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Critical flow
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In marine hydrodynamic applications, the Froude number is usually referenced with the notation Fn and is defined as: where u is the relative flow velocity between the sea and ship, g is in particular the acceleration due to gravity, and L is the length of the ship at the water line level, or Lwl in some notations. It is an important parameter with respect to the ship's drag, or resistance, especially in terms of wave making resistance. In the case of planing crafts, where the waterline length is too speed-dependent to be meaningful, the Froude number is best defined as displacement Froude number and the reference length is taken as the cubic root of the volumetric displacement of the hull:
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_1_chunk_0
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Dead reckoning
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More modern methods include pit log referencing engine speed (e.g. in rpm) against a table of total displacement (for ships) or referencing one's indicated airspeed fed by the pressure from a pitot tube. This measurement is converted to an equivalent airspeed based upon known atmospheric conditions and measured errors in the indicated airspeed system. A naval vessel uses a device called a pit sword (rodmeter), which uses two sensors on a metal rod to measure the electromagnetic variance caused by the ship moving through water.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_2_chunk_0
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Dead reckoning
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This change is then converted to ship's speed. Distance is determined by multiplying the speed and the time. This initial position can then be adjusted resulting in an estimated position by taking into account the current (known as set and drift in marine navigation).
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_3_chunk_0
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Controllable pitch propeller
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In marine propulsion, a variable-pitch propeller is a type of propeller with blades that can be rotated around their long axis to change the blade pitch. Reversible propellers—those where the pitch can be set to negative values—can also create reverse thrust for braking or going backwards without the need to change the direction of shaft revolution. A controllable pitch propeller (CPP) can be efficient for the full range of rotational speeds and load conditions, since its pitch will be varied to absorb the maximum power that the engine is capable of producing. When fully loaded, a vessel will need more propulsion power than when empty.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_4_chunk_0
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Controllable pitch propeller
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By varying the propeller blades to the optimal pitch, higher efficiency can be obtained, thus saving fuel. A vessel with a VPP can accelerate faster from a standstill and can decelerate much more effectively, making stopping quicker and safer. A CPP can also improve vessel maneuverability by directing a stronger flow of water onto the rudder.However, a fixed variable-pitch propeller (FVPP) is both cheaper and more robust than a CPP.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_5_chunk_0
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Controllable pitch propeller
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Vessels with medium or high speed diesel or gasoline engines use a reduction gear to reduce the engine output speed to an optimal propeller speed—although the large low speed diesels, whose cruising RPM is in the 80 to 120 range, are usually direct drive with direct-reversing engines. While an FVPP-equipped vessel needs either a reversing gear or a reversible engine to reverse, a CPP vessel may not. On a large ship the CPP requires a hydraulic system to control the position of the blades.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_6_chunk_0
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Controllable pitch propeller
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Compared to an FPP, a CPP is more efficient in reverse as the blades' leading edges remain as such in reverse also, so that the hydrodynamic cross-sectional shape is optimal for forward propulsion and satisfactory for reverse operations. In the mid-1970s, Uljanik Shipyard in Yugoslavia produced four VLCCs with CPPs – a tanker and three ore/oil carriers – each powered by two 20,000 bhp B & W diesel engines directly driving Kamewa variable-pitch propellers. Due to the high construction cost none of these vessels ever returned a profit over their lifetimes.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_7_chunk_0
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Controllable pitch propeller
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For these vessels, fixed variable-pitch propellers would have been more appropriate.Controllable-pitch propellers are usually found on harbour or ocean-going tugs, dredgers, cruise ships, ferries, cargo vessels and larger fishing vessels. Prior to the development of CPPs, some vessels would alternate between "speed wheel" and "power wheel" propellers depending on the task. Current VPP designs can tolerate a maximum output of 44000 kW (60,000 hp).
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_8_chunk_0
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Aquatic habitat
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In marine systems, ocean currents have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life. Plankton are the life forms that inhabit the ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called phytoplankton. These tiny plants are the primary producers in the ocean, at the start of the food chain.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_9_chunk_0
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Aquatic habitat
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In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for zooplankton, which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates. If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves, the current becomes a candidate habitat for the forage fish that feed on them.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_10_chunk_0
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Aquatic habitat
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And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger predatory fish and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_11_chunk_0
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Aquatic habitat
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Ocean currents can be generated by differences in the density of the water. How dense water is depends on how saline or warm it is. If water contains differences in salt content or temperature, then the different densities will initiate a current.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_12_chunk_0
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Aquatic habitat
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Ocean currents are also generated by the gravitational pull of the sun and moon (tides), and seismic activity (tsunami). The rotation of the Earth affects the direction ocean currents take, and explains which way the large circular ocean gyres rotate in the image above left. Suppose a current at the equator is heading north.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_13_chunk_0
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Aquatic habitat
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The Earth rotates eastward, so the water possesses that rotational momentum. But the further the water moves north, the slower the earth moves eastward. If the current could get to the North Pole, the earth would not be moving eastward at all.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_14_chunk_0
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Aquatic habitat
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To conserve its rotational momentum, the further the current travels north the faster it must move eastward. So the effect is that the current curves to the right. This is the Coriolis effect. It is weakest at the equator and strongest at the poles. The effect is opposite south of the equator, where currents curve left.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_15_chunk_0
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Collision
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In maritime law, it is occasionally desirable to distinguish between the situation of a vessel striking a moving object, and that of it striking a stationary object. The word "allision" is then used to mean the striking of a stationary object, while "collision" is used to mean the striking of a moving object. Thus, when two vessels run against each other, courts typically use the term collision whereas when one vessel runs against another, they typically use the term allision. The fixed object could also be a bridge or dock.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_16_chunk_0
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Seaplane carrier
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These were used to ferry crews, stores and supplies between shore and the aircraft, to maintain the buoys used to mark out "taxiways" and "runways" and to keep these clear of debris to prevent foreign object damage, and in the case of emergency to act as rescue craft and airport crash tenders. All those functions that on land would require wheeled ground support equipment had a need for a watercraft equivalent. When deploying flying boat squadrons, bases could rapidly be established in areas lacking infrastructure by sending flying boat depot ships in addition to small craft tenders. These ships could carry out the function of barracks, workshops and control towers, i.e. those functions which in a land based airfield would be fulfilled by buildings.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_17_chunk_0
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Nautical date line
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In maritime usage, GMT retains its historical meaning of UT1, the mean solar time at Greenwich, which is empirically adjusted to track unpredictable variations in the Earth's rotational period. UTC, atomic time at Greenwich, makes these adjustments on a coarser granularity than GMT. Establishing latitude by local observations of solar position requires determination of the latitude on Earth where the Sun is directly overhead at the time when the observation is taken. Thus the coarseness of UTC in determining solar time makes it inaccurate in establishing the reference latitude of solar meridian, differing by as much as 0.9 seconds from UT1, creating an error of 1⁄4 of a minute of longitude at all latitudes and which is 1⁄4 nautical mile (460 m) at the equator but less at higher latitudes, varying roughly by the cosine of the latitude. However, the time correction DUT1 can be added to UTC to correct it to within 50 milliseconds of UT1, reducing the error to only 20 metres (66 ft).Solar position can also be established by celestial observation of more distant stars taken at nighttime, but this also involves a calendrical correction due to the Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun; establishing solar position by observations of bright solar objects, such as Venus (also with its own elliptical orbit), involves yet further complexity.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_18_chunk_0
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Solar Guerrilla
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In market rate net metering systems the user's energy use is priced dynamically according to some function of wholesale electric prices. The users' meters are programmed remotely to calculate the value and are read remotely. Net metering applies such variable pricing to excess power produced by a qualifying system. Market rate metering systems were implemented in California starting in 2006, and under the terms of California's net metering rules will be applicable to qualifying photovoltaic and wind systems.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_19_chunk_0
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Solar Guerrilla
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Under California law the payback for surplus electricity sent to the grid must be equal to the (variable, in this case) price charged at that time. Net metering enables small systems to result in zero annual net cost to the consumer provided that the consumer is able to shift demand loads to a lower price time, such as by chilling water at a low cost time for later use in air conditioning, or by charging a battery electric vehicle during off-peak times, while the electricity generated at peak demand time can be sent to the grid rather than used locally (see Vehicle-to-grid). No credit is given for annual surplus production.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_20_chunk_0
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Observational techniques
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In marketing and the social sciences, observational research (or field research) is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from experimental research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experilovement.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_21_chunk_0
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Product lining
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In comparison to product bundling, which is a strategy of offering more than one product for promotion as one combined item to create differentiation and greater value, product lining consists of selling different related products individually. The products in the product line can come in various sizes, colours, qualities or prices. For instance, the variety of coffees that are offered at a café is one of its product lines and it could consist of flat white, cappuccinos, short black, lattes, mochas, etc. Alternatively, product line of juices and pastries can also be found at a café. The benefits from having a successful product line is the brand identification from customers which result in customer loyalty and multiple purchases. It increases the likelihood of customers purchasing new products from the company that have just been added into the product line due to the previous satisfying purchases.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_22_chunk_0
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Hot cognition
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In marketing research, an audience's energy takes the form of psychological heat: hot cognition is an emotional thought process and cold cognition is a cognitive thought process.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_23_chunk_0
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Bayesian inference in marketing
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Often when deciding between strategies based on a decision, they are interpreted as: where there is evidence X that shows condition A might hold true, is misread by judging A's likelihood by how well the evidence X matches A, but crucially without considering the prior frequency of A. In alignment with Falsification, which aims to question and falsify instead of prove hypotheses, where there is very strong evidence X, it does not necessarily mean there is a very high probability that A leads to B, but in fact should be interpreted as a very low probability of A not leading to B. In the field of marketing, behavioural experiments which have dealt with managerial decision-making, and risk perception, in consumer decisions have utilised the Bayesian model, or similar models, but found that it may not be relevant quantitatively in predicting human information processing behaviour. Instead the model has been proven as useful as a qualitative means of describing how individuals combine new evidence with their predetermined judgements. Therefore, “the model may have some value as a first approximation to the development of descriptive choice theory” in consumer and managerial instances.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_24_chunk_0
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First mover advantage
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In marketing strategy, first-mover advantage (FMA) is the competitive advantage gained by the initial ("first-moving") significant occupant of a market segment. First-mover advantage enables a company or firm to establish strong brand recognition, customer loyalty, and early purchase of resources before other competitors enter the market segment. First movers in a specific industry are almost always followed by competitors that attempt to capitalise on the first movers' success. These followers are also aiming to gain market share; however, most of the time the first-movers will already have an established market share, with a loyal customer base that allows them to maintain their market share.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_25_chunk_0
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Value creation
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In marketing, a company’s value proposition is the full mix of benefits or economic value which it promises to deliver to the current and future customers (i.e., a market segment) who will buy their products and/or services. It is part of a company's overall marketing strategy which differentiates its brand and fully positions it in the market. A value proposition can apply to an entire organization, or parts thereof, or customer accounts, or products or services. Creating a value proposition is a part of the overall business strategy of a company.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_26_chunk_0
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Internet coupon
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In marketing, a coupon is a ticket or document that can be redeemed for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product. Customarily, coupons are issued by manufacturers of consumer packaged goods or by retailers, to be used in retail stores as a part of sales promotions. They are often widely distributed through mail, coupon envelopes, magazines, newspapers, the Internet (social media, email newsletter), directly from the retailer, and mobile devices such as cell phones. The New York Times reported "more than 900 manufacturers' coupons were distributed" per household, and that "the United States Department of Agriculture estimates that four families in five use coupons.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_27_chunk_0
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Branded entertainment
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In marketing, branded content (also known as branded entertainment) is content produced by an advertiser or content whose creation was funded by an advertiser. In contrast to content marketing (in which content is presented first and foremost as a marketing ploy for a brand) and product placement (where advertisers pay to have references to their brands incorporated into outside creative works, such as films and television series), branded content is designed to build awareness for a brand by associating it with content that shares its values. The content does not necessarily need to be a promotion for the brand, although it may still include product placement.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_28_chunk_0
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Complement goods
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In marketing, complementary goods give additional market power to the producer. It allows vendor lock-in by increasing switching costs. A few types of pricing strategy exist for a complementary good and its base good: Pricing the base good at a relatively low price - this approach allows easy entry by consumers (e.g. low-price consumer printer vs. high-price cartridge) Pricing the base good at a relatively high price to the complementary good - this approach creates a barrier to entry and exit (e.g., a costly car vs inexpensive gas)
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_29_chunk_0
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Customer lifetime value
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In marketing, customer lifetime value (CLV or often CLTV), lifetime customer value (LCV), or life-time value (LTV) is a prognostication of the net profit contributed to the whole future relationship with a customer. The prediction model can have varying levels of sophistication and accuracy, ranging from a crude heuristic to the use of complex predictive analytics techniques. Customer lifetime value can also be defined as the monetary value of a customer relationship, based on the present value of the projected future cash flows from the customer relationship.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_30_chunk_0
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Customer lifetime value
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Customer lifetime value is an important concept in that it encourages firms to shift their focus from quarterly profits to the long-term health of their customer relationships. Customer lifetime value is an important metric because it represents an upper limit on spending to acquire new customers. For this reason it is an important element in calculating payback of advertising spent in marketing mix modeling. One of the first accounts of the term customer lifetime value is in the 1988 book Database Marketing, which includes detailed worked examples. Early adopters of customer lifetime value models in the 1990s include Edge Consulting and BrandScience.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_31_chunk_0
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Fuzzy clustering
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In marketing, customers can be grouped into fuzzy clusters based on their needs, brand choices, psycho-graphic profiles, or other marketing related partitions.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_32_chunk_0
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Linear Discriminant Analysis
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In marketing, discriminant analysis was once often used to determine the factors which distinguish different types of customers and/or products on the basis of surveys or other forms of collected data. Logistic regression or other methods are now more commonly used. The use of discriminant analysis in marketing can be described by the following steps: Formulate the problem and gather data—Identify the salient attributes consumers use to evaluate products in this category—Use quantitative marketing research techniques (such as surveys) to collect data from a sample of potential customers concerning their ratings of all the product attributes. The data collection stage is usually done by marketing research professionals.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_33_chunk_0
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Linear Discriminant Analysis
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Survey questions ask the respondent to rate a product from one to five (or 1 to 7, or 1 to 10) on a range of attributes chosen by the researcher. Anywhere from five to twenty attributes are chosen. They could include things like: ease of use, weight, accuracy, durability, colourfulness, price, or size.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_34_chunk_0
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Linear Discriminant Analysis
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(This step is the same as in Factor analysis). Estimate the Discriminant Function Coefficients and determine the statistical significance and validity—Choose the appropriate discriminant analysis method. The direct method involves estimating the discriminant function so that all the predictors are assessed simultaneously.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_35_chunk_0
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Linear Discriminant Analysis
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The stepwise method enters the predictors sequentially. The two-group method should be used when the dependent variable has two categories or states. The multiple discriminant method is used when the dependent variable has three or more categorical states.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_36_chunk_0
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Linear Discriminant Analysis
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Use Wilks's Lambda to test for significance in SPSS or F stat in SAS. The most common method used to test validity is to split the sample into an estimation or analysis sample, and a validation or holdout sample. The estimation sample is used in constructing the discriminant function.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_37_chunk_0
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Linear Discriminant Analysis
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The validation sample is used to construct a classification matrix which contains the number of correctly classified and incorrectly classified cases. The percentage of correctly classified cases is called the hit ratio. Plot the results on a two dimensional map, define the dimensions, and interpret the results.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_38_chunk_0
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Product Configurator
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In marketing, manufacturing, call centre operations, and management, mass customization makes use of flexible computer-aided systems to produce custom output. Such systems combine the low unit costs of mass production processes with the flexibility of individual customization.Mass customization is the new frontier in business for both manufacturing and service industries. At its core, is a tremendous increase in variety and customization without a corresponding increase in costs. At its limit, it is the mass production of individually customized goods and services.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_39_chunk_0
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Product Configurator
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At its best, it provides strategic advantage and economic value. It is one of the product design strategies and is currently used with both techniques (delay differentiation and modular design) together with effective innovative climate to enhance the value delivered to customers.Mass customization is the method of "effectively postponing the task of differentiating a product for a specific customer until the latest possible point in the supply network". Kamis, Koufaris and Stern (2008) conducted experiments to test the impacts of mass customization when postponed to the stage of retail, online shopping.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_40_chunk_0
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Product Configurator
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They found that users perceive greater usefulness and enjoyment with a mass customization interface vs. a more typical shopping interface, particularly in a task of moderate complexity. From collaborative engineering perspective, mass customization can be viewed as collaborative efforts between customers and manufacturers, who have different sets of priorities and need to jointly search for solutions that best match customers' individual specific needs with manufacturers' customization capabilities.The concept of mass customization is attributed to Stan Davis in Future Perfect, and was defined by Tseng & Jiao (2001, p.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_41_chunk_0
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Customer segmentation
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Business-to-business (B2B) sellers might segment the market into different types of businesses or countries, while business-to-consumer (B2C) sellers might segment the market into demographic segments, such as lifestyle, behavior, or socioeconomic status. Market segmentation assumes that different market segments require different marketing programs – that is, different offers, prices, promotions, distribution, or some combination of marketing variables.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_42_chunk_0
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Multivariate testing in marketing
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In marketing, multivariate testing or multi-variable testing techniques apply statistical hypothesis testing on multi-variable systems, typically consumers on websites. Techniques of multivariate statistics are used.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_43_chunk_0
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Promotional mix
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Direct Marketing is a channel-agnostic form of advertising that allows businesses and nonprofits to communicate directly to the customer, with methods such as mobile messaging, email, interactive consumer websites, online display ads, fliers, catalog distribution, promotional letters, and outdoor advertising. Corporate image campaigns have been considered as part of the promotional mix. Sponsorship of an event, contest or race is a way to generate publicity.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_44_chunk_0
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Unique selling proposition
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In marketing, the unique selling proposition (USP), also called the unique selling point, or the unique value proposition (UVP) in the business model canvas, is the marketing strategy of informing customers about how one's own brand or product is superior to its competitors (in addition to its other values).It was used in successful advertising campaigns of the early 1940s. The term was coined by television advertising pioneer Rosser Reeves of Ted Bates & Company. Theodore Levitt, a professor at Harvard Business School, suggested that, "Differentiation is one of the most important strategic and tactical activities in which companies must constantly engage." The term has been extended to cover one's "personal brand".
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_45_chunk_0
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Loss aversion
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In marketing, the use of trial periods and rebates tries to take advantage of the buyer's tendency to value the good more after the buyer incorporates it in the status quo. In past behavioral economics studies, users participate up until the threat of loss equals any incurred gains. Recent methods established by Botond Kőszegi and Matthew Rabin in experimental economics illustrates the role of expectation, wherein an individual's belief about an outcome can create an instance of loss aversion, whether or not a tangible change of state has occurred. Whether a transaction is framed as a loss or as a gain is important to this calculation.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_46_chunk_0
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Loss aversion
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The same change in price framed differently, for example as a $5 discount or as a $5 surcharge avoided, has a significant effect on consumer behavior. Although traditional economists consider this "endowment effect", and all other effects of loss aversion, to be completely irrational, it is important to the fields of marketing and behavioral finance. Users in behavioral and experimental economics studies decided to cease participation in iterative money-making games when the threat of loss was close to the expenditure of effort, even when the user stood to further their gains. Loss aversion coupled with myopia has been shown to explain macroeconomic phenomena, such as the equity premium puzzle.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_47_chunk_0
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Factor of production
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Equity, which is regarded as part of capital, was divided into equity and intequity. Intequity means capital of ideas. Entrepreneurship was divided into network-related matters and creating-related matters. Network-related matters function in the sphere of equity, and creating-related matters in spheres of intequities.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_48_chunk_0
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Knifehand strike
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In martial arts, a knifehand strike is a strike using the part of the hand opposite the thumb (from the little finger to the wrist), familiar to many people as a karate chop (in Japanese, shutō-uchi). This refers to strikes performed with the side of the knuckle of the small finger. Suitable targets for the knifehand strike include the carotid sinus at the base of the neck (which can cause unconsciousness), mastoid muscles of the neck, the jugular, the throat, the collar bones, ribs, sides of the head, temple, jaw, the third vertebra (key stone of the spinal column), the upper arm, the wrist (knifehand block), the elbow (outside knifehand block), and the knee cap (leg throw).In many Japanese, Korean, and Chinese styles, the knifehand is used to block as well as to strike.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_49_chunk_0
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Hard and soft techniques
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In martial arts, the terms hard and soft technique denote how forcefully a defender martial artist counters the force of an attack in armed and unarmed combat. In the East Asian martial arts, the corresponding hard technique and soft technique terms are 硬 (Japanese: gō, pinyin: yìng) and 柔 (Japanese: jū, pinyin: róu), hence Goju-ryu (hard-soft school), Shorinji Kempo principles of go-ho ("hard method") and ju-ho ("soft method"), Jujutsu ("art of softness") and Judo ("gentle way"). Regardless of origins and styles, "hard and soft" can be seen as simply firm/unyielding in opposition or complementary to pliant/yielding; each has its application and must be used in its own way, and each makes use of specific principles of timing and biomechanics. In addition to describing a physical technique applied with minimal force, "soft" also sometimes refers to elements of a discipline which are viewed as less purely physical; for example, martial arts that are said to be "internal styles" are sometimes also known as "soft styles", for their focus on mental techniques or spiritual pursuits.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_50_chunk_0
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Seismic retrofit
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In reinforced concrete buildings, masonry infill walls are considered non-structural elements, but damage to infills can lead to large repair costs and change the behaviour of a structure, even leading to aforementioned soft-storey or beam-column joint shear failures. Local failure of the infill panels due to in and out-of-plane mechanisms, but also due to their combination, can lead to a sudden drop in capacity and hence cause global brittle failure of the structure. Even at lower intensity earthquakes, damage to infilled frames can lead to high economic losses and loss of life.To prevent masonry infill damage and failure, typical retrofit strategies aim to strengthen the infills and provide adequate connection to the frame. Examples of retrofit techniques for masonry infills include steel reinforced plasters, engineered cementitious composites, thin layers fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP), and most recently also textile-reinforced mortars (TRM).
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Mortar joint
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In masonry, mortar joints are the spaces between bricks, concrete blocks, or glass blocks, that are filled with mortar or grout. If the surface of the masonry remains unplastered, the joints contribute significantly to the appearance of the masonry. Mortar joints can be made in a series of different fashions, but the most common ones are raked, grapevine, extruded, concave, V, struck, flush, weathered and beaded. In order to produce a mortar joint, the mason must use one of several types of jointers (slickers), rakes, or beaders. These tools are run through the grout in between the building material before the grout is solid and create the desired outcome the mason seeks.
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Computer media
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In mass communication, digital media is any communication media that operate in conjunction with various encoded machine-readable data formats. Digital content can be created, viewed, distributed, modified, listened to, and preserved on a digital electronics device, including digital data storage media (in contrast to analog electronic media) and digital broadcasting. Digital defines as any data represented by a series of digits, and media refers to methods of broadcasting or communicating this information. Together, digital media refers to mediums of digitized information broadcast through a screen and/or a speaker. This also includes text, audio, video, and graphics that are transmitted over the internet for viewing or listening to on the internet.Digital media platforms, such as YouTube, Vimeo, and Twitch, accounted for viewership rates of 27.9 billion hours in 2020. A contributing factor to its part in what is commonly referred to as the digital revolution can be attributed to the use of interconnectivity.
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3-Nitrobenzyl alcohol
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In mass spectrometry this compound is often abbreviated as "3-NBA" or "m-NBA." It has been used as a liquid matrix for fast atom bombardment and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization. In electrospray ionization 3-NBA is doped into low surface tension spray solvents to increase analyte charging. == References ==
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Orbitrap
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In mass spectrometry, Orbitrap is an ion trap mass analyzer consisting of an outer barrel-like electrode and a coaxial inner spindle-like electrode that traps ions in an orbital motion around the spindle. The image current from the trapped ions is detected and converted to a mass spectrum using the Fourier transform of the frequency signal.
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Matrix (mass spectrometry)
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In mass spectrometry, a matrix is a compound that promotes the formation of ions. Matrix compounds are used in matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI), matrix-assisted ionization (MAI), and fast atom bombardment (FAB).
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De novo sequencing
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In mass spectrometry, de novo peptide sequencing is the method in which a peptide amino acid sequence is determined from tandem mass spectrometry. Knowing the amino acid sequence of peptides from a protein digest is essential for studying the biological function of the protein. In the old days, this was accomplished by the Edman degradation procedure. Today, analysis by a tandem mass spectrometer is a more common method to solve the sequencing of peptides.
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Direct analysis in real time
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In mass spectrometry, direct analysis in real time (DART) is an ion source that produces electronically or vibronically excited-state species from gases such as helium, argon, or nitrogen that ionize atmospheric molecules or dopant molecules. The ions generated from atmospheric or dopant molecules undergo ion-molecule reactions with the sample molecules to produce analyte ions. Analytes with low ionization energy may be ionized directly. The DART ionization process can produce positive or negative ions depending on the potential applied to the exit electrode.
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Mass spectroscopy
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Hard ionization techniques are processes which impart high quantities of residual energy in the subject molecule invoking large degrees of fragmentation (i.e. the systematic rupturing of bonds acts to remove the excess energy, restoring stability to the resulting ion). Resultant ions tend to have m/z lower than the molecular ion (other than in the case of proton transfer and not including isotope peaks). The most common example of hard ionization is electron ionization (EI). Soft ionization refers to the processes which impart little residual energy onto the subject molecule and as such result in little fragmentation. Examples include fast atom bombardment (FAB), chemical ionization (CI), atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization (APCI), atmospheric-pressure photoionization (APPI), electrospray ionization (ESI), desorption electrospray ionization (DESI), and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI).
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Liquid junction interface
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In mass spectrometry, liquid junction interface is an ion source or set-up that couples peripheric devices, such as capillary electrophoresis, to mass spectrometry. See the IUPAC recommendation definition as a means of coupling capillary electrophoresis to mass spectrometry in which a liquid reservoir surrounds the separation capillary and transfer capillary to the mass spectrometer. The reservoir provides electrical contact for the capillary electrophoresis. The term liquid junction interface has also been used by Henry M. Fales and coworkers for ion sources where the analyte is in direct contact with the high voltage supply.
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Liquid junction interface
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Electrolysis effects have to be controlled. Liquid junction interfaces have been used for on-line desalting in conjunction with mass spectrometry. Thereby, chromatographic material such as C18 phase was directly placed in the flow path coming from a pump or an HPLC device. In a variation of the method, fine capillaries were densely packed with chromatographic phase to form separation columns and act as electrospray capillaries at the same time. This method is commonly employed in many proteomics laboratories.It is of note that experimental designs where the direct application of high voltages to liquids to form aerosols and sprays has been described as early as 1917 in the context of not ionization, but atomization of liquids.
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Inlet ionization
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In mass spectrometry, matrix-assisted ionization (also inlet ionization) is a low fragmentation (soft) ionization technique which involves the transfer of particles of the analyte and matrix sample from atmospheric pressure (AP) to the heated inlet tube connecting the AP region to the vacuum of the mass analyzer.Initial ionization occurs as the pressure drops within the inlet tube. Inlet ionization is similar to electrospray ionization in that a reverse phase solvent system is used and the ions produced are highly charged, however a voltage or a laser is not always needed. It is a highly sensitive process for small and large molecules like peptides, proteins and lipids that can be coupled to a liquid chromatograph. Inlet ionization techniques can be used with an Orbitrap mass analyzer, Orbitrap fourier transform mass spectrometer, linear trap quadrupole and MALDI-TOF.
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Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization
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In mass spectrometry, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) is an ionization technique that uses a laser energy-absorbing matrix to create ions from large molecules with minimal fragmentation. It has been applied to the analysis of biomolecules (biopolymers such as DNA, proteins, peptides and carbohydrates) and various organic molecules (such as polymers, dendrimers and other macromolecules), which tend to be fragile and fragment when ionized by more conventional ionization methods. It is similar in character to electrospray ionization (ESI) in that both techniques are relatively soft (low fragmentation) ways of obtaining ions of large molecules in the gas phase, though MALDI typically produces far fewer multi-charged ions. MALDI methodology is a three-step process.
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Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization
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First, the sample is mixed with a suitable matrix material and applied to a metal plate. Second, a pulsed laser irradiates the sample, triggering ablation and desorption of the sample and matrix material. Finally, the analyte molecules are ionized by being protonated or deprotonated in the hot plume of ablated gases, and then they can be accelerated into whichever mass spectrometer is used to analyse them.
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Formula mass
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In mass spectrometry, the molecular mass of a small molecule is usually reported as the monoisotopic mass, that is, the mass of the molecule containing only the most common isotope of each element. Note that this also differs subtly from the molecular mass in that the choice of isotopes is defined and thus is a single specific molecular mass of the many possibilities. The masses used to compute the monoisotopic molecular mass are found on a table of isotopic masses and are not found on a typical periodic table.
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Formula mass
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The average molecular mass is often used for larger molecules since molecules with many atoms are unlikely to be composed exclusively of the most abundant isotope of each element. A theoretical average molecular mass can be calculated using the standard atomic weights found on a typical periodic table, since there is likely to be a statistical distribution of atoms representing the isotopes throughout the molecule. The average molecular mass of a sample, however, usually differs substantially from this since a single sample average is not the same as the average of many geographically distributed samples.
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Single-Cell Analysis
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In mass spectroscopy based proteomics there are three major steps needed for peptide identification: sample preparation, separation of peptides, and identification of peptides. Several groups have focused on oocytes or very early cleavage-stage cells since these cells are unusually large and provide enough material for analysis. Another approach, single cell proteomics by mass spectrometry (SCoPE-MS) has quantified thousands of proteins in mammalian cells with typical cell sizes (diameter of 10-15 μm) by combining carrier-cells and single-cell barcoding. The second generation, SCoPE2, increased the throughput by automated and miniaturized sample preparation; It also improved quantitative reliability and proteome coverage by data-driven optimization of LC-MS/MS and peptide identification.
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Single-Cell Analysis
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The sensitivity and consistency of these methods have been further improved by prioritization, and massively parallel sample preparation in nanoliter size droplets. Another direction for single-cell protein analysis is based on a scalable framework of multiplexed data-independent acquisition (plexDIA) enables time saving by parallel analysis of both peptide ions and protein samples, thereby realizing multiplicative gains in throughput.The separation of differently sized proteins can be accomplished by using capillary electrophoresis (CE) or liquid chromatography (LC) (using liquid chromatography with mass spectroscopy is also known as LC-MS).
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Single-Cell Analysis
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This step gives order to the peptides before quantification using tandem mass-spectroscopy (MS/MS). The major difference between quantification methods is some use labels on the peptides such as tandem mass tags (TMT) or dimethyl labels which are used to identify which cell a certain protein came from (proteins coming from each cell have a different label) while others use not labels (quantify cells individually). The mass spectroscopy data is then analyzed by running data through databases that convert the information about peptides identified to quantification of protein levels. These methods are very similar to those used to quantify the proteome of bulk cells, with modifications to accommodate the very small sample volume.
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Sieving coefficient
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In mass transfer, the sieving coefficient is a measure of equilibration between the concentrations of two mass transfer streams. It is defined as the mean pre- and post-contact concentration of the mass receiving stream divided by the pre- and post-contact concentration of the mass donating stream. S = C r C d {\displaystyle S={\frac {C_{r}}{C_{d}}}} where S is the sieving coefficient Cr is the mean concentration mass receiving stream Cd is the mean concentration mass donating streamA sieving coefficient of unity implies that the concentrations of the receiving and donating stream equilibrate, i.e. the out-flow concentrations (post-mass transfer) of the mass donating and receiving stream are equal to one another.
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Sieving coefficient
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Systems with sieving coefficient that are greater than one require an external energy source, as they would otherwise violate the laws of thermodynamics. Sieving coefficients less than one represent a mass transfer process where the concentrations have not equilibrated. Contact time between mass streams is important in consider in mass transfer and affects the sieving coefficient.
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Pulmonary embolus
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In massive and submassive PE, dysfunction of the right side of the heart may be seen on echocardiography, an indication that the pulmonary artery is severely obstructed and the right ventricle, a low-pressure pump, is unable to match the pressure. Some studies (see below) suggest that this finding may be an indication for thrombolysis. Not every person with a (suspected) pulmonary embolism requires an echocardiogram, but elevations in cardiac troponins or brain natriuretic peptide may indicate heart strain and warrant an echocardiogram, and be important in prognosis.The specific appearance of the right ventricle on echocardiography is referred to as the McConnell's sign. This is the finding of akinesia of the mid-free wall but a normal motion of the apex. This phenomenon has a 77% sensitivity and a 94% specificity for the diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism in the setting of right ventricular dysfunction.
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Replay value
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In massively multiplayer online games and other types of online game, the other human-controlled players give the gameplay a greater variety than permitted by the AI of computer-controlled bots, as well as allowing chatting and other interaction between players, thus increasing the length of time the player will spend on the game.
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Key relevance
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Key relevance is the measure of similarity between the key and the optimal size needed to fit the lock, or it is the similarity between a duplicate key and the original it is seeking to replicate. Key relevance cannot be deduced from a key code, since the key code merely refers to a central authoritative source for designed shapes and sizes of keys. Typical modern keys require a key relevance of approximately 0.03 millimetres (0.0012 in) to 0.07 millimetres (0.0028 in) (accuracy within 0.75% to 1.75%) in order to operate.
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Stroke Index
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The 7th to the 10th stroke index holes should be allocated so that a player receiving 10 strokes does not receive strokes on three consecutive holes.In Stableford, par and bogey competitions using stroke play, where an even distribution of strokes is not so important, if the club uses a different stroke index for these competitions then generally the most difficult hole to play is given the index of 1 and the easiest is indexed as 18 (there being 18 holes on a standard golf course). Technicality and hole length are factors contributing to difficulty. Some clubs allocate different indexes for match play and Stableford/par/bogey matches.Handicap strokes are deducted from a player's score in the order of stroke index from indexed hole 1 to 18 recurring.
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Orthotropic material
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In material science and solid mechanics, orthotropic materials have material properties at a particular point which differ along three orthogonal axes, where each axis has twofold rotational symmetry. These directional differences in strength can be quantified with Hankinson's equation. They are a subset of anisotropic materials, because their properties change when measured from different directions.
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Orthotropic material
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It is usually least stiff in the radial direction (between the growth rings), and is intermediate in the circumferential direction. This anisotropy was provided by evolution, as it best enables the tree to remain upright.
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Glutaraldehyde
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In material science glutaraldehyde application areas range from polymers to metals and biomaterials. Glutaraldehyde is commonly used as fixing agent before characterization of biomaterials for microscopy. Glutaraldehyde is a powerful crosslinking agent for many polymers containing primary amine groups.. Glutaraldehdye also can be used for an interlinking agent to improve the adhesion force between two polymeric coatings. Glutaraldehyde is also used to protect against corrosion of undersea pipes.
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Layered materials
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In material science, layered materials are solids with highly anisotropic bonding, in which two-dimensional sheets are internally strongly bonded, but only weakly bonded to adjacent layers. Owing to their distinctive structures, layered materials are often suitable for intercalation reactions.One large family of layered materials are metal dichalcogenides. In such materials, the M-chalcogen bonding is strong and covalent. These materials exhibit anisotropic electronic properties such as thermal and electrical conductivity.
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Resilience (materials science)
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In material science, resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically, and release that energy upon unloading. Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed up to the elastic limit, without creating a permanent distortion. The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without creating a permanent distortion.
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Resilience (materials science)
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It can be calculated by integrating the stress–strain curve from zero to the elastic limit. In uniaxial tension, under the assumptions of linear elasticity, U r = σ y 2 2 E = σ y ε y 2 {\displaystyle U_{r}={\frac {\sigma _{y}^{2}}{2E}}={\frac {\sigma _{y}\varepsilon _{y}}{2}}} where Ur is the modulus of resilience, σy is the yield strength, εy is the yield strain, and E is the Young's modulus. This analysis is not valid for non-linear elastic materials like rubber, for which the approach of area under the curve until elastic limit must be used.
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Rubber toughening
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In material selection it is important to look at the interaction between the matrix and the secondary phase. For example, crosslinking within the rubber phase promotes high strength fibril formation that toughens the rubber, preventing particle fracture.Carboxyl-terminated butadiene-acrylonitrile (CTBN) is often used to toughen epoxies, but using CTBN alone increases the toughness at the cost of stiffness and heat resistance. Amine-terminated butadiene acrylonitrile (ATBN) is also used. Using ultra-fine full-vulcanized powdered rubber (UFPR) researchers have been able to improve all three, toughness, stiffness, and heat resistance simultaneously, resetting the stage for rubber toughening with particles smaller than previously thought to be effective.In applications where high optical transparency is necessary, examples being poly(methyl methacrylate) and polycarbonate it is important to find a secondary phase that does not scatter light.
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Rubber toughening
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To do so it is important to match refractive indices of both phases. Traditional rubber particles do not offer this quality. Modifying the surface of nanoparticles with polymers of comparable refractive indices is an interest of current research.
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Binary phase
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In materials chemistry, a binary phase or binary compound is a chemical compound containing two different elements. Some binary phase compounds are molecular, e.g. carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). More typically binary phase refers to extended solids. Famous examples zinc sulfide, which contains zinc and sulfur, and tungsten carbide, which contains tungsten and carbon.Phases with higher degrees of complexity feature more elements, e.g. three elements in ternary phases, four elements in quaternary phases. == References ==
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Quaternary phase
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In materials chemistry, a quaternary phase is a chemical compound containing four elements. Some compounds can be molecular or ionic, examples being chlorodifluoromethane (CHClF2) sodium bicarbonate (NaCO3H). More typically quaternary phase refers to extended solids. A famous example are the yttrium barium copper oxide superconductors.
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Crack growth resistance curve
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In materials modeled by linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), crack extension occurs when the applied energy release rate G {\displaystyle G} exceeds G R {\displaystyle G_{R}} , where G R {\displaystyle G_{R}} is the material's resistance to crack extension. Conceptually G {\displaystyle G} can be thought of as the energetic gain associated with an additional infinitesimal increment of crack extension, while G R {\displaystyle G_{R}} can be thought of as the energetic penalty of an additional infinitesimal increment of crack extension. At any moment in time, if G ≥ G R {\displaystyle G\geq G_{R}} then crack extension is energetically favorable.
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Crack growth resistance curve
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A complication to this process is that in some materials, G R {\displaystyle G_{R}} is not a constant value during the crack extension process. A plot of crack growth resistance G R {\displaystyle G_{R}} versus crack extension Δ a {\displaystyle \Delta a} is called a crack growth resistance curve, or R-curve. A plot of energy release rate G {\displaystyle G} versus crack extension Δ a {\displaystyle \Delta a} for a particular loading configuration is called the driving force curve.
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Crack growth resistance curve
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The nature of the applied driving force curve relative to the material's R-curve determines the stability of a given crack. The usage of R-curves in fracture analysis is a more complex, but more comprehensive failure criteria compared to the common failure criteria that fracture occurs when G ≥ G c {\displaystyle G\geq G_{c}} where G c {\displaystyle G_{c}} is simply a constant value called the critical energy release rate. An R-curve based failure analysis takes into account the notion that a material's resistance to fracture is not necessarily constant during crack growth. R-curves can alternatively be discussed in terms of stress intensity factors ( K ) {\displaystyle (K)} rather than energy release rates ( G ) {\displaystyle (G)} , where the R-curves can be expressed as the fracture toughness ( K I c {\displaystyle K_{Ic}} , sometimes referred to as K R {\displaystyle K_{R}} ) as a function of crack length a {\displaystyle a} .
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Radiation length
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In materials of high atomic number (e.g. tungsten, uranium, plutonium) the electrons of energies >~10 MeV predominantly lose energy by bremsstrahlung, and high-energy photons by e+e− pair production. The characteristic amount of matter traversed for these related interactions is called the radiation length X0, usually measured in g·cm−2. It is both the mean distance over which a high-energy electron loses all but 1⁄e of its energy by bremsstrahlung, and 7⁄9 of the mean free path for pair production by a high-energy photon. It is also the appropriate length scale for describing high-energy electromagnetic cascades.
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Radiation length
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The radiation length for a given material consisting of a single type of nucleus can be approximated by the following expression: where Z is the atomic number and A is mass number of the nucleus. For Z > 4, a good approximation is where na is the number density of the nucleus, ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } denotes the reduced Planck constant, me is the electron rest mass, c is the speed of light, α is the fine-structure constant.For electrons at lower energies (below few tens of MeV), the energy loss by ionization is predominant. While this definition may also be used for other electromagnetic interacting particles beyond leptons and photons, the presence of the stronger hadronic and nuclear interaction makes it a far less interesting characterisation of the material; the nuclear collision length and nuclear interaction length are more relevant. Comprehensive tables for radiation lengths and other properties of materials are available from the Particle Data Group.
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Rod mill
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In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction through attrition and compressive forces at the grain size level. See also crusher for mechanisms producing larger particles. In general, grinding processes require a relatively large amount of energy; for this reason, an experimental method to measure the energy used locally during milling with different machines was recently proposed.
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Cocrystal
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In materials science (specifically crystallography), cocrystals are "solids that are crystalline, single-phase materials composed of two or more different molecular or ionic compounds generally in a stoichiometric ratio which are neither solvates nor simple salts." A broader definition is that cocrystals "consist of two or more components that form a unique crystalline structure having unique properties." Several subclassifications of cocrystals exist.Cocrystals can encompass many types of compounds, including hydrates, solvates and clathrates, which represent the basic principle of host–guest chemistry. Hundreds of examples of cocrystallization are reported annually.
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Functionally graded material
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In materials science Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs) may be characterized by the variation in composition and structure gradually over volume, resulting in corresponding changes in the properties of the material. The materials can be designed for specific function and applications. Various approaches based on the bulk (particulate processing), preform processing, layer processing and melt processing are used to fabricate the functionally graded materials.
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Giant magnetoimpedance
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In materials science Giant Magnetoimpedance (GMI) is the effect that occurs in some materials where an external magnetic field causes a large variation in the electrical impedance of the material. It should not be confused with the separate physical phenomenon of Giant Magnetoresistance.
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Particle size
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In materials science and colloidal chemistry, the term colloidal particle refers to a small amount of matter having a size typical for colloids and with a clear phase boundary. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter between approximately 1 and 1000 nanometers. Colloids are heterogeneous in nature, invisible to the naked eye, and always move in a random zig-zag-like motion known as Brownian motion. The scattering of light by colloidal particles is known as Tyndall effect.
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Viscoelasticity
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In materials science and continuum mechanics, viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation. Viscous materials, like water, resist shear flow and strain linearly with time when a stress is applied. Elastic materials strain when stretched and immediately return to their original state once the stress is removed. Viscoelastic materials have elements of both of these properties and, as such, exhibit time-dependent strain. Whereas elasticity is usually the result of bond stretching along crystallographic planes in an ordered solid, viscosity is the result of the diffusion of atoms or molecules inside an amorphous material.
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Viscous forces
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In materials science and engineering, one is often interested in understanding the forces or stresses involved in the deformation of a material. For instance, if the material were a simple spring, the answer would be given by Hooke's law, which says that the force experienced by a spring is proportional to the distance displaced from equilibrium. Stresses which can be attributed to the deformation of a material from some rest state are called elastic stresses. In other materials, stresses are present which can be attributed to the deformation rate over time.
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Viscous forces
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These are called viscous stresses. For instance, in a fluid such as water the stresses which arise from shearing the fluid do not depend on the distance the fluid has been sheared; rather, they depend on how quickly the shearing occurs. Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous stresses in a material to the rate of change of a deformation (the strain rate).
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Viscous forces
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Each layer of fluid moves faster than the one just below it, and friction between them gives rise to a force resisting their relative motion. In particular, the fluid applies on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite force on the bottom plate. An external force is therefore required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_99_chunk_0
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Viscous forces
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In many fluids, the flow velocity is observed to vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u {\displaystyle u} at the top. Moreover, the magnitude of the force, F {\displaystyle F} , acting on the top plate is found to be proportional to the speed u {\displaystyle u} and the area A {\displaystyle A} of each plate, and inversely proportional to their separation y {\displaystyle y}: F = μ A u y . {\displaystyle F=\mu A{\frac {u}{y}}.}
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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