zakerytclarke/tinysquad · Datasets at Hugging Face

title stringclasses 490 values	context stringlengths 2 1.41k	question stringlengths 1 25.7k	answer stringlengths 1 239
French_and_Indian_War	Johnson's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after British capture in 1759).	Where was French withdrawal to?	Ticonderoga Point,
French_and_Indian_War	Colonel Monckton, in the sole British success that year, captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755, cutting the French fortress at Louisbourg off from land-based reinforcements.	Who captured Fort Beausejour?	Colonel Monckton
French_and_Indian_War	To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area.	How were British able to cut supplies to Louisbourg?	deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area.
French_and_Indian_War	John rivers, and Île Saint-Jean), the only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757.	What other clashes were involved in taking Louisbourg?	Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757
French_and_Indian_War	Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America.	After Braddock died, who controlled North American British forces?	William Shirley
French_and_Indian_War	At a meeting in Albany in December 1755, he laid out his plans for 1756.	In what meeting did Shirley lay out plans for 1756?	Albany
French_and_Indian_War	In addition to renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point and Duquesne, he proposed attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec.	What proposed attacks did Shirley plan?	capture Niagara, Crown Point and Duquesne, he proposed attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario
French_and_Indian_War	In addition to renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point and Duquesne, he proposed attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec.	Where was Shirley planning an expedition?	through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec
French_and_Indian_War	Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command.	Who was appointed as second in command to Lor Loudoun in 1756?	Major General James Abercrombie
French_and_Indian_War	French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession.	Who led New France reinforcements in 1756?	Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm
French_and_Indian_War	During that time in Europe, on May 18, 1756, England formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe, which was later to be known as the Seven Years' War.	When did England formally declare war on France?	May 18, 1756
French_and_Indian_War	Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry.	Where was there a weakness in British supply chain?	Oneida Carry
French_and_Indian_War	In the March Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder.	What was the attack on the British weakness?	Battle of Fort Bull
French_and_Indian_War	In the March Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder.	How much gun powder was destroyed in attack?	45,000 pounds
French_and_Indian_War	They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario, and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies.	What plans of the British did this attach on Oneida Carry set back?	hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario, and endangered the Oswego garrison
French_and_Indian_War	When he arrived in Albany, Abercrombie refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them.	Who refused to act until Loudoun approved plans?	Abercrombie
French_and_Indian_War	Building on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison, Montcalm executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George.	Where did Montcalm move his heaquarter to show strategic advancement?	Ticonderoga
French_and_Indian_War	With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August.	Where did Moncalm slip away to attack, left largely unprotected?	Oswego
French_and_Indian_War	In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners' personal effects.	What disagreement did Montcalm and Indians have?	disposition of prisoners' personal effects
French_and_Indian_War	Loudoun, a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France's capital, Quebec.	What was Loudoun's plans for 1757?	attack on New France's capital, Quebec
French_and_Indian_War	Leaving a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm, he began organizing for the expedition to Quebec.	What was the purpose of Loudoun's troops at Fort Henry?	to distract Montcalm
French_and_Indian_War	He was then ordered by William Pitt, the Secretary of State responsible for the colonies, to attack Louisbourg first.	Who ordered Loudoun to attack Louisbourg?	William Pitt
French_and_Indian_War	Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry.	Given the strength of French forces at Louisbourg, what did Loudoun do?	returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry.
French_and_Indian_War	French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757.	What troops attacked Fort William Henry in early 1757?	French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians)
French_and_Indian_War	In February they launched a daring raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification.	On what lake did troops attack fort willima henry in winter?	Lake George
French_and_Indian_War	When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm's Indian allies, angered at the lost opportunity for loot, attacked the British column, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves.	During withdrawal from Fort William Henry, what did some Indian allies of French do?	attacked the British column, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves.
French_and_Indian_War	Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping.	What was causing New France to have issues with resupplying?	British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping.
French_and_Indian_War	The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory.	What other reason caused poor supply of New France from a difficult winter?	poor harvest
French_and_Indian_War	Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St.	Where was Montcalm focusing the defense for New France?	St. Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg,
French_and_Indian_War	The British failures in North America, combined with other failures in the European theater, led to the fall from power of Newcastle and his principal military advisor, the Duke of Cumberland.	What led to Newcastle's fall from power as military advisor?	British failures in North America, combined with other failures in the European theater
French_and_Indian_War	He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun.	Who did Abercrombie replace as commander in chief?	Loudoun
French_and_Indian_War	Pitt's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops, supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France.	Pitt's plan called for what attacks?	three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops
French_and_Indian_War	Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces.	How many of the Pitt's planned expeditions were successful?	Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg
French_and_Indian_War	The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen famously and decisively defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia and Native American allies outside the fort the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga.	How many Frenchman won Battle of Carillon?	3,600
French_and_Indian_War	The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen famously and decisively defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia and Native American allies outside the fort the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga.	How many troops were defeated for British in BAttle of Carillon?	18,000 regulars, militia and Native American allies
French_and_Indian_War	Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France's western forts and furs destined for Europe.	What success did Abercrombie gain out of the defeat at Carillon?	sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac
French_and_Indian_War	Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.	What impact did this loss have on Abercrombie?	recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.
French_and_Indian_War	In the aftermath of generally poor French results in most theaters of the Seven Years' War in 1758, France's new foreign minister, the duc de Choiseul, decided to focus on an invasion of Britain, to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland.	In 1758 what was duc de Choiseul's plan for focused military efforts?	invasion of Britain, to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland
French_and_Indian_War	The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France, and sent funds to Britain's ally on the mainland, Prussia, and the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay.	How successful was the French revised efforts?	The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France
French_and_Indian_War	The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France, and sent funds to Britain's ally on the mainland, Prussia, and the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay.	What naval battles did France lose in 1759?	Lagos and Quiberon Bay.
French_and_Indian_War	British victories continued in all theaters in the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, when they finally captured Ticonderoga, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec (in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders), and victory at Fort Niagara successfully cut off the French frontier forts further to the west and south.	Who defeated Montcalm at Quebec?	James Wolfe
French_and_Indian_War	British victories continued in all theaters in the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, when they finally captured Ticonderoga, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec (in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders), and victory at Fort Niagara successfully cut off the French frontier forts further to the west and south.	What was the significance of victory at Forth Niagara for British?	cut off the French frontier forts further to the west and south
French_and_Indian_War	The victory was made complete in 1760 when, despite losing outside Quebec City in the Battle of Sainte-Foy, the British were able to prevent the arrival of French relief ships in the naval Battle of the Restigouche while armies marched on Montreal from three sides.	What battle outside Quebec City did British lose in 1760?	Battle of Sainte-Foy
French_and_Indian_War	The victory was made complete in 1760 when, despite losing outside Quebec City in the Battle of Sainte-Foy, the British were able to prevent the arrival of French relief ships in the naval Battle of the Restigouche while armies marched on Montreal from three sides.	What victory at thwarted efforts of French relief ships.	naval Battle of the Restigouche
French_and_Indian_War	In September 1760, and before any hostilities erupted, Governor Vaudreuil negotiated from Montreal a capitulation with General Amherst.	In Sept 1760 who negotiated a capitulation from Montreal?	Governor Vaudreuil
French_and_Indian_War	Amherst granted Vaudreuil's request that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property, and the right to remain undisturbed in their homes.	What were requests made to British?	freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property,
French_and_Indian_War	In September 1760, and before any hostilities erupted, Governor Vaudreuil negotiated from Montreal a capitulation with General Amherst.	What British General negotiated at Montreal?	General Amherst.
French_and_Indian_War	The war in North America officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, and war in the European theatre of the Seven Years' War was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763.	When did the North American French and Indian War end?	signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763
French_and_Indian_War	The war in North America officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, and war in the European theatre of the Seven Years' War was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763.	When was the European portion of the Seven Years War complete?	Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763
French_and_Indian_War	The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British.	What choice did French have for surrendering land?	continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique
French_and_Indian_War	They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent.	Why did France choose to give up continental lands?	value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent
French_and_Indian_War	Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French-speaking Roman Catholic residents.	How many French colonists were gained by British?	80,000
French_and_Indian_War	The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 resulted in land made available to migrants from Europe and the colonies further south.	When was the deportation of Acadians?	1755
French_and_Indian_War	The British resettled many Acadians throughout its North American provinces, but many went to France, and some went to New Orleans, which they had expected to remain French.	Where did British resettle many Acadians?	throughout its North American provinces
French_and_Indian_War	Others migrated to places like Saint-Domingue, and fled to New Orleans after the Haitian Revolution.	Although some Acadians went to France and other destiantions, what North American city did many move to?	New Orleans
French_and_Indian_War	Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and to some extent continues to govern relations between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations.	Who issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763?	King George III
French_and_Indian_War	Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and to some extent continues to govern relations between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations.	What was the objective of Royal Proclamation of 1763?	outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory
French_and_Indian_War	Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, a demarcation that was at best a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward-bound settlers.	What lands were reserved for natives?	west of the Appalachian Mountains
French_and_Indian_War	Most went to Cuba, including the entire governmental records from St.	Where did many Spanish Catholic move after British takeover in Florida?	Most went to Cuba,
French_and_Indian_War	The Ohio Country was particularly vulnerable to legal and illegal settlement due to the construction of military roads to the area by Braddock and Forbes.	What made Ohio Country vulnerable?	military roads to the area by Braddock and Forbes
French_and_Indian_War	Although the Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory (which was not completed until 1769) had modest repercussions, the British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of tribes that did not want to do business with the British, and a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies whose divisions the British at times exploited.	When was Spanish takeover of Louisiana Territory complete?	1769
French_and_Indian_War	Although the Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory (which was not completed until 1769) had modest repercussions, the British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of tribes that did not want to do business with the British, and a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies whose divisions the British at times exploited.	What natives were displaced by British takeover in Florida?	Choctaw and the Creek
French_and_Indian_War	For many native populations, the elimination of French power in North America meant the disappearance of a strong ally and counterweight to British expansion, leading to their ultimate dispossession.	What did the loss mean to France?	disappearance of a strong ally and counterweight to British expansion, leading to their ultimate dispossession
Force	Philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects and simple machines, but thinkers such as Aristotle and Archimedes retained fundamental errors in understanding force.	What concept did philosophers in antiquity use to study simple machines?	force
Force	A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, even at a constant velocity.	What was the belief that maintaining motion required force?	fundamental error
Force	With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years.	Who had mathmatical insite?	Sir Isaac Newton
Force	With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years.	How long did it take to improve on Sir Isaac Newton's laws of motion?	nearly three hundred years
Force	By the early 20th century, Einstein developed a theory of relativity that correctly predicted the action of forces on objects with increasing momenta near the speed of light, and also provided insight into the forces produced by gravitation and inertia.	Who develped the theory of relativity?	Einstein
Force	With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms.	What has partical physics made to describe sub-atomic forces?	Standard Model
Force	The Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed.	What are the exchanged particles predicted by the standard Model?	gauge bosons
Force	Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.	What is the strongest main interaction?	strong
Force	Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.	What is the weakest main interaction?	gravitational
Force	:2–10:79 High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction.	What are weak and electromatic forces expressions of?	electroweak interaction
Force	Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology.	Who provided a philosophical discussion of force?	Aristotle
Force	Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology.	What was the concept of force an integral part of?	Aristotelian cosmology
Force	In Aristotle's view, the terrestrial sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different "natural places" therein.	How many elements did Aristotle believe the terrestrial sphere to be made up of?	four
Force	Aristotle believed that motionless objects on Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, to be in their natural place on the ground and that they will stay that way if left alone.	Where did Aristotle believe the natural place for earth and water elements?	on the ground
Force	, for heavy bodies to fall), which led to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required continued application of a force.	What did Aristotle refer to forced motion as?	unnatural
Force	The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus.	When were the shortcomings of Aristotle's physics overcome?	17th century
Force	The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus.	Whose work corrected Aristotle's physics in the seventeenth century?	Galileo Galilei
Force	The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus.	What did objects in forced motion contain according to the late Medieval idea that influence Aristotle?	impetus
Force	Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the 17th century.	Who experimented by rolling stones and canonballs down a steep incline?	Galileo
Force	He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent that was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force, for example friction.	What force acted on bodies to retard their velocity?	friction
Force	Newton's First Law of Motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external net force or resultant force.	Whose First Law of Motion says that unless acted upon be forces, objects would continue to move at a constant velocity?	Newton
Force	This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force (see a more detailed description of this below).	What insight of Galileo was associated with constant velocity?	lack of net force
Force	Newton proposed that every object with mass has an innate inertia that functions as the fundamental equilibrium "natural state" in place of the Aristotelian idea of the "natural state of rest".	Who proposed that innate intertial is the natural state of objects?	Newton
Force	By making rest physically indistinguishable from non-zero constant velocity, Newton's First Law directly connects inertia with the concept of relative velocities.	What law connects relative velocities with inertia?	Newton's First
Force	In other words, to phrase matters more technically, the laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference, that is, in all frames related by a Galilean transformation.	What are the laws of physics of Galileo, in reference to objest in motion and rest?	the same
Force	For instance, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity, the laws of physics do not change from being at rest.	What doesn't change from being at rest to movement at a constant velocity?	laws of physics
Force	This is true even though another person who is observing the moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving parabolic path in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle.	What path does a ball thrown up and down in a moving vehicle take when seen by an outside observer?	parabolic
Force	From the perspective of the person in the car, the vehicle and everything inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction.	What sate are things inside of a moving vehicle as seen by a person inside the vehicle?	at rest
Force	Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest.	What applies to equally to constant velocity motion as it does to rest.	Inertia
Force	The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity.	What concept explains why objects continue in constant motion?	inertia
Force	The rotational inertia of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year.	What makes day length constant on Earth?	rotational inertia of planet
Force	Albert Einstein extended the principle of inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames.	Who explained that inertial reference frames equaled reference frames subject to constant acceleration?	Albert Einstein
Force	This is why, for example, astronauts experience weightlessness when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments.	What do astronaughts experience while in free-fall?	weightlessness
Force	This principle of equivalence was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the general theory of relativity.	What was the basis mentioned for the develpment of the general theory of relativity?	principle of equivalence
Force	Newton's Second Law asserts the direct proportionality of acceleration to force and the inverse proportionality of acceleration to mass.	What describes the proportionality of acceleration to force and mass?	Newton's Second Law
Force	Accelerations can be defined through kinematic measurements.	What kind of measurements define accelerlations?	kinematic
Force	General relativity offers an equivalence between space-time and mass, but lacking a coherent theory of quantum gravity, it is unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales.	What has an equivalence between mass and space-time?	General relativity

French_and_Indian_War

Johnson's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after British capture in 1759).

Where was French withdrawal to?

Ticonderoga Point,

French_and_Indian_War

Colonel Monckton, in the sole British success that year, captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755, cutting the French fortress at Louisbourg off from land-based reinforcements.

Who captured Fort Beausejour?

Colonel Monckton

French_and_Indian_War

To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area.

How were British able to cut supplies to Louisbourg?

deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area.

French_and_Indian_War

John rivers, and Île Saint-Jean), the only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757.

What other clashes were involved in taking Louisbourg?

Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757

French_and_Indian_War

Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America.

After Braddock died, who controlled North American British forces?

William Shirley

French_and_Indian_War

At a meeting in Albany in December 1755, he laid out his plans for 1756.

In what meeting did Shirley lay out plans for 1756?

Albany

French_and_Indian_War

In addition to renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point and Duquesne, he proposed attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec.

What proposed attacks did Shirley plan?

capture Niagara, Crown Point and Duquesne, he proposed attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario

French_and_Indian_War

In addition to renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point and Duquesne, he proposed attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec.

Where was Shirley planning an expedition?

through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec

French_and_Indian_War

Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command.

Who was appointed as second in command to Lor Loudoun in 1756?

Major General James Abercrombie

French_and_Indian_War

French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession.

Who led New France reinforcements in 1756?

Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm

French_and_Indian_War

During that time in Europe, on May 18, 1756, England formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe, which was later to be known as the Seven Years' War.

When did England formally declare war on France?

May 18, 1756

French_and_Indian_War

Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry.

Where was there a weakness in British supply chain?

Oneida Carry

French_and_Indian_War

In the March Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder.

What was the attack on the British weakness?

Battle of Fort Bull

French_and_Indian_War

In the March Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder.

How much gun powder was destroyed in attack?

45,000 pounds

French_and_Indian_War

They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario, and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies.

What plans of the British did this attach on Oneida Carry set back?

hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario, and endangered the Oswego garrison

French_and_Indian_War

When he arrived in Albany, Abercrombie refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them.

Who refused to act until Loudoun approved plans?

Abercrombie

French_and_Indian_War

Building on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison, Montcalm executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George.

Where did Montcalm move his heaquarter to show strategic advancement?

Ticonderoga

French_and_Indian_War

With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August.

Where did Moncalm slip away to attack, left largely unprotected?

Oswego

French_and_Indian_War

In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners' personal effects.

What disagreement did Montcalm and Indians have?

disposition of prisoners' personal effects

French_and_Indian_War

Loudoun, a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France's capital, Quebec.

What was Loudoun's plans for 1757?

attack on New France's capital, Quebec

French_and_Indian_War

Leaving a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm, he began organizing for the expedition to Quebec.

What was the purpose of Loudoun's troops at Fort Henry?

to distract Montcalm

French_and_Indian_War

He was then ordered by William Pitt, the Secretary of State responsible for the colonies, to attack Louisbourg first.

Who ordered Loudoun to attack Louisbourg?

William Pitt

French_and_Indian_War

Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry.

Given the strength of French forces at Louisbourg, what did Loudoun do?

returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry.

French_and_Indian_War

French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757.

What troops attacked Fort William Henry in early 1757?

French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians)

French_and_Indian_War

In February they launched a daring raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification.

On what lake did troops attack fort willima henry in winter?

Lake George

French_and_Indian_War

When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm's Indian allies, angered at the lost opportunity for loot, attacked the British column, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves.

During withdrawal from Fort William Henry, what did some Indian allies of French do?

attacked the British column, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves.

French_and_Indian_War

Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping.

What was causing New France to have issues with resupplying?

British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping.

French_and_Indian_War

The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory.

What other reason caused poor supply of New France from a difficult winter?

poor harvest

French_and_Indian_War

Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St.

Where was Montcalm focusing the defense for New France?

St. Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg,

French_and_Indian_War

The British failures in North America, combined with other failures in the European theater, led to the fall from power of Newcastle and his principal military advisor, the Duke of Cumberland.

What led to Newcastle's fall from power as military advisor?

British failures in North America, combined with other failures in the European theater

French_and_Indian_War

He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun.

Who did Abercrombie replace as commander in chief?

Loudoun

French_and_Indian_War

Pitt's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops, supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France.

Pitt's plan called for what attacks?

three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops

French_and_Indian_War

Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces.

How many of the Pitt's planned expeditions were successful?

Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg

French_and_Indian_War

The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen famously and decisively defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia and Native American allies outside the fort the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga.

How many Frenchman won Battle of Carillon?

3,600

French_and_Indian_War

The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen famously and decisively defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia and Native American allies outside the fort the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga.

How many troops were defeated for British in BAttle of Carillon?

18,000 regulars, militia and Native American allies

French_and_Indian_War

Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France's western forts and furs destined for Europe.

What success did Abercrombie gain out of the defeat at Carillon?

sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac

French_and_Indian_War

Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.

What impact did this loss have on Abercrombie?

recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.

French_and_Indian_War

In the aftermath of generally poor French results in most theaters of the Seven Years' War in 1758, France's new foreign minister, the duc de Choiseul, decided to focus on an invasion of Britain, to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland.

In 1758 what was duc de Choiseul's plan for focused military efforts?

invasion of Britain, to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland

French_and_Indian_War

The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France, and sent funds to Britain's ally on the mainland, Prussia, and the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay.

How successful was the French revised efforts?

The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France

French_and_Indian_War

The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France, and sent funds to Britain's ally on the mainland, Prussia, and the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay.

What naval battles did France lose in 1759?

Lagos and Quiberon Bay.

French_and_Indian_War

British victories continued in all theaters in the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, when they finally captured Ticonderoga, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec (in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders), and victory at Fort Niagara successfully cut off the French frontier forts further to the west and south.

Who defeated Montcalm at Quebec?

James Wolfe

French_and_Indian_War

British victories continued in all theaters in the Annus Mirabilis of 1759, when they finally captured Ticonderoga, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec (in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders), and victory at Fort Niagara successfully cut off the French frontier forts further to the west and south.

What was the significance of victory at Forth Niagara for British?

cut off the French frontier forts further to the west and south

French_and_Indian_War

The victory was made complete in 1760 when, despite losing outside Quebec City in the Battle of Sainte-Foy, the British were able to prevent the arrival of French relief ships in the naval Battle of the Restigouche while armies marched on Montreal from three sides.

What battle outside Quebec City did British lose in 1760?

Battle of Sainte-Foy

French_and_Indian_War

The victory was made complete in 1760 when, despite losing outside Quebec City in the Battle of Sainte-Foy, the British were able to prevent the arrival of French relief ships in the naval Battle of the Restigouche while armies marched on Montreal from three sides.

What victory at thwarted efforts of French relief ships.

naval Battle of the Restigouche

French_and_Indian_War

In September 1760, and before any hostilities erupted, Governor Vaudreuil negotiated from Montreal a capitulation with General Amherst.

In Sept 1760 who negotiated a capitulation from Montreal?

Governor Vaudreuil

French_and_Indian_War

Amherst granted Vaudreuil's request that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property, and the right to remain undisturbed in their homes.

What were requests made to British?

freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property,

French_and_Indian_War

In September 1760, and before any hostilities erupted, Governor Vaudreuil negotiated from Montreal a capitulation with General Amherst.

What British General negotiated at Montreal?

General Amherst.

French_and_Indian_War

The war in North America officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, and war in the European theatre of the Seven Years' War was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763.

When did the North American French and Indian War end?

signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763

French_and_Indian_War

The war in North America officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, and war in the European theatre of the Seven Years' War was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763.

When was the European portion of the Seven Years War complete?

Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763

French_and_Indian_War

The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British.

What choice did French have for surrendering land?

continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique

French_and_Indian_War

They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent.

Why did France choose to give up continental lands?

value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent

French_and_Indian_War

Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French-speaking Roman Catholic residents.

How many French colonists were gained by British?

80,000

French_and_Indian_War

The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 resulted in land made available to migrants from Europe and the colonies further south.

When was the deportation of Acadians?

1755

French_and_Indian_War

The British resettled many Acadians throughout its North American provinces, but many went to France, and some went to New Orleans, which they had expected to remain French.

Where did British resettle many Acadians?

throughout its North American provinces

French_and_Indian_War

Others migrated to places like Saint-Domingue, and fled to New Orleans after the Haitian Revolution.

Although some Acadians went to France and other destiantions, what North American city did many move to?

New Orleans

French_and_Indian_War

Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and to some extent continues to govern relations between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations.

Who issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763?

King George III

French_and_Indian_War

Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and to some extent continues to govern relations between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations.

What was the objective of Royal Proclamation of 1763?

outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory

French_and_Indian_War

Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, a demarcation that was at best a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward-bound settlers.

What lands were reserved for natives?

west of the Appalachian Mountains

French_and_Indian_War

Most went to Cuba, including the entire governmental records from St.

Where did many Spanish Catholic move after British takeover in Florida?

Most went to Cuba,

French_and_Indian_War

The Ohio Country was particularly vulnerable to legal and illegal settlement due to the construction of military roads to the area by Braddock and Forbes.

What made Ohio Country vulnerable?

military roads to the area by Braddock and Forbes

French_and_Indian_War

Although the Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory (which was not completed until 1769) had modest repercussions, the British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of tribes that did not want to do business with the British, and a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies whose divisions the British at times exploited.

When was Spanish takeover of Louisiana Territory complete?

1769

French_and_Indian_War

Although the Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory (which was not completed until 1769) had modest repercussions, the British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of tribes that did not want to do business with the British, and a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies whose divisions the British at times exploited.

What natives were displaced by British takeover in Florida?

Choctaw and the Creek

French_and_Indian_War

For many native populations, the elimination of French power in North America meant the disappearance of a strong ally and counterweight to British expansion, leading to their ultimate dispossession.

What did the loss mean to France?

disappearance of a strong ally and counterweight to British expansion, leading to their ultimate dispossession

Force

Philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects and simple machines, but thinkers such as Aristotle and Archimedes retained fundamental errors in understanding force.

What concept did philosophers in antiquity use to study simple machines?

force

Force

A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, even at a constant velocity.

What was the belief that maintaining motion required force?

fundamental error

Force

With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years.

Who had mathmatical insite?

Sir Isaac Newton

Force

With his mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years.

How long did it take to improve on Sir Isaac Newton's laws of motion?

nearly three hundred years

Force

By the early 20th century, Einstein developed a theory of relativity that correctly predicted the action of forces on objects with increasing momenta near the speed of light, and also provided insight into the forces produced by gravitation and inertia.

Who develped the theory of relativity?

Einstein

Force

With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms.

What has partical physics made to describe sub-atomic forces?

Standard Model

Force

The Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed.

What are the exchanged particles predicted by the standard Model?

gauge bosons

Force

Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.

What is the strongest main interaction?

strong

Force

Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.

What is the weakest main interaction?

gravitational

Force

:2–10:79 High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction.

What are weak and electromatic forces expressions of?

electroweak interaction

Force

Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology.

Who provided a philosophical discussion of force?

Aristotle

Force

Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part of Aristotelian cosmology.

What was the concept of force an integral part of?

Aristotelian cosmology

Force

In Aristotle's view, the terrestrial sphere contained four elements that come to rest at different "natural places" therein.

How many elements did Aristotle believe the terrestrial sphere to be made up of?

four

Force

Aristotle believed that motionless objects on Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, to be in their natural place on the ground and that they will stay that way if left alone.

Where did Aristotle believe the natural place for earth and water elements?

on the ground

Force

, for heavy bodies to fall), which led to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required continued application of a force.

What did Aristotle refer to forced motion as?

unnatural

Force

The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus.

When were the shortcomings of Aristotle's physics overcome?

17th century

Force

The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus.

Whose work corrected Aristotle's physics in the seventeenth century?

Galileo Galilei

Force

The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late Medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of impetus.

What did objects in forced motion contain according to the late Medieval idea that influence Aristotle?

impetus

Force

Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the 17th century.

Who experimented by rolling stones and canonballs down a steep incline?

Galileo

Force

He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent that was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force, for example friction.

What force acted on bodies to retard their velocity?

friction

Force

Newton's First Law of Motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by an external net force or resultant force.

Whose First Law of Motion says that unless acted upon be forces, objects would continue to move at a constant velocity?

Newton

Force

This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was associated with a lack of net force (see a more detailed description of this below).

What insight of Galileo was associated with constant velocity?

lack of net force

Force

Newton proposed that every object with mass has an innate inertia that functions as the fundamental equilibrium "natural state" in place of the Aristotelian idea of the "natural state of rest".

Who proposed that innate intertial is the natural state of objects?

Newton

Force

By making rest physically indistinguishable from non-zero constant velocity, Newton's First Law directly connects inertia with the concept of relative velocities.

What law connects relative velocities with inertia?

Newton's First

Force

In other words, to phrase matters more technically, the laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference, that is, in all frames related by a Galilean transformation.

What are the laws of physics of Galileo, in reference to objest in motion and rest?

the same

Force

For instance, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity, the laws of physics do not change from being at rest.

What doesn't change from being at rest to movement at a constant velocity?

laws of physics

Force

This is true even though another person who is observing the moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving parabolic path in the same direction as the motion of the vehicle.

What path does a ball thrown up and down in a moving vehicle take when seen by an outside observer?

parabolic

Force

From the perspective of the person in the car, the vehicle and everything inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a constant speed in the opposite direction.

What sate are things inside of a moving vehicle as seen by a person inside the vehicle?

at rest

Force

Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest.

What applies to equally to constant velocity motion as it does to rest.

Inertia

Force

The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity.

What concept explains why objects continue in constant motion?

inertia

Force

The rotational inertia of planet Earth is what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year.

What makes day length constant on Earth?

rotational inertia of planet

Force

Albert Einstein extended the principle of inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames.

Who explained that inertial reference frames equaled reference frames subject to constant acceleration?

Albert Einstein

Force

This is why, for example, astronauts experience weightlessness when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are more easily discernible in such environments.

What do astronaughts experience while in free-fall?

weightlessness

Force

This principle of equivalence was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the general theory of relativity.

What was the basis mentioned for the develpment of the general theory of relativity?

principle of equivalence

Force

Newton's Second Law asserts the direct proportionality of acceleration to force and the inverse proportionality of acceleration to mass.

What describes the proportionality of acceleration to force and mass?

Newton's Second Law

Force

Accelerations can be defined through kinematic measurements.

What kind of measurements define accelerlations?

kinematic

Force

General relativity offers an equivalence between space-time and mass, but lacking a coherent theory of quantum gravity, it is unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales.

What has an equivalence between mass and space-time?

General relativity