Chairman described as the "most important tool" the Fed could use to raise interest rates. [25] [26]
In practice, the Federal Reserve uses open market operations to influence short-term interest rates, which is the primary tool of monetary policy. The federal funds rate , for which the Federal Open Market Committee announces a target on a regular basis, reflects one of the key rates for interbank lending. Open market operations change the supply of reserve balances, and the federal funds rate is sensitive to these operations. [27]
In theory, the Federal Reserve has unlimited capacity to influence this rate, and although the federal funds rate is set by banks borrowing and lending funds to each other, the federal funds rate generally stays within a limited range above and below the target (as participants are aware of the Fed's power to influence this rate).
Assuming a closed economy , where foreign capital or trade does not affect the money supply, when money supply increases, interest rates go down. Businesses and consumers have a lower cost of capital and can increase spending and capital improvement projects. This encourages short-term growth. Conversely, when the money supply falls, interest rates go up, increasing the cost of capital and leading to more conservative spending and investment. The Federal reserve increases interest rates to combat Inflation .
A United States Treasury security is an IOU from the US Government. It is a government debt instrument issued by the United States Department of the Treasury to finance government spending as an alternative to taxation. Treasury securities are often referred to simply as "Treasuries". Since 2012 the management of government debt has been arranged by the Bureau of the Fiscal Service , succeeding the Bureau of the Public Debt .
When money is deposited in a bank, it can then be lent out to another person. If the initial deposit was $100 and the bank lends out $100 to another customer the money supply has increased by $100. However, because the depositor can ask for the money back, banks have to maintain minimum reserves to service customer needs. If the reserve requirement is 10% then, in the earlier example, the bank can lend $90 and thus the money supply increases by only $90. The reserve requirement therefore acts as a limit on this multiplier effect. Because the reserve requirement only applies to the more narrow forms of money creation (corresponding to M1), but does not apply to certain types of deposits (such as time deposits ), reserve requirements play a limited role in monetary policy. [28]
As on Nov 2021 the US government maintains over US$2214.3 billion in cash money (primarily Federal Reserve Notes) in circulation throughout the world, [29] up from a sum of less than $30 billion in 1959. Below is an outline of the process which is currently used to control the amount of money in the economy. The amount of money in circulation generally increases to accommodate money demanded by the growth of the country's production . The process of money creation usually goes as follows:
- Banks go through their daily transactions. Of the total money deposited at banks, significant and predictable proportions often remain deposited, and may be referred to as "core deposits". Banks use the bulk of "non-moving" money (their stable or "core" deposit base) by loaning it out. [30] Banks have a legal obligation to keep a certain fraction of bank deposit money on-hand at all times. [31]
- In order to raise additional money to cover excess spending, Congress increases the size of the National Debt by issuing securities typically in the form of a Treasury Bond [32] (see United States Treasury security ). It offers the Treasury security for sale, and someone pays cash to the government in exchange. Banks are often the purchasers of these securities, and these securities currently play a crucial role in the process.
- The 12-person Federal Open Market Committee , which consists of the heads of the Federal Reserve System (the seven Federal governors and five bank presidents), meets eight times a year to determine how they would like to influence the economy. [33] They create a plan called the country's "monetary policy" which sets targets for things such as interest rates. [34]
- Every business day, the Federal Reserve System engages in Open market operations . [35] If the Federal Reserve wants to increase the money supply, it will buy securities (such as U.S. Treasury Bonds) anonymously from banks in exchange for dollars. If the Federal Reserve wants to decrease the money supply, it will sell securities to the banks in exchange for dollars, taking those dollars out of circulation. [36] [37] When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). The money that it deposits into the seller's account is not transferred from any existing funds, therefore it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created High-powered money .
- By means of open market operations, the Federal Reserve affects the free reserves of commercial banks in the country. [38] Anna Schwartz explains that "if the Federal Reserve increases reserves, a single bank can make loans up to the amount of its excess reserves, creating an equal amount of deposits". [36] [37] [39]
- Since banks have more free reserves, they may loan out the money, because holding the money would amount to accepting the cost of foregone interest [38] [40] When a loan is granted, a person is generally granted the money by adding to the balance on their bank account. [41]
- This is how the Federal Reserve's high-powered money is multiplied into a larger amount of broad money, through bank loans; as written in a particular case study, "as banks increase or decrease loans, the nation's (broad) money supply increases or decreases." [5] Once granted these additional funds, the recipient has the option to withdraw physical currency (dollar bills and coins) from the bank, which will reduce the amount of money available for further on-lending (and money creation) in the banking system. [42]
- In many cases, account-holders will request cash withdrawals, so banks must keep a supply of cash handy. When they believe they need more cash than they have on hand, banks can make requests for cash with the Federal Reserve. In turn, the Federal Reserve examines these requests and places an order for printed money with the US Treasury Department. [43] The Treasury Department sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to make dollar bills ) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).
- The U.S. Treasury sells this newly printed money to the Federal Reserve for the cost of printing. [44] This is about 6 cents per bill for any denomination . [45] Aside from printing costs, the Federal Reserve must pledge collateral (typically government securities such as Treasury bonds) to put new money, which does not replace old notes, into circulation. [46] This printed cash can then be distributed to banks, as needed.
Though the Federal Reserve authorizes and distributes the currency printed by the Treasury (the primary component of the narrow monetary base), the broad money supply is primarily created by commercial banks through the money multiplier mechanism. [39] [41] [47] [48] One textbook summarizes the process as follows:
"The Fed" controls the money supply in the United States by controlling the amount of loans made by commercial banks. New loans are usually in the form of increased checking account balances, and since checkable deposits are part of the money supply, the money supply increases when new loans are made ... [49]
This type of money is convertible into cash when depositors request cash withdrawals, which will require banks to limit or reduce their lending. [50] [42] The vast majority of the broad money supply throughout the world represents current outstanding loans of banks to various debtors . [49] [51] [52] A very small amount of U.S. currency still exists as " United States Notes ", which have no meaningful economic difference from Federal Reserve notes in their usage, although they departed significantly in their method of issuance into circulation. The currency distributed by the Federal Reserve has been given the official designation of " Federal Reserve Notes ". [53]
In 2005, the Federal Reserve held approximately 9% of the national debt [54] as assets against the liability of printed money. In previous periods, the Federal Reserve has used other debt instruments, such as debt securities issued by private corporations. During periods when the national debt of the United States has declined significantly (such as happened in fiscal years 1999 and 2000), monetary policy and financial markets experts have studied the practical implications of having "too little" government debt: both the Federal Reserve and financial markets use the price information, yield curve and the so-called risk free rate extensively. [55]
Experts are hopeful that other assets could take the place of National Debt as the base asset to back Federal Reserve notes, and Alan Greenspan , long the head of the Federal Reserve, has been quoted as saying, "I am confident that U.S. financial markets, which are the most innovative and efficient in the world, can readily adapt to a paydown of Treasury debt by creating private alternatives with many of the attributes that market participants value in Treasury securities." [56] In principle, the government could still issue debt securities in significant quantities while having no net debt, and significant quantities of government debt securities are also held by other government agencies.
Although the U.S. government receives income overall from seigniorage , there are costs associated with maintaining the money supply. [52] [57] Leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly , claims that "over 95% of our [broad] money supply [in the United States] is created by the private banking system (demand deposits) and bears interest as a condition of its existence", [52] a conclusion drawn from the Federal Reserve's ultimate dependence on increased activity in fractional reserve lending when it exercises open market operations. [58] Economist Eric Miller criticizes Daly's logic because money is created in the banking system in response to demand for the money, [59] which justifies cost. [ citation needed ]
Thus, use of expansionary open market operations typically generates more debt in the private sector of society (in the form of additional bank deposits). [60] The private banking system charges interest to borrowers as a cost to borrow the money. [5] [41] [61] The interest costs are borne by those that have borrowed, [5] [41] and without this borrowing, open market operations would be unsuccessful in maintaining the broad money supply, [40] though alternative implementations of monetary policy could be used. Depositors of funds in the banking system are paid interest on their savings (or provided other services, such as checking account privileges or physical security for their "cash"), as compensation for "lending" their funds to the bank.
Increases (or contractions) of the money supply corresponds to growth (or contraction) in interest-bearing debt in the country. [5] [40] [52] The concepts involved in monetary policy may be widely misunderstood in the general public, as evidenced by the volume of literature on topics such as "Federal Reserve conspiracy" and "Federal Reserve fraud". [62]
A few of the uncertainties involved in monetary policy decision making are described by the federal reserve: [63]
- While these policy choices seem reasonably straightforward, monetary policy makers routinely face certain notable uncertainties. First, the actual position of the economy and growth in aggregate demand at any time are only partially known, as key information on spending, production, and prices becomes available only with a lag. Therefore, policy makers must rely on estimates of these economic variables when assessing the appropriate course of policy, aware that they could act on the basis of misleading information. Second, exactly how a given adjustment in the federal funds rate will affect growth in aggregate demand—in terms of both the overall magnitude and the timing of its impact—is never certain. Economic models can provide rules of thumb for how the economy will respond, but these rules of thumb are subject to statistical error. Third, the growth in aggregate supply, often called the growth in potential output, cannot be measured with certainty.
- In practice, as previously noted, monetary policy makers do not have up-to-the-minute information on the state of the economy and prices. Useful information is limited not only by lags in the collection and availability of key data but also by later revisions, which can alter the picture considerably. Therefore, although monetary policy makers will eventually be able to offset the effects that adverse demand shocks have on the economy, it will be some time before the shock is fully recognized and—given the lag between a policy action and the effect of the action on aggregate demand—an even longer time before it is countered. Add to this the uncertainty about how the economy will respond to an easing or tightening of policy of a given magnitude, and it is not hard to see how the economy and prices can depart from a desired path for a period of time.
- The statutory goals of maximum employment and stable prices are easier to achieve if the public understands those goals and believes that the Federal Reserve will take effective measures to achieve them.
- Although the goals of monetary policy are clearly spelled out in law, the means to achieve those goals are not. Changes in the FOMC's target federal funds rate take some time to affect the economy and prices, and it is often far from obvious whether a selected level of the federal funds rate will achieve those goals.
The Federal Reserve is lauded by some economists, while being the target of scathing criticism by other economists, legislators, and sometimes members of the general public. The former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board, Ben Bernanke , is one of the leading academic critics of the Federal Reserve's policies during the Great Depression . [64]
One of the functions of a central bank is to facilitate the transfer of funds through the economy, and the Federal Reserve System is largely responsible for the efficiency in the banking sector. There have also been specific instances which put the Federal Reserve in the spotlight of public attention. For instance, after the stock market crash in 1987, the actions of the Fed are generally believed to have aided in recovery. Also, the Federal Reserve is credited for easing tensions in the business sector with the reassurances given following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States. [65]
The Federal Reserve has been the target of various criticisms , involving: accountability, effectiveness, opacity, inadequate banking regulation, and potential market distortion . Federal Reserve policy has also been criticized for directly and indirectly benefiting large banks instead of consumers. For example, regarding the Federal Reserve's response to the 2007–2010 financial crisis, Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz explained how the U.S. Federal Reserve was implementing another monetary policy—creating currency—as a method to combat the liquidity trap . [66]
By creating $600 billion and inserting this directly into banks the Federal Reserve intended to spur banks to finance more domestic loans and refinance mortgages. However, banks instead were spending the money in more profitable areas by investing internationally in emerging markets. Banks were also investing in foreign currencies which Stiglitz and others point out may lead to currency wars while China redirects its currency holdings away from the United States. [67]
The Federal Reserve is subject to different requirements for transparency and audits than other government agencies, which its supporters claim is another element of the Fed's independence. Although the Federal Reserve has been required by law to publish independently audited financial statements since 1999, the Federal Reserve is not audited in the same way as other government agencies. Some confusion can arise because there are many types of audits, including: investigative or fraud audits; and financial audits, which are audits of accounting statements; there are also compliance, operational, and information system audits.
The Federal Reserve's annual financial statements are audited by an outside auditor. Similar to other government agencies, the Federal Reserve maintains an Office of the Inspector General, whose mandate includes conducting and supervising "independent and objective audits, investigations, inspections, evaluations, and other reviews of Board programs and operations". [68] The Inspector General's audits and reviews are available on the Federal Reserve's website. [69] [70]
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) has the power to conduct audits, subject to certain areas of operations that are excluded from GAO audits; other areas may be audited at specific Congressional request, and have included bank supervision, government securities activities, and payment system activities. [71] [72] The GAO is specifically restricted any authority over monetary policy transactions ; [71] the New York Times reported in 1989 that "such transactions are now shielded from outside audit, although the Fed influences interest rates through the purchase of hundreds of billions of dollars in Treasury securities." [73] As mentioned above, it was in 1999 that the law governing the Federal Reserve was amended to formalize the already-existing annual practice of ordering independent audits of financial statements for the Federal Reserve Banks and the Board; [74] the GAO's restrictions on auditing monetary policy continued, however. [72]
Congressional oversight on monetary policy operations, foreign transactions, and the FOMC operations is exercised through the requirement for reports and through semi-annual monetary policy hearings. [72] Scholars have conceded that the hearings did not prove an effective means of increasing oversight of the Federal Reserve, perhaps because "Congresspersons prefer to bash an autonomous and secretive Fed for economic misfortune rather than to share the responsibility for that misfortune with a fully accountable Central Bank", although the Federal Reserve has also consistently lobbied to maintain its independence and freedom of operation. [75]
By law, the goals of the Fed's monetary policy are: high employment, sustainable growth , and stable prices. [76]
Critics say that monetary policy in the United States has not achieved consistent success in meeting the goals that have been delegated to the Federal Reserve System by Congress. Congress began to review more options with regard to macroeconomic influence beginning in 1946 (after World War II), with the Federal Reserve receiving specific mandates in 1977 (after the country suffered a period of stagflation ).
Throughout the period of the Federal Reserve following the mandates, the relative weight given to each of these goals has changed, depending on political developments. [ citation needed ] In particular, the theories of Keynesianism and monetarism have had great influence on both the theory and implementation of monetary policy, and the "prevailing wisdom" or consensus view of the economic and financial communities has changed over the years. [77]
- Elastic currency (magnitude of the money multiplier): the success of monetary policy is dependent on the ability to strongly influence the supply of money available to the citizens. If a currency is highly "elastic" (that is, has a higher money multiplier, corresponding to a tendency of the financial system to create more broad money for a given quantity of base money), plans to expand the money supply and accommodate growth are easier to implement. Low elasticity was one of many factors that contributed to the depth of the Great Depression : as banks cut lending, the money multiplier fell, and at the same time the Federal Reserve constricted the monetary base. The depression of the late 1920s is generally regarded as being the worst in the country's history, and the Federal Reserve has been criticized for monetary policy which worsened the depression. [78] Partly to alleviate problems related to the depression, the United States transitioned from a gold standard and now uses a fiat currency; elasticity is believed to have been increased greatly. [79]
- High employment – Unemployment has experienced significant increases on occasion, despite the efforts of the Federal Reserve. [80] These periods include the early 1990s recession caused by the savings and loan crisis , the bursting of the dot-com bubble and the 2006 bursting of the housing bubble plus the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis . In some cases, the Federal Reserve intentionally sacrificed employment levels in order to rein in spiralling inflation, as was the case for the Early 1980s recession , which was induced to alleviate a stagflation problem.
- Stable prices – While some economists would regard any consistent inflation as a sign of unstable prices, [82] policymakers could be satisfied with 1 or 2%; [83] the consensus of "price stability" constituting long-run inflation of 1–2% is, however, a relatively recent development, and a change that has occurred at other central banks throughout the world. Inflation has averaged a 4.2% increase annually following the mandates applied in 1977; historic inflation since the establishment of the Federal Reserve in 1913 has averaged 3.4%. [84] In contrast, some research indicates that average inflation for the 250 years before the system was near zero percent, though there were likely sharper upward and downward spikes in that timeframe as compared with more recent times. [85] Central banks in some other countries, notably the German Bundesbank , had considerably better records of achieving price stability drawing on experience from the two episodes of hyperinflation and economic collapse under the country's previous central bank .
Inflation worldwide has fallen significantly since former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker began his tenure in 1979, a period which has been called the Great Moderation; some commentators attribute this to improved monetary policy worldwide, particularly in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. [86] [87] BusinessWeek notes that inflation has been relatively low since mid-1980s [88] and it was during this time that Volcker wrote (in 1995), "It is a sobering fact that the prominence of central banks [such as the Federal Reserve] in this century has coincided with a general tendency towards more inflation, not less. By and large, if the overriding objective is price stability, we did better with the nineteenth-century gold standard and passive central banks, with currency boards, or even with 'free banking.'."
- Sustainable growth – The growth of the economy may not be sustainable as the ability for households to save money has been on an overall decline [89] and household debt is consistently rising. [90]
Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but that significant policy mistakes by monetary authorities (especially the Federal Reserve ) caused a shrinking of the money supply, which greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression.
The Federal Reserve has established a library of information on their websites, however, many experts have spoken about the general level of public confusion that still exists on the subject of the economy; this lack of understanding of macroeconomic questions and monetary policy, however, exists in other countries as well. Critics of the Fed widely regard the system as being " opaque ", and one of the Fed's most vehement opponents of his time, Congressman Louis T. McFadden , even went so far as to say that "Every effort has been made by the Federal Reserve Board to conceal its powers. ... " [91] [ unreliable source? ]
There are, on the other hand, many economists who support the need for an independent central banking authority, and some have established websites that aim to clear up confusion about the economy and the Federal Reserve's operations. The Federal Reserve website itself publishes various information and instructional materials for a variety of audiences.
Some economists, especially those belonging to the heterodox Austrian School , criticize the idea of even establishing monetary policy, believing that it distorts investment. Friedrich Hayek won the Nobel Prize for his elaboration of the Austrian business cycle theory .
Briefly, the theory holds that an artificial injection of credit, from a source such as a central bank like the Federal Reserve, sends false signals to entrepreneurs to engage in long-term investments due to a favorably low interest rate. However, the surge of investments undertaken represents an artificial boom, or bubble, because the low interest rate was achieved by an artificial expansion of the money supply and not by savings. Hence, the pool of real savings and resources have not increased and do not justify the investments undertaken.
These investments, which are more appropriately called "malinvestments", are realized to be unsustainable when the artificial credit spigot is shut off and interest rates rise. The malinvestments and unsustainable projects are liquidated, which is the recession. The theory demonstrates that the problem is the artificial boom which causes the malinvestments in the first place, made possible by an artificial injection of credit not from savings.
According to Austrian economics, without government intervention, interest rates will always be an equilibrium between the time-preferences of borrowers and savers, and this equilibrium is simply distorted by government intervention. This distortion, in their view, is the cause of the business cycle . Some Austrian economists—but by no means all—also support full reserve banking , a hypothetical financial/banking system where banks may not lend deposits. Others may advocate free banking , whereby the government abstains from any interference in what individuals may choose to use as money or the extent to which banks create money through the deposit and lending cycle.
The Federal Reserve regulates banking, and one regulation under its direct control is the reserve requirement which dictates how much money banks must keep in reserves, as compared to its demand deposits. Banks use their observation that the majority of deposits are not requested by the account holders at the same time.
Until March 2020 the Federal Reserve required that banks keep 10% of their deposits on hand, but in March 2020 the reserve requirement was reduced to zero. [92] [24] Some countries have no nationally mandated reserve requirements —banks use their own resources to determine what to hold in reserve, however their lending is typically constrained by other regulations. [93] Other factors being equal, lower reserve percentages increases the possibility of Bank runs , such as the widespread runs of 1931 . Low reserve requirements also allow for larger expansions of the money supply by actions of commercial banks—currently the private banking system has created much of the broad money supply of US dollars through lending activity. Monetary policy reform calling for 100% reserves has been advocated by economists such as: Irving Fisher , [94] Frank Knight , [95] many ecological economists along with economists of the Chicago School and Austrian School . Despite calls for reform, the nearly universal practice of fractional-reserve banking has remained in the United States.
Historically and to the present day, various social and political movements (such as social credit ) have criticized the involvement of the private sector in "creating money", claiming that only the government should have the power to "make money". Some proponents also support full reserve banking or other non-orthodox approaches to monetary policy. Various terminology may be used, including "debt money", which may have emotive or political connotations. These are generally considered to be akin to conspiracy theories by mainstream economists and ignored in academic literature on monetary policy. [ citation needed ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_policy_of_the_United_States | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | Federal Reserve Board - Structure of the Federal Reserve System | The Federal Reserve System is the central bank of the United States.
It performs five general functions to promote the effective operation of the U.S. economy and, more generally, the public interest. The Federal Reserve
- conducts the nation's monetary policy to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates in the U.S. economy;
- promotes the stability of the financial system and seeks to minimize and contain systemic risks through active monitoring and engagement in the U.S. and abroad;
- promotes the safety and soundness of individual financial institutions and monitors their impact on the financial system as a whole;
- fosters payment and settlement system safety and efficiency through services to the banking industry and the U.S. government that facilitate U.S.-dollar transactions and payments; and
- promotes consumer protection and community development through consumer-focused supervision and examination, research and analysis of emerging consumer issues and trends, community economic development activities, and the administration of consumer laws and regulations.
Read more in the 11th edition of Federal Reserve System The Fed Explained .
In establishing the Federal Reserve System, the United States was divided geographically into 12 Districts, each with a separately incorporated Reserve Bank. District boundaries were based on prevailing trade regions that existed in 1913 and related economic considerations, so they do not necessarily coincide with state lines.
Federal Reserve District boundaries are based on economic considerations; the Districts operate independently but under the supervision of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors.
The Federal Reserve officially identifies Districts by number and Reserve Bank city.
In the 12th District, the Seattle Branch serves Alaska, and the San Francisco Bank serves Hawaii. The System serves commonwealths and territories as follows: the New York Bank serves the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands; the San Francisco Bank serves American Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The Board of Governors revised the branch boundaries of the System in February 1996.
As originally envisioned, each of the 12 Reserve Banks was intended to operate independently from the other Reserve Banks. Variation was expected in discount rates--the interest rate that commercial banks were charged for borrowing funds from a Reserve Bank. The setting of a separately determined discount rate appropriate to each District was considered the most important tool of monetary policy at that time. The concept of national economic policymaking was not well developed, and the impact of open market operations--purchases and sales of U.S. government securities--on policymaking was less significant.
As the nation's economy became more integrated and more complex, through advances in technology, communications, transportation, and financial services, the effective conduct of monetary policy began to require increased collaboration and coordination throughout the System. This was accomplished in part through revisions to the Federal Reserve Act in 1933 and 1935 that together created the modern-day Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC).
The Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 (Monetary Control Act) introduced an even greater degree of coordination among Reserve Banks with respect to the pricing of financial services offered to depository institutions. There has also been a trend among Reserve Banks to centralize or consolidate many of their financial services and support functions and to standardize others. Reserve Banks have become more efficient by entering into intra-System service agreements that allocate responsibilities for services and functions that are national in scope among each of the 12 Reserve Banks.
The framers of the Federal Reserve Act purposely rejected the concept of a single central bank. Instead, they provided for a central banking "system" with three salient features: (1) a central governing Board, (2) a decentralized operating structure of 12 Reserve Banks, and (3) a combination of public and private characteristics.
Although parts of the Federal Reserve System share some characteristics with private-sector entities, the Federal Reserve was established to serve the public interest.
There are three key entities in the Federal Reserve System: the Board of Governors, the Federal Reserve Banks (Reserve Banks), and the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC). The Board of Governors, an agency of the federal government that reports to and is directly accountable to Congress, provides general guidance for the System and oversees the 12 Reserve Banks.
Within the System, certain responsibilities are shared between the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., whose members are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, and the Federal Reserve Banks and Branches, which constitute the System's operating presence around the country. While the Federal Reserve has frequent communication with executive branch and congressional officials, its decisions are made independently.
The Federal Reserve Board of Governors (Board of Governors), the Federal Reserve Banks (Reserve Banks), and the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) make decisions that help promote the health of the U.S. economy and the stability of the U.S. financial system.
The framers of the Federal Reserve Act developed a central banking system that would broadly represent the public interest.
Two other groups play important roles in the Federal Reserve System's core functions:
- depository institutions--banks, thrifts, and credit unions; and
- Federal Reserve System advisory committees, which make recommendations to the Board of Governors and to the Reserve Banks regarding the System's responsibilities.
Depository institutions offer transaction, or checking, accounts to the public, and may maintain accounts of their own at their local Federal Reserve Banks. Depository institutions are required to meet reserve requirements--that is, to keep a certain amount of cash on hand or in an account at a Reserve Bank based on the total balances in the checking accounts they hold.
Depository institutions that have higher balances in their Reserve Bank account than they need to meet reserve requirements may lend to other depository institutions that need those funds to satisfy their own reserve requirements. This rate influences interest rates, asset prices and wealth, exchange rates, and thereby, aggregate demand in the economy. The FOMC sets a target for the federal funds rate at its meetings and authorizes actions called open market operations to achieve that target.
Five advisory councils assist and advise the Board on matters of public policy.
- Federal Advisory Council (FAC). This council, established by the Federal Reserve Act, comprises 12 representatives of the banking industry. The FAC ordinarily meets with the Board four times a year, as required by law. Annually, each Reserve Bank chooses one person to represent its District on the FAC. FAC members customarily serve three one-year terms and elect their own officers.
- Community Depository Institutions Advisory Council (CDIAC). The CDIAC was originally established by the Board of Governors to obtain information and views from thrift institutions (savings and loan institutions and mutual savings banks) and credit unions. More recently, its membership has expanded to include community banks. Like the FAC, the CDIAC provides the Board of Governors with firsthand insight and information about the economy, lending conditions, and other issues.
- Model Validation Council. This council was established by the Board of Governors in 2012 to provide expert and independent advice on its process to rigorously assess the models used in stress tests of banking institutions. Stress tests are required under the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. The council is intended to improve the quality of stress tests and thereby strengthen confidence in the stress-testing program.
- Community Advisory Council (CAC). This council was formed by the Federal Reserve Board in 2015 to offer diverse perspectives on the economic circumstances and financial services needs of consumers and communities, with a particular focus on the concerns of low- and moderate-income populations. The CAC complements the FAC and CDIAC, whose members represent depository institutions. The CAC meets semiannually with members of the Board of Governors. The 15 CAC members serve staggered three-year terms and are selected by the Board through a public nomination process.
- Insurance Policy Advisory Committee (IPAC). This council was established at the Board of Governors in 2018 by section 211(b) of the Economic Growth, Regulatory Relief, and Consumer Protection Act. The IPAC provides information, advice, and recommendations to the Board on international insurance capital standards and other insurance issues.
Federal Reserve Banks also have their own advisory committees. Perhaps the most important of these are committees that advise the Banks on agricultural, small business, and labor matters. The Federal Reserve Board solicits the views of each of these committees biannually.
Last Update: August 24, 2022 | https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/structure-federal-reserve-system.htm | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | Federal Reserve Board - Structure of the Federal Reserve System | The Federal Reserve System is the central bank of the United States.
It performs five general functions to promote the effective operation of the U.S. economy and, more generally, the public interest. The Federal Reserve
- conducts the nation's monetary policy to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates in the U.S. economy;
- promotes the stability of the financial system and seeks to minimize and contain systemic risks through active monitoring and engagement in the U.S. and abroad;
- promotes the safety and soundness of individual financial institutions and monitors their impact on the financial system as a whole;
- fosters payment and settlement system safety and efficiency through services to the banking industry and the U.S. government that facilitate U.S.-dollar transactions and payments; and
- promotes consumer protection and community development through consumer-focused supervision and examination, research and analysis of emerging consumer issues and trends, community economic development activities, and the administration of consumer laws and regulations.
Read more in the 11th edition of Federal Reserve System The Fed Explained .
In establishing the Federal Reserve System, the United States was divided geographically into 12 Districts, each with a separately incorporated Reserve Bank. District boundaries were based on prevailing trade regions that existed in 1913 and related economic considerations, so they do not necessarily coincide with state lines.
Federal Reserve District boundaries are based on economic considerations; the Districts operate independently but under the supervision of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors.
The Federal Reserve officially identifies Districts by number and Reserve Bank city.
In the 12th District, the Seattle Branch serves Alaska, and the San Francisco Bank serves Hawaii. The System serves commonwealths and territories as follows: the New York Bank serves the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands; the San Francisco Bank serves American Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The Board of Governors revised the branch boundaries of the System in February 1996.
As originally envisioned, each of the 12 Reserve Banks was intended to operate independently from the other Reserve Banks. Variation was expected in discount rates--the interest rate that commercial banks were charged for borrowing funds from a Reserve Bank. The setting of a separately determined discount rate appropriate to each District was considered the most important tool of monetary policy at that time. The concept of national economic policymaking was not well developed, and the impact of open market operations--purchases and sales of U.S. government securities--on policymaking was less significant.
As the nation's economy became more integrated and more complex, through advances in technology, communications, transportation, and financial services, the effective conduct of monetary policy began to require increased collaboration and coordination throughout the System. This was accomplished in part through revisions to the Federal Reserve Act in 1933 and 1935 that together created the modern-day Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC).
The Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 (Monetary Control Act) introduced an even greater degree of coordination among Reserve Banks with respect to the pricing of financial services offered to depository institutions. There has also been a trend among Reserve Banks to centralize or consolidate many of their financial services and support functions and to standardize others. Reserve Banks have become more efficient by entering into intra-System service agreements that allocate responsibilities for services and functions that are national in scope among each of the 12 Reserve Banks.
The framers of the Federal Reserve Act purposely rejected the concept of a single central bank. Instead, they provided for a central banking "system" with three salient features: (1) a central governing Board, (2) a decentralized operating structure of 12 Reserve Banks, and (3) a combination of public and private characteristics.
Although parts of the Federal Reserve System share some characteristics with private-sector entities, the Federal Reserve was established to serve the public interest.
There are three key entities in the Federal Reserve System: the Board of Governors, the Federal Reserve Banks (Reserve Banks), and the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC). The Board of Governors, an agency of the federal government that reports to and is directly accountable to Congress, provides general guidance for the System and oversees the 12 Reserve Banks.
Within the System, certain responsibilities are shared between the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C., whose members are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, and the Federal Reserve Banks and Branches, which constitute the System's operating presence around the country. While the Federal Reserve has frequent communication with executive branch and congressional officials, its decisions are made independently.
The Federal Reserve Board of Governors (Board of Governors), the Federal Reserve Banks (Reserve Banks), and the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) make decisions that help promote the health of the U.S. economy and the stability of the U.S. financial system.
The framers of the Federal Reserve Act developed a central banking system that would broadly represent the public interest.
Two other groups play important roles in the Federal Reserve System's core functions:
- depository institutions--banks, thrifts, and credit unions; and
- Federal Reserve System advisory committees, which make recommendations to the Board of Governors and to the Reserve Banks regarding the System's responsibilities.
Depository institutions offer transaction, or checking, accounts to the public, and may maintain accounts of their own at their local Federal Reserve Banks. Depository institutions are required to meet reserve requirements--that is, to keep a certain amount of cash on hand or in an account at a Reserve Bank based on the total balances in the checking accounts they hold.
Depository institutions that have higher balances in their Reserve Bank account than they need to meet reserve requirements may lend to other depository institutions that need those funds to satisfy their own reserve requirements. This rate influences interest rates, asset prices and wealth, exchange rates, and thereby, aggregate demand in the economy. The FOMC sets a target for the federal funds rate at its meetings and authorizes actions called open market operations to achieve that target.
Five advisory councils assist and advise the Board on matters of public policy.
- Federal Advisory Council (FAC). This council, established by the Federal Reserve Act, comprises 12 representatives of the banking industry. The FAC ordinarily meets with the Board four times a year, as required by law. Annually, each Reserve Bank chooses one person to represent its District on the FAC. FAC members customarily serve three one-year terms and elect their own officers.
- Community Depository Institutions Advisory Council (CDIAC). The CDIAC was originally established by the Board of Governors to obtain information and views from thrift institutions (savings and loan institutions and mutual savings banks) and credit unions. More recently, its membership has expanded to include community banks. Like the FAC, the CDIAC provides the Board of Governors with firsthand insight and information about the economy, lending conditions, and other issues.
- Model Validation Council. This council was established by the Board of Governors in 2012 to provide expert and independent advice on its process to rigorously assess the models used in stress tests of banking institutions. Stress tests are required under the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. The council is intended to improve the quality of stress tests and thereby strengthen confidence in the stress-testing program.
- Community Advisory Council (CAC). This council was formed by the Federal Reserve Board in 2015 to offer diverse perspectives on the economic circumstances and financial services needs of consumers and communities, with a particular focus on the concerns of low- and moderate-income populations. The CAC complements the FAC and CDIAC, whose members represent depository institutions. The CAC meets semiannually with members of the Board of Governors. The 15 CAC members serve staggered three-year terms and are selected by the Board through a public nomination process.
- Insurance Policy Advisory Committee (IPAC). This council was established at the Board of Governors in 2018 by section 211(b) of the Economic Growth, Regulatory Relief, and Consumer Protection Act. The IPAC provides information, advice, and recommendations to the Board on international insurance capital standards and other insurance issues.
Federal Reserve Banks also have their own advisory committees. Perhaps the most important of these are committees that advise the Banks on agricultural, small business, and labor matters. The Federal Reserve Board solicits the views of each of these committees biannually.
Last Update: August 24, 2022 | https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/structure-federal-reserve-system.htm | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | The Fed Explained | The 11th edition of The Fed Explained: What the Central Bank Does (formerly The Federal Reserve System Purposes & Functions ) details the structure, responsibilities, and work of the U.S. central banking system. The Federal Reserve System performs five functions to promote the effective operation of the U.S. economy and, more generally, to serve the public interest. It includes three key entities: the Board of Governors, 12 Federal Reserve Banks, and the Federal Open Market Committee. | https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/the-fed-explained.htm | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | Monetary Policy | Monetary policy in the United States comprises the Federal Reserve's actions and communications to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates--the economic goals the Congress has instructed the Federal Reserve to pursue.
In a review conducted over 2019 and 2020, the Fed took a step back to consider whether the U.S. monetary policy framework could be improved to better meet future challenges. Here are the results.
FOMC Statement: PDF | HTML
Released May 3, 2023
Press Conference
May 3, 2023
Projection Materials: PDF | HTML
Released March 22, 2023
FOMC Minutes: PDF | HTML
Released April 12, 2023
May 24 FOMC Minutes
Meeting of May 2-3
June 13-14 FOMC Meeting
Two-day meeting
Press Conference
July 5 FOMC Minutes
Meeting of June 13-14
Six short notes on the principles of sound monetary policy and central banks' practices in setting and implementing monetary policy | https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy.htm | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | Monetary Policy | Monetary policy in the United States comprises the Federal Reserve's actions and communications to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates--the economic goals the Congress has instructed the Federal Reserve to pursue.
In a review conducted over 2019 and 2020, the Fed took a step back to consider whether the U.S. monetary policy framework could be improved to better meet future challenges. Here are the results.
FOMC Statement: PDF | HTML
Released May 3, 2023
Press Conference
May 3, 2023
Projection Materials: PDF | HTML
Released March 22, 2023
FOMC Minutes: PDF | HTML
Released April 12, 2023
May 24 FOMC Minutes
Meeting of May 2-3
June 13-14 FOMC Meeting
Two-day meeting
Press Conference
July 5 FOMC Minutes
Meeting of June 13-14
Six short notes on the principles of sound monetary policy and central banks' practices in setting and implementing monetary policy | https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy.htm | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | What is the Fed: Structure | The Federal Reserve System has a two-part structure: a central authority called the Board of Governors located in Washington, D.C., and a decentralized network of 12 Federal Reserve Banks located throughout the U.S. One of the most visible functions of the Fed plays out at the meetings of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which bring together members of the Board of Governors and presidents of the Reserve Banks to set monetary policy.
The Fed’s structure has been set up by Congress to ensure that monetary policy is insulated from political pressure. The Fed’s decisions are also protected from interference from other arms of the federal government. Specifically, policy and operational decisions do not require approval from Congress or the President. Also, the Fed’s operations are not financed by appropriations from Congress. The Fed is able to self-fund its budget through interest earned on U.S. government securities it holds, interest on loans to financial firms, and fees charged to banks. While the Fed’s structure shields it from political pressure, Congress still has the power to change the laws governing the Fed and its structure. In addition, the Fed regularly reports to Congress on monetary policy and other matters, and undergoes an audit process each year. As such, the Fed is commonly described as “independent within the government,” or as a “quasi-governmental” agency.
The Board operates as an independent government agency.
At the center of the Federal Reserve structure is the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C. The Board is charged with overseeing the entire Federal Reserve System and operates as an independent government agency. The Board is made up of seven members who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Members serve staggered 14-year terms that expire in even-numbered years. The long, 14-year terms are another feature of the Fed’s structure designed to shield Board members from political pressures. From these members, the President also designates a Chair and two Vice Chairs of the Board to serve four-year terms. These leadership roles must be approved by the Senate and may be renewed.
Twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks carry out much of the System’s day-to-day operations.
The Fed includes 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks that carry out much of the System’s day-to-day operations. These Reserve Banks, also known as district banks, are organized as a special type of not-for profit organization operating in the public interest. The 12 districts are headquartered in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. Branches of the Reserve Banks are located in 24 other cities.
Each Reserve Bank and each of their branches has a board of directors. The local boards include individuals from different sectors of their communities. Some individuals represent commercial banks that are members of the Federal Reserve System. Other board directors represent local businesses and labor, consumer, and nonprofit areas of their communities. Each Reserve Bank has a president who is appointed by its board of directors, excluding directors representing commercial banks. The Board of Governors must approve these appointments.
The FOMC is the Fed’s monetary policy-making body.
The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) is the Fed’s monetary policy-making body. The FOMC has 12 voting members, including all seven members of the Board of Governors and a rotating group of five Reserve Bank presidents. The Chair of the Board of Governors also serves as Chair of the FOMC. The president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York serves as Vice Chair of the FOMC. The NY Fed is directly involved in carrying out monetary policy operations, so its president has a permanent vote on the FOMC. The other 11 Reserve Bank presidents serve one-year terms as voting members on a rotating basis. All 12 Reserve Bank presidents participate in FOMC meetings, whether or not they are current voting members.
The FOMC holds eight regularly scheduled meetings a year in Washington, D.C. For each session, economists at the Board of Governors and the Reserve Banks analyze regional, national, and international economic and financial conditions. On the final day of each FOMC meeting, monetary policy actions are put to a vote. Following the meeting, the FOMC issues a written statement. Each statement describes how the committee views economic conditions, policy actions, and guidance on the possible future course of policy. Three weeks following each FOMC meeting, detailed minutes are released. The minutes include descriptions of the Committee’s views on economic conditions and the reasons for policy decisions. Following a five-year holding period, the actual transcripts of each FOMC meeting are also released.
The FOMC has taken several steps to be more open about monetary policy. The Chair of the Federal Reserve holds regular press conferences after every FOMC meeting. In addition, the Committee regularly updates and releases a document called the “Statement on Longer-Run Goals and Monetary Policy Strategy.” This document outlines how Fed policymakers interpret the Fed’s dual mandate from Congress to promote full employment and stable prices. FOMC members also provide their views on the likely direction of future monetary policy in a document called the “Summary of Economic Projections.” The Committee releases these projections four times each year.
There are also two additional entities within the Fed that were established in 2010 as a result of the Dodd-Frank Act. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau is an autonomous agency operating within the Fed that protects consumers in financial matters. The Office of Minority and Women Inclusion is charged with stepping up the Fed’s involvement with minority- and women-owned businesses and reviewing the diversity and inclusion policies of the financial institutions the Fed oversees.
Sources:
Crisis & Response: Regulatory Reform , Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco.
FAQs: How is the Federal Reserve System structured? , Federal Reserve Board of Governors, April 17, 2016. | https://www.frbsf.org/education/teacher-resources/what-is-the-fed/structure/ | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | Monetary Policy Implementation - FEDERAL RESERVE BANK of NEW YORK | The Federal Reserve sets U.S. monetary policy and the New York Fed plays a central role in implementing it.
The Fed’s economic goals prescribed by Congress are to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC or Committee) is responsible for monetary policy decisions to achieve these goals. The goals of maximum employment and price stability, commonly known as the “dual mandate”, create the conditions for moderate long-term interest rates. The FOMC determines the appropriate position or “stance” of monetary policy, which reflects how “accommodative” (encouraging economic growth) or “restrictive” (slowing economic growth) it should be. Once the FOMC determines the appropriate stance of policy, the Committee issues directives to the Open Market Trading Desk at the New York Fed (Desk) to implement the policy.
Monetary policy works by influencing short-term interest rates to affect the availability and cost of credit in the economy and, ultimately, the economic decisions businesses and households make. Monetary policy can also affect financial conditions more broadly as measured by financial asset prices such as stock and bond prices, longer term interest rates, and the exchange rate of the U.S. dollar against foreign currencies. This all affects economic activity and, ultimately, the Federal Reserve’s key goals of maximum employment and price stability.
The framework for implementing monetary policy includes two key parts:
- The FOMC’s primary tool for adjusting the monetary policy stance is through changes to the target range for the federal funds rate, its key policy rate. To maintain the federal funds rate well within the target range, the Federal Reserve sets two key administered rates.
- The FOMC directs the Desk to execute open market operations —purchases and sales of securities, either outright or through repurchase agreements with primary dealers and the New York Fed’s other trading counterparties. These transactions affect the size and composition of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet, which supports the FOMC’s monetary policy stance.
In addition, the FOMC at times issues forward guidance , or communications about the economic outlook and likely future course of monetary policy to shape market expectations about interest rates and financial conditions more broadly. Forward guidance is typically communicated through FOMC statements and policymaker remarks.
Targeting the Federal Funds Rate
The FOMC announces the target range for the federal funds rate after each of the Committee’s eight meetings per year . The federal funds rate is the interest rate on transactions between banks and other eligible entities to borrow and lend their account balances at the Federal Reserve on an overnight, unsecured basis. These account balances, or reserve balances, are deposits held by eligible institutions for multiple reasons, including to meet payment obligations, manage their liquidity risk, and comply with associated regulatory ratios.
With an ample supply of reserves in the banking system, the Federal Reserve controls the federal funds rate primarily through the setting of administered rates, and active management of the supply of reserves is not required.
On a daily basis, the New York Fed publishes the Effective Federal Funds Rate (EFFR) , which is calculated as a volume-weighted median of the previous business day’s overnight federal funds transactions.
Administered Rates
The Federal Reserve sets two administered rates at levels to help keep the federal funds rate well within the target range and support smooth functioning of short-term funding markets. Together, these rates help establish a floor under overnight interest rates, including the EFFR, below which banks and other money market participants should not be willing to lend. Modest adjustments to these rates within the target range may occur to help support rate control, but they do not represent a change in policy stance.
- The rate of interest on reserve balances (IORB) , set by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (Board of Governors), is the rate paid to banks and other eligible entities on their Federal Reserve account balances, or reserves. By raising or lowering the IORB rate, the Federal Reserve sets a floor under the rates at which banks are willing to lend excess cash in their reserve accounts at the Federal Reserve to private counterparties. Given the safety and convenience of holding reserves, banks have little incentive to lend their reserves to private-sector counterparties at rates lower than the IORB rate.
- The rate on the Overnight Reverse Repo Facility (ON RRP) , set by the FOMC, is the interest rate the Federal Reserve pays on an ON RRP operation. The ON RRP facility, operated by the Desk , offers a broader range of money market participants an overnight investment that enhances their bargaining power on short-term private investment transactions. Participants include counterparties who are not eligible to earn the IORB rate (e.g., money market funds, government-sponsored enterprises). In general, counterparties to the facility should be unwilling to invest funds overnight in money markets at rates below the ON RRP rate.
Liquidity Backstops
Liquidity backstop tools play an important role in supporting the effective implementation of monetary policy by limiting the potential for pressures in overnight funding markets to push the EFFR above the FOMC’s target range.
- The discount window , operated at all 12 Reserve Banks, provides a backstop source of liquidity for banks and promotes financial stability. By providing access to temporary funding, the discount window assists banks in managing their liquidity risks and in turn helps support the flow of credit to households and businesses. Primary Credit is one of the key lending programs within the discount window. It is available to banks in generally sound financial condition and with eligible collateral pledged to a Reserve Bank. There are no restrictions on banks’ use of borrowed funds. The primary credit rate has been set at the top of the federal funds target range since March 2020.
- The Standing Repo Facility (SRF) , operated by the Desk , serves as a backstop in domestic money markets to support smooth market functioning. The SRF, which is open to primary dealers and eligible depository institutions , is designed to limit the potential for pressures in the repo market from spilling over to the federal funds market. The SRF’s pricing is set to allow robust private market activity under most market conditions, while limiting upward pressure on overnight interest rates in stressed market conditions.
- The Foreign and International Monetary Authorities (FIMA) Repo Facility helps to address pressures in global dollar funding markets that could otherwise affect financial market conditions in the United States. Under this backstop facility, approved FIMA account holders can enter into overnight repo transactions with the Federal Reserve against Treasury securities held in their custody accounts at the New York Fed. The rate on the FIMA repo facility, like the SRF rate, is designed to generally be above market repo rates when markets are functioning well.
- Standing U.S. dollar and foreign currency liquidity swaps lines , operated by the Desk , with five other major central banks help to ease strains in global funding markets and mitigate the effects of such strains on the supply of credit to households and businesses worldwide. The U.S. dollar swap lines, which involve a temporary exchange of currencies between two central banks, provide foreign central banks with the capacity to deliver U.S. dollar funding to institutions in their jurisdictions during times of market stress.
Asset Purchases
Changes in the size or composition of the balance sheet are an important part of the monetary policy implementation framework. At the direction of the FOMC and on behalf of the System Open Market Account (SOMA) —the Federal Reserve’s portfolio of securities—the Desk purchases securities in the open market.
There are different reasons that the FOMC may direct the Desk to conduct asset purchases.
- Reserves Management: Asset purchases in an ample reserves regime are used to maintain a level of reserves in the banking system to support interest rate control. The Federal Reserve closely monitors the level of reserves and other liabilities on its balance sheet. The Desk may offset decreases in reserves, such as those caused by the issuance of currency, through reserve management purchases. For example, during the last quarter of 2019 and first quarter of 2020, the FOMC directed the Desk to purchase securities to help maintain an ample supply of reserves in the banking system.
- Policy Accommodation: Asset purchases can be used to directly influence financial conditions, including further easing financial conditions when the policy rate is near zero. Such asset purchases put downward pressure on longer-term interest rates by reducing the stock of privately held debt. For example, in September 2020, the FOMC expanded its objective for asset purchases to include fostering accommodative financial conditions in response to the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Market Functioning: Asset purchases can be used to address severe disruptions to market functioning by easing balance sheet constraints of private market participants to restore two-way trading and more normal market functioning. For example, in March 2020, as COVID-19 disrupted financial markets, the FOMC directed the Desk to purchase Treasury securities and agency mortgage-backed securities at an unprecedented scale and speed to support smooth market functioning.
Balance Sheet Reduction
The FOMC may also direct the Desk to reduce the size of the balance sheet, which can tighten monetary policy. This includes limiting reinvestment of proceeds from maturing securities or selling securities. For example, starting in June 2022, the FOMC directed the Desk to begin allowing Treasury and agency mortgage-backed securities holdings to mature without reinvestment up to specified amounts, which guided the pace of balance reduction.
Additional Operations
To support effective open market operations, the Desk lends eligible Treasury and agency debt securities owned by the Federal Reserve on an overnight basis. Also, to support its operational readiness to implement future directives from the FOMC, the Desk conducts very small purchases or sales of securities from time to time across a range of operation types. These operations do not represent a change in the stance of monetary policy.
Federal Funds Rate Targeting Amid Ample Reserves
The approach to controlling the federal funds rate changed during and after the Global Financial Crisis of 2008–2009 in a few key ways:
- Target range: In late 2008, when the federal funds rate approached zero for the first time, the FOMC set a range for the federal funds rate target—instead of a specific number. The range communicated the FOMC’s monetary policy stance.
- Balance sheet policies: Also starting in late 2008 , the FOMC began to direct the Desk to make large-scale asset purchases to put downward pressure on long-term interest rates, support mortgage markets, and ease financial market conditions. These transactions sharply increased reserve balances and the size of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet.
- IORB: In late 2008, under new Congressional authority, the Federal Reserve began to pay interest on reserves to keep the EFFR within its target range given the increased supply of reserves from balance sheet expansion. In connection with the reduction of reserve requirements to zero in March 2020, the Board of Governors introduced the IORB effective July 2021, which replaced the rate of interest on excess reserves and the rate of interest on required reserves.
- ON RRP facility: In 2014, the FOMC announced that it would use the ON RRP facility as needed to help control the federal funds rate. This facility works by reinforcing the floor on overnight interest rates, since not all money market participants can earn IORB.
The Pre-Crisis Implementation Framework
Before the Global Financial Crisis, the Federal Reserve used a scarce reserves system to implement monetary policy. In this system, the FOMC achieved its federal funds rate target by directing the Desk to actively manage the supply of reserves in the banking system to meet the demand for reserves at the intended federal funds rate.
Unlike today’s framework for monetary policy implementation, the pre-crisis framework did not pay banks interest on their reserve balances. That incentivized banks to hold just enough reserves to meet their reserve requirements and avoid overdrafts. Under the pre-crisis framework, there was a relatively low aggregate level of reserves in the banking system, prompting banks to rely on borrowing and lending reserves in an active interbank federal funds market to meet their individual reserve needs.
The Desk would purchase and sell Treasury securities, on an outright basis or through repurchase and reverse repurchase agreements, to bring the supply of reserves in line with the estimated level needed for the EFFR to print close to the FOMC’s target. Small changes in the aggregate supply of reserves through market operations could cause meaningful changes in the level of rates in the federal funds market. Securities purchases added reserves to the system, putting downward pressure on short-term interest rates; securities sales drained reserves, putting upward pressure on short-term rates.
Further Reading | https://www.newyorkfed.org/markets/domestic-market-operations/monetary-policy-implementation | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | What is the Fed: Structure | The Federal Reserve System has a two-part structure: a central authority called the Board of Governors located in Washington, D.C., and a decentralized network of 12 Federal Reserve Banks located throughout the U.S. One of the most visible functions of the Fed plays out at the meetings of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which bring together members of the Board of Governors and presidents of the Reserve Banks to set monetary policy.
The Fed’s structure has been set up by Congress to ensure that monetary policy is insulated from political pressure. The Fed’s decisions are also protected from interference from other arms of the federal government. Specifically, policy and operational decisions do not require approval from Congress or the President. Also, the Fed’s operations are not financed by appropriations from Congress. The Fed is able to self-fund its budget through interest earned on U.S. government securities it holds, interest on loans to financial firms, and fees charged to banks. While the Fed’s structure shields it from political pressure, Congress still has the power to change the laws governing the Fed and its structure. In addition, the Fed regularly reports to Congress on monetary policy and other matters, and undergoes an audit process each year. As such, the Fed is commonly described as “independent within the government,” or as a “quasi-governmental” agency.
The Board operates as an independent government agency.
At the center of the Federal Reserve structure is the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C. The Board is charged with overseeing the entire Federal Reserve System and operates as an independent government agency. The Board is made up of seven members who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Members serve staggered 14-year terms that expire in even-numbered years. The long, 14-year terms are another feature of the Fed’s structure designed to shield Board members from political pressures. From these members, the President also designates a Chair and two Vice Chairs of the Board to serve four-year terms. These leadership roles must be approved by the Senate and may be renewed.
Twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks carry out much of the System’s day-to-day operations.
The Fed includes 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks that carry out much of the System’s day-to-day operations. These Reserve Banks, also known as district banks, are organized as a special type of not-for profit organization operating in the public interest. The 12 districts are headquartered in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. Branches of the Reserve Banks are located in 24 other cities.
Each Reserve Bank and each of their branches has a board of directors. The local boards include individuals from different sectors of their communities. Some individuals represent commercial banks that are members of the Federal Reserve System. Other board directors represent local businesses and labor, consumer, and nonprofit areas of their communities. Each Reserve Bank has a president who is appointed by its board of directors, excluding directors representing commercial banks. The Board of Governors must approve these appointments.
The FOMC is the Fed’s monetary policy-making body.
The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) is the Fed’s monetary policy-making body. The FOMC has 12 voting members, including all seven members of the Board of Governors and a rotating group of five Reserve Bank presidents. The Chair of the Board of Governors also serves as Chair of the FOMC. The president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York serves as Vice Chair of the FOMC. The NY Fed is directly involved in carrying out monetary policy operations, so its president has a permanent vote on the FOMC. The other 11 Reserve Bank presidents serve one-year terms as voting members on a rotating basis. All 12 Reserve Bank presidents participate in FOMC meetings, whether or not they are current voting members.
The FOMC holds eight regularly scheduled meetings a year in Washington, D.C. For each session, economists at the Board of Governors and the Reserve Banks analyze regional, national, and international economic and financial conditions. On the final day of each FOMC meeting, monetary policy actions are put to a vote. Following the meeting, the FOMC issues a written statement. Each statement describes how the committee views economic conditions, policy actions, and guidance on the possible future course of policy. Three weeks following each FOMC meeting, detailed minutes are released. The minutes include descriptions of the Committee’s views on economic conditions and the reasons for policy decisions. Following a five-year holding period, the actual transcripts of each FOMC meeting are also released.
The FOMC has taken several steps to be more open about monetary policy. The Chair of the Federal Reserve holds regular press conferences after every FOMC meeting. In addition, the Committee regularly updates and releases a document called the “Statement on Longer-Run Goals and Monetary Policy Strategy.” This document outlines how Fed policymakers interpret the Fed’s dual mandate from Congress to promote full employment and stable prices. FOMC members also provide their views on the likely direction of future monetary policy in a document called the “Summary of Economic Projections.” The Committee releases these projections four times each year.
There are also two additional entities within the Fed that were established in 2010 as a result of the Dodd-Frank Act. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau is an autonomous agency operating within the Fed that protects consumers in financial matters. The Office of Minority and Women Inclusion is charged with stepping up the Fed’s involvement with minority- and women-owned businesses and reviewing the diversity and inclusion policies of the financial institutions the Fed oversees.
Sources:
Crisis & Response: Regulatory Reform , Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco.
FAQs: How is the Federal Reserve System structured? , Federal Reserve Board of Governors, April 17, 2016. | https://www.frbsf.org/education/teacher-resources/what-is-the-fed/structure/ | 129 |
which organization sets monetary policy for the united states | What is the Fed: Structure | The Federal Reserve System has a two-part structure: a central authority called the Board of Governors located in Washington, D.C., and a decentralized network of 12 Federal Reserve Banks located throughout the U.S. One of the most visible functions of the Fed plays out at the meetings of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which bring together members of the Board of Governors and presidents of the Reserve Banks to set monetary policy.
The Fed’s structure has been set up by Congress to ensure that monetary policy is insulated from political pressure. The Fed’s decisions are also protected from interference from other arms of the federal government. Specifically, policy and operational decisions do not require approval from Congress or the President. Also, the Fed’s operations are not financed by appropriations from Congress. The Fed is able to self-fund its budget through interest earned on U.S. government securities it holds, interest on loans to financial firms, and fees charged to banks. While the Fed’s structure shields it from political pressure, Congress still has the power to change the laws governing the Fed and its structure. In addition, the Fed regularly reports to Congress on monetary policy and other matters, and undergoes an audit process each year. As such, the Fed is commonly described as “independent within the government,” or as a “quasi-governmental” agency.
The Board operates as an independent government agency.
At the center of the Federal Reserve structure is the Board of Governors in Washington, D.C. The Board is charged with overseeing the entire Federal Reserve System and operates as an independent government agency. The Board is made up of seven members who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Members serve staggered 14-year terms that expire in even-numbered years. The long, 14-year terms are another feature of the Fed’s structure designed to shield Board members from political pressures. From these members, the President also designates a Chair and two Vice Chairs of the Board to serve four-year terms. These leadership roles must be approved by the Senate and may be renewed.
Twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks carry out much of the System’s day-to-day operations.
The Fed includes 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks that carry out much of the System’s day-to-day operations. These Reserve Banks, also known as district banks, are organized as a special type of not-for profit organization operating in the public interest. The 12 districts are headquartered in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. Branches of the Reserve Banks are located in 24 other cities.
Each Reserve Bank and each of their branches has a board of directors. The local boards include individuals from different sectors of their communities. Some individuals represent commercial banks that are members of the Federal Reserve System. Other board directors represent local businesses and labor, consumer, and nonprofit areas of their communities. Each Reserve Bank has a president who is appointed by its board of directors, excluding directors representing commercial banks. The Board of Governors must approve these appointments.
The FOMC is the Fed’s monetary policy-making body.
The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) is the Fed’s monetary policy-making body. The FOMC has 12 voting members, including all seven members of the Board of Governors and a rotating group of five Reserve Bank presidents. The Chair of the Board of Governors also serves as Chair of the FOMC. The president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York serves as Vice Chair of the FOMC. The NY Fed is directly involved in carrying out monetary policy operations, so its president has a permanent vote on the FOMC. The other 11 Reserve Bank presidents serve one-year terms as voting members on a rotating basis. All 12 Reserve Bank presidents participate in FOMC meetings, whether or not they are current voting members.
The FOMC holds eight regularly scheduled meetings a year in Washington, D.C. For each session, economists at the Board of Governors and the Reserve Banks analyze regional, national, and international economic and financial conditions. On the final day of each FOMC meeting, monetary policy actions are put to a vote. Following the meeting, the FOMC issues a written statement. Each statement describes how the committee views economic conditions, policy actions, and guidance on the possible future course of policy. Three weeks following each FOMC meeting, detailed minutes are released. The minutes include descriptions of the Committee’s views on economic conditions and the reasons for policy decisions. Following a five-year holding period, the actual transcripts of each FOMC meeting are also released.
The FOMC has taken several steps to be more open about monetary policy. The Chair of the Federal Reserve holds regular press conferences after every FOMC meeting. In addition, the Committee regularly updates and releases a document called the “Statement on Longer-Run Goals and Monetary Policy Strategy.” This document outlines how Fed policymakers interpret the Fed’s dual mandate from Congress to promote full employment and stable prices. FOMC members also provide their views on the likely direction of future monetary policy in a document called the “Summary of Economic Projections.” The Committee releases these projections four times each year.
There are also two additional entities within the Fed that were established in 2010 as a result of the Dodd-Frank Act. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau is an autonomous agency operating within the Fed that protects consumers in financial matters. The Office of Minority and Women Inclusion is charged with stepping up the Fed’s involvement with minority- and women-owned businesses and reviewing the diversity and inclusion policies of the financial institutions the Fed oversees.
Sources:
Crisis & Response: Regulatory Reform , Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco.
FAQs: How is the Federal Reserve System structured? , Federal Reserve Board of Governors, April 17, 2016. | https://www.frbsf.org/education/teacher-resources/what-is-the-fed/structure/ | 129 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | The Secret Symbols on the Back of the Dollar Bill | Updated on October 29, 2021
The U.S. dollar was first designated as the world's currency in the 1944 Bretton Woods Agreement, and it is the most powerful currency in the world. 1 It's backed by the world's largest economy , the United States. The strength of the U.S. economy supports the dollar's use as a global currency. 2
The term "U.S. dollar" refers to a specific denomination and the U.S. currency in general. It was initially traded as a coin worth its weight in silver or gold and then exchanged as a paper note redeemable in gold. During the 1970s, the gold standard was dropped, and the dollar's value was allowed to float. 3 Today, although its value fluctuates, it's in strong demand.
Although the dollar is still represented by currency, its true value is represented by credit. Now more than ever, the U.S. dollar is the real symbol of faith in the power of the U.S. economy .
The dollar symbol itself ($) is said to be derived from the previously used p s , which represented the Mexican peso, Spanish piaster, or "pieces of eight." People eventually began to write the 'P' over the 'S,' then a single line over the 'S,' creating the dollar symbol. 4
There has been a great deal of controversy surrounding the enigmatic symbols on the U.S. dollar bill. For instance, the arrows being held by the eagle on the dollar bill were originally held in the right talon. Arrows symbolize war, and the right side signifies dominance. Some took that to mean dominance by war. In fact, the Founding Fathers used these symbols to convey strong messages; however, they have become garbled over the years. 5
The dollar bill shows the Great Shield of the United States, which contains:
- The American eagle flying free, holding 13 arrows of war in its non-dominant left talon and an olive branch for peace in its dominant right talon.
- The banner in its beak reads "E Pluribus Unum," meaning “Out of Many, One.”
- The shield's horizontal blue band represents Congress uniting the original 13 colonies, represented by 13 red and white vertical stripes.
- The 13 stars above the eagle represent a new nation or a constellation in the universe.
- Red stands for valor, white stands for purity, and blue stands for justice. 6
On the reverse of the Great Seal stands an unfinished pyramid of 13 rows, symbolizing strength and duration. The first row reads, "1776" in Roman numerals. The banner below reads "Novus Ordo Seclorum," which means "A New Order of the Ages." This statement refers to a new form of government or "the beginning of the new American Era." The all-seeing eye of the Divine is bordered by the phrase "Annuit Coeptis." This Latin phrase means "Providence Has Favored Our Undertakings." 6
There are six denominations of coins produced, with the costs to produce them as follows: 7
- Penny (worth 1 cent): In 2019, pennies cost taxpayers about $68 million.
- Nickel (worth 5 cents): Nickels add about $21 million to the U.S. debt.
- Dime (worth 10 cents): Dimes only cost 3.7 cents each to produce.
- Quarter (worth 25 cents): These costs 9 cents to make and distribute.
- Half Dollar (worth 50 cents): These cost about 6.6 cents to produce.
- Dollar (worth 100 cents): The United States is the only developed country that still uses $1 bills.
The United States no longer produces the half-cent coin, the two-cent coin, the three-cent coin, the half-dime coin (different from the nickel), or the twenty-cent coin.
There are seven denominations in bills still being printed: $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. There are five larger denominations that are no longer being printed; however, some of these are held by collectors and are still considered legal tender : the $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000 bills. The $100,000 bill was never circulated and is not legally held by collectors or consumers. 8
The pie chart below shows how many bills of each denomination were circulating in 2018. This chart represents the first year that the number of $100 bills circulating was larger than the number of $1 bills. 9
The Federal Reserve, as the nation's central bank , is responsible for making sure that enough currency is in circulation. It commissions the U.S. Treasury Department's Bureau of Engraving and Printing to print the bills. It also authorizes its Mint Department to cast the coins. Once produced, the currency is shipped to the Federal Reserve banks, where members can exchange credit for currency as needed. 10
Very few older and current bills have pictures of people other than presidents. The three who were not are Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, on the $10 bill; Benjamin Franklin on the $100 bill; and Salmon P. Chase, Treasury Secretary during the Civil War, on the $10,000 bill, which is no longer printed.
When you travel overseas or conduct any international business, you want to know how much your dollar will buy. To find out, you must convert your currency to the local one by using an exchange rate . 11
Traders in the foreign exchange market determine the dollar's value as compared to other currencies every moment. The rates are determined by a wide variety of factors: the interest rate paid on the dollar, how rapidly the economy is growing, and how large the country's debt-to-GDP ratio is.
In addition to exchange rates, the dollar's value is measured by U.S. Treasury notes and the number of dollars held in reserves by foreign governments. Countries that export more to the U.S. than they import hold an excess of dollars, which increases the value of the dollar by absorbing the excess supply . This exchange also makes the value of their currency weaker, allowing their goods to seem cheaper. In addition to holding onto dollars, these countries buy Treasury notes, which helps make the dollar stronger. 12
The value of the U.S. dollar is measured by exchange rates, Treasury notes, and foreign exchange reserves.
Part of the reason for the dollar's strength is its role as the world's reserve currency. Most people around the world will accept a $20 bill for payment in lieu of their own country's currency; most oil contracts are in dollars, and 86% of all foreign exchange trade is conducted in dollars. 13
The dollar's unique status as a world currency is due to the Bretton Woods Agreement, in which the victors of World War II agreed to peg their currency to the dollar and tie it to a fixed amount of gold. President Nixon ended the gold standard in 1973, which allowed the dollar to have a floating value rather than a fixed one.
Disconnecting the dollar from gold had the effect of tying it to the country's economy and the three factors mentioned earlier: exchange rates, Treasury notes, and foreign exchange reserves.
Watermarks and security threads are the best way to verify the authenticity of a dollar bill. 14 To learn more about how to verify banknotes, visit the federal government's Currency Education Program website, or download the program's Teller Toolkit .
Shorting the dollar can be as easy as exchanging it for another currency. If you think the dollar's value will fall, then trade your U.S. dollars for another currency that you expect to remain relatively strong. You can also short the dollar index ( DXY ) or buy an ETF like UDN that is designed to replicate a short DXY position. 15
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where did the us dollar sign come from | The curious origins of the dollar symbol | It’s used widely in computer coding and it provides money-mouth emoji with its dazed eyes and lolling tongue. Yet despite its polyglot ubiquity, the origins of the dollar sign remain far from clear, with competing theories touching on Bohemian coins, the Pillars of Hercules and harried merchants.
The first printed dollar sign was made on a Philadelphia printing press in the 1790s by Archibald Binny (Credit: Getty Images)
The dollar’s baby sibling, the all-but-worthless cent, is logically represented by a lowercase ‘c’ with a line through it, but there’s no ‘D’ in the dollar sign. If you had to find letters lurking in its form, you might spy an ‘S’ overlain with a squeezed, bend-less ‘U’ providing its vertical strokes. In fact, this accounts for one of the most popular misconceptions about the sign’s origins: it stands for United States, right?
That’s what writer and philosopher and famed libertarian Ayn Rand believed. In a chapter in her 1957 novel, Atlas Shrugged , one character asks another about what the dollar sign stands for. The answer includes these lines: ‘for achievement, for success, for ability, for man's creative power—and precisely for these reasons, it is used as a brand of infamy. It stands for the initials of the United States’.
It seems that Rand was wrong, not least because until 1776, the US was known as the United Colonies of America, and there are suggestions that the dollar sign was in use before the United States was born.
This vintage bond signed by former US president George Washington in 1792 contains the first use of the dollar sign on an American financial document (Credit: Getty Images)
The British pound sign has a history going back 1,200 years, when it was first used by the Romans as an abbreviation for ‘libra pondo’, the empire’s basic unit of weight. As any amateur astrologer will tell you, libra means scales in Latin, and libra pondo literally translates as ‘a pound by weight’.
In Anglo-Saxon England, the pound became a unit of currency, equivalent to – surprise, surprise – a pound of silver. Vast riches, in other words. But along with the Roman name, the Anglo-Saxons borrowed the sign, an ornate letter ‘L’. The crossbar came along later, indicating that it’s an abbreviation, and a cheque in London’s Bank of England Museum shows that the pound sign had assumed its current form by 1661, even if it took a little longer for it to become universally adopted.
Logically if unimaginatively, the coin was dubbed the joachimsthaler, which was then shortened to thaler, the word that proceeded to spread around the world
The dollar, meanwhile, has a far shorter history. In 1520, the Kingdom of Bohemia began minting coins using silver from a mine in Joachimsthal – which roughly translates from German into English as Joachim’s valley. Logically if unimaginatively, the coin was dubbed the joachimsthaler, which was then shortened to thaler, the word that proceeded to spread around the world. It was the Dutch variation, the daler, that made its way across the Atlantic in the pockets and on the tongues of early immigrants, and today’s American-English pronunciation of the word dollar retains its echoes.
Until 1776 the US was known as the United Colonies of America and there are suggestions that the dollar sign was in use before the United States was born (Credit: Getty Images)
Despite the currency’s relative youthfulness, however, there is no straightforward answer to the question of where the dollar sign sprang from. Nobody seems to have sat down to design it, and its form still fluctuates – sometimes it has two lines through it, increasingly just the one. Not that there aren’t plenty of competing hypotheses. For instance, circling back to the idea that there’s a U and an S concealed within its form, it’s been suggested that they stand for ‘units of silver’.
One of the most esoteric origin stories links it back to the Bohemian thaler, which featured a serpent on a Christian cross. That itself was an allusion to the story of Moses winding a bronze snake around a pole in order to cure people who’d been bitten. The dollar, so it’s said, derived from that sign.
Yet another version centres on the Pillars of Hercules, a phrase conjured up by the Ancient Greeks to describe the promontories that flank the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar. The pillars feature in Spain’s national coat of arms and, during the 18th and 19th Centuries, appeared on the Spanish dollar, which was otherwise known as the piece of eight, or peso. The pillars have banners twined around them in an S-shape and it doesn’t take much squinting to see a resemblance to the dollar sign.
Artist Andy Warhol reportedly said of his work “American money is very well designed, really, I like it better than any other kind of money.” (Credit: Getty Images)
The most widely accepted theory does in fact involve Spanish coinage, and it goes like this: in the colonies, trade between Spanish Americans and English Americans was lively, and the peso, or peso de ocho reales, was legal tender in the US until 1857. It was often shortened, so historians tell us, to the initial ‘P’ with an ‘S’ hovering beside it in superscript. Gradually, thanks to the scrawl of time-pressed merchants and scribes, that ‘P’ merged with the ‘S’ and lost its curve, leaving the vertical stroke like a stake down the centre of the ‘S’. A Spanish dollar was more or less worth an American dollar, so it’s easy to see how the sign might have transferred.
As with everything American at the moment, there’s a partisan dimension to the debate about the dollar sign’s ancestry: for duelling political reasons, one faction favours the idea that it’s homegrown, another that it was imported.
There’s a partisan dimension to the debate about the dollar sign’s ancestry: for duelling political reasons, one faction favours the idea that it’s homegrown, another that it was imported
It’s certainly ironic – though hardly surprising – that a symbol so intrinsic to America’s national character might have its roots in another country altogether. But regardless of how it came to be, it is certainly an American invention: he may not have been its sole creator, but the correspondence of Irish-born Oliver Pollock, a wealthy trader and early supporter of the American Revolution, has led him to be often cited by historians as its originator.
Artwork made from reflector caps, lamps and an electronic sequencer, by artists Tim Noble and Sue Webster alongside pieces by Andy Warhol (Credit: Getty Images)
And as for the first printed dollar sign, that was made on a Philadelphia printing press in the 1790s and was the work of a staunch American patriot – or at least a vehemently anti-English Scotsman – named Archibald Binny, who’s today remembered as the creator of the Monticello typeface.
Of course, if you really want to tumble down a rabbit hole of mysterious symbolism, try looking into the origins of the design of the American dollar bill. Eye of Providence , anybody? | https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20190528-the-curious-origin-of-the-symbol | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Dollar sign - Wikipedia | "$" redirects here. For the unit of currency, see Dollar . For other uses, see $ (disambiguation) .
"Peso sign" redirects here. For the Philippine peso sign "₱", see Philippine peso sign .
For technical reasons , "$#*! My Dad Says" redirects here. For the television show, see $h*! My Dad Says .
For technical reasons , ":$" redirects here. For the keyboard symbol, see List of emoticons .
|$|
Dollar sign
|Other names||Peso sign|
|In Unicode||U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ )|
|Currency|
|Currency||Many (see dollar , peso )|
|Graphical variants|
|Category|
The dollar sign , also known as peso sign , is a symbol consisting of a capital " S " crossed with one or two vertical strokes ( $ or
depending on typeface ), used to indicate the unit of various currencies around the world, including most currencies denominated " peso " and " dollar ". The explicitly double-barred
sign is called cifrão in Portuguese .
The sign is also used in several compound currency symbols, such as the Brazilian real (R$) and the Nicaraguan córdoba (C$).
The one- and two-stroke version are often considered mere stylistic ( typeface ) variants, although in some places and epochs one of them may have been specifically assigned, by law or custom, to a specific currency. The Unicode computer encoding standard defines a single code for both.
In most English -speaking countries that use that symbol, it is placed to the left of the amount specified, e.g. "$1", read as "one dollar".
The symbol appears in business correspondence in the 1770s from Spanish America , the early independent U.S., British America and Britain, referring to the Spanish American peso, [1] [2] also known as " Spanish dollar " or "piece of eight" in British America. Those coins provided the model for the currency that the United States adopted in 1792, and for the larger coins of the new Spanish American republics, such as the Mexican peso , Argentine peso , Peruvian real , and Bolivian sol coins.
With the Coinage Act of 1792 , the United States Congress created the U.S. dollar, defining it to have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current" [3] but a variety of foreign coins were deemed to be legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857 ended this status. [4] [ failed verification ] [5] [ failed verification ]
The earliest U.S. dollar coins did not have any dollar symbol. The first occurrence in print is claimed to be from 1790s, by a Philadelphia printer Archibald Binny , creator of the Monticello typeface . [6] The $1 United States Note issued by the United States in 1869 included a large symbol consisting of a "U" with the right bar overlapping an "S" like a single-bar dollar sign, as well as a very small double-stroke dollar sign in the legal warning against forgery. [7]
It is still uncertain, however, how the dollar sign came to represent the Spanish American peso. There are currently several competing hypotheses:
- One theory holds that the sign grew out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation "p s " for pesos. A study of late 18th- and early 19th-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p , developing into a close equivalent to the "$" mark. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] However, there are documents showing the common use of the two-stroke version in Portugal already by 1775. [13]
- Another hypothesis derives the sign from a depiction of the Pillars of Hercules , a classical symbol for two sides of the Strait of Gibraltar , with a ribbon wrapped around each pillar (or both pillars) in the form of an "S". This device is a support element of the Spanish coat of arms , and appeared on the most common real de ocho coins circulating at the time in the Americas and Europe; namely, those minted at the Potosí mint in Bolivia , which operated from 1573 to 1825. [14] [10] Indeed, one of the names used for Spanish dollars in Qing Dynasty China was 双柱 ; 雙柱 ; shuāngzhù ; 'double-pillar'. [15]
- A variant of the above theory claims that the sign comes from the mark of the mint at Potosí , where a large portion of the Spanish Empire's silver was mined, also featured on those coin, which consisted of the letters "P T S I" superimposed. The core of this monogram is a (single-stroked) "$" sign. [16]
- Yet another hypothesis notes that the English word "dollar" for the Spanish piece of eight originally came (through Dutch daalder ) from Joachimsthaler or thaler , a similar large German silver coin which was widely used in Europe. It is therefore conjectured that the dollar sign derived from a symbol consisting of a superimposing S and I or J that was used to denote the German silver coin. Such symbol appears in the 1686 edition of An Introduction to Merchants' Accounts by John Collins . [17] Alternatively, the symbol could have come from a snake and cross emblem on the thaler coins. [6]
The following theories seem to have been discredited or contradicted by documentary evidence:
- Some historians have attributed the symbol to Oliver Pollock , a wealthy Irish trader and early supporter of the American Revolution, who used the abbreviation "ps", sometimes run together, in a letter dated 1778. [6] [18]
- In 1937, historian James Alton James claimed that the symbol with two strokes was an adapted design of patriot Robert Morris in 1778, in letters written to Pollock. [19] [20] [18]
- In 1939, H. M. Larson suggested that the sign could derive from a combination of the Greek character "psi" (ψ) and "S". [21]
- Writer Ayn Rand claimed in her 1957 book Atlas Shrugged that the sign started off as a monogram of "US", with a narrow "U" superimposed on the "S", which would have been used on money bags issued by the United States Mint . In her theory, the bottom part of the "U" would have been lost, producing the dollar sign with two vertical lines. [22] [6]
- Authors T. Seijas and J. Frederick noted that the captors of slaves in Spanish territories sometimes branded enslaved people with a symbol very similar to a one-barred dollar sign. Esclavo is Spanish for "slave," and clavo means nail. A dollar sign is S + clavo . [14]
- A theory often cited in Portuguese speaking countries is that the "S" part of the doubly-stroked sign is a schematic representation of the path followed by the Umayyad Caliphate general Tariq Ibn Ziyad in his conquest of the Visigoth kingdom in 711 CE , and the two strokes represent the Pillars of Hercules that he would have crossed along that path. That symbol would have been engraved in coins commemorating his victory, and then became symbolic of currency in general. [23]
The numerous currencies called " dollar " use the dollar sign to express money amounts. The sign is also generally used for the many currencies called " peso " (except the Philippine peso , which uses the symbol " ₱ "). Within a country the dollar/peso sign may be used alone. In other cases, and to avoid ambiguity in international usage, it is usually combined with other glyphs, e.g. CA$ or Can$ for Canadian dollar .
The dollar sign, alone or in combination with other glyphs, is or was used to denote several currencies with other names, including:
- Brazilian cruzeiro (various currencies, all defunct): ₢$, , , , etc.
- Ethiopian birr (until 1976): E$
- Samoan tālā (a transliteration of the word dollar): $
In the United States, Mexico, Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Pacific Island nations, and English-speaking Canada, the sign is written before the number ("$5"), even though the word is written or spoken after it ("five dollars", " cinco pesos "). In French-speaking Canada, exceptionally, the dollar symbol usually appears after the number, [24] e.g., "5$". (The cent symbol is written after the number in most countries that use it, e.g., "5 ¢ ".)
In Portugal, Brazil, and other parts of the Portuguese Empire , the two-stroke variant of the sign (with the name cifrão ; ( Portuguese pronunciation: [siˈfɾɐ̃w] (
listen ) ) was used as the thousands separator of amounts in the national currency, the real (plural "réis", abbreviated "Rs."): 123
500 meant " 123 500 réis ". This usage is attested in 1775, but may be older by a century or more. [13] It is always written with two vertical lines:
. It is the official sign of the Cape Verdean escudo ( ISO 4217 : CVE).
In 1911 Portugal redefined the national currency as the escudo , worth 1000 réis , and divided into 100 centavos ; but the cifrão continued to be used as the decimal separator , [25] so that 123
50 meant 123.50 escudos or 123 escudos and 50 centavos. This usage ended in 2002 when the country switched to the euro . (A similar scheme to use a letter symbol instead of a decimal point is used by the RKM code in electrical engineering since 1952.)
Cape Verde , a republic and former Portuguese colony, similarly switched from the real to their local escudo and centavos in 1914, and retains the cifrão usage as decimals separator as of 2021. Local versions of the Portuguese escudo were for a time created also for other overseas colonies, including East Timor (1958–1975), Portuguese India (1958–1961), Angola (1914–1928 and 1958–1977), Mozambique (1914–1980), Portuguese Guinea (1914–1975), and São Tomé and Príncipe (1914–1977); presumably [ clarification needed ] all using the cifrão as decimals separator. [ citation needed ]
Brazil retained the real and the cifrão as thousands separator until 1942, when it switched to the Brazilian cruzeiro , with comma as the decimals separator. The dollar sign, officially with one stroke but often rendered with two, was retained as part of the currency symbol "Cr $" , so one would write Cr$13,50 for 13 cruzeiros and 50 centavos. [26]
It was formerly used by the Portuguese escudo (ISO: PTE) before its replacement by the euro and by the Portuguese Timor escudo (ISO: TPE) before its replacement by the Indonesian rupiah and the US dollar . [27] In Portuguese and Cape Verdean usage, the cifrão is placed as a decimal point between the escudo and centavo values. [28] The name originates in the Arabic sifr ( صِفْر ), meaning 'zero'. [29]
In some places and at some times, the one- and two-stroke variants have been used in the same contexts to distinguish between the U.S. dollar and other local currency, such as the former Portuguese escudo . [25]
However, such usage is not standardized, and furthermore the two versions are generally considered [ citation needed ] mere graphic variants of the same symbol —a typeface design choice. Computer and typewriter keyboards usually have a single key for that sign, and many character encodings (including ASCII and Unicode ) reserve a single numeric code for it. Indeed, dollar signs in the same digital document may be rendered with one or two strokes, if different computer fonts are used. Should that ambiguity be significant, one may use explicit abbreviations (like " US$ " or "$NZ"), or ISO 4217 three-letter currency codes (such as USD and MXN ) to distinguish different currencies that use the symbol.
When a specific variant is not mandated by law or custom, the choice is usually a matter of expediency or aesthetic preference. Both versions were used in the US in the 18th century. (An 1861 Civil War -era advertisement depicts the two-stroked symbol as a snake. [18] ) The two-stroke version seems to be generally less popular today, though used in some "old-style" fonts like Baskerville .
Because of its use in early American computer applications such as business accounting, the dollar sign is almost universally present in computer character sets , and thus has been appropriated for many purposes unrelated to money in programming languages and command languages .
The dollar sign "$" has Unicode code point U+0024 (inherited from ASCII via Latin-1 ).
- U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ ) [a]
There are no separate encodings for one- and two-line variants. The choice is typeface-dependent, they are allographs . However, there are three other code points that originate from other East Asian standards: the Taiwanese small form variant , the CJK fullwidth form , and the Japanese emoji . The glyphs for these code points are typically larger or smaller than the primary code point, but the difference is mostly aesthetic or typographic, and the meanings of the symbols are the same.
- U+FE69 ﹩ SMALL DOLLAR SIGN
- U+FF04 ＄ FULLWIDTH DOLLAR SIGN
- U+1F4B2 💲 HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN
However, for usage as the special character in various computing applications (see following sections), U+0024 is typically the only code that is recognized.
Support for the two-line variant varies. As of 2019, the Unicode standard considers the distinction between one- and two-bar dollar signs a stylistic distinction between fonts , and has no separate code point for the cifrão . The symbol is not in the October 2019 'pipeline', [32] but appears to be under active consideration. [33]
In LaTeX , with the textcomp package installed, the cifrão (
) can be input using the command
\textdollaroldstyle .
However, because of font substitution and the lack of a dedicated code point, the author of an electronic document who uses one of these fonts intending to represent a cifrão cannot be sure that every reader will see a double-bar glyph rather than the single barred version.
Because of the continued lack of support in Unicode, a single bar dollar sign is frequently employed in its place even for official purposes. [28] [34] Where there is any risk of misunderstanding, the ISO 4217 three letter acronym is used.
$was used for defining string variables in older versions of the BASIC language, e.g.
CHR$(
$was often pronounced "string" instead of "dollar" in this use).
$is prefixed to names to define variables in the PHP language and the AutoIt automation script language, scalar variables in the Perl language (see sigil (computer programming) ), and global variables in the Ruby language. In Perl programming this includes scalar elements of arrays
$array [ 7 ]and hashes
$hash { foo }.
- In most shell scripting languages,
$is used to indicate the insertion into strings of environment variables , special variables, input data fields, previous commands, arithmetic computations, and special characters, and for performing translation of localised strings. In the shell script languages of CP/M , DOS , and several Unix-like systems, it is used to insert variable information (such as the current working directory , user name , or sequential command number) in the command prompt .
$is used for defining hexadecimal constants in Pascal -like languages such as Delphi , and in some variants of assembly language .
$is used in the ALGOL 68 language to delimit transput format regions.
$is used in the TeX typesetting language to delimit mathematical regions.
- In many versions of FORTRAN 66 ,
$could be used as an alternative to a quotation mark for delimiting strings.
- In PL/M ,
$can be used to put a visible separation between words in compound identifiers. For example,
Some$Namerefers to the same thing as 'SomeName'.
- In Haskell ,
$is used as a function application operator.
- In an AutoHotkey script, a hotkey declared with
$is not triggered by a 'Send' command elsewhere in the script.
- In several JavaScript frameworks such as Prototype.js and jQuery ,
$is a common utility class , and is often referred to as the buck . [ citation needed ] Otherwise, it's a character allowed in identifiers.
- In JavaScript from ES6 onward it is used inside template literals to insert the value of a variable. For example, if
var word = "such"then
`as ${ word } `would equal
'as such'
- In C# ,
$marks a string literal as an interpolated string .
- In ASP.NET , the dollar sign used in a tag in the web page indicates an expression will follow it. The expression that follows is .NET language-agnostic , as it will work with C#, VB.NET , or any CLR supported language.
- In Erlang , the dollar sign precedes character literals. The dollar sign as a character can be written
$$.
- In COBOL the
$sign is used in the Picture clause to depict a floating currency symbol as the left most character. The default symbol is
$; however, if the
CURRENCY=or
CURRENCY SIGNclause is specified, many other symbols can be used.
- In some assembly languages , such as MIPS , the
$sign is used to represent registers.
- In Honeywell 6000 series assembler, the
$sign, when used as an address, meant the address of the instruction in which it appeared.
- In CMS-2 , the
$sign is used as a statement terminator.
- In R , the
$sign is used as a subsetting operator.
- In Q (programming language from Kx Systems) , the
$sign is used as a casting/padding/enumeration/conditional operator.
- In Sass , the
$sign is prefixed to define a variable.
- In CP/M and subsequently in all versions of DOS ( 86-DOS , MS-DOS , PC DOS , more) and derivatives,
$is used as a string terminator (
Int 21hwith
AH=09h).
- In Microsoft Windows ,
$is appended to the share name to hide a shared folder or resource. For example,
\\server\sharewill be visible to other computers on a network, while
\\server\share$will be accessible only by explicit reference. Hiding a shared folder or resource will not alter its access permissions but may render it inaccessible to programs or other functions which rely on its visibility. Most administrative shares are hidden in this way.
- In the LDAP directory access protocol,
$is used as a line separator in various standard entry attributes such as postalAddress.
- In the UNIVAC EXEC 8 operating system,
$means "system". It is appended to entities such as the names of system files, the "sender" name in messages sent by the operator, and the default names of system-created files (like compiler output) when no specific name is specified (e.g.,
TPF$,
NAME$, etc.)
- In RISC OS ,
$is used in system variables to separate the application name from the variables specific to that application. For example
Draw$Dirspecifies the directory where the
!Drawapplication is located. It is also used to refer to the root directory of a file system .
- Microsoft Excel [35] and other spreadsheet software use the dollar sign ($) to denote a fixed row, fixed column reference, or an absolute cell reference.
- The dollar sign introduces a subfield delimiter in computer coding of library catalog records .
$matches the end of a line or string in sed , grep , and POSIX and Perl regular expressions , as well as the end of a line or the file in text editors ed , ex , vi , pico , and derivatives.
The symbol is sometimes used derisively, in place of the letter S, to indicate greed or excess money such as in " Micro$oft ", " Di$ney ", " Chel$ea " and " GW$ "; or supposed overt Americanisation as in " $ky ". The dollar sign is also used intentionally to stylize names such as A$AP Rocky , Ke$ha , and Ty Dolla $ign or words such as ¥€$ . In 1872, Ambrose Bierce referred to California governor Leland Stanford as $tealand Landford. [36]
In Scrabble notation, a dollar sign is placed after a word to indicate that it is valid according to the North American word lists , but not according to the British word lists. [37]
A dollar symbol is used as unit of reactivity for a nuclear reactor, 0 $ being the threshold of slow criticality, meaning a steady reaction rate, while 1 $ is the threshold of prompt criticality , which means a nuclear excursion or explosion. [38] [39]
The dollar sign was used as a letter in the Turkmen alphabet from 1993 to 1999. [ citation needed ]
The dollar sign plays an important role in the plot of Ayn Rand 's novel Atlas Shrugged , with the book's radical Free Market activists adopting it as their insignia. [ citation needed ]
- ^ Roy Morris (1995). Ambrose Bierce: Alone in Bad Company . Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780195126280 .
- ^ "Scrabble Glossary" . Tucson Scrabble Club. Archived from the original on 30 August 2011 . Retrieved 6 February 2012 .
- ^ Weinberg, Alvin M.; Wigner, Eugene P. (1958). The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 595.
- ^ "DOE Fundamentals: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory: Module 4: Reactor Theory (Reactor Operations)" (PDF) . U. S. Department of Energy. n.d. p. 16 . Retrieved 25 July 2022 .
- Cajori, Florian (1993). A History of Mathematical Notations (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-67766-4 . Contains section on the history of the dollar sign, with much documentary evidence supporting the "pesos" hypothesis.
- Cuhaj, George (2009). Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (28th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 978-0-89689-939-1 .
- Ovason, David (30 November 2004). The Secret Symbols of the Dollar Bill (Reprint ed.). Harper Paperbacks. ISBN 0-06-053045-6 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_sign#:~:text=The%20symbol%20appears%20in%20business%20correspondence%20in%20the,dollar%22%20or%20%22piece%20of%20eight%22%20in%20British%20America. | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Here’s the Real Reason the Dollar Sign Is an S | Carsten Reisinger/Shutterstock
Our sign for “cent,” a lowercase c with a line through it, makes cents—sorry, sense . But our much-more-widely-used currency symbol, the sign for the dollar, is based on the letter…S? How did that happen?
You may have heard that the dollar sign started as a U on top of an S, as in “United States.” Over time, the bottom of the U disappeared, leaving the S with two lines through it, which was eventually simplified to only one line. But this isn’t the true story. In fact, this symbol was actually used for another form of currency before the U.S. dollar. Here are some other myths you’ve always believed that are totally false .
The story behind this familiar monetary symbol begins not in America but in Europe. In the sixteenth century, Spanish explorers found massive quantities of silver in the South American lands they had just conquered, lands that would later become Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia. Rich with silver, Spain began minting massive quantities of silver coins called pieces of eight, or peso de ocho , “pesos” for short. The silver supply in Europe was dwindling at this time, so the Spanish peso became the primary coin for international trade.
The previous coin to hold that title was a silver coin called a joachimsthaler. The final two syllables of this mouthful of a name are actually where the word “dollar” comes from! So as the peso replaced this coin, it earned the nickname “the Spanish dollar.” Here are some more surprising facts you never knew about American money . | https://www.rd.com/article/us-dollar-sign-s/ | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Where did the dollar sign come from? | If you're wondering where the dollar sign ($) came from, you're in good company.
If you’re wondering where the dollar sign ($) came from, you’re in good company. No one really knows for sure, and several theories have emerged over the years. The most widely accepted explanation, according to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, goes back to the Spanish peso, which was accepted as the basic unit of value in colonial America during the late 1700s. Handwritten manuscripts dating to that time show that the peso—formally “peso de ocho reales” or “piece of eight” in America—was abbreviated PS. It’s believed that as time went on, the abbreviation was often written so that the S was on top of the P, producing an approximation of the $ symbol. The $ first appeared in print after 1800, and was widely used by the time the first U.S. paper dollar was issued in 1875.
Though the PS theory is now widely accepted, various alternate explanations have been proposed over the years for how this ubiquitous symbol came into existence. One of the most popular came from libertarian philosopher and author Ayn Rand, who in her 1957 novel “Atlas Shrugged” included a chapter on the dollar sign, which she claimed was a symbol not only of American currency but of the nation’s economic freedom. According to Rand, the dollar sign (written with two downward slashes instead of one) came from the initials of the United States: A capital U superimposed over a capital S, minus the lower part of the U. No documentary evidence exists to support this theory, however, and it seems clear the dollar sign was already in use by the time the United States was formed. | https://www.history.com/news/where-did-the-dollar-sign-come-from | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Dollar sign | Description, History, & Facts | dollar sign , $, symbol that represents the dollar , the name of the standard monetary unit used in the United States , Canada, Australia, New Zealand , and a number of other countries and territories. The dollar sign is also used for several currencies that use different names, including the Brazilian real , the Mexican peso , the Nicaraguan córdoba, and the Macanese pataca.
The dollar sign takes as its base the form of the capital letter S . A vertical line bisects the S . Less commonly, two vertical lines are used in place of one.
Outside of currency , the dollar sign is used as a common sigil (symbol for a variable) in many computer programming languages, including Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code ( BASIC ) and several scripting languages such as Perl . In BASIC, the symbol is suffixed to a variable representing an array , or collection, of strings; in scripting languages, it is typically prefixed to a variable with scalar, or single, value.
The origin of the dollar sign is a matter of debate. The most widely circulated theory asserts that it originated as a symbol representing the Spanish milled dollar (also called peso). After the United States gained independence in the late 18th century, it created a new currency based on Spanish coinage , the most common coin in circulation in the colonies. The United States’ first dollar coins, minted in silver in 1794, not only took their name from the Spanish dollar but also borrowed the Spanish dollar’s weight and value . Because of the close connection between the two currencies, it is likely that if a symbol existed for the Spanish dollar before 1794, it would have been used for the U.S. dollar. The earliest known occurrence of a dollar sign in print, however, was in 1797.
According to a related theory, the symbol stems from an abbreviation of peso as Ps . The strongest support for this theory comes from a 1778 invoice handwritten by Oliver Pollock, a financier of the American Revolution , in which the P in the Ps abbreviation appears to be superimposed on the s , thereby bisecting it. Despite the resemblance between Oliver Pollock’s handwriting and the dollar sign, however, there remains little evidence to suggest such a symbol was in contemporary usage or that Pollock’s possible slip caught on.
Another theory relates to the origin of the Spanish dollar itself. When Spain underwent a coinage reform in 1497, the dollar was introduced as Spain’s unit of currency. Its full name was peso de ocho reales (or “piece of 8 reales”), and, as its name suggests, it was worth 8 units of the real, the former standard. Some have therefore speculated that the $ symbol arose as a stylistic variation on the Arabic numeral 8 , although no documents have surfaced that demonstrate 8 being used to symbolize the Spanish dollar.
The peso originated during the reign of Ferdinand II of Aragon (1479–1516), and some see a resemblance between one of his royal symbols, which was cast on the bill, and the dollar sign. After Ferdinand’s forces gained control over the Strait of Gibraltar , he added to his coat of arms two columns representing the Pillars of Heracles , wrapped with a ribbon. Many people suggest that the bar in the dollar sign resembles one of the pillars, while the S looks like the ribbon. There is little evidence, however, to indicate that the dollar sign came from the $-like representation of the pillars on the Spanish dollar.
The lack of evidence behind the dollar sign’s historical development has allowed room for folktales. Among the most well known is that promulgated by Ayn Rand in her novel Atlas Shrugged (1957). In it she asserts that the symbol is an amalgamation of the letters U and S (representing “United States”) with the bottom of the U dropped. The literary merit of this claim lies in representing the U.S. as a bastion of economic freedom, but it has no factual basis. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/dollar-sign | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Here’s the Real Reason the Dollar Sign Is an S | Carsten Reisinger/Shutterstock
Our sign for “cent,” a lowercase c with a line through it, makes cents—sorry, sense . But our much-more-widely-used currency symbol, the sign for the dollar, is based on the letter…S? How did that happen?
You may have heard that the dollar sign started as a U on top of an S, as in “United States.” Over time, the bottom of the U disappeared, leaving the S with two lines through it, which was eventually simplified to only one line. But this isn’t the true story. In fact, this symbol was actually used for another form of currency before the U.S. dollar. Here are some other myths you’ve always believed that are totally false .
The story behind this familiar monetary symbol begins not in America but in Europe. In the sixteenth century, Spanish explorers found massive quantities of silver in the South American lands they had just conquered, lands that would later become Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia. Rich with silver, Spain began minting massive quantities of silver coins called pieces of eight, or peso de ocho , “pesos” for short. The silver supply in Europe was dwindling at this time, so the Spanish peso became the primary coin for international trade.
The previous coin to hold that title was a silver coin called a joachimsthaler. The final two syllables of this mouthful of a name are actually where the word “dollar” comes from! So as the peso replaced this coin, it earned the nickname “the Spanish dollar.” Here are some more surprising facts you never knew about American money . | https://www.rd.com/article/us-dollar-sign-s/ | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | The curious origins of the dollar symbol | It’s used widely in computer coding and it provides money-mouth emoji with its dazed eyes and lolling tongue. Yet despite its polyglot ubiquity, the origins of the dollar sign remain far from clear, with competing theories touching on Bohemian coins, the Pillars of Hercules and harried merchants.
The first printed dollar sign was made on a Philadelphia printing press in the 1790s by Archibald Binny (Credit: Getty Images)
The dollar’s baby sibling, the all-but-worthless cent, is logically represented by a lowercase ‘c’ with a line through it, but there’s no ‘D’ in the dollar sign. If you had to find letters lurking in its form, you might spy an ‘S’ overlain with a squeezed, bend-less ‘U’ providing its vertical strokes. In fact, this accounts for one of the most popular misconceptions about the sign’s origins: it stands for United States, right?
That’s what writer and philosopher and famed libertarian Ayn Rand believed. In a chapter in her 1957 novel, Atlas Shrugged , one character asks another about what the dollar sign stands for. The answer includes these lines: ‘for achievement, for success, for ability, for man's creative power—and precisely for these reasons, it is used as a brand of infamy. It stands for the initials of the United States’.
It seems that Rand was wrong, not least because until 1776, the US was known as the United Colonies of America, and there are suggestions that the dollar sign was in use before the United States was born.
This vintage bond signed by former US president George Washington in 1792 contains the first use of the dollar sign on an American financial document (Credit: Getty Images)
The British pound sign has a history going back 1,200 years, when it was first used by the Romans as an abbreviation for ‘libra pondo’, the empire’s basic unit of weight. As any amateur astrologer will tell you, libra means scales in Latin, and libra pondo literally translates as ‘a pound by weight’.
In Anglo-Saxon England, the pound became a unit of currency, equivalent to – surprise, surprise – a pound of silver. Vast riches, in other words. But along with the Roman name, the Anglo-Saxons borrowed the sign, an ornate letter ‘L’. The crossbar came along later, indicating that it’s an abbreviation, and a cheque in London’s Bank of England Museum shows that the pound sign had assumed its current form by 1661, even if it took a little longer for it to become universally adopted.
Logically if unimaginatively, the coin was dubbed the joachimsthaler, which was then shortened to thaler, the word that proceeded to spread around the world
The dollar, meanwhile, has a far shorter history. In 1520, the Kingdom of Bohemia began minting coins using silver from a mine in Joachimsthal – which roughly translates from German into English as Joachim’s valley. Logically if unimaginatively, the coin was dubbed the joachimsthaler, which was then shortened to thaler, the word that proceeded to spread around the world. It was the Dutch variation, the daler, that made its way across the Atlantic in the pockets and on the tongues of early immigrants, and today’s American-English pronunciation of the word dollar retains its echoes.
Until 1776 the US was known as the United Colonies of America and there are suggestions that the dollar sign was in use before the United States was born (Credit: Getty Images)
Despite the currency’s relative youthfulness, however, there is no straightforward answer to the question of where the dollar sign sprang from. Nobody seems to have sat down to design it, and its form still fluctuates – sometimes it has two lines through it, increasingly just the one. Not that there aren’t plenty of competing hypotheses. For instance, circling back to the idea that there’s a U and an S concealed within its form, it’s been suggested that they stand for ‘units of silver’.
One of the most esoteric origin stories links it back to the Bohemian thaler, which featured a serpent on a Christian cross. That itself was an allusion to the story of Moses winding a bronze snake around a pole in order to cure people who’d been bitten. The dollar, so it’s said, derived from that sign.
Yet another version centres on the Pillars of Hercules, a phrase conjured up by the Ancient Greeks to describe the promontories that flank the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar. The pillars feature in Spain’s national coat of arms and, during the 18th and 19th Centuries, appeared on the Spanish dollar, which was otherwise known as the piece of eight, or peso. The pillars have banners twined around them in an S-shape and it doesn’t take much squinting to see a resemblance to the dollar sign.
Artist Andy Warhol reportedly said of his work “American money is very well designed, really, I like it better than any other kind of money.” (Credit: Getty Images)
The most widely accepted theory does in fact involve Spanish coinage, and it goes like this: in the colonies, trade between Spanish Americans and English Americans was lively, and the peso, or peso de ocho reales, was legal tender in the US until 1857. It was often shortened, so historians tell us, to the initial ‘P’ with an ‘S’ hovering beside it in superscript. Gradually, thanks to the scrawl of time-pressed merchants and scribes, that ‘P’ merged with the ‘S’ and lost its curve, leaving the vertical stroke like a stake down the centre of the ‘S’. A Spanish dollar was more or less worth an American dollar, so it’s easy to see how the sign might have transferred.
As with everything American at the moment, there’s a partisan dimension to the debate about the dollar sign’s ancestry: for duelling political reasons, one faction favours the idea that it’s homegrown, another that it was imported.
There’s a partisan dimension to the debate about the dollar sign’s ancestry: for duelling political reasons, one faction favours the idea that it’s homegrown, another that it was imported
It’s certainly ironic – though hardly surprising – that a symbol so intrinsic to America’s national character might have its roots in another country altogether. But regardless of how it came to be, it is certainly an American invention: he may not have been its sole creator, but the correspondence of Irish-born Oliver Pollock, a wealthy trader and early supporter of the American Revolution, has led him to be often cited by historians as its originator.
Artwork made from reflector caps, lamps and an electronic sequencer, by artists Tim Noble and Sue Webster alongside pieces by Andy Warhol (Credit: Getty Images)
And as for the first printed dollar sign, that was made on a Philadelphia printing press in the 1790s and was the work of a staunch American patriot – or at least a vehemently anti-English Scotsman – named Archibald Binny, who’s today remembered as the creator of the Monticello typeface.
Of course, if you really want to tumble down a rabbit hole of mysterious symbolism, try looking into the origins of the design of the American dollar bill. Eye of Providence , anybody? | https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20190528-the-curious-origin-of-the-symbol | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | You'll Never Guess Why the Dollar Sign is an S | Spoiler: it's not short for U.S.
Published on October 3, 2018
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It's usually pretty easy to figure out where our most common symbols come from. Take the trademark symbols, for example: ® means registered; © means copyright; and ™ means trademark. Fahrenheit (F) and cents (c) are equally intuitive.
Then how did we begin using an uppercase S with one or two lines through it ($) to represent U.S. dollars?
In one popular origin story, the dollar sign started as a U on top of an S, as shorthand for "United States." Over time, the bottom of the U disappeared, leaving the S with two lines through it. Later it was simplified to only one line. Makes sense, right?
The real story, however, is a bit more complicated, and it begins in Europe.
According to Reader's Digest , the tale begins in the sixteenth century, when Spanish explorers found massive quantities of silver in their newly-conquered South American lands—lands that would later become Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia. Swimming in silver, Spain went to town minting silver coins known as "pieces of eight," or peso de ocho — "pesos" for short. The silver supply in Europe was dwindling at this time, allowing the Spanish peso to replace the German joachimsthaler (the root of the word "dollar") as the primary coin for international trade. And so the "Spanish dollar" was born.
Rather than write out the whole word, merchants began using a P with a superscript S (ps) as an abbreviation for "pesos." Over time that morphed into an overlapping P and S, which eventually became an S with only the stem of the P: An S with a line through it.
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English American colonists where the first to use the symbol, which began showing up in documents around 1770—six years before the birth of the United States.
Now, almost 250 years later, the good old $ sign is nearly as iconic as the American flag… and you can take that to the bank!
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where did the us dollar sign come from | Dollar sign - Wikipedia | "$" redirects here. For the unit of currency, see Dollar . For other uses, see $ (disambiguation) .
"Peso sign" redirects here. For the Philippine peso sign "₱", see Philippine peso sign .
For technical reasons , "$#*! My Dad Says" redirects here. For the television show, see $h*! My Dad Says .
For technical reasons , ":$" redirects here. For the keyboard symbol, see List of emoticons .
|$|
Dollar sign
|Other names||Peso sign|
|In Unicode||U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ )|
|Currency|
|Currency||Many (see dollar , peso )|
|Graphical variants|
|Category|
The dollar sign , also known as peso sign , is a symbol consisting of a capital " S " crossed with one or two vertical strokes ( $ or
depending on typeface ), used to indicate the unit of various currencies around the world, including most currencies denominated " peso " and " dollar ". The explicitly double-barred
sign is called cifrão in Portuguese .
The sign is also used in several compound currency symbols, such as the Brazilian real (R$) and the Nicaraguan córdoba (C$).
The one- and two-stroke version are often considered mere stylistic ( typeface ) variants, although in some places and epochs one of them may have been specifically assigned, by law or custom, to a specific currency. The Unicode computer encoding standard defines a single code for both.
In most English -speaking countries that use that symbol, it is placed to the left of the amount specified, e.g. "$1", read as "one dollar".
The symbol appears in business correspondence in the 1770s from Spanish America , the early independent U.S., British America and Britain, referring to the Spanish American peso, [1] [2] also known as " Spanish dollar " or "piece of eight" in British America. Those coins provided the model for the currency that the United States adopted in 1792, and for the larger coins of the new Spanish American republics, such as the Mexican peso , Argentine peso , Peruvian real , and Bolivian sol coins.
With the Coinage Act of 1792 , the United States Congress created the U.S. dollar, defining it to have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current" [3] but a variety of foreign coins were deemed to be legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857 ended this status. [4] [ failed verification ] [5] [ failed verification ]
The earliest U.S. dollar coins did not have any dollar symbol. The first occurrence in print is claimed to be from 1790s, by a Philadelphia printer Archibald Binny , creator of the Monticello typeface . [6] The $1 United States Note issued by the United States in 1869 included a large symbol consisting of a "U" with the right bar overlapping an "S" like a single-bar dollar sign, as well as a very small double-stroke dollar sign in the legal warning against forgery. [7]
It is still uncertain, however, how the dollar sign came to represent the Spanish American peso. There are currently several competing hypotheses:
- One theory holds that the sign grew out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation "p s " for pesos. A study of late 18th- and early 19th-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p , developing into a close equivalent to the "$" mark. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] However, there are documents showing the common use of the two-stroke version in Portugal already by 1775. [13]
- Another hypothesis derives the sign from a depiction of the Pillars of Hercules , a classical symbol for two sides of the Strait of Gibraltar , with a ribbon wrapped around each pillar (or both pillars) in the form of an "S". This device is a support element of the Spanish coat of arms , and appeared on the most common real de ocho coins circulating at the time in the Americas and Europe; namely, those minted at the Potosí mint in Bolivia , which operated from 1573 to 1825. [14] [10] Indeed, one of the names used for Spanish dollars in Qing Dynasty China was 双柱 ; 雙柱 ; shuāngzhù ; 'double-pillar'. [15]
- A variant of the above theory claims that the sign comes from the mark of the mint at Potosí , where a large portion of the Spanish Empire's silver was mined, also featured on those coin, which consisted of the letters "P T S I" superimposed. The core of this monogram is a (single-stroked) "$" sign. [16]
- Yet another hypothesis notes that the English word "dollar" for the Spanish piece of eight originally came (through Dutch daalder ) from Joachimsthaler or thaler , a similar large German silver coin which was widely used in Europe. It is therefore conjectured that the dollar sign derived from a symbol consisting of a superimposing S and I or J that was used to denote the German silver coin. Such symbol appears in the 1686 edition of An Introduction to Merchants' Accounts by John Collins . [17] Alternatively, the symbol could have come from a snake and cross emblem on the thaler coins. [6]
The following theories seem to have been discredited or contradicted by documentary evidence:
- Some historians have attributed the symbol to Oliver Pollock , a wealthy Irish trader and early supporter of the American Revolution, who used the abbreviation "ps", sometimes run together, in a letter dated 1778. [6] [18]
- In 1937, historian James Alton James claimed that the symbol with two strokes was an adapted design of patriot Robert Morris in 1778, in letters written to Pollock. [19] [20] [18]
- In 1939, H. M. Larson suggested that the sign could derive from a combination of the Greek character "psi" (ψ) and "S". [21]
- Writer Ayn Rand claimed in her 1957 book Atlas Shrugged that the sign started off as a monogram of "US", with a narrow "U" superimposed on the "S", which would have been used on money bags issued by the United States Mint . In her theory, the bottom part of the "U" would have been lost, producing the dollar sign with two vertical lines. [22] [6]
- Authors T. Seijas and J. Frederick noted that the captors of slaves in Spanish territories sometimes branded enslaved people with a symbol very similar to a one-barred dollar sign. Esclavo is Spanish for "slave," and clavo means nail. A dollar sign is S + clavo . [14]
- A theory often cited in Portuguese speaking countries is that the "S" part of the doubly-stroked sign is a schematic representation of the path followed by the Umayyad Caliphate general Tariq Ibn Ziyad in his conquest of the Visigoth kingdom in 711 CE , and the two strokes represent the Pillars of Hercules that he would have crossed along that path. That symbol would have been engraved in coins commemorating his victory, and then became symbolic of currency in general. [23]
The numerous currencies called " dollar " use the dollar sign to express money amounts. The sign is also generally used for the many currencies called " peso " (except the Philippine peso , which uses the symbol " ₱ "). Within a country the dollar/peso sign may be used alone. In other cases, and to avoid ambiguity in international usage, it is usually combined with other glyphs, e.g. CA$ or Can$ for Canadian dollar .
The dollar sign, alone or in combination with other glyphs, is or was used to denote several currencies with other names, including:
- Brazilian cruzeiro (various currencies, all defunct): ₢$, , , , etc.
- Ethiopian birr (until 1976): E$
- Samoan tālā (a transliteration of the word dollar): $
In the United States, Mexico, Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Pacific Island nations, and English-speaking Canada, the sign is written before the number ("$5"), even though the word is written or spoken after it ("five dollars", " cinco pesos "). In French-speaking Canada, exceptionally, the dollar symbol usually appears after the number, [24] e.g., "5$". (The cent symbol is written after the number in most countries that use it, e.g., "5 ¢ ".)
In Portugal, Brazil, and other parts of the Portuguese Empire , the two-stroke variant of the sign (with the name cifrão ; ( Portuguese pronunciation: [siˈfɾɐ̃w] (
listen ) ) was used as the thousands separator of amounts in the national currency, the real (plural "réis", abbreviated "Rs."): 123
500 meant " 123 500 réis ". This usage is attested in 1775, but may be older by a century or more. [13] It is always written with two vertical lines:
. It is the official sign of the Cape Verdean escudo ( ISO 4217 : CVE).
In 1911 Portugal redefined the national currency as the escudo , worth 1000 réis , and divided into 100 centavos ; but the cifrão continued to be used as the decimal separator , [25] so that 123
50 meant 123.50 escudos or 123 escudos and 50 centavos. This usage ended in 2002 when the country switched to the euro . (A similar scheme to use a letter symbol instead of a decimal point is used by the RKM code in electrical engineering since 1952.)
Cape Verde , a republic and former Portuguese colony, similarly switched from the real to their local escudo and centavos in 1914, and retains the cifrão usage as decimals separator as of 2021. Local versions of the Portuguese escudo were for a time created also for other overseas colonies, including East Timor (1958–1975), Portuguese India (1958–1961), Angola (1914–1928 and 1958–1977), Mozambique (1914–1980), Portuguese Guinea (1914–1975), and São Tomé and Príncipe (1914–1977); presumably [ clarification needed ] all using the cifrão as decimals separator. [ citation needed ]
Brazil retained the real and the cifrão as thousands separator until 1942, when it switched to the Brazilian cruzeiro , with comma as the decimals separator. The dollar sign, officially with one stroke but often rendered with two, was retained as part of the currency symbol "Cr $" , so one would write Cr$13,50 for 13 cruzeiros and 50 centavos. [26]
It was formerly used by the Portuguese escudo (ISO: PTE) before its replacement by the euro and by the Portuguese Timor escudo (ISO: TPE) before its replacement by the Indonesian rupiah and the US dollar . [27] In Portuguese and Cape Verdean usage, the cifrão is placed as a decimal point between the escudo and centavo values. [28] The name originates in the Arabic sifr ( صِفْر ), meaning 'zero'. [29]
In some places and at some times, the one- and two-stroke variants have been used in the same contexts to distinguish between the U.S. dollar and other local currency, such as the former Portuguese escudo . [25]
However, such usage is not standardized, and furthermore the two versions are generally considered [ citation needed ] mere graphic variants of the same symbol —a typeface design choice. Computer and typewriter keyboards usually have a single key for that sign, and many character encodings (including ASCII and Unicode ) reserve a single numeric code for it. Indeed, dollar signs in the same digital document may be rendered with one or two strokes, if different computer fonts are used. Should that ambiguity be significant, one may use explicit abbreviations (like " US$ " or "$NZ"), or ISO 4217 three-letter currency codes (such as USD and MXN ) to distinguish different currencies that use the symbol.
When a specific variant is not mandated by law or custom, the choice is usually a matter of expediency or aesthetic preference. Both versions were used in the US in the 18th century. (An 1861 Civil War -era advertisement depicts the two-stroked symbol as a snake. [18] ) The two-stroke version seems to be generally less popular today, though used in some "old-style" fonts like Baskerville .
Because of its use in early American computer applications such as business accounting, the dollar sign is almost universally present in computer character sets , and thus has been appropriated for many purposes unrelated to money in programming languages and command languages .
The dollar sign "$" has Unicode code point U+0024 (inherited from ASCII via Latin-1 ).
- U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ ) [a]
There are no separate encodings for one- and two-line variants. The choice is typeface-dependent, they are allographs . However, there are three other code points that originate from other East Asian standards: the Taiwanese small form variant , the CJK fullwidth form , and the Japanese emoji . The glyphs for these code points are typically larger or smaller than the primary code point, but the difference is mostly aesthetic or typographic, and the meanings of the symbols are the same.
- U+FE69 ﹩ SMALL DOLLAR SIGN
- U+FF04 ＄ FULLWIDTH DOLLAR SIGN
- U+1F4B2 💲 HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN
However, for usage as the special character in various computing applications (see following sections), U+0024 is typically the only code that is recognized.
Support for the two-line variant varies. As of 2019, the Unicode standard considers the distinction between one- and two-bar dollar signs a stylistic distinction between fonts , and has no separate code point for the cifrão . The symbol is not in the October 2019 'pipeline', [32] but appears to be under active consideration. [33]
In LaTeX , with the textcomp package installed, the cifrão (
) can be input using the command
\textdollaroldstyle .
However, because of font substitution and the lack of a dedicated code point, the author of an electronic document who uses one of these fonts intending to represent a cifrão cannot be sure that every reader will see a double-bar glyph rather than the single barred version.
Because of the continued lack of support in Unicode, a single bar dollar sign is frequently employed in its place even for official purposes. [28] [34] Where there is any risk of misunderstanding, the ISO 4217 three letter acronym is used.
$was used for defining string variables in older versions of the BASIC language, e.g.
CHR$(
$was often pronounced "string" instead of "dollar" in this use).
$is prefixed to names to define variables in the PHP language and the AutoIt automation script language, scalar variables in the Perl language (see sigil (computer programming) ), and global variables in the Ruby language. In Perl programming this includes scalar elements of arrays
$array [ 7 ]and hashes
$hash { foo }.
- In most shell scripting languages,
$is used to indicate the insertion into strings of environment variables , special variables, input data fields, previous commands, arithmetic computations, and special characters, and for performing translation of localised strings. In the shell script languages of CP/M , DOS , and several Unix-like systems, it is used to insert variable information (such as the current working directory , user name , or sequential command number) in the command prompt .
$is used for defining hexadecimal constants in Pascal -like languages such as Delphi , and in some variants of assembly language .
$is used in the ALGOL 68 language to delimit transput format regions.
$is used in the TeX typesetting language to delimit mathematical regions.
- In many versions of FORTRAN 66 ,
$could be used as an alternative to a quotation mark for delimiting strings.
- In PL/M ,
$can be used to put a visible separation between words in compound identifiers. For example,
Some$Namerefers to the same thing as 'SomeName'.
- In Haskell ,
$is used as a function application operator.
- In an AutoHotkey script, a hotkey declared with
$is not triggered by a 'Send' command elsewhere in the script.
- In several JavaScript frameworks such as Prototype.js and jQuery ,
$is a common utility class , and is often referred to as the buck . [ citation needed ] Otherwise, it's a character allowed in identifiers.
- In JavaScript from ES6 onward it is used inside template literals to insert the value of a variable. For example, if
var word = "such"then
`as ${ word } `would equal
'as such'
- In C# ,
$marks a string literal as an interpolated string .
- In ASP.NET , the dollar sign used in a tag in the web page indicates an expression will follow it. The expression that follows is .NET language-agnostic , as it will work with C#, VB.NET , or any CLR supported language.
- In Erlang , the dollar sign precedes character literals. The dollar sign as a character can be written
$$.
- In COBOL the
$sign is used in the Picture clause to depict a floating currency symbol as the left most character. The default symbol is
$; however, if the
CURRENCY=or
CURRENCY SIGNclause is specified, many other symbols can be used.
- In some assembly languages , such as MIPS , the
$sign is used to represent registers.
- In Honeywell 6000 series assembler, the
$sign, when used as an address, meant the address of the instruction in which it appeared.
- In CMS-2 , the
$sign is used as a statement terminator.
- In R , the
$sign is used as a subsetting operator.
- In Q (programming language from Kx Systems) , the
$sign is used as a casting/padding/enumeration/conditional operator.
- In Sass , the
$sign is prefixed to define a variable.
- In CP/M and subsequently in all versions of DOS ( 86-DOS , MS-DOS , PC DOS , more) and derivatives,
$is used as a string terminator (
Int 21hwith
AH=09h).
- In Microsoft Windows ,
$is appended to the share name to hide a shared folder or resource. For example,
\\server\sharewill be visible to other computers on a network, while
\\server\share$will be accessible only by explicit reference. Hiding a shared folder or resource will not alter its access permissions but may render it inaccessible to programs or other functions which rely on its visibility. Most administrative shares are hidden in this way.
- In the LDAP directory access protocol,
$is used as a line separator in various standard entry attributes such as postalAddress.
- In the UNIVAC EXEC 8 operating system,
$means "system". It is appended to entities such as the names of system files, the "sender" name in messages sent by the operator, and the default names of system-created files (like compiler output) when no specific name is specified (e.g.,
TPF$,
NAME$, etc.)
- In RISC OS ,
$is used in system variables to separate the application name from the variables specific to that application. For example
Draw$Dirspecifies the directory where the
!Drawapplication is located. It is also used to refer to the root directory of a file system .
- Microsoft Excel [35] and other spreadsheet software use the dollar sign ($) to denote a fixed row, fixed column reference, or an absolute cell reference.
- The dollar sign introduces a subfield delimiter in computer coding of library catalog records .
$matches the end of a line or string in sed , grep , and POSIX and Perl regular expressions , as well as the end of a line or the file in text editors ed , ex , vi , pico , and derivatives.
The symbol is sometimes used derisively, in place of the letter S, to indicate greed or excess money such as in " Micro$oft ", " Di$ney ", " Chel$ea " and " GW$ "; or supposed overt Americanisation as in " $ky ". The dollar sign is also used intentionally to stylize names such as A$AP Rocky , Ke$ha , and Ty Dolla $ign or words such as ¥€$ . In 1872, Ambrose Bierce referred to California governor Leland Stanford as $tealand Landford. [36]
In Scrabble notation, a dollar sign is placed after a word to indicate that it is valid according to the North American word lists , but not according to the British word lists. [37]
A dollar symbol is used as unit of reactivity for a nuclear reactor, 0 $ being the threshold of slow criticality, meaning a steady reaction rate, while 1 $ is the threshold of prompt criticality , which means a nuclear excursion or explosion. [38] [39]
The dollar sign was used as a letter in the Turkmen alphabet from 1993 to 1999. [ citation needed ]
The dollar sign plays an important role in the plot of Ayn Rand 's novel Atlas Shrugged , with the book's radical Free Market activists adopting it as their insignia. [ citation needed ]
- ^ Roy Morris (1995). Ambrose Bierce: Alone in Bad Company . Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780195126280 .
- ^ "Scrabble Glossary" . Tucson Scrabble Club. Archived from the original on 30 August 2011 . Retrieved 6 February 2012 .
- ^ Weinberg, Alvin M.; Wigner, Eugene P. (1958). The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 595.
- ^ "DOE Fundamentals: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory: Module 4: Reactor Theory (Reactor Operations)" (PDF) . U. S. Department of Energy. n.d. p. 16 . Retrieved 25 July 2022 .
- Cajori, Florian (1993). A History of Mathematical Notations (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-67766-4 . Contains section on the history of the dollar sign, with much documentary evidence supporting the "pesos" hypothesis.
- Cuhaj, George (2009). Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (28th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 978-0-89689-939-1 .
- Ovason, David (30 November 2004). The Secret Symbols of the Dollar Bill (Reprint ed.). Harper Paperbacks. ISBN 0-06-053045-6 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_sign | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Dollar sign | Description, History, & Facts | dollar sign , $, symbol that represents the dollar , the name of the standard monetary unit used in the United States , Canada, Australia, New Zealand , and a number of other countries and territories. The dollar sign is also used for several currencies that use different names, including the Brazilian real , the Mexican peso , the Nicaraguan córdoba, and the Macanese pataca.
The dollar sign takes as its base the form of the capital letter S . A vertical line bisects the S . Less commonly, two vertical lines are used in place of one.
Outside of currency , the dollar sign is used as a common sigil (symbol for a variable) in many computer programming languages, including Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code ( BASIC ) and several scripting languages such as Perl . In BASIC, the symbol is suffixed to a variable representing an array , or collection, of strings; in scripting languages, it is typically prefixed to a variable with scalar, or single, value.
The origin of the dollar sign is a matter of debate. The most widely circulated theory asserts that it originated as a symbol representing the Spanish milled dollar (also called peso). After the United States gained independence in the late 18th century, it created a new currency based on Spanish coinage , the most common coin in circulation in the colonies. The United States’ first dollar coins, minted in silver in 1794, not only took their name from the Spanish dollar but also borrowed the Spanish dollar’s weight and value . Because of the close connection between the two currencies, it is likely that if a symbol existed for the Spanish dollar before 1794, it would have been used for the U.S. dollar. The earliest known occurrence of a dollar sign in print, however, was in 1797.
According to a related theory, the symbol stems from an abbreviation of peso as Ps . The strongest support for this theory comes from a 1778 invoice handwritten by Oliver Pollock, a financier of the American Revolution , in which the P in the Ps abbreviation appears to be superimposed on the s , thereby bisecting it. Despite the resemblance between Oliver Pollock’s handwriting and the dollar sign, however, there remains little evidence to suggest such a symbol was in contemporary usage or that Pollock’s possible slip caught on.
Another theory relates to the origin of the Spanish dollar itself. When Spain underwent a coinage reform in 1497, the dollar was introduced as Spain’s unit of currency. Its full name was peso de ocho reales (or “piece of 8 reales”), and, as its name suggests, it was worth 8 units of the real, the former standard. Some have therefore speculated that the $ symbol arose as a stylistic variation on the Arabic numeral 8 , although no documents have surfaced that demonstrate 8 being used to symbolize the Spanish dollar.
The peso originated during the reign of Ferdinand II of Aragon (1479–1516), and some see a resemblance between one of his royal symbols, which was cast on the bill, and the dollar sign. After Ferdinand’s forces gained control over the Strait of Gibraltar , he added to his coat of arms two columns representing the Pillars of Heracles , wrapped with a ribbon. Many people suggest that the bar in the dollar sign resembles one of the pillars, while the S looks like the ribbon. There is little evidence, however, to indicate that the dollar sign came from the $-like representation of the pillars on the Spanish dollar.
The lack of evidence behind the dollar sign’s historical development has allowed room for folktales. Among the most well known is that promulgated by Ayn Rand in her novel Atlas Shrugged (1957). In it she asserts that the symbol is an amalgamation of the letters U and S (representing “United States”) with the bottom of the U dropped. The literary merit of this claim lies in representing the U.S. as a bastion of economic freedom, but it has no factual basis. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/dollar-sign | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Dollar sign | Description, History, & Facts | dollar sign , $, symbol that represents the dollar , the name of the standard monetary unit used in the United States , Canada, Australia, New Zealand , and a number of other countries and territories. The dollar sign is also used for several currencies that use different names, including the Brazilian real , the Mexican peso , the Nicaraguan córdoba, and the Macanese pataca.
The dollar sign takes as its base the form of the capital letter S . A vertical line bisects the S . Less commonly, two vertical lines are used in place of one.
Outside of currency , the dollar sign is used as a common sigil (symbol for a variable) in many computer programming languages, including Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code ( BASIC ) and several scripting languages such as Perl . In BASIC, the symbol is suffixed to a variable representing an array , or collection, of strings; in scripting languages, it is typically prefixed to a variable with scalar, or single, value.
The origin of the dollar sign is a matter of debate. The most widely circulated theory asserts that it originated as a symbol representing the Spanish milled dollar (also called peso). After the United States gained independence in the late 18th century, it created a new currency based on Spanish coinage , the most common coin in circulation in the colonies. The United States’ first dollar coins, minted in silver in 1794, not only took their name from the Spanish dollar but also borrowed the Spanish dollar’s weight and value . Because of the close connection between the two currencies, it is likely that if a symbol existed for the Spanish dollar before 1794, it would have been used for the U.S. dollar. The earliest known occurrence of a dollar sign in print, however, was in 1797.
According to a related theory, the symbol stems from an abbreviation of peso as Ps . The strongest support for this theory comes from a 1778 invoice handwritten by Oliver Pollock, a financier of the American Revolution , in which the P in the Ps abbreviation appears to be superimposed on the s , thereby bisecting it. Despite the resemblance between Oliver Pollock’s handwriting and the dollar sign, however, there remains little evidence to suggest such a symbol was in contemporary usage or that Pollock’s possible slip caught on.
Another theory relates to the origin of the Spanish dollar itself. When Spain underwent a coinage reform in 1497, the dollar was introduced as Spain’s unit of currency. Its full name was peso de ocho reales (or “piece of 8 reales”), and, as its name suggests, it was worth 8 units of the real, the former standard. Some have therefore speculated that the $ symbol arose as a stylistic variation on the Arabic numeral 8 , although no documents have surfaced that demonstrate 8 being used to symbolize the Spanish dollar.
The peso originated during the reign of Ferdinand II of Aragon (1479–1516), and some see a resemblance between one of his royal symbols, which was cast on the bill, and the dollar sign. After Ferdinand’s forces gained control over the Strait of Gibraltar , he added to his coat of arms two columns representing the Pillars of Heracles , wrapped with a ribbon. Many people suggest that the bar in the dollar sign resembles one of the pillars, while the S looks like the ribbon. There is little evidence, however, to indicate that the dollar sign came from the $-like representation of the pillars on the Spanish dollar.
The lack of evidence behind the dollar sign’s historical development has allowed room for folktales. Among the most well known is that promulgated by Ayn Rand in her novel Atlas Shrugged (1957). In it she asserts that the symbol is an amalgamation of the letters U and S (representing “United States”) with the bottom of the U dropped. The literary merit of this claim lies in representing the U.S. as a bastion of economic freedom, but it has no factual basis. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/dollar-sign | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Dollar sign - Wikipedia | "$" redirects here. For the unit of currency, see Dollar . For other uses, see $ (disambiguation) .
"Peso sign" redirects here. For the Philippine peso sign "₱", see Philippine peso sign .
For technical reasons , "$#*! My Dad Says" redirects here. For the television show, see $h*! My Dad Says .
For technical reasons , ":$" redirects here. For the keyboard symbol, see List of emoticons .
|$|
Dollar sign
|Other names||Peso sign|
|In Unicode||U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ )|
|Currency|
|Currency||Many (see dollar , peso )|
|Graphical variants|
|Category|
The dollar sign , also known as peso sign , is a symbol consisting of a capital " S " crossed with one or two vertical strokes ( $ or
depending on typeface ), used to indicate the unit of various currencies around the world, including most currencies denominated " peso " and " dollar ". The explicitly double-barred
sign is called cifrão in Portuguese .
The sign is also used in several compound currency symbols, such as the Brazilian real (R$) and the Nicaraguan córdoba (C$).
The one- and two-stroke version are often considered mere stylistic ( typeface ) variants, although in some places and epochs one of them may have been specifically assigned, by law or custom, to a specific currency. The Unicode computer encoding standard defines a single code for both.
In most English -speaking countries that use that symbol, it is placed to the left of the amount specified, e.g. "$1", read as "one dollar".
The symbol appears in business correspondence in the 1770s from Spanish America , the early independent U.S., British America and Britain, referring to the Spanish American peso, [1] [2] also known as " Spanish dollar " or "piece of eight" in British America. Those coins provided the model for the currency that the United States adopted in 1792, and for the larger coins of the new Spanish American republics, such as the Mexican peso , Argentine peso , Peruvian real , and Bolivian sol coins.
With the Coinage Act of 1792 , the United States Congress created the U.S. dollar, defining it to have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current" [3] but a variety of foreign coins were deemed to be legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857 ended this status. [4] [ failed verification ] [5] [ failed verification ]
The earliest U.S. dollar coins did not have any dollar symbol. The first occurrence in print is claimed to be from 1790s, by a Philadelphia printer Archibald Binny , creator of the Monticello typeface . [6] The $1 United States Note issued by the United States in 1869 included a large symbol consisting of a "U" with the right bar overlapping an "S" like a single-bar dollar sign, as well as a very small double-stroke dollar sign in the legal warning against forgery. [7]
It is still uncertain, however, how the dollar sign came to represent the Spanish American peso. There are currently several competing hypotheses:
- One theory holds that the sign grew out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation "p s " for pesos. A study of late 18th- and early 19th-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p , developing into a close equivalent to the "$" mark. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] However, there are documents showing the common use of the two-stroke version in Portugal already by 1775. [13]
- Another hypothesis derives the sign from a depiction of the Pillars of Hercules , a classical symbol for two sides of the Strait of Gibraltar , with a ribbon wrapped around each pillar (or both pillars) in the form of an "S". This device is a support element of the Spanish coat of arms , and appeared on the most common real de ocho coins circulating at the time in the Americas and Europe; namely, those minted at the Potosí mint in Bolivia , which operated from 1573 to 1825. [14] [10] Indeed, one of the names used for Spanish dollars in Qing Dynasty China was 双柱 ; 雙柱 ; shuāngzhù ; 'double-pillar'. [15]
- A variant of the above theory claims that the sign comes from the mark of the mint at Potosí , where a large portion of the Spanish Empire's silver was mined, also featured on those coin, which consisted of the letters "P T S I" superimposed. The core of this monogram is a (single-stroked) "$" sign. [16]
- Yet another hypothesis notes that the English word "dollar" for the Spanish piece of eight originally came (through Dutch daalder ) from Joachimsthaler or thaler , a similar large German silver coin which was widely used in Europe. It is therefore conjectured that the dollar sign derived from a symbol consisting of a superimposing S and I or J that was used to denote the German silver coin. Such symbol appears in the 1686 edition of An Introduction to Merchants' Accounts by John Collins . [17] Alternatively, the symbol could have come from a snake and cross emblem on the thaler coins. [6]
The following theories seem to have been discredited or contradicted by documentary evidence:
- Some historians have attributed the symbol to Oliver Pollock , a wealthy Irish trader and early supporter of the American Revolution, who used the abbreviation "ps", sometimes run together, in a letter dated 1778. [6] [18]
- In 1937, historian James Alton James claimed that the symbol with two strokes was an adapted design of patriot Robert Morris in 1778, in letters written to Pollock. [19] [20] [18]
- In 1939, H. M. Larson suggested that the sign could derive from a combination of the Greek character "psi" (ψ) and "S". [21]
- Writer Ayn Rand claimed in her 1957 book Atlas Shrugged that the sign started off as a monogram of "US", with a narrow "U" superimposed on the "S", which would have been used on money bags issued by the United States Mint . In her theory, the bottom part of the "U" would have been lost, producing the dollar sign with two vertical lines. [22] [6]
- Authors T. Seijas and J. Frederick noted that the captors of slaves in Spanish territories sometimes branded enslaved people with a symbol very similar to a one-barred dollar sign. Esclavo is Spanish for "slave," and clavo means nail. A dollar sign is S + clavo . [14]
- A theory often cited in Portuguese speaking countries is that the "S" part of the doubly-stroked sign is a schematic representation of the path followed by the Umayyad Caliphate general Tariq Ibn Ziyad in his conquest of the Visigoth kingdom in 711 CE , and the two strokes represent the Pillars of Hercules that he would have crossed along that path. That symbol would have been engraved in coins commemorating his victory, and then became symbolic of currency in general. [23]
The numerous currencies called " dollar " use the dollar sign to express money amounts. The sign is also generally used for the many currencies called " peso " (except the Philippine peso , which uses the symbol " ₱ "). Within a country the dollar/peso sign may be used alone. In other cases, and to avoid ambiguity in international usage, it is usually combined with other glyphs, e.g. CA$ or Can$ for Canadian dollar .
The dollar sign, alone or in combination with other glyphs, is or was used to denote several currencies with other names, including:
- Brazilian cruzeiro (various currencies, all defunct): ₢$, , , , etc.
- Ethiopian birr (until 1976): E$
- Samoan tālā (a transliteration of the word dollar): $
In the United States, Mexico, Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Pacific Island nations, and English-speaking Canada, the sign is written before the number ("$5"), even though the word is written or spoken after it ("five dollars", " cinco pesos "). In French-speaking Canada, exceptionally, the dollar symbol usually appears after the number, [24] e.g., "5$". (The cent symbol is written after the number in most countries that use it, e.g., "5 ¢ ".)
In Portugal, Brazil, and other parts of the Portuguese Empire , the two-stroke variant of the sign (with the name cifrão ; ( Portuguese pronunciation: [siˈfɾɐ̃w] (
listen ) ) was used as the thousands separator of amounts in the national currency, the real (plural "réis", abbreviated "Rs."): 123
500 meant " 123 500 réis ". This usage is attested in 1775, but may be older by a century or more. [13] It is always written with two vertical lines:
. It is the official sign of the Cape Verdean escudo ( ISO 4217 : CVE).
In 1911 Portugal redefined the national currency as the escudo , worth 1000 réis , and divided into 100 centavos ; but the cifrão continued to be used as the decimal separator , [25] so that 123
50 meant 123.50 escudos or 123 escudos and 50 centavos. This usage ended in 2002 when the country switched to the euro . (A similar scheme to use a letter symbol instead of a decimal point is used by the RKM code in electrical engineering since 1952.)
Cape Verde , a republic and former Portuguese colony, similarly switched from the real to their local escudo and centavos in 1914, and retains the cifrão usage as decimals separator as of 2021. Local versions of the Portuguese escudo were for a time created also for other overseas colonies, including East Timor (1958–1975), Portuguese India (1958–1961), Angola (1914–1928 and 1958–1977), Mozambique (1914–1980), Portuguese Guinea (1914–1975), and São Tomé and Príncipe (1914–1977); presumably [ clarification needed ] all using the cifrão as decimals separator. [ citation needed ]
Brazil retained the real and the cifrão as thousands separator until 1942, when it switched to the Brazilian cruzeiro , with comma as the decimals separator. The dollar sign, officially with one stroke but often rendered with two, was retained as part of the currency symbol "Cr $" , so one would write Cr$13,50 for 13 cruzeiros and 50 centavos. [26]
It was formerly used by the Portuguese escudo (ISO: PTE) before its replacement by the euro and by the Portuguese Timor escudo (ISO: TPE) before its replacement by the Indonesian rupiah and the US dollar . [27] In Portuguese and Cape Verdean usage, the cifrão is placed as a decimal point between the escudo and centavo values. [28] The name originates in the Arabic sifr ( صِفْر ), meaning 'zero'. [29]
In some places and at some times, the one- and two-stroke variants have been used in the same contexts to distinguish between the U.S. dollar and other local currency, such as the former Portuguese escudo . [25]
However, such usage is not standardized, and furthermore the two versions are generally considered [ citation needed ] mere graphic variants of the same symbol —a typeface design choice. Computer and typewriter keyboards usually have a single key for that sign, and many character encodings (including ASCII and Unicode ) reserve a single numeric code for it. Indeed, dollar signs in the same digital document may be rendered with one or two strokes, if different computer fonts are used. Should that ambiguity be significant, one may use explicit abbreviations (like " US$ " or "$NZ"), or ISO 4217 three-letter currency codes (such as USD and MXN ) to distinguish different currencies that use the symbol.
When a specific variant is not mandated by law or custom, the choice is usually a matter of expediency or aesthetic preference. Both versions were used in the US in the 18th century. (An 1861 Civil War -era advertisement depicts the two-stroked symbol as a snake. [18] ) The two-stroke version seems to be generally less popular today, though used in some "old-style" fonts like Baskerville .
Because of its use in early American computer applications such as business accounting, the dollar sign is almost universally present in computer character sets , and thus has been appropriated for many purposes unrelated to money in programming languages and command languages .
The dollar sign "$" has Unicode code point U+0024 (inherited from ASCII via Latin-1 ).
- U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ ) [a]
There are no separate encodings for one- and two-line variants. The choice is typeface-dependent, they are allographs . However, there are three other code points that originate from other East Asian standards: the Taiwanese small form variant , the CJK fullwidth form , and the Japanese emoji . The glyphs for these code points are typically larger or smaller than the primary code point, but the difference is mostly aesthetic or typographic, and the meanings of the symbols are the same.
- U+FE69 ﹩ SMALL DOLLAR SIGN
- U+FF04 ＄ FULLWIDTH DOLLAR SIGN
- U+1F4B2 💲 HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN
However, for usage as the special character in various computing applications (see following sections), U+0024 is typically the only code that is recognized.
Support for the two-line variant varies. As of 2019, the Unicode standard considers the distinction between one- and two-bar dollar signs a stylistic distinction between fonts , and has no separate code point for the cifrão . The symbol is not in the October 2019 'pipeline', [32] but appears to be under active consideration. [33]
In LaTeX , with the textcomp package installed, the cifrão (
) can be input using the command
\textdollaroldstyle .
However, because of font substitution and the lack of a dedicated code point, the author of an electronic document who uses one of these fonts intending to represent a cifrão cannot be sure that every reader will see a double-bar glyph rather than the single barred version.
Because of the continued lack of support in Unicode, a single bar dollar sign is frequently employed in its place even for official purposes. [28] [34] Where there is any risk of misunderstanding, the ISO 4217 three letter acronym is used.
$was used for defining string variables in older versions of the BASIC language, e.g.
CHR$(
$was often pronounced "string" instead of "dollar" in this use).
$is prefixed to names to define variables in the PHP language and the AutoIt automation script language, scalar variables in the Perl language (see sigil (computer programming) ), and global variables in the Ruby language. In Perl programming this includes scalar elements of arrays
$array [ 7 ]and hashes
$hash { foo }.
- In most shell scripting languages,
$is used to indicate the insertion into strings of environment variables , special variables, input data fields, previous commands, arithmetic computations, and special characters, and for performing translation of localised strings. In the shell script languages of CP/M , DOS , and several Unix-like systems, it is used to insert variable information (such as the current working directory , user name , or sequential command number) in the command prompt .
$is used for defining hexadecimal constants in Pascal -like languages such as Delphi , and in some variants of assembly language .
$is used in the ALGOL 68 language to delimit transput format regions.
$is used in the TeX typesetting language to delimit mathematical regions.
- In many versions of FORTRAN 66 ,
$could be used as an alternative to a quotation mark for delimiting strings.
- In PL/M ,
$can be used to put a visible separation between words in compound identifiers. For example,
Some$Namerefers to the same thing as 'SomeName'.
- In Haskell ,
$is used as a function application operator.
- In an AutoHotkey script, a hotkey declared with
$is not triggered by a 'Send' command elsewhere in the script.
- In several JavaScript frameworks such as Prototype.js and jQuery ,
$is a common utility class , and is often referred to as the buck . [ citation needed ] Otherwise, it's a character allowed in identifiers.
- In JavaScript from ES6 onward it is used inside template literals to insert the value of a variable. For example, if
var word = "such"then
`as ${ word } `would equal
'as such'
- In C# ,
$marks a string literal as an interpolated string .
- In ASP.NET , the dollar sign used in a tag in the web page indicates an expression will follow it. The expression that follows is .NET language-agnostic , as it will work with C#, VB.NET , or any CLR supported language.
- In Erlang , the dollar sign precedes character literals. The dollar sign as a character can be written
$$.
- In COBOL the
$sign is used in the Picture clause to depict a floating currency symbol as the left most character. The default symbol is
$; however, if the
CURRENCY=or
CURRENCY SIGNclause is specified, many other symbols can be used.
- In some assembly languages , such as MIPS , the
$sign is used to represent registers.
- In Honeywell 6000 series assembler, the
$sign, when used as an address, meant the address of the instruction in which it appeared.
- In CMS-2 , the
$sign is used as a statement terminator.
- In R , the
$sign is used as a subsetting operator.
- In Q (programming language from Kx Systems) , the
$sign is used as a casting/padding/enumeration/conditional operator.
- In Sass , the
$sign is prefixed to define a variable.
- In CP/M and subsequently in all versions of DOS ( 86-DOS , MS-DOS , PC DOS , more) and derivatives,
$is used as a string terminator (
Int 21hwith
AH=09h).
- In Microsoft Windows ,
$is appended to the share name to hide a shared folder or resource. For example,
\\server\sharewill be visible to other computers on a network, while
\\server\share$will be accessible only by explicit reference. Hiding a shared folder or resource will not alter its access permissions but may render it inaccessible to programs or other functions which rely on its visibility. Most administrative shares are hidden in this way.
- In the LDAP directory access protocol,
$is used as a line separator in various standard entry attributes such as postalAddress.
- In the UNIVAC EXEC 8 operating system,
$means "system". It is appended to entities such as the names of system files, the "sender" name in messages sent by the operator, and the default names of system-created files (like compiler output) when no specific name is specified (e.g.,
TPF$,
NAME$, etc.)
- In RISC OS ,
$is used in system variables to separate the application name from the variables specific to that application. For example
Draw$Dirspecifies the directory where the
!Drawapplication is located. It is also used to refer to the root directory of a file system .
- Microsoft Excel [35] and other spreadsheet software use the dollar sign ($) to denote a fixed row, fixed column reference, or an absolute cell reference.
- The dollar sign introduces a subfield delimiter in computer coding of library catalog records .
$matches the end of a line or string in sed , grep , and POSIX and Perl regular expressions , as well as the end of a line or the file in text editors ed , ex , vi , pico , and derivatives.
The symbol is sometimes used derisively, in place of the letter S, to indicate greed or excess money such as in " Micro$oft ", " Di$ney ", " Chel$ea " and " GW$ "; or supposed overt Americanisation as in " $ky ". The dollar sign is also used intentionally to stylize names such as A$AP Rocky , Ke$ha , and Ty Dolla $ign or words such as ¥€$ . In 1872, Ambrose Bierce referred to California governor Leland Stanford as $tealand Landford. [36]
In Scrabble notation, a dollar sign is placed after a word to indicate that it is valid according to the North American word lists , but not according to the British word lists. [37]
A dollar symbol is used as unit of reactivity for a nuclear reactor, 0 $ being the threshold of slow criticality, meaning a steady reaction rate, while 1 $ is the threshold of prompt criticality , which means a nuclear excursion or explosion. [38] [39]
The dollar sign was used as a letter in the Turkmen alphabet from 1993 to 1999. [ citation needed ]
The dollar sign plays an important role in the plot of Ayn Rand 's novel Atlas Shrugged , with the book's radical Free Market activists adopting it as their insignia. [ citation needed ]
- ^ Roy Morris (1995). Ambrose Bierce: Alone in Bad Company . Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780195126280 .
- ^ "Scrabble Glossary" . Tucson Scrabble Club. Archived from the original on 30 August 2011 . Retrieved 6 February 2012 .
- ^ Weinberg, Alvin M.; Wigner, Eugene P. (1958). The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 595.
- ^ "DOE Fundamentals: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory: Module 4: Reactor Theory (Reactor Operations)" (PDF) . U. S. Department of Energy. n.d. p. 16 . Retrieved 25 July 2022 .
- Cajori, Florian (1993). A History of Mathematical Notations (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-67766-4 . Contains section on the history of the dollar sign, with much documentary evidence supporting the "pesos" hypothesis.
- Cuhaj, George (2009). Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (28th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 978-0-89689-939-1 .
- Ovason, David (30 November 2004). The Secret Symbols of the Dollar Bill (Reprint ed.). Harper Paperbacks. ISBN 0-06-053045-6 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_sign | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Dollar sign - Wikipedia | "$" redirects here. For the unit of currency, see Dollar . For other uses, see $ (disambiguation) .
"Peso sign" redirects here. For the Philippine peso sign "₱", see Philippine peso sign .
For technical reasons , "$#*! My Dad Says" redirects here. For the television show, see $h*! My Dad Says .
For technical reasons , ":$" redirects here. For the keyboard symbol, see List of emoticons .
|$|
Dollar sign
|Other names||Peso sign|
|In Unicode||U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ )|
|Currency|
|Currency||Many (see dollar , peso )|
|Graphical variants|
|Category|
The dollar sign , also known as peso sign , is a symbol consisting of a capital " S " crossed with one or two vertical strokes ( $ or
depending on typeface ), used to indicate the unit of various currencies around the world, including most currencies denominated " peso " and " dollar ". The explicitly double-barred
sign is called cifrão in Portuguese .
The sign is also used in several compound currency symbols, such as the Brazilian real (R$) and the Nicaraguan córdoba (C$).
The one- and two-stroke version are often considered mere stylistic ( typeface ) variants, although in some places and epochs one of them may have been specifically assigned, by law or custom, to a specific currency. The Unicode computer encoding standard defines a single code for both.
In most English -speaking countries that use that symbol, it is placed to the left of the amount specified, e.g. "$1", read as "one dollar".
The symbol appears in business correspondence in the 1770s from Spanish America , the early independent U.S., British America and Britain, referring to the Spanish American peso, [1] [2] also known as " Spanish dollar " or "piece of eight" in British America. Those coins provided the model for the currency that the United States adopted in 1792, and for the larger coins of the new Spanish American republics, such as the Mexican peso , Argentine peso , Peruvian real , and Bolivian sol coins.
With the Coinage Act of 1792 , the United States Congress created the U.S. dollar, defining it to have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current" [3] but a variety of foreign coins were deemed to be legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857 ended this status. [4] [ failed verification ] [5] [ failed verification ]
The earliest U.S. dollar coins did not have any dollar symbol. The first occurrence in print is claimed to be from 1790s, by a Philadelphia printer Archibald Binny , creator of the Monticello typeface . [6] The $1 United States Note issued by the United States in 1869 included a large symbol consisting of a "U" with the right bar overlapping an "S" like a single-bar dollar sign, as well as a very small double-stroke dollar sign in the legal warning against forgery. [7]
It is still uncertain, however, how the dollar sign came to represent the Spanish American peso. There are currently several competing hypotheses:
- One theory holds that the sign grew out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation "p s " for pesos. A study of late 18th- and early 19th-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p , developing into a close equivalent to the "$" mark. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] However, there are documents showing the common use of the two-stroke version in Portugal already by 1775. [13]
- Another hypothesis derives the sign from a depiction of the Pillars of Hercules , a classical symbol for two sides of the Strait of Gibraltar , with a ribbon wrapped around each pillar (or both pillars) in the form of an "S". This device is a support element of the Spanish coat of arms , and appeared on the most common real de ocho coins circulating at the time in the Americas and Europe; namely, those minted at the Potosí mint in Bolivia , which operated from 1573 to 1825. [14] [10] Indeed, one of the names used for Spanish dollars in Qing Dynasty China was 双柱 ; 雙柱 ; shuāngzhù ; 'double-pillar'. [15]
- A variant of the above theory claims that the sign comes from the mark of the mint at Potosí , where a large portion of the Spanish Empire's silver was mined, also featured on those coin, which consisted of the letters "P T S I" superimposed. The core of this monogram is a (single-stroked) "$" sign. [16]
- Yet another hypothesis notes that the English word "dollar" for the Spanish piece of eight originally came (through Dutch daalder ) from Joachimsthaler or thaler , a similar large German silver coin which was widely used in Europe. It is therefore conjectured that the dollar sign derived from a symbol consisting of a superimposing S and I or J that was used to denote the German silver coin. Such symbol appears in the 1686 edition of An Introduction to Merchants' Accounts by John Collins . [17] Alternatively, the symbol could have come from a snake and cross emblem on the thaler coins. [6]
The following theories seem to have been discredited or contradicted by documentary evidence:
- Some historians have attributed the symbol to Oliver Pollock , a wealthy Irish trader and early supporter of the American Revolution, who used the abbreviation "ps", sometimes run together, in a letter dated 1778. [6] [18]
- In 1937, historian James Alton James claimed that the symbol with two strokes was an adapted design of patriot Robert Morris in 1778, in letters written to Pollock. [19] [20] [18]
- In 1939, H. M. Larson suggested that the sign could derive from a combination of the Greek character "psi" (ψ) and "S". [21]
- Writer Ayn Rand claimed in her 1957 book Atlas Shrugged that the sign started off as a monogram of "US", with a narrow "U" superimposed on the "S", which would have been used on money bags issued by the United States Mint . In her theory, the bottom part of the "U" would have been lost, producing the dollar sign with two vertical lines. [22] [6]
- Authors T. Seijas and J. Frederick noted that the captors of slaves in Spanish territories sometimes branded enslaved people with a symbol very similar to a one-barred dollar sign. Esclavo is Spanish for "slave," and clavo means nail. A dollar sign is S + clavo . [14]
- A theory often cited in Portuguese speaking countries is that the "S" part of the doubly-stroked sign is a schematic representation of the path followed by the Umayyad Caliphate general Tariq Ibn Ziyad in his conquest of the Visigoth kingdom in 711 CE , and the two strokes represent the Pillars of Hercules that he would have crossed along that path. That symbol would have been engraved in coins commemorating his victory, and then became symbolic of currency in general. [23]
The numerous currencies called " dollar " use the dollar sign to express money amounts. The sign is also generally used for the many currencies called " peso " (except the Philippine peso , which uses the symbol " ₱ "). Within a country the dollar/peso sign may be used alone. In other cases, and to avoid ambiguity in international usage, it is usually combined with other glyphs, e.g. CA$ or Can$ for Canadian dollar .
The dollar sign, alone or in combination with other glyphs, is or was used to denote several currencies with other names, including:
- Brazilian cruzeiro (various currencies, all defunct): ₢$, , , , etc.
- Ethiopian birr (until 1976): E$
- Samoan tālā (a transliteration of the word dollar): $
In the United States, Mexico, Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Pacific Island nations, and English-speaking Canada, the sign is written before the number ("$5"), even though the word is written or spoken after it ("five dollars", " cinco pesos "). In French-speaking Canada, exceptionally, the dollar symbol usually appears after the number, [24] e.g., "5$". (The cent symbol is written after the number in most countries that use it, e.g., "5 ¢ ".)
In Portugal, Brazil, and other parts of the Portuguese Empire , the two-stroke variant of the sign (with the name cifrão ; ( Portuguese pronunciation: [siˈfɾɐ̃w] (
listen ) ) was used as the thousands separator of amounts in the national currency, the real (plural "réis", abbreviated "Rs."): 123
500 meant " 123 500 réis ". This usage is attested in 1775, but may be older by a century or more. [13] It is always written with two vertical lines:
. It is the official sign of the Cape Verdean escudo ( ISO 4217 : CVE).
In 1911 Portugal redefined the national currency as the escudo , worth 1000 réis , and divided into 100 centavos ; but the cifrão continued to be used as the decimal separator , [25] so that 123
50 meant 123.50 escudos or 123 escudos and 50 centavos. This usage ended in 2002 when the country switched to the euro . (A similar scheme to use a letter symbol instead of a decimal point is used by the RKM code in electrical engineering since 1952.)
Cape Verde , a republic and former Portuguese colony, similarly switched from the real to their local escudo and centavos in 1914, and retains the cifrão usage as decimals separator as of 2021. Local versions of the Portuguese escudo were for a time created also for other overseas colonies, including East Timor (1958–1975), Portuguese India (1958–1961), Angola (1914–1928 and 1958–1977), Mozambique (1914–1980), Portuguese Guinea (1914–1975), and São Tomé and Príncipe (1914–1977); presumably [ clarification needed ] all using the cifrão as decimals separator. [ citation needed ]
Brazil retained the real and the cifrão as thousands separator until 1942, when it switched to the Brazilian cruzeiro , with comma as the decimals separator. The dollar sign, officially with one stroke but often rendered with two, was retained as part of the currency symbol "Cr $" , so one would write Cr$13,50 for 13 cruzeiros and 50 centavos. [26]
It was formerly used by the Portuguese escudo (ISO: PTE) before its replacement by the euro and by the Portuguese Timor escudo (ISO: TPE) before its replacement by the Indonesian rupiah and the US dollar . [27] In Portuguese and Cape Verdean usage, the cifrão is placed as a decimal point between the escudo and centavo values. [28] The name originates in the Arabic sifr ( صِفْر ), meaning 'zero'. [29]
In some places and at some times, the one- and two-stroke variants have been used in the same contexts to distinguish between the U.S. dollar and other local currency, such as the former Portuguese escudo . [25]
However, such usage is not standardized, and furthermore the two versions are generally considered [ citation needed ] mere graphic variants of the same symbol —a typeface design choice. Computer and typewriter keyboards usually have a single key for that sign, and many character encodings (including ASCII and Unicode ) reserve a single numeric code for it. Indeed, dollar signs in the same digital document may be rendered with one or two strokes, if different computer fonts are used. Should that ambiguity be significant, one may use explicit abbreviations (like " US$ " or "$NZ"), or ISO 4217 three-letter currency codes (such as USD and MXN ) to distinguish different currencies that use the symbol.
When a specific variant is not mandated by law or custom, the choice is usually a matter of expediency or aesthetic preference. Both versions were used in the US in the 18th century. (An 1861 Civil War -era advertisement depicts the two-stroked symbol as a snake. [18] ) The two-stroke version seems to be generally less popular today, though used in some "old-style" fonts like Baskerville .
Because of its use in early American computer applications such as business accounting, the dollar sign is almost universally present in computer character sets , and thus has been appropriated for many purposes unrelated to money in programming languages and command languages .
The dollar sign "$" has Unicode code point U+0024 (inherited from ASCII via Latin-1 ).
- U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ ) [a]
There are no separate encodings for one- and two-line variants. The choice is typeface-dependent, they are allographs . However, there are three other code points that originate from other East Asian standards: the Taiwanese small form variant , the CJK fullwidth form , and the Japanese emoji . The glyphs for these code points are typically larger or smaller than the primary code point, but the difference is mostly aesthetic or typographic, and the meanings of the symbols are the same.
- U+FE69 ﹩ SMALL DOLLAR SIGN
- U+FF04 ＄ FULLWIDTH DOLLAR SIGN
- U+1F4B2 💲 HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN
However, for usage as the special character in various computing applications (see following sections), U+0024 is typically the only code that is recognized.
Support for the two-line variant varies. As of 2019, the Unicode standard considers the distinction between one- and two-bar dollar signs a stylistic distinction between fonts , and has no separate code point for the cifrão . The symbol is not in the October 2019 'pipeline', [32] but appears to be under active consideration. [33]
In LaTeX , with the textcomp package installed, the cifrão (
) can be input using the command
\textdollaroldstyle .
However, because of font substitution and the lack of a dedicated code point, the author of an electronic document who uses one of these fonts intending to represent a cifrão cannot be sure that every reader will see a double-bar glyph rather than the single barred version.
Because of the continued lack of support in Unicode, a single bar dollar sign is frequently employed in its place even for official purposes. [28] [34] Where there is any risk of misunderstanding, the ISO 4217 three letter acronym is used.
$was used for defining string variables in older versions of the BASIC language, e.g.
CHR$(
$was often pronounced "string" instead of "dollar" in this use).
$is prefixed to names to define variables in the PHP language and the AutoIt automation script language, scalar variables in the Perl language (see sigil (computer programming) ), and global variables in the Ruby language. In Perl programming this includes scalar elements of arrays
$array [ 7 ]and hashes
$hash { foo }.
- In most shell scripting languages,
$is used to indicate the insertion into strings of environment variables , special variables, input data fields, previous commands, arithmetic computations, and special characters, and for performing translation of localised strings. In the shell script languages of CP/M , DOS , and several Unix-like systems, it is used to insert variable information (such as the current working directory , user name , or sequential command number) in the command prompt .
$is used for defining hexadecimal constants in Pascal -like languages such as Delphi , and in some variants of assembly language .
$is used in the ALGOL 68 language to delimit transput format regions.
$is used in the TeX typesetting language to delimit mathematical regions.
- In many versions of FORTRAN 66 ,
$could be used as an alternative to a quotation mark for delimiting strings.
- In PL/M ,
$can be used to put a visible separation between words in compound identifiers. For example,
Some$Namerefers to the same thing as 'SomeName'.
- In Haskell ,
$is used as a function application operator.
- In an AutoHotkey script, a hotkey declared with
$is not triggered by a 'Send' command elsewhere in the script.
- In several JavaScript frameworks such as Prototype.js and jQuery ,
$is a common utility class , and is often referred to as the buck . [ citation needed ] Otherwise, it's a character allowed in identifiers.
- In JavaScript from ES6 onward it is used inside template literals to insert the value of a variable. For example, if
var word = "such"then
`as ${ word } `would equal
'as such'
- In C# ,
$marks a string literal as an interpolated string .
- In ASP.NET , the dollar sign used in a tag in the web page indicates an expression will follow it. The expression that follows is .NET language-agnostic , as it will work with C#, VB.NET , or any CLR supported language.
- In Erlang , the dollar sign precedes character literals. The dollar sign as a character can be written
$$.
- In COBOL the
$sign is used in the Picture clause to depict a floating currency symbol as the left most character. The default symbol is
$; however, if the
CURRENCY=or
CURRENCY SIGNclause is specified, many other symbols can be used.
- In some assembly languages , such as MIPS , the
$sign is used to represent registers.
- In Honeywell 6000 series assembler, the
$sign, when used as an address, meant the address of the instruction in which it appeared.
- In CMS-2 , the
$sign is used as a statement terminator.
- In R , the
$sign is used as a subsetting operator.
- In Q (programming language from Kx Systems) , the
$sign is used as a casting/padding/enumeration/conditional operator.
- In Sass , the
$sign is prefixed to define a variable.
- In CP/M and subsequently in all versions of DOS ( 86-DOS , MS-DOS , PC DOS , more) and derivatives,
$is used as a string terminator (
Int 21hwith
AH=09h).
- In Microsoft Windows ,
$is appended to the share name to hide a shared folder or resource. For example,
\\server\sharewill be visible to other computers on a network, while
\\server\share$will be accessible only by explicit reference. Hiding a shared folder or resource will not alter its access permissions but may render it inaccessible to programs or other functions which rely on its visibility. Most administrative shares are hidden in this way.
- In the LDAP directory access protocol,
$is used as a line separator in various standard entry attributes such as postalAddress.
- In the UNIVAC EXEC 8 operating system,
$means "system". It is appended to entities such as the names of system files, the "sender" name in messages sent by the operator, and the default names of system-created files (like compiler output) when no specific name is specified (e.g.,
TPF$,
NAME$, etc.)
- In RISC OS ,
$is used in system variables to separate the application name from the variables specific to that application. For example
Draw$Dirspecifies the directory where the
!Drawapplication is located. It is also used to refer to the root directory of a file system .
- Microsoft Excel [35] and other spreadsheet software use the dollar sign ($) to denote a fixed row, fixed column reference, or an absolute cell reference.
- The dollar sign introduces a subfield delimiter in computer coding of library catalog records .
$matches the end of a line or string in sed , grep , and POSIX and Perl regular expressions , as well as the end of a line or the file in text editors ed , ex , vi , pico , and derivatives.
The symbol is sometimes used derisively, in place of the letter S, to indicate greed or excess money such as in " Micro$oft ", " Di$ney ", " Chel$ea " and " GW$ "; or supposed overt Americanisation as in " $ky ". The dollar sign is also used intentionally to stylize names such as A$AP Rocky , Ke$ha , and Ty Dolla $ign or words such as ¥€$ . In 1872, Ambrose Bierce referred to California governor Leland Stanford as $tealand Landford. [36]
In Scrabble notation, a dollar sign is placed after a word to indicate that it is valid according to the North American word lists , but not according to the British word lists. [37]
A dollar symbol is used as unit of reactivity for a nuclear reactor, 0 $ being the threshold of slow criticality, meaning a steady reaction rate, while 1 $ is the threshold of prompt criticality , which means a nuclear excursion or explosion. [38] [39]
The dollar sign was used as a letter in the Turkmen alphabet from 1993 to 1999. [ citation needed ]
The dollar sign plays an important role in the plot of Ayn Rand 's novel Atlas Shrugged , with the book's radical Free Market activists adopting it as their insignia. [ citation needed ]
- ^ Roy Morris (1995). Ambrose Bierce: Alone in Bad Company . Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780195126280 .
- ^ "Scrabble Glossary" . Tucson Scrabble Club. Archived from the original on 30 August 2011 . Retrieved 6 February 2012 .
- ^ Weinberg, Alvin M.; Wigner, Eugene P. (1958). The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 595.
- ^ "DOE Fundamentals: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory: Module 4: Reactor Theory (Reactor Operations)" (PDF) . U. S. Department of Energy. n.d. p. 16 . Retrieved 25 July 2022 .
- Cajori, Florian (1993). A History of Mathematical Notations (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-67766-4 . Contains section on the history of the dollar sign, with much documentary evidence supporting the "pesos" hypothesis.
- Cuhaj, George (2009). Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (28th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 978-0-89689-939-1 .
- Ovason, David (30 November 2004). The Secret Symbols of the Dollar Bill (Reprint ed.). Harper Paperbacks. ISBN 0-06-053045-6 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_sign | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | Dollar sign - Wikipedia | "$" redirects here. For the unit of currency, see Dollar . For other uses, see $ (disambiguation) .
"Peso sign" redirects here. For the Philippine peso sign "₱", see Philippine peso sign .
For technical reasons , "$#*! My Dad Says" redirects here. For the television show, see $h*! My Dad Says .
For technical reasons , ":$" redirects here. For the keyboard symbol, see List of emoticons .
|$|
Dollar sign
|Other names||Peso sign|
|In Unicode||U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ )|
|Currency|
|Currency||Many (see dollar , peso )|
|Graphical variants|
|Category|
The dollar sign , also known as peso sign , is a symbol consisting of a capital " S " crossed with one or two vertical strokes ( $ or
depending on typeface ), used to indicate the unit of various currencies around the world, including most currencies denominated " peso " and " dollar ". The explicitly double-barred
sign is called cifrão in Portuguese .
The sign is also used in several compound currency symbols, such as the Brazilian real (R$) and the Nicaraguan córdoba (C$).
The one- and two-stroke version are often considered mere stylistic ( typeface ) variants, although in some places and epochs one of them may have been specifically assigned, by law or custom, to a specific currency. The Unicode computer encoding standard defines a single code for both.
In most English -speaking countries that use that symbol, it is placed to the left of the amount specified, e.g. "$1", read as "one dollar".
The symbol appears in business correspondence in the 1770s from Spanish America , the early independent U.S., British America and Britain, referring to the Spanish American peso, [1] [2] also known as " Spanish dollar " or "piece of eight" in British America. Those coins provided the model for the currency that the United States adopted in 1792, and for the larger coins of the new Spanish American republics, such as the Mexican peso , Argentine peso , Peruvian real , and Bolivian sol coins.
With the Coinage Act of 1792 , the United States Congress created the U.S. dollar, defining it to have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current" [3] but a variety of foreign coins were deemed to be legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857 ended this status. [4] [ failed verification ] [5] [ failed verification ]
The earliest U.S. dollar coins did not have any dollar symbol. The first occurrence in print is claimed to be from 1790s, by a Philadelphia printer Archibald Binny , creator of the Monticello typeface . [6] The $1 United States Note issued by the United States in 1869 included a large symbol consisting of a "U" with the right bar overlapping an "S" like a single-bar dollar sign, as well as a very small double-stroke dollar sign in the legal warning against forgery. [7]
It is still uncertain, however, how the dollar sign came to represent the Spanish American peso. There are currently several competing hypotheses:
- One theory holds that the sign grew out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation "p s " for pesos. A study of late 18th- and early 19th-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p , developing into a close equivalent to the "$" mark. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] However, there are documents showing the common use of the two-stroke version in Portugal already by 1775. [13]
- Another hypothesis derives the sign from a depiction of the Pillars of Hercules , a classical symbol for two sides of the Strait of Gibraltar , with a ribbon wrapped around each pillar (or both pillars) in the form of an "S". This device is a support element of the Spanish coat of arms , and appeared on the most common real de ocho coins circulating at the time in the Americas and Europe; namely, those minted at the Potosí mint in Bolivia , which operated from 1573 to 1825. [14] [10] Indeed, one of the names used for Spanish dollars in Qing Dynasty China was 双柱 ; 雙柱 ; shuāngzhù ; 'double-pillar'. [15]
- A variant of the above theory claims that the sign comes from the mark of the mint at Potosí , where a large portion of the Spanish Empire's silver was mined, also featured on those coin, which consisted of the letters "P T S I" superimposed. The core of this monogram is a (single-stroked) "$" sign. [16]
- Yet another hypothesis notes that the English word "dollar" for the Spanish piece of eight originally came (through Dutch daalder ) from Joachimsthaler or thaler , a similar large German silver coin which was widely used in Europe. It is therefore conjectured that the dollar sign derived from a symbol consisting of a superimposing S and I or J that was used to denote the German silver coin. Such symbol appears in the 1686 edition of An Introduction to Merchants' Accounts by John Collins . [17] Alternatively, the symbol could have come from a snake and cross emblem on the thaler coins. [6]
The following theories seem to have been discredited or contradicted by documentary evidence:
- Some historians have attributed the symbol to Oliver Pollock , a wealthy Irish trader and early supporter of the American Revolution, who used the abbreviation "ps", sometimes run together, in a letter dated 1778. [6] [18]
- In 1937, historian James Alton James claimed that the symbol with two strokes was an adapted design of patriot Robert Morris in 1778, in letters written to Pollock. [19] [20] [18]
- In 1939, H. M. Larson suggested that the sign could derive from a combination of the Greek character "psi" (ψ) and "S". [21]
- Writer Ayn Rand claimed in her 1957 book Atlas Shrugged that the sign started off as a monogram of "US", with a narrow "U" superimposed on the "S", which would have been used on money bags issued by the United States Mint . In her theory, the bottom part of the "U" would have been lost, producing the dollar sign with two vertical lines. [22] [6]
- Authors T. Seijas and J. Frederick noted that the captors of slaves in Spanish territories sometimes branded enslaved people with a symbol very similar to a one-barred dollar sign. Esclavo is Spanish for "slave," and clavo means nail. A dollar sign is S + clavo . [14]
- A theory often cited in Portuguese speaking countries is that the "S" part of the doubly-stroked sign is a schematic representation of the path followed by the Umayyad Caliphate general Tariq Ibn Ziyad in his conquest of the Visigoth kingdom in 711 CE , and the two strokes represent the Pillars of Hercules that he would have crossed along that path. That symbol would have been engraved in coins commemorating his victory, and then became symbolic of currency in general. [23]
The numerous currencies called " dollar " use the dollar sign to express money amounts. The sign is also generally used for the many currencies called " peso " (except the Philippine peso , which uses the symbol " ₱ "). Within a country the dollar/peso sign may be used alone. In other cases, and to avoid ambiguity in international usage, it is usually combined with other glyphs, e.g. CA$ or Can$ for Canadian dollar .
The dollar sign, alone or in combination with other glyphs, is or was used to denote several currencies with other names, including:
- Brazilian cruzeiro (various currencies, all defunct): ₢$, , , , etc.
- Ethiopian birr (until 1976): E$
- Samoan tālā (a transliteration of the word dollar): $
In the United States, Mexico, Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Pacific Island nations, and English-speaking Canada, the sign is written before the number ("$5"), even though the word is written or spoken after it ("five dollars", " cinco pesos "). In French-speaking Canada, exceptionally, the dollar symbol usually appears after the number, [24] e.g., "5$". (The cent symbol is written after the number in most countries that use it, e.g., "5 ¢ ".)
In Portugal, Brazil, and other parts of the Portuguese Empire , the two-stroke variant of the sign (with the name cifrão ; ( Portuguese pronunciation: [siˈfɾɐ̃w] (
listen ) ) was used as the thousands separator of amounts in the national currency, the real (plural "réis", abbreviated "Rs."): 123
500 meant " 123 500 réis ". This usage is attested in 1775, but may be older by a century or more. [13] It is always written with two vertical lines:
. It is the official sign of the Cape Verdean escudo ( ISO 4217 : CVE).
In 1911 Portugal redefined the national currency as the escudo , worth 1000 réis , and divided into 100 centavos ; but the cifrão continued to be used as the decimal separator , [25] so that 123
50 meant 123.50 escudos or 123 escudos and 50 centavos. This usage ended in 2002 when the country switched to the euro . (A similar scheme to use a letter symbol instead of a decimal point is used by the RKM code in electrical engineering since 1952.)
Cape Verde , a republic and former Portuguese colony, similarly switched from the real to their local escudo and centavos in 1914, and retains the cifrão usage as decimals separator as of 2021. Local versions of the Portuguese escudo were for a time created also for other overseas colonies, including East Timor (1958–1975), Portuguese India (1958–1961), Angola (1914–1928 and 1958–1977), Mozambique (1914–1980), Portuguese Guinea (1914–1975), and São Tomé and Príncipe (1914–1977); presumably [ clarification needed ] all using the cifrão as decimals separator. [ citation needed ]
Brazil retained the real and the cifrão as thousands separator until 1942, when it switched to the Brazilian cruzeiro , with comma as the decimals separator. The dollar sign, officially with one stroke but often rendered with two, was retained as part of the currency symbol "Cr $" , so one would write Cr$13,50 for 13 cruzeiros and 50 centavos. [26]
It was formerly used by the Portuguese escudo (ISO: PTE) before its replacement by the euro and by the Portuguese Timor escudo (ISO: TPE) before its replacement by the Indonesian rupiah and the US dollar . [27] In Portuguese and Cape Verdean usage, the cifrão is placed as a decimal point between the escudo and centavo values. [28] The name originates in the Arabic sifr ( صِفْر ), meaning 'zero'. [29]
In some places and at some times, the one- and two-stroke variants have been used in the same contexts to distinguish between the U.S. dollar and other local currency, such as the former Portuguese escudo . [25]
However, such usage is not standardized, and furthermore the two versions are generally considered [ citation needed ] mere graphic variants of the same symbol —a typeface design choice. Computer and typewriter keyboards usually have a single key for that sign, and many character encodings (including ASCII and Unicode ) reserve a single numeric code for it. Indeed, dollar signs in the same digital document may be rendered with one or two strokes, if different computer fonts are used. Should that ambiguity be significant, one may use explicit abbreviations (like " US$ " or "$NZ"), or ISO 4217 three-letter currency codes (such as USD and MXN ) to distinguish different currencies that use the symbol.
When a specific variant is not mandated by law or custom, the choice is usually a matter of expediency or aesthetic preference. Both versions were used in the US in the 18th century. (An 1861 Civil War -era advertisement depicts the two-stroked symbol as a snake. [18] ) The two-stroke version seems to be generally less popular today, though used in some "old-style" fonts like Baskerville .
Because of its use in early American computer applications such as business accounting, the dollar sign is almost universally present in computer character sets , and thus has been appropriated for many purposes unrelated to money in programming languages and command languages .
The dollar sign "$" has Unicode code point U+0024 (inherited from ASCII via Latin-1 ).
- U+0024 $ DOLLAR SIGN ( $ ) [a]
There are no separate encodings for one- and two-line variants. The choice is typeface-dependent, they are allographs . However, there are three other code points that originate from other East Asian standards: the Taiwanese small form variant , the CJK fullwidth form , and the Japanese emoji . The glyphs for these code points are typically larger or smaller than the primary code point, but the difference is mostly aesthetic or typographic, and the meanings of the symbols are the same.
- U+FE69 ﹩ SMALL DOLLAR SIGN
- U+FF04 ＄ FULLWIDTH DOLLAR SIGN
- U+1F4B2 💲 HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN
However, for usage as the special character in various computing applications (see following sections), U+0024 is typically the only code that is recognized.
Support for the two-line variant varies. As of 2019, the Unicode standard considers the distinction between one- and two-bar dollar signs a stylistic distinction between fonts , and has no separate code point for the cifrão . The symbol is not in the October 2019 'pipeline', [32] but appears to be under active consideration. [33]
In LaTeX , with the textcomp package installed, the cifrão (
) can be input using the command
\textdollaroldstyle .
However, because of font substitution and the lack of a dedicated code point, the author of an electronic document who uses one of these fonts intending to represent a cifrão cannot be sure that every reader will see a double-bar glyph rather than the single barred version.
Because of the continued lack of support in Unicode, a single bar dollar sign is frequently employed in its place even for official purposes. [28] [34] Where there is any risk of misunderstanding, the ISO 4217 three letter acronym is used.
$was used for defining string variables in older versions of the BASIC language, e.g.
CHR$(
$was often pronounced "string" instead of "dollar" in this use).
$is prefixed to names to define variables in the PHP language and the AutoIt automation script language, scalar variables in the Perl language (see sigil (computer programming) ), and global variables in the Ruby language. In Perl programming this includes scalar elements of arrays
$array [ 7 ]and hashes
$hash { foo }.
- In most shell scripting languages,
$is used to indicate the insertion into strings of environment variables , special variables, input data fields, previous commands, arithmetic computations, and special characters, and for performing translation of localised strings. In the shell script languages of CP/M , DOS , and several Unix-like systems, it is used to insert variable information (such as the current working directory , user name , or sequential command number) in the command prompt .
$is used for defining hexadecimal constants in Pascal -like languages such as Delphi , and in some variants of assembly language .
$is used in the ALGOL 68 language to delimit transput format regions.
$is used in the TeX typesetting language to delimit mathematical regions.
- In many versions of FORTRAN 66 ,
$could be used as an alternative to a quotation mark for delimiting strings.
- In PL/M ,
$can be used to put a visible separation between words in compound identifiers. For example,
Some$Namerefers to the same thing as 'SomeName'.
- In Haskell ,
$is used as a function application operator.
- In an AutoHotkey script, a hotkey declared with
$is not triggered by a 'Send' command elsewhere in the script.
- In several JavaScript frameworks such as Prototype.js and jQuery ,
$is a common utility class , and is often referred to as the buck . [ citation needed ] Otherwise, it's a character allowed in identifiers.
- In JavaScript from ES6 onward it is used inside template literals to insert the value of a variable. For example, if
var word = "such"then
`as ${ word } `would equal
'as such'
- In C# ,
$marks a string literal as an interpolated string .
- In ASP.NET , the dollar sign used in a tag in the web page indicates an expression will follow it. The expression that follows is .NET language-agnostic , as it will work with C#, VB.NET , or any CLR supported language.
- In Erlang , the dollar sign precedes character literals. The dollar sign as a character can be written
$$.
- In COBOL the
$sign is used in the Picture clause to depict a floating currency symbol as the left most character. The default symbol is
$; however, if the
CURRENCY=or
CURRENCY SIGNclause is specified, many other symbols can be used.
- In some assembly languages , such as MIPS , the
$sign is used to represent registers.
- In Honeywell 6000 series assembler, the
$sign, when used as an address, meant the address of the instruction in which it appeared.
- In CMS-2 , the
$sign is used as a statement terminator.
- In R , the
$sign is used as a subsetting operator.
- In Q (programming language from Kx Systems) , the
$sign is used as a casting/padding/enumeration/conditional operator.
- In Sass , the
$sign is prefixed to define a variable.
- In CP/M and subsequently in all versions of DOS ( 86-DOS , MS-DOS , PC DOS , more) and derivatives,
$is used as a string terminator (
Int 21hwith
AH=09h).
- In Microsoft Windows ,
$is appended to the share name to hide a shared folder or resource. For example,
\\server\sharewill be visible to other computers on a network, while
\\server\share$will be accessible only by explicit reference. Hiding a shared folder or resource will not alter its access permissions but may render it inaccessible to programs or other functions which rely on its visibility. Most administrative shares are hidden in this way.
- In the LDAP directory access protocol,
$is used as a line separator in various standard entry attributes such as postalAddress.
- In the UNIVAC EXEC 8 operating system,
$means "system". It is appended to entities such as the names of system files, the "sender" name in messages sent by the operator, and the default names of system-created files (like compiler output) when no specific name is specified (e.g.,
TPF$,
NAME$, etc.)
- In RISC OS ,
$is used in system variables to separate the application name from the variables specific to that application. For example
Draw$Dirspecifies the directory where the
!Drawapplication is located. It is also used to refer to the root directory of a file system .
- Microsoft Excel [35] and other spreadsheet software use the dollar sign ($) to denote a fixed row, fixed column reference, or an absolute cell reference.
- The dollar sign introduces a subfield delimiter in computer coding of library catalog records .
$matches the end of a line or string in sed , grep , and POSIX and Perl regular expressions , as well as the end of a line or the file in text editors ed , ex , vi , pico , and derivatives.
The symbol is sometimes used derisively, in place of the letter S, to indicate greed or excess money such as in " Micro$oft ", " Di$ney ", " Chel$ea " and " GW$ "; or supposed overt Americanisation as in " $ky ". The dollar sign is also used intentionally to stylize names such as A$AP Rocky , Ke$ha , and Ty Dolla $ign or words such as ¥€$ . In 1872, Ambrose Bierce referred to California governor Leland Stanford as $tealand Landford. [36]
In Scrabble notation, a dollar sign is placed after a word to indicate that it is valid according to the North American word lists , but not according to the British word lists. [37]
A dollar symbol is used as unit of reactivity for a nuclear reactor, 0 $ being the threshold of slow criticality, meaning a steady reaction rate, while 1 $ is the threshold of prompt criticality , which means a nuclear excursion or explosion. [38] [39]
The dollar sign was used as a letter in the Turkmen alphabet from 1993 to 1999. [ citation needed ]
The dollar sign plays an important role in the plot of Ayn Rand 's novel Atlas Shrugged , with the book's radical Free Market activists adopting it as their insignia. [ citation needed ]
- ^ Roy Morris (1995). Ambrose Bierce: Alone in Bad Company . Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780195126280 .
- ^ "Scrabble Glossary" . Tucson Scrabble Club. Archived from the original on 30 August 2011 . Retrieved 6 February 2012 .
- ^ Weinberg, Alvin M.; Wigner, Eugene P. (1958). The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 595.
- ^ "DOE Fundamentals: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory: Module 4: Reactor Theory (Reactor Operations)" (PDF) . U. S. Department of Energy. n.d. p. 16 . Retrieved 25 July 2022 .
- Cajori, Florian (1993). A History of Mathematical Notations (Reprint ed.). New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-67766-4 . Contains section on the history of the dollar sign, with much documentary evidence supporting the "pesos" hypothesis.
- Cuhaj, George (2009). Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (28th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN 978-0-89689-939-1 .
- Ovason, David (30 November 2004). The Secret Symbols of the Dollar Bill (Reprint ed.). Harper Paperbacks. ISBN 0-06-053045-6 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar_sign | 130 |
where did the us dollar sign come from | The curious origins of the dollar symbol | It’s used widely in computer coding and it provides money-mouth emoji with its dazed eyes and lolling tongue. Yet despite its polyglot ubiquity, the origins of the dollar sign remain far from clear, with competing theories touching on Bohemian coins, the Pillars of Hercules and harried merchants.
The first printed dollar sign was made on a Philadelphia printing press in the 1790s by Archibald Binny (Credit: Getty Images)
The dollar’s baby sibling, the all-but-worthless cent, is logically represented by a lowercase ‘c’ with a line through it, but there’s no ‘D’ in the dollar sign. If you had to find letters lurking in its form, you might spy an ‘S’ overlain with a squeezed, bend-less ‘U’ providing its vertical strokes. In fact, this accounts for one of the most popular misconceptions about the sign’s origins: it stands for United States, right?
That’s what writer and philosopher and famed libertarian Ayn Rand believed. In a chapter in her 1957 novel, Atlas Shrugged , one character asks another about what the dollar sign stands for. The answer includes these lines: ‘for achievement, for success, for ability, for man's creative power—and precisely for these reasons, it is used as a brand of infamy. It stands for the initials of the United States’.
It seems that Rand was wrong, not least because until 1776, the US was known as the United Colonies of America, and there are suggestions that the dollar sign was in use before the United States was born.
This vintage bond signed by former US president George Washington in 1792 contains the first use of the dollar sign on an American financial document (Credit: Getty Images)
The British pound sign has a history going back 1,200 years, when it was first used by the Romans as an abbreviation for ‘libra pondo’, the empire’s basic unit of weight. As any amateur astrologer will tell you, libra means scales in Latin, and libra pondo literally translates as ‘a pound by weight’.
In Anglo-Saxon England, the pound became a unit of currency, equivalent to – surprise, surprise – a pound of silver. Vast riches, in other words. But along with the Roman name, the Anglo-Saxons borrowed the sign, an ornate letter ‘L’. The crossbar came along later, indicating that it’s an abbreviation, and a cheque in London’s Bank of England Museum shows that the pound sign had assumed its current form by 1661, even if it took a little longer for it to become universally adopted.
Logically if unimaginatively, the coin was dubbed the joachimsthaler, which was then shortened to thaler, the word that proceeded to spread around the world
The dollar, meanwhile, has a far shorter history. In 1520, the Kingdom of Bohemia began minting coins using silver from a mine in Joachimsthal – which roughly translates from German into English as Joachim’s valley. Logically if unimaginatively, the coin was dubbed the joachimsthaler, which was then shortened to thaler, the word that proceeded to spread around the world. It was the Dutch variation, the daler, that made its way across the Atlantic in the pockets and on the tongues of early immigrants, and today’s American-English pronunciation of the word dollar retains its echoes.
Until 1776 the US was known as the United Colonies of America and there are suggestions that the dollar sign was in use before the United States was born (Credit: Getty Images)
Despite the currency’s relative youthfulness, however, there is no straightforward answer to the question of where the dollar sign sprang from. Nobody seems to have sat down to design it, and its form still fluctuates – sometimes it has two lines through it, increasingly just the one. Not that there aren’t plenty of competing hypotheses. For instance, circling back to the idea that there’s a U and an S concealed within its form, it’s been suggested that they stand for ‘units of silver’.
One of the most esoteric origin stories links it back to the Bohemian thaler, which featured a serpent on a Christian cross. That itself was an allusion to the story of Moses winding a bronze snake around a pole in order to cure people who’d been bitten. The dollar, so it’s said, derived from that sign.
Yet another version centres on the Pillars of Hercules, a phrase conjured up by the Ancient Greeks to describe the promontories that flank the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar. The pillars feature in Spain’s national coat of arms and, during the 18th and 19th Centuries, appeared on the Spanish dollar, which was otherwise known as the piece of eight, or peso. The pillars have banners twined around them in an S-shape and it doesn’t take much squinting to see a resemblance to the dollar sign.
Artist Andy Warhol reportedly said of his work “American money is very well designed, really, I like it better than any other kind of money.” (Credit: Getty Images)
The most widely accepted theory does in fact involve Spanish coinage, and it goes like this: in the colonies, trade between Spanish Americans and English Americans was lively, and the peso, or peso de ocho reales, was legal tender in the US until 1857. It was often shortened, so historians tell us, to the initial ‘P’ with an ‘S’ hovering beside it in superscript. Gradually, thanks to the scrawl of time-pressed merchants and scribes, that ‘P’ merged with the ‘S’ and lost its curve, leaving the vertical stroke like a stake down the centre of the ‘S’. A Spanish dollar was more or less worth an American dollar, so it’s easy to see how the sign might have transferred.
As with everything American at the moment, there’s a partisan dimension to the debate about the dollar sign’s ancestry: for duelling political reasons, one faction favours the idea that it’s homegrown, another that it was imported.
There’s a partisan dimension to the debate about the dollar sign’s ancestry: for duelling political reasons, one faction favours the idea that it’s homegrown, another that it was imported
It’s certainly ironic – though hardly surprising – that a symbol so intrinsic to America’s national character might have its roots in another country altogether. But regardless of how it came to be, it is certainly an American invention: he may not have been its sole creator, but the correspondence of Irish-born Oliver Pollock, a wealthy trader and early supporter of the American Revolution, has led him to be often cited by historians as its originator.
Artwork made from reflector caps, lamps and an electronic sequencer, by artists Tim Noble and Sue Webster alongside pieces by Andy Warhol (Credit: Getty Images)
And as for the first printed dollar sign, that was made on a Philadelphia printing press in the 1790s and was the work of a staunch American patriot – or at least a vehemently anti-English Scotsman – named Archibald Binny, who’s today remembered as the creator of the Monticello typeface.
Of course, if you really want to tumble down a rabbit hole of mysterious symbolism, try looking into the origins of the design of the American dollar bill. Eye of Providence , anybody? | https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20190528-the-curious-origin-of-the-symbol | 130 |
when does hells kitchen all stars come on | Hell's Kitchen (American season 17) | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The seventeenth season of the American competitive reality television series Hell's Kitchen (officially known as Hell's Kitchen All Stars ) began airing on September 29, 2017, and ended on February 2, 2018, on Fox . [1] [2] This is the first season in Hell's Kitchen history to have an all star edition as sixteen former contestants from previous seasons return to compete once again (also their first time since season eight returned to 16 contestants, instead of 18), and the winner of this season will receive the position as head chef at the first-ever Gordon Ramsay Hell's Kitchen Restaurant at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada . All of the returning chefs made it onto the Black Jackets in their respective seasons. Gordon Ramsay returned as host and head chef, season 10 winner (and season 15 sous-chef) Christina Wilson returned as the Red Team's sous-chef replacing Andi Van Willigan-Cutspec, and British MasterChef judge James "Jocky" Petrie made his Hell's Kitchen debut as the Blue Team's sous-chef replacing Aaron Mitrano. Marino Monferrato returned as the maître d' .
The season was won by season 14 third place finisher Michelle Tribble, with season seven third place finisher Benjamin Knack finishing second and season 14 fifth place finisher Nick Peters Bond placing third.
16 returning chefs competed in Season 17. [1]
|Contestant||Age [n 1]||Hometown||Competed||Finished||Result|
|Michelle Tribble||26||Dallas, Texas||Season 14||3rd||Winner|
|Benjamin Knack||41||San Antonio, Texas||Season 7||Runner-Up|
|Nick Peters Bond||28||Newburyport, Massachusetts||Season 14||5th||Eliminated during Finals|
|Emili "Milly" Medley||37||Philadelphia, Pennsylvania||4th||Eliminated before Finals|
|Robyn Almodovar||36||Fort Lauderdale, Florida||Season 10||6th||Eliminated after Tenth Service|
|Jennifer Normant||40||Burlington, Massachusetts||Season 9||5th||Eliminated after Black Jackets Challenge|
|Elise Harris||32||Stafford, Virginia||3rd|
|Dana Cohen||Emerson, New Jersey||Season 10||Eliminated after Ninth Service|
|Barbra "Barbie" Marshall||39||Strasburg, Pennsylvania||4th||Eliminated after Eighth Service|
|Vincent "Van" Hurd||34||South Glastonbury, Connecticut||Season 6||6th||Eliminated after Seventh Service|
|Amanda "Manda" Palomino||32||Atlantic City, New Jersey||Season 15||5th||Eliminated after Sixth Service|
|Giovanni Filippone||46||Santa Rosa Beach, Florida||Season 5||6th||Eliminated after Cook for your Life Challenge|
|Jared Bobkin||31||Troy, Michigan||Season 15||4th||Eliminated after Fifth Service|
|Joshua "Josh" Trovato||28||Los Angeles, California||Season 14||6th||Ejected during Fourth Service|
|Ashley Nickell||29||Orlando, Florida||Season 15||3rd||Eliminated after Second Service|
|Benjamin "Ben" Walanka||36||Overland Park, Kansas||Season 5||4th||Eliminated after First Service|
- ^ Age at the time of filming
- WIN = Won the dinner service
- LOSE = Lost the dinner service
- IN = not nominated for elimination
- NOM = nominated for elimination
- OUT = eliminated normally
- LEFT = withdrew from competition
- HOSP = eliminated due to hospitalization
- EJEC = eliminated during service
- ^ Chef was immune from elimination
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell%27s_Kitchen_(American_season_17) | 131 |
when does hells kitchen all stars come on | Everything to know about ‘Hell’s Kitchen 21’: Meet the 18 chef-testants competing | “ Hell’s Kitchen ” is coming back to FOX on September 29, 2022. After shooting Seasons 19 and 20 back-to-back before the COVID-19 pandemic, Season 21 of “Hell’s Kitchen” began production last winter. Here’s everything to know about the latest installment of this reality competition series hosted by the foul-mouthed Gordon Ramsay . View the gallery of chef-testants for Season 21 above.
It will premiere in the fall of 2022.
“Hell’s Kitchen 21” has a premiere date of September 29 on FOX. Season 20 aired throughout the summer of 2021 and concluded on Sept. 13. This scheduling puts the gap between seasons at just about a year. Compare that to the almost two-year wait between the Season 18 finale in Feb. 2019 and the Season 20 premiere in Jan. 2021. Episodes 1-8 aired to September 29 through December 8, 2022. After nearly a month-long hiatus, episodes resume on January 5, 2023. Episodes can also be seen on Hulu the next day.
Production began last winter.
The casting notice required applicants to be available from late January to early March 2022 with the understanding that filming will take place for three weeks during this window.
There was a COVID-safe plan.
“Hell’s Kitchen 21” worked within the constraints of COVID. To that end, the cast is likely to have quarantined for two weeks prior to the start of production. The two most recent seasons were filmed at the Hell’s Kitchen restaurant in Las Vegas prior to the pandemic. The first 18 seasons were produced in Los Angeles at a facility that housed the restaurant, kitchen and a dormitory.
Who is in the “Hell’s Kitchen 21” cast?
The 18 chefs for season 21 will be split into two groups: 40-somethings on the blue team and 20-somethings on the red team. Unlike season 20, in which all the contestants were under 25, this season will include nobody under 20, in their 30s or over 49. The season is titled “Hell’s Kitchen: Battle of the Ages.”
What does the “Hell’s Kitchen 21” winner get?
The most recent winner of “Hell’s Kitchen” was Trent Garvey , who collected a cool quarter of a million dollars and landed the gig of head chef at Gordon Ramsay Steak, a restaurant that is part of the Paris Las Vegas Resort. To find out which of the other “Hell’s Kitchen” winners are still working for Gordon Ramsay, click through our photo gallery of “Hell’s Kitchen” winners .
Make your predictions at Gold Derby now. Download our free and easy app for Apple/iPhone devices or Android (Google Play) to compete against legions of other fans plus our experts and editors for best prediction accuracy scores. See our latest prediction champs . Can you top our esteemed leaderboards next? Always remember to keep your predictions updated because they impact our latest racetrack odds, which terrify Hollywood chiefs and stars. Don’t miss the fun. Speak up and share your huffy opinions in our famous forums where 5,000 showbiz leaders lurk every day to track latest awards buzz. Everybody wants to know: What do you think? Who do you predict and why? | https://www.goldderby.com/feature/hells-kitchen-21-premiere-date-cast-everything-to-know-1204729137/ | 131 |
when does hells kitchen all stars come on | Season 17 | Season 17 of Hell's Kitchen (stylized Hell's Kitchen: All-Stars ) aired on FOX between September 29, 2017 and February 2, 2018. Michelle Tribble, who ranked 3rd place on Season 14 , was the winner of the season, and was awarded a Head Chef position at the brand new Gordon Ramsay Hell's Kitchen restaurant at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, with a $250,000 salary.
16 former contestants, who made it to the black jackets on their original seasons, competed once again during the season. The teams were divided by gender, male contestants on the blue team and female contestants on the red team.
|Contestant||Age||Hometown||Original season||Rank|
|Robyn Almodovar||36||Fort Lauderdale, FL||Season 10||6th place|
|Jared Bobkin||31||Troy, MI||Season 15||4th place|
|Nick Peters Bond||28||Newburyport, MA||Season 14||5th place|
|Dana Cohen||32||Emerson, NJ||Season 10||3rd place|
|Giovanni Filippone||46||Santa Rosa Beach, FL||Season 5||6th place|
|Elise Harris||32||Stafford, VA||Season 9||3rd place|
|Van Hurd||34||South Glastonbury, CT||Season 6||6th place|
|Benjamin Knack||41||San Antonio, TX||Season 7||3rd place|
|Barbie Marshall||39||Strasburg, PA||Season 10||4th place|
|Milly Medley||37||Philadelphia, PA||Season 14|
|Ashley Nickell||29||Orlando, FL||Season 15||3rd place|
|Jennifer Normant||40||Burlington, MA||Season 9||5th place|
|Manda Palomino||32||Atlantic City, NJ||Season 15|
|Michelle Tribble||26||New York, NY||Season 14||3rd place|
|Josh Trovato||28||Los Angeles, CA||6th place|
|Ben Walanka||36||Overland Park, KS||Season 5||4th place|
At the end of each episode, one chef is eliminated from the losing team by Ramsay. For the first time ever, the season featured a chef who was eliminated in an unusual way during the first elimination of the season, a challenge eliminating two people instead of one, and three people performing in the final challenge. Similar to Season 9, this is the second time a once nominated chef defeated another chef that avoided nomination.
|#||Chef||Original Teams||Team Switch|| Black |
Jackets
|Finals|
|1702||1703||1704||1705||1706||1707||1708||1709||1710||1711||1712||1713||1714||1715||1716|
|1||Michelle||BoB||NOM||BoB||WINNER|
|2||Benjamin||RUNNER-UP|
|3||Nick||BoB||OUT|
|4||Milly||NOM||NOM||NOM||OUT|
|5||Robyn||NOM||NOM||NOM||NOM||OUT|
|6||Jennifer||OUT|
|7||Elise||NOM||NOM||NOM||NOM||NOM||OUT|
|8||Dana||OUT|
|9||Barbie||NOM||NOM||NOM||NOM||OUT|
|10||Van||OUT|
|11||Manda||NOM||NOM||NOM||OUT|
|12||Giovanni||NOM||OUT|
|13||Jared||OUT|
|14||Josh||NOM||EJEC|
|15||Ashley||OUT|
|16||Ben||OUT|
|Final Service Brigades|
|Michelle||Benjamin|
|Nick||Jennifer|
|Dana||Van|
|Milly||Robyn|
|Elise||Barbie|
|Color Legend|
|NOM||Regular Nomination||Ramsay Nomination||Voided Nomination|
|OUT||Regular Elimination||Ramsay Nomination||Without Nomination|
|MISC||Ejected during service||Quit or Hospitalized||Best of the Best/Worst|
Here is the list of all the episodes of the season, with links to the detailed pages.
|#||Image||Title||Airdate|
|01||Episode 1701 - All-Stars Arrive||September 29, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: Ramsay called sixteen former contestants to compete again, and the all-stars found out that their second chance would not be an easy one.|
|02||Episode 1702 - Raising the Bar||October 6, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: An individual challenge featuring bar food took place, one team did not have any stars at opening night, and a shocking elimination that nobody saw coming occurred.|
|03||Episode 1703 - Tower of Terror||October 13, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: One team continued their winning streak, an old feud reignited, one chef lacked commitment during the punishment, and another one was kicked out for a nail appointment during service.|
|04||Episode 1704 - Just Letter Cook||October 20, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: One team made a comeback, one chef's poor performance got them alienated by their team, and the first team switch occurred.|
|05||Episode 1705 - Josh Josh Josh||November 3, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: Two chefs tried their best to get along with their new teammates, fish was cooked in a unusual way, and one chef did not even make it to the end of dinner service.|
|06||Episode 1706 - A Little Slice of Hell||November 10, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: Pizza was the main dish, one team had a meltdown at Italian Night dinner service, and one chef lied about a nasty cut.|
|07||Episode 1707 - Trimming Fat||November 17, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: The chefs were tested on timings on the menu items, and six chefs competed in an individual challenge to stay in the competition.|
|08||Episode 1708 - Welcome to the Jungle||December 1, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: Cave meat was the main theme, one chef made an unexpected comeback, and while one team had their best dinner service, the other had their worst.|
|09||Episode 1709 - Catch of the Day||December 8, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: The chefs fished for their ingredients, a disgusting punishment got worse when one chef tried to weasel their way out, and a shocking and controversial elimination of a big fan favorite took place.|
|10||Episode 1710 - It's All Gravy||December 15, 2017|
|Episode Rundown: The annual Blind Taste Test took place, a private dinner service occurred, and an elimination of a volatile chef happened.|
|11||Episode 1711 - Trying to Pasta Test||January 5, 2018|
|Episode Rundown: An unlikely alliance was born, the chefs cooked pasta dishes on a budget, and an early front runner single handily sunk their team at dinner service.|
|12||Episode 1712 - Five is the New Black||January 12, 2018|
|Episode Rundown: The final seven competed in a series of challenges for black jackets, and it featured an elimination of the most explosive contestant in the show's history.|
|13||Episode 1713 - Stars Heating Up Hell||January 19, 2018|
|Episode Rundown: The final five competed in their first black jackets challenge, an argument between two chefs took place, and another's luck ran out.|
|14||Episode 1714 - Families Come to Hell||January 26, 2018|
|Episode Rundown: The final four reunited with their loved ones, took turns at the pass, and two unexpected moments occurred at elimination.|
|15||Episode 1715 - Final Three||February 2, 2018|
|Episode Rundown: The final three created their menus, went through one final challenge, and two of them advanced to the finals.|
|16||Episode 1716 - All-Star Finale||February 2, 2018|
|Episode Rundown: Michelle and Benjamin picked their brigades, went through one final dinner service, and one of them was named the winner of Hell's Kitchen All-Stars.|
- In terms of season representations, Season 14 had the most at four returning chefs be in this season, but Seasons 6 and 7 are tied with the least amount of representatives with one returning chef each.
- This season marks the best starts for the blue team, as they set the record of first four wins in the first two challenges and the first two dinner services for the blue team. Overall, it was beaten by the Season 20 's red team, as they set the record of first five wins in the first three challenges and the first two dinner services.
- This is the only season where only one member of the red team was given a Black Jacket.
- If you compare the blue teams in other seasons, this season's blue team set the record of second most dinner service wins in a season with five, excluding joint-victories. This record is shared with Seasons 6, 7, 15 and 18.
- This season is the first and later tied with Season 19 for having the most contestants getting eliminated after a challenge, with four, until it was beaten by Season 20.
- This is the first season to have two contestants eliminated after the Black Jacket Challenge .
- This season holds the record for having the second most nominees called forward from one team, with four, in one episode and is tied with Season 10. The record would later be broken in Season 20.
- Coincidentally in both seasons, the contestant who was nominated by Ramsay is eliminated.
- This season holds the record for having the longest streak of female contestants eliminated, with five, and is tied with Season 9.
- Coincidentally in both seasons, they are ranked from 5th to 9th place.
- This is the second season, and onwards, since Season 10 where the Signature Dish Challenge was not done in front of a live audience.
- This is the first season, since Season 8 , where 16 chefs compete.
- This season holds the record for having the longest streak of red team members eliminated, with four.
- This season hold the record for the highest number of chefs who were allowed to keep their jackets after elimination, with five (Not including the Winner and Runner-Up)
- Coincidentally, they are ranked from 3rd to 7th place.
- This is the third season, following Season 5 and Season 13 , where the chefs were allowed to keep the jacket during team phase.
- Clemenza from Season 10 was given the opportunity to come back but declined due to health issues. Sabrina from Season 8 was also approached to return this season, but she later declined it because she didn't want to leave her job. Additionally, Kimberly from Season 16 was approached to return this season but declined as she felt one season was enough.
- This is the last season to date to feature a male runner-up.
- This is the first season to featured three finalists, although the 3rd place finalist was eliminated at the Final Tasting Challenge , and immediately joined as returning chef, to keep up the final two contestant handled of each kitchen in the final dinner service.
- The chef jackets were given an updated look as they are designed with short sleeves and more buttons. These chef jackets would also be used in Season 18 .
- Start from this season, each of the season onwards featured the alternate title, instead of the only "Hell's Kitchen" like the past sixteen seasons.
- Future Reappearances: Michelle would return in Season 19 and Season 20 for different reasons. | https://hellskitchen.fandom.com/wiki/Season_17 | 131 |
when does hells kitchen all stars come on | Hell's Kitchen (American season 17) | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The seventeenth season of the American competitive reality television series Hell's Kitchen (officially known as Hell's Kitchen All Stars ) began airing on September 29, 2017, and ended on February 2, 2018, on Fox . [1] [2] This is the first season in Hell's Kitchen history to have an all star edition as sixteen former contestants from previous seasons return to compete once again (also their first time since season eight returned to 16 contestants, instead of 18), and the winner of this season will receive the position as head chef at the first-ever Gordon Ramsay Hell's Kitchen Restaurant at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada . All of the returning chefs made it onto the Black Jackets in their respective seasons. Gordon Ramsay returned as host and head chef, season 10 winner (and season 15 sous-chef) Christina Wilson returned as the Red Team's sous-chef replacing Andi Van Willigan-Cutspec, and British MasterChef judge James "Jocky" Petrie made his Hell's Kitchen debut as the Blue Team's sous-chef replacing Aaron Mitrano. Marino Monferrato returned as the maître d' .
The season was won by season 14 third place finisher Michelle Tribble, with season seven third place finisher Benjamin Knack finishing second and season 14 fifth place finisher Nick Peters Bond placing third.
16 returning chefs competed in Season 17. [1]
|Contestant||Age [n 1]||Hometown||Competed||Finished||Result|
|Michelle Tribble||26||Dallas, Texas||Season 14||3rd||Winner|
|Benjamin Knack||41||San Antonio, Texas||Season 7||Runner-Up|
|Nick Peters Bond||28||Newburyport, Massachusetts||Season 14||5th||Eliminated during Finals|
|Emili "Milly" Medley||37||Philadelphia, Pennsylvania||4th||Eliminated before Finals|
|Robyn Almodovar||36||Fort Lauderdale, Florida||Season 10||6th||Eliminated after Tenth Service|
|Jennifer Normant||40||Burlington, Massachusetts||Season 9||5th||Eliminated after Black Jackets Challenge|
|Elise Harris||32||Stafford, Virginia||3rd|
|Dana Cohen||Emerson, New Jersey||Season 10||Eliminated after Ninth Service|
|Barbra "Barbie" Marshall||39||Strasburg, Pennsylvania||4th||Eliminated after Eighth Service|
|Vincent "Van" Hurd||34||South Glastonbury, Connecticut||Season 6||6th||Eliminated after Seventh Service|
|Amanda "Manda" Palomino||32||Atlantic City, New Jersey||Season 15||5th||Eliminated after Sixth Service|
|Giovanni Filippone||46||Santa Rosa Beach, Florida||Season 5||6th||Eliminated after Cook for your Life Challenge|
|Jared Bobkin||31||Troy, Michigan||Season 15||4th||Eliminated after Fifth Service|
|Joshua "Josh" Trovato||28||Los Angeles, California||Season 14||6th||Ejected during Fourth Service|
|Ashley Nickell||29||Orlando, Florida||Season 15||3rd||Eliminated after Second Service|
|Benjamin "Ben" Walanka||36||Overland Park, Kansas||Season 5||4th||Eliminated after First Service|
- ^ Age at the time of filming
- WIN = Won the dinner service
- LOSE = Lost the dinner service
- IN = not nominated for elimination
- NOM = nominated for elimination
- OUT = eliminated normally
- LEFT = withdrew from competition
- HOSP = eliminated due to hospitalization
- EJEC = eliminated during service
- ^ Chef was immune from elimination
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell%27s_Kitchen_(American_season_17) | 131 |
when does hells kitchen all stars come on | Everything to know about ‘Hell’s Kitchen 21’: Meet the 18 chef-testants competing | “ Hell’s Kitchen ” is coming back to FOX on September 29, 2022. After shooting Seasons 19 and 20 back-to-back before the COVID-19 pandemic, Season 21 of “Hell’s Kitchen” began production last winter. Here’s everything to know about the latest installment of this reality competition series hosted by the foul-mouthed Gordon Ramsay . View the gallery of chef-testants for Season 21 above.
It will premiere in the fall of 2022.
“Hell’s Kitchen 21” has a premiere date of September 29 on FOX. Season 20 aired throughout the summer of 2021 and concluded on Sept. 13. This scheduling puts the gap between seasons at just about a year. Compare that to the almost two-year wait between the Season 18 finale in Feb. 2019 and the Season 20 premiere in Jan. 2021. Episodes 1-8 aired to September 29 through December 8, 2022. After nearly a month-long hiatus, episodes resume on January 5, 2023. Episodes can also be seen on Hulu the next day.
Production began last winter.
The casting notice required applicants to be available from late January to early March 2022 with the understanding that filming will take place for three weeks during this window.
There was a COVID-safe plan.
“Hell’s Kitchen 21” worked within the constraints of COVID. To that end, the cast is likely to have quarantined for two weeks prior to the start of production. The two most recent seasons were filmed at the Hell’s Kitchen restaurant in Las Vegas prior to the pandemic. The first 18 seasons were produced in Los Angeles at a facility that housed the restaurant, kitchen and a dormitory.
Who is in the “Hell’s Kitchen 21” cast?
The 18 chefs for season 21 will be split into two groups: 40-somethings on the blue team and 20-somethings on the red team. Unlike season 20, in which all the contestants were under 25, this season will include nobody under 20, in their 30s or over 49. The season is titled “Hell’s Kitchen: Battle of the Ages.”
What does the “Hell’s Kitchen 21” winner get?
The most recent winner of “Hell’s Kitchen” was Trent Garvey , who collected a cool quarter of a million dollars and landed the gig of head chef at Gordon Ramsay Steak, a restaurant that is part of the Paris Las Vegas Resort. To find out which of the other “Hell’s Kitchen” winners are still working for Gordon Ramsay, click through our photo gallery of “Hell’s Kitchen” winners .
Make your predictions at Gold Derby now. Download our free and easy app for Apple/iPhone devices or Android (Google Play) to compete against legions of other fans plus our experts and editors for best prediction accuracy scores. See our latest prediction champs . Can you top our esteemed leaderboards next? Always remember to keep your predictions updated because they impact our latest racetrack odds, which terrify Hollywood chiefs and stars. Don’t miss the fun. Speak up and share your huffy opinions in our famous forums where 5,000 showbiz leaders lurk every day to track latest awards buzz. Everybody wants to know: What do you think? Who do you predict and why? | https://www.goldderby.com/feature/hells-kitchen-21-premiere-date-cast-everything-to-know-1204729137/ | 131 |
who wrote the original thomas the tank engine books | Thomas the Tank Engine - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the character. For the franchise this character appears in, see Thomas & Friends (franchise) . For the original 1946 book by Wilbert Awdry, see Thomas the Tank Engine (book) .
|Thomas the Tank Engine|
|The Railway Series / Thomas & Friends character|
|First appearance||Thomas the Tank Engine (1946)|
|Created by|| Wilbert Awdry |
Christopher Awdry
|Designed by|| L. B. Billinton (in universe) |
Reginald Payne
|Voiced by|| UK: |
US:
Other:
|Number||1 (formerly, L.B.S.C. 70)|
|In-universe information|
|Species||Steam locomotive|
|Gender||Male|
Thomas the Tank Engine is an anthropomorphised fictional tank locomotive in the British Railway Series books by Wilbert Awdry and his son, Christopher , published from 1945. He became the most popular and famous character in the series, and is the titular protagonist in the accompanying television adaptation series Thomas & Friends [2] and its reboot Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go .
All of the vehicles in The Railway Series were based on prototypical engines; Thomas's basis is the LB&SCR E2 class . [3] Thomas first appeared in 1946 in the second book in the series, Thomas the Tank Engine , and was the focus of the four short stories contained within. In The Railway Series and early episodes of Thomas & Friends , Thomas's best friends are Percy and Toby , though he is also close friends with Edward . Later episodes of Thomas & Friends have Thomas in a trio with James and Percy, and Percy is known as his best friend.
In 1979, British writer and producer Britt Allcroft came across the books, [4] and arranged a deal to bring the stories to life as the TV series Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends (later simplified to Thomas & Friends ). The programme became an award-winning hit around the world, with a vast range of spin-off commercial products.
When Awdry based Thomas on a wooden toy made for his son Christopher . This toy looked rather different from the character in the books and television series, and carried the letters NW on its side tanks, which stood for "No Where" according to Awdry. [5]
Thomas wasn't based on a prototype . [6] After Awdry's wife encouraged him to publish the stories, [7] the publisher of the second book in The Railway Series ( Thomas the Tank Engine ) hired illustrator Reginald Payne. Awdry selected a real locomotive for Payne to work from to create authenticity: a Billinton designed 0-6-0 E2 Class of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. [8] This may have been chosen simply because Awdry had a photograph to hand. [6]
The models of Thomas used in the TV series and produced by Hornby are based on the E2 locomotives fitted with an extension to the front of the water tanks. [9] Awdry was unsatisfied with one detail of the illustration — the front end of his running board sloped downward which meant that his front and back buffers were at different heights. This was an illustrator's mistake that was perpetuated in subsequent books. The accident, in Thomas Comes to Breakfast was partly devised as a means of correcting this. Thomas has always been shown with a curved running board in the television series.
Payne was not credited for his illustrations at the time, and it is only since the publication of Brian Sibley 's The Thomas the Tank Engine Man that he has received recognition. It had often been erroneously assumed that C. Reginald Dalby created the character, as he was responsible for illustrating books 3–11 and repainting the illustrations of books 1 and 2.
All of the prototype LB&SCR E2 class locomotives were scrapped between 1961 and 1963. Thomas locomotives used on Day out with Thomas days on heritage railways are either unpowered replicas or converted from other locomotives. [10]
Despite becoming the most popular character in The Railway Series , Thomas was not featured in the first book, The Three Railway Engines .
Thomas was described in the opening to "Thomas and Gordon", the first story in book number two, Thomas the Tank Engine , as: [11]
...a tank engine who lived at a Big Station. He had six small wheels, a short stumpy funnel, a short stumpy boiler and a short stumpy dome. He was a fussy little engine, always pulling coaches about. [...] He was cheeky, too.
Thomas arrived on Sodor shortly after he was built in 1915, when The Fat Controller bought the locomotive for a nominal sum to be a pilot engine at Vicarstown . Thomas was used initially as a station pilot engine in the first three stories in book 2, but longed for more important jobs such as pulling the express train like Gordon; his inexperience prevented this. In the fourth story, Thomas and the Breakdown Train , Thomas rescues James and is rewarded with his own branch line . [12]
Thomas's on-screen appearances in the TV series were developed by Britt Allcroft . The first series of 26 stories premiered in October 1984 on the ITV Network in the UK, with former Beatles drummer/vocalist Ringo Starr as storyteller. The stories were featured as segments as part of Shining Time Station in the US beginning in 1989 with Starr as the show's Mr. Conductor character. From 1991 to 1993, George Carlin replaced Starr as both the storyteller and as Mr. Conductor for Shining Time Station . Carlin also told the Thomas stories for Shining Time Station in 1995.
In 1996, the Thomas stories were segments for Mr. Conductor's Thomas Tales , again featuring George Carlin. Alec Baldwin portrayed Mr. Conductor in the first theatrical film, Thomas and the Magic Railroad (2000), and narrated the series for the US from 1998 to 2003. Michael Angelis narrated the series from 1991 to 2012 in the UK, while Michael Brandon narrated the series from 2004 to 2012 in the US. From 2013 to 2017, the series was narrated by Mark Moraghan until the franchise's upgrade in 2018, when the episodes were told from Thomas's point of view.
Thomas's personality was originally faithful to the character of the books. As the show branched away from the novels however, modifications were made. Thomas became noticeably less arrogant and self-absorbed, developing a more friendly, altruistic and happy go lucky (if still rather over-excitable) side. He also no longer appears to be limited to his branch line and seems to work all over Sodor. These changes in his personality and duties are a result of his "star" status. He is the most popular character in the series, and therefore he has the largest number of appearances, appearing in all of the DVD specials and the movie Thomas and the Magic Railroad .
From Hero of the Rails until Series 18, Thomas was voiced by Martin Sherman (US) and Ben Small (UK). [13] From 2015-2021, Thomas was voiced by John Hasler in the UK, and by Joseph May in the US. Both ended their sessions voicing Thomas once the last episode of the 24th and final series was produced, and the role was taken by child actors in Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go , a 2D-animated reboot of the original series; Meesha Contreras voices Thomas in the US version, [1] while Aaron Barashi claims the role in the UK version.
In The Adventure Begins which is a retelling of Thomas's early days on Sodor, he is a bluish-green colour when he first arrives on Sodor, his tanks are lettered "LBSC" (for the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway) with the number 70 on his bunker. The 70 is a reference to 2015 being the 70th anniversary for The Railway Series , while the LB&SCR E2 class were actually numbered from 100–109. The real life LBSC no. 70 is an A1 class .
In late 2020, Mattel revealed that a new theatrical live-action/animated film is in development with Marc Forster directing and producing, it will be the second theatrical Thomas & Friends film in the franchise , after Thomas and the Magic Railroad . It is unknown who will voice Thomas for this production.
- Eddie Glen ( Thomas and the Magic Railroad )
- Ben Small ( Hero of the Rails – Series 18) (UK version)
- Joseph May ( The Adventure Begins – Series 24) (US version)
- Aaron Barashi ( Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go ) (UK version)
- TBA ( Thomas & Friends: The Movie )
- Javier Olguín ( Hero of the Rails – Diesel's Ghostly Christmas; Rocky Rescue – The Great Race ) ( Mexico )
- Shin Yong-Woo (Series 18 – Series 19 ) (Korean)
Thomas had his genesis in a wooden push-along toy from the early 1940s made by Wilbert Awdry out of a piece of broomstick for his son Christopher. This engine looked rather different from the character in the books and television series and was based on an LNER Class J50 , which was going to be his originally intended basis, with smaller side tanks and splashers. [14] He was painted blue with yellow lining and carried the letters NW on his side tanks. Christopher lost this model, although it was recreated for the 70th anniversary. However, Awdry was happy to endorse Payne's account that the locomotive was an LBSC E2 , although the first Thomas on the Awdry's model railway, from Stuart Reidpath, lacked extended tanks. In the 1979 Thomas Annual, Awdry wrote: [15]
I bought Thomas in 1948 when I was writing Tank Engine Thomas Again , and wanted to start modelling once more after a lapse of some twenty years. Thomas was one of Stewart Reidpath's standard models with a heavy, cast white metal body, and was fitted with his "Essar" chassis and motor. Stewart Reidpath is now dead, and his motors, let alone spare parts for them, have been unobtainable for years; but Thomas still keeps going! He is, as you might expect from his age, a temperamental old gentleman, and has to be driven very carefully indeed.
Thomas Mk1 was retired with its coaches in 1979, Thomas Mk2 having been produced the year before using a Tri-ang 'Jinty' 3F 0-6-0T. After the British model railways manufacturing company Hornby produced the LBSC E2 tank, Awdry gladly adapted one in 1980 to take the role of Thomas Mk3 on his layout, the Ffarquhar branch.
Awdry's requested models, to which Lines Bros. subsidiary, Meccano Ltd , responded with Percy and wagons in 1967. [14] Hornby Hobbies launched their 'The World of Thomas the Tank Engine' in the 1985. This was a 00 gauge range of model railway train sets and models which they made for the next 30 years. For Thomas they used their 1979 model of a LB&SCR model of a Class E2 tank engine which they suitably altered with a face and extended tanks to look like Thomas. Many of the characters in the 'Railway Series' books were thus modelled (with faces) by Hornby, including characters added for the television series. They also supplied suitable coaches, wagons and lineside buildings within the series.
Thomas was the only fictional character included in The Independent on Sunday 's 2009 " Happy List ", recognised alongside 98 real-life adults and a therapy dog for making Britain a better and happier place. [16] In 2011, Thomas the Tank Engine featured on a series of 1st class UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail to mark the centenary of the birth of its creator, Reverend Wilbert Awdry. [17]
Thomas has been referenced, featured and parodied in popular culture. In 1988, he was parodied on ITV 's Spitting Image where he was portrayed as a drunk who went "completely off the rails." [18] In 2009, he appeared in The Official BBC Children in Need Medley where he was voiced by Ringo Starr , who narrated the first two series of Thomas and Friends . [19] In the British comedy show Bobby Davro's TV Weekly , a spoof was created titled "Thomas The Tanked Up Engine" involving Jeremy, the pink engine. Bobby Davro provided the narration by impersonating Ringo Starr .
In Cartoon Network's MAD , Thomas the Tank Engine appears in "Thomas the Unstoppable Tank Engine," a crossover between Thomas the Tank Engine and Unstoppable . [20] A parody of Thomas the Tank Engine was in Robot Chicken . The skit was called "Blow Some Steam." The narrator ( Seth Green ) spoke like Ringo Starr who was the first narrator for Thomas and Friends . Thomas was voiced by Daniel Radcliffe . [21]
The 2015 Marvel superhero film Ant-Man features a Bachmann HO scale model of Thomas. In the film's climactic battle, Ant-Man and Yellowjacket fight atop Thomas while in their insect sizes until Yellowjacket derails Thomas off the model train tracks and throws him at Ant-Man, who knocks him onto a windowsill. An accident during the fight results in Thomas suddenly growing to the size of a real train and demolishing a large portion of Ant-Man's daughter's house before falling on top of a police car. [22] [23] [24]
Video game players have frequently modified released games to include Thomas and other characters, typically by replacing a boss character with Thomas and using sounds and music from the show. One of the first popular efforts was replacing dragons with engines and trucks in the game The Elder Scrolls: Skyrim in 2013, and Thomas has since been incorporated into other games like Grand Theft Auto V , Sonic the Hedgehog and the 2019 Resident Evil 2 remake . [25] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_the_Tank_Engine | 132 |
who wrote the original thomas the tank engine books | Wilbert Awdry - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wilbert Awdry
|Born|| Wilbert Vere Awdry |
15 June 1911
Ampfield , England
|Died|| 21 March 1997 (aged 85) |
Rodborough , England
|Occupation|
|Alma mater|
|Genre||Children's literature|
|Years active||1945–1972|
|Notable works||The Railway Series|
|Spouse|
Margaret Wale
( m. 1938; died 1989)
|Children||3, including Christopher|
|Ecclesiastical career|
|Religion||Christianity ( Anglican )|
|Church||Church of England|
|Ordained|
Wilbert Vere Awdry OBE (15 June 1911 – 21 March 1997) was an English Anglican minister , railway enthusiast , and children's author . He was best known as the creator of Thomas the Tank Engine and several other characters who appeared in his Railway Series .
Wilbert Awdry was born at Ampfield vicarage near Romsey , Hampshire , on 15 June 1911. His father was Vere Awdry (1854–1928), the Anglican vicar of Ampfield (who was 56 years old at the time of his birth), and his mother was Lucy Awdry (née Bury; 1884–1965). Wilbert was derived from William and Herbert, names of his father's two brothers. His younger brother, George, was born on 10 August 1916 and died on 27 October 1994. [1] [2] All three of Awdry's older half-siblings from his father's first two marriages died young, the youngest being killed in World War I . At Ampfield as a toddler he saw his father construct a handmade 40-yard (37 m), 2.5-inch-gauge (64 mm) model railway. [3] In 1917, the family moved to Box , in Wiltshire , moving again within Box in 1919 and in 1920, the third house being "Journey's End" (renamed from "Lorne Villa"), which remained the family home until August 1928. [4] [5]
"Journey's End" was only 200 yards (180 m) from the western end of Box Tunnel , where the Great Western Railway main line climbs at a gradient of 1 in 100 for 2 miles (3.2 km). [6] A banking engine was kept there to assist freight trains up the hill. [6] These trains usually ran at night, and the young Awdry could hear them from his bed, listening to the coded whistle signals between the train engine and the banker as well as the sharp bark from the locomotive exhausts as they fought their way up the incline. [6] Awdry said, "There was no doubt in my mind that steam engines all had definite personalities. I would hear them snorting up the grade and little imagination was needed to hear in the puffings and pantings of the two engines the conversation they were having with one another." [7] Here was the inspiration for the story of Edward helping Gordon 's train up the hill, a story that Wilbert first told his son Christopher some 25 years later, and which appeared in the first of the Railway Series books. [6]
Awdry was educated at Marlborough House School, Hawkhurst, Kent (1919–1924), Dauntsey's School , West Lavington, Wiltshire (1924–1929), St Peter's Hall, Oxford (BA, 1932), and Wycliffe Hall, Oxford , where he gained his diploma in theology in 1933. He taught for three years from 1933 to 1936 at St George's School, Jerusalem . He was ordained to the Church of England diaconate in 1936 and subsequently the priesthood. In 1938, he married Margaret Emily Wale (1912 – 21 March 1989). In 1940, he took a curacy at St Nicolas Church, Kings Norton , Birmingham , where he lived until 1946. He subsequently moved to Cambridgeshire , serving as rector of Elsworth with Knapwell (1946–1950), rural dean at Bourn (1950–1953) and then vicar of Emneth , Norfolk (1953–1965). [8] He retired from full-time ministry in 1965 and moved to Rodborough in Stroud in Gloucestershire . [9]
The characters that would make Awdry known and the first stories featuring them were invented in 1942 to amuse his son Christopher during a bout of measles . After Awdry wrote The Three Railway Engines , he built Christopher a model of Edward , and some wagons and coaches, out of a wooden broomstick and scraps of wood. [10] Christopher also wanted a model of Gordon; however the wartime shortage of materials limited Awdry to making a little 0-6-0 tank engine . Awdry said, "The natural name was Thomas – Thomas the Tank Engine." [10] Then Christopher requested stories about Thomas and these duly followed and were published in the book Thomas the Tank Engine , published in 1946.
The first book, The Three Railway Engines , was published in 1945. Awdry wrote 26 books in The Railway Series , the last in 1972. Christopher subsequently added further books to the series.
In 1947, 0-6-0T engine No. 1800 was built by Hudswell Clarke; it spent its working life at the Peterborough -based factory, a property of the British Sugar Corporation, pushing wagons of sugar beet until it was finally replaced by a diesel engine. Peterborough Railway Society purchased the engine in 1973, and this little blue 'Thomas' engine is the star of the Nene Valley Railway . [11]
In 1952, Awdry volunteered as a guard on the Talyllyn Railway in Wales , then in its second year of preservation. [12] The railway inspired Awdry to create the Skarloey Railway , based on the Talyllyn, with some of his exploits being written into the stories. [13]
Awdry's enthusiasm for railways did not stop at his publications. He was involved in railway preservation, and built model railways , which he took to exhibitions around the country. At Emneth he created an extensive model railway network in his loft based on Barrow-in-Furness. [14] Emneth was also close to three Wisbech railway stations . Emneth railway station was on the EAR line from Magdalen Road Station (now known as Watlington) to Wisbech East, Emneth station is now a private residence. The GER Wisbech and Upwell Tramway tram engines, coaches and rolling stock were similar to Toby the Tram Engine and Henrietta and the Ely to King's Lynn mainline with Wisbech East railway station on Victoria Road. The M&GN Peterborough to Sutton Bridge via Wisbech North railway station on Harecroft Road. There were also harbour lines either side of the Port of Wisbech on the River Nene - M&GN Harbour West branch and GER Harbour East branch. He was a passenger on Alan Pegler 's 1968 non-stop Flying Scotsman London King's Cross to Edinburgh run.
Awdry wrote other books besides those of The Railway Series , both fiction and non-fiction. The story Belinda the Beetle was about a red car (it became a Volkswagen Beetle only in the illustrations to the paperback editions).
In 1988, his second Ffarquhar model railway layout was shown to the public for the final time and was featured on an ITN News news item. He was again featured on TV-am for Thomas's 40th anniversary in 1990. During all this, Awdry faced many battles – health problems, depression, and the death of his wife, brother and close friend Teddy Boston . Five years later, he was interviewed by Nicholas Jones for the Bookmark film The Thomas the Tank Engine Man , which first aired on 25 February 1995 and repeated again on 15 April 1997 shortly after his death.
Awdry was awarded an OBE in the 1996 New Year's Honours List, but by that time his health had deteriorated and he was unable to travel to London. He died peacefully in his sleep in Stroud , Gloucestershire, on 21 March 1997, at the age of 85. [15] His ashes are interred at Gloucester Crematorium.
A biography entitled The Thomas the Tank Engine Man was written by Brian Sibley and published in 1995.
A Class 91 locomotive, 91 124, used to bear the name The Rev W Awdry . A Hunslet Austerity 0-6-0ST (saddle tank) engine on the Dean Forest Railway is named Wilbert after him; and was used as the title character in Christopher Awdry's Railway Series book Wilbert the Forest Engine .
In 2003, a stained glass window commissioned by the Awdry family was unveiled at St. Edmund's church, Emneth, Norfolk. [16]
In 2011, a blue plaque was unveiled by his daughter Veronica Chambers at The Old Vicarage, Emneth where he lived between 1953 and 1965. In 2012 a blue plaque was unveiled at "Lorne House", Box, where he lived between 1920 and 1928 when its name was "Journey's End". [17]
In 2013, Cambridgeshire County Council named their new offices in Wisbech Awdry House in his memory. [18]
In 2015, he was rendered in CGI for a special cameo in Sodor's Legend of the Lost Treasure , then later in 2016, he was rendered in CGI again as a cameo in The Great Race . He made frequent appearances ever since, occasionally interacting with the engines, and is referred to by his Railway Series alias, 'The Thin Clergyman'.
A pedestrian rail crossing bridge has been dedicated to Awdry in 2017 in the small Hampshire town of Chandlers Ford , which is very close (and has the closest railway line and station) to his birthplace of Ampfield.
In 2021, to mark the 75th anniversary of Thomas the Tank Engine, a blue plaque was unveiled at the old Rectory of Holy Trinity Church in Ellsworth, Cambridgeshire. Cambridge Past, Present & Future put up the plaque to mark the books he wrote there. His daughter, Veronica Chambers, said she was "delighted and moved". [19]
In the second book in the series, Thomas the Tank Engine , Awdry wrote this "letter" to his son Christopher: [20] [21]
Dear Christopher,
Here is your friend Thomas, the Tank Engine.
He wanted to come out of his station-yard and see the world.
These stories tell you how he did it.
I hope you will like them because you helped me to make them.
Your Loving Daddy
Subsequent books featured a similar letter from the author, addressed to the readers of the book as "Dear Friends", which introduced the background to the stories within the book.
This text also appears at the beginning of Thomas and Friends episodes from 2004 to 2012. The "letter" appears with a storybook showing Thomas on the front cover with "Thomas the Tank Engine" at the top and "By the Rev. W. Awdry" at the bottom. The book then opens up and we see the letter, read by British actor Nigel Plaskitt , and after the letter is finished a "steam" transition appears and it transitions to the Thomas & Friends theme song.
Fiction | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbert_Awdry | 132 |
who wrote the original thomas the tank engine books | Wilbert Awdry - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wilbert Awdry
|Born|| Wilbert Vere Awdry |
15 June 1911
Ampfield , England
|Died|| 21 March 1997 (aged 85) |
Rodborough , England
|Occupation|
|Alma mater|
|Genre||Children's literature|
|Years active||1945–1972|
|Notable works||The Railway Series|
|Spouse|
Margaret Wale
( m. 1938; died 1989)
|Children||3, including Christopher|
|Ecclesiastical career|
|Religion||Christianity ( Anglican )|
|Church||Church of England|
|Ordained|
Wilbert Vere Awdry OBE (15 June 1911 – 21 March 1997) was an English Anglican minister , railway enthusiast , and children's author . He was best known as the creator of Thomas the Tank Engine and several other characters who appeared in his Railway Series .
Wilbert Awdry was born at Ampfield vicarage near Romsey , Hampshire , on 15 June 1911. His father was Vere Awdry (1854–1928), the Anglican vicar of Ampfield (who was 56 years old at the time of his birth), and his mother was Lucy Awdry (née Bury; 1884–1965). Wilbert was derived from William and Herbert, names of his father's two brothers. His younger brother, George, was born on 10 August 1916 and died on 27 October 1994. [1] [2] All three of Awdry's older half-siblings from his father's first two marriages died young, the youngest being killed in World War I . At Ampfield as a toddler he saw his father construct a handmade 40-yard (37 m), 2.5-inch-gauge (64 mm) model railway. [3] In 1917, the family moved to Box , in Wiltshire , moving again within Box in 1919 and in 1920, the third house being "Journey's End" (renamed from "Lorne Villa"), which remained the family home until August 1928. [4] [5]
"Journey's End" was only 200 yards (180 m) from the western end of Box Tunnel , where the Great Western Railway main line climbs at a gradient of 1 in 100 for 2 miles (3.2 km). [6] A banking engine was kept there to assist freight trains up the hill. [6] These trains usually ran at night, and the young Awdry could hear them from his bed, listening to the coded whistle signals between the train engine and the banker as well as the sharp bark from the locomotive exhausts as they fought their way up the incline. [6] Awdry said, "There was no doubt in my mind that steam engines all had definite personalities. I would hear them snorting up the grade and little imagination was needed to hear in the puffings and pantings of the two engines the conversation they were having with one another." [7] Here was the inspiration for the story of Edward helping Gordon 's train up the hill, a story that Wilbert first told his son Christopher some 25 years later, and which appeared in the first of the Railway Series books. [6]
Awdry was educated at Marlborough House School, Hawkhurst, Kent (1919–1924), Dauntsey's School , West Lavington, Wiltshire (1924–1929), St Peter's Hall, Oxford (BA, 1932), and Wycliffe Hall, Oxford , where he gained his diploma in theology in 1933. He taught for three years from 1933 to 1936 at St George's School, Jerusalem . He was ordained to the Church of England diaconate in 1936 and subsequently the priesthood. In 1938, he married Margaret Emily Wale (1912 – 21 March 1989). In 1940, he took a curacy at St Nicolas Church, Kings Norton , Birmingham , where he lived until 1946. He subsequently moved to Cambridgeshire , serving as rector of Elsworth with Knapwell (1946–1950), rural dean at Bourn (1950–1953) and then vicar of Emneth , Norfolk (1953–1965). [8] He retired from full-time ministry in 1965 and moved to Rodborough in Stroud in Gloucestershire . [9]
The characters that would make Awdry known and the first stories featuring them were invented in 1942 to amuse his son Christopher during a bout of measles . After Awdry wrote The Three Railway Engines , he built Christopher a model of Edward , and some wagons and coaches, out of a wooden broomstick and scraps of wood. [10] Christopher also wanted a model of Gordon; however the wartime shortage of materials limited Awdry to making a little 0-6-0 tank engine . Awdry said, "The natural name was Thomas – Thomas the Tank Engine." [10] Then Christopher requested stories about Thomas and these duly followed and were published in the book Thomas the Tank Engine , published in 1946.
The first book, The Three Railway Engines , was published in 1945. Awdry wrote 26 books in The Railway Series , the last in 1972. Christopher subsequently added further books to the series.
In 1947, 0-6-0T engine No. 1800 was built by Hudswell Clarke; it spent its working life at the Peterborough -based factory, a property of the British Sugar Corporation, pushing wagons of sugar beet until it was finally replaced by a diesel engine. Peterborough Railway Society purchased the engine in 1973, and this little blue 'Thomas' engine is the star of the Nene Valley Railway . [11]
In 1952, Awdry volunteered as a guard on the Talyllyn Railway in Wales , then in its second year of preservation. [12] The railway inspired Awdry to create the Skarloey Railway , based on the Talyllyn, with some of his exploits being written into the stories. [13]
Awdry's enthusiasm for railways did not stop at his publications. He was involved in railway preservation, and built model railways , which he took to exhibitions around the country. At Emneth he created an extensive model railway network in his loft based on Barrow-in-Furness. [14] Emneth was also close to three Wisbech railway stations . Emneth railway station was on the EAR line from Magdalen Road Station (now known as Watlington) to Wisbech East, Emneth station is now a private residence. The GER Wisbech and Upwell Tramway tram engines, coaches and rolling stock were similar to Toby the Tram Engine and Henrietta and the Ely to King's Lynn mainline with Wisbech East railway station on Victoria Road. The M&GN Peterborough to Sutton Bridge via Wisbech North railway station on Harecroft Road. There were also harbour lines either side of the Port of Wisbech on the River Nene - M&GN Harbour West branch and GER Harbour East branch. He was a passenger on Alan Pegler 's 1968 non-stop Flying Scotsman London King's Cross to Edinburgh run.
Awdry wrote other books besides those of The Railway Series , both fiction and non-fiction. The story Belinda the Beetle was about a red car (it became a Volkswagen Beetle only in the illustrations to the paperback editions).
In 1988, his second Ffarquhar model railway layout was shown to the public for the final time and was featured on an ITN News news item. He was again featured on TV-am for Thomas's 40th anniversary in 1990. During all this, Awdry faced many battles – health problems, depression, and the death of his wife, brother and close friend Teddy Boston . Five years later, he was interviewed by Nicholas Jones for the Bookmark film The Thomas the Tank Engine Man , which first aired on 25 February 1995 and repeated again on 15 April 1997 shortly after his death.
Awdry was awarded an OBE in the 1996 New Year's Honours List, but by that time his health had deteriorated and he was unable to travel to London. He died peacefully in his sleep in Stroud , Gloucestershire, on 21 March 1997, at the age of 85. [15] His ashes are interred at Gloucester Crematorium.
A biography entitled The Thomas the Tank Engine Man was written by Brian Sibley and published in 1995.
A Class 91 locomotive, 91 124, used to bear the name The Rev W Awdry . A Hunslet Austerity 0-6-0ST (saddle tank) engine on the Dean Forest Railway is named Wilbert after him; and was used as the title character in Christopher Awdry's Railway Series book Wilbert the Forest Engine .
In 2003, a stained glass window commissioned by the Awdry family was unveiled at St. Edmund's church, Emneth, Norfolk. [16]
In 2011, a blue plaque was unveiled by his daughter Veronica Chambers at The Old Vicarage, Emneth where he lived between 1953 and 1965. In 2012 a blue plaque was unveiled at "Lorne House", Box, where he lived between 1920 and 1928 when its name was "Journey's End". [17]
In 2013, Cambridgeshire County Council named their new offices in Wisbech Awdry House in his memory. [18]
In 2015, he was rendered in CGI for a special cameo in Sodor's Legend of the Lost Treasure , then later in 2016, he was rendered in CGI again as a cameo in The Great Race . He made frequent appearances ever since, occasionally interacting with the engines, and is referred to by his Railway Series alias, 'The Thin Clergyman'.
A pedestrian rail crossing bridge has been dedicated to Awdry in 2017 in the small Hampshire town of Chandlers Ford , which is very close (and has the closest railway line and station) to his birthplace of Ampfield.
In 2021, to mark the 75th anniversary of Thomas the Tank Engine, a blue plaque was unveiled at the old Rectory of Holy Trinity Church in Ellsworth, Cambridgeshire. Cambridge Past, Present & Future put up the plaque to mark the books he wrote there. His daughter, Veronica Chambers, said she was "delighted and moved". [19]
In the second book in the series, Thomas the Tank Engine , Awdry wrote this "letter" to his son Christopher: [20] [21]
Dear Christopher,
Here is your friend Thomas, the Tank Engine.
He wanted to come out of his station-yard and see the world.
These stories tell you how he did it.
I hope you will like them because you helped me to make them.
Your Loving Daddy
Subsequent books featured a similar letter from the author, addressed to the readers of the book as "Dear Friends", which introduced the background to the stories within the book.
This text also appears at the beginning of Thomas and Friends episodes from 2004 to 2012. The "letter" appears with a storybook showing Thomas on the front cover with "Thomas the Tank Engine" at the top and "By the Rev. W. Awdry" at the bottom. The book then opens up and we see the letter, read by British actor Nigel Plaskitt , and after the letter is finished a "steam" transition appears and it transitions to the Thomas & Friends theme song.
Fiction | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbert_Awdry#:~:text=Wilbert%20Vere%20Awdry%20OBE%20%2815%20June%201911%20%E2%80%93,in%20his%20Railway%20Series.%20Life%20and%20career%5B%20edit%5D | 132 |
who wrote the original thomas the tank engine books | Thomas the Tank Engine - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the character. For the franchise this character appears in, see Thomas & Friends (franchise) . For the original 1946 book by Wilbert Awdry, see Thomas the Tank Engine (book) .
|Thomas the Tank Engine|
|The Railway Series / Thomas & Friends character|
|First appearance||Thomas the Tank Engine (1946)|
|Created by|| Wilbert Awdry |
Christopher Awdry
|Designed by|| L. B. Billinton (in universe) |
Reginald Payne
|Voiced by|| UK: |
US:
Other:
|Number||1 (formerly, L.B.S.C. 70)|
|In-universe information|
|Species||Steam locomotive|
|Gender||Male|
Thomas the Tank Engine is an anthropomorphised fictional tank locomotive in the British Railway Series books by Wilbert Awdry and his son, Christopher , published from 1945. He became the most popular and famous character in the series, and is the titular protagonist in the accompanying television adaptation series Thomas & Friends [2] and its reboot Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go .
All of the vehicles in The Railway Series were based on prototypical engines; Thomas's basis is the LB&SCR E2 class . [3] Thomas first appeared in 1946 in the second book in the series, Thomas the Tank Engine , and was the focus of the four short stories contained within. In The Railway Series and early episodes of Thomas & Friends , Thomas's best friends are Percy and Toby , though he is also close friends with Edward . Later episodes of Thomas & Friends have Thomas in a trio with James and Percy, and Percy is known as his best friend.
In 1979, British writer and producer Britt Allcroft came across the books, [4] and arranged a deal to bring the stories to life as the TV series Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends (later simplified to Thomas & Friends ). The programme became an award-winning hit around the world, with a vast range of spin-off commercial products.
When Awdry based Thomas on a wooden toy made for his son Christopher . This toy looked rather different from the character in the books and television series, and carried the letters NW on its side tanks, which stood for "No Where" according to Awdry. [5]
Thomas wasn't based on a prototype . [6] After Awdry's wife encouraged him to publish the stories, [7] the publisher of the second book in The Railway Series ( Thomas the Tank Engine ) hired illustrator Reginald Payne. Awdry selected a real locomotive for Payne to work from to create authenticity: a Billinton designed 0-6-0 E2 Class of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. [8] This may have been chosen simply because Awdry had a photograph to hand. [6]
The models of Thomas used in the TV series and produced by Hornby are based on the E2 locomotives fitted with an extension to the front of the water tanks. [9] Awdry was unsatisfied with one detail of the illustration — the front end of his running board sloped downward which meant that his front and back buffers were at different heights. This was an illustrator's mistake that was perpetuated in subsequent books. The accident, in Thomas Comes to Breakfast was partly devised as a means of correcting this. Thomas has always been shown with a curved running board in the television series.
Payne was not credited for his illustrations at the time, and it is only since the publication of Brian Sibley 's The Thomas the Tank Engine Man that he has received recognition. It had often been erroneously assumed that C. Reginald Dalby created the character, as he was responsible for illustrating books 3–11 and repainting the illustrations of books 1 and 2.
All of the prototype LB&SCR E2 class locomotives were scrapped between 1961 and 1963. Thomas locomotives used on Day out with Thomas days on heritage railways are either unpowered replicas or converted from other locomotives. [10]
Despite becoming the most popular character in The Railway Series , Thomas was not featured in the first book, The Three Railway Engines .
Thomas was described in the opening to "Thomas and Gordon", the first story in book number two, Thomas the Tank Engine , as: [11]
...a tank engine who lived at a Big Station. He had six small wheels, a short stumpy funnel, a short stumpy boiler and a short stumpy dome. He was a fussy little engine, always pulling coaches about. [...] He was cheeky, too.
Thomas arrived on Sodor shortly after he was built in 1915, when The Fat Controller bought the locomotive for a nominal sum to be a pilot engine at Vicarstown . Thomas was used initially as a station pilot engine in the first three stories in book 2, but longed for more important jobs such as pulling the express train like Gordon; his inexperience prevented this. In the fourth story, Thomas and the Breakdown Train , Thomas rescues James and is rewarded with his own branch line . [12]
Thomas's on-screen appearances in the TV series were developed by Britt Allcroft . The first series of 26 stories premiered in October 1984 on the ITV Network in the UK, with former Beatles drummer/vocalist Ringo Starr as storyteller. The stories were featured as segments as part of Shining Time Station in the US beginning in 1989 with Starr as the show's Mr. Conductor character. From 1991 to 1993, George Carlin replaced Starr as both the storyteller and as Mr. Conductor for Shining Time Station . Carlin also told the Thomas stories for Shining Time Station in 1995.
In 1996, the Thomas stories were segments for Mr. Conductor's Thomas Tales , again featuring George Carlin. Alec Baldwin portrayed Mr. Conductor in the first theatrical film, Thomas and the Magic Railroad (2000), and narrated the series for the US from 1998 to 2003. Michael Angelis narrated the series from 1991 to 2012 in the UK, while Michael Brandon narrated the series from 2004 to 2012 in the US. From 2013 to 2017, the series was narrated by Mark Moraghan until the franchise's upgrade in 2018, when the episodes were told from Thomas's point of view.
Thomas's personality was originally faithful to the character of the books. As the show branched away from the novels however, modifications were made. Thomas became noticeably less arrogant and self-absorbed, developing a more friendly, altruistic and happy go lucky (if still rather over-excitable) side. He also no longer appears to be limited to his branch line and seems to work all over Sodor. These changes in his personality and duties are a result of his "star" status. He is the most popular character in the series, and therefore he has the largest number of appearances, appearing in all of the DVD specials and the movie Thomas and the Magic Railroad .
From Hero of the Rails until Series 18, Thomas was voiced by Martin Sherman (US) and Ben Small (UK). [13] From 2015-2021, Thomas was voiced by John Hasler in the UK, and by Joseph May in the US. Both ended their sessions voicing Thomas once the last episode of the 24th and final series was produced, and the role was taken by child actors in Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go , a 2D-animated reboot of the original series; Meesha Contreras voices Thomas in the US version, [1] while Aaron Barashi claims the role in the UK version.
In The Adventure Begins which is a retelling of Thomas's early days on Sodor, he is a bluish-green colour when he first arrives on Sodor, his tanks are lettered "LBSC" (for the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway) with the number 70 on his bunker. The 70 is a reference to 2015 being the 70th anniversary for The Railway Series , while the LB&SCR E2 class were actually numbered from 100–109. The real life LBSC no. 70 is an A1 class .
In late 2020, Mattel revealed that a new theatrical live-action/animated film is in development with Marc Forster directing and producing, it will be the second theatrical Thomas & Friends film in the franchise , after Thomas and the Magic Railroad . It is unknown who will voice Thomas for this production.
- Eddie Glen ( Thomas and the Magic Railroad )
- Ben Small ( Hero of the Rails – Series 18) (UK version)
- Joseph May ( The Adventure Begins – Series 24) (US version)
- Aaron Barashi ( Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go ) (UK version)
- TBA ( Thomas & Friends: The Movie )
- Javier Olguín ( Hero of the Rails – Diesel's Ghostly Christmas; Rocky Rescue – The Great Race ) ( Mexico )
- Shin Yong-Woo (Series 18 – Series 19 ) (Korean)
Thomas had his genesis in a wooden push-along toy from the early 1940s made by Wilbert Awdry out of a piece of broomstick for his son Christopher. This engine looked rather different from the character in the books and television series and was based on an LNER Class J50 , which was going to be his originally intended basis, with smaller side tanks and splashers. [14] He was painted blue with yellow lining and carried the letters NW on his side tanks. Christopher lost this model, although it was recreated for the 70th anniversary. However, Awdry was happy to endorse Payne's account that the locomotive was an LBSC E2 , although the first Thomas on the Awdry's model railway, from Stuart Reidpath, lacked extended tanks. In the 1979 Thomas Annual, Awdry wrote: [15]
I bought Thomas in 1948 when I was writing Tank Engine Thomas Again , and wanted to start modelling once more after a lapse of some twenty years. Thomas was one of Stewart Reidpath's standard models with a heavy, cast white metal body, and was fitted with his "Essar" chassis and motor. Stewart Reidpath is now dead, and his motors, let alone spare parts for them, have been unobtainable for years; but Thomas still keeps going! He is, as you might expect from his age, a temperamental old gentleman, and has to be driven very carefully indeed.
Thomas Mk1 was retired with its coaches in 1979, Thomas Mk2 having been produced the year before using a Tri-ang 'Jinty' 3F 0-6-0T. After the British model railways manufacturing company Hornby produced the LBSC E2 tank, Awdry gladly adapted one in 1980 to take the role of Thomas Mk3 on his layout, the Ffarquhar branch.
Awdry's requested models, to which Lines Bros. subsidiary, Meccano Ltd , responded with Percy and wagons in 1967. [14] Hornby Hobbies launched their 'The World of Thomas the Tank Engine' in the 1985. This was a 00 gauge range of model railway train sets and models which they made for the next 30 years. For Thomas they used their 1979 model of a LB&SCR model of a Class E2 tank engine which they suitably altered with a face and extended tanks to look like Thomas. Many of the characters in the 'Railway Series' books were thus modelled (with faces) by Hornby, including characters added for the television series. They also supplied suitable coaches, wagons and lineside buildings within the series.
Thomas was the only fictional character included in The Independent on Sunday 's 2009 " Happy List ", recognised alongside 98 real-life adults and a therapy dog for making Britain a better and happier place. [16] In 2011, Thomas the Tank Engine featured on a series of 1st class UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail to mark the centenary of the birth of its creator, Reverend Wilbert Awdry. [17]
Thomas has been referenced, featured and parodied in popular culture. In 1988, he was parodied on ITV 's Spitting Image where he was portrayed as a drunk who went "completely off the rails." [18] In 2009, he appeared in The Official BBC Children in Need Medley where he was voiced by Ringo Starr , who narrated the first two series of Thomas and Friends . [19] In the British comedy show Bobby Davro's TV Weekly , a spoof was created titled "Thomas The Tanked Up Engine" involving Jeremy, the pink engine. Bobby Davro provided the narration by impersonating Ringo Starr .
In Cartoon Network's MAD , Thomas the Tank Engine appears in "Thomas the Unstoppable Tank Engine," a crossover between Thomas the Tank Engine and Unstoppable . [20] A parody of Thomas the Tank Engine was in Robot Chicken . The skit was called "Blow Some Steam." The narrator ( Seth Green ) spoke like Ringo Starr who was the first narrator for Thomas and Friends . Thomas was voiced by Daniel Radcliffe . [21]
The 2015 Marvel superhero film Ant-Man features a Bachmann HO scale model of Thomas. In the film's climactic battle, Ant-Man and Yellowjacket fight atop Thomas while in their insect sizes until Yellowjacket derails Thomas off the model train tracks and throws him at Ant-Man, who knocks him onto a windowsill. An accident during the fight results in Thomas suddenly growing to the size of a real train and demolishing a large portion of Ant-Man's daughter's house before falling on top of a police car. [22] [23] [24]
Video game players have frequently modified released games to include Thomas and other characters, typically by replacing a boss character with Thomas and using sounds and music from the show. One of the first popular efforts was replacing dragons with engines and trucks in the game The Elder Scrolls: Skyrim in 2013, and Thomas has since been incorporated into other games like Grand Theft Auto V , Sonic the Hedgehog and the 2019 Resident Evil 2 remake . [25] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_the_Tank_Engine | 132 |
who wrote the original thomas the tank engine books | All the Classic Thomas the Tank Engine Books in Order | (18 reviews)
The world’s favourite steam engine - Thomas the Tank Engine - started life in a book in the 1940s.
Created by the Rev. W. Awdry, when he was making up stories for his son, the first book in the Railway series was published in 1945. T he Three Railway Engine s was then followed by 26 stories from Rev. Awdry, with his son Christopher taking the reigns in the 1980s and adding 14 stories of his own about the fictional engines.
This series about the railways on the fictional island of Sodor, was the basis for the much-loved Thomas & Friends books and TV series.
The Thomas the Tank engine characters, like the Fat Controller, Gordon and Thomas, remain as popular with children as ever and adults will also love rediscovering the original stories in this classic series.
For young fans, check out the list of new Thomas the Tank Engine books below - from picture books to activity books, there is something for everyone.
All the Thomas the Tank Engine Railway series books in order:
Book 1: The Three Railway Engines (1945)
Book 2: Thomas the Tank Engine (1946)
Book 3: James the Red Engine (1948)
Book 4: Tank Engine Thomas Again (1949)
Book 5: Troublesome Engines (1950)
Book 6: Henry the Green Engine (1951)
Book 7: Toby the Tram Engine (1952)
Book 8: Gordon the Big Engine (1953)
Book 9: Edward the Blue Engine (1954)
Book 10: Four Little Engines (1955)
Book 11: Percy the Small Engines (1956)
Book 12: The Eight Famous Engines (1957)
Book 13: Duck and the Diesel Engine (1958)
Book 14: The Little Old Engine (1959)
Book 15: The Twin Engines (1960)
Book 16: Branch Line Engines (1961)
Book 17: Gallant Old Engine (1962)
Book 18: Stepney the “Bluebell” Engine (1963)
Book 19: Mountain Engines (1964)
Book 20: Very Old Engines (1965)
Book 21: Main Line Engines (1966)
Book 22: Small Railway Engines (1967)
Book 23: Enterprising Engines (1968)
Book 24: Oliver the Western Engine (1969)
Book 25: Duke the Lost Engine (1970)
Book 26: Tramway Engines (1972)
Book 27: Really Useful Engines (1983)
Book 28: James and the Diesel Engines (1984)
Book 29: Great Little Engines (1985)
Book 30: More About Thomas the Tank Engine (1986)
Book 31: Gordon the High Speed Engine (1987)
Book 32: Toby, Trucks and Trouble (1988)
Book 33: Thomas and the Twins (1989)
Book 34: Jock the New Engine (1990)
Book 35: Thomas and the Great Railway Show (1991)
Book 36: Thomas Comes Home (1992)
Book 37: Henry and the Express (1993)
Book 38: Wilbert the Forest Engine (1994)
Book 39: Thomas and the Fat Controller’s Engines (1995)
Book 40: New Little Engine (1996)
Book 41: Thomas and Victoria (2007)
Book 42: Thomas and his Friends (2011)
See also:
Thomas & Friends picture books
Thomas Engine Adventures series
My First Thomas Books | https://toppsta.com/books/series/5495/classic-thomas-the-tank-engine | 132 |
who wrote the original thomas the tank engine books | All the Classic Thomas the Tank Engine Books in Order | (18 reviews)
The world’s favourite steam engine - Thomas the Tank Engine - started life in a book in the 1940s.
Created by the Rev. W. Awdry, when he was making up stories for his son, the first book in the Railway series was published in 1945. T he Three Railway Engine s was then followed by 26 stories from Rev. Awdry, with his son Christopher taking the reigns in the 1980s and adding 14 stories of his own about the fictional engines.
This series about the railways on the fictional island of Sodor, was the basis for the much-loved Thomas & Friends books and TV series.
The Thomas the Tank engine characters, like the Fat Controller, Gordon and Thomas, remain as popular with children as ever and adults will also love rediscovering the original stories in this classic series.
For young fans, check out the list of new Thomas the Tank Engine books below - from picture books to activity books, there is something for everyone.
All the Thomas the Tank Engine Railway series books in order:
Book 1: The Three Railway Engines (1945)
Book 2: Thomas the Tank Engine (1946)
Book 3: James the Red Engine (1948)
Book 4: Tank Engine Thomas Again (1949)
Book 5: Troublesome Engines (1950)
Book 6: Henry the Green Engine (1951)
Book 7: Toby the Tram Engine (1952)
Book 8: Gordon the Big Engine (1953)
Book 9: Edward the Blue Engine (1954)
Book 10: Four Little Engines (1955)
Book 11: Percy the Small Engines (1956)
Book 12: The Eight Famous Engines (1957)
Book 13: Duck and the Diesel Engine (1958)
Book 14: The Little Old Engine (1959)
Book 15: The Twin Engines (1960)
Book 16: Branch Line Engines (1961)
Book 17: Gallant Old Engine (1962)
Book 18: Stepney the “Bluebell” Engine (1963)
Book 19: Mountain Engines (1964)
Book 20: Very Old Engines (1965)
Book 21: Main Line Engines (1966)
Book 22: Small Railway Engines (1967)
Book 23: Enterprising Engines (1968)
Book 24: Oliver the Western Engine (1969)
Book 25: Duke the Lost Engine (1970)
Book 26: Tramway Engines (1972)
Book 27: Really Useful Engines (1983)
Book 28: James and the Diesel Engines (1984)
Book 29: Great Little Engines (1985)
Book 30: More About Thomas the Tank Engine (1986)
Book 31: Gordon the High Speed Engine (1987)
Book 32: Toby, Trucks and Trouble (1988)
Book 33: Thomas and the Twins (1989)
Book 34: Jock the New Engine (1990)
Book 35: Thomas and the Great Railway Show (1991)
Book 36: Thomas Comes Home (1992)
Book 37: Henry and the Express (1993)
Book 38: Wilbert the Forest Engine (1994)
Book 39: Thomas and the Fat Controller’s Engines (1995)
Book 40: New Little Engine (1996)
Book 41: Thomas and Victoria (2007)
Book 42: Thomas and his Friends (2011)
See also:
Thomas & Friends picture books
Thomas Engine Adventures series
My First Thomas Books | https://toppsta.com/books/series/5495/classic-thomas-the-tank-engine | 132 |
who wrote the original thomas the tank engine books | Thomas the Tank Engine - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the character. For the franchise this character appears in, see Thomas & Friends (franchise) . For the original 1946 book by Wilbert Awdry, see Thomas the Tank Engine (book) .
|Thomas the Tank Engine|
|The Railway Series / Thomas & Friends character|
|First appearance||Thomas the Tank Engine (1946)|
|Created by|| Wilbert Awdry |
Christopher Awdry
|Designed by|| L. B. Billinton (in universe) |
Reginald Payne
|Voiced by|| UK: |
US:
Other:
|Number||1 (formerly, L.B.S.C. 70)|
|In-universe information|
|Species||Steam locomotive|
|Gender||Male|
Thomas the Tank Engine is an anthropomorphised fictional tank locomotive in the British Railway Series books by Wilbert Awdry and his son, Christopher , published from 1945. He became the most popular and famous character in the series, and is the titular protagonist in the accompanying television adaptation series Thomas & Friends [2] and its reboot Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go .
All of the vehicles in The Railway Series were based on prototypical engines; Thomas's basis is the LB&SCR E2 class . [3] Thomas first appeared in 1946 in the second book in the series, Thomas the Tank Engine , and was the focus of the four short stories contained within. In The Railway Series and early episodes of Thomas & Friends , Thomas's best friends are Percy and Toby , though he is also close friends with Edward . Later episodes of Thomas & Friends have Thomas in a trio with James and Percy, and Percy is known as his best friend.
In 1979, British writer and producer Britt Allcroft came across the books, [4] and arranged a deal to bring the stories to life as the TV series Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends (later simplified to Thomas & Friends ). The programme became an award-winning hit around the world, with a vast range of spin-off commercial products.
When Awdry based Thomas on a wooden toy made for his son Christopher . This toy looked rather different from the character in the books and television series, and carried the letters NW on its side tanks, which stood for "No Where" according to Awdry. [5]
Thomas wasn't based on a prototype . [6] After Awdry's wife encouraged him to publish the stories, [7] the publisher of the second book in The Railway Series ( Thomas the Tank Engine ) hired illustrator Reginald Payne. Awdry selected a real locomotive for Payne to work from to create authenticity: a Billinton designed 0-6-0 E2 Class of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. [8] This may have been chosen simply because Awdry had a photograph to hand. [6]
The models of Thomas used in the TV series and produced by Hornby are based on the E2 locomotives fitted with an extension to the front of the water tanks. [9] Awdry was unsatisfied with one detail of the illustration — the front end of his running board sloped downward which meant that his front and back buffers were at different heights. This was an illustrator's mistake that was perpetuated in subsequent books. The accident, in Thomas Comes to Breakfast was partly devised as a means of correcting this. Thomas has always been shown with a curved running board in the television series.
Payne was not credited for his illustrations at the time, and it is only since the publication of Brian Sibley 's The Thomas the Tank Engine Man that he has received recognition. It had often been erroneously assumed that C. Reginald Dalby created the character, as he was responsible for illustrating books 3–11 and repainting the illustrations of books 1 and 2.
All of the prototype LB&SCR E2 class locomotives were scrapped between 1961 and 1963. Thomas locomotives used on Day out with Thomas days on heritage railways are either unpowered replicas or converted from other locomotives. [10]
Despite becoming the most popular character in The Railway Series , Thomas was not featured in the first book, The Three Railway Engines .
Thomas was described in the opening to "Thomas and Gordon", the first story in book number two, Thomas the Tank Engine , as: [11]
...a tank engine who lived at a Big Station. He had six small wheels, a short stumpy funnel, a short stumpy boiler and a short stumpy dome. He was a fussy little engine, always pulling coaches about. [...] He was cheeky, too.
Thomas arrived on Sodor shortly after he was built in 1915, when The Fat Controller bought the locomotive for a nominal sum to be a pilot engine at Vicarstown . Thomas was used initially as a station pilot engine in the first three stories in book 2, but longed for more important jobs such as pulling the express train like Gordon; his inexperience prevented this. In the fourth story, Thomas and the Breakdown Train , Thomas rescues James and is rewarded with his own branch line . [12]
Thomas's on-screen appearances in the TV series were developed by Britt Allcroft . The first series of 26 stories premiered in October 1984 on the ITV Network in the UK, with former Beatles drummer/vocalist Ringo Starr as storyteller. The stories were featured as segments as part of Shining Time Station in the US beginning in 1989 with Starr as the show's Mr. Conductor character. From 1991 to 1993, George Carlin replaced Starr as both the storyteller and as Mr. Conductor for Shining Time Station . Carlin also told the Thomas stories for Shining Time Station in 1995.
In 1996, the Thomas stories were segments for Mr. Conductor's Thomas Tales , again featuring George Carlin. Alec Baldwin portrayed Mr. Conductor in the first theatrical film, Thomas and the Magic Railroad (2000), and narrated the series for the US from 1998 to 2003. Michael Angelis narrated the series from 1991 to 2012 in the UK, while Michael Brandon narrated the series from 2004 to 2012 in the US. From 2013 to 2017, the series was narrated by Mark Moraghan until the franchise's upgrade in 2018, when the episodes were told from Thomas's point of view.
Thomas's personality was originally faithful to the character of the books. As the show branched away from the novels however, modifications were made. Thomas became noticeably less arrogant and self-absorbed, developing a more friendly, altruistic and happy go lucky (if still rather over-excitable) side. He also no longer appears to be limited to his branch line and seems to work all over Sodor. These changes in his personality and duties are a result of his "star" status. He is the most popular character in the series, and therefore he has the largest number of appearances, appearing in all of the DVD specials and the movie Thomas and the Magic Railroad .
From Hero of the Rails until Series 18, Thomas was voiced by Martin Sherman (US) and Ben Small (UK). [13] From 2015-2021, Thomas was voiced by John Hasler in the UK, and by Joseph May in the US. Both ended their sessions voicing Thomas once the last episode of the 24th and final series was produced, and the role was taken by child actors in Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go , a 2D-animated reboot of the original series; Meesha Contreras voices Thomas in the US version, [1] while Aaron Barashi claims the role in the UK version.
In The Adventure Begins which is a retelling of Thomas's early days on Sodor, he is a bluish-green colour when he first arrives on Sodor, his tanks are lettered "LBSC" (for the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway) with the number 70 on his bunker. The 70 is a reference to 2015 being the 70th anniversary for The Railway Series , while the LB&SCR E2 class were actually numbered from 100–109. The real life LBSC no. 70 is an A1 class .
In late 2020, Mattel revealed that a new theatrical live-action/animated film is in development with Marc Forster directing and producing, it will be the second theatrical Thomas & Friends film in the franchise , after Thomas and the Magic Railroad . It is unknown who will voice Thomas for this production.
- Eddie Glen ( Thomas and the Magic Railroad )
- Ben Small ( Hero of the Rails – Series 18) (UK version)
- Joseph May ( The Adventure Begins – Series 24) (US version)
- Aaron Barashi ( Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go ) (UK version)
- TBA ( Thomas & Friends: The Movie )
- Javier Olguín ( Hero of the Rails – Diesel's Ghostly Christmas; Rocky Rescue – The Great Race ) ( Mexico )
- Shin Yong-Woo (Series 18 – Series 19 ) (Korean)
Thomas had his genesis in a wooden push-along toy from the early 1940s made by Wilbert Awdry out of a piece of broomstick for his son Christopher. This engine looked rather different from the character in the books and television series and was based on an LNER Class J50 , which was going to be his originally intended basis, with smaller side tanks and splashers. [14] He was painted blue with yellow lining and carried the letters NW on his side tanks. Christopher lost this model, although it was recreated for the 70th anniversary. However, Awdry was happy to endorse Payne's account that the locomotive was an LBSC E2 , although the first Thomas on the Awdry's model railway, from Stuart Reidpath, lacked extended tanks. In the 1979 Thomas Annual, Awdry wrote: [15]
I bought Thomas in 1948 when I was writing Tank Engine Thomas Again , and wanted to start modelling once more after a lapse of some twenty years. Thomas was one of Stewart Reidpath's standard models with a heavy, cast white metal body, and was fitted with his "Essar" chassis and motor. Stewart Reidpath is now dead, and his motors, let alone spare parts for them, have been unobtainable for years; but Thomas still keeps going! He is, as you might expect from his age, a temperamental old gentleman, and has to be driven very carefully indeed.
Thomas Mk1 was retired with its coaches in 1979, Thomas Mk2 having been produced the year before using a Tri-ang 'Jinty' 3F 0-6-0T. After the British model railways manufacturing company Hornby produced the LBSC E2 tank, Awdry gladly adapted one in 1980 to take the role of Thomas Mk3 on his layout, the Ffarquhar branch.
Awdry's requested models, to which Lines Bros. subsidiary, Meccano Ltd , responded with Percy and wagons in 1967. [14] Hornby Hobbies launched their 'The World of Thomas the Tank Engine' in the 1985. This was a 00 gauge range of model railway train sets and models which they made for the next 30 years. For Thomas they used their 1979 model of a LB&SCR model of a Class E2 tank engine which they suitably altered with a face and extended tanks to look like Thomas. Many of the characters in the 'Railway Series' books were thus modelled (with faces) by Hornby, including characters added for the television series. They also supplied suitable coaches, wagons and lineside buildings within the series.
Thomas was the only fictional character included in The Independent on Sunday 's 2009 " Happy List ", recognised alongside 98 real-life adults and a therapy dog for making Britain a better and happier place. [16] In 2011, Thomas the Tank Engine featured on a series of 1st class UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail to mark the centenary of the birth of its creator, Reverend Wilbert Awdry. [17]
Thomas has been referenced, featured and parodied in popular culture. In 1988, he was parodied on ITV 's Spitting Image where he was portrayed as a drunk who went "completely off the rails." [18] In 2009, he appeared in The Official BBC Children in Need Medley where he was voiced by Ringo Starr , who narrated the first two series of Thomas and Friends . [19] In the British comedy show Bobby Davro's TV Weekly , a spoof was created titled "Thomas The Tanked Up Engine" involving Jeremy, the pink engine. Bobby Davro provided the narration by impersonating Ringo Starr .
In Cartoon Network's MAD , Thomas the Tank Engine appears in "Thomas the Unstoppable Tank Engine," a crossover between Thomas the Tank Engine and Unstoppable . [20] A parody of Thomas the Tank Engine was in Robot Chicken . The skit was called "Blow Some Steam." The narrator ( Seth Green ) spoke like Ringo Starr who was the first narrator for Thomas and Friends . Thomas was voiced by Daniel Radcliffe . [21]
The 2015 Marvel superhero film Ant-Man features a Bachmann HO scale model of Thomas. In the film's climactic battle, Ant-Man and Yellowjacket fight atop Thomas while in their insect sizes until Yellowjacket derails Thomas off the model train tracks and throws him at Ant-Man, who knocks him onto a windowsill. An accident during the fight results in Thomas suddenly growing to the size of a real train and demolishing a large portion of Ant-Man's daughter's house before falling on top of a police car. [22] [23] [24]
Video game players have frequently modified released games to include Thomas and other characters, typically by replacing a boss character with Thomas and using sounds and music from the show. One of the first popular efforts was replacing dragons with engines and trucks in the game The Elder Scrolls: Skyrim in 2013, and Thomas has since been incorporated into other games like Grand Theft Auto V , Sonic the Hedgehog and the 2019 Resident Evil 2 remake . [25] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_the_Tank_Engine | 132 |
role of sockets in the tcp/ip stack | Any difference between socket connection and tcp connection? | Are these 2 concepts refer to the same thing? Do they have difference?
In my opinion, they are different, and socket connection is based on tcp connection. A socket contains an IP address and port and it could only connect to another socket, but an IP address and port in the same machine could be connected with many other IP addresses and ports with TCP connection. Is this right?
43
TCP/IP is a protocol stack for communication, a socket is an endpoint in a (bidirectional) communication. A socket need not be TCP based, but it is quite often the case. The term socket is also often used to refer to the API provided by the operating system that allows you to make a connection over the TCP/IP stack, for example, the Winsock API provides an API for connections over the TCP/IP stack on Windows.
A socket is mapped uniquely to an application as the ports are managed for you by the operating system.
Further reading: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_socket and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winsock
10
Socket is layer 5 protocol ( Session ) in OSI Model and is not dependent on underlying layers which means it can be over TCP, UDP, MPTCP, ... (Layer 4 - Transport layer protocols ). Socket connection is used for continues exchange of data between nodes (it creates a session between them) but TCP connection makes a reliable transmission of data segments between nodes.
6
Sockets are defined as an application programming interface (API) for communication usually between two processes, but not limited only to this. They involve library functions your application will link with, system calls, and implementation part of the operating system kernel. The most common types of socket APIs are Berkely socket and Winsock (Windows).
Other classification of socket for the type of access they provide is:
- TCP sockets: to establish TCP connections
- UDP sockets: for UDP communication
- Packet sockets: for direct access to layer 2
- Unix domain sockets: for IPC through files within the same node
- Raw socket for direct access to IP layer
- Routing sockets
- SCTP sockets
- Other types of sockets
In Linux, Unix, and Windows, there are TCP, UDP, and Unix domain sockets. The other types of sockets mentioned above are implemented in Linux and I don't know if they exist in Windows.
TCP connection is a TCP concept. It connects two endpoints, usually two processes (or one process to itself) and it's defined by (IPAddress1, Port1, IPAddress2, Port2). The TCP connection is established after TCP 3-way handshake.
In TCP a socket is defined by the elements of a TCP connection between two processes (IPAddress1, Port1, IPAddress2, Port2). However, there can be also a listening socket. This is a socket that a allows a process to listen for connections established from other processes through the network. | https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6419811/any-difference-between-socket-connection-and-tcp-connection | 133 |
role of sockets in the tcp/ip stack | Any difference between socket connection and tcp connection? | Are these 2 concepts refer to the same thing? Do they have difference?
In my opinion, they are different, and socket connection is based on tcp connection. A socket contains an IP address and port and it could only connect to another socket, but an IP address and port in the same machine could be connected with many other IP addresses and ports with TCP connection. Is this right?
43
TCP/IP is a protocol stack for communication, a socket is an endpoint in a (bidirectional) communication. A socket need not be TCP based, but it is quite often the case. The term socket is also often used to refer to the API provided by the operating system that allows you to make a connection over the TCP/IP stack, for example, the Winsock API provides an API for connections over the TCP/IP stack on Windows.
A socket is mapped uniquely to an application as the ports are managed for you by the operating system.
Further reading: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_socket and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winsock
10
Socket is layer 5 protocol ( Session ) in OSI Model and is not dependent on underlying layers which means it can be over TCP, UDP, MPTCP, ... (Layer 4 - Transport layer protocols ). Socket connection is used for continues exchange of data between nodes (it creates a session between them) but TCP connection makes a reliable transmission of data segments between nodes.
6
Sockets are defined as an application programming interface (API) for communication usually between two processes, but not limited only to this. They involve library functions your application will link with, system calls, and implementation part of the operating system kernel. The most common types of socket APIs are Berkely socket and Winsock (Windows).
Other classification of socket for the type of access they provide is:
- TCP sockets: to establish TCP connections
- UDP sockets: for UDP communication
- Packet sockets: for direct access to layer 2
- Unix domain sockets: for IPC through files within the same node
- Raw socket for direct access to IP layer
- Routing sockets
- SCTP sockets
- Other types of sockets
In Linux, Unix, and Windows, there are TCP, UDP, and Unix domain sockets. The other types of sockets mentioned above are implemented in Linux and I don't know if they exist in Windows.
TCP connection is a TCP concept. It connects two endpoints, usually two processes (or one process to itself) and it's defined by (IPAddress1, Port1, IPAddress2, Port2). The TCP connection is established after TCP 3-way handshake.
In TCP a socket is defined by the elements of a TCP connection between two processes (IPAddress1, Port1, IPAddress2, Port2). However, there can be also a listening socket. This is a socket that a allows a process to listen for connections established from other processes through the network. | https://stackoverflow.com/questions/6419811/any-difference-between-socket-connection-and-tcp-connection | 133 |
role of sockets in the tcp/ip stack | TCP/IP and Sockets — training.codefellows 1.0 documentation | - TCP ensures that dropped packets are resent
- UDP makes no such assurance
- Reliability is slow and expensive
The ‘Transport Layer’ also establishes the concept of a port
- IP Addresses designate a specific machine on the network
- A port provides addressing for individual applications in a single host
- 192.168.1.100:80 (the :80 part is the port )
- [2001:db8:85a3:8d3:1319:8a2e:370:7348]:443 ( :443 is the port )
This means that you don’t have to worry about information intended for your web browser being accidentally read by your email client.
There are certain ports which are commonly understood to belong to given applications or protocols:
- 80/443 - HTTP/HTTPS
- 20 - FTP
- 22 - SSH
- 23 - Telnet
- 25 - SMTP
- ...
These ports are often referred to as well-known ports
(see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbers )
Ports are grouped into a few different classes
- Ports numbered 0 - 1023 are reserved
- Ports numbered 1024 - 65535 are open
- Ports numbered 1024 - 49151 may be registered
- Ports numbered 49152 - 65535 are called ephemeral
The topmost layer is the ‘Application Layer’
- Deals directly with data produced or consumed by an application
- Reads or writes data using a set of understood, well-defined protocols
- HTTP, SMTP, FTP etc.
- Does not know (or need to know) about lower layer functionality
- The exception to this rule is endpoint data (or IP:Port)
this is where we live and work
Think back for a second to what we just finished discussing, the TCP/IP stack.
- The Internet layer gives us an IP Address
- The Transport layer establishes the idea of a port .
- The Application layer doesn’t care about what happens below...
- Except for endpoint data (IP:Port)
A Socket is the software representation of that endpoint.
Opening a socket creates a kind of transceiver that can send and/or receive bytes at a given IP address and Port.
Python provides a standard library module which provides socket functionality. It is called socket .
The library is really just a very thin wrapper around the system implementation of BSD Sockets
Let’s spend a few minutes getting to know this module.
We’re going to do this next part together, so open up a terminal and start a python interpreter
The Python sockets library allows us to find out what port a service uses:
>>> import socket >>> socket.getservbyname('ssh') 22
You can also do a reverse lookup , finding what service uses a given port : small
>>> socket.getservbyport(80) 'http'
The sockets library also provides tools for finding out information about hosts . For example, you can find out about the hostname and IP address of the machine you are currently using:
>>> socket.gethostname() 'heffalump.local' >>> socket.gethostbyname(socket.gethostname()) '10.211.55.2'
You can also find out about machines that are located elsewhere, assuming you know their hostname. For example:
>>> socket.gethostbyname('google.com') '173.194.33.4' >>> socket.gethostbyname('uw.edu') '128.95.155.135' >>> socket.gethostbyname('crisewing.com') '108.59.11.99'
The gethostbyname_ex method of the socket library provides more information about the machines we are exploring:
>>> socket.gethostbyname_ex('google.com') ('google.com', [], ['173.194.33.9', '173.194.33.14', ... '173.194.33.6', '173.194.33.7', '173.194.33.8']) >>> socket.gethostbyname_ex('crisewing.com') ('crisewing.com', [], ['108.59.11.99']) >>> socket.gethostbyname_ex('www.rad.washington.edu') ('elladan.rad.washington.edu', # <- canonical hostname ['www.rad.washington.edu'], # <- any machine aliases ['128.95.247.84']) # <- all active IP addresses
To create a socket, you use the socket method of the socket library. It takes up to three optional positional arguments (here we use none to get the default behavior):
>>> foo = socket.socket() >>> foo <socket._socketobject object at 0x10046cec0>
A socket has some properties that are immediately important to us. These include the family , type and protocol of the socket:
>>> foo.family 2 >>> foo.type 1 >>> foo.proto 0
You might notice that the values for these properties are integers. In fact, these integers are constants defined in the socket library.
Let’s define a method in place to help us see these constants. It will take a single argument, the shared prefix for a defined set of constants:
>>> def get_constants(prefix): ... """mapping of socket module constants to their names.""" ... return dict( ... (getattr(socket, n), n) ... for n in dir(socket) ... if n.startswith(prefix) ... ) ... >>>
Think back a moment to our discussion of the Internet layer of the TCP/IP stack. There were a couple of different types of IP addresses:
- IPv4 (‘192.168.1.100’)
- IPv6 (‘2001:0db8:85a3:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334’)
The family of a socket corresponds to the addressing system it uses for connecting.
Families defined in the socket library are prefixed by AF_ :
>>> families = get_constants('AF_') >>> families {0: 'AF_UNSPEC', 1: 'AF_UNIX', 2: 'AF_INET', 11: 'AF_SNA', 12: 'AF_DECnet', 16: 'AF_APPLETALK', 17: 'AF_ROUTE', 23: 'AF_IPX', 30: 'AF_INET6'}
Your results may vary
Of all of these, the ones we care most about are 2 (IPv4) and 30 (IPv6).
When you are on a machine with an operating system that is Unix-like, you will find another generally useful socket family: AF_UNIX , or Unix Domain Sockets. Sockets in this family:
- connect processes on the same machine
- are generally a bit slower than IPC connnections
- have the benefit of allowing the same API for programs that might run on one machine __or__ across the network
- use an ‘address’ that looks like a pathname (‘/tmp/foo.sock’)
What is the default family for the socket we created just a moment ago?
(remember we bound the socket to the symbol foo ) center
How did you figure this out?
The socket type determines the semantics of socket communications.
Look up socket type constants with the SOCK_ prefix:
>>> types = get_constants('SOCK_') >>> types {1: 'SOCK_STREAM', 2: 'SOCK_DGRAM', ...}
The most common are 1 (Stream communication (TCP)) and 2 (Datagram communication (UDP)).
What is the default type for our generic socket, foo ?
A socket also has a designated protocol . The constants for these are prefixed by IPPROTO_ :
>>> protocols = get_constants('IPPROTO_') >>> protocols {0: 'IPPROTO_IP', 1: 'IPPROTO_ICMP', ..., 255: 'IPPROTO_RAW'}
The choice of which protocol to use for a socket is determined by the internet layer protocol you intend to use. TCP ? UDP ? ICMP ? IGMP ?
What is the default protocol used by our generic socket, foo ?
These three properties of a socket correspond to the three positional arguments you may pass to the socket constructor.
Using them allows you to create sockets with specific communications profiles:
>>> bar = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, ... socket.SOCK_DGRAM, ... socket.IPPROTO_UDP) ... >>> bar <socket._socketobject object at 0x1005b8b40>
When you are creating a socket to communicate with a remote service, the remote socket will have a specific communications profile.
The local socket you create must match that communications profile.
How can you determine the correct values to use? center
You ask.
The function socket.getaddrinfo provides information about available connections on a given host.
socket.getaddrinfo('127.0.0.1', 80)
This provides all you need to make a proper connection to a socket on a remote host. The value returned is a tuple of:
- socket family
- socket type
- socket protocol
- canonical name (usually empty, unless requested by flag)
- socket address (tuple of IP and Port)
Now, ask your own machine what possible connections are available for ‘http’:
>>> socket.getaddrinfo(socket.gethostname(), 'http') [(2, 2, 17, '', ('10.29.144.178', 80)), ... (30, 2, 17, '', ('fe80::e2f8:47ff:fe21:af92%en1', 80, 0, 5)), ... ] ... >>>
What answers do you get?
>>> get_address_info('crisewing.com', 'http') [(2, 2, 17, '', ('108.168.213.86', 80)), (2, 1, 6, '', ('108.168.213.86', 80))] >>>
Try a few other servers you know about.
Sockets communicate by sending a receiving messages.
Let’s test this by building a client socket and communicating with a server.
First, connect and send a message:
>>> streams = [info ... for info in socket.getaddrinfo('crisewing.com', 'http') ... if info[1] == socket.SOCK_STREAM] >>> info = streams[0] >>> cewing_socket = socket.socket(*info[:3]) >>> cewing_socket.connect(info[-1]) >>> msg = "GET / HTTP/1.1\r\n" >>> msg += "Host: crisewing.com\r\n\r\n" >>> cewing_socket.sendall(msg) >>> cewing_socket.shutdown(socket.SHUT_WR)
Then, receive a reply, iterating until it is complete:
>>> buffsize = 4096 >>> response = '' >>> done = False >>> while not done: ... msg_part = cewing_socket.recv(buffsize) ... if len(msg_part) < buffsize: ... done = True ... cewing_socket.close() ... response += msg_part ... >>> len(response) 19427 >>> cewing_socket.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RD) >>> cewing_socket.close()
There are two basic methods on a socket for sending messages, send and sendall . We’re using the latter here.
- the transmission continues until all data is sent or an error occurs
- success returns None
- failure to send raises an error
- you can use the type of error to figure out why the transmission failed
- if an error occurs you cannot know how much, if any, of your data was sent
With send , you send the message one chunk at a time. You are responsible for checking if a particular chunk succeeded or not, and you are also responsible for determining when the full transmission is done.
The recv method handles incoming messages in buffers.
- The sole required argument is buffer_size (an integer). It should be a power of 2 and smallish (~4096)
- It returns a byte string of buffer_size (or smaller if less data was received)
- If the response is longer than buffer size , you can call the method repeatedly. The last bunch will be less than buffer size .
Hotice that receiving a message is not a one-and-done kind of thing
We don’t know how big the incoming message is before we start receiving it.
As a result, we have to use the Accumulator pattern to gather incoming buffers of the message until there is no more to get.
The recv method will return a string less than buffsize if there isn’t any more to come.
Sockets do not have a concept of the “End Of Transmission”.
So what happens if the message coming in is an exact multiple of the buffsize ?
There are a couple of strategies for dealing with this. One is to punt to the application level protocol and allow it to predetermine the size of the message to come. HTTP works this way
The other is to use the shutdown method of a socket to close that socket for reading, writing or both.
When you do so, a 0-byte message is sent to the partner socket, allowing it to know that you are finished.
For more information, read the Python Socket Programming How-To .
Tonight you’ll put this to work, first by walking through a basic client server interaction, then by building a basic echo server and client. | https://cewing.github.io/training.codefellows/lectures/day06/sockets.html | 133 |
role of sockets in the tcp/ip stack | Socket in Computer Network - GeeksforGeeks | A socket is one endpoint of a two way communication link between two programs running on the network. The socket mechanism provides a means of inter-process communication (IPC) by establishing named contact points between which the communication take place.
Like ‘Pipe’ is used to create pipes and sockets is created using ‘socket’ system call. The socket provides bidirectional FIFO Communication facility over the network. A socket connecting to the network is created at each end of the communication. Each socket has a specific address. This address is composed of an IP address and a port number.
Socket are generally employed in client server applications. The server creates a socket, attaches it to a network port addresses then waits for the client to contact it. The client creates a socket and then attempts to connect to the server socket. When the connection is established, transfer of data takes place.
Types of Sockets : There are two types of Sockets: the datagram socket and the stream socket.
- Datagram Socket : This is a type of network which has connection less point for sending and receiving packets. It is similar to mailbox. The letters (data) posted into the box are collected and delivered (transmitted) to a letterbox (receiving socket).
- Stream Socket In Computer operating system, a stream socket is type of interprocess communications socket or network socket which provides a connection-oriented, sequenced, and unique flow of data without record boundaries with well defined mechanisms for creating and destroying connections and for detecting errors. It is similar to phone. A connection is established between the phones (two ends) and a conversation (transfer of data) takes place.
|Function Call||Description|
|Socket()||To create a socket|
|Bind()||It’s a socket identification like a telephone number to contact|
|Listen()||Ready to receive a connection|
|Connect()||Ready to act as a sender|
|Accept()||Confirmation, it is like accepting to receive a call from a sender|
|Write()||To send data|
|Read()||To receive data|
|Close()||To close a connection|
Last Updated : 22 Dec, 2022 | https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/socket-in-computer-network/ | 133 |
role of sockets in the tcp/ip stack | Network socket - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A network socket is a software structure within a network node of a computer network that serves as an endpoint for sending and receiving data across the network. The structure and properties of a socket are defined by an application programming interface (API) for the networking architecture. Sockets are created only during the lifetime of a process of an application running in the node.
Because of the standardization of the TCP/IP protocols in the development of the Internet , the term network socket is most commonly used in the context of the Internet protocol suite, and is therefore often also referred to as Internet socket . In this context, a socket is externally identified to other hosts by its socket address , which is the triad of transport protocol , IP address , and port number .
The term socket is also used for the software endpoint of node-internal inter-process communication (IPC), which often uses the same API as a network socket.
The use of the term socket in software is analogous to the function of an electrical female connector , a device in hardware for communication between nodes interconnected with an electrical cable . Similarly, the term port is used for external physical endpoints at a node or device.
The application programming interface (API) for the network protocol stack creates a handle for each socket created by an application, commonly referred to as a socket descriptor . In Unix-like operating systems , this descriptor is a type of file descriptor . It is stored by the application process for use with every read and write operation on the communication channel.
At the time of creation with the API, a network socket is bound to the combination of a type of network protocol to be used for transmissions, a network address of the host, and a port number . Ports are numbered resources that represent another type of software structure of the node. They are used as service types, and, once created by a process, serve as an externally (from the network) addressable location component, so that other hosts may establish connections.
Network sockets may be dedicated for persistent connections for communication between two nodes, or they may participate in connectionless and multicast communications.
In practice, due to the proliferation of the TCP/IP protocols in use on the Internet, the term network socket usually refers to use with the Internet Protocol (IP). It is therefore often also called Internet socket .
An application can communicate with a remote process by exchanging data with TCP/IP by knowing the combination of protocol type, IP address, and port number. This combination is often known as a socket address . It is the network-facing access handle to the network socket. The remote process establishes a network socket in its own instance of the protocol stack, and uses the networking API to connect to the application, presenting its own socket address for use by the application.
A protocol stack , usually provided by the operating system (rather than as a separate library, for instance), is a set of services that allow processes to communicate over a network using the protocols that the stack implements. The operating system forwards the payload of incoming IP packets to the corresponding application by extracting the socket address information from the IP and transport protocol headers and stripping the headers from the application data.
The application programming interface (API) that programs use to communicate with the protocol stack, using network sockets, is called a socket API . Development of application programs that utilize this API is called socket programming or network programming . Internet socket APIs are usually based on the Berkeley sockets standard. In the Berkeley sockets standard, sockets are a form of file descriptor , due to the Unix philosophy that "everything is a file", and the analogies between sockets and files. Both have functions to read, write, open, and close. In practice the differences strain the analogy, and different interfaces (send and receive) are used on a socket. In inter-process communication , each end generally has its own socket.
In the standard Internet protocols TCP and UDP, a socket address is the combination of an IP address and a port number , much like one end of a telephone connection is the combination of a phone number and a particular extension . Sockets need not have a source address, for example, for only sending data, but if a program binds a socket to a source address, the socket can be used to receive data sent to that address. Based on this address, Internet sockets deliver incoming data packets to the appropriate application process .
Socket often refers specifically to an internet socket or TCP socket. An internet socket is minimally characterized by the following:
- local socket address, consisting of the local IP address and (for TCP and UDP, but not IP) a port number
- protocol: A transport protocol, e.g., TCP, UDP, raw IP. This means that (local or remote) endpoints with TCP port 53 and UDP port 53 are distinct sockets, while IP does not have ports.
- A socket that has been connected to another socket, e.g., during the establishment of a TCP connection, also has a remote socket address.
The distinctions between a socket (internal representation), socket descriptor (abstract identifier), and socket address (public address) are subtle, and these are not always distinguished in everyday usage. Further, specific definitions of a socket differ between authors. In IETF Request for Comments , Internet Standards , in many textbooks, as well as in this article, the term socket refers to an entity that is uniquely identified by the socket number. In other textbooks, [1] the term socket refers to a local socket address, i.e. a "combination of an IP address and a port number". In the original definition of socket given in RFC 147, [2] as it was related to the ARPA network in 1971, "the socket is specified as a 32 bit number with even sockets identifying receiving sockets and odd sockets identifying sending sockets." Today, however, socket communications are bidirectional.
Within the operating system and the application that created a socket, a socket is referred to by a unique integer value called a socket descriptor .
On Unix-like operating systems and Microsoft Windows , the command-line tools netstat or ss [3] are used to list established sockets and related information.
This example, modeled according to the Berkeley socket interface, sends the string "Hello, world!" via TCP to port 80 of the host with address 1.2.3.4. It illustrates the creation of a socket (getSocket), connecting it to the remote host, sending the string, and finally closing the socket:
Socket mysocket = getSocket(type = "TCP") connect(mysocket, address = "1.2.3.4", port = "80") send(mysocket, "Hello, world!") close(mysocket)
Several types of Internet socket are available:
Other socket types are implemented over other transport protocols, such as Systems Network Architecture [10] and Unix domain sockets for internal inter-process communication.
Computer processes that provide application services are referred to as servers , and create sockets on startup that are in the listening state . These sockets are waiting for initiatives from client programs.
A TCP server may serve several clients concurrently by creating a unique dedicated socket for each client connection in a new child process or processing thread for each client. These are in the established state when a socket-to-socket virtual connection or virtual circuit (VC), also known as a TCP session , is established with the remote socket, providing a duplex byte stream .
A server may create several concurrently established TCP sockets with the same local port number and local IP address, each mapped to its own server-child process, serving its own client process. They are treated as different sockets by the operating system since the remote socket address (the client IP address or port number) is different; i.e. since they have different socket pair tuples.
UDP sockets do not have an established state , because the protocol is connectionless . A UDP server process handles incoming datagrams from all remote clients sequentially through the same socket. UDP sockets are not identified by the remote address, but only by the local address, although each message has an associated remote address that can be retrieved from each datagram with the networking application programming interface (API).
Communicating local and remote sockets are called socket pairs . Each socket pair is described by a unique 4-tuple consisting of source and destination IP addresses and port numbers, i.e. of local and remote socket addresses. [11] [12] As discussed above, in the TCP case, a socket pair is associated on each end of the connection with a unique 4-tuple.
The term socket dates to the publication of RFC 147 in 1971, when it was used in the ARPANET. Most modern implementations of sockets are based on Berkeley sockets (1983), and other stacks such as Winsock (1991). The Berkeley sockets API in the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD), originated with the 4.2BSD Unix operating system as an API. Only in 1989, however, could UC Berkeley release versions of its operating system and networking library free from the licensing constraints of AT&T 's copyright-protected Unix .
In c. 1987, AT&T introduced the STREAMS -based Transport Layer Interface (TLI) in UNIX System V Release 3 (SVR3). [13] and continued into Release 4 (SVR4). [14]
The socket is primarily a concept used in the transport layer of the Internet protocol suite or session layer of the OSI model . Networking equipment such as routers , which operate at the internet layer , and switches , which operate at the link layer , do not require implementations of the transport layer. However, stateful network firewalls , network address translators , and proxy servers keep track of active socket pairs. In multilayer switches and quality of service (QoS) support in routers, packet flows may be identified by extracting information about the socket pairs.
Raw sockets are typically available in network equipment and are used for routing protocols such as IGRP and OSPF , and for Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_socket | 133 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Krishna River | - Last Updated : 17-Jan-2023
- 16244 views
In Southern India, the Krishna River is an inter-state river. It is Peninsular India's second largest river, rising at an altitude of 1337 metres near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra State in the Western Ghats. It runs for about 1400 kilometres across the peninsula, from west to east, passing through Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima, and Tungabhadra are the major Krishna tributaries.
MORE ABOUT KRISHNA RIVER
The Krishna River is originated near Mahabaleswar, which is located near Jor village in Maharashtra. The Jor Village is located in the far northwestern part of the Wai Taluka. The river eventually empties into the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh, on India's eastern coast.
The river's delta is one of India's most productive areas. The prehistoric Ikshvaku and Satavahana sun kings reigned in this area as well. Wai is Maharashtra's oldest city, located on the Krishna River's banks in the Satara District. Sangli is the largest city on the banks of the river in Maharashtra, while Vijayawada is the largest city on the banks of the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh.
The Krishna River is one of the most environmentally damaging rivers because it causes extensive land corrosion during the monsoon season . The river has rapids and is quite raging, reaching depths of more than 75 feet (23 metres) on several occasions. In Maharashtra's Marathi language, there is a proverb that says "santh vaahate krishnamaai" which means "calmly runs Krishna" This phrase is also used to describe how a person should be as calm as Krishna. Nevertheless, between June and August, the river's flow causes a significant amount of corrosion. Krishna brings productive soil to the delta area from Karnataka, Maharashtra, and the western part of Andhra Pradesh during this time.
The Tungabhadra River, which is the result of the union of two rivers - the Tunga River and the Bhadra River - is the river's most important tributary. The Western Ghat Mountain Ranges are the source of both of these rivers.
From the right riverbanks, rivers like the Koyna, Venna, Panchganga, Vasna, Ghataprabha, Dudhganga, Tungabhadra, and Malaprabha meet Krishna. The Musi River, Yerla River, Bhima River, and Maneru Rivers all meet the river on the left bank at the same time.
Close to Sangli, three tributaries join the Krishna River. Haripur, which is also close to Sangli, is where the Warana River joins the river. Sangameshwar is another name for this area. At Narsobawadi, near Sangli, the Panchganga River joins the Krishna River. These locations are revered as sacred. Lord Dattatraya is said to have spent part of his life on the riverbanks of this river at Audumber. Sangameswaram is a popular Hindu religious centre in Andhra Pradesh's Kurnool district. The Bhavanasi and Tungabhadra rivers meet in this area, and Krishna is born. The Srisailam reservoir has submerged the Sangameswaram Temple. Pilgrims only visit this area to see this temple during the summer, when the reservoir's water level drops.
TRIBUTARIES OF KRISHNA RIVER
The Tungabhadra River, with a drainage basin of 71,417 km2 and a length of about 531 km, is the Krishna River's largest tributary, but the Bhima River, with a total length of 861 km and a drainage basin of 70,614 km2, is the longest.
Near Sangli, three tributaries, the Panchganga, Warna, and Yerla, meet the Krishna river.
Kudalasangama (also spelled Kudala Sangama) is a small village in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, about 15 kilometres from the Almatti Dam. Here, the Krishna and Malaprabha rivers meet. The Aikya Mantapa, or holy Samdhi of Basavanna, the founder of the Lingayat sect of Hindu religion, is located here, along with the Linga, which is said to be self-born (Swayambhu), and the river flows east towards Srisailam (another pilgrim centre) in Andhra Pradesh.
Sangameswaram, in Andhra Pradesh's Kurnool district, is a popular Hindu pilgrimage site where the Tungabhadra and Bhavanasi rivers meet the Krishna river.
The following are the major river's tributaries:
Andhra Pradesh
• Bhadra River
• Varada River
• Tunga River
• Veda River
• Avathi River
• Bhavanasi River in Kurnool District
• Suvarnamukhi River
• Tungabhadra River
• Vedavathi River
• Paleru River
• Musi River
• Munneru River
• Akeru River
Maharashtra and Karnataka
• Venna River
• Varma River
• Koyna River
• Malaprabha River
• Ghataprabha River
• Bhama River
• Pavna River
• Kumandala River
• Ghod River
• Indrayani River
• Kundali River
• Man River
• Bhogwati River
• Moshi River
• Bori River
• Chandani River
• Kamini River
• Mula River
• Mutha River
• Nira River
• Mula-Mutha River
• Bhima River
• Sina River
KRISHNA BASIN
The Krishna Basin covers a total area of 258,948 km2, accounting for nearly 8% of the country's total land area. Karnataka (113,271 km2), Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (76,252 km2), and Maharashtra (76,252 km2) make up this large basin (69,425 km2).
The Krishna river rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 1,337 metres, about 64 kilometres from the Arabian Sea, just north of Mahabaleshwar. It flows for about 1,400 kilometres before discharging into the Bay of Bengal. The Ghataprabha River, Malaprabha River, Bhima River, Tungabhadra River, and Musi River are the major tributaries that join Krishna.
Except for the western border, which is formed by an unbroken line of the Western Ghats, the majority of this basin consists of rolling and undulating country. Black soils, red soils, laterite and lateritic soils, alluvium, mixed soils, red and black soils, and saline and alkaline soils are all important soil types found in the basin.
In this basin, an average annual surface water potential of 78.1 km3 has been calculated. There is 58.0 km3 of water that can be used. The basin's cultivable area is approximately 203,000 km2, accounting for 10.4% of the country's total cultivable area. The Godavari River was linked to the Krishna River in 2015 by commissioning the Polavaram right bank canal with the help of the Pattiseema lift scheme to augment water availability to the Prakasam Barrage in Andhra Pradesh, as the Krishna river's water supply became insufficient to meet demand. Prakasam Barrage's irrigation canals are part of National Waterway 4. The Krishana-Godavari delta is known as India's "Rice Granery of India."
DAMS ON KRISHNA RIVER
The Krishna River has a number of dams, including the following:
• Dhom Dam
• Dhom Balakwadi
• Almatti Dam
• Basava Sagar Dam
• Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
• Srisailam Dam
• Jurala Dam
• Narayanpur Dam (downriver of Almatti Dam)
• Prakasham Barrage
• Pulichitnthala Dam is under construction.
• Amar Dam
PROTECTED AREAS
The rich flora and fauna can be found in a large area near the Krishna river. The Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary has been established to protect the last remaining mangrove forests in the Krishna estuary. A large number of resident and migratory birds call the sanctuary home. In the sanctuary, you can see fishing cats, otters, Estuarine crocodiles, spotted deer, sambar deer, blackbucks, snakes, lizards, and jackals. Plants like Rhizophora, Avicennia, and Aegiceros thrive in the sanctuary's lush vegetation. A few other wildlife sanctuaries in the Krishna basin are listed below.
• Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
• Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary
• Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ghataprabha Bird Sanctuary
• Gudavi Bird Sanctuary
• Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
• Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary
• Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
• Chandoli National Park
• Kudremukh National Park
• Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park
• Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park
• Mrugavani National Park
• Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary | https://upscwithnikhil.com/article/geography/krishna-river | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Krishna River | - Last Updated : 17-Jan-2023
- 16244 views
In Southern India, the Krishna River is an inter-state river. It is Peninsular India's second largest river, rising at an altitude of 1337 metres near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra State in the Western Ghats. It runs for about 1400 kilometres across the peninsula, from west to east, passing through Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima, and Tungabhadra are the major Krishna tributaries.
MORE ABOUT KRISHNA RIVER
The Krishna River is originated near Mahabaleswar, which is located near Jor village in Maharashtra. The Jor Village is located in the far northwestern part of the Wai Taluka. The river eventually empties into the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh, on India's eastern coast.
The river's delta is one of India's most productive areas. The prehistoric Ikshvaku and Satavahana sun kings reigned in this area as well. Wai is Maharashtra's oldest city, located on the Krishna River's banks in the Satara District. Sangli is the largest city on the banks of the river in Maharashtra, while Vijayawada is the largest city on the banks of the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh.
The Krishna River is one of the most environmentally damaging rivers because it causes extensive land corrosion during the monsoon season . The river has rapids and is quite raging, reaching depths of more than 75 feet (23 metres) on several occasions. In Maharashtra's Marathi language, there is a proverb that says "santh vaahate krishnamaai" which means "calmly runs Krishna" This phrase is also used to describe how a person should be as calm as Krishna. Nevertheless, between June and August, the river's flow causes a significant amount of corrosion. Krishna brings productive soil to the delta area from Karnataka, Maharashtra, and the western part of Andhra Pradesh during this time.
The Tungabhadra River, which is the result of the union of two rivers - the Tunga River and the Bhadra River - is the river's most important tributary. The Western Ghat Mountain Ranges are the source of both of these rivers.
From the right riverbanks, rivers like the Koyna, Venna, Panchganga, Vasna, Ghataprabha, Dudhganga, Tungabhadra, and Malaprabha meet Krishna. The Musi River, Yerla River, Bhima River, and Maneru Rivers all meet the river on the left bank at the same time.
Close to Sangli, three tributaries join the Krishna River. Haripur, which is also close to Sangli, is where the Warana River joins the river. Sangameshwar is another name for this area. At Narsobawadi, near Sangli, the Panchganga River joins the Krishna River. These locations are revered as sacred. Lord Dattatraya is said to have spent part of his life on the riverbanks of this river at Audumber. Sangameswaram is a popular Hindu religious centre in Andhra Pradesh's Kurnool district. The Bhavanasi and Tungabhadra rivers meet in this area, and Krishna is born. The Srisailam reservoir has submerged the Sangameswaram Temple. Pilgrims only visit this area to see this temple during the summer, when the reservoir's water level drops.
TRIBUTARIES OF KRISHNA RIVER
The Tungabhadra River, with a drainage basin of 71,417 km2 and a length of about 531 km, is the Krishna River's largest tributary, but the Bhima River, with a total length of 861 km and a drainage basin of 70,614 km2, is the longest.
Near Sangli, three tributaries, the Panchganga, Warna, and Yerla, meet the Krishna river.
Kudalasangama (also spelled Kudala Sangama) is a small village in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, about 15 kilometres from the Almatti Dam. Here, the Krishna and Malaprabha rivers meet. The Aikya Mantapa, or holy Samdhi of Basavanna, the founder of the Lingayat sect of Hindu religion, is located here, along with the Linga, which is said to be self-born (Swayambhu), and the river flows east towards Srisailam (another pilgrim centre) in Andhra Pradesh.
Sangameswaram, in Andhra Pradesh's Kurnool district, is a popular Hindu pilgrimage site where the Tungabhadra and Bhavanasi rivers meet the Krishna river.
The following are the major river's tributaries:
Andhra Pradesh
• Bhadra River
• Varada River
• Tunga River
• Veda River
• Avathi River
• Bhavanasi River in Kurnool District
• Suvarnamukhi River
• Tungabhadra River
• Vedavathi River
• Paleru River
• Musi River
• Munneru River
• Akeru River
Maharashtra and Karnataka
• Venna River
• Varma River
• Koyna River
• Malaprabha River
• Ghataprabha River
• Bhama River
• Pavna River
• Kumandala River
• Ghod River
• Indrayani River
• Kundali River
• Man River
• Bhogwati River
• Moshi River
• Bori River
• Chandani River
• Kamini River
• Mula River
• Mutha River
• Nira River
• Mula-Mutha River
• Bhima River
• Sina River
KRISHNA BASIN
The Krishna Basin covers a total area of 258,948 km2, accounting for nearly 8% of the country's total land area. Karnataka (113,271 km2), Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (76,252 km2), and Maharashtra (76,252 km2) make up this large basin (69,425 km2).
The Krishna river rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 1,337 metres, about 64 kilometres from the Arabian Sea, just north of Mahabaleshwar. It flows for about 1,400 kilometres before discharging into the Bay of Bengal. The Ghataprabha River, Malaprabha River, Bhima River, Tungabhadra River, and Musi River are the major tributaries that join Krishna.
Except for the western border, which is formed by an unbroken line of the Western Ghats, the majority of this basin consists of rolling and undulating country. Black soils, red soils, laterite and lateritic soils, alluvium, mixed soils, red and black soils, and saline and alkaline soils are all important soil types found in the basin.
In this basin, an average annual surface water potential of 78.1 km3 has been calculated. There is 58.0 km3 of water that can be used. The basin's cultivable area is approximately 203,000 km2, accounting for 10.4% of the country's total cultivable area. The Godavari River was linked to the Krishna River in 2015 by commissioning the Polavaram right bank canal with the help of the Pattiseema lift scheme to augment water availability to the Prakasam Barrage in Andhra Pradesh, as the Krishna river's water supply became insufficient to meet demand. Prakasam Barrage's irrigation canals are part of National Waterway 4. The Krishana-Godavari delta is known as India's "Rice Granery of India."
DAMS ON KRISHNA RIVER
The Krishna River has a number of dams, including the following:
• Dhom Dam
• Dhom Balakwadi
• Almatti Dam
• Basava Sagar Dam
• Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
• Srisailam Dam
• Jurala Dam
• Narayanpur Dam (downriver of Almatti Dam)
• Prakasham Barrage
• Pulichitnthala Dam is under construction.
• Amar Dam
PROTECTED AREAS
The rich flora and fauna can be found in a large area near the Krishna river. The Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary has been established to protect the last remaining mangrove forests in the Krishna estuary. A large number of resident and migratory birds call the sanctuary home. In the sanctuary, you can see fishing cats, otters, Estuarine crocodiles, spotted deer, sambar deer, blackbucks, snakes, lizards, and jackals. Plants like Rhizophora, Avicennia, and Aegiceros thrive in the sanctuary's lush vegetation. A few other wildlife sanctuaries in the Krishna basin are listed below.
• Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
• Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary
• Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ghataprabha Bird Sanctuary
• Gudavi Bird Sanctuary
• Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
• Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary
• Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
• Chandoli National Park
• Kudremukh National Park
• Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park
• Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park
• Mrugavani National Park
• Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary | https://upscwithnikhil.com/article/geography/krishna-river | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Krishna River | - Last Updated : 17-Jan-2023
- 16244 views
In Southern India, the Krishna River is an inter-state river. It is Peninsular India's second largest river, rising at an altitude of 1337 metres near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra State in the Western Ghats. It runs for about 1400 kilometres across the peninsula, from west to east, passing through Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima, and Tungabhadra are the major Krishna tributaries.
MORE ABOUT KRISHNA RIVER
The Krishna River is originated near Mahabaleswar, which is located near Jor village in Maharashtra. The Jor Village is located in the far northwestern part of the Wai Taluka. The river eventually empties into the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh, on India's eastern coast.
The river's delta is one of India's most productive areas. The prehistoric Ikshvaku and Satavahana sun kings reigned in this area as well. Wai is Maharashtra's oldest city, located on the Krishna River's banks in the Satara District. Sangli is the largest city on the banks of the river in Maharashtra, while Vijayawada is the largest city on the banks of the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh.
The Krishna River is one of the most environmentally damaging rivers because it causes extensive land corrosion during the monsoon season . The river has rapids and is quite raging, reaching depths of more than 75 feet (23 metres) on several occasions. In Maharashtra's Marathi language, there is a proverb that says "santh vaahate krishnamaai" which means "calmly runs Krishna" This phrase is also used to describe how a person should be as calm as Krishna. Nevertheless, between June and August, the river's flow causes a significant amount of corrosion. Krishna brings productive soil to the delta area from Karnataka, Maharashtra, and the western part of Andhra Pradesh during this time.
The Tungabhadra River, which is the result of the union of two rivers - the Tunga River and the Bhadra River - is the river's most important tributary. The Western Ghat Mountain Ranges are the source of both of these rivers.
From the right riverbanks, rivers like the Koyna, Venna, Panchganga, Vasna, Ghataprabha, Dudhganga, Tungabhadra, and Malaprabha meet Krishna. The Musi River, Yerla River, Bhima River, and Maneru Rivers all meet the river on the left bank at the same time.
Close to Sangli, three tributaries join the Krishna River. Haripur, which is also close to Sangli, is where the Warana River joins the river. Sangameshwar is another name for this area. At Narsobawadi, near Sangli, the Panchganga River joins the Krishna River. These locations are revered as sacred. Lord Dattatraya is said to have spent part of his life on the riverbanks of this river at Audumber. Sangameswaram is a popular Hindu religious centre in Andhra Pradesh's Kurnool district. The Bhavanasi and Tungabhadra rivers meet in this area, and Krishna is born. The Srisailam reservoir has submerged the Sangameswaram Temple. Pilgrims only visit this area to see this temple during the summer, when the reservoir's water level drops.
TRIBUTARIES OF KRISHNA RIVER
The Tungabhadra River, with a drainage basin of 71,417 km2 and a length of about 531 km, is the Krishna River's largest tributary, but the Bhima River, with a total length of 861 km and a drainage basin of 70,614 km2, is the longest.
Near Sangli, three tributaries, the Panchganga, Warna, and Yerla, meet the Krishna river.
Kudalasangama (also spelled Kudala Sangama) is a small village in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, about 15 kilometres from the Almatti Dam. Here, the Krishna and Malaprabha rivers meet. The Aikya Mantapa, or holy Samdhi of Basavanna, the founder of the Lingayat sect of Hindu religion, is located here, along with the Linga, which is said to be self-born (Swayambhu), and the river flows east towards Srisailam (another pilgrim centre) in Andhra Pradesh.
Sangameswaram, in Andhra Pradesh's Kurnool district, is a popular Hindu pilgrimage site where the Tungabhadra and Bhavanasi rivers meet the Krishna river.
The following are the major river's tributaries:
Andhra Pradesh
• Bhadra River
• Varada River
• Tunga River
• Veda River
• Avathi River
• Bhavanasi River in Kurnool District
• Suvarnamukhi River
• Tungabhadra River
• Vedavathi River
• Paleru River
• Musi River
• Munneru River
• Akeru River
Maharashtra and Karnataka
• Venna River
• Varma River
• Koyna River
• Malaprabha River
• Ghataprabha River
• Bhama River
• Pavna River
• Kumandala River
• Ghod River
• Indrayani River
• Kundali River
• Man River
• Bhogwati River
• Moshi River
• Bori River
• Chandani River
• Kamini River
• Mula River
• Mutha River
• Nira River
• Mula-Mutha River
• Bhima River
• Sina River
KRISHNA BASIN
The Krishna Basin covers a total area of 258,948 km2, accounting for nearly 8% of the country's total land area. Karnataka (113,271 km2), Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (76,252 km2), and Maharashtra (76,252 km2) make up this large basin (69,425 km2).
The Krishna river rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 1,337 metres, about 64 kilometres from the Arabian Sea, just north of Mahabaleshwar. It flows for about 1,400 kilometres before discharging into the Bay of Bengal. The Ghataprabha River, Malaprabha River, Bhima River, Tungabhadra River, and Musi River are the major tributaries that join Krishna.
Except for the western border, which is formed by an unbroken line of the Western Ghats, the majority of this basin consists of rolling and undulating country. Black soils, red soils, laterite and lateritic soils, alluvium, mixed soils, red and black soils, and saline and alkaline soils are all important soil types found in the basin.
In this basin, an average annual surface water potential of 78.1 km3 has been calculated. There is 58.0 km3 of water that can be used. The basin's cultivable area is approximately 203,000 km2, accounting for 10.4% of the country's total cultivable area. The Godavari River was linked to the Krishna River in 2015 by commissioning the Polavaram right bank canal with the help of the Pattiseema lift scheme to augment water availability to the Prakasam Barrage in Andhra Pradesh, as the Krishna river's water supply became insufficient to meet demand. Prakasam Barrage's irrigation canals are part of National Waterway 4. The Krishana-Godavari delta is known as India's "Rice Granery of India."
DAMS ON KRISHNA RIVER
The Krishna River has a number of dams, including the following:
• Dhom Dam
• Dhom Balakwadi
• Almatti Dam
• Basava Sagar Dam
• Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
• Srisailam Dam
• Jurala Dam
• Narayanpur Dam (downriver of Almatti Dam)
• Prakasham Barrage
• Pulichitnthala Dam is under construction.
• Amar Dam
PROTECTED AREAS
The rich flora and fauna can be found in a large area near the Krishna river. The Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary has been established to protect the last remaining mangrove forests in the Krishna estuary. A large number of resident and migratory birds call the sanctuary home. In the sanctuary, you can see fishing cats, otters, Estuarine crocodiles, spotted deer, sambar deer, blackbucks, snakes, lizards, and jackals. Plants like Rhizophora, Avicennia, and Aegiceros thrive in the sanctuary's lush vegetation. A few other wildlife sanctuaries in the Krishna basin are listed below.
• Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
• Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary
• Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ghataprabha Bird Sanctuary
• Gudavi Bird Sanctuary
• Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
• Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary
• Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
• Chandoli National Park
• Kudremukh National Park
• Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park
• Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park
• Mrugavani National Park
• Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary | https://upscwithnikhil.com/article/geography/krishna-river | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Which city is located on the banks of river Krishna? – Heimduo | Vijayawada
Vijayawada is the 3rd largest city in Andhra Pradesh and is the largest city on the banks of Krishna River.
Where is Krishna and Godavari located?
The Krishna Godavari Basin is a proven petroliferous basin of continental margin located on the east coast of India . Its onland part covers an area of 15000 sq. km and the offshore part covers an area of 25,000 sq. km up to 1000 m isobath.
Why is Krishna River called Krishna?
The mighty Krishna River bears the name of Lord Krishna; the beloved dark and dusky lord worshipped throughout the country. Originating but a few kilometers from Arabian Sea, the river has chosen to flow towards Bay of Bengal becoming a lifeline of four states viz.
Machilipatnam is the administrative headquarters of Krishna district. Vijayawada is the biggest city in the district (third in the state) and a commercial centre.
Is located in Krishna Tungabhadra basin?
Hampi is located in the Krishna – Tungabhadra basin.
Which dam is built on Krishna?
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam was built on River Krishnna. The construction commenced in 1955 and took 12 years for its completion. This place is at a distance of about 160 Kms from Hyderabad.
The Krishna River is the fourth-largest river in terms of water inflows and river basin area in India, after the Ganga, Godavari and Brahmaputra….
|Krishna River|
|Path of the Krishna in the peninsular India ([1])|
|Location|
|Country||India|
|State||Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh|
Where did Krishna meet Tungabhadra?
Gundimalla Village
It receives its tributary Handri river near Kurnool. Then it joins the Krishna near Gundimalla Village of Jogulamba Gadwal district of Telangana state. The confluence of Tungabhadra and Krishna River is a holy pilgrimage site – The Sangameswaram Temple.
What is the birthplace of Krishna?
Mathura
Krishna/Birthplaces
It is believed that Krishna was born in a dungeon of Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, on this day at the clock struck midnight. Krishna is the god of love, tenderness and compassion. Hindu mythology portrays him as a prankster, a gentle lover, a universal supreme being and child-like God.
Krishna district is one of the nine districts in the Coastal Andhra region of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Machilipatnam is the administrative headquarters and Vijayawada is the most populated city in the district.
Where is Guntur in India map?
Guntur Location Map,Andhra Pradesh
|City||Guntur|
|State||Andhra Pradesh|
|District||Guntur|
|Total Population||514,707|
|Total Male||257,939|
Which state is Krishna River in?
|Krishna River|
|State||Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh|
|Region||South India|
|Physical characteristics|
|Source||Near Mahabaleshwar, Jor village| | https://heimduo.org/which-city-is-located-on-the-banks-of-river-krishna/ | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Facts About Krishna River | A meme which says 'a male river (Krishna) is silently flowing through four states whereas a female river (Kaveri) is making a lot of noise between two states', brings a smile over the whole tension. Let us concentrate on the first part and leave the rest for now! It is true, Krishna river flows across many states and is one of the longest rivers in India. It is huge, fertile and interesting too! Shall we explore more through these exciting facts about Krishna river?
Krishna Bai Temple
Photo Courtesy: Karthik Easvur
Krishna River originates at Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra. It is believed that Krishna Bai Temple in the Old Mahabaleshwar is the birth place of river Krishna. Krishna Bai Temple is an ancient Shiva shrine where a stream comes out of the mouth of a cow . This stream further cascades to become the Krishna River.
Krishna Bai Temple is near to Panchaganga Temple in Mahabaleshwar. The rustic look of this age-old shrine looks more beautiful during the monsoon.
Krishna and a few of his tributaries begin their journey in the Western Ghats. The Panchaganga Temple is a 4,500 years-old temple where Krishna river along with Venna, Koyna , Gayatri and Savitri rivers flow out of the mouth of cow (goumukh). Though these rivers branch out, later they join Krishna River.
Love and Krishna are synonymous! Atleast one of the names should be connected with Love and Krishna. No it is not related to mythological life of Krishna. It is the place where three tributaries Venna River, Koyna River, Tarli River and Urmodi River meet Krishna here. So, it is named as Preeti Sangam (confluence of Love) near the city of Sangli in Satara.
Krishna River
Photo Courtesy: Bhanutpt
Krishna River flows across four states of India: Maharashtra, Karnataka , Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. It covers around 1,300 km along its course and hence it is one of the biggest rivers in India. Specifically, 4th- biggest river in India in terms of area and inflows.
Krishna river has many tributaries: Venna River, Koyna River, Dudhganga River, Bhima River Ghataprabha River, Malaprabha River, Tungabhadra River, Musi River and Dindi River are the major tributaries of River Krishna.
Tungabhadra River (which originates in Koodli of Chikmagalur) and Bhima River (which originates in Bhimashakar Hills) are the two largest tributaries of Krishna River.
Nagarjuna Sagar
Photo Courtesy: Sumanthk
Alamatti Dam in North Karnataka, Srisailam Dam in Telangana, Nagarjuna Sagar Dam in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Prakasam Barrage at Vijayawada are some of the famous dams built on Krishna River.
Krishna River has a large coverage area cutting across many regions. It is not only useful in irrigation projects and hydro-electric projects but also in terms of tourism. There are many popular waterfalls which are formed by the Krishna river and its tributaries. Manikyadhara Falls, Gokak Falls (Ghataprabha river), Ethipothala Falls, Kalhati Falls and Mallela Theertham Waterfalls are the popular waterfalls on Krishna River.
Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary
Photo Courtesy: Yathin S Krishnappa
Krishna River basin is one of the most fertile regions and also consists of forest reserves. Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarajuna-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary and Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary are some of the top wildlife reserves on Krishna River basin.
Sangli, the Turmeric City of Maharashtra and Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh are the two big cities located on the banks of Krishna River.
Krishna emerges in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra and drains into the Bay of Bengal in the village of Hamsaladevi at Andhra Pradesh. | https://www.nativeplanet.com/travel-guide/facts-about-krishna-river-002554.html | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Krishna River | - Last Updated : 17-Jan-2023
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In Southern India, the Krishna River is an inter-state river. It is Peninsular India's second largest river, rising at an altitude of 1337 metres near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra State in the Western Ghats. It runs for about 1400 kilometres across the peninsula, from west to east, passing through Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima, and Tungabhadra are the major Krishna tributaries.
MORE ABOUT KRISHNA RIVER
The Krishna River is originated near Mahabaleswar, which is located near Jor village in Maharashtra. The Jor Village is located in the far northwestern part of the Wai Taluka. The river eventually empties into the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh, on India's eastern coast.
The river's delta is one of India's most productive areas. The prehistoric Ikshvaku and Satavahana sun kings reigned in this area as well. Wai is Maharashtra's oldest city, located on the Krishna River's banks in the Satara District. Sangli is the largest city on the banks of the river in Maharashtra, while Vijayawada is the largest city on the banks of the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh.
The Krishna River is one of the most environmentally damaging rivers because it causes extensive land corrosion during the monsoon season . The river has rapids and is quite raging, reaching depths of more than 75 feet (23 metres) on several occasions. In Maharashtra's Marathi language, there is a proverb that says "santh vaahate krishnamaai" which means "calmly runs Krishna" This phrase is also used to describe how a person should be as calm as Krishna. Nevertheless, between June and August, the river's flow causes a significant amount of corrosion. Krishna brings productive soil to the delta area from Karnataka, Maharashtra, and the western part of Andhra Pradesh during this time.
The Tungabhadra River, which is the result of the union of two rivers - the Tunga River and the Bhadra River - is the river's most important tributary. The Western Ghat Mountain Ranges are the source of both of these rivers.
From the right riverbanks, rivers like the Koyna, Venna, Panchganga, Vasna, Ghataprabha, Dudhganga, Tungabhadra, and Malaprabha meet Krishna. The Musi River, Yerla River, Bhima River, and Maneru Rivers all meet the river on the left bank at the same time.
Close to Sangli, three tributaries join the Krishna River. Haripur, which is also close to Sangli, is where the Warana River joins the river. Sangameshwar is another name for this area. At Narsobawadi, near Sangli, the Panchganga River joins the Krishna River. These locations are revered as sacred. Lord Dattatraya is said to have spent part of his life on the riverbanks of this river at Audumber. Sangameswaram is a popular Hindu religious centre in Andhra Pradesh's Kurnool district. The Bhavanasi and Tungabhadra rivers meet in this area, and Krishna is born. The Srisailam reservoir has submerged the Sangameswaram Temple. Pilgrims only visit this area to see this temple during the summer, when the reservoir's water level drops.
TRIBUTARIES OF KRISHNA RIVER
The Tungabhadra River, with a drainage basin of 71,417 km2 and a length of about 531 km, is the Krishna River's largest tributary, but the Bhima River, with a total length of 861 km and a drainage basin of 70,614 km2, is the longest.
Near Sangli, three tributaries, the Panchganga, Warna, and Yerla, meet the Krishna river.
Kudalasangama (also spelled Kudala Sangama) is a small village in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, about 15 kilometres from the Almatti Dam. Here, the Krishna and Malaprabha rivers meet. The Aikya Mantapa, or holy Samdhi of Basavanna, the founder of the Lingayat sect of Hindu religion, is located here, along with the Linga, which is said to be self-born (Swayambhu), and the river flows east towards Srisailam (another pilgrim centre) in Andhra Pradesh.
Sangameswaram, in Andhra Pradesh's Kurnool district, is a popular Hindu pilgrimage site where the Tungabhadra and Bhavanasi rivers meet the Krishna river.
The following are the major river's tributaries:
Andhra Pradesh
• Bhadra River
• Varada River
• Tunga River
• Veda River
• Avathi River
• Bhavanasi River in Kurnool District
• Suvarnamukhi River
• Tungabhadra River
• Vedavathi River
• Paleru River
• Musi River
• Munneru River
• Akeru River
Maharashtra and Karnataka
• Venna River
• Varma River
• Koyna River
• Malaprabha River
• Ghataprabha River
• Bhama River
• Pavna River
• Kumandala River
• Ghod River
• Indrayani River
• Kundali River
• Man River
• Bhogwati River
• Moshi River
• Bori River
• Chandani River
• Kamini River
• Mula River
• Mutha River
• Nira River
• Mula-Mutha River
• Bhima River
• Sina River
KRISHNA BASIN
The Krishna Basin covers a total area of 258,948 km2, accounting for nearly 8% of the country's total land area. Karnataka (113,271 km2), Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (76,252 km2), and Maharashtra (76,252 km2) make up this large basin (69,425 km2).
The Krishna river rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 1,337 metres, about 64 kilometres from the Arabian Sea, just north of Mahabaleshwar. It flows for about 1,400 kilometres before discharging into the Bay of Bengal. The Ghataprabha River, Malaprabha River, Bhima River, Tungabhadra River, and Musi River are the major tributaries that join Krishna.
Except for the western border, which is formed by an unbroken line of the Western Ghats, the majority of this basin consists of rolling and undulating country. Black soils, red soils, laterite and lateritic soils, alluvium, mixed soils, red and black soils, and saline and alkaline soils are all important soil types found in the basin.
In this basin, an average annual surface water potential of 78.1 km3 has been calculated. There is 58.0 km3 of water that can be used. The basin's cultivable area is approximately 203,000 km2, accounting for 10.4% of the country's total cultivable area. The Godavari River was linked to the Krishna River in 2015 by commissioning the Polavaram right bank canal with the help of the Pattiseema lift scheme to augment water availability to the Prakasam Barrage in Andhra Pradesh, as the Krishna river's water supply became insufficient to meet demand. Prakasam Barrage's irrigation canals are part of National Waterway 4. The Krishana-Godavari delta is known as India's "Rice Granery of India."
DAMS ON KRISHNA RIVER
The Krishna River has a number of dams, including the following:
• Dhom Dam
• Dhom Balakwadi
• Almatti Dam
• Basava Sagar Dam
• Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
• Srisailam Dam
• Jurala Dam
• Narayanpur Dam (downriver of Almatti Dam)
• Prakasham Barrage
• Pulichitnthala Dam is under construction.
• Amar Dam
PROTECTED AREAS
The rich flora and fauna can be found in a large area near the Krishna river. The Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary has been established to protect the last remaining mangrove forests in the Krishna estuary. A large number of resident and migratory birds call the sanctuary home. In the sanctuary, you can see fishing cats, otters, Estuarine crocodiles, spotted deer, sambar deer, blackbucks, snakes, lizards, and jackals. Plants like Rhizophora, Avicennia, and Aegiceros thrive in the sanctuary's lush vegetation. A few other wildlife sanctuaries in the Krishna basin are listed below.
• Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
• Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary
• Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ghataprabha Bird Sanctuary
• Gudavi Bird Sanctuary
• Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
• Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary
• Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
• Chandoli National Park
• Kudremukh National Park
• Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park
• Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park
• Mrugavani National Park
• Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary
• Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary | https://upscwithnikhil.com/article/geography/krishna-river | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Which city is located on the banks of river Krishna? – Heimduo | Vijayawada
Vijayawada is the 3rd largest city in Andhra Pradesh and is the largest city on the banks of Krishna River.
Where is Krishna and Godavari located?
The Krishna Godavari Basin is a proven petroliferous basin of continental margin located on the east coast of India . Its onland part covers an area of 15000 sq. km and the offshore part covers an area of 25,000 sq. km up to 1000 m isobath.
Why is Krishna River called Krishna?
The mighty Krishna River bears the name of Lord Krishna; the beloved dark and dusky lord worshipped throughout the country. Originating but a few kilometers from Arabian Sea, the river has chosen to flow towards Bay of Bengal becoming a lifeline of four states viz.
Machilipatnam is the administrative headquarters of Krishna district. Vijayawada is the biggest city in the district (third in the state) and a commercial centre.
Is located in Krishna Tungabhadra basin?
Hampi is located in the Krishna – Tungabhadra basin.
Which dam is built on Krishna?
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam was built on River Krishnna. The construction commenced in 1955 and took 12 years for its completion. This place is at a distance of about 160 Kms from Hyderabad.
The Krishna River is the fourth-largest river in terms of water inflows and river basin area in India, after the Ganga, Godavari and Brahmaputra….
|Krishna River|
|Path of the Krishna in the peninsular India ([1])|
|Location|
|Country||India|
|State||Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh|
Where did Krishna meet Tungabhadra?
Gundimalla Village
It receives its tributary Handri river near Kurnool. Then it joins the Krishna near Gundimalla Village of Jogulamba Gadwal district of Telangana state. The confluence of Tungabhadra and Krishna River is a holy pilgrimage site – The Sangameswaram Temple.
What is the birthplace of Krishna?
Mathura
Krishna/Birthplaces
It is believed that Krishna was born in a dungeon of Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, on this day at the clock struck midnight. Krishna is the god of love, tenderness and compassion. Hindu mythology portrays him as a prankster, a gentle lover, a universal supreme being and child-like God.
Krishna district is one of the nine districts in the Coastal Andhra region of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Machilipatnam is the administrative headquarters and Vijayawada is the most populated city in the district.
Where is Guntur in India map?
Guntur Location Map,Andhra Pradesh
|City||Guntur|
|State||Andhra Pradesh|
|District||Guntur|
|Total Population||514,707|
|Total Male||257,939|
Which state is Krishna River in?
|Krishna River|
|State||Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh|
|Region||South India|
|Physical characteristics|
|Source||Near Mahabaleshwar, Jor village| | https://heimduo.org/which-city-is-located-on-the-banks-of-river-krishna/ | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Krishna River - Wikipedia | This article is about an Indian river. For other uses, see Krishna (disambiguation) .
The Krishna River is a river in the Deccan plateau and is the third-longest river in India, after the Ganges and Godavari . It is also the fourth-largest in terms of water inflows and river basin area in India, after the Ganges, Indus and Godavari. [4] The river, also called Krishnaveni, it is 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) long and its length in Maharashtra is 282 kilometres. [5] It is a major source of irrigation in the Indian states of Maharashtra , Karnataka , Telangana and Andhra Pradesh . [6]
The Krishna River originates in the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar at an elevation of about 1,300 metres (4,300 ft), in the state of Maharashtra in central India. From Mahabaleshwar it flows to the town of Wai and continues to travel east until it empties into the Bay of Bengal. [7] The Krishna River passes through the Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. [8] It is around 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) in length, of which 305 km (190 mi) flows in Maharashtra, 483 km (300 mi) in Karnataka and 612 km (380 mi) in Andhra Pradesh. [9]
The Krishna River has 13 major tributaries. [9] Its principal tributaries include the Ghataprabha River , Malaprabha River , Bhima River , Tungabhadra River and Musi River . [9] The Tungabhadra River has a catchment area of 71,417 km 2 (27,574 sq mi) and a length of 531 km (330 mi). [9] The Bhima River is the longest tributary of the Krishna River. [7] It has a total length of 861 km (535 mi) and catchment area of 70,614 km 2 (27,264 sq mi). [9]
Three tributaries Panchganga , Warna and Yerla meet Krishna river near Sangli . These places are considered very holy. It is said that Lord Dattatreya spent some of his days at Audumber on the banks of river Krishna.
Kudalasangama [10] (also written as Kudala Sangama) is located about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the Almatti Dam in Bagalkot district of Karnataka state. The Krishna and Malaprabha rivers merge here. The Aikya Mantapa or the holy Samādhi of Basavanna , the founder of the Lingayat sect of Hindu religion along with Linga , which is believed to be self-born ( Swayambhu ), is here and river flow east towards Srisailam (another pilgrim center) Andhra Pradesh.
Sangameswaram of Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh is a famous pilgrim center for Hindus where Tungabhadra and Bhavanasi rivers join the Krishna river. The Sangameswaram temple is now drowned in the Srisailam reservoir, and visible for devotees only during summer when the reservoir's water level comes down. [11] [12]
Drainage Basin of Krishna
Bhima Upper (17.58%)
Bhima Lower (9.29%)
Krishna Upper (21.39%)
Krishna Middle (8.73%)
Krishna Lower (15.50%)
Tungabhadra Upper (11.20%)
Tungabhadra Lower (16.31%)
The Krishna Basin extends over an area of 258,948 km 2 (99,980 sq mi) which is nearly 8% of the total geographical area of the country. This large basin lies in the states of Karnataka (113,271 km 2 ), Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (76,252 km 2 ) and Maharashtra (69,425 km 2 ). [13] It is the fifth largest basin in India. [7]
Most of this basin comprises rolling and undulating country, except for the western border, which is formed by an unbroken line of the Western Ghats. The important soil types found in the basin are black soils, red soils, laterite and lateritic soils, alluvium, mixed soils, red and black soils and saline and alkaline soils.
An average annual surface water potential of 78.1 km 3 has been assessed in this basin. Out of this, 58.0 km 3 is utilizable water. [14] Culturable area in the basin is about 203,000 km 2 (78,000 sq mi), which is 10.4% of the total cultivable area of the country. As the water availability in the Krishna river was becoming inadequate to meet the water demand, Godavari River is linked to the Krishna river by commissioning the Polavaram right bank canal with the help of Pattiseema lift scheme in the year 2015 to augment water availability to the Prakasam Barrage in Andhra Pradesh. [15] The irrigation canals of Prakasam Barrage form part of National Waterway 4 . The Krishna-Godavari delta known as "Rice Granary of India . " [16]
This river is revered by Hindus as sacred. The river is also believed to remove all sins of people by taking a bath in this river. The centre of attraction is the Krishna Pushkaram fair which is held once in twelve years on the banks of the Krishna river. There are many pilgrimage places in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh on the course of the river. [ citation needed ]
The first holy place on the river Krishna is at Wai , known for the Mahaganpati Mandir and Kashivishweshwar temple. It has seven ghats along the river. Temples like Dattadeva temple, which is revered by the people of Maharashtra, are located on the banks of Krishna at Narsobawadi , Bhilawdi Audumbar near Sangli . Yadur is one of the important holy places in Karnataka which is located on the bank of Krishna. Veerabhadra temple is a famous temple. Many devotees visit this place from Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Also, located on the banks of the river Krishna is the Sangameshwar Shiva temple at Haripur. Some of the other temples are the Kanaka Durga Temple in Vijayawada , Ramling temple near Sangli, Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga (Srisailam), Amareshwara Swamy Temple , Vedadri Narasimha Temple , Vadapalli temple in Nalgonda , Dattadeva temple, and Sangameshwara Shiva temples at Alampur & Gadwal in Telangana. [ citation needed ]
Bhilawadi town in Maharashtra has a large stone structure constructed across Krishna river bank, also known as Krishna Ghat. This structure also includes one large and one small temple constructed in the middle of the river. This structure is believed to be constructed in 1779. [17]
The Krishna River is spanned by several bridges along its course, some of which are listed below.
- Krishna Bridge, Wai , Maharashtra – This bridge, which is located in the Dharmpuri Peth area of the town of Wai, is one of the oldest bridges that were built by the British in India. It spans the Krishna over nine kamans (arches) and is made of black rock. The bridge serves as a flood mark (when the water rises to the level of the road on the bridge) for the "Waikar" people.
- Irwin Bridge, Sangli – This is one of the oldest, historic and largest bridges over the Krishna that were built by the British. The Irwin Bridge, which is built of reddish stone, has two passages where one can climb down to the river in the middle of its span to view the water.
- Ankali Bridge, Sangli Maharashtra – This bridge is major link between Sangli and Kolhapur districts. At this point there are three bridge, one for railway and two for roadways. Out of two roadway bridge the one bridge in the direction towards Miraj was built in Nineteenth century under British Administration. It is still in operation. The railway bridge was constructed at the time of laying of Kolhapur to Pune rail link. The contractor for rail bridge was V. R. Ranade & Sons from Pune. The construction of this railway bridge and culverts on railway route in nearby region were constructed by them in year 1882–84.
- Kudachi – Ugar Railway bridge built by the British in 1891.
- B. Soundatti Bridge, Raibag – This is also one of the oldest bridges built during the British rule. This bridge connects Maharashtra to Karnataka state.
- Tangadagi Bridge, This is one of oldest bridges that connects the Bijapur and Bagalkot districts of Karnataka. God Neelambika Temple is there at the bank of Krishna River.
- Chikkapadasalagi bridge, is one of the oldest bridge built in British era connects jamakhandi and vijayapur,
- Jambagi Bridge, Jamkhandi : Recently built bridge connects Athani , Bijapur and Jamkhandi.
- Galagali Bridge of Galagali village, Bagalkot: very important bridge that connects many towns and villages of Bagalkot and Vijayapur districts.
- Krishna Bridge near Shakti Nagar, Raichur distrcit was built in the memory of the travel undertaken by Nawab Javvadjaha Bahadur, the prince of Hyderabad, to Raichur in early 20th century. The bridge was named after the prince as Sirat-e-joodi. The construction began in 1933 and completed in 1943 [18]
In October 2009, heavy floods occurred, isolating 350 villages and leaving millions homeless, [19] which is believed to be first occurrence in 1000 years. The flood resulted in heavy damage to Kurnool, Mahabubnagar, Guntur, Krishna and Nalagonda Districts. The entire city of Kurnool was immersed in approximately 10 ft (3 m) water for nearly 3 days. [20]
Water inflow of 1,110,000 cu ft/s (31,000 m 3 /s) was recorded at the Prakasam Barriage, which surpassed the previous record of 1,080,000 cu ft/s (31,000 m 3 /s) recorded in the year 1903. [21] Krishna river is the second largest east flowing river of the peninsula. The flood waters of Krishna and Godavari rivers can be fully utilized by exporting water to other east flowing peninsular rivers up to Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu by constructing a coastal reservoir on the Bay of Bengal sea area.
The yearly water outflows to the sea in a water year from 1 June 2003 to 31 May 2022 (19 years) are given below
|Water year||03-04||04-05||05-06||06-07||07-08||08-09||09-10||10-11||11-12||12-13||13-14||14-15||15-16||16-17||17-18||18-19||19-20||20-21||21-22|
|Water outflows ( tmcft )||5||14||113||968||885||296||437||407||215||56||394||73||9||55||0||39||798||1252||485|
At present, the award of Bachawat tribunal dated 31 May 1976 is applicable for sharing the water available in the river among the riparian states. The Brijesh Kumar tribunal award given on 29 November 2013 is challenged by Andhra Pradesh in the Supreme Court and the case pending since then. [23] The newly created state of Telangana also approached Supreme Court demanding a fresh tribunal hearing to secure its water needs on equitable basis . [24]
Even though the river does not flow through Tamil Nadu , the Telugu Ganga Project is a canal system that brings Krishna river water to that state's capital city of Chennai with the agreement of all basin states.
There are many dams constructed across the Krishna river. [25]
Krishna river is one of the rivers whose water energy is harnessed to a large extent by various hydro electric power stations in India. [26] The following is the list of hydro electric power stations excluding small and medium installations.
|Name of the project||Rated Power (in MW )||Comments|
|Koyna Hydroelectric Project||1,920|
|Mulshi Dam||300||Power station with Pumped-storage hydroelectricity units|
|Thokarwadi Dam||72|
|Ujjani Dam||12||Power station with Pumped-storage hydroelectricity units|
|Almatti Dam||290|
|Bhadra Dam||39|
|Tungabhadra Dam||127|
|Jurala Hydroelectric Project||240|
|Lower Jurala Hydro Electric Project||240|
|Srisailam Dam||1,670||Power station with Pumped-storage hydroelectricity units|
|Nagarjuna Sagar Dam||960||Power station with Pumped-storage hydroelectricity units|
|Nagarjuna Sagar tail pond||50|
|Pulichinthala Dam||120|
Krishna river basin is endowed with rich mineral deposits such as oil & gas, coal, iron, limestone , dolomite , gold, granite, laterite , uranium, diamonds, etc. The following are the few noted deposits:
Most of the years, the river water is not joining the sea due to full utilisation of water mainly in agriculture. [27] [28] Closed river basin of Krishna means that the river ecosystem is on the verge of death. [29] [30] The river receives the waste from the large number of cities and the river basin population has increased to 80 million enhancing pollution load many folds into the river. Adequate average and minimum continuous environmental flows to the sea are not taking place in most of the years constricting salt export and leading to formation of saline and sodic alkaline soils in the lower reaches of the river basin. [31] [32] High alkalinity water is discharged from the ash dump areas of many coal fired power stations into the river which further increases the alkalinity of the river water whose water is naturally of high alkalinity since the river basin is draining vast area of basalt rock formations. [33] The following are the few coal fired power stations located in the river basin
|Name of Power Station||Rated Power (in MW )|
|Vijayawada Thermal Power Station||1,760|
|Raichur Thermal Power Station||1,470|
|Bellary Thermal Power station||1,700|
|Yermarus Thermal Power Station||1,600|
|Solapur Super Thermal Power Station||1,320|
|Kudgi Super Thermal Power Project||2,400|
|Yadadri Thermal Power Plant||4000| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_River | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Which city is located on the bank of river Krishna | A. Vijayawada
B. Anantapur
C. East Godavari
D. Guntur
Answer: Option ASolution(By Examveda Team)
The city of Vijayawada lies on the banks of the Krishna river. Vijayawada is in Andhra Pradesh. Krishna River originates from Mahabaleshwar near Jor village in the Satara District, Maharashtra. It drains into the Bay of Bengal. | https://www.examveda.com/which-city-is-located-on-the-bank-of-river-krishna-162917/ | 134 |
which city is located on the banks of river krishna | Beautiful temple on the banks of River Krishna - Review of Sri Durga Malleswara Swamy Varla Devasthanam, Vijayawada, India - Tripadvisor | Reviewed August 5, 2015
The temple is located on the banks of the Krishna river in Vijayawada. The bathing ghats and the temple are on either side of the road connected by an over bridge. One can visit the temple directly or have a dip in the Krishna river and the cross over the brdge for darshan.
The temple is easily accessible from Vijayawada and the auto drivers are polite and do not fleece you .
My wife and had a dip in the bathing ghat first. The ghats are well constructed with steps leading to the river and fenced off to ensure safety. Bathing is a lovely experience with the wide expanse of the river and view of the bridge visible from the bathing area . place is neat but pilgrims using soap and oil messes up the place. changing rooms are basic and clean and police personnel posted are very helpful.
One has to climb about 200 stairs to reach the temple or take a car right to the entrance. The temple visit takes about an hour and is a divine experience .
Date of experience: July 2015
Ask 207sundars about Sri Durga Malleswara Swamy Varla Devasthanam
2 Thank 207sundars
This review is the subjective opinion of a Tripadvisor member and not of Tripadvisor LLC. Tripadvisor performs checks on reviews. | https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews-g303876-d2693698-r296013955-Sri_Durga_Malleswara_Swamy_Varla_Devasthanam-Vijayawada_Krishna_District_Andhra_.html | 134 |
where does the term pinky finger come from | Little finger - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the fictional character from A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones , see Littlefinger .
|Little finger|
|Details|
|Artery|| Proper palmar digital arteries , |
dorsal digital arteries
|Vein|| Palmar digital veins , |
dorsal digital veins
|Nerve||Dorsal digital nerves of ulnar nerve|
|Lymph||supratrochlear|
|Identifiers|
|Latin|| digitus minimus manus, |
digitus quintus manus,
digitus V manus
|TA98||A01.1.00.057|
|TA2||155|
|FMA||24949|
| Anatomical terminology |
[ edit on Wikidata ]
The little finger , or pinkie , also known as the baby finger , fifth digit , or pinky finger , is the most ulnar and smallest digit of the human hand , and next to the ring finger .
The word "pinkie" is derived from the Dutch word pink , meaning "little finger".
The earliest recorded use of the term "pinkie" is from Scotland in 1808. [1] The term (sometimes spelled "pinky") is common in Scottish English [2] and American English , [3] and is also used extensively in other Commonwealth countries such as New Zealand, Canada, and Australia. [4] [5]
The little finger is nearly impossible for most people to bend independently (without also bending the ring finger), due to the nerves for each digit being intertwined. [ citation needed ] There are also nine muscles that control the fifth digit: Three in the hypothenar eminence , two extrinsic flexors, two extrinsic extensors, and two more intrinsic muscles:
- Hypothenar eminence:
- Two extrinsic flexors:
Note: the dorsal interossei of the hand muscles do not have an attachment to the fifth digit
Among American children, a " pinky swear " or "pinky promise" is made when a person wraps one of their pinky fingers around another person's pinky and makes a promise . [6] Something similar is also seen in China and Korea, where people link their pinky fingers and then stamp their thumbs together to make a yaksok (promise).
Among members of the Japanese yakuza (gangsters), the penalty for various offenses is removal of parts of the little finger (known as yubitsume ). [7]
It is a common misconception that one should extend their little finger when drinking from a teacup. This practice is generally deprecated by etiquette guides as a sign of snobbery amongst the socially inferior, [8] [9] with various cultural theories as to the origin of the practice including the idea that finger food should be eaten with only the first three digits. [10]
The messaging application Teams from Microsoft [11] has an emoji which is a representation of a closed hand with the little finger raised. The description is "Nature's call" which is a polite euphemism used when someone feels a need to urinate or defecate. [12]
The signet ring is traditionally worn on the little finger of a gentleman's left hand, a practice still common especially in the United Kingdom , Australia , and European cultures. A signet ring is considered part of the regalia of many European monarchies, and also of the Pope, with the ring always worn on the left little finger. In modern times the location of the signet ring has relaxed, with examples worn on various different digits, although little fingers still tend to be the most usual.
The Iron Ring is a symbolic ring worn by most Canadian engineers . The Ring is a symbol of both pride and humility for the engineering profession, and is always worn on the little finger of the dominant hand . In the United States , the Engineer's Ring is a stainless steel ring worn on the fifth digit of the working hand by engineers who belong to the Order of the Engineer [13] and have accepted the Obligation of an Engineer. [14]
The little finger is often used as a support when smartphone users type one-handed. The little finger is positioned underneath the phone, allowing it to be propped with the three middle fingers, and the user to type with their thumb. [15]
Some users reported dents on their little finger and pain in the hand after prolonged use in this way, doctors referred to this as "iPhone pinky" or "smartphone pinky". The skin indentations were reported to be nothing of alarm, as they disappeared on their own after a short while without cell phone use. [15] [16]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Little fingers .
- Fifth metacarpal bone , the bone in the hand proximal to the little finger
- Pinky ring , a ring worn on the little finger
- Red string of fate , a Japanese belief that soulmates are bound by a string attached to the little finger
- ^ "Pinkie" . World Wide Words . Retrieved 25 July 2018 .
- ^ "Scots word of the season: pinkie" . Association for Scottish Literary Studies. May 2008 . Retrieved 28 January 2020 .
- ^ "Little Finger" . Cambridge English Dictionary . Retrieved 26 July 2019 .
- ^ Arthurs, Deborah; Gladwell, Hattie (21 January 2016). "Has your smartphone given you 'smartphone pinky'?" . Metro . Retrieved 6 April 2020 .
- ^ Barrie, Joshua (15 February 2018). "Woman cuts off finger, names it 'Wiggles' and wears it as pendant necklace" . The Mirror . Retrieved 6 April 2020 .
A woman cut off half her pinky finger and now wears it as a pendant around her neck.
- ^ Roud, Steve. The Lore of the Playground . Random House. 2010.
- ^ Hill, Peter B. E.: "The Japanese Mafia: Yakuza, law, and the state", p. 75. Oxford Univ. Press , 2003
- ^ "Tea Etiquette" . Tea Laden . Retrieved 28 July 2018 .
- ^ "Etiquette and History of Afternoon Tea" . An Afternoon to Remember . Retrieved 28 July 2018 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_finger | 135 |
where does the term pinky finger come from | Where does the term pinky finger come from? – Wise-Answer | The word “pinky” is derived from the Dutch word pink, meaning “little finger”. The earliest recorded use of the term “pinkie” is from Scotland in 1808. The term (sometimes spelled “pinky”) is common in Scottish English and American English, and is rarely used in wider English, outside of Scotland and the US.
What does the Pinki finger mean?
Ring on the Pinky (Little) Finger Meaning The little finger is also called the pinky finger. Wearing a ring on this finger makes a flashy statement indicating that the person is a good negotiator. At the same time, the ring on this finger also represents professional status.
What is the littlest finger called?
pinkie
After the thumb, the index finger, the middle finger, and the ring finger, we come to the fifth digit, the little finger. It was known in Latin as digitus minimus, but in Scotland the little finger is often called the pinkie.
Another colorful Japanese gesture is the raising of your pinkie finger to indicate another man’s wife, girlfriend or mistress — or possibly all three, depending on the man. (Note: When yakuza raise their pinkie finger, the gesture means roughly the same, except that the woman has been decapitated.
What does it mean when a woman wears a ring on her right middle finger?
According to legend (and some news reports) over the years, women buy them for themselves as personal declarations of independence and a celebration of single life. The right-hand ring is simply just a celebration of you. Also called “dress” or “cocktail” rings, the ring — and its symbolism — dates back to the 1920s.
Is thumbs up rude in Japan?
That’s because in Japan, giving the thumbs-down is very similar to giving the middle finger in the U.S. – it means something like “go to hell.” Very odd considering they use the thumbs-up sign no problem, but hey, it’s hardly the first time Japan has confused the crap out of us.
People often think proper tea drinking means sticking your pinky out. That’s actually rude and connotes elitism. It comes from the fact that cultured people would eat their tea goodies with three fingers and commoners would hold the treats with all five fingers.
What does fingers say about a person?
A strong index finger tells about your interest in power, strength of character, and shrewdness. The middle finger is your responsibility, efficiency, confidence, growth, and wisdom. Your ring finger is your artistry and self-expression. The little finger depicts your communicative skills.
Where is your soulmate line on your hand?
The heart line (also called love line) is one of the three major lines in palm reading. It’s just above the head line starting from the edge of the palm under the little finger, running across the palm and ending below the middle finger or forefinger or the place where they join.
Conjunctivitis, also known as pinkeye, is an inflammation of the conjunctiva . The conjunctiva is the thin clear tissue that lies over the white part of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelid.
How important is the pinky?
The pinky also helps us to push off the side of a swimming pool when diving in, making it extra-important to the livelihoods of competitive swimmers, says podiatrist Dr. Mark Hinkes via email. The type of shoes you wear can impact your little toe negatively.
Is your pinky a finger?
The pinky finger is the fifth digit of the hand and is the least often utilized of the five fingers. As the smallest digit, the pinky is located next to the ring finger.
Wiktionary (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: pinky(Noun) Methylated spirits mixed with red wine or Condy’s crystals. pinky(Noun) A baby mouse, especially when used as food for a snake, etc. A white person. pinky(Noun) The smallest finger or toe of a hand or foot. | https://wise-answer.com/where-does-the-term-pinky-finger-come-from/ | 135 |
where does the term pinky finger come from | How the 5 Fingers Got Their Names | You use your hands every day to do thousands of things, but have you ever wondered why you refer to your fingers by names like thumb and pinky ? The origins of body part names can be hard to pin down because of the way language evolves, but here’s what we know about why thumbs are thumbs and why little fingers are pinkies.
Different from the other four digits in that it’s shorter and wider and only has two phalanges instead of three, the thumb earned its name from a description of its physical characteristics in relation to its neighbors. In medical terminology, the word for thumb is pollex . The term thumb was first used before the 12th century and is believed to have come from the Proto-Indo-European term tum , meaning “to swell,” which makes the thumb “the swollen one.” There is some debate as to whether the thumb can rightfully be called a finger, but classification aside, the name fits.
Next in line after the pollex is the digitus secundus manus . Index comes from the Latin indicō , which means “to point out”; that’s also where the term pointer comes into play. Although it is the second digit (after the thumb), the index is recognized as the first finger, which explains why forefinger is also sometimes used.
The second finger (third digit) has the most literal meaning of all. Less commonly referred to as the long or tall finger , the digitus medius manus sits in the center of the hand, right between the digitus secondus manus and the ring finger. How the middle finger became an offensive gesture is another story altogether.
Known medically as the digitus medicinalis , digitus quartus manus , or digitus annularis manus , the origin of the term ring finger dates back to 2nd century Egypt and has to do with the heart. Egyptians believed that there was a vein in the fourth finger, known as the lover’s vein, that was connected to the heart—an untrue theory that Romans also came to believe many years later. To signify that a man had a hold of a woman's heart, he would follow the gospel of Beyoncé and put a ring on it, a practice that lives on today.
The fifth digit and smallest of the fingers is the digitus minimus manus . According to World Wide Words , pinkie was used by Scots to refer to something small, as explained in An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language by John Jamieson, published in 1808. The term comes from the Dutch pink , meaning “small.” Jamieson writes that “to pink” means to “contract the eye,” and the adjective pinkie is “applied to the eye, when small, or contracted.” The Collins Dictionary lists the origin of a related word, pinkeye , to the Dutch pinck oogen , which also appears in Jamieson's dictionary entry for pink and translates to “small eyes.”
A version of this story ran in 2016; it has been updated for 2023. | https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/74308/how-5-fingers-got-their-names | 135 |
where does the term pinky finger come from | Where Do Finger Names Come From? - JSTOR Daily | Most body parts come alone or in pairs. We have one nose, one tongue, and one navel. We sport two eyes, two knees, two feet, and so on. Fingers are a glaring exception—we’ve got a party of five on each side. This presents difficulties. When we want to single one out from the group—to specify which finger we slammed in the door, for instance—what do we do? We name them, naturally. But how?
This is a uniquely human problem. Pentadactyly —the condition of having five fingers—is pervasive in the biological world, but we are the only species that has the capacity (or occasion) to talk about those fingers. The problem is not just that we have five of them, but that they are so vexingly similar: they differ slightly in size and dexterity, but all have that pucker-knuckled, nail-capped look. How have people in different times and places solved this problem? How have they named the members of this confusable quintet? Answering this question offers a tour of the inventiveness of the human mind.
Consider first the thumb . Appearance is an especially common source of thumb names. The modern English word, for example, comes from an older word meaning “stout” or “thick.” Other languages highlight the fact that the thumb is powerful, despite its short stature. The Latin term for this member— pollex , still used in medical contexts —comes from a verb meaning “to be strong.” In Kurdish, these associations of compactness and strength come together in the label “ram finger.”
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The case of “ram finger” hints at a broader pattern: we often see our fingers as animate beings, little agents with their own personalities. We thus often name them after animals or after human social roles. In some Native American languages , the thumb is called the “chief finger.” Elsewhere it is cast as a family member : the terms “mother,” “father,” “older brother,” or “grandfather finger” are all attested. Although scarce in Europe, labels that compare fingers to humans are common worldwide. One study found such names in a fifth of the 123 languages surveyed.
The thumb has attracted an array of other names. In Greek, it is known as “what is opposite the fingers.” In several Turkic languages , it is known as the “head finger.” In some parts of the Middle East and Mediterranean, the name for the thumb stems from an unsavory function that, thankfully, it no longer has to serve (much): the lice killer.
Up next: the index finger . This label comes from the finger’s use in pointing: the English word index is rooted in an earlier word meaning “to show.” Names that associate this finger with pointing can be found around the globe, but others come into play as well. English speakers also call it the forefinger because of its position as the first of the fingers proper, excluding the thumb. Medieval texts refer to it as the “greeter” and “teacher.” In Anglo-Saxon times, it was known as the “scythe finger,” for reasons that are murky, and as the “shooting finger,” because it was used to draw back a bowstring.
Around the world, the index finger is associated with other functions. In Iranian languages, it is considered the finger of beckoning, cursing, and protecting. It is also known as the “prayer finger” or “testimony finger”—the label in modern Turkish—because of its use in the Muslim practice of shahada , or profession of faith. One of its most colorful nicknames was based on its penchant for swiping up sauces: the “pot licker.”
Next up: the middle finger . English is not the only language to name this finger for its central position—the “half-way finger” is another example. Some embellish the idea: in Choctaw, it is known as the “middle son,” and in some Turkic languages, it is dubbed the “middle poplar,” evoking the image of the fingers as a stand of trees. Another salient aspect of this middlemost finger is, of course, its length. So we find monikers like the “long finger” or “tall finger,” and colorful variants like the “high grass” or “tall Turk.”
In Latin, the middle finger was known as the digitus impudicus or obscenus —that is, the shameless or lewd finger. Some suggest these terms were due to its use in one of our crudest gestures , but a deeper reason may lie in its appearance. The middle finger, when extended and flanked on either side, is said to resemble a penis and testicles. This phallic form is, in fact, what motivated the gesture in the first place. Another explanation for the lewdness, as one observer notes, is that this is the digit often used to stimulate the female genitals.
Fourth in line: the ring finger . Everyone will recognize the origins of this nickname in modern ring-wearing practices. But not all are aware of the deeper history behind this tradition. According to medieval belief, a nerve or artery ran from the ring finger to the heart. This notion led people to don rings on this digit. It also gave the finger a prominent role in medical lore and practice. Doctors would use the ring finger when applying treatments, for example. Such associations inspired the terms “doctor finger,” “healing finger,” “heart finger,” and “leech finger”—the last because leech was another word for physician.
The term “ring finger” is now found around the globe. But another, somewhat paradoxical name is also popular: the “nameless finger.” This label was once used in parts of Europe, leading Wilhelm Grimm, of fairy tale fame, to speculate about its origins. One of his ideas was that the name alludes to this digit’s squeaky-clean reputation, in contrast to that of its lewd neighbor. Another was that, because of the finger’s quasi-mystical uses in healing, some dared not speak its name.
A simpler explanation may be in order, however. This same paradoxical label is found in Native American languages and in Chinese, making it unlikely that it stems from cultural beliefs peculiar to Europe. Rather, the nameless-ness of this finger may be due to its utter unremarkability. Sandwiched between more distinctive fingers, and not particularly useful, the ring finger is—let’s face it—the forgettable also-ran of the bunch.
Littlest but not least: the pinky . Appearances aside, the English word has nothing to do with the color pink—rather, it was borrowed from Dutch. The deeper origins of the word are debated, but it may have stuck around because it bears a suffix (“-y”) often used in English for small, endearing things. The pinky is, after all, the loveable runt of the hand.
A fixation on the size of this digit is found the world over. It is variously called the “baby,” “youngest child,” or “last-born daughter.” In Turkish, it is known as the “sparrow finger,” after the distinctively diminutive bird. A related idea is that this finger is a bit of a straggler. In some places, it is known as the “orphan” or “behind” finger.
Frankly, the little finger does not do a whole lot. Terms based on its functions are thus somewhat scarce. One exception is found in Latin, where the pinky was labeled the auricularis —that is, the “ear finger.” This aural association, still found in modern French, is due to what is perhaps this finger’s most noteworthy talent: wax removal.
These solutions to the finger-naming problem showcase the human mind at work—and at play. In language after language, digits are named for their appearance, position, and size. They are likened to birds, dogs, and sheep, compared to chiefs, children, parents, and grandparents. They are recognized for their roles in praying, hunting, healing, cursing, licking pots, and squashing pests. Surveying this colorful compendium, we find, on the one hand, unexpected patterns and, on the other, delightful diversity.
Is this diversity a thing of the past? Is the finger-naming problem solved once and for all? There are some signs that digital nomenclature is, like much else, headed toward global homogeneity. But the matter is hardly settled. We keep finding new uses for our hands, which could inspire new names. Cultures are constantly changing and forging new associations. This curious corner of human communication will continue to bear the hallmarks of our species’ inventiveness. Or so we can hope. | https://daily.jstor.org/where-do-finger-names-come-from/ | 135 |
where does the term pinky finger come from | Little finger - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the fictional character from A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones , see Littlefinger .
|Little finger|
|Details|
|Artery|| Proper palmar digital arteries , |
dorsal digital arteries
|Vein|| Palmar digital veins , |
dorsal digital veins
|Nerve||Dorsal digital nerves of ulnar nerve|
|Lymph||supratrochlear|
|Identifiers|
|Latin|| digitus minimus manus, |
digitus quintus manus,
digitus V manus
|TA98||A01.1.00.057|
|TA2||155|
|FMA||24949|
| Anatomical terminology |
[ edit on Wikidata ]
The little finger , or pinkie , also known as the baby finger , fifth digit , or pinky finger , is the most ulnar and smallest digit of the human hand , and next to the ring finger .
The word "pinkie" is derived from the Dutch word pink , meaning "little finger".
The earliest recorded use of the term "pinkie" is from Scotland in 1808. [1] The term (sometimes spelled "pinky") is common in Scottish English [2] and American English , [3] and is also used extensively in other Commonwealth countries such as New Zealand, Canada, and Australia. [4] [5]
The little finger is nearly impossible for most people to bend independently (without also bending the ring finger), due to the nerves for each digit being intertwined. [ citation needed ] There are also nine muscles that control the fifth digit: Three in the hypothenar eminence , two extrinsic flexors, two extrinsic extensors, and two more intrinsic muscles:
- Hypothenar eminence:
- Two extrinsic flexors:
Note: the dorsal interossei of the hand muscles do not have an attachment to the fifth digit
Among American children, a " pinky swear " or "pinky promise" is made when a person wraps one of their pinky fingers around another person's pinky and makes a promise . [6] Something similar is also seen in China and Korea, where people link their pinky fingers and then stamp their thumbs together to make a yaksok (promise).
Among members of the Japanese yakuza (gangsters), the penalty for various offenses is removal of parts of the little finger (known as yubitsume ). [7]
It is a common misconception that one should extend their little finger when drinking from a teacup. This practice is generally deprecated by etiquette guides as a sign of snobbery amongst the socially inferior, [8] [9] with various cultural theories as to the origin of the practice including the idea that finger food should be eaten with only the first three digits. [10]
The messaging application Teams from Microsoft [11] has an emoji which is a representation of a closed hand with the little finger raised. The description is "Nature's call" which is a polite euphemism used when someone feels a need to urinate or defecate. [12]
The signet ring is traditionally worn on the little finger of a gentleman's left hand, a practice still common especially in the United Kingdom , Australia , and European cultures. A signet ring is considered part of the regalia of many European monarchies, and also of the Pope, with the ring always worn on the left little finger. In modern times the location of the signet ring has relaxed, with examples worn on various different digits, although little fingers still tend to be the most usual.
The Iron Ring is a symbolic ring worn by most Canadian engineers . The Ring is a symbol of both pride and humility for the engineering profession, and is always worn on the little finger of the dominant hand . In the United States , the Engineer's Ring is a stainless steel ring worn on the fifth digit of the working hand by engineers who belong to the Order of the Engineer [13] and have accepted the Obligation of an Engineer. [14]
The little finger is often used as a support when smartphone users type one-handed. The little finger is positioned underneath the phone, allowing it to be propped with the three middle fingers, and the user to type with their thumb. [15]
Some users reported dents on their little finger and pain in the hand after prolonged use in this way, doctors referred to this as "iPhone pinky" or "smartphone pinky". The skin indentations were reported to be nothing of alarm, as they disappeared on their own after a short while without cell phone use. [15] [16]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Little fingers .
- Fifth metacarpal bone , the bone in the hand proximal to the little finger
- Pinky ring , a ring worn on the little finger
- Red string of fate , a Japanese belief that soulmates are bound by a string attached to the little finger
- ^ "Pinkie" . World Wide Words . Retrieved 25 July 2018 .
- ^ "Scots word of the season: pinkie" . Association for Scottish Literary Studies. May 2008 . Retrieved 28 January 2020 .
- ^ "Little Finger" . Cambridge English Dictionary . Retrieved 26 July 2019 .
- ^ Arthurs, Deborah; Gladwell, Hattie (21 January 2016). "Has your smartphone given you 'smartphone pinky'?" . Metro . Retrieved 6 April 2020 .
- ^ Barrie, Joshua (15 February 2018). "Woman cuts off finger, names it 'Wiggles' and wears it as pendant necklace" . The Mirror . Retrieved 6 April 2020 .
A woman cut off half her pinky finger and now wears it as a pendant around her neck.
- ^ Roud, Steve. The Lore of the Playground . Random House. 2010.
- ^ Hill, Peter B. E.: "The Japanese Mafia: Yakuza, law, and the state", p. 75. Oxford Univ. Press , 2003
- ^ "Tea Etiquette" . Tea Laden . Retrieved 28 July 2018 .
- ^ "Etiquette and History of Afternoon Tea" . An Afternoon to Remember . Retrieved 28 July 2018 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_finger | 135 |
where does the term pinky finger come from | How the 5 Fingers Got Their Names | You use your hands every day to do thousands of things, but have you ever wondered why you refer to your fingers by names like thumb and pinky ? The origins of body part names can be hard to pin down because of the way language evolves, but here’s what we know about why thumbs are thumbs and why little fingers are pinkies.
Different from the other four digits in that it’s shorter and wider and only has two phalanges instead of three, the thumb earned its name from a description of its physical characteristics in relation to its neighbors. In medical terminology, the word for thumb is pollex . The term thumb was first used before the 12th century and is believed to have come from the Proto-Indo-European term tum , meaning “to swell,” which makes the thumb “the swollen one.” There is some debate as to whether the thumb can rightfully be called a finger, but classification aside, the name fits.
Next in line after the pollex is the digitus secundus manus . Index comes from the Latin indicō , which means “to point out”; that’s also where the term pointer comes into play. Although it is the second digit (after the thumb), the index is recognized as the first finger, which explains why forefinger is also sometimes used.
The second finger (third digit) has the most literal meaning of all. Less commonly referred to as the long or tall finger , the digitus medius manus sits in the center of the hand, right between the digitus secondus manus and the ring finger. How the middle finger became an offensive gesture is another story altogether.
Known medically as the digitus medicinalis , digitus quartus manus , or digitus annularis manus , the origin of the term ring finger dates back to 2nd century Egypt and has to do with the heart. Egyptians believed that there was a vein in the fourth finger, known as the lover’s vein, that was connected to the heart—an untrue theory that Romans also came to believe many years later. To signify that a man had a hold of a woman's heart, he would follow the gospel of Beyoncé and put a ring on it, a practice that lives on today.
The fifth digit and smallest of the fingers is the digitus minimus manus . According to World Wide Words , pinkie was used by Scots to refer to something small, as explained in An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language by John Jamieson, published in 1808. The term comes from the Dutch pink , meaning “small.” Jamieson writes that “to pink” means to “contract the eye,” and the adjective pinkie is “applied to the eye, when small, or contracted.” The Collins Dictionary lists the origin of a related word, pinkeye , to the Dutch pinck oogen , which also appears in Jamieson's dictionary entry for pink and translates to “small eyes.”
A version of this story ran in 2016; it has been updated for 2023. | https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/74308/how-5-fingers-got-their-names | 135 |
where does the term pinky finger come from | Where Do Finger Names Come From? - JSTOR Daily | Most body parts come alone or in pairs. We have one nose, one tongue, and one navel. We sport two eyes, two knees, two feet, and so on. Fingers are a glaring exception—we’ve got a party of five on each side. This presents difficulties. When we want to single one out from the group—to specify which finger we slammed in the door, for instance—what do we do? We name them, naturally. But how?
This is a uniquely human problem. Pentadactyly —the condition of having five fingers—is pervasive in the biological world, but we are the only species that has the capacity (or occasion) to talk about those fingers. The problem is not just that we have five of them, but that they are so vexingly similar: they differ slightly in size and dexterity, but all have that pucker-knuckled, nail-capped look. How have people in different times and places solved this problem? How have they named the members of this confusable quintet? Answering this question offers a tour of the inventiveness of the human mind.
Consider first the thumb . Appearance is an especially common source of thumb names. The modern English word, for example, comes from an older word meaning “stout” or “thick.” Other languages highlight the fact that the thumb is powerful, despite its short stature. The Latin term for this member— pollex , still used in medical contexts —comes from a verb meaning “to be strong.” In Kurdish, these associations of compactness and strength come together in the label “ram finger.”
Get your fix of JSTOR Daily’s best stories in your inbox each Thursday.
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You may unsubscribe at any time by clicking on the provided link on any marketing message.
The case of “ram finger” hints at a broader pattern: we often see our fingers as animate beings, little agents with their own personalities. We thus often name them after animals or after human social roles. In some Native American languages , the thumb is called the “chief finger.” Elsewhere it is cast as a family member : the terms “mother,” “father,” “older brother,” or “grandfather finger” are all attested. Although scarce in Europe, labels that compare fingers to humans are common worldwide. One study found such names in a fifth of the 123 languages surveyed.
The thumb has attracted an array of other names. In Greek, it is known as “what is opposite the fingers.” In several Turkic languages , it is known as the “head finger.” In some parts of the Middle East and Mediterranean, the name for the thumb stems from an unsavory function that, thankfully, it no longer has to serve (much): the lice killer.
Up next: the index finger . This label comes from the finger’s use in pointing: the English word index is rooted in an earlier word meaning “to show.” Names that associate this finger with pointing can be found around the globe, but others come into play as well. English speakers also call it the forefinger because of its position as the first of the fingers proper, excluding the thumb. Medieval texts refer to it as the “greeter” and “teacher.” In Anglo-Saxon times, it was known as the “scythe finger,” for reasons that are murky, and as the “shooting finger,” because it was used to draw back a bowstring.
Around the world, the index finger is associated with other functions. In Iranian languages, it is considered the finger of beckoning, cursing, and protecting. It is also known as the “prayer finger” or “testimony finger”—the label in modern Turkish—because of its use in the Muslim practice of shahada , or profession of faith. One of its most colorful nicknames was based on its penchant for swiping up sauces: the “pot licker.”
Next up: the middle finger . English is not the only language to name this finger for its central position—the “half-way finger” is another example. Some embellish the idea: in Choctaw, it is known as the “middle son,” and in some Turkic languages, it is dubbed the “middle poplar,” evoking the image of the fingers as a stand of trees. Another salient aspect of this middlemost finger is, of course, its length. So we find monikers like the “long finger” or “tall finger,” and colorful variants like the “high grass” or “tall Turk.”
In Latin, the middle finger was known as the digitus impudicus or obscenus —that is, the shameless or lewd finger. Some suggest these terms were due to its use in one of our crudest gestures , but a deeper reason may lie in its appearance. The middle finger, when extended and flanked on either side, is said to resemble a penis and testicles. This phallic form is, in fact, what motivated the gesture in the first place. Another explanation for the lewdness, as one observer notes, is that this is the digit often used to stimulate the female genitals.
Fourth in line: the ring finger . Everyone will recognize the origins of this nickname in modern ring-wearing practices. But not all are aware of the deeper history behind this tradition. According to medieval belief, a nerve or artery ran from the ring finger to the heart. This notion led people to don rings on this digit. It also gave the finger a prominent role in medical lore and practice. Doctors would use the ring finger when applying treatments, for example. Such associations inspired the terms “doctor finger,” “healing finger,” “heart finger,” and “leech finger”—the last because leech was another word for physician.
The term “ring finger” is now found around the globe. But another, somewhat paradoxical name is also popular: the “nameless finger.” This label was once used in parts of Europe, leading Wilhelm Grimm, of fairy tale fame, to speculate about its origins. One of his ideas was that the name alludes to this digit’s squeaky-clean reputation, in contrast to that of its lewd neighbor. Another was that, because of the finger’s quasi-mystical uses in healing, some dared not speak its name.
A simpler explanation may be in order, however. This same paradoxical label is found in Native American languages and in Chinese, making it unlikely that it stems from cultural beliefs peculiar to Europe. Rather, the nameless-ness of this finger may be due to its utter unremarkability. Sandwiched between more distinctive fingers, and not particularly useful, the ring finger is—let’s face it—the forgettable also-ran of the bunch.
Littlest but not least: the pinky . Appearances aside, the English word has nothing to do with the color pink—rather, it was borrowed from Dutch. The deeper origins of the word are debated, but it may have stuck around because it bears a suffix (“-y”) often used in English for small, endearing things. The pinky is, after all, the loveable runt of the hand.
A fixation on the size of this digit is found the world over. It is variously called the “baby,” “youngest child,” or “last-born daughter.” In Turkish, it is known as the “sparrow finger,” after the distinctively diminutive bird. A related idea is that this finger is a bit of a straggler. In some places, it is known as the “orphan” or “behind” finger.
Frankly, the little finger does not do a whole lot. Terms based on its functions are thus somewhat scarce. One exception is found in Latin, where the pinky was labeled the auricularis —that is, the “ear finger.” This aural association, still found in modern French, is due to what is perhaps this finger’s most noteworthy talent: wax removal.
These solutions to the finger-naming problem showcase the human mind at work—and at play. In language after language, digits are named for their appearance, position, and size. They are likened to birds, dogs, and sheep, compared to chiefs, children, parents, and grandparents. They are recognized for their roles in praying, hunting, healing, cursing, licking pots, and squashing pests. Surveying this colorful compendium, we find, on the one hand, unexpected patterns and, on the other, delightful diversity.
Is this diversity a thing of the past? Is the finger-naming problem solved once and for all? There are some signs that digital nomenclature is, like much else, headed toward global homogeneity. But the matter is hardly settled. We keep finding new uses for our hands, which could inspire new names. Cultures are constantly changing and forging new associations. This curious corner of human communication will continue to bear the hallmarks of our species’ inventiveness. Or so we can hope. | https://daily.jstor.org/where-do-finger-names-come-from/ | 135 |
where does the term pinky finger come from | World Wide Words: Pinkie | Q From Paul Mills, London : I would like to know the origin of pinkie , and when it was initially used in the US. I came across the term yesterday in speaking to an American. Is it a slang term? She stated that it is a term used to refer to the little finger.
A Its sense of the little finger is actually quite old. Curiously, though it is now often thought of as an American term, it began its life in Scotland — the first recorded example, from 1808, is in John Jamieson’s An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language .
You might think that it is called pinkie because European little fingers are usually coloured pink, but this isn’t so (though its modern survival might owe something to this idea). It derives from a much older sense of pinkie for something tiny, which in turn comes from one meaning of the adjective pink . This adjective came into Scots from Dutch. It appeared first as part of the phrase pink eye for a half-shut or peering eye (from old Dutch pinck ooghen , which may well be the source of the modern Dutch verb pinkogen , to half close the eyes or squint).
In modern Dutch pink means the little finger, so it might look as though the American pinkie comes directly from it. The evidence, though, is that Scots played a key intermediate role.
The sense of the colour, by the way, came from the flower called the pink , whose name probably derives from pink eye , perhaps because of the folded petals that made the flower look a bit like a half-closed eye, or possibly from a completely separate sense of pink that referred to making holes or scalloped edges in cloth (as in pinking shears ), because of the crinkled edges of the petals.
[My thanks to Harry Lake for sorting out the Dutch word senses.]
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where does the term pinky finger come from | Where Do Finger Names Come From? - JSTOR Daily | Most body parts come alone or in pairs. We have one nose, one tongue, and one navel. We sport two eyes, two knees, two feet, and so on. Fingers are a glaring exception—we’ve got a party of five on each side. This presents difficulties. When we want to single one out from the group—to specify which finger we slammed in the door, for instance—what do we do? We name them, naturally. But how?
This is a uniquely human problem. Pentadactyly —the condition of having five fingers—is pervasive in the biological world, but we are the only species that has the capacity (or occasion) to talk about those fingers. The problem is not just that we have five of them, but that they are so vexingly similar: they differ slightly in size and dexterity, but all have that pucker-knuckled, nail-capped look. How have people in different times and places solved this problem? How have they named the members of this confusable quintet? Answering this question offers a tour of the inventiveness of the human mind.
Consider first the thumb . Appearance is an especially common source of thumb names. The modern English word, for example, comes from an older word meaning “stout” or “thick.” Other languages highlight the fact that the thumb is powerful, despite its short stature. The Latin term for this member— pollex , still used in medical contexts —comes from a verb meaning “to be strong.” In Kurdish, these associations of compactness and strength come together in the label “ram finger.”
Get your fix of JSTOR Daily’s best stories in your inbox each Thursday.
Privacy Policy Contact Us
You may unsubscribe at any time by clicking on the provided link on any marketing message.
The case of “ram finger” hints at a broader pattern: we often see our fingers as animate beings, little agents with their own personalities. We thus often name them after animals or after human social roles. In some Native American languages , the thumb is called the “chief finger.” Elsewhere it is cast as a family member : the terms “mother,” “father,” “older brother,” or “grandfather finger” are all attested. Although scarce in Europe, labels that compare fingers to humans are common worldwide. One study found such names in a fifth of the 123 languages surveyed.
The thumb has attracted an array of other names. In Greek, it is known as “what is opposite the fingers.” In several Turkic languages , it is known as the “head finger.” In some parts of the Middle East and Mediterranean, the name for the thumb stems from an unsavory function that, thankfully, it no longer has to serve (much): the lice killer.
Up next: the index finger . This label comes from the finger’s use in pointing: the English word index is rooted in an earlier word meaning “to show.” Names that associate this finger with pointing can be found around the globe, but others come into play as well. English speakers also call it the forefinger because of its position as the first of the fingers proper, excluding the thumb. Medieval texts refer to it as the “greeter” and “teacher.” In Anglo-Saxon times, it was known as the “scythe finger,” for reasons that are murky, and as the “shooting finger,” because it was used to draw back a bowstring.
Around the world, the index finger is associated with other functions. In Iranian languages, it is considered the finger of beckoning, cursing, and protecting. It is also known as the “prayer finger” or “testimony finger”—the label in modern Turkish—because of its use in the Muslim practice of shahada , or profession of faith. One of its most colorful nicknames was based on its penchant for swiping up sauces: the “pot licker.”
Next up: the middle finger . English is not the only language to name this finger for its central position—the “half-way finger” is another example. Some embellish the idea: in Choctaw, it is known as the “middle son,” and in some Turkic languages, it is dubbed the “middle poplar,” evoking the image of the fingers as a stand of trees. Another salient aspect of this middlemost finger is, of course, its length. So we find monikers like the “long finger” or “tall finger,” and colorful variants like the “high grass” or “tall Turk.”
In Latin, the middle finger was known as the digitus impudicus or obscenus —that is, the shameless or lewd finger. Some suggest these terms were due to its use in one of our crudest gestures , but a deeper reason may lie in its appearance. The middle finger, when extended and flanked on either side, is said to resemble a penis and testicles. This phallic form is, in fact, what motivated the gesture in the first place. Another explanation for the lewdness, as one observer notes, is that this is the digit often used to stimulate the female genitals.
Fourth in line: the ring finger . Everyone will recognize the origins of this nickname in modern ring-wearing practices. But not all are aware of the deeper history behind this tradition. According to medieval belief, a nerve or artery ran from the ring finger to the heart. This notion led people to don rings on this digit. It also gave the finger a prominent role in medical lore and practice. Doctors would use the ring finger when applying treatments, for example. Such associations inspired the terms “doctor finger,” “healing finger,” “heart finger,” and “leech finger”—the last because leech was another word for physician.
The term “ring finger” is now found around the globe. But another, somewhat paradoxical name is also popular: the “nameless finger.” This label was once used in parts of Europe, leading Wilhelm Grimm, of fairy tale fame, to speculate about its origins. One of his ideas was that the name alludes to this digit’s squeaky-clean reputation, in contrast to that of its lewd neighbor. Another was that, because of the finger’s quasi-mystical uses in healing, some dared not speak its name.
A simpler explanation may be in order, however. This same paradoxical label is found in Native American languages and in Chinese, making it unlikely that it stems from cultural beliefs peculiar to Europe. Rather, the nameless-ness of this finger may be due to its utter unremarkability. Sandwiched between more distinctive fingers, and not particularly useful, the ring finger is—let’s face it—the forgettable also-ran of the bunch.
Littlest but not least: the pinky . Appearances aside, the English word has nothing to do with the color pink—rather, it was borrowed from Dutch. The deeper origins of the word are debated, but it may have stuck around because it bears a suffix (“-y”) often used in English for small, endearing things. The pinky is, after all, the loveable runt of the hand.
A fixation on the size of this digit is found the world over. It is variously called the “baby,” “youngest child,” or “last-born daughter.” In Turkish, it is known as the “sparrow finger,” after the distinctively diminutive bird. A related idea is that this finger is a bit of a straggler. In some places, it is known as the “orphan” or “behind” finger.
Frankly, the little finger does not do a whole lot. Terms based on its functions are thus somewhat scarce. One exception is found in Latin, where the pinky was labeled the auricularis —that is, the “ear finger.” This aural association, still found in modern French, is due to what is perhaps this finger’s most noteworthy talent: wax removal.
These solutions to the finger-naming problem showcase the human mind at work—and at play. In language after language, digits are named for their appearance, position, and size. They are likened to birds, dogs, and sheep, compared to chiefs, children, parents, and grandparents. They are recognized for their roles in praying, hunting, healing, cursing, licking pots, and squashing pests. Surveying this colorful compendium, we find, on the one hand, unexpected patterns and, on the other, delightful diversity.
Is this diversity a thing of the past? Is the finger-naming problem solved once and for all? There are some signs that digital nomenclature is, like much else, headed toward global homogeneity. But the matter is hardly settled. We keep finding new uses for our hands, which could inspire new names. Cultures are constantly changing and forging new associations. This curious corner of human communication will continue to bear the hallmarks of our species’ inventiveness. Or so we can hope. | https://daily.jstor.org/where-do-finger-names-come-from/ | 135 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | Dog bite infection: Symptoms, treatment, and complications | If a dog bite pierces a person’s skin, bacteria from the animal’s mouth can get into the body, which can cause an infection.
Washing the wound thoroughly can remove the bacteria from the body and help prevent infection. If the bacteria stay in the body, they can cause an infection, such as tetanus , rabies , or sepsis .
In some cases, an infection can spread to other parts of the body. People will need antibiotics or vaccinations to treat these types of infection.
Symptoms of a dog bite infection can include:
- swelling and redness around the wound
- pain that lasts longer than 24 hours
- drainage from the wound
- difficulty moving the affected part of the body
- a warm feeling around the wound
Signs that the infection may have spread to other parts of the body include:
To help prevent infection from a dog bite, people should wash the wound as soon as possible. People can treat minor wounds by:
- washing the wound with soap and warm water, making sure to clean the area thoroughly
- running the wound under lukewarm water to flush out bacteria
- applying antibiotic cream to the wound and then wrapping a clean bandage around it
People should deal with deeper, more serious wounds by:
- pressing a dry, clean cloth firmly against the wound to stop the bleeding
- seeking medical attention straight away
- calling 911 or getting emergency help if the bleeding is uncontrollable or the person feels faint
People may be able to use at-home treatments to prevent a dog bite from becoming infected. Cleaning minor wounds immediately is often sufficient. However, people should see a doctor for more serious wounds.
A doctor may use a syringe to apply water and a cleaning solution to the wound. Doing this helps flush out bacteria from the wound. The doctor may then prescribe antibiotics to fight off any bacteria that have entered the body and prevent infection.
A doctor will also be able to examine the wound to look for any damage to structures in the body, such as nerves or bones.
If the person has not had a tetanus vaccine in the last 5 years , they may need to have one to reduce the risk of tetanus.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics , people with a dirty wound should have a booster tetanus vaccine if more than 5 years have passed since their last shot. For a clean wound, people should have a booster vaccine if it has been more than 10 years since their last shot.
In cases of severe or facial wounds, people may need stitches to close the wound. If the person does not know the dog’s history of rabies vaccination, they will need a postexposure rabies vaccine to protect them from the possibility of rabies.
Bites on the hands or feet carry a higher risk of infection. Certain infections from dog bites can be very serious and lead to complications. Without treatment, these infections can be fatal.
If people have a Capnocytophaga infection from a dog bite, they may have the following symptoms:
- blistering around the wound
- redness, swelling, and pain around the wound
- oozing from the wound
- fever
- vomiting and diarrhea
- joint pain
A doctor will prescribe antibiotics to treat a Capnocytophaga infection.
Untreated animal bites can sometimes lead to sepsis. Sepsis is a severe reaction to infection, and it can be life threatening. Signs of sepsis include:
- high or low body temperature
- confusion
- extreme daytime sleepiness
- severe pain or discomfort
If a person suspects that they have sepsis, they should seek immediate medical attention. A doctor will treat sepsis with antibiotics and intravenous fluids.
People can get rabies if a dog that has rabies bites them. The first symptoms of rabies are:
- a headache, fever, and other flu-like symptoms
- weakness
- an itching or prickling feeling around the bite
Rabies is fatal if a person does not receive treatment. People should see their doctor straight away if they think that the dog that bit them might have rabies. Postexposure rabies vaccination can treat the infection.
A dog bite can cause tetanus bacteria to enter the body. Symptoms of tetanus include:
- cramping in the jaw
- muscle spasms, usually in the stomach
- difficulty swallowing
- muscle stiffness
Tetanus is a serious infection. People with any symptoms of tetanus need immediate medical attention. They will require medications, such as antibiotics, as well as a tetanus vaccine.
People should seek emergency medical attention for a dog bite if they have:
- uncontrollable bleeding from the wound
- a fever
- a red, swollen, or painful wound
- a wound that feels warm
- a deep wound and have not had their tetanus shot within the last
5 years | https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326976 | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | Dog bite infection: Symptoms, treatment, and complications | If a dog bite pierces a person’s skin, bacteria from the animal’s mouth can get into the body, which can cause an infection.
Washing the wound thoroughly can remove the bacteria from the body and help prevent infection. If the bacteria stay in the body, they can cause an infection, such as tetanus , rabies , or sepsis .
In some cases, an infection can spread to other parts of the body. People will need antibiotics or vaccinations to treat these types of infection.
Symptoms of a dog bite infection can include:
- swelling and redness around the wound
- pain that lasts longer than 24 hours
- drainage from the wound
- difficulty moving the affected part of the body
- a warm feeling around the wound
Signs that the infection may have spread to other parts of the body include:
To help prevent infection from a dog bite, people should wash the wound as soon as possible. People can treat minor wounds by:
- washing the wound with soap and warm water, making sure to clean the area thoroughly
- running the wound under lukewarm water to flush out bacteria
- applying antibiotic cream to the wound and then wrapping a clean bandage around it
People should deal with deeper, more serious wounds by:
- pressing a dry, clean cloth firmly against the wound to stop the bleeding
- seeking medical attention straight away
- calling 911 or getting emergency help if the bleeding is uncontrollable or the person feels faint
People may be able to use at-home treatments to prevent a dog bite from becoming infected. Cleaning minor wounds immediately is often sufficient. However, people should see a doctor for more serious wounds.
A doctor may use a syringe to apply water and a cleaning solution to the wound. Doing this helps flush out bacteria from the wound. The doctor may then prescribe antibiotics to fight off any bacteria that have entered the body and prevent infection.
A doctor will also be able to examine the wound to look for any damage to structures in the body, such as nerves or bones.
If the person has not had a tetanus vaccine in the last 5 years , they may need to have one to reduce the risk of tetanus.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics , people with a dirty wound should have a booster tetanus vaccine if more than 5 years have passed since their last shot. For a clean wound, people should have a booster vaccine if it has been more than 10 years since their last shot.
In cases of severe or facial wounds, people may need stitches to close the wound. If the person does not know the dog’s history of rabies vaccination, they will need a postexposure rabies vaccine to protect them from the possibility of rabies.
Bites on the hands or feet carry a higher risk of infection. Certain infections from dog bites can be very serious and lead to complications. Without treatment, these infections can be fatal.
If people have a Capnocytophaga infection from a dog bite, they may have the following symptoms:
- blistering around the wound
- redness, swelling, and pain around the wound
- oozing from the wound
- fever
- vomiting and diarrhea
- joint pain
A doctor will prescribe antibiotics to treat a Capnocytophaga infection.
Untreated animal bites can sometimes lead to sepsis. Sepsis is a severe reaction to infection, and it can be life threatening. Signs of sepsis include:
- high or low body temperature
- confusion
- extreme daytime sleepiness
- severe pain or discomfort
If a person suspects that they have sepsis, they should seek immediate medical attention. A doctor will treat sepsis with antibiotics and intravenous fluids.
People can get rabies if a dog that has rabies bites them. The first symptoms of rabies are:
- a headache, fever, and other flu-like symptoms
- weakness
- an itching or prickling feeling around the bite
Rabies is fatal if a person does not receive treatment. People should see their doctor straight away if they think that the dog that bit them might have rabies. Postexposure rabies vaccination can treat the infection.
A dog bite can cause tetanus bacteria to enter the body. Symptoms of tetanus include:
- cramping in the jaw
- muscle spasms, usually in the stomach
- difficulty swallowing
- muscle stiffness
Tetanus is a serious infection. People with any symptoms of tetanus need immediate medical attention. They will require medications, such as antibiotics, as well as a tetanus vaccine.
People should seek emergency medical attention for a dog bite if they have:
- uncontrollable bleeding from the wound
- a fever
- a red, swollen, or painful wound
- a wound that feels warm
- a deep wound and have not had their tetanus shot within the last
5 years | https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326976 | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | Dog bite infection: Symptoms, treatment, and complications | If a dog bite pierces a person’s skin, bacteria from the animal’s mouth can get into the body, which can cause an infection.
Washing the wound thoroughly can remove the bacteria from the body and help prevent infection. If the bacteria stay in the body, they can cause an infection, such as tetanus , rabies , or sepsis .
In some cases, an infection can spread to other parts of the body. People will need antibiotics or vaccinations to treat these types of infection.
Symptoms of a dog bite infection can include:
- swelling and redness around the wound
- pain that lasts longer than 24 hours
- drainage from the wound
- difficulty moving the affected part of the body
- a warm feeling around the wound
Signs that the infection may have spread to other parts of the body include:
To help prevent infection from a dog bite, people should wash the wound as soon as possible. People can treat minor wounds by:
- washing the wound with soap and warm water, making sure to clean the area thoroughly
- running the wound under lukewarm water to flush out bacteria
- applying antibiotic cream to the wound and then wrapping a clean bandage around it
People should deal with deeper, more serious wounds by:
- pressing a dry, clean cloth firmly against the wound to stop the bleeding
- seeking medical attention straight away
- calling 911 or getting emergency help if the bleeding is uncontrollable or the person feels faint
People may be able to use at-home treatments to prevent a dog bite from becoming infected. Cleaning minor wounds immediately is often sufficient. However, people should see a doctor for more serious wounds.
A doctor may use a syringe to apply water and a cleaning solution to the wound. Doing this helps flush out bacteria from the wound. The doctor may then prescribe antibiotics to fight off any bacteria that have entered the body and prevent infection.
A doctor will also be able to examine the wound to look for any damage to structures in the body, such as nerves or bones.
If the person has not had a tetanus vaccine in the last 5 years , they may need to have one to reduce the risk of tetanus.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics , people with a dirty wound should have a booster tetanus vaccine if more than 5 years have passed since their last shot. For a clean wound, people should have a booster vaccine if it has been more than 10 years since their last shot.
In cases of severe or facial wounds, people may need stitches to close the wound. If the person does not know the dog’s history of rabies vaccination, they will need a postexposure rabies vaccine to protect them from the possibility of rabies.
Bites on the hands or feet carry a higher risk of infection. Certain infections from dog bites can be very serious and lead to complications. Without treatment, these infections can be fatal.
If people have a Capnocytophaga infection from a dog bite, they may have the following symptoms:
- blistering around the wound
- redness, swelling, and pain around the wound
- oozing from the wound
- fever
- vomiting and diarrhea
- joint pain
A doctor will prescribe antibiotics to treat a Capnocytophaga infection.
Untreated animal bites can sometimes lead to sepsis. Sepsis is a severe reaction to infection, and it can be life threatening. Signs of sepsis include:
- high or low body temperature
- confusion
- extreme daytime sleepiness
- severe pain or discomfort
If a person suspects that they have sepsis, they should seek immediate medical attention. A doctor will treat sepsis with antibiotics and intravenous fluids.
People can get rabies if a dog that has rabies bites them. The first symptoms of rabies are:
- a headache, fever, and other flu-like symptoms
- weakness
- an itching or prickling feeling around the bite
Rabies is fatal if a person does not receive treatment. People should see their doctor straight away if they think that the dog that bit them might have rabies. Postexposure rabies vaccination can treat the infection.
A dog bite can cause tetanus bacteria to enter the body. Symptoms of tetanus include:
- cramping in the jaw
- muscle spasms, usually in the stomach
- difficulty swallowing
- muscle stiffness
Tetanus is a serious infection. People with any symptoms of tetanus need immediate medical attention. They will require medications, such as antibiotics, as well as a tetanus vaccine.
People should seek emergency medical attention for a dog bite if they have:
- uncontrollable bleeding from the wound
- a fever
- a red, swollen, or painful wound
- a wound that feels warm
- a deep wound and have not had their tetanus shot within the last
5 years | https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326976 | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | (1) New Message! | A dog attack can be one of the most gruesome and traumatic incidents for victims and bystanders. The nature of a dog attack can be highly psychologically scarring. It can also leave behind physical scarring and disfigurement. Even a minor dog bite could become infected and cause health complications. The Nebraska courts recognize a dog bite victim’s right to file a claim for compensation for the long-term effects of an injury.
It is critical to treat a dog bite injury immediately after it happens. Waiting can increase the risks of the bite festering and becoming infected. Bacterial infections are common with dog bite injuries due to bacteria living in the dog’s mouth. The victim needs to go to a doctor, urgent care center or hospital for prompt treatment. Dog bite treatment may include wound debridement to rid it of dirt and debris, flushing out the wound, administering antibacterial ointments and antibiotics to prevent infection, and bandaging the wound to encourage proper healing. A dog bite victim might have an infection if he or she notices certain symptoms.
- Redness, especially in streaks
- Swelling around the wound
- Drainage, such as pus
- Pain lasting longer than 24 hours
- Trouble moving the injured part of the body
- Warmth coming from the wound
- Fever and night sweats
Any possible symptoms of infection require medical attention. Before leaving the scene of the attack, a victim should ask the pet’s owner if the dog is up to date on its shots. Without proper vaccinations, serious complications could arise from a dog bite injury, including rabies and tetanus. These are potentially deadly diseases in humans. Even if the dog does not transfer any bacteria, the victim could experience other long-term health consequences from a deep bite. These can include broken or splintered bones, nerve damage, and muscle damage. Going to a hospital can help prevent these types of long-term complications with adequate treatments.
Sadly, many dog attacks inflict wounds that permanently scar, disfigure or maim the victim. A serious dog attack can cause injuries such as lacerations, puncture wounds and avulsions, or the tearing away of skin. Some victims, especially children, suffer these injuries in visible and vulnerable places such as the face. Victims may require stitches, skin grafts, plastic surgery or surgeries to try to minimize the amount of scarring and disfigurement from the dog attack. The scars a victim has, however, can be permanent.
The long-term effects of a dog bite are not only physical. A dog attack survivor can also experience many lasting psychological effects. A common psychological outcome of a dog bite is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD can come with symptoms such as nightmares, intrusive flashbacks, severe anxiety, fear, stress, depression and trouble sleeping. PTSD from a dog attack can affect both the victim and any bystanders who witnessed the incident – especially those who had personal relationships with the victim.
Another common psychological effect that could last long after the attack – in some cases, for the victim’s life – is a phobia of dogs. This is especially common in young children who survive traumatic dog attacks. Phobias can hinder a child’s enjoyment of life, leading to issues such as anxiety, nightmares, regression, mood swings, outbursts and emotional distress. The survivor of a dog attack might have a permanent phobia of dogs.
The survivor of a dog attack may be eligible for financial compensation for all the physical and nonphysical long-term effects of the dog bite injury. A dog bite injury lawyer in Omaha can help a victim with the legal processes involved in obtaining fair compensation. While a victim heals and receives treatment for physical and psychological damages, a lawyer can work hard to secure a full financial recovery. An award can pay for past and future dog bite complications. | https://www.knowleslawfirm.com/what-are-the-long-term-effects-of-a-dog-bite/ | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | If a Dog Bites You, Do These 6 Things Now | You’re playing with your dog, and somehow, between growls and tail wags, it can happen. Those canine teeth can bite or scratch. Or alternatively, you could be walking down a street and an unknown mutt can attack without warning.
Either way, there are steps you need to take right away to treat the wound and reduce the risk of infection. You’ll need professional medical attention the same day.
A dog’s front teeth will grab and compress your tissue, and their smaller teeth can also tear your skin. The result is an open, jagged wound. If the wound becomes infected, it is often severe, says emergency medicine physician Stephen Sayles III, MD .
“The No. 1 concern with these bites is infection,” he says. “You may need hospitalization and require intravenous antibiotics. You should always see a primary care provider if you’re bitten.”
No matter what, make sure you see a doctor within eight hours of a dog bite, he says. Waiting longer raises your infection risk. If you have diabetes or are immunocompromised , your infection risk is even greater.
If a dog bites you, take these steps right away:
- Wash the wound . Use mild soap, and run warm tap water over it for five to 10 minutes.
- Slow the bleeding with a clean cloth.
- Apply over-the counter antibiotic cream if you have it.
- Wrap the wound in a sterile bandage.
- Keep the wound bandaged and see your doctor .
- Change the bandage several times a day once your doctor has examined the wound.
- Watch for signs of infection , including redness, swelling, increased pain and fever.
Your doctor will want to know more about the dog that bit you and how it happened. They will also likely clean the wound again, apply antibiotic ointment and prescribe antibiotics, such as Augmentin, if there’s an infection concern.
After any bite, you should make sure you know when your last tetanus shot was — and that you’re up-to-date. While a tetanus immunization is good for 10 years, Dr. Sayles notes, your doctor may recommend a booster if the wound is dirty and it’s been more than five years since your last shot.
Depending on the wound, your doctor may also recommend stitches. Generally, though, dog wounds are left open to heal unless they are on the face or if they could leave particularly severe scars if left unsutured.
Roughly half of dog bites introduce bacteria, including staphylococcus, streptococcus and pasteurella, as well as capnocytophaga .
Unvaccinated and feral dogs can also potentially carry — and transfer — rabies , so your doctor will want to know details about the dog that bit you.
Ultimately, Dr. Sayles says, caring for a dog bite is about keeping bacteria from causing an infection. | https://health.clevelandclinic.org/if-a-dog-bites-you-do-these-7-things-now/ | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | Dog Bite: Infections, Treatment & Prevention | In the U.S., there are about 4.5 million dog bites a year.
- Dog bites account for up to 90% of all animal bites. 4.5 million dog bites occur each year in the U.S., and more than 27,000 victims require reconstructive surgery.
- Injuries may involve structures deep beneath the skin including muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels.
- Infections, including tetanus and rabies , need to be considered for a dog bite .
- Wound cleaning decreases the risk of infections from dog bites.
- Skin repair increases the risk of infection, and the decision to suture the skin balances the risk of infection versus the benefit of a better appearing scar .
Almost 70 million dogs live in the United States, and since many victims of dog bites don't seek medical care or report the attack, it may be that the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)'s estimate of 4.5 million dog bites each year in the U.S. may be too low. Over one million of dog bite victims go to emergency medical care at hospitals in the U.S. every year.
Dogs have rounded teeth , and it is the pressure exerted by their jaws that can cause significant damage to the tissues under the skin, including bones, muscles, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves.
The risk of being bitten by a dog increases if there is a dog in the home; the more dogs there are, the greater the risk. Men are more frequently bitten by dogs than women, who are bitten by cats more often. Children between the ages of 5 and 9 are more likely to be bitten by a dog than other age groups. Children are also more likely to need medical attention.
If a dog bites you or someone that you are with, you need to go to a safe place away from the dog that has bitten you to prevent further attack and injury. Infants and children should be evaluated after any dog bite.
If there are no signs of skin damage or if there is a small amount of abrasion from a dog bite, it may be reasonable to watch for signs and symptoms of infection ( pain , redness, warmth, swelling, and drainage of pus or fluid) before seeking medical care.
Wounds should be kept elevated and if it is possible, you may attempt to clean the dog bite with tap water.
Gather information from the dog's owner about the dog's rabies immunization status, but if this is not possible, hospitals, animal control centers, or law enforcement personnel will help gather any required information.
Since dog bites can cause significant damage beneath the skin, a type of injury that cannot always easily be seen. Moreover, if there is pain at or near the dog bite, underlying tissues, and other structures may have been damaged or if the bite disrupts the skin causing a puncture, laceration, or tear, call your doctor or go to the nearest Urgent Care or Emergency Department.
Three important treatment issues that need to be addressed with a dog bite:
- Skin damage
- Injury to underlying tissues such as muscle, nerve, and bone
- Infection
It is easy to look at a dog bite and see that the skin has been damaged, but it is also important to assess the underlying structures that may have also been injured in the attack. The patient often concentrates on the cosmetic appearance of the wound; while that is important, the health care practitioner may be more concerned about the injuries that will impair the body's function. For example, a laceration to a hand may look bad, but more important than the potential scarring would be a lacerated tendon that would prevent a finger from moving.
The potential for infection from a dog bite is extremely high. Dog bites inoculate bacteria deep into the tissue, and while not as aggressive as cat bites, the majority of dog bites get infected. Common bacteria involved in such infections include Streptococcus , Staphylococcus , and Pasteurella .
Find out if the dog that bit you has current rabies immunizations. If the dog has not been immunized for rabies, the question becomes whether to immunize the patient against the rabies virus. A variety of approaches may be considered depending upon the situation surrounding the bite.
- Is the dog available to be observed?
- Was the bite provoked or defensive rather than an unprovoked attack?
- Where is the bite located?
- What is the past medical history of the victim?
Once the doctor or other healthcare professional has taken a history of the events and examined the patient, most dog bites can be cared for in the emergency department, urgent care centers, or a doctor's office. The physical exam will help decide whether any deep structures like muscle, tendon, nerve, or bone have been damaged.
Commonly, the wound is anesthetized so that it can be explored. This will help confirm the condition of the deep structures and their function. The wound will then be washed with normal saline (a salt-water solution) to irrigate out as much dirt and bacteria as possible.
Once the wound has been cleaned, a decision needs to be made on whether to close the skin. Stitching the skin (to make the scar look better) increases the risk of infection. Balancing the risk of infection against the benefit of a better-looking scar depends upon the location of the injury and the discussion between the doctor and the patient. Dog bites to the face tend to be sutured, while those located on less noticeable parts of the body may be left to heal on their own.
Sometimes, dog bite wounds need surgery to repair the wound if there is considerable skin damage or skin loss, or if there are associated injuries that need treatment.
Some dog bites In infants and children may need surgery to repair lacerations, especially if facial wounds are involved, because of the need for a prolonged anesthetic to keep the patient still.
There is some controversy regarding antibiotic therapy for dog bites. Some doctors routinely prescribe antibiotics while others choose to wait until the wound shows signs and symptoms of potential infection. | https://www.medicinenet.com/dog_bite_treatment/article.htm | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | Get checked for these 3 diseases after a dog bite | Posted
Dogs are the ultimate sidekick and make our lives better. More than 36% of U.S. households own at least one dog. But what happens if your dog bites you or someone else? It’s important to understand dog bite dangers.
Dog bites are common and can happen almost anywhere, at any time. Stressed dogs can become aggressive if the dog is frightened by a loud noise or are in an unfamiliar environment.
Getting bitten can be a traumatic experience for everyone involved. On average, “a dog bites one out of every 69 people,” according to a study from the Centers for Disease Control.
And according to CDC dog bite statistics, one in five people require medical attention after a dog bite.
If a dog attacks you, it is important to contact a dog bite attorney that can help you determine if you are eligible to receive any compensation.
While you cope with the immediate pain, you also need to be prepared for the risk of dog bite infections or the threat of contracting a dangerous disease.
By knowing potential dog bite dangers , you can take action immediately to treat any possible conditions from dog bites.
Many factors could contribute to a dog biting another dog or person. Dogs bite if they feel threatened or want to protect their owners.
Dogs also are more likely to bite children rather than adults.
Be cautious when approaching an unfamiliar dog.
Always ask the owner if petting a dog is OK before reaching out. New scents and a new environment can make a dog anxious and cause him to become aggressive.
In addition to being painful, dog bites can spread several types of bacteria and diseases. More than 700 types of bacteria live in a dog’s mouth. Fortunately, only a few can make humans sick.
Here are the top three diseases you can get from dog bites.
A virus that affects the brain and spinal cord, rabies is typically passed through a scratch or the saliva of an infected animal. The most common carriers of the disease are raccoons , skunks, foxes, and bats, so it’s essential to keep dogs away from wild animals.
After being exposed to rabies, dogs may show extreme changes in their behavior.
They become more prone to biting or snapping at any form of stimuli, such as humans and animals.
As it progresses, rabies can cause paralysis of the throat and jaw, weakness, seizures, and death.
Symptoms of rabies infection are similar to the flu and can also include fever, agitation, excessive salivation, and partial paralysis.
If a dog bites you, it’s essential to ensure the dog has a rabies vaccine .
In nastyition to the chance of a bad infection, dog bites can also result in the transmission of Tetanus. The bacteria Clostridium tetani causes the infection . Tetanus infects the body through both superficial and deep breaks in the skin.
Although typically uncommon and with an average of roughly 30 reported cases each year , Tetanus can still cause significant problems if you fail to stay up to date on your 10-year booster shot.
Symptoms of Tetanus after a dog bite include jaw cramping, muscle stiffness, headache, and trouble swallowing.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a dangerous bacteria that dogs can carry without showing any symptoms. Transmission an lead to antibiotic resistant staph infections.
MRSA infections can cause serious health problems, such as bloodstream infections and pneumonia. The infection site will be red, warm to the touch, and painful, which can easily be mistaken for a small bug bite. Getting immediate medical treatment makes it less likely the injury will become serious.
If a dog bites you, get to a safe place, thoroughly clean the bite area with soap and water, and report the bite. According to Seattle dog bite lawyer Janelle Bailey, “A pet owner will be strictly liable for the actions of his or her pet, even if the owner did not know of the dog’s propensity for aggression.”
Antibiotiarecream and a clean bandage is the best minor dog bite treatment. If you have a deep wound, if your injury becomes red, painful or swollen, or if you don’t know if the dog has a rabies vaccine, see a healthcare provider as soon as possible.
You should also consult a personal injury lawyer if the injury caused inconvenience in your everyday life. This way, you would be able to seek proper compensation for the damages and hold the responsible party liable.
Owning a dog can be rewarding. You have a best friend and protector, all wrapped in one.
Unfortunately, owning a dog who bites or being on the receiving end of a dog bite can be heartbreaking and sometimes costly in more ways than one.
Be sure to take the time to educate and protect yourself and your loved ones from dog bite dangers.
Alana Redmond is a graduate of Media and Business from the University of California San Diego. She is also a consumer safety writer for safer-america.com and an avid dog lover. Instagram: @its_lonnie | https://dogsbestlife.com/dog-health/dog-bite-dangers/ | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | Get checked for these 3 diseases after a dog bite | Posted
Dogs are the ultimate sidekick and make our lives better. More than 36% of U.S. households own at least one dog. But what happens if your dog bites you or someone else? It’s important to understand dog bite dangers.
Dog bites are common and can happen almost anywhere, at any time. Stressed dogs can become aggressive if the dog is frightened by a loud noise or are in an unfamiliar environment.
Getting bitten can be a traumatic experience for everyone involved. On average, “a dog bites one out of every 69 people,” according to a study from the Centers for Disease Control.
And according to CDC dog bite statistics, one in five people require medical attention after a dog bite.
If a dog attacks you, it is important to contact a dog bite attorney that can help you determine if you are eligible to receive any compensation.
While you cope with the immediate pain, you also need to be prepared for the risk of dog bite infections or the threat of contracting a dangerous disease.
By knowing potential dog bite dangers , you can take action immediately to treat any possible conditions from dog bites.
Many factors could contribute to a dog biting another dog or person. Dogs bite if they feel threatened or want to protect their owners.
Dogs also are more likely to bite children rather than adults.
Be cautious when approaching an unfamiliar dog.
Always ask the owner if petting a dog is OK before reaching out. New scents and a new environment can make a dog anxious and cause him to become aggressive.
In addition to being painful, dog bites can spread several types of bacteria and diseases. More than 700 types of bacteria live in a dog’s mouth. Fortunately, only a few can make humans sick.
Here are the top three diseases you can get from dog bites.
A virus that affects the brain and spinal cord, rabies is typically passed through a scratch or the saliva of an infected animal. The most common carriers of the disease are raccoons , skunks, foxes, and bats, so it’s essential to keep dogs away from wild animals.
After being exposed to rabies, dogs may show extreme changes in their behavior.
They become more prone to biting or snapping at any form of stimuli, such as humans and animals.
As it progresses, rabies can cause paralysis of the throat and jaw, weakness, seizures, and death.
Symptoms of rabies infection are similar to the flu and can also include fever, agitation, excessive salivation, and partial paralysis.
If a dog bites you, it’s essential to ensure the dog has a rabies vaccine .
In nastyition to the chance of a bad infection, dog bites can also result in the transmission of Tetanus. The bacteria Clostridium tetani causes the infection . Tetanus infects the body through both superficial and deep breaks in the skin.
Although typically uncommon and with an average of roughly 30 reported cases each year , Tetanus can still cause significant problems if you fail to stay up to date on your 10-year booster shot.
Symptoms of Tetanus after a dog bite include jaw cramping, muscle stiffness, headache, and trouble swallowing.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a dangerous bacteria that dogs can carry without showing any symptoms. Transmission an lead to antibiotic resistant staph infections.
MRSA infections can cause serious health problems, such as bloodstream infections and pneumonia. The infection site will be red, warm to the touch, and painful, which can easily be mistaken for a small bug bite. Getting immediate medical treatment makes it less likely the injury will become serious.
If a dog bites you, get to a safe place, thoroughly clean the bite area with soap and water, and report the bite. According to Seattle dog bite lawyer Janelle Bailey, “A pet owner will be strictly liable for the actions of his or her pet, even if the owner did not know of the dog’s propensity for aggression.”
Antibiotiarecream and a clean bandage is the best minor dog bite treatment. If you have a deep wound, if your injury becomes red, painful or swollen, or if you don’t know if the dog has a rabies vaccine, see a healthcare provider as soon as possible.
You should also consult a personal injury lawyer if the injury caused inconvenience in your everyday life. This way, you would be able to seek proper compensation for the damages and hold the responsible party liable.
Owning a dog can be rewarding. You have a best friend and protector, all wrapped in one.
Unfortunately, owning a dog who bites or being on the receiving end of a dog bite can be heartbreaking and sometimes costly in more ways than one.
Be sure to take the time to educate and protect yourself and your loved ones from dog bite dangers.
Alana Redmond is a graduate of Media and Business from the University of California San Diego. She is also a consumer safety writer for safer-america.com and an avid dog lover. Instagram: @its_lonnie | https://dogsbestlife.com/dog-health/dog-bite-dangers/ | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | Signs and Symptoms of Capnocytophaga Infection | Capnocytophaga | People who are infected with Capnocytophaga can have a range of signs and symptoms such as:
- Blisters around the bite wound within hours of the bite
- Redness, swelling, draining pus, or pain at the bite wound
- Fever
- Diarrhea and/or stomach pain
- Vomiting
- Headache and/or confusion
- Muscle or joint pain
After being bitten, most people who become ill will show symptoms within 3 to 5 days, but this can range anywhere from 1 to 14 days.
Most Capnocytophaga infections usually occur with dog or cat bites. But some people who develop a Capnocytophaga infection have not been bitten. People may be infected after close contact with a dog or cat, especially after contact with the animal’s saliva (spit).
Capnocytophaga infection can cause serious complications, including heart attack, kidney failure, and gangrene. Some people may need to have fingers, toes, or even limbs amputated because of complications from severe infection.
About 3 in 10 people who develop a severe infection die. Some infections can progress very quickly, result in sepsis , and lead to death within 24 to 72 hours after symptoms start.
If you have been bitten by a dog or cat, wash the bite area right away with soap and water, and call your doctor, even if you don’t feel sick. This is because dog and cat bites can pose a risk for rabies , as well as Capnocytophaga .
Related Links | https://www.cdc.gov/capnocytophaga/signs-symptoms/index.html | 136 |
what are the effects of a dog bite | Dog bites | Bites and maulings by dogs, sometimes fatal, are a worldwide problem and particularly affect children. Every year 250 000 people who have been bitten by dogs attend minor injuries and emergency units in the United Kingdom, 1 and some of them are admitted to hospital for surgical debridement or intravenous antibiotics.
- Wound management is as important as use of antimicrobials in preventing infection
- Primary closure should be avoided in limb injuries where possible because of increased risk of infection
- For patients considered to be at higher risk of infection, the prophylaxis of choice is co-amoxiclav
- Erythromycin or flucloxacillin should never be used alone prophylactically as Pasteurella infection is usually resistant
- Infected wounds presenting within 12 hours of injury are usually due to Pasteurella multocida
- Patients at particularly high risk of infection are immunosuppressed patients, particularly those with asplenia or cirrhosis or those who have had a mastectomy
Increasingly, dog bites are the subject of litigation because bite wounds are still being sutured when they should be left open and because of incorrect antimicrobial prophylaxis.
The “hole and tear” effect—whereby canine teeth anchor the person while other teeth bite, shear, and tear the tissues—results in stretch lacerations, easily piercing immature cranial bones. The biting force of canine jaws varies with the breed, from 310 kPa to nearly 31 790 kPa in specially trained attack dogs. w1 w2 Large wounds, significant devitalisation, and high mortality can result, with the highest mortality in neonates (six times that in toddlers), who are usually bitten by household pets. 2 , 3
This review is aimed at clinicians who deal with dog bites. The basic principles of wound management and indications for use of antimicrobials and rabies prophylaxis apply to clinicians in all countries, but the primary focus of this article will be the UK.
Overall, the clinical approach in the UK to management of dog bites is pragmatic and based largely on consensus opinion rather than firm evidence. The major basis for recommending co-amoxiclav is in-vitro sensitivity data of organisms related to dog bites, and most authorities recommend using prophylactic antimicrobials in selected patients at high risk of infection.
We reviewed the Cochrane Library and performed Medline searches to identify relevant systematic reviews on the management of dog bites, using the keywords “dog-bites”, “reviews”, “prophylaxis”, and “treatment”. We consulted personal archives, Clinical Evidence , and UK national NHS (Prodigy) guidelines.
Of the estimated 740 people per 100 000 population bitten by dogs annually, 4 a minority seek medical attention. Overall, 2.6/100 000 population need hospital admission. Half of all children are reportedly bitten by dogs at some time, boys more than girls. A recent telephone survey of 1184 families found that the annual incidence of bites in children aged under 15 years was 22/1000. 5
Accurate mortality figures are poorly documented in the medical literature and difficult to obtain. However, because deaths are newsworthy, the popular press reports are probably reliable indicators of the true number in the UK, and during the past five years, two to three cases a year have made headlines. In the United States annual mortality is 7.1/100 million population, with 57% of deaths occurring in children aged under 10 years.
Most attacks are apparently unprovoked, but dogs are not always to blame. Dogs resent being disturbed while eating and dislike being threatened or feeling that their territory is being invaded, and they can be jealous of attention given to other family members.
There is much debate about which dogs attack humans the most. Most reviewers conclude that the higher risk animals include larger dogs, German shepherd dogs, pit bull terriers, Rottweilers, and chows, but all dogs should be considered dangerous; even smaller dogs such as Jack Russell terriers inflict severe bites. 6 , 7 , 8
Litigation associated with dog bites occurs at a steady rate in the UK—initiated by people attacked while walking or delivering mail; compensation claims are also made regularly against clinicians for alleged mismanagement of the original injury. An estimated 5000 postal workers seek medical help for bites annually in the UK.
Police can prosecute owners under the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991 (which makes ownership of certain breeds illegal), and magistrates have the power to have a dog put down. A civil claim against the owner for damages can be made under the Animal Act 1971. Adults have a three year limit in which to begin action, and “no win, no fee” legal firms already exploit this area of litigation. Compensation claims have varied, from a few thousand pounds to tens of thousands of pounds (and even hundreds of thousands for sportsmen whose career is affected by injury).
Box 1 suggests how to take a history and do an examination in a patient presenting with a dog bite, and box 2 outlines initial management procedures. Where adequate debridement of deep penetrating wounds is not possible, it is common practice, although unsupported by strong evidence, to irrigate the wound with 250 ml saline, using a 19 or 20 gauge needle or plastic intravenous catheter on a 35 ml syringe. w3 w4
- • For travellers bitten abroad, assess risk of rabies and consider rabies prophylaxis
- • Note immunocompromising factors, such as splenectomy, cirrhosis, w5 and steroid therapy 9
- • Note recent antibiotics (infection despite flucloxacillin or erythromycin makes superinfection with resistant organisms such as Pasteurella multocida likely)
- • Children with facial or cranial bites need cervical immobilisation until cervical lesions are excluded
- • Take careful documentation with diagrams of the wound (photographs may be useful)
- • Assess size and depth of the wound, degree of crush injury and devitalised tissue, nerve or tendon damage, and involvement of bones and joints
- • Full wound examination and debridement, with local or general anaesthetic if necessary
- • Radiography is indicated to exclude embedded teeth or dental fragments, fractures, and bony damage, or in scalp wounds in children
- • Irrigate copiously, using tap water or normal saline w3 w4
- • Remove foreign bodies (teeth)
- • Perform a thorough wound toilet and debridement where necessary w3 w4
- • Delay closure of the wound where possible
- • Raise and immobilise the limb if the injury is associated with (or is likely to cause) swelling
- • Give antibiotics, depending on the risk factors for infection
- • With infected wounds, send pus or a deep wound swab for culture (in clinically uninfected wounds, swabbing is unhelpful)
- • Review bites within 24-48 hours, especially if the bites need antimicrobial prophylaxis
- • Although tetanus after animal bites is rare, all guidelines in common use advise tetanus prophylaxis, with immunoglobulin and toxoid to be administered to patients with a history of two or fewer immunisations
Irrigation is particularly important if the dog is suspected of being rabid. Gentle debridement after irrigation is essential as irrigation alone may not remove the virus from wound edges; the wound should then be covered with a sterile dressing or a clean dry cloth.
Factors increasing the risk of infection are arbitrarily divided into patient and wound factors (box 3). Many studies involving small numbers of patients have suggested various predisposing factors. A larger observational study—of 769 sequential patients with dog bite wounds presenting to an emergency department—found that the strongest predictors for the development of infection were wound depth, need for surgical debridement, and being female. 9 Box 4 indicates when referral for specialist care is necessary.
- • Alcoholism (increased susceptibility to Pasteurella infection 9 )
- • Cirrhosis, asplenia (increased risk of Capnocytophaga)
- • Steroid therapy, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus, and lymphoedema after radiotherapy (all increase risk of Pasteurella infection 9
- • Wounds >6 hours old
- • Devitalised tissue 10
- • Previously sutured wounds
- • Full thickness wounds involving tendons, ligaments, and joints
- • Bites on limbs, especially hands
*According to case reports and small reviews 9 w1
- • If systemic manifestations of infection are present
- • If bone, joints, or tendons are affected
- • If hand bites are serious or the bites require reconstructive surgery
- • If bites are cranial, especially in an infant
- • If the patient has severe cellulitis or infection is refractory to oral therapy
Unlike adults, in whom only 10% of bites involve the head and neck, most bites in children are to the head or face, with 76% affecting lips, nose, or cheeks. 11
Exsanguination after carotid trauma is the major cause of death due to bites in children aged under 10 years, so with major trauma, resuscitation is the priority. Penetrating wounds of the neck and thoracic inlet are especially dangerous, and early angiography and exploration may be necessary. Avulsed body parts should be kept cool pending reattachment.
A complete physical examination, followed by intraoral examination to exclude cheek lacerations extending into the oral cavity, is necessary. Children with facial or cranial bites need cervical immobilisation until cervical lesions are excluded. Careful examination and appropriate imaging are necessary; a small scalp puncture wound may overlie intracranial injury and facial fractures.
Facial bites can often be closed primarily. 11 , 12 Although rarely necessary, antibiotic prophylaxis decreases the risk of infection to 1%. 12
Anatomically, the hand contains many small compartments, and there is a relative lack of soft tissues separating the skin from the bone and joint. Surgical debridement needs to be done by an experienced clinician. Overall, only a fifth of dog bites become infected, compared with 36% of hand bites, 13 and loss of function can result from infection. Hence thorough documentation of the injury and nerves affected is necessary. With a strict protocol of vigorous debridement and irrigation the infection rate can be as low as 0.5%. w4 Pus needs draining and preferably should be cultured (actual pus rather than a swab). Wounds on extremities should not be closed primarily, but left unsutured (with the limb raised and immobilised) and sutured only when considered clean and free of infection.
With adequate debridement and wound toilet, primary suturing may be possible. 14 Severe bites require “second look” surgery 24-48 hours after initial radical debridement—to exclude residual dead tissue or infective focus.
Dog bite related infections are polymicrobial, predominantly Pasteurella and Bacteroides spp. Infected bites presenting less than 12 hours after injury are particularly likely to be infected with Pasteurella spp, whereas those presenting more than 24 hours after the event are likely to be predominantly infected with staphylococci or anaerobes.
Inform the laboratory of the nature of the wound, as routine laboratory methods may fail to isolate or identify more unusual organisms. 15 Thirty per cent of infections thought to be penicillin sensitive S taphylococcus aureus are actually S intermedius . w6
Culturing aerobically alone or for less than 5-7 days may explain the paucity of pathogens reported in older studies, particularly anaerobes such as Prevotella , Porphyromonas , and Fusobacteria spp. 15
Dog bite organisms often have strange names, the classic example being Capnocytophaga c animorsus (dysgonic fermenter type 2 or DF2). With nearly 100 reported cases, DF2 septicaemia is often mistaken for fulminant meningococcal disease. 16 w5 Infection usually follows a trivial bite in patients with asplenia or cirrhosis. Typically, Gram negative rods are seen within polymorphs on peripheral blood films. 16 w5 DF2 is sensitive to penicillin and ciprofloxacin.
Clinical infection may also result from incorrect management in primary care (fig 1 and 2 ). Erythromycin or flucloxacillin must never be used alone in prophylaxis. In one small study 70% patients with Pasteurella multocida infections (see box 5) had received inadequate or incorrect antibiotics, usually flucloxacillin or erythromycin. 17 There are many reports of clinical failures and several deaths due to failure of erythromycin therapy. w7
Fig 1 Top: Breakdown of a bite wound and infection seven days after it was sutured in primary care. Bottom: Resultant scarring 18 months later
Fig 2 Left: Bite laceration infected with Pasteurella multocida. Right: Haemorrhaging and resolving cellulitis in same patient
- • Literally “killer of many species”—probably the most virulent pathogen in dog bites and responsible for severe infection
- • Present in >50% of dog bites 15
- • The most likely pathogen in infected wounds presenting within 12 hours of the bite 15
- • An aggressive Gram negative pathogen, causing early intense inflammatory response with considerable tissue involvement, and likely to cause metastatic infection with severe sequelae 18
- • Associated with a mortality of 30% in septicaemia 18 w7
- • Resistant to erythromycin and flucloxacillin 17
- • Likely to result in tenosynovitis in hand bites especially, and may lead to irreparable damage and amputation
As only a fifth of all dog bites become infected 13 it is generally accepted that superficial, easily cleaned dog bite wounds do not warrant antibiotics if the patient is otherwise immunocompetent. We found no evidence justifying routine antibiotic prophylaxis for bites at low risk of infection. The consensus of opinion, however, is that antibiotic prophylaxis (co-amoxiclav) should be considered and is probably indicated for all “high risk” dog bites.
A postal survey of 21 UK emergency departments and minor injury units found that prophylaxis was given routinely in 15. Thirteen departments had a protocol, and co-amoxiclav was the antibiotic of first choice. w8
No strong evidence base supports the routine use of co-amoxiclav. A series of methodologically poor studies, with differing dosages of various antimicrobials and inadequate microbiological methods, has produced a plethora of recommendations for prophylaxis with little valid evidence. The major basis for recommending co-amoxiclav is in-vitro sensitivity data.
The NHS guidelines (Prodigy) 19 recommend co-amoxiclav as first choice prophylaxis where indicated, since it covers all commonly expected organisms among the canine oral flora. w9
Co-amoxiclav covers the penicillin resistant S aureus and anaerobes and P multocida , which is resistant to flucloxacillin and erythromycin. 15 w10 w11
Some authors advise empirical prophylaxis for all animal bites, w10 while others take a more sensible approach, restricting prophylaxis to injuries or patients deemed at high risk of infection. 9 , 20 , 21 , 22 w1 w3
The conclusion and implications of two meta-analyses relating to antibiotic treatment for animal bites 21 , 22 are not directly relevant to UK practice (table ). Both included trials with no stratification of risk of infection, comparing differing antibiotic regimens and dosages, ranging from penicillinase stable penicillins (such as oxacillin) to co-trimoxazole, cefalexin, and phenoxymethylpenicillin.
Meta-analyses of trials involving prophylactic antibiotics for dog bites
|Study||Conclusion||Comments|
|Cummings, 1994 21||In four of the largest studies antibiotics decreased the risk of infection; and to prevent 1 infection, 14 patients needed prophylaxis||Meta-analysis of 8 randomised trials; not a systematic review; 8 trials, 306 patients; different antibiotics compared, only 1 using co-amoxiclav|
|Cochrane review, 2001 22||No evidence of benefit in dog bites||8 trials, including 6 randomised double blind controlled and 1 randomised controlled trial; different antibiotics compared, only 1 using co-amoxiclav; small numbers of patients; different antibiotic regimens; dog and other animal bites included in trials|
Each meta-analysis included eight trials, with six trials common to both. Cummings included one non-randomised controlled trial, 21 and the Cochrane review included one trial of prophylaxis for cat bites and one for human bites. 22 Overall, the patient numbers were small. Only one small trial involving 172 dog bites used co-amoxiclav. 23 In that trial co-amoxiclav (375 mg three times daily for five days) was given to 84 patients, with 88 given placebo. This resulted in a significant difference in infection rates (33% of those receiving co-amoxiclav prophylaxis became infected, compared with 60% receiving placebo). 23
Most authors agree prophylaxis is of no proved benefit in simple facial dog bites, but the consensus of opinion recommends three to five days of prophylaxis for puncture wounds, 9 , 19 primary closures, 11 , 14 high risk patients, and oral-cutaneous (“through and through”) bites, 24 with additional indications suggested by several authors of small reviews of treatment (box 6).
- • All bite wounds after primary closure 14
- • Puncture wounds w3
- • Bites to hand and wrist w3 w4
- • Crush wounds with devitalised tissue 9
- • Dog bite injuries to the genitals 10
- • Diabetes mellitus
- • Immunosuppression
- • Splenectomy, cirrhosis( C canimorsus )
- • Postmastectomy w1
- • Rheumatoid arthritis w1 and prosthetic joints w12
For patients with a true allergy to penicillin, effective alternatives to co-amoxiclav include tetracycline or doxycycline plus metronidazole, 19 a second generation cephalosporin with anti-anaerobic activity such as ceftriaxone, or combination therapy with clindamycin and a fluoroquinolone.
Pregnant women with a history of rash after penicillin should be offered ceftriaxone.
Inpatient treatment must cover Pasteurella , anaerobes, and staphylococci, and be modified according to culture results. For very severe infections, we use empirical imipenem with cilastatin (500 mg four times daily, intravenously) and clindamycin (900 mg four times daily, intravenously) until Gram stains or cultures are available to guide treatment. For patients with severe allergy to penicillin, ciprofloxacin (400 mg twice daily, intravenously) plus metronidazole (500 mg three times daily, intravenously) replaces imipenem.
In practice, treatment is usually 10-14 days for cellulitis, three weeks for tenosynovitis, four weeks for septic arthritis, and six weeks for osteomyelitis. Conversion to oral antibiotics when the C reactive protein concentration falls to <50 mg/l is a pragmatic approach that we find works well in our hospital. If the C reactive protein levels off at a high concentration or continues to rise, then a clinical reappraisal is needed as a second debridement may be advisable, particularly with joint space infections.
Rabies is transmitted by a transdermal bite or scratch, or salivary contamination of mucosa or skin wounds. It kills 30 000 to 50 000 people a year, mainly in developing countries and especially where unvaccinated stray dogs are common. Avoiding exposure to rabies involves education of travellers and advice not to touch animals abroad, especially if they appear unwell and have excessive salivation or paralysis. Prior rabies vaccination may be sensible for travellers to remote areas where rabies is highly endemic. 25
Rabies is almost invariably fatal, so even seemingly minor bites in high risk countries should be taken seriously. Local medical advice should be sought on the risks of rabies and prophylaxis after exposure. Thorough cleansing significantly lessens the risk of rabies. Hence flushing the wound under a running tap for several minutes, washing with soapy water or detergent, and particularly using wound disinfectants (such as 40-70% alcohol, tincture, or aqueous solution of povidone-iodine) is recommended. Again, primary suturing should be avoided if possible.
Rabies vaccine and immunoglobulin should be given if required. 25 w13 Local advice should be sought, as countries differ in the risks of contracting rabies and in the administration and use of vaccine and immunoglobulin. For example, intradermal vaccination may be used in some countries where resources are scarce, and equine rabies immunoglobulin may be the only one available. For travellers returning home to the UK, intramuscular vaccine and human rabies immunoglobulin are obtained by contacting the centres listed in box 7. Information that general practitioners will need to provide when discussing the need for prophylaxis with staff at the centres includes previous vaccination status, country where bitten, site and date of bite, provoked or unprovoked bite, domestic or feral dog, current health of animal, and previous immunisation status of patient.
- • Health Protection Agency Centre for Infection, 61 Colindale Avenue, London NW9 5EQ ( www.hpa.org.uk/infections/default.htm )
- • Health Protection Scotland, Clifton House, Clifton Place, Glasgow G3 7LN ( www.hps.scot.nhs.uk/ )
An educational intervention, “Prevent a bite” (designed primarily for schoolchildren), was effective in increasing precautionary behaviour among children when confronted with a dog. w14 Generally, children should be taught to treat dogs with respect, avoid direct eye contact, and not tease them. They should be taught not to approach an unfamiliar dog; play with any dog unless under close supervision; run or scream in the presence of a dog; pet a dog without at first letting it sniff you; or disturb a dog that is eating, sleeping, or caring for puppies.
- • Keogh S, Callaham M. Bites and injuries inflicted by domestic animals. In: Auerbach PS, ed. Wilderness medicine . 4th ed. St Louis, Missouri: Mosby, 2001
- • Solomon TN, Marston D, Mallewa M, Felton T, Shaw S, McElhinney LM, et al. Paralytic rabies after a two week holiday in India. BMJ 2005;331:501-3.
- • Rupprecht CE, Hanlon CA, Hemachudha T. Rabies re-examined. Lancet Infect Dis 2002;2:327-43.
- • Immunisation against infectious diseases—the green book . 2006 edition. www.dh.gov.uk/ [search for title].
- • Warrell MJ, Warrell DJ. Intradermal post exposure rabies vaccine regimens. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:477-80.
- • Dog and cat bites ( www.prodigy.nhs.uk/patient_information/pils/dog_and_cat_bites.pdf )—guidance on what to do after a bite
- • Travel health information sheet ( www.nathnac.org/travel/factsheets/rabies1.htm )—information about rabies | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1804160/ | 136 |
who had hits rehab and back to black | Rehab (Amy Winehouse song) - Wikipedia | (2007)
(2007)
" Rehab " is a song written and recorded by English singer and songwriter Amy Winehouse , from her second and final studio album Back to Black (2006). Produced by Mark Ronson , the lyrics are autobiographical and address Winehouse's refusal to enter a rehabilitation clinic . "Rehab" was released as the lead single from Back to Black in 2006, and it peaked at number 7 in the United Kingdom on its Singles Chart and number 9 in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 , [2] [3] becoming Winehouse's only top 10 hit in the US.
"Rehab" became an international critical and commercial success, and has been referred to as Winehouse's signature song . [4] [5] It won three Grammy Awards at the 50th ceremony , including Record of the Year , Song of the Year , and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . [6] It also won an Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song. [7] Winehouse's public battle with drug and alcohol addiction , and subsequent death, have contributed to the song's continuing popularity and appearance in the media. The song has been covered by a number of artists, including Taking Back Sunday , Justin Timberlake , Fergie , and Kanye West .
"Rehab" was produced by Mark Ronson and released as the album's lead single in 2006 in the UK. The song addresses Winehouse's refusal to attend an alcohol rehabilitation centre after her management team encouraged her to go. Ronson expanded on the songwriting process when interviewed by DJ Zane Lowe for the BBC Radio 's Radio 1's Stories , in an episode broadcast on BBC Radio 1 on Monday 18 July 2011, 5 days before her death:
Mitch Winehouse, Amy's father, confirms Ronson's story about the origins of the song in his biography, Amy, My Daughter (2012). He writes that Ronson and Winehouse inspired each other musically, adding that Amy had written that line in one of her notebooks years before and told him that she was planning to write a song about that day. After Ronson heard the line during his and Amy's conversation in New York, he suggested they turn it into a song. The book says that was the moment when the song "came to life". [8]
In the film Amy , director Asif Kapadia showed an interview with Mitch in which he explained that "he didn't believe [Winehouse] needed treatment [for her drug and alcohol addiction]". In an appearance on the British talk show Loose Women , Mitch clarified the comments he made in the film, saying that Kapadia misinterpreted what he actually said to Winehouse: "[...] I say that Amy didn't need to go to rehab, right? What I actually said was – referring to 2005 – Amy didn't need to go to rehab at that point. Later on was a different story altogether, which gives a totally, completely different meaning to what I said." [9]
"Rehab" is a soul and R&B song. [10] [11] In the lyrics Winehouse mentions "Ray" and "Mr. Hathaway", in reference to Ray Charles and Donny Hathaway .
"Rehab" received universal acclaim from music critics . Rolling Stone characterised it as a " Motown -style winner with a banging beat and a lovesick bad girl testifying like Etta James ." [12] People magazine called the track "instantly memorable." [13] Billboard remarked that Winehouse's vocals on the song were " Shirley Bassey -meets- Ella Fitzgerald " and called the track "a better buzz than a double-gin martini." [10] British trade paper Music Week called the song a "classy treat", praising Ronson's production and noting that the track's "overall effect is one of adroit skill with great hooks". [14]
"Rehab" ranked number 7 on Rolling Stone ' s list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 and number 194 on the same magazine's updated list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . [15] [16] This song also placed at number 92 on MTV Asia ' s list of Top 100 Hits of 2007. [17] Time magazine named "Rehab" at number one on their 10 Best Songs of 2007. Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her confidence, opining, "What she is is mouthy, funny, sultry, and quite possibly crazy" and, "It's impossible not to be seduced by her originality. Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth of soul music without once ripping it off, and you've got the best song of 2007." [18] Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Soon she'd be making headlines for all the wrong reasons. But back in 2007, we were all saying yes, yes, yes to the British belter's one-of-a-kind voice." [19] In 2011, NME placed it at number 8 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years." [20]
The song won the Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song for songwriting on 24 May 2007. [21] In July 2007, the track won the Popjustice £20 Music Prize , which recognises the best British pop singles over the past year. In doing so, Winehouse became the third act to win the award, after Girls Aloud and Rachel Stevens . [22] The single was voted as the best song of 2007 at The Village Voice ' s annual Pazz & Jop . [23] On 10 February 2008 , "Rehab" won three Grammy Awards : Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . [24]
Based solely on download sales, "Rehab" entered the UK Singles Chart at number nineteen and when the physical single was released the following week, it climbed to number seven, Winehouse's highest chart position at the time by more than 50 places. By 25 October, the album was approaching five-time platinum in the UK, making it the best-selling record of 2007. [25]
The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 91 on the 31 March 2007 chart without an official single release. Winehouse's current single at the time, " You Know I'm No Good ", entered one spot above, at number 90, the same week. [26] After lingering in the bottom portions of the Hot 100 for several months, the song suddenly jumped 38 spots to number ten on the 23 June chart, [27] due to digital sales following Winehouse's live performance of the song on the MTV Movie Awards on 3 June 2007; sales of the official remix featuring rapper Jay-Z also had a small effect, helping it to peak in the 70s on the iTunes Top 100 in the US. After a change of rules in the UK allowing all digital downloads to be counted for the singles chart, "Rehab" re-entered the chart at number 20 for the week ending 13 January 2007, whilst "You Know I'm No Good" occupied the number 40 spot as a new entry on downloads alone.
The Ronson-produced song also topped at the top ten in more than 10 countries including Canada, Spain, Denmark, and Israel, peaking at number one in Norway and Hungary. It reached the top 20 in France, the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland and Finland, attaining a peak position of number 23 on the European Hot 100 Singles .
Between October 2006 and June 2007, the single spent 34 consecutive weeks in the official UK top 75 and has re-entered it again several times since, most recently at number 29 on 31 July 2011 in the wake of the singer's death, giving it a current total of 59 weeks in the top 75, making it the joint 10th longest runner of all time, and 76 in the top 100.
It also became her first top ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number nine. The Recording Industry Association of America certified "Rehab" platinum on 11 February 2010 for sales of over 1 million copies. [28] The song was an enduring hit throughout 2007; with UK sales of 131,415 in 2007 alone, it finished the year as the UK's fifth-sixth biggest-selling single. It is Winehouse's longest-running UK chart hit, but her Ronson collaboration "Valerie" has proven to be her biggest seller to date.
The music video was directed by Phil Griffin and released in September 2006. It was shot at 33 Portland Place in London, a large Georgian residence built in 1775 and used in many music videos of the era due to its grand and largely original interior. It features Winehouse's band playing their instruments while she sings to the camera. The band members are wearing dressing gowns/bath robes throughout the video, with one member dressed similarly to Donny Hathaway . It begins with Winehouse rising from bed and then moving to the bathroom. For the second verse, Winehouse is on a chair in a psychiatrist's office, presumably explaining herself to an unseen therapist. In contrast to the lyrics, the video ends with Winehouse in rehab, sitting on a bed in a white-tiled clinical ward room with her band around her. The video was shot by director of photography Adam Frisch, FSF. On 31 May 2007, "Rehab" debuted on MTV's Total Request Live and later peaked at number one on 7 June. [29] The music video was also nominated for Video of the Year at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost out to Rihanna 's " Umbrella ."
On 12 March 2007, Winehouse performed the song live for her US television debut on the Late Show with David Letterman . [30] For a while, she replaced "Ray" with "Blake", referring to her ex-husband, Blake Fielder-Civil, in live performances. She also replaced several times the lyrics, "I'm gonna lose my baby", with, "I'll never lose my baby".
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Album Version)||3:36|
|2.||"Do Me Good"||4:20|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Album Version)||3:36|
|2.||"Close to the Front"||4:35|
|3.||"Rehab" (Desert Eagle Discs Vocal Mix)||5:00|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab (Hot Chip Vocal Remix)" (Hot Chip Remix)||6:58|
|2.||"Rehab (Pharoahe Monch Remix)" (Amy Winehouse vs Pharoahe Monch)||3:36|
|3.||"Rehab (Vodafone Live)" (Live at TBA)||3:40|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab (Remix)" (featuring Jay Z)||3:52|
|2.||"Rehab (Pharoahe Monch Remix)" (Amy Winehouse vs Pharoahe Monch)||3:36|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Demo Version)||3:38|
|2.||"Rehab" (Vodafone Live at TBA)||3:41|
|3.||"Rehab" (Hot Chip Remix)||6:58|
|4.||"Rehab" (Pharoahe Monch Remix)||3:36|
|5.||"Rehab" (featuring Jay Z)||3:52|
|Chart (2006)||Position|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [70]||85|
|Chart (2007)||Position|
|Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) [71]||68|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [72]||41|
|European Hot 100 Singles ( Billboard ) [73]||53|
|Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [74]||16|
|Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) [75]||70|
|Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [76]||38|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [77]||56|
|US Billboard Hot 100 [78]||74|
|US Dance/Mix Show Airplay ( Billboard ) [79]||24|
|Chart (2008)||Position|
|Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) [80]||69|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [81]||69|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia) [82]||53|
|Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [83]||21|
|Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [84]||16|
|Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [85]||45|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [86]||200|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Belgium ( BEA ) [87]||Gold||25,000 *|
|Denmark ( IFPI Danmark ) [88]||Platinum||15,000 ^|
|Germany ( BVMI ) [89]||Platinum||300,000|
|Italy ( FIMI ) [90]||Platinum||30,000 *|
|New Zealand ( RMNZ ) [91]||Gold||7,500 *|
|Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [92]||3× Platinum||60,000 ^|
|Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland) [93]||Platinum||30,000 ^|
|United Kingdom ( BPI ) [94]||Platinum||600,000|
|United States ( RIAA ) [96]||Platinum||2,000,000 [95]|
* Sales figures based on certification alone.
Several musicians have released covers and alternate versions of the song.
- During live performances, New York band Taking Back Sunday often includes the chorus of a popular song in "A Decade Under the Influence" and the breakdown of "Cute Without the 'E' (Cut from the Team)", and, beginning in 2007, "Rehab" has been used. [97]
- During his world tour in Zürich , Switzerland, in August 2007, pop singer Justin Timberlake sang the song's chorus in the third-person feminine after performing " Cry Me a River ", widely reported to allude to Britney Spears . [98]
- Besides, on 18 July 2007, American singer Fergie performed the song during a concert at Anaheim 's House of Blues . [99]
- While appearing at V Festival in Chelmsford , England on 18 August 2007, Kanye West played a tribute cover of "Rehab" for an absent Amy Winehouse, who had planned to perform at the festival but canceled due to exhaustion. [100]
- L.A.-based Terra Naomi performed the song acoustically on YouTube in March 2008. [101]
- Two remixes featuring American rappers Jay-Z and Pharoahe Monch were released in 2008. [102]
- UK comedian Matt Roper in the guise of alter-ego Wilfredo covered "Rehab" at music festivals in 2008; his performance at Camden Town's Lockstock Festival in October that year can be viewed on YouTube . [103]
- French jazz pianist Jacky Terrasson covered "Rehab" on his 2012 album Gouache . [104]
- Frankmusik has also covered the song. [105] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehab_(Amy_Winehouse_song) | 137 |
who had hits rehab and back to black | Rehab (Amy Winehouse song) - Wikipedia | (2007)
(2007)
" Rehab " is a song written and recorded by English singer and songwriter Amy Winehouse , from her second and final studio album Back to Black (2006). Produced by Mark Ronson , the lyrics are autobiographical and address Winehouse's refusal to enter a rehabilitation clinic . "Rehab" was released as the lead single from Back to Black in 2006, and it peaked at number 7 in the United Kingdom on its Singles Chart and number 9 in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 , [2] [3] becoming Winehouse's only top 10 hit in the US.
"Rehab" became an international critical and commercial success, and has been referred to as Winehouse's signature song . [4] [5] It won three Grammy Awards at the 50th ceremony , including Record of the Year , Song of the Year , and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . [6] It also won an Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song. [7] Winehouse's public battle with drug and alcohol addiction , and subsequent death, have contributed to the song's continuing popularity and appearance in the media. The song has been covered by a number of artists, including Taking Back Sunday , Justin Timberlake , Fergie , and Kanye West .
"Rehab" was produced by Mark Ronson and released as the album's lead single in 2006 in the UK. The song addresses Winehouse's refusal to attend an alcohol rehabilitation centre after her management team encouraged her to go. Ronson expanded on the songwriting process when interviewed by DJ Zane Lowe for the BBC Radio 's Radio 1's Stories , in an episode broadcast on BBC Radio 1 on Monday 18 July 2011, 5 days before her death:
Mitch Winehouse, Amy's father, confirms Ronson's story about the origins of the song in his biography, Amy, My Daughter (2012). He writes that Ronson and Winehouse inspired each other musically, adding that Amy had written that line in one of her notebooks years before and told him that she was planning to write a song about that day. After Ronson heard the line during his and Amy's conversation in New York, he suggested they turn it into a song. The book says that was the moment when the song "came to life". [8]
In the film Amy , director Asif Kapadia showed an interview with Mitch in which he explained that "he didn't believe [Winehouse] needed treatment [for her drug and alcohol addiction]". In an appearance on the British talk show Loose Women , Mitch clarified the comments he made in the film, saying that Kapadia misinterpreted what he actually said to Winehouse: "[...] I say that Amy didn't need to go to rehab, right? What I actually said was – referring to 2005 – Amy didn't need to go to rehab at that point. Later on was a different story altogether, which gives a totally, completely different meaning to what I said." [9]
"Rehab" is a soul and R&B song. [10] [11] In the lyrics Winehouse mentions "Ray" and "Mr. Hathaway", in reference to Ray Charles and Donny Hathaway .
"Rehab" received universal acclaim from music critics . Rolling Stone characterised it as a " Motown -style winner with a banging beat and a lovesick bad girl testifying like Etta James ." [12] People magazine called the track "instantly memorable." [13] Billboard remarked that Winehouse's vocals on the song were " Shirley Bassey -meets- Ella Fitzgerald " and called the track "a better buzz than a double-gin martini." [10] British trade paper Music Week called the song a "classy treat", praising Ronson's production and noting that the track's "overall effect is one of adroit skill with great hooks". [14]
"Rehab" ranked number 7 on Rolling Stone ' s list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 and number 194 on the same magazine's updated list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . [15] [16] This song also placed at number 92 on MTV Asia ' s list of Top 100 Hits of 2007. [17] Time magazine named "Rehab" at number one on their 10 Best Songs of 2007. Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her confidence, opining, "What she is is mouthy, funny, sultry, and quite possibly crazy" and, "It's impossible not to be seduced by her originality. Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth of soul music without once ripping it off, and you've got the best song of 2007." [18] Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Soon she'd be making headlines for all the wrong reasons. But back in 2007, we were all saying yes, yes, yes to the British belter's one-of-a-kind voice." [19] In 2011, NME placed it at number 8 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years." [20]
The song won the Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song for songwriting on 24 May 2007. [21] In July 2007, the track won the Popjustice £20 Music Prize , which recognises the best British pop singles over the past year. In doing so, Winehouse became the third act to win the award, after Girls Aloud and Rachel Stevens . [22] The single was voted as the best song of 2007 at The Village Voice ' s annual Pazz & Jop . [23] On 10 February 2008 , "Rehab" won three Grammy Awards : Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . [24]
Based solely on download sales, "Rehab" entered the UK Singles Chart at number nineteen and when the physical single was released the following week, it climbed to number seven, Winehouse's highest chart position at the time by more than 50 places. By 25 October, the album was approaching five-time platinum in the UK, making it the best-selling record of 2007. [25]
The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 91 on the 31 March 2007 chart without an official single release. Winehouse's current single at the time, " You Know I'm No Good ", entered one spot above, at number 90, the same week. [26] After lingering in the bottom portions of the Hot 100 for several months, the song suddenly jumped 38 spots to number ten on the 23 June chart, [27] due to digital sales following Winehouse's live performance of the song on the MTV Movie Awards on 3 June 2007; sales of the official remix featuring rapper Jay-Z also had a small effect, helping it to peak in the 70s on the iTunes Top 100 in the US. After a change of rules in the UK allowing all digital downloads to be counted for the singles chart, "Rehab" re-entered the chart at number 20 for the week ending 13 January 2007, whilst "You Know I'm No Good" occupied the number 40 spot as a new entry on downloads alone.
The Ronson-produced song also topped at the top ten in more than 10 countries including Canada, Spain, Denmark, and Israel, peaking at number one in Norway and Hungary. It reached the top 20 in France, the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland and Finland, attaining a peak position of number 23 on the European Hot 100 Singles .
Between October 2006 and June 2007, the single spent 34 consecutive weeks in the official UK top 75 and has re-entered it again several times since, most recently at number 29 on 31 July 2011 in the wake of the singer's death, giving it a current total of 59 weeks in the top 75, making it the joint 10th longest runner of all time, and 76 in the top 100.
It also became her first top ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number nine. The Recording Industry Association of America certified "Rehab" platinum on 11 February 2010 for sales of over 1 million copies. [28] The song was an enduring hit throughout 2007; with UK sales of 131,415 in 2007 alone, it finished the year as the UK's fifth-sixth biggest-selling single. It is Winehouse's longest-running UK chart hit, but her Ronson collaboration "Valerie" has proven to be her biggest seller to date.
The music video was directed by Phil Griffin and released in September 2006. It was shot at 33 Portland Place in London, a large Georgian residence built in 1775 and used in many music videos of the era due to its grand and largely original interior. It features Winehouse's band playing their instruments while she sings to the camera. The band members are wearing dressing gowns/bath robes throughout the video, with one member dressed similarly to Donny Hathaway . It begins with Winehouse rising from bed and then moving to the bathroom. For the second verse, Winehouse is on a chair in a psychiatrist's office, presumably explaining herself to an unseen therapist. In contrast to the lyrics, the video ends with Winehouse in rehab, sitting on a bed in a white-tiled clinical ward room with her band around her. The video was shot by director of photography Adam Frisch, FSF. On 31 May 2007, "Rehab" debuted on MTV's Total Request Live and later peaked at number one on 7 June. [29] The music video was also nominated for Video of the Year at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost out to Rihanna 's " Umbrella ."
On 12 March 2007, Winehouse performed the song live for her US television debut on the Late Show with David Letterman . [30] For a while, she replaced "Ray" with "Blake", referring to her ex-husband, Blake Fielder-Civil, in live performances. She also replaced several times the lyrics, "I'm gonna lose my baby", with, "I'll never lose my baby".
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Album Version)||3:36|
|2.||"Do Me Good"||4:20|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Album Version)||3:36|
|2.||"Close to the Front"||4:35|
|3.||"Rehab" (Desert Eagle Discs Vocal Mix)||5:00|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab (Hot Chip Vocal Remix)" (Hot Chip Remix)||6:58|
|2.||"Rehab (Pharoahe Monch Remix)" (Amy Winehouse vs Pharoahe Monch)||3:36|
|3.||"Rehab (Vodafone Live)" (Live at TBA)||3:40|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab (Remix)" (featuring Jay Z)||3:52|
|2.||"Rehab (Pharoahe Monch Remix)" (Amy Winehouse vs Pharoahe Monch)||3:36|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Demo Version)||3:38|
|2.||"Rehab" (Vodafone Live at TBA)||3:41|
|3.||"Rehab" (Hot Chip Remix)||6:58|
|4.||"Rehab" (Pharoahe Monch Remix)||3:36|
|5.||"Rehab" (featuring Jay Z)||3:52|
|Chart (2006)||Position|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [70]||85|
|Chart (2007)||Position|
|Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) [71]||68|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [72]||41|
|European Hot 100 Singles ( Billboard ) [73]||53|
|Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [74]||16|
|Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) [75]||70|
|Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [76]||38|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [77]||56|
|US Billboard Hot 100 [78]||74|
|US Dance/Mix Show Airplay ( Billboard ) [79]||24|
|Chart (2008)||Position|
|Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) [80]||69|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [81]||69|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia) [82]||53|
|Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [83]||21|
|Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [84]||16|
|Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [85]||45|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [86]||200|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Belgium ( BEA ) [87]||Gold||25,000 *|
|Denmark ( IFPI Danmark ) [88]||Platinum||15,000 ^|
|Germany ( BVMI ) [89]||Platinum||300,000|
|Italy ( FIMI ) [90]||Platinum||30,000 *|
|New Zealand ( RMNZ ) [91]||Gold||7,500 *|
|Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [92]||3× Platinum||60,000 ^|
|Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland) [93]||Platinum||30,000 ^|
|United Kingdom ( BPI ) [94]||Platinum||600,000|
|United States ( RIAA ) [96]||Platinum||2,000,000 [95]|
* Sales figures based on certification alone.
Several musicians have released covers and alternate versions of the song.
- During live performances, New York band Taking Back Sunday often includes the chorus of a popular song in "A Decade Under the Influence" and the breakdown of "Cute Without the 'E' (Cut from the Team)", and, beginning in 2007, "Rehab" has been used. [97]
- During his world tour in Zürich , Switzerland, in August 2007, pop singer Justin Timberlake sang the song's chorus in the third-person feminine after performing " Cry Me a River ", widely reported to allude to Britney Spears . [98]
- Besides, on 18 July 2007, American singer Fergie performed the song during a concert at Anaheim 's House of Blues . [99]
- While appearing at V Festival in Chelmsford , England on 18 August 2007, Kanye West played a tribute cover of "Rehab" for an absent Amy Winehouse, who had planned to perform at the festival but canceled due to exhaustion. [100]
- L.A.-based Terra Naomi performed the song acoustically on YouTube in March 2008. [101]
- Two remixes featuring American rappers Jay-Z and Pharoahe Monch were released in 2008. [102]
- UK comedian Matt Roper in the guise of alter-ego Wilfredo covered "Rehab" at music festivals in 2008; his performance at Camden Town's Lockstock Festival in October that year can be viewed on YouTube . [103]
- French jazz pianist Jacky Terrasson covered "Rehab" on his 2012 album Gouache . [104]
- Frankmusik has also covered the song. [105] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehab_(Amy_Winehouse_song) | 137 |
who had hits rehab and back to black | Rehab (Amy Winehouse song) - Wikipedia | (2007)
(2007)
" Rehab " is a song written and recorded by English singer and songwriter Amy Winehouse , from her second and final studio album Back to Black (2006). Produced by Mark Ronson , the lyrics are autobiographical and address Winehouse's refusal to enter a rehabilitation clinic . "Rehab" was released as the lead single from Back to Black in 2006, and it peaked at number 7 in the United Kingdom on its Singles Chart and number 9 in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 , [2] [3] becoming Winehouse's only top 10 hit in the US.
"Rehab" became an international critical and commercial success, and has been referred to as Winehouse's signature song . [4] [5] It won three Grammy Awards at the 50th ceremony , including Record of the Year , Song of the Year , and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . [6] It also won an Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song. [7] Winehouse's public battle with drug and alcohol addiction , and subsequent death, have contributed to the song's continuing popularity and appearance in the media. The song has been covered by a number of artists, including Taking Back Sunday , Justin Timberlake , Fergie , and Kanye West .
"Rehab" was produced by Mark Ronson and released as the album's lead single in 2006 in the UK. The song addresses Winehouse's refusal to attend an alcohol rehabilitation centre after her management team encouraged her to go. Ronson expanded on the songwriting process when interviewed by DJ Zane Lowe for the BBC Radio 's Radio 1's Stories , in an episode broadcast on BBC Radio 1 on Monday 18 July 2011, 5 days before her death:
Mitch Winehouse, Amy's father, confirms Ronson's story about the origins of the song in his biography, Amy, My Daughter (2012). He writes that Ronson and Winehouse inspired each other musically, adding that Amy had written that line in one of her notebooks years before and told him that she was planning to write a song about that day. After Ronson heard the line during his and Amy's conversation in New York, he suggested they turn it into a song. The book says that was the moment when the song "came to life". [8]
In the film Amy , director Asif Kapadia showed an interview with Mitch in which he explained that "he didn't believe [Winehouse] needed treatment [for her drug and alcohol addiction]". In an appearance on the British talk show Loose Women , Mitch clarified the comments he made in the film, saying that Kapadia misinterpreted what he actually said to Winehouse: "[...] I say that Amy didn't need to go to rehab, right? What I actually said was – referring to 2005 – Amy didn't need to go to rehab at that point. Later on was a different story altogether, which gives a totally, completely different meaning to what I said." [9]
"Rehab" is a soul and R&B song. [10] [11] In the lyrics Winehouse mentions "Ray" and "Mr. Hathaway", in reference to Ray Charles and Donny Hathaway .
"Rehab" received universal acclaim from music critics . Rolling Stone characterised it as a " Motown -style winner with a banging beat and a lovesick bad girl testifying like Etta James ." [12] People magazine called the track "instantly memorable." [13] Billboard remarked that Winehouse's vocals on the song were " Shirley Bassey -meets- Ella Fitzgerald " and called the track "a better buzz than a double-gin martini." [10] British trade paper Music Week called the song a "classy treat", praising Ronson's production and noting that the track's "overall effect is one of adroit skill with great hooks". [14]
"Rehab" ranked number 7 on Rolling Stone ' s list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 and number 194 on the same magazine's updated list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . [15] [16] This song also placed at number 92 on MTV Asia ' s list of Top 100 Hits of 2007. [17] Time magazine named "Rehab" at number one on their 10 Best Songs of 2007. Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her confidence, opining, "What she is is mouthy, funny, sultry, and quite possibly crazy" and, "It's impossible not to be seduced by her originality. Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth of soul music without once ripping it off, and you've got the best song of 2007." [18] Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Soon she'd be making headlines for all the wrong reasons. But back in 2007, we were all saying yes, yes, yes to the British belter's one-of-a-kind voice." [19] In 2011, NME placed it at number 8 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years." [20]
The song won the Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song for songwriting on 24 May 2007. [21] In July 2007, the track won the Popjustice £20 Music Prize , which recognises the best British pop singles over the past year. In doing so, Winehouse became the third act to win the award, after Girls Aloud and Rachel Stevens . [22] The single was voted as the best song of 2007 at The Village Voice ' s annual Pazz & Jop . [23] On 10 February 2008 , "Rehab" won three Grammy Awards : Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . [24]
Based solely on download sales, "Rehab" entered the UK Singles Chart at number nineteen and when the physical single was released the following week, it climbed to number seven, Winehouse's highest chart position at the time by more than 50 places. By 25 October, the album was approaching five-time platinum in the UK, making it the best-selling record of 2007. [25]
The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 91 on the 31 March 2007 chart without an official single release. Winehouse's current single at the time, " You Know I'm No Good ", entered one spot above, at number 90, the same week. [26] After lingering in the bottom portions of the Hot 100 for several months, the song suddenly jumped 38 spots to number ten on the 23 June chart, [27] due to digital sales following Winehouse's live performance of the song on the MTV Movie Awards on 3 June 2007; sales of the official remix featuring rapper Jay-Z also had a small effect, helping it to peak in the 70s on the iTunes Top 100 in the US. After a change of rules in the UK allowing all digital downloads to be counted for the singles chart, "Rehab" re-entered the chart at number 20 for the week ending 13 January 2007, whilst "You Know I'm No Good" occupied the number 40 spot as a new entry on downloads alone.
The Ronson-produced song also topped at the top ten in more than 10 countries including Canada, Spain, Denmark, and Israel, peaking at number one in Norway and Hungary. It reached the top 20 in France, the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland and Finland, attaining a peak position of number 23 on the European Hot 100 Singles .
Between October 2006 and June 2007, the single spent 34 consecutive weeks in the official UK top 75 and has re-entered it again several times since, most recently at number 29 on 31 July 2011 in the wake of the singer's death, giving it a current total of 59 weeks in the top 75, making it the joint 10th longest runner of all time, and 76 in the top 100.
It also became her first top ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number nine. The Recording Industry Association of America certified "Rehab" platinum on 11 February 2010 for sales of over 1 million copies. [28] The song was an enduring hit throughout 2007; with UK sales of 131,415 in 2007 alone, it finished the year as the UK's fifth-sixth biggest-selling single. It is Winehouse's longest-running UK chart hit, but her Ronson collaboration "Valerie" has proven to be her biggest seller to date.
The music video was directed by Phil Griffin and released in September 2006. It was shot at 33 Portland Place in London, a large Georgian residence built in 1775 and used in many music videos of the era due to its grand and largely original interior. It features Winehouse's band playing their instruments while she sings to the camera. The band members are wearing dressing gowns/bath robes throughout the video, with one member dressed similarly to Donny Hathaway . It begins with Winehouse rising from bed and then moving to the bathroom. For the second verse, Winehouse is on a chair in a psychiatrist's office, presumably explaining herself to an unseen therapist. In contrast to the lyrics, the video ends with Winehouse in rehab, sitting on a bed in a white-tiled clinical ward room with her band around her. The video was shot by director of photography Adam Frisch, FSF. On 31 May 2007, "Rehab" debuted on MTV's Total Request Live and later peaked at number one on 7 June. [29] The music video was also nominated for Video of the Year at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost out to Rihanna 's " Umbrella ."
On 12 March 2007, Winehouse performed the song live for her US television debut on the Late Show with David Letterman . [30] For a while, she replaced "Ray" with "Blake", referring to her ex-husband, Blake Fielder-Civil, in live performances. She also replaced several times the lyrics, "I'm gonna lose my baby", with, "I'll never lose my baby".
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Album Version)||3:36|
|2.||"Do Me Good"||4:20|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Album Version)||3:36|
|2.||"Close to the Front"||4:35|
|3.||"Rehab" (Desert Eagle Discs Vocal Mix)||5:00|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab (Hot Chip Vocal Remix)" (Hot Chip Remix)||6:58|
|2.||"Rehab (Pharoahe Monch Remix)" (Amy Winehouse vs Pharoahe Monch)||3:36|
|3.||"Rehab (Vodafone Live)" (Live at TBA)||3:40|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab (Remix)" (featuring Jay Z)||3:52|
|2.||"Rehab (Pharoahe Monch Remix)" (Amy Winehouse vs Pharoahe Monch)||3:36|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Rehab" (Demo Version)||3:38|
|2.||"Rehab" (Vodafone Live at TBA)||3:41|
|3.||"Rehab" (Hot Chip Remix)||6:58|
|4.||"Rehab" (Pharoahe Monch Remix)||3:36|
|5.||"Rehab" (featuring Jay Z)||3:52|
|Chart (2006)||Position|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [70]||85|
|Chart (2007)||Position|
|Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) [71]||68|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [72]||41|
|European Hot 100 Singles ( Billboard ) [73]||53|
|Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [74]||16|
|Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) [75]||70|
|Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [76]||38|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [77]||56|
|US Billboard Hot 100 [78]||74|
|US Dance/Mix Show Airplay ( Billboard ) [79]||24|
|Chart (2008)||Position|
|Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) [80]||69|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders) [81]||69|
|Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia) [82]||53|
|Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) [83]||21|
|Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [84]||16|
|Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) [85]||45|
|UK Singles ( OCC ) [86]||200|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Belgium ( BEA ) [87]||Gold||25,000 *|
|Denmark ( IFPI Danmark ) [88]||Platinum||15,000 ^|
|Germany ( BVMI ) [89]||Platinum||300,000|
|Italy ( FIMI ) [90]||Platinum||30,000 *|
|New Zealand ( RMNZ ) [91]||Gold||7,500 *|
|Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) [92]||3× Platinum||60,000 ^|
|Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland) [93]||Platinum||30,000 ^|
|United Kingdom ( BPI ) [94]||Platinum||600,000|
|United States ( RIAA ) [96]||Platinum||2,000,000 [95]|
* Sales figures based on certification alone.
Several musicians have released covers and alternate versions of the song.
- During live performances, New York band Taking Back Sunday often includes the chorus of a popular song in "A Decade Under the Influence" and the breakdown of "Cute Without the 'E' (Cut from the Team)", and, beginning in 2007, "Rehab" has been used. [97]
- During his world tour in Zürich , Switzerland, in August 2007, pop singer Justin Timberlake sang the song's chorus in the third-person feminine after performing " Cry Me a River ", widely reported to allude to Britney Spears . [98]
- Besides, on 18 July 2007, American singer Fergie performed the song during a concert at Anaheim 's House of Blues . [99]
- While appearing at V Festival in Chelmsford , England on 18 August 2007, Kanye West played a tribute cover of "Rehab" for an absent Amy Winehouse, who had planned to perform at the festival but canceled due to exhaustion. [100]
- L.A.-based Terra Naomi performed the song acoustically on YouTube in March 2008. [101]
- Two remixes featuring American rappers Jay-Z and Pharoahe Monch were released in 2008. [102]
- UK comedian Matt Roper in the guise of alter-ego Wilfredo covered "Rehab" at music festivals in 2008; his performance at Camden Town's Lockstock Festival in October that year can be viewed on YouTube . [103]
- French jazz pianist Jacky Terrasson covered "Rehab" on his 2012 album Gouache . [104]
- Frankmusik has also covered the song. [105] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehab_(Amy_Winehouse_song) | 137 |
who had hits rehab and back to black | Best Amy Winehouse Songs: 20 Soulful Essentials | In the short span of her career, Amy Winehouse forged a soulful pop template that has spawned countless imitators, but there is only one Amy.
Published on
With her vocal swagger and onstage charisma, Amy Winehouse was one of the most talented artists in a generation. The amalgamation of her soulful 1970s vocals, bouffant hair, and thick cat-eye makeup gave her a commanding presence that helped thrust her into the music scene in the early aughts. The UK songstress was able to make a splash by blending soul, jazz, and hip-hop into pop hooks, and her public persona – and the controversy that surrounded it – helped turn her into a household name.
Despite battling personal issues and tumultuous relationships in the media, Winehouse made an enormous impact on the music scene throughout her short life. And it wasn’t ignored: For her 2007 album Back to Black , she amassed six Grammys – including Album of the Year – for her brutally honest, self-critical songwriting and expressive vocals. From musing about her turbulent love life to arguing about why she won’t go to rehab, Winehouse produced a melancholic, sexy, and self-confident catalog of pop songs that have remained timeless.
Explore Amy ’ s iconic discography on vinyl and scroll down for our Top 20 Amy Winehouse songs.
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While Amy Winehouse had dropped her debut album Frank in 2003, it wasn’t until the release of her 2006 sophomore LP Back to Black that the singer-songwriter had landed her first Top 10 hit. Part of what made Winehouse such an alluring artist was her unwavering candor, and her first Top 10 single, “Rehab,” offered just that. Winehouse’s fervent defiance about her substance issues paired with her syrupy pop hooks helped “Rehab” land at No. 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.
It wasn’t long until Winehouse’s momentum took over with “You Know I’m No Good,” which quickly became a radio staple. The buzzy track – which magnified the self-loathing and desolation she found herself in as her relationship went from bad to worse – earned praise for its brassy vocals and playful horns, as well as a spot at No. 77 on the Hot 100 chart.
Inspired by the split from her then-husband, “Back to Black” finds Winehouse spiraling into nihilistic abandon but wrapped in 60s girl group harmonies and symphonic strings.
Amy Winehouse - Back To Black
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Leaning into the Motown sound, Winehouse crafted the fourth single from Back to Black around the Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell’s 1967 classic “ Ain’t No Mountain High Enough ” for the wistful, mid-tempo “Tears Dry On Their Own.” While her final single, “Love Is a Losing Game,” marked the culmination of her heartache, but it has since lived on as a favorite for artists like Prince and Sam Smith to cover in the years since her passing.
Not every artist can pull off the art of making a cover as good (if not better than) the original. But Winehouse’s gritty, powerhouse vocals and charm pulled it off. With “Valerie” – a song originally recorded by English indie rockers The Zutons in 2006 – it was near-impossible to believe that the song wasn’t her’s, let alone Mark Ronson’s cover with an assist from Winehouse. Thanks to the singer’s bluesy vocals, Winehouse and Ronson’s rendition of “Valerie” soared to No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart in 2007.
Though Winehouse could make any cover sound like it came straight out of Phil Spector’s studio, she did rework a girl group classic with her cover of The Shirelles’ “Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow?” The singer’s ability to make a classic sound like an original was once again put front-and-center with the stripped-down rendition of the track in 2004.
Mark Ronson and Amy Winehouse - Valerie (Live at The BRIT Awards 2008)
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For the deluxe version of Back to Black , Winehouse delivered a slow-burning ska cover of Sam Cooke’s 1961-penned track “Cupid” that was a departure from the R&B-tinged pop songs she had become synonymous with.
Her final single before her passing was a twist on Leslie Gore’s 1963 pop hit “It’s My Party,” which appeared on Quincy Jones’ compilation album Q: Soul Bossa Nostra . Backed by bold horns, Winehouse reworked the track’s vocals to have even more of an overdramatic flair backed by bold horns.
Throughout her brief career, she perfected the art of the kiss-off, as the best Amy Winehouse songs attest. Whether it was a cheating ex or someone trying to tell her what to do, the singer never held back her feelings. “Between the Cheats” – a song from Winehouse’s posthumous collection Lioness: Hidden Treasures – is an impassioned, doo-wop-soaked ditty filled with contempt for a cheating lover and Winehouse’s crippling despair.
But years before this track was released, Winehouse proved she was wise beyond her years with the biting “Stronger Than Me,” as she laments an older lover who isn’t the kind of partner who can take care of her.
As a foil to “Stronger Than Me,” Winehouse admits to having her ego bruised when she met the same, older man on “You Sent Me Flying.” But the song is a standout for how Winehouse was able to put her own spin on the traditional piano ballad, adding hip-hop flair to the beat.
Amy Winehouse - Stronger Than Me
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The smoky, gospel-tinged “Unholy War” is Winehouse’s stream of consciousness at work as she details the helplessness she felt while watching her husband battle his own mental health issues.
On the other side of the spectrum, the UK-exclusive single, “In My Bed” sampled Nas’ 2002 hit “Made You Look” to create an R&B track flanked with brass about two lovers who can only agree when they’re in bed. Winehouse’s affinity for Nas is a throughline in her career. On “Me & Mr. Jones,” Winehouse concedes to being one of the rapper’s many side-chicks and despite that, still remains loyal to him.
Winehouse was clearly a student of jazz and hip-hop and her playful way with words reflected her love for both. Her jazz-inspired phrasing and antagonistic spirit made her many fans in the hip-hop community as the Lioness tracklist indicates, featuring contributors like Mos Def, Ghostface Killah, Jay-Z , and more.
Though she wasn’t officially credited, Winehouse also lent her vocals to Mutya Buena’s single “B Boy Baby” in 2007, which borrowed melodies and lyrics from The Ronettes’ “Be My Baby.” The two shared a common collaborator, with Salaam Remi producing the former Sugababe’s debut album.
While Winehouse’s lithe vocals were posthumously featured on Nas’ 2012 track “Cherry Wine” after her passing, the video featured images of Winehouse projected onto a bar wall and the song earned a Grammy nod for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration in 2013.
Like Smoke
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Unsurprisingly, the first single from the posthumous collection of Winehouse’s work was another song with Nas, “Like Smoke.” While the rapper takes the lead on the mid-tempo hip-hop track, Winehouse’s theatrical flourishes hang off the chorus.
While many of the best Amy Winehouse songs spoke of romance gone wrong, co-dependency and addiction, she also had a wicked sense of humor that shone through many of her self-deprecating lyrics.
Winehouse pokes fun at herself for her love of weed in the drum-flanked “Addicted.” There’s a playfulness to how she conflates her desire with weed to sex that allows Winehouse to let herself not be taken so seriously.
On the bouncy “F__k Me Pumps,” she uses her jazzy lilt to take a break from the ruminations of her mind to indict all the women who dress up just to chase Footballers at the club. Co-written by Rami and Winehouse, she joked the song was the result of “two bi__hy people in one room.” Winehouse could sling lyrical barbs with a certain dexterity, but she was often caught in her own crosshairs when it came to her lyrics.
Amy Winehouse - Fuck Me Pumps
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In the short span of her life and career, Winehouse forged a soulful pop template that has spawned countless imitators, but there is only one Amy.
Listen to the best Amy Winehouse songs on Apple Music and Spotify.
ADVERTISEMENT | https://www.udiscovermusic.com/stories/best-amy-winehouse-songs/ | 137 |
who had hits rehab and back to black | 'Back To Black': The Story Behind Amy Winehouse's Hit Song | ADVERTISEMENT
Although the album’s biggest hit was the infectious “Rehab,” about Winehouse’s real-life battle with addiction, arguably its cornerstone was its title song, a cathartic symphony of sadness written by the singer together with Mark Ronson, the London-born US producer who helmed six of Back To Black ‘s eleven songs.
Using the word “black” as a metaphor for the abyss of depression, “Back To Black” is a bleak, grief-stricken portrait of heartbreak purportedly inspired by Winehouse’s ex-boyfriend’s infidelity. Mournful strings and an ominous tolling bell create a funereal atmosphere, which is dramatically juxtaposed with a danceable, retro-slanted musical backdrop inspired by 60s girl-group pop and Phil Spector’s wall of sound production values.
“Back To Black” was the first song Winehouse wrote and recorded for her second album. It came about in March 2006 when she was persuaded to meet Mark Ronson in the producer’s Greenwich Village recording studio. On her arrival there, she mistook Ronson for a recording engineer and, according to her father Mitch in his 2012 book, Amy, My Daughter , thought the producer would be “an older Jewish guy with a big beard.” Nevertheless, the two talked, bonded through their love of music, and the next day, Ronson had written the beginning of a song for her, as he recalled to MOJO in 2010: “I came up with this little piano riff, which became the verse chords to ‘Back To Black.’ Behind it, I just put a kick drum and a tambourine and tons of reverb.”
Winehouse was thrilled with Ronson’s idea; she quickly wrote some lyrics based on what she was going through at the time and then they recorded a demo of the song. They then cut it with a rhythm section in Brooklyn at The House Of Soul, a studio run by Daptone, an indie label specializing in retro soul and funk. Additional recording later took place at Chung King Studios in New York and Metropolis in London, where Winehouse and Ronson finessed the song with production touches that deepened the song’s sable colors.
Amy Winehouse - Back To Black
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After the unveiling of Back To Black in October 2006, Amy Winehouse’s name was on everyone’s lips. The LP quickly went multi-platinum around the world and transformed its creator into a global phenomenon. Its title song was released as the set’s third single in April 2007, initially rising to 25 in the UK; ironically, a month later, Winehouse married Blake Fielder-Civil, whose actions had inspired the song. After Winehouse’s tragic death in 2011, “Back To Black” got a second lease of life, peaking at No. 8 in the UK singles chart and eventually going platinum.
Since then, “Black To Black” has spawned several cover versions; the most notable by Beyoncé and André 3000, who joined forces in 2013 to record a slowed-down rendition for The Great Gatsby soundtrack. Other versions have come from the UK singer Lightspeed Champion, who re-modeled the tune as a folk-inspired acoustic number in 2008, and French chanteuse Amanda Lear, who infused it with a jazzy, late-night vibe. Immediately after Winehouse’s death in 2011, ex-Ronette Ronnie Spector – said to have been a formative influence on the Camden singer – paid tribute to Winehouse by releasing a disco treatment of “Back To Black” as a single.
Nothing seems to encapsulate Amy Winehouse’s unique musical persona and sound quite like the song “Back To Black.” Considered one of her signature songs, its stature has grown immeasurably since the singer’s passing, perhaps because of the poignancy and prescience of the lines: “I tread a troubled track, My odds are stacked.” Indeed, it was the raw realism and authentically autobiographical nature of her songs that made Amy Winehouse’s music so compelling. And “Back To Black,” with its timeless story of betrayal and love gone bad, has a universality that resonates deeply with anyone who’s ever suffered rejection and a broken heart. | https://www.udiscovermusic.com/stories/amy-winehouse-back-to-black-song-feature/ | 137 |
who had hits rehab and back to black | Amy Winehouse’s ‘Back To Black’ Re-Enters US Album Chart | The enduring 2006 album includes such classic tracks as ‘Rehab’ and ‘You Know I’m No Good.’
Published on
Amy Winehouse’s breakthrough 2006 album, Back to Black , has re-entered the Billboard 200 nearly 15 years after its release. Her second and final album, which included such memorable hits as “Rehab,” “You Know I’m No Good,” and “Tears Dry on Their Own,” is currently sitting at No. 154 on the US album chart.
Originally released in October of 2006, Back to Black was widely hailed as a modern-day soul masterpiece. The album – which followed 2003’s Frank – found the British singer/songwriter collaborating with producers Mark Ronson and Salaam Remi, as well as the imitable Dap-Kings, known best for backing the late Sharon Jones. Released first in the UK, Back to Black debuted at No.3, and hit No.1 at the top of the year. Concurrently, Winehouse traveled to New York to play her first-ever US shows.
Those appearances made waves across America. In March, Back to Black debuted at No.7 on the Billboard 200 – marking the highest entry on the chart by a British female solo artist at the time. One year later, following multiple wins at the 2008 Grammys, the album peaked at No.2.
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Elsewhere, the album topped the European Albums Chart for a total of 13 weeks and hit No.1 in multiple countries, including Belgium, France, Germany, Austria, Spain, and Norway.
Back to Black became the UK’s best-selling album of 2007, and today, it remains the UK’s 12th best-selling album of all time. In the US, the album was certified double platinum a year after its release.
The album also captured the ears of music critics around the globe and was ranked among the best releases of 2007 by the likes of TIME , the New York Times , Entertainment Weekly , Billboard , and Rolling Stone , who also considered Black to Black to be one of the 100 Best Albums of the 2000s.
In the summer of 2011, following Winehouse’s tragic death, Back to Black re-entered the charts across Europe and the UK (where it peaked at No.1). The album also re-entered the Top Ten in the US and Canada.
The enduring album, which continues to be a top-selling title year over year, was recently reissued as part of a new box set, The Collection , which celebrates Winehouse’s extraordinary impact and timeless appeal. The 4CD/8LP set includes Winehouse’s two studio albums, as well as the posthumous Lioness: Hidden Treasures . The Collection also features Live In London , a 2007 concert recorded at Shepherd’s Bush Empire, plus a disc of remixes from Frank and Back To Black .
The Collection is available now and can be bought here . | https://www.udiscovermusic.com/news/back-to-black-re-enters-album-chart/ | 137 |
who had hits rehab and back to black | Amy Winehouse's top 5 songs: From Rehab to Back To Black | The biggest hit of Amy’s career, Rehab reached the top ten in both the UK and US, thanks to its irresistible chorus and powerful vocal performance.
Rehab’s lyrics – ‘They tried to make me go to rehab, I said No No No’ â made uncomfortable listening as the singer’s drink and drug problems escalated, but it remains her most memorable moment.
In My Bed
Arguably the standout track from Amy’s debut album, In My Bed boasts one of her finest vocals.
The soulful song was accompanied by a seductive video when it was released as a single in 2004. Watching it now, the singer looks almost shockingly healthy compared to the images fans saw of her in recent years.
Love Is A Losing Game
The fifth single from Back To Black, Love Is A Losing Game has a timeless feel and sounds like it could have been recorded at any time since 1960.
The track’s heartbreaking lyrics have become famous and even featured on a Cambridge University exam paper in 2008, when third-year English students were asked to compare them to the poetry of Sir Walter Raleigh.
Back To Black
Another of Amy’s best-known tracks, Back To Black showcases her talents as a lyricist in poignant fashion.
The break-up song features the haunting chorus: ‘We only said goodbye with words / I died a hundred times / You go back to her / And I go back to black.’
Valerie
Covers shouldn’t work this well, but this version of The Zutons’ Valerie was one of the best moments of Amy’s career.
The energetic collaboration with Mark Ronson will be played on the radio for years to come. | https://metro.co.uk/2011/07/23/amy-winehouses-top-5-songs-from-rehab-to-back-to-black-90002/ | 137 |
what was 99's name in get smart | Does anyone know what 99's name was on "Get Smart?" I don't mean ... | heyman
22 year member
33 replies
Answer has 3 votes.
22 year member
33 replies
Answer has 3 votes.
Her name was never revealed. In one episode, where she was leaving control, she said her name was 'Susan Hilton, but at the end, she said that it wasn't her real name.
Apr 01 2002, 6:19 AM
Brainy Blonde
Answer has 8 votes.
Answer has 8 votes.
"Get Smart" never revealed Agent 99's real name. In one episode, her name was given as Susan Hilton, but it was just an alias. The show's producers insist that 99 never had a name in the first place.
Response last updated by gtho4 on May 11 2020.
Apr 01 2002, 3:51 PM
Apr 01 2002, 3:51 PM
mochyn
20 year member
1206 replies
Answer has 1 vote.
20 year member
1206 replies
Answer has 1 vote.
she said her name was Susan but later said it was not true ,actually she was never given a name by the writers
Response last updated by Shadowmyst2004 on Aug 21 2016.
Jul 25 2003, 9:08 PM
Jul 25 2003, 9:08 PM
Moderator
17 year member
11752 replies
Answer has 9 votes.
Currently voted the best answer .
Agent 99 - A tall, attractive female agent whose appearance becomes useful in many undercover operations. Generally Agent 99 is more competent than Maxwell Smart, but Max saves her life in several episodes. Together they provide a perfect team both to battle KAOS and provide comical situations on-screen. Smart and 99 are married in Season 4 and have twins in Season 5. Agent 99's real name is never revealed. In the episode "99 Loses CONTROL", she says that her name is Susan Hilton, but at the end of the episode she tells Max that in fact "Susan" isn't her real name. In the episode "A Man Called Smart", Max calls 99 "Ernestine". She replies, "That's the first time you've called me Ernestine...If only it was my name!"
Aug 30 2008, 2:51 PM
Your Email Address: | https://www.funtrivia.com/askft/Question36646.html | 138 |
what was 99's name in get smart | Barbara Feldon Played Agent 99 on "Get Smart." See Her Now at 88. | Find out why the iconic actor thinks the classic comedy wouldn't work today.
By
December 20, 2021
Viewers never found out Agent 99's real name on Get Smart , but true fans will remember that the actor who portrayed the spy was named Barbara Feldon . It's been over 50 years since Get Smart —which aired from 1965 to 1970—went off the air. Star Don Adams passed away in 2005 at the age of 82, and Feldon is now 88 years old. Feldon hasn't been active as an actor in recent years, but she remained busy after Get Smart and you probably came across some of her TV appearances. In addition to acting, she also took on another career as a writer. Read on to learn more about Feldon's life in the days since she hung up her secret agent gear.
Barbara Feldon continued acting for years.
Following Get Smart— for which she was nominated for two Emmys—Feldon continued to act for decades. She had roles in theater productions and on number of TV series and movies, including Cheers and Mad About You . She also reprised her role as Agent 99 in the 1989 movie Get Smart, Again! Feldon's last on-screen role was in the 2006 film The Last Request .
She wrote a book in 2003.
In 2003, Feldon wrote a book titled Living Alone and Loving It: A Guide to Relishing the Solo Life . It was inspired by her own experience with living on her own after spending much of her life with a partner.
"I had been in relationships my whole life," she told Forbes in 2016. "I'd been married, then had lived with someone for several years. After those, I just assumed I would find another relationship. But it didn't happen. As time went on with some good guidance, I learned how to live alone really happily. I've met a number of people—men and women—who feel living by themselves is a second-rate life. I thought that was sad, and since I had this technique of living alone, I decided to write a book."
Feldon added that people have written to thank her for sharing her advice. "We are so influenced by our culture, and as far back as we can remember, it has been a married one," she said. "But times have changed."
Feldon has been open about her personal life.
Feldon was married to Lucien Verdoux-Feldon for nine years, from 1958 to 1967. Soon after, she entered a lengthy relationship with Get Smart producer Burt Nodella . She spoke about her personal life in the interview with Forbes and talked about not having children . "It just didn't happen. Time went by and my life was just a different kind of life," she said.
Her character Agent 99, on the other hand, had twins. "I must say, though, that during the period where we were shooting and I was wearing that big pregnancy pad, I was like, 'Whoa, I'm quite not sure this would be fun,'" she recalled. "There are so many ways to be happy, and you can be happy with children. I know I would have been if I had had them. But you can be happy without them, too, and I have been."
For more celebrity news delivered right to your inbox, sign up for our daily newsletter .
She thinks Get Smart wouldn't work today.
During an interview with Studio 10 in 2019, Feldon said that she thinks Get Smart worked when it came out because it was "a more innocent time." She explained, "The character of 99 I don't think could be done today, because women are much more assertive now than they were. I don't think the softness, the deference to men that she had, which was left over from the 1950s. And yet her independence, which was presaging the feminist movement in the late '60s. I think it had to be in its time. I think it needs to remain there like a bug in a crystal."
Feldon told The Journal News in 2017 that at the time of the show, she didn't even question why she didn't get to use all the spy equipment that Adams did. "The fact is, I was so un-evolved myself at that time that I never even questioned why I couldn't play with the big toys," she said.
Get Smart was remade in 2008 as a movie starring Steve Carell and Anne Hathaway . "I thought it was entertaining," Feldon said. "But it wasn't the same. It couldn't be. The characters we played were from such an innocent time. It had its own flavor and you couldn't remake it."
Feldon has shared her favorite part of the show.
Feldon told Forbes that her favorite episodes of Get Smart were the ones in which she got to wear costumes . "I always loved when we got to dress up and play, like we were in kindergarten," she said. "I loved the one where Don [Adams] and I are disguised as Charlie Chaplin, both of us, with mustaches and everything. It's in the episode Max proposes to Agent 99 because they think they're going to be killed, so he's pressed to the wall. I loved doing that imitation wearing the costume and being proposed to in a mustache."
She summed up the show to Studio 10 , saying, "It was silly. It was lovely to be silly. And there was some really sharp, playful commentary."
Lia Beck
Lia Beck is a writer living in Richmond, Virginia. In addition to Best Life, she has written for Refinery29, Bustle, Hello Giggles, InStyle, and more. Read more
Filed Under
15 TV Shows That Lost Their StarsThese series lost their leads, sometimes abruptly, but still continued on.
19 Stars Who Were Fired From Hit TV ShowsBooking a series isn't always a ticket to job security, as these fired TV stars discovered.
30 TV Shows You Won't Believe Are 30 Years OldSome of these TV series feel fresher than ever, while others are perfect time capsules of 1990.
The Most Vicious Zodiac Sign
They'll attack for no reason.
Driver "Appeared to be Unconscious" at Wheel
Dash cam video shows car swerving.
Mother Wins $2 Million Lottery
Winning ticket was last one left. | https://bestlifeonline.com/barbara-feldon-get-smart-now-news/ | 138 |
what was 99's name in get smart | Barbara Feldon Played Agent 99 on "Get Smart." See Her Now at 88. | Find out why the iconic actor thinks the classic comedy wouldn't work today.
By
December 20, 2021
Viewers never found out Agent 99's real name on Get Smart , but true fans will remember that the actor who portrayed the spy was named Barbara Feldon . It's been over 50 years since Get Smart —which aired from 1965 to 1970—went off the air. Star Don Adams passed away in 2005 at the age of 82, and Feldon is now 88 years old. Feldon hasn't been active as an actor in recent years, but she remained busy after Get Smart and you probably came across some of her TV appearances. In addition to acting, she also took on another career as a writer. Read on to learn more about Feldon's life in the days since she hung up her secret agent gear.
Barbara Feldon continued acting for years.
Following Get Smart— for which she was nominated for two Emmys—Feldon continued to act for decades. She had roles in theater productions and on number of TV series and movies, including Cheers and Mad About You . She also reprised her role as Agent 99 in the 1989 movie Get Smart, Again! Feldon's last on-screen role was in the 2006 film The Last Request .
She wrote a book in 2003.
In 2003, Feldon wrote a book titled Living Alone and Loving It: A Guide to Relishing the Solo Life . It was inspired by her own experience with living on her own after spending much of her life with a partner.
"I had been in relationships my whole life," she told Forbes in 2016. "I'd been married, then had lived with someone for several years. After those, I just assumed I would find another relationship. But it didn't happen. As time went on with some good guidance, I learned how to live alone really happily. I've met a number of people—men and women—who feel living by themselves is a second-rate life. I thought that was sad, and since I had this technique of living alone, I decided to write a book."
Feldon added that people have written to thank her for sharing her advice. "We are so influenced by our culture, and as far back as we can remember, it has been a married one," she said. "But times have changed."
Feldon has been open about her personal life.
Feldon was married to Lucien Verdoux-Feldon for nine years, from 1958 to 1967. Soon after, she entered a lengthy relationship with Get Smart producer Burt Nodella . She spoke about her personal life in the interview with Forbes and talked about not having children . "It just didn't happen. Time went by and my life was just a different kind of life," she said.
Her character Agent 99, on the other hand, had twins. "I must say, though, that during the period where we were shooting and I was wearing that big pregnancy pad, I was like, 'Whoa, I'm quite not sure this would be fun,'" she recalled. "There are so many ways to be happy, and you can be happy with children. I know I would have been if I had had them. But you can be happy without them, too, and I have been."
For more celebrity news delivered right to your inbox, sign up for our daily newsletter .
She thinks Get Smart wouldn't work today.
During an interview with Studio 10 in 2019, Feldon said that she thinks Get Smart worked when it came out because it was "a more innocent time." She explained, "The character of 99 I don't think could be done today, because women are much more assertive now than they were. I don't think the softness, the deference to men that she had, which was left over from the 1950s. And yet her independence, which was presaging the feminist movement in the late '60s. I think it had to be in its time. I think it needs to remain there like a bug in a crystal."
Feldon told The Journal News in 2017 that at the time of the show, she didn't even question why she didn't get to use all the spy equipment that Adams did. "The fact is, I was so un-evolved myself at that time that I never even questioned why I couldn't play with the big toys," she said.
Get Smart was remade in 2008 as a movie starring Steve Carell and Anne Hathaway . "I thought it was entertaining," Feldon said. "But it wasn't the same. It couldn't be. The characters we played were from such an innocent time. It had its own flavor and you couldn't remake it."
Feldon has shared her favorite part of the show.
Feldon told Forbes that her favorite episodes of Get Smart were the ones in which she got to wear costumes . "I always loved when we got to dress up and play, like we were in kindergarten," she said. "I loved the one where Don [Adams] and I are disguised as Charlie Chaplin, both of us, with mustaches and everything. It's in the episode Max proposes to Agent 99 because they think they're going to be killed, so he's pressed to the wall. I loved doing that imitation wearing the costume and being proposed to in a mustache."
She summed up the show to Studio 10 , saying, "It was silly. It was lovely to be silly. And there was some really sharp, playful commentary."
Lia Beck
Lia Beck is a writer living in Richmond, Virginia. In addition to Best Life, she has written for Refinery29, Bustle, Hello Giggles, InStyle, and more. Read more
Filed Under
15 TV Shows That Lost Their StarsThese series lost their leads, sometimes abruptly, but still continued on.
19 Stars Who Were Fired From Hit TV ShowsBooking a series isn't always a ticket to job security, as these fired TV stars discovered.
30 TV Shows You Won't Believe Are 30 Years OldSome of these TV series feel fresher than ever, while others are perfect time capsules of 1990.
The Most Vicious Zodiac Sign
They'll attack for no reason.
Driver "Appeared to be Unconscious" at Wheel
Dash cam video shows car swerving.
Mother Wins $2 Million Lottery
Winning ticket was last one left. | https://bestlifeonline.com/barbara-feldon-get-smart-now-news/ | 138 |
what was 99's name in get smart | Barbara Feldon - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Barbara Feldon
|Born|
Barbara Anne Hall
March 12, 1933
Butler, Pennsylvania , U.S.
|Education||Carnegie Mellon University ( BFA )|
|Occupation||Actress|
|Years active||1957–present|
|Known for||Get Smart|
|Spouse|
Lucien Verdoux-Feldon
( m. 1958; div. 1967)
|Partner(s)|| Burt Nodella |
(1968–1979)
Barbara Feldon (born Barbara Anne Hall ; March 12, 1933) [1] is an American actress primarily known for her roles on television. Her most prominent role was that of Agent 99 in the 1965–1970 sitcom Get Smart .
Feldon was born Barbara Anne Hall in Butler, Pennsylvania , part of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area . [2] [3] Feldon and her older sister Patricia were the daughters of Raymond D. and Julia Stewart Hall. [4] She graduated from Bethel Park High School and trained at Pittsburgh Playhouse . [5] In 1955, she graduated from Carnegie Institute of Technology with a Bachelor of Arts in drama. She was initiated into the Delta Xi Chapter of Kappa Kappa Gamma . In 1957, she won the grand prize on The $64,000 Question in the category of William Shakespeare . [6] [7]
Feldon studied acting at HB Studio . [8] Following working as a model, Feldon's break came in the form of a popular and much-parodied television commercial for "Top Brass", a hair pomade for men by Revlon. Lounging languidly on an animal-print rug, she purred at the camera, addressing the male viewers as "tigers". [9]
This led to small roles in television series. In the 1960s, she made appearances on Twelve O'Clock High (season one, episode 24: "End of the Line"), Flipper (season one, episodes 12 and 13: the two-parter "The Lady and the Dolphin") and The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (in "The Never-Never Affair" aired spring 1965). [10] In 1964, she appeared with Simon Oakland in the episode "Try to Find a Spy" of CBS 's short-lived drama Mr. Broadway . [10]
One substantial guest-starring role was opposite George C. Scott in the television drama East Side/West Side (season one, episode 19). It was produced by Talent Associates , which was also developing a TV comedy called Get Smart with two prominent writers, Mel Brooks and Buck Henry . [11]
Feldon was cast in this new show as "Agent 99". She starred opposite comedian Don Adams , who portrayed Maxwell Smart, Secret Agent 86. [10] She played the role for the duration of the show's production from 1965 until 1970 and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 1968 and 1969. [12]
The character was unusual for the era, showing a capable woman in a stressful career. [13] Feldon noted, "A lot of women said 99 was a role model for them because she was smart and always got the right answer." Feldon almost lost her role as 99 because the sponsor of Get Smart was a deodorant soap, and she had done a deodorant commercial for Revlon. [14] Feldon was also noticeably taller than Adams, her male co-star, another rarity for the time. [15] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Feldon | 138 |
what was 99's name in get smart | Q: On the show Get Smart, did… | By
PUBLISHED: | UPDATED:
Q: On the show Get Smart, did they ever reveal Agent 99’s real full name?
– A: Yes, even though Maxwell Smart (Don Adams) continued to refer to 99 (Barbara Feldon) by her Control agency number even after they wed. Her “real” name was Susan Hilton. | https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-1991-04-06-9104060856-story.html | 138 |
what was 99's name in get smart | Does anyone know what 99's name was on "Get Smart?" I don't mean ... | heyman
22 year member
33 replies
Answer has 3 votes.
22 year member
33 replies
Answer has 3 votes.
Her name was never revealed. In one episode, where she was leaving control, she said her name was 'Susan Hilton, but at the end, she said that it wasn't her real name.
Apr 01 2002, 6:19 AM
Brainy Blonde
Answer has 8 votes.
Answer has 8 votes.
"Get Smart" never revealed Agent 99's real name. In one episode, her name was given as Susan Hilton, but it was just an alias. The show's producers insist that 99 never had a name in the first place.
Response last updated by gtho4 on May 11 2020.
Apr 01 2002, 3:51 PM
Apr 01 2002, 3:51 PM
mochyn
20 year member
1206 replies
Answer has 1 vote.
20 year member
1206 replies
Answer has 1 vote.
she said her name was Susan but later said it was not true ,actually she was never given a name by the writers
Response last updated by Shadowmyst2004 on Aug 21 2016.
Jul 25 2003, 9:08 PM
Jul 25 2003, 9:08 PM
Moderator
17 year member
11752 replies
Answer has 9 votes.
Currently voted the best answer .
Agent 99 - A tall, attractive female agent whose appearance becomes useful in many undercover operations. Generally Agent 99 is more competent than Maxwell Smart, but Max saves her life in several episodes. Together they provide a perfect team both to battle KAOS and provide comical situations on-screen. Smart and 99 are married in Season 4 and have twins in Season 5. Agent 99's real name is never revealed. In the episode "99 Loses CONTROL", she says that her name is Susan Hilton, but at the end of the episode she tells Max that in fact "Susan" isn't her real name. In the episode "A Man Called Smart", Max calls 99 "Ernestine". She replies, "That's the first time you've called me Ernestine...If only it was my name!"
Aug 30 2008, 2:51 PM
Your Email Address: | https://www.funtrivia.com/askft/Question36646.html | 138 |
what was 99's name in get smart | In the TV show Get Smart, what was Agent 99's real show name? | Agent 99's name was never revealed in the show. Even after she was married to Maxwell Smart, she became Mrs. Smart.
She was played by actress Barbara Feldon. She was married to Maxwell Smart in the 4th season of the show. In one episode, her name was Susan Hilton. However later she claimed that that name was an alias and a fake.
The show ran from 1965-1970. The series ran on 2 different networks. It ran on NBC for 4 seasons, and then was picked up by CBS for the 5th and final season. | https://quizzclub.com/trivia/in-the-tv-show-get-smart-what-was-agent-99-s-real-show-name/answer/170349/ | 138 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Miami Dolphins Playoff History | 1966 | The Miami Dolphins have played a total of 57 seasons. Their first season was in 1966, and their most recent season was in 2022.
No, the Miami Dolphins have been known by that name since 1966.
The Miami Dolphins currently play in the East Division of the American Football Conference, aka the AFC East.
The best start to a Dolphins season was the 1972 Miami Dolphins , who started the season 17-0 (including playoffs). The second best start to a season was the 1984 Miami Dolphins , who started the season going 11-0. The third best start to a season was the 1992 Miami Dolphins , who started the season with 6 wins.
The worst start to a Dolphins season was the 2007 Miami Dolphins , who started the season at 0-13. The second worst starts to a Dolphins season was the 2011 Miami Dolphins and the 2019 Miami Dolphins , who both started the season with 7 losses.
The Miami Dolphins last made the playoffs in 2022, when they lost the Wild Card Round. They've been in the playoffs a total of 24 times in their 57 seasons.
The Miami Dolphins last missed the playoffs in 2021.
In 2000, the Miami Dolphins beat the Indianapolis Colts in the Wild Card Round.
In 2022, the Miami Dolphins lost to the Buffalo Bills in the Wild Card Round.
The Miami Dolphins have appeared in the Super Bowl 5 times, in 1971, 1972, 1973, 1982 and 1984.
The Miami Dolphins won the Super Bowl 2 times, in 1972 and 1973.
|Year||Record||Result|
|2022||9-8||Lost Wild Card Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|2021||9-8||Missed Playoffs|
|2020||10-6||Missed Playoffs|
|2019||5-11||Missed Playoffs|
|2018||7-9||Missed Playoffs|
|2017||6-10||Missed Playoffs|
|2016||10-6||Lost Wild Card Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|2015||6-10||Missed Playoffs|
|2014||8-8||Missed Playoffs|
|2013||8-8||Missed Playoffs|
|2012||7-9||Missed Playoffs|
|2011||6-10||Missed Playoffs|
|2010||7-9||Missed Playoffs|
|2009||7-9||Missed Playoffs|
|2008||11-5||Lost Wild Card Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|2007||1-15||Missed Playoffs|
|2006||6-10||Missed Playoffs|
|2005||9-7||Missed Playoffs|
|2004||4-12||Missed Playoffs|
|2003||10-6||Missed Playoffs|
|2002||9-7||Missed Playoffs|
|2001||11-5||Lost Wild Card Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|2000||11-5||Lost Divisional Round (Won 1 Round)|
|1999||9-7||Lost Divisional Round (Won 1 Round)|
|1998||10-6||Lost Divisional Round (Won 1 Round)|
|1997||9-7||Lost Wild Card Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|1996||8-8||Missed Playoffs|
|1995||9-7||Lost Wild Card Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|1994||10-6||Lost Divisional Round (Won 1 Round)|
|1993||9-7||Missed Playoffs|
|1992||11-5||Lost Conference Championship (Won 1 Round)|
|1991||8-8||Missed Playoffs|
|1990||12-4||Lost Divisional Round (Won 1 Round)|
|1989||8-8||Missed Playoffs|
|1988||6-10||Missed Playoffs|
|1987||8-7||Missed Playoffs|
|1986||8-8||Missed Playoffs|
|1985||12-4||Lost Conference Championship (Won 1 Round)|
|1984||14-2||Lost Super Bowl (Won 2 Rounds)|
|1983||12-4||Lost Divisional Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|1982||7-2||Lost Super Bowl (Won 3 Rounds)|
|1981||11-4-1||Lost Divisional Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|1980||8-8||Missed Playoffs|
|1979||10-6||Lost Divisional Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|1978||11-5||Lost Wild Card Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|1977||10-4||Missed Playoffs|
|1976||6-8||Missed Playoffs|
|1975||10-4||Missed Playoffs|
|1974||11-3||Lost Divisional Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|1973||12-2||Won Super Bowl|
|1972||14-0||Won Super Bowl|
|1971||10-3-1||Lost Super Bowl (Won 2 Rounds)|
|1970||10-4||Lost Divisional Round (Won 0 Rounds)|
|1969||3-10-1||Missed Playoffs|
|1968||5-8-1||Missed Playoffs|
|1967||4-10||Missed Playoffs|
|1966||3-11||Missed Playoffs| | https://champsorchumps.us/team/nfl/miami-dolphins | 139 |
how many times has the miami dolphins won the super bowl | Dolphins Super Bowl history: When is the last time Miami made it to, won the Super Bowl? - NBC Sports | After finishing 9-8 last season, the Miami Dolphins clinched the final AFC Wild Card spot with an 11-6 win over the New York Jets in Week 18 . With new head coach Mike McDaniel leading the charge, the Dolphins hope to win their first Super Bowl since 1973. However, the team faces an uphill battle as the offense, built around 3rd-year QB Tua Tagovailoa –will have to continue to operate without its starter.
Tagovailoa last played on Christmas Day in the team’s Week 16 loss to the Packers and entered concussion protocol –for the second time this season–the following day. He is ruled out for Sunday and Skylar Thompson will prepare to start.
The Miami Dolphins have won the Super Bowl a total of 2 times in their 5 appearances.
- 1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
The Miami Dolphins have not made a Super Bowl appearance in 39 years.
The last time the Miami Dolphins hoisted up the Lombardi Trophy was in 1973 when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings 24-7 in Super Bowl VIII.
- 1984 season: Lost Super Bowl XIX vs. the San Francisco 49ers, 38-16
- 1982 season: Lost Super Bowl XVII vs. the Washington Redskins, 27-17
- 1973 season: Won Super Bowl VIII vs. the Minnesota Vikings, 24-7
- 1972 season: Won Super Bowl VII vs. the Washington Redskins, 14-7
- 1971 seasons: Lost Super Bowl VI vs. the Dallas Cowboys, 24-3
- When : Sunday, February 12, 2023
- Where : State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona
- TV Channel: FOX
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Follow along with ProFootballTalk for the latest news, storylines, and updates surrounding the 2023 NFL Playoffs and be sure to subscribe to NFLonNBC on YouTube !
HOUSTON—Two big stories here when I landed from Vegas:
- Drafting a franchise quarterback.
- Paying franchise-quarterback draft capital to draft a defensive end.
There’s no other way to put it: After picking C.J. Stroud second overall, the Texans traded up nine slots, from 12 to three in the first round, to take Alabama defensive end Will Anderson . Houston GM Nick Caserio traded 12 and 34 this year and first- and third-round picks next year to just barely squeeze the trade into the NFL’s 10-minute window for the third pick. As I explain in the next item about Arizona’s draft, Houston could be picking very early next year—which will put a white hot spotlight of pressure on Anderson.
Caserio told me at NRG Stadium that Stroud was clearly the team’s target at two. He’d had some discussions with Cards GM Monti Ossenfort about possibly moving from 12 to three. “Then,” Caserio said, “it happened pretty quickly when they were on the clock.”
The deal got done and all parties notified, he said, with “close to a minute” left. So the Texans got a player they hope will be their franchise QB, and they got the best defensive player on their board. That is one heck of a night’s work. The price, of course, is denuding the 2024 draft when the Texans might wish they had two first-round picks and four in the first three rounds—instead of now just one first-round pick, one second- and no thirds.
But – and there is a big but – you should have been at the Texans’ facility in the basement of NRG Stadium late Friday afternoon, when Stroud and Anderson put on a show of humility and team-firstness that had to make Texans fans so weary of losing (a league-worst 11-38-1 in the last three years) happy for the first time since the Wild Card win over Buffalo three years ago.
Stroud and Anderson came with their families and made it clear they were all-in on going to a losing team after years of nothing but winning in college. Afterward, Stroud told me: “That’s what life is about, working to build something good. That’s what I’m here to help this team do. I’m ready for it.”
The Texans have asked Stroud to let the S-2 Test controversy go, but he got a couple last licks in on it. A player who played the way Stroud did—particularly in putting up 41 points in his superb final college game in the playoff against Georgia—is not a player who can’t process, or can’t ID a defense. I understand using every tool in the bag to analyze players before the draft, and I’d check out why Stroud scored low on the test. But to think it’s a good indicator of future failure—I mean, watch the games he’s played.
We stood in a hallway just off the Texans’ locker room for 12 minutes and I asked him about what he’s learned from the last three months.
“Humility is something I’m not afraid of,” Stroud said. “It’s something I’m accustomed to. This was all probably just a humble moment God wanted me to go through.
“ A lot of people haven’t played the sport, and I mean critics are gonna critique. For me I know the film speaks for itself. Everything that I’ve done in college, I’ve been very consistent. I think I’ve been one of the most consistent players in college football for the last two years. If you turn on the tape, you can see, you can answer the questions. But those who don’t understand tape might want to go to other things and analyze other things. They’re more than welcome to do such. But the people who are making the choices and the picks, they knew what I can do. They understood the IQ that I do have.
“I have a great memory when it comes to football,” Stroud added. “I feel like there’s different ways to be geniuses. You don’t just have to be book smart. You can be analytics smart. You can be numbers smart. You can be football smart. I really think that there’s different types of ways to be smart. That’s something that I pride myself on. And I am book smart. I did have over a 3.0 in college. I had over a 3.0 in high school. I know that I can think. I can process very, very fast. The film, you can see me going from first option to second and then back to one and then to three to four if I have to. I can check down. I can use my feet.
“But, you know, everything happens for a reason. I’m not upset. I’m actually blessed, I’m super blessed to be a Texan. Number two overall pick in the NFL draft, man. A little kid from the [California] Inland Empire. All smiles, man. I ain’t tripping about this.”
Good attitude to have. But at the same time, I could feel it: C.J. Stroud will remember this pre-draft process. And for the Texans, that bit of motivation will be a very good thing.
HENDERSON, Nev.—Just before noon on Thursday, hours before the start of the NFL Draft, Raiders coach Josh McDaniels popped into GM Dave Ziegler ’s office for one last bit of strategy talk. The team’s draft board had been set with finality Wednesday, after three months of debate. The Raiders, after conversations with teams above them about trading up from number seven in the first round, decided to stay in their slot, barring a surprise.
“What we need is for three quarterbacks to go before we pick,” McDaniels said.
It seemed logical, with Carolina going Bryce Young at number one and then Houston at two and Indianapolis at four and Seattle at five all in the QB market. But nothing in this draft after Carolina was a sure thing. All McDaniels and Ziegler knew was that these four non-QBs sat at the top of their board a short spiral away, graded closely:
But as Ziegler and McDaniels hashed it out, and McDaniels talked about the latest intel he’d heard about the top six (“I hope I’ll have something coming in on Houston at two, but Nick’s tight,” he said, referring to Texans GM/CIA agent Nick Caserio ), they realized they were just like the rest of America: They doubted Houston would pick a quarterback at two, they didn’t know which GM was fixing to pay a ransom to trade up with Arizona at three, they didn’t know which quarterback Indianapolis would choose at four, and they didn’t know if Seattle would go QB or best defensive weapon at five.
No surprise, all this mystery. This is the modern draft, where lips are no longer loose, where mock drafts are a mockery of reality. It sounds counterintuitive, but in the hours before the NFL Draft, the people running drafts for $6 billion franchises didn’t know much more than the rest of us. Ziegler and McDaniels did know by staying put—and they would get a phone call that surprised and tempted them minutes before their pick—they were not in control of their fate. They needed help. The Raiders needed two teams post-Carolina to pick passers in the next five picks. Likely. Not certain.
At 4:43 p.m. Pacific Time, Ziegler was on his way into the draft room, a large square conference room on the third floor of the Raiders’ facility six miles west of the Vegas Strip. He stopped by the floor-to-ceiling photograph of the man who lords over this franchise 12 years after his death, and Ziegler patted the photograph of Al Davis .
“Goosebumps,” Ziegler said. “I feel his presence every day.”
Then Ziegler—47, in gray suit, black Oxford shirt, no tie, white and black sneakers—entered the draft room, where 13 scouts, personnel people, one coach and one owner would plot the immediate future of Al Davis’ team. At 4:59 p.m., 11 minutes before the draft kicked off, owner Mark Davis slipped into the room, in his white satin Raiders jacket and stonewashed faded jeans.
“Gameday, baby!” Son of Al announced to the room.
Gameday, as Mark Davis said. “We’re still undefeated!” Davis said as Roger Goodell kicked off the draft. One wall taken up entirely with the draft board, ranking the players by position from top to bottom, on magnetic cards, the old-school way. One wall, controlled by pro personnel director Dwayne Joseph , with pick-by-pick order and team-by-team needs that change with every pick. One wall, which McDaniels, Ziegler, assistant GM Champ Kelly and Davis face, with three things: a big TV tuned to the draft, computerized pick-by-pick directly from the league, so it’s faster than what you see on TV, and a constantly updated list of trade discussions with draft-trade charts showing trade proposals broken down by a value chart.
Kelly, Ziegler (cell phone to his ear at least half of the evening), McDaniels, Davis, left to right in front of the room, in swivel chairs, able to look ahead at trade possibilities or back at the state of the draft board. Ziegler flitted from senior personnel adviser Shaun Herock to McDaniels to Davis to Kelly to director of football analytics David Christoff to senior national scouts DuJuan Daniels, Andy Dengler and Lenny McGill , having mostly hushed conversations.
5:18 p.m. PT: Panthers picked Young. “This is where the draft starts,” Ziegler, stating the obvious, said.
Four minutes later, the tinny voice from draft headquarters said, “Houston has made its pick. Arizona now on the clock.” All eyes turn to the board where the pick will show up first. C.J. Stroud , QB, Ohio State popped onto the screen. “Oooooh,” someone in the room said. Seven minutes passed. Arizona traded down to 12 with Houston. Big compensation: For this pick and a fourth- this year, the Texans gave the Colts the 12 th and 33 rd overall picks this year and their first- and third-round picks next year.
5:32 p.m.: Will Anderson to Houston at three. One Vegas target down.
5:33 p.m.: Ziegler on his cell, briefly. Ziegler to McDaniels in a hushed tone: “Arizona wants to trade back up.”
Ziegler and McDaniels stared at the trade-value board in the back of the room, analyzing trade possibilities—the values, plus or minus for the Raiders, based on the numerical values Ziegler assigns to each pick:
1-7 down to 1-12
Potential Counters
+177 ARI sends 2-33, LV gives back 4 th (109)
+68 ARI sends 2-33 and 6-213, LV gives back 3-100 and 4-109
+30 ARI sends 2-33, LV gives back 3-70
At 5:37 p.m., Anthony Richardson , the Florida quarterback, got picked by the Colts. The third quarterback was off the board. McDaniels beamed. He and Ziegler slapped hands. Now the Raiders were sure to get one of their four guys.
5:42 p.m.: Cards GM Monti Ossenfort called Ziegler. Hushed discussion, presumably exchanging potential offers for the pick. Then Ziegler and McDaniels huddled. Having the 12 th and 33 rd overall picks, to go along with the Raiders’ 38 th choice, would be tempting. “We could get [Oklahoma tackle Anton] Harrison at 12,” McDaniels said. The Raiders loved Harrison—not as much as Johnson, but enough maybe to lose the fourth non-QB they love in order to pick up the 33 rd pick. They mulled.
The phone went cold for a few minutes. Seemed obvious Ossenfort wanted Paris Johnson . He had to be dealing with Detroit, trying to get ahead of Vegas to ensure getting Johnson. Smart move by Ossenfort, choosing not to close a deal for the seventh pick and instead dealing for the sixth–ensuring that the Cards would get the tackle they wanted.
5:47 p.m.: Witherspoon to Seattle at five. Detroit up. No action on Ziegler’s phone. Not surprising. Arizona was targeting Johnson.
5:50 p.m.: Tinny voice from Draft HQ: “Detroit has traded its pick to Arizona. Arizona is on the clock.” For Vegas, there goes day-one starting right tackle Paris Johnson.
5:54 p.m. Paris Johnson to Arizona. “Las Vegas is on the clock,” tinny voice says.
So no real drama. The plan was preordained. There was no real debate now, no discussion about moving. Only this:
5:58 p.m.: “Tyree, this is coach McDaniels. We’re gonna turn the pick in here, and you’re gonna be a Raider.”
In a lull in front of the room, McDaniels said quietly: “Our board was right. We needed three quarterbacks to go, and we’re so happy we got one of the four non-quarterbacks who were our top-rated guys on the board. Look, we gotta rush the passer. We gotta go get [ Patrick] Mahomes and [ Justin] Herbert . That’s four games a year for the next few years against these great young quarterbacks. And the AFC is full of these great young quarterbacks. This is a great outcome for us.”
This is the draft. The Raiders needed long-term help opposite Maxx Crosby (edge player Chandler Jones is 33), and Anderson or Wilson would have been great. Witherspoon would have been great to add to a needy secondary. Johnson would have been great to bookend Kolton Miller . It’s capricious. The choice wasn’t up to Ziegler; other teams decided for him. But the vibe in the room, the smiles, showed this staff loves Wilson, even with the foot injury that made him an iffy candidate to some teams.
In his office 20 minutes later, McDaniels waited to be connected to Wilson to converse. “I mean, hallelujah,” McDaniels said. “His motivation, his drive, how he handles adversity … off the charts. We value the TAP test (a test in the pre-draft process that measures mental toughness, drive and composure under pressure), and Tyree got one of the highest grades on it, a Green plus-plus. He’ll fit in great here.”
McDaniels’ football ops guy, Tom Jones , walked in with a phone. Wilson. “Tyree, welcome to the nation,” McDaniels said. “Dude, I am so excited you’re a Raider. I know you’re gonna help us win a lot of games. So, just wanted to touch base on a few things. You’re gonna talk to the media here in a bit. Wanted to give you a few points. Be humble, which you are. Stay away from predictions—that way, you won’t have to eat them later. Don’t talk about timelines with your foot. You don’t want your draft story to be all about your foot. Now, you got a fan base that’s second to none. They’re gonna love you. Just express how excited you—which I know you are.”
Back in the Raiders draft room, after pick 19, Ziegler said, “Josh, you wanna look at trades?” On the board were four players with similar grades: Georgia defensive end Nolan Smith , Maryland corner Deonte Banks , Harrison the Oklahoma tackle, and Arkansas linebacker Drew Sanders . Close to them: Notre Dame tight end Michael Mayer .
But there wasn’t much enthusiasm to deal after Banks and Harrison went off the board. Ziegler made a couple of calls about moving up to fill a hole left by the trade of tight end Darren Waller with Mayer, but never got far—or appeared enthusiastic to do it.
7:36 p.m.: Crosby sent a video message to Wilson, and in the draft room, Ziegler had it and he showed it to McDaniels and Davis on his phone. The tenor of the message: Congrats, Tyree. Now, time to go work, son. “Love it,” McDaniels said.
There are lulls in all drafts, and after Banks and Harrison went at 24 and 27, this was the Raider lull. Davis kept things interesting. When the TV showed a crestfallen Will Levis , undrafted, still in the green room in Kansas City, he said: “Someone should tell him careers are not made on draft day. Tell him this happened to Aaron Rodgers too.” And when he looked up and saw speedy Jalin Hyatt , the wide receiver, still on the board with a high Raider grade, Davis said to McDaniels: “Too bad we don’t have a need at receiver. Can he run?”
“Like the wind,” McDaniels said.
Davis started laughing, like he could sense Ziegler and McDaniels did not want him to start lobbying for the best speed receiver in the draft.
“It’s part of my DNA,” Davis said. “I see a fast receiver, I want him. I can’t help it.” Spoken like his father’s son.
As the round wound down, quietly, I asked Davis what he thought of Ziegler and McDaniels, the ex-Pats, entering year two of their regime. “I like ‘em,” he said. “When we hired them, everybody thought we were trying to re-create the Patriots. That wasn’t it. I was trying to find two great football men. Now, this is their chance to build something. They’re young, they love football, and I’m thrilled with them. It’s a huge weekend for them.
“My dad’s drafts were different—a lot more tense.”
“The tense conversations were already had,” McDaniels said later. “We had them in the last six weeks. We ended up with the board where we all felt it needed to be.”
8:30 p.m.: Two picks left, including Kansas City at 31. Mayer on the mind in the draft room. “If KC comes back to us,” Ziegler said, “wanna do it?”
“Yes,” said McDaniels.
“Best tight end in the draft,” Kelly said.
Short conversation with KC. “Not gonna work,” Ziegler said. KC would have given 31 and 217 (sixth round) for 38 and 70, a net on the points chart of minus-147. “Too many players we like,” Ziegler said. (Ziegler, on Friday, traded from 38 to 35 with the Colts to snag Mayer, the tight end Vegas wanted above all.)
An hour after the round ended, McDaniels and Ziegler unwound in the draft room. Wilson underwent surgery by the top athletic foot surgeon in the field, Dr. Robert Anderson, to repair a fracture last Nov. 21. Six weeks ago, Anderson sent a letter to each team, saying Wilson has responded “extremely well” to surgery. The Raiders expect Wilson to be ready to play this season on schedule. “Our doctors ultimately felt like it was something that we were going to be okay with,” Ziegler said. “If we wouldn’t have felt comfortable with it, we wouldn’t have [picked Wilson].”
In all, the needy Raiders, trying to rebound from a few years of failed top picks, got two likely starters out of the draft—Wilson and Mayer. After that, it’s up in the air, as all drafts are. The Raiders got their presumptive backup to Jimmy Garoppolo , Aidan O’Connell , in the middle of the fourth round—about two rounds earlier than the consensus of where he deserved to go. They got a speed cornerback, Banks’ teammate Jakorian Bennett , with pick 104, and the Raiders hope he plays early.
Mel Kiper, for one, liked the first two picks but the others, not so much. After the top two, Kiper said, “I don’t see value with the rest of this class.”
That’s why they play the games. In three years, we’ll see if Ziegler picked right in the NFL’s 88 th draft. | https://sports.nbcsports.com/2023/01/11/dolphins-super-bowl-history-when-is-the-last-time-miami-made-it-to-won-the-super-bowl/ | 139 |
Subsets and Splits