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60 | grey's anatomy the episode with the bomb | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_We_Know_It | As We Know It
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
17th episode of the 2nd season of Grey's Anatomy
"As We Know It"
Episode chronology
The episode opens with a voice-over narration from Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) about the inevitability of death and the urgency of making the most of the time one has left.
Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) is in labor, but without her husband, Tucker Jones ( Cress Williams ) (who is undergoing neurosurgery), by her side, she refuses to push. George O'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) teams up with Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) to convince Bailey to have the baby. George finally manages to give Bailey the motivation she needs, ultimately holding her while she delivers the baby. Meanwhile, Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) continue their physical relationship, having sex again.
The hospital's Chief, Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr. ), is under immense stress from the ongoing chaos, leading everyone to believe he is suffering a heart attack . This concern brings his wife, Adele ( Loretta Devine ), to the hospital. During this time, Tucker, goes into cardiac arrest but is saved in surgery.
Meredith finally removes the explosive from the patient, and Dylan ( Kyle Chandler ), the leader of the bomb squad, takes it away. As Meredith steps out of the operating room, she watches Dylan carry the bomb down the hallway. Suddenly, the bomb explodes, killing Dylan and a second bomb squad member, and knocking Meredith unconscious.
In a revival of the "shower scene" from the first part of the episode , this time with a more serious tone, a fully clothed Izzie and Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) wash the blood off a stunned Meredith, while George looks on. Despite the catastrophic events, both Tucker and the man who had the explosive embedded in his body survive.
At the episode's conclusion, Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) and Derek overcome their earlier rivalry and become friends, addressing each other by their first names. In a quiet moment, Cristina tells a sleeping Burke, "I love you, too." Derek later visits Meredith, commenting, "You almost died today." When Meredith admits she cannot remember their last kiss, Derek recalls it for her, saying she "smelled like some kind of flower". Meredith identifies the scent as lavender , and Derek leaves the room after their bittersweet exchange.
Title reference
"Back in the Wild" - Los Chicros remixed by Greenskeepers
Dave Anderson of TV Guide praised the use of Anna Nalick 's song in three pivotal scenes, particularly highlighting the moment where George O'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) convinces Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) to go through with the birth, calling it "Knight's turn for Emmy consideration". [2]
In December 2011, Wetpaint named this episode, along with its first part "It's the End of the World", as one of the 5 best episodes of Grey's Anatomy. [3] Variety also listed the episode in its Top 10 Most Bizarre Medical Maladies encountered in the series. [4]
External links
As We Know It
| 513 |
60 | grey's anatomy the episode with the bomb | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It's_the_End_of_the_World | It's the End of the World
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"It's the End of the World"
Running time
43 minutes
Guest appearances
Larry Clarke as Paul
Episode chronology
"It's the End of the World" is the 16th episode of the second season of the American television series Grey's Anatomy and the show's 25th episode overall. Written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by co-executive producer Peter Horton , the episode is the first part of a two-part storyline, which concludes with the following episode, " As We Know It ".
The episode originally aired on February 5, 2006, on ABC, serving as the lead-out program for Super Bowl XL . On its original broadcast, it was watched by 38.1 million viewers, making it the highest-rated and most-watched episode in the series' history. [1] Both parts received positive reviews from television critics upon broadcast.
The episode opens with a voice-over narration from Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) about the inevitability of death and the importance of pursuing one's dreams before it is too late.
In a dream sequence , George O'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) imagines himself in the shower with Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ), Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) and Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ). George wakes up from the dream only to find Meredith refusing to get out of bed for work, convinced she will die that day. Despite George and Izzie’s efforts to convince her otherwise, it takes Cristina joining in to finally get Meredith out of bed and to the hospital.
At the hospital, Meredith's ominous premonition seems to gain credibility. Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) returns to the hospital to have her baby, alone, as her husband is on his way by car. Simultaneously, a severely injured male trauma patient and his panicked, screaming wife are brought in by paramedics. One of the paramedics, Hannah Davies ( Christina Ricci ), has her hand inside the man's chest cavity to stop the bleeding. Dr. Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) quickly takes charge of the case, and Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) is assigned to calm down the hysterical wife, which he successfully does by yelling back at her, shocking her into composure.
Things take a dangerous turn when it is discovered that Hannah’s hand isn’t the only thing inside the patient's chest. The patient has a piece of unexploded ammunition lodged in him, having accidentally fired a homemade bazooka . The hospital goes into Code Black for a bomb threat, shutting down most of the surgical wing—except for the operation that is already in progress: Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) and Cristina are operating on the brain of a man who, unbeknownst to them at first, is Tucker Jones ( Cress Williams ), Bailey's husband, who was involved in a car accident while rushing to the hospital to be with her.
Bailey refuses to have her baby until her husband arrives, unaware that he is already in surgery. The interns discover this when George calls Bailey's husband’s phone at her request, and Izzie finds the phone in the man's belongings. They decide not to tell Bailey until Derek has more information about his prognosis.
Meanwhile, the bomb squad, led by Dylan Young ( Kyle Chandler ), arrives and works to contain the situation. They want to clear out the ORs of any non-essential personnel, but Derek, Cristina, and Meredith refuse to leave. Elsewhere, Izzie and George talk about feeling like "watchers" compared to Cristina and Meredith, who are "doers". Izzie, determined to act, decides to reignite her relationship with Alex, and they hook up in the supply closet.
Richard Webber ( James Pickens Jr. ), struggling to maintain order amidst the chaos, does his best to keep the hospital functioning despite the escalating danger. In the surgical wing, the anesthesiologist , without warning, quietly trains Hannah on how to provide airflow for the patient and then flees, leaving her alone with the patient and the bomb. Meredith finds Hannah on the verge of a breakdown, about to pull her hand out, which would detonate the bomb and kill everyone in the room. Despite Meredith’s attempts to calm her down, Hannah panics and pulls her hand out, fleeing the scene—leaving Meredith to step in and place her own hand on the bomb to keep the patient and everyone else safe.
Title reference
Wetpaint named it in December 2011 one of the 5 best episodes of Grey's Anatomy along with the second part "As We Know It". [4]
External links
It's the End of the World
| 514 |
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Hello! Welcome to Grey's Anatomy Universe Wiki! On this website you can read character, actor and episode pages, or if the pages don't exist already or they can be improved, you can edit them! You can also view images and have discussions on blogs! Please create an account and join the community, it is absolutely free!
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Episode Information
Contents
Danger looms at Seattle Grace as the Code Black is in full effect. Derek refuses to vacate the OR as Tucker's head is still open on the table, endangering both their lives; Bailey refuses to push as she endangers her life and her baby's life and Meredith still has her hand in the body, with Cristina refusing to leave her. Away from the bombs, the stress gets to Richard, causing him to have a suspected heart attack.
Full Summary[
Meredith's voice over again mentions that sixth sense that informs you when the great beyond is headed for you. As she narrates, scenes continue from the previous episode: Bailey is still in labor but resisting it while Derek is operating on her husband, Addison sits down on a couch, frustrated over Bailey, and Alex & Izzie are panting after sex in the supply closet.
Alex and Izzie join George in the lobby. He informs them that something happened in OR 3 and that Hannah, the paramedic, went missing. He asks Richard what happened. Richard replies a quiet board's happened.
Burke enters Derek's OR and asks how it's going. Derek says there's a second bleeding. Following the textbook approach, Tucker may lose his speech, herniate and die. Burke asks if there's another option. Derek says his own plan could lead to the same result. Burke wishes him luck with that. Burke says it was stupid not to evacuate. They joke they should consider a change of profession. Burke says he's going to try to save his guy once the bomb squad is done assessing him. Derek doesn't want to be the guy who kills Bailey's husband. Burke doesn't want to be the guy who kills them all. Burke leaves.
In OR 3, Cristina and Dylan tell Meredith that was incredibly stupid as Dylan's putting a flak jacket on Meredith. Meredith tells Cristina she had a feeling.
Burke gathers himself in the hallway before returning in the OR. He tells Cristina it's time to go now, because this is really dangerous. He says he can't do this or think with her in here. Meredith assures Cristina they'll be fine. Before leaving, Cristina tells Burke to be the other guy from the movies, the one who runs away from danger instead of facing it like the hero. A teary-eyed Meredith asks Dylan if he has a plan to get her out of this. Dylan is silent.
Alex, Izzie, and George are in the locker room. Izzie needs the other two to shut up. Meredith could die any minute. She suddenly starts giggling. She tends to have inappropriate reactions to stress. Alex wonders if they should do something, like call Meredith's family. George says they are her family. Izzie, still laughing, gets up and leaves.
Cristina just scrubbed in and she enters Derek's OR. She says she has to be here as she gets gowned. Derek says Tucker is hanging in there. He asks about Hannah, the girl with the bomb. Cristina says she's hanging in there, too.
Richard is pacing while listing all his problems in front of Addison. He can't calm down. George says Bailey is scared. Addison says Bailey refuses to be examined, but she suspects the baby's gonna go into distress soon, so she'll have to perform a C-section. Richard says he doesn't have an OR for her. Addison says Bailey's not rational right now because she's in labor. If they can't convince her to start pushing within the hour, Addison needs access to any OR in the city or Bailey will lose her baby. A nurse comes over to give Richard the blueprints he asked for.
Alex and Izzie sit down in a dark supply closet. She says she laughs at funerals, too. Izzie kisses him again, but he stops her. Izzie says she was jealous of Meredith and the surgery. He leans in and kisses her.
Meredith asks Burke if this is the strangest thing that's ever happened in his OR. He has to admit it is. Meredith's happy to hear that, because she's very competitive. Burke says the best surgeons are.
George is telling Bailey what they're planning to do with her. Bailey refuses to do anything but accept a ride home. This baby is not coming out. She can't drive herself and Tucker's on the table, so she needs a ride. Bailey tells George to leave unless he's giving her a ride.
Richard is studying the blueprints while Mindy comes over to ask him if there's any news about her husband. She heard someone say that her husband's losing blood. She knows Richard will tell her the truth because he looks so worried. Richard admits James could bleed out if they don't operate soon. She thanks him for the truth. Richard asks nurses to get him the head of the bomb squad.
Dylan is with Richard and tells him they have a plan. They could get the bomb out in 10 minutes if he's not interrupted again. Richard tells him that the general anesthesia in the OR requires a flow of pure oxygen. He's turned off the oxygen supply to OR 3, but that OR is right above the OR floor's main oxygen line.
Izzie and Alex are getting dressed again. Alex says it's gonna be okay, like people say. She leaves because she has to do something to help out.
Dylan and Burke are whispering. Meredith tells them to stop. She's not a patient. She won't freak out so they can tell her whatever they have to say. Burke tells her about the main oxygen line. She correctly guesses that if the bomb were to explode here, the whole hospital could blow up.
Izzie and Alex approach a busy Richard. They really want an assignment, but Richard is having trouble breathing and he's all sweaty. Izzie asks for a wheelchair as Alex guesses he's having a heart attack.
Dylan tells Meredith that they have to move. Meredith says she can't even wiggle her fingers, but they want to move the entire gurney? Burke says they can pull it off.
Izzie and Alex are in Richard's room. A doctor confirms his EKG looks normal. Richard is not interested in all the other labs, but Adele is. Izzie tells Adele that Richard should really wait until they get the blood work back. Richard throws the interns out of his room. Adele refuses to let him leave, so he has to lie down.
George finds Addison sitting on a gurney in the hallway. He asks what they're going to do about Bailey. He suggests they declare Bailey temporarily insane. Addison says that won't make her more inclined to give birth. Addison says she's doing everything she can, so she has no idea what else she can do. Bailey's husband is in mortal danger and Addison can't comfort her, because there's nothing that can comfort Addison herself. She and Bailey are doing their best. She needs George to do better than asking her stupid questions.
George walks into a stairwell and hears someone sobbing. He finds Hannah hiding. Her hand is bleeding because she fell while running away. George figures out who she is.
From inside the OR, Cristina sees the bomb squad in the hallway. She leaves the OR.
The bomb squad and Meredith are slowly moving down the hallway. She asks Dylan to go over it again. He says the device is shaped like a rocket, about 8 inches long. Burke's team is ready for them as soon as they take the device out of the body cavity. Meredith will need to pull it out while keeping it level. Meredith and Dylan reveal they don't like each other. Cristina comes over and Meredith explains they're moving further away from the OR in case they blow up. Dylan tells Cristina to keep her distance. Meredith asks Cristina to tell her something, because she's freaking out and she really has to pee. Cristina says Burke told her he loved her while he thought she was sleeping. Like she said this morning, everybody has problems. Cristina says reciprocity is not required because Burke thought she was sleeping. The gurney suddenly hits a metal bar on the floor, bringing them to a stop. Dylan encourages everyone to get it together so they can keep going, nice and slowly.
While George is taking care of her hand, Hannah says you always think you're a good man in a storm. She's supposed to stay and do something instead of running away and hiding. She left two people to die.
Alex tells Izzie that the blood work shows that Richard had an anxiety attack. Alex has to go tell him.
Addison and George are in Bailey's room, trying to convince her to push, but Bailey wants to be left alone. Addison wants to leave to get them an OR, but George tells Bailey he's very disappointed in her. He really expected more. She doesn't hide from a fight and she does not give up. She strives for greatness. She's a doer. Her husband may not be here and a lot of things are out of their control right now, but this they can control. She gives in and sits up to start pushing. George climbs into the bed and sits behind her to hold her. "Let's have this baby," he says.
In the other OR, everybody is ready to remove the ammo. Burke will extend the incision. The bleeding will intensify and if they're going to save James, Meredith has to pull out the ammo immediately. Dylan reminds her to keep it level. Meredith has to be ready as well. She guesses she is. Burke starts cutting.
Cristina returns to Derek's OR. Derek informs her that Tucker is doing fine. Derek asks about the girl with the bomb. Cristina says the girl with the bomb is Meredith. Suddenly, Tucker flatlines.
Burke's done. It's time for Meredith to remove the bomb now, but Meredith is not ready.
Derek asks for epi, but that doesn't hold. He asks for a wet lap and says they're going to roll Tucker over.
Meredith tells Burke and Dylan that she wants them to make sure that George and Izzie get to stay in her house.
Bailey gives a big push as she squeezes George's hand. Addison can see the top of the head now. She gets ready for another push.
Cristina is performing CPR while Derek orders more meds. He tells Tucker not to quit on him.
Burke tells Meredith that James's pressure is dropping. They have to move. Meredith says this is crazy. She tells Burke and Dylan to go. Dylan urges Meredith to look at him. He knows this is really bad and that he's an ass, so Meredith has to pretend he's someone she really likes because she needs to listen to him.
Meredith imagines herself in a bright OR with Derek standing where Dylan just stood. The entire OR is empty. No Burke, no equipment, and no patient. She tells Derek she's scared. He knows, but she can do this. It'll be over in a second. She says okay.
She returns to the actual OR. She start to gently pull the device out of the man's body.
Cristina and Derek are still trying to bring Tucker back.
George looks in the mirror and tells Bailey he can see the baby's head. He's got a lot of hair and he's cute. Bailey tells George to stop looking at her vajayjay.
Derek takes over CPR while Bailey is still pushing. Derek seems to give up, but slams onto Tucker's chest as a last effort. It works.
Meredith has taken out the device and gently puts it in Dylan's hands. Dylan tells her she did good, and then slowly makes his way out of the OR. Meredith steps back so Burke can start to stop the bleeding. Meredith then walks to the door to watch Dylan. As she steps out into the hallway, the bomb explodes, turning Dylan and his colleague into Pink Mist. Meredith herself is knocked down and thrown down the hallway. As her body lies on the floor, the hallway is revealed to be severely damaged as burning papers fall from the sky.
In the main lobby, Richard is informed that people are coming up from the OR floor. Alex goes to talk to Mindy, and they all gather around the elevator, including Hannah. The elevator arrives and Derek and Burke get off. As they walk up to the crowd, Preston greets Derek using his first name. Derek reciprocates. Mindy asks Burke about her husband. Burke says he's alive and well, thanks to Hannah. Mindy walks up to Hannah and hugs her.
Derek is walking around the lobby. "Where is she?" he asks. Addison comes over, happy to see him, and she hugs him. Adele sees the look on his face and says that is not the she Derek was asking for.
George finds Izzie, Meredith, and Cristina in the shower, but unlike in his dream, they're still wearing scrubs. Izzie and Cristina take off Meredith's OR gown and start washing the blood and dirt from her skin. George lets them be.
Cristina and Burke are in bed. Burke is asleep. Cristina tells him she loves him, too.
Bailey shows Tucker their son: William George Bailey Jones. Tucker smilingly greets his beautiful son. Bailey kisses him on his cheek.
Izzie enters Meredith's bedroom and tells her there's someone at the door for her.
Meredith goes downstairs and sees Derek. He says she almost died today. She knows. He looks at her for a couple of seconds, then opens the door to leave. She says she can't remember their last kiss. That's all she could think about. She really wants to be able to remember the last time they were together and happy. He says he's glad she didn't die today. He says it was a Thursday morning. She was wearing her Dartmouth T-shirt. She'd just washed her hair and she smelt like some kind of flower. He was running late for surgery. She said she was gonna see him later, and she leaned in and kissed him. Soft and quick, kind of like it was a habit, like they'd do it for the rest of their lives. She went back to reading the newspaper and he went to work. She says it was lavender, from her conditioner. He smiles and leaves.
Cast[
Treatment:
Craniotomy
Resuscitation
Derek continued to operate on Tucker. He was concerned about Tucker hemorrhaging. Tucker then became unstable. They attempted resuscitation and it initially looked like he wouldn't make it, but they were able to re-stabilize him and finish the surgery. He was expected to make a full recovery.
Thoracotomy
James was still sedated and being manually ventilated. When they discovered that they were right above the main oxygen line for the hospital, they slowly moved him on the gurney to another OR to minimize the risk. In the new OR, Burke widened the incision, which allowed Meredith to grab the rocket and pulled it out of James's chest. Burke continued his surgery and saved James's life.
Vaginal delivery
Bailey was refusing to push, which Addison said could cause fetal distress. She needed Bailey to push soon or she'd need to perform an emergency c-section, which she couldn't do because of the ORs being evacuated. George eventually convinced her to push, soothing her as she labored and soon, her son, William George Bailey Jones , was born.
Treatment:
Webber had what initially looked like a heart attack, but blood work revealed that he actually had an anxiety attack.
Treatment:
Stitches
Hannah ran and fell, cutting her hand. George cleaned the cut and stitched it up for her.
Music[
Song
Performer
Scene
Correatown
Burke comes in to check on Derek.
"World Spins Madly On"
Debbie brings Richard the blueprints for the hospital.
Izzie and Alex sit in the supply closet and Izzie starts laughing.
She tries to start kissing him, but he stops it.
Burke and Meredith talk about how odd it is.
George talks to Bailey about pushing, but she sends him out.
"Back in the Wild"
Greenskeepers
Cristina leaves the OR when she sees them moving the gurney down the hall.
Dylan explains again to Meredith what they're going to do.
Cristina distracts Meredith by talking about Burke.
They hit a strip on the floor and stop suddenly.
After a pause, they continue walking.
"Breathe (2 AM)"
Bailey pushes with George's help.
Tucker is still coding.
Meredith pulls out the shell.
Tucker is still coding.
Bailey continues pushing.
Derek tries a last ditch effort to save Tucker and it works.
Meredith gives Dylan the shell and he takes it out of the OR.
Burke starts operating.
Meredith follows Dylan out into the hallway just in time to see the shell explode, killing Dylan.
Cristina tells Burke she loves him, too.
Bailey introduces her husband to their son.
"Homebird"
Foy Vance
Meredith tells Derek her hair smelled like lavender from her conditioner.
He leaves and she goes upstairs.
"All The World (I Tell Myself)" - Correatown
"World Spins Madly On" - The Weepies
"Back in the Wild" - Greenskeepers
"Breathe (2 AM)" - Anna Nalick
"Unlike Me" - Kate Havnevik
"Homebird" - Foy Vance
Notes and Trivia[
This episode's title originated from the song It's The End of the World As We Know It, originally sung by REM.
This episode scored 25.42 million viewers. [1]
Prep dates for this episode and the previous one were from November 28 to December 6, 2005.[ source? ]
Filming for this episode and the previous one was scheduled from December 7 to December 16, 2005.[ source? ]
The season 2 DVD set includes an audio commentary for this episode by writer Shonda Rhimes , director Peter Horton , and editor Edward Ornelas .[ source? ]
When Meredith was thrown back from the explosion of the bomb, she was played by a stunt woman.[ source? ]
This is the second half of a two-part episode. However, the episodes were not originally aired together. Part one aired on February 5, 2006 while part two aired February 12, 2006.
Izzie mentions that she laughs at funerals, which we witness to be the truth in Good Mourning .
This was the episode submitted for Chandra Wilson's bid for the 'Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series' at the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards.[ source? ]
This was also the episode that was submitted for Kyle Chandler's bid to win 'Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series' at the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards.[ source? ]
According to Shonda Rhimes, when her mother first previewed this episode, she said Adele's line before it was said regarding Derek looking for Meredith.[ source? ]
Gallery[
Addison : (to Richard) Calm down.
Richard : Calm down? I have an evacuated O.R. A bomb in a body cavity. A missing paramedic! An intern with her hand on the explosive! Two world class surgeons in harm's way! (George walks up behind them) A man on a table who may bleed out at any moment unless we move the bomb from his chest! And my favorite resident in labor who you're now telling me refuses to push! Really, calm down? You really want to say right now to me calm down?
George : (to Richard) Dr. Bailey is scared, sir. It's a day to be scared.
Addison : She won't let me examine her but from what I can tell her contractions are 40 seconds apart and she's refusing to push. The baby could go into distress and if she doesn't come out of this and soon, then I'm gonna need an O.R. to do an emergency C-section.
Richard : I can't give you an O.R, Addie! I don't have an O.R. to give. Can't you convince her to push? Bailey's rational.
Addison : She's not Bailey right now! She's a woman in labor whose husband is in surgery next to a bomb.
Richard : So is yours.
Richard : I don't know what to tell you.
Addison : Look Richard, we have about an hour to change Bailey's mind and then I'm going to need you to get me an O.R. Build me an O.R. Find me a helicopter to fly me to any O.R. in the city. Otherwise instead of having a baby, she'll be losing one. (walks away)
Meredith : (to Burke) Is this the strangest thing that's ever happened in your O.R.?
Preston : I'd have to say that it is.
Meredith : Good, cause I'm very competitive.
Preston : All the best surgeons are.
Meredith : Cristina. I have my hand on a bomb. I’m freaking out. And most importantly, I really have to pee. Tell me anything.
Cristina : He told me he loved me. Last night, he thought I was sleeping, but I heard him say it.
Meredith : Burke loves you.
Meredith : Burke loves you!
Meredith : Well are you gonna say it back, or-
Cristina : Of course not! He didn’t say it to me, he said it to sleeping me! Reciprocity is not required. Besides he might blow up.
(The gurney hits a bump in the floor.)
Dylan Young : All right everybody. Let’s just keep placing one foot in front of the other (gives Cristina an ‘I told you so' look). Nice and slow. All right, Meredith? We’re almost there.
Dylan Young : We’re almost there. Nice and easy, right? All right let’s go. Nice and slow.
Cristina : You had to say you’re going to die today.
Meredith : I told you.
Addison : Dr. Bailey, I need you to turn on your back. I need you to push.
Bailey : Leave me alone.
Addison : Miranda... (to the nurse) I can't let her go any longer. I'm gonna go tell Richard that he has to get us an O.R, okay? (Addison moves to leave)
George : Dr. Bailey, I'm surprised at you. I really thought... this is not how I thought you would do this.
Addison : Dr. O'Malley, I don't think that...
George : (ignores Addison and moves to Bailey's bedside) I truly... I expected more.
George : You're Dr. Bailey. (she cries a little) You don't hide from a fight. You don't give up. You strive for greatness. You, Dr. Bailey... you are a doer. And ... I know your husband's not here, and I know there are a lot of things going on here that we have no control over. But this... (lifts her chin up so he can look directly at her) this, we can do. Okay? (Bailey half nods, crying) Okay.
George : Oh, Dr. Bailey, I can see the top of his head, he's got a lotta hair! Oh, he's cute.
George : (looks away) Yes, ma'am.
Adele : (to Richard) That is not the "she" he was asking for.
See Also[
A complete overview of this episode's crew can be found here .
The Grey Matter blog post on this episode can be found here .
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60 | grey's anatomy the episode with the bomb | https://greysanatomy.fandom.com/wiki/Bomb_Threat | Grey's Anatomy Universe Wiki
Hello! Welcome to Grey's Anatomy Universe Wiki! On this website you can read character, actor and episode pages, or if the pages don't exist already or they can be improved, you can edit them! You can also view images and have discussions on blogs! Please create an account and join the community, it is absolutely free!
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Meredith and Cristina coach Hannah, who is holding the bomb in place
Event information
Contents
Timeline[
James Carlson and his best friend, Paul , in the pursuit of recreating World War II, built a bazooka to specifications. Once it was put together, they tried shooting it. It didn't work, so James went to the front of the device to check it out. At that point, the bazooka fired a shell into James's chest.
James was taken to Seattle Grace Hospital via ambulance. On the way, Hannah Davies , unable to stop the bleeding through any other means, put her hand into the hole. Once they arrived at the hospital, James was taken into surgery, where the plan was to widen the incision and have Hannah remove her hand so they could remove the device and work. However, when Alex Karev learned that the shell was potentially explosive, he stopped them and the bomb squad was called in.
Dylan Young arrived and they worked to minimize the risk to the people in the hospital. They shut off the oxygen to the room and prepared to remove the shell and take it out of the OR. Before they could implement this plan, Dr. Milton, the anesthesiologist, told Hannah about Pink Mist and how he had kids before showing her how to ventilate James and leaving. Hannah panicked and removed her hand, forcing Meredith to put her hand in its place. (" It's the End of the World ")
They discovered that the OR they were in was near the hospital's main oxygen line, meaning if there was an explosion there, it would blow up the whole hospital. So they planned to move James, Meredith, and the gurney very slowly down the hall to another OR where they'd have Meredith remove the shell. Once they were in the new OR, Meredith panicked and tried to have everyone leave, believing she'd die in the explosion. Dylan calmed her down and talked her through removing the bomb, which she then handed over to him. He took the bomb and started to walk down the hallway, but the device exploded, killing Dylan, injuring Meredith, and damaging the hallway. (" As We Know It ")
Notes and Trivia[
During the bomb threat, hospital employees were all offered the chance to leave without consequences.
Gallery[
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Also known as: Gadsden Purchase Treaty, Treaty of La Mesilla
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Gadsden Purchase, (December 30, 1853), transaction that followed the conquest of much of northern Mexico by the United States in 1848. Known in Mexican history as the sale of the Mesilla Valley, it assigned to the United States nearly 30,000 additional square miles (78,000 square km) of northern Mexican territory (La Mesilla), now southern Arizona and southern New Mexico , in exchange for $10 million. Prompted in part by advocates of a southern transcontinental railroad, for which the most practical route would pass through the acquired territory, the purchase was negotiated by the U.S. minister to Mexico, James Gadsden . Residents of the territory were to enjoy the same protections as those afforded to residents of the area ceded to the United States earlier by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848).
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Land purchased from Mexico by the United States in 1854
Gadsden Purchase of 1854
Venta de La Mesilla
Expansion of United States
Area
• 1854
Government
• Type
April 25, 1854
• Treaty in effect
30 June 1854
The Gadsden Purchase ( Spanish : Venta de La Mesilla "La Mesilla sale") [2] is a 29,640-square-mile (76,800 km2) region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that the United States acquired from Mexico by the Treaty of Mesilla, which took effect on June 8, 1854. The purchase included lands south of the Gila River and west of the Rio Grande where the United States wanted the construction of what is now known as the Sunset Route , a transcontinental railroad , to be carried out, which the Southern Pacific Railroad later completed in 1881–1883. The purchase also aimed to resolve other border issues.
The first draft was signed on December 30, 1853, by James Gadsden , U.S. Minister to Mexico , and by Antonio López de Santa Anna , president of Mexico . [1] The U.S. Senate voted in favor of ratifying it with amendments on April 25, 1854, and then sent it to President Franklin Pierce . Mexico's government and its General Congress or Congress of the Union took final approval action on June 8, 1854, when the treaty took effect. The purchase was the last substantial territorial acquisition in the contiguous United States , and defined the Mexico–United States border . The Arizona cities of Tucson , Yuma and Tombstone are on territory acquired by the U.S. in the Gadsden Purchase.
The financially-strapped government of Santa Anna agreed to sell the territory for $10 million [3] (equivalent to $270 million in 2023 [4] ). After the devastating loss of Mexican territory to the U.S. in the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and the continued unauthorized military expeditions in the zone led by William Carr Lane , New Mexico territorial governor and noted filibuster , some historians argue that Santa Anna may have calculated it was better to yield territory by treaty and receive payment rather than have the territory simply seized by the United States. [5]
Desire for a southern transcontinental rail line
Shaded relief map of Arizona, Basin and Range region to the south, in shades of green
As the railroad age evolved, business-oriented Southerners saw that a railroad linking the South with the Pacific Coast would expand trade opportunities. They thought the topography of the southern portion of the original Mexican Cession was too mountainous to allow a direct route. Projected southern railroad routes tended to veer to the north as they proceeded eastward, which would favor connections with northern railroads and ultimately favor northern seaports. Southerners saw that to avoid the mountains, a route with a southeastern terminus might need to swing south into what was still Mexican territory.
The administration of President Pierce, strongly influenced by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis , a Southerner from Mississippi, saw an opportunity to acquire land for the railroad, as well as to acquire significant other territory from northern Mexico. [6] In those years, the debate over slavery in the United States entered into many other debates, as the acquisition of new territory opened the question of whether it would be slave or free territory; in this case, the debate over slavery ended progress on construction of a southern transcontinental rail line until the early 1880s, although the preferred land became part of the nation and was used as intended after the Civil War. [7] [8] [9]
Southern route for the transcontinental railroad
Lieutenant James Gadsden , U.S. Army, later American minister to Mexico
In January 1845, Asa Whitney of New York presented the United States Congress with the first plan to construct a transcontinental railroad. Although Congress took no action on his proposal, a commercial convention of 1845 in Memphis took up the issue. Prominent attendees included John C. Calhoun , Clement C. Clay, Sr. , John Bell , William Gwin , and Edmund P. Gaines , but James Gadsden of South Carolina was influential in the convention's recommending a southern route for the proposed railroad. The route was to begin in Texas and end in San Diego or Mazatlán . Southerners hoped that such a route would ensure Southern prosperity, while opening the "West to southern influence and settlement". [10]
Southern interest in railroads in general, and the Pacific railroad in particular, accelerated after the conclusion of the Mexican–American War in 1848. During that war, topographical officers William H. Emory and James W. Abert had conducted surveys that demonstrated the feasibility of a railroad's originating in El Paso or western Arkansas and ending in San Diego. J. D. B. DeBow , the editor of DeBow's Review , and Gadsden both publicized within the South the benefits of building this railroad. [11]
Gadsden had become the president of the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company in 1839; about a decade later, the company had laid 136 miles (219 km) of track extending west from Charleston, South Carolina , and was $3 million (equivalent to $85 million in 2023 [4] ) in debt. Gadsden wanted to connect all Southern railroads into one sectional network. [12] He was concerned that the increasing railroad construction in the North was shifting trade in lumber, farm and manufacturing goods from the traditional north–south route based on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to an east–west axis that would bypass the South. He also saw Charleston, his home town, losing its prominence as a seaport. In addition, many Southern business interests feared that a northern transcontinental route would exclude the South from trade with the Orient . Other Southerners argued for diversification from a plantation economy to keep the South independent of northern bankers. [13]
In October 1849, the southern interests held a convention in Memphis, in response to a convention in St. Louis earlier that fall which discussed a northern route. The Memphis convention overwhelmingly advocated the construction of a route beginning there, to connect with an El Paso, Texas to San Diego, California line. Disagreement arose only over the issue of financing. The convention president, Matthew Fontaine Maury of Virginia , preferred strict private financing, whereas John Bell and others thought that federal land grants to railroad developers would be necessary. [14]
James Gadsden and California
Gadsden supported nullification in 1831. When California was admitted to the Union as a free state in 1850, he advocated secession by South Carolina. Gadsden considered slavery "a social blessing" and abolitionists "the greatest curse of the nation". [12]
When the secession proposal failed, Gadsden worked with his cousin Isaac Edward Holmes , a lawyer in San Francisco since 1851, and California state senator Thomas Jefferson Green , in an attempt to divide California into northern and southern portions and proposed that the southern part allow slavery. Gadsden planned to establish a slave-holding colony there based on rice, cotton, and sugar, and wanted to use slave labor to build a railroad and highway that originated in either San Antonio or the Red River valley. The railway or highway would transport people to the California gold fields. Toward this end, on December 31, 1851, Gadsden asked Green to secure from the California state legislature a large land grant located between the 34th and 36th parallels, along the proposed dividing line for the two California states. [15]
A few months later, Gadsden and 1,200 potential settlers from South Carolina and Florida submitted a petition to the California legislature for permanent citizenship and permission to establish a rural district that would be farmed by "not less than Two Thousand of their African Domestics". The petition stimulated some debate, but it finally died in committee. [16]
Stephen Douglas and land grants
The Compromise of 1850 , which created the Utah Territory and the New Mexico Territory , would facilitate a southern route to the West Coast since all territory for the railroad was now organized and would allow for federal land grants as a financing measure. Competing northern or central routes championed, respectively, by U.S. Senators Stephen Douglas of Illinois and Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri , would still need to go through unorganized territories. [17] Millard Fillmore established a precedent for using federal land grants when he signed a bill promoted by Douglas that allowed a south to north, Mobile to Chicago railroad to be financed by "federal land grants for the specific purpose of railroad construction". [18] To satisfy Southern opposition to the general principle of federally supported internal improvements , the land grants would first be transferred to the appropriate state or territorial government, which would oversee the final transfer to private developers. [19]
By 1850, however, the majority of the South was not interested in exploiting its advantages in developing a transcontinental railroad or railroads in general. Businessmen like Gadsden, who advocated economic diversification, were in the minority. The Southern economy was based on cotton exports, and then-current transportation networks met the plantation system's needs. There was little home market for an intra-South trade. In the short term, the best use for capital was to invest it in more slaves and land rather than in taxing it to support canals, railroads, roads, or in dredging rivers. [20] Historian Jere W. Roberson wrote: [21]
Southerners might have gained a great deal under the 1850 land grant act had they concentrated their efforts. But continued opposition to Federal aid, filibustering, an unenthusiastic President, the spirit of "Young America", and efforts to build railroads and canals across Central America and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico divided their forces, leaving a lot of time for the Pacific railroad. Moreover, the Compromise of 1850 encouraged Southerners not to antagonize opponents by resurrecting the railroad controversy.
Jere W. Roberson, "The South and the Pacific Railroad, 1845–1855"
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ended the Mexican–American War, but left issues affecting both sides that still needed to be resolved: possession of the Mesilla Valley , protection for Mexico from Indian raids, and the right of transit in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec .
Mesilla Valley
The treaty provided for a joint commission, made up of a surveyor and commissioner from each country, to determine the final boundary between the United States and Mexico. The treaty specified that the boundary, after following the Rio Grande River from the sea, would turn west from the river eight miles (13 km) north of El Paso. The treaty was based on an 1847 copy (the Disturnell Map) of a twenty-five-year-old map which was incorporated into the treaty. However, surveys revealed that El Paso was 36 miles (58 km) further south and 100 miles (160 km) further west than the map showed. Mexico favored the map, but the United States put faith in the results of the survey. The disputed territory involved a few thousand square miles and about 3,000 residents; more significantly, it included the Mesilla Valley. Bordering the Rio Grande River, the valley consisted of flat desert land measuring about 50 miles (80 km), north to south, by 200 miles (320 km), east to west. This valley was thought to be essential for construction of a transcontinental railroad using a southern route. [22]
John Bartlett of Rhode Island , the United States negotiator, agreed to allow Mexico to retain the Mesilla Valley by setting the point at which the boundary commenced toward the west from the Rio Grande River at 32° 22′ N. This point was north of the American claim of 31° 52′ N and, at the easternmost part, also north of the Mexican-claimed boundary at 32° 15′ N, both also on the Rio Grande River [23] ). Bartlett's agreement to 32° 22′ N was in exchange for a boundary westward from the river that did not turn north until 110° W in order to include the Santa Rita del Corbe Mountains (sometimes referred to simply as the Corbe Mountains) located in current New Mexico east of current-day Silver City. This area was believed to have rich copper deposits, and some silver and gold which had not yet been mined. Southerners opposed retention of the Mesilla Valley by Mexico because of its implication for the railroad, but President Fillmore supported it. Southerners in Congress prevented any action on the approval of this separate border treaty and eliminated further funding to survey the disputed borderland. Robert B. Campbell , a pro-railroad politician from Alabama , later replaced Bartlett. Mexico asserted that the commissioners' determinations were valid and prepared to send in troops to enforce the unratified agreement. [24]
Native American raids
Article XI of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo contained a guarantee that the United States would protect Mexicans by preventing cross-border raids by local Comanche and Apache tribes. At the time the treaty was ratified, Secretary of State James Buchanan had believed that the United States had both the commitment and resources to enforce this promise. [3] Historian Richard Kluger , however, described the difficulties of the task:
Comanche, Apache, and other tribal warriors had been punishing Spanish, Mexican, and American intruders into their stark homeland for three centuries and been given no incentive to let up their murderous marauding and pillaging, horse stealing in particular. The U. S. Army had posted nearly 8,000 of its total of 11,000 soldiers along the southwestern boundary, but they could not halt the 75,000 or so native nomads in the region from attacking swiftly and taking refuge among the hills, buttes , and arroyos in a landscape where one's enemies could be spotted twenty or thirty miles away. [3]
In the five years after approval of the Treaty, the United States spent $12 million (equivalent to $330 million in 2023 [4] ) in this area, and General-in-Chief Winfield Scott estimated that five times that amount would be necessary to police the border. Mexican officials, frustrated with the failure of the United States to effectively enforce its guarantee, demanded reparations for the losses inflicted on Mexican citizens by the raids. The United States argued that the Treaty did not require any compensation nor did it require any greater effort to protect Mexicans than was expended in protecting its own citizens. During the Fillmore administration, Mexico claimed damages of $40 million (equivalent to $1.1 billion in 2023 [4] ) but offered to allow the U.S. to buy-out Article XI for $25 million ($670 million [4] ) while President Fillmore proposed a settlement that was $10 million less ($270 million [4] ). [3]
Isthmus of Tehuantepec
Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico
The Memphis commercial convention of 1849 recommended that the United States pursue the trans-isthmus route, since it appeared unlikely that a transcontinental railroad would be built anytime soon. Interests in Louisiana were especially adamant about this option, as they believed that any transcontinental railroad would divert commercial traffic away from the Mississippi and New Orleans, and they at least wanted to secure a southern route. Also showing interest was Peter A. Hargous of New York who ran an import-export business between New York and Vera Cruz . Hargous purchased the rights to the route for $25,000 (equivalent to $700,000 in 2023 [4] ), but realized that the grant had little value unless it was supported by the Mexican and American governments. [25]
In Mexico, topographical officer George W. Hughes reported to Secretary of State John M. Clayton that a railroad across the isthmus was a "feasible and practical" idea. Clayton then instructed Robert P. Letcher , the minister to Mexico, to negotiate a treaty to protect Hargous' rights. The United States' proposal gave Mexicans a 20% discount on shipping, guaranteed Mexican rights in the zone, allowed the United States to send in military if necessary, and gave the United States most-favored-nation status for Mexican cargo fees. [26] This treaty, however, was never finalized.
The Clayton–Bulwer Treaty between the United States and the United Kingdom, which guaranteed the neutrality of any such canal, was finalized in April 1850. Mexican negotiators refused the treaty because it would eliminate Mexico's ability to play the US and Britain against each other. They eliminated the right of the United States to unilaterally intervene militarily. The United States Senate approved the treaty in early 1851, but the Mexican Congress refused to accept the treaty. [27]
In the meantime, Hargous proceeded as if the treaty would be approved eventually. Judah P. Benjamin and a committee of New Orleans businessmen joined with Hargous and secured a charter from the Louisiana legislature to create the Tehuantepec Railroad Company. The new company sold stock and sent survey teams to Mexico. [28] Hargous started to acquire land even after the Mexican legislature rejected the treaty, a move that led to the Mexicans canceling Hargous' contract to use the right of way. Hargous put his losses at $5 million (equivalent to $142 million in 2023 [4] ) and asked the United States government to intervene. President Fillmore refused to do so. [27]
Mexico sold the canal franchise, without the land grants, to A. G. Sloo and Associates in New York for $600,000 (equivalent to $17 million in 2023 [4] ). In March 1853 Sloo contracted with a British company to build a railroad and sought an exclusive contract from the new Franklin Pierce Administration to deliver mail from New York to San Francisco. However, Sloo soon defaulted on bank loans and the contract was sold back to Hargous. [29]
Final negotiations and ratification of the treaty of purchase
The Pierce administration, which took office in March 1853, had a strong pro-southern, pro-expansion mindset. It sent Louisiana Senator Pierre Soulé to Spain to negotiate the acquisition of Cuba. Pierce appointed expansionists John Y. Mason of Virginia and Solon Borland of Arkansas as ministers, respectively, to France and Nicaragua . [30] Pierce's Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, was already on record as favoring a southern route for a transcontinental railroad, so southern rail enthusiasts had every reason to be encouraged. [31]
The South as a whole, however, remained divided. In January 1853, Senator Thomas Jefferson Rusk of Texas introduced a bill to create two railroads, one with a northern route, and one with a southern route starting below Memphis on the Mississippi River. [32] Under the Rusk legislation, the President would be authorized to select the specific termini and routes as well as the contractors who would build the railroads. Some southerners, however, worried that northern and central interests would leap ahead in construction and opposed any direct aid to private developers on constitutional grounds. Other southerners preferred the isthmian proposals. An amendment was added to the Rusk bill to prohibit direct aid, but southerners still split their vote in Congress and the amendment failed. [33]
This rejection led to legislative demands, sponsored by William Gwin of California and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio and supported by the railroad interests, for new surveys for possible routes. Gwin expected that a southern route would be approved—both Davis and Robert J. Walker , former Secretary of the Treasury, supported it. Both were stockholders in a Vicksburg -based railroad that planned to build a link to Texas to join up with the southern route. Davis argued that the southern route would have an important military application in the likely event of future troubles with Mexico. [34]
Gadsden and Santa Anna
The Gadsden Purchase historical marker near Interstate 10
A treaty initiated in the Fillmore administration that would provide joint Mexican and United States protection for the Sloo grant was signed in Mexico on March 21, 1853. At the same time that this treaty was received in Washington, Pierce learned that New Mexico Territorial Governor William C. Lane had issued a proclamation claiming the Mesilla Valley as part of New Mexico, leading to protests from Mexico. Pierce was also aware of efforts by France, through its consul in San Francisco, to acquire the Mexican state of Sonora . [35]
Pierce recalled Lane in May and replaced him with David Meriwether of Kentucky. Meriwether was given orders to stay out of the Mesilla Valley until negotiations with Mexico could be completed. With the encouragement of Davis, Pierce also appointed James Gadsden as minister to Mexico, with specific instructions to negotiate with Mexico over the acquisition of additional territory. Secretary of State William L. Marcy gave Gadsden clear instructions: he was to secure the Mesilla Valley for the purposes of building a railroad through it, convince Mexico that the US had done its best regarding the Indian raids, and elicit Mexican cooperation in efforts by US citizens to build a canal or railroad across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Supporting the Sloo interests was not part of the instructions. [36] Gadsden met with Santa Anna in Mexico City on September 25, 1853, to discuss the terms of the treaty. [1]
The Mexican government was going through political and financial turmoil. In the process, Santa Anna had been returned to power about the same time that Pierce was inaugurated. Santa Anna was willing to deal with the United States because he needed money to rebuild the Mexican Army for defense against the United States. He initially rejected the extension of the border further south to the Sierra Madre Mountains . He initially insisted on reparations for the damages caused by American Indian raids, but agreed to let an international tribunal resolve this. Gadsden realized that Santa Anna needed money and passed this information along to Secretary Marcy. [37]
Marcy and Pierce responded with new instructions. Gadsden was authorized to purchase any of six parcels of land with a price fixed for each. The price would include the settlement of all Indian damages and relieve the United States from any further obligation to protect Mexicans. $50 million (equivalent to $1.4 billion in 2023 [4] ) would have bought the Baja California Peninsula and a large portion of the northwestern Mexican states while $15 million ($430 million [4] ) was to buy the 38,000 square miles (98,000 km2) of desert necessary for the railroad plans. [37]
"Gadsden's antagonistic manner" alienated Santa Anna. Gadsden had advised Santa Anna that "the spirit of the age" would soon lead the northern Mexican states to secede so he might as well sell them now. Mexico balked at any large-scale sale of territory. [38] The Mexican President felt threatened by William Walker 's attempt to capture Baja California with 50 troops and annex Sonora. Gadsden disavowed any government backing of Walker, who retreated to the U.S. and was placed on trial as a criminal. [39] Santa Anna worried that the US would allow further aggression against Mexican territory. Santa Anna needed to get as much money for as little territory as possible. [2] When the United Kingdom rejected Mexican requests to assist in the negotiations, Santa Anna opted for the $15 million package. [40]
Santa Anna and Gadsden signed the treaty on December 30, 1853, and the treaty was presented to the U.S. Senate for confirmation. [1] [41]
Territorial enlargement of the United States, the Gadsden Purchase shown in red-orange
Pierce and his cabinet began debating the treaty in January 1854. Although disappointed in the amount of territory secured and some of the terms, Pierce signed it, and submitted it to the Senate on February 10. [42] Gadsden, however, suggested that northern Senators would block the treaty to deny the South a railroad. [43]
The treaty needed a two-thirds vote in favor of ratification in the US Senate, where it met strong opposition. Anti-slavery senators opposed further acquisition of slave territory. Lobbying by speculators gave the treaty a bad reputation. Some Senators objected to furnishing Santa Anna financial assistance.
The treaty reached the Senate as that body focused on the debate over the Kansas–Nebraska Act . On April 17, after much debate, the Senate voted 27 to 18 in favor of the treaty, falling three votes short of the necessary two-thirds majority. After this defeat, Secretary Davis and southern Senators pressed Pierce to add more provisions to the treaty including:
protection for the Sloo grant;
a requirement that Mexico "protect with its whole power the prosecution, preservation, and security of the work [referring to the isthmian canal]";
permission for the United States to intervene unilaterally "when it may feel sanctioned and warranted by the public or international law"; and
a reduction of the territory to be acquired by more than 10,000 square miles (26,000 km2) to the final size of 29,640-square-mile (76,800 km2), [44] and dropping the price to $10 million (equivalent to $270 million in 2023 [4] ) from $15 million ($400 million [4] ).
The land area included in the treaty is shown in the map at the head of the article, and in the national map in this section. [a]
This version of the treaty successfully passed the US Senate April 25, 1854, by a vote of 33 to 12. The reduction in territory was an accommodation of northern senators who opposed the acquisition of additional slave territory. In the final vote, northerners split 12 to 12. Gadsden took the revised treaty back to Santa Anna, who accepted the changes. [46] [47] The treaty went into effect June 30, 1854. [48]
While the land was available for construction of a southern railroad, the issue had become too strongly associated with the sectional debate over slavery to receive federal funding. Roberson wrote: [7]
The unfortunate debates in 1854 left an indelible mark on the course of national politics and the Pacific railroad for the remainder of the antebellum period. It was becoming increasingly difficult, if not outright impossible, to consider any proposal that could not somehow be construed as relating to slavery and, therefore, sectional issues. Although few people fully realized it at the close of 1854, sectionalism had taken such a firm, unrelenting hold on the nation that completion of an antebellum Pacific railroad was prohibited. Money, interest, and enthusiasm were devoted to emotion-filled topics, not the Pacific railroad.
Jere W. Roberson, "The South and the Pacific Railroad, 1845–1855"
The effect was such that railroad development, which accelerated in the North, stagnated in the South. [8]
Post-ratification controversy
As originally envisioned, the purchase would have encompassed a much larger region, extending far enough south to include most of the current Mexican states of Baja California , Baja California Sur , Coahuila , Chihuahua , Sonora , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas . The Mexican people opposed such boundaries, as did anti-slavery Americans , who saw the purchase as acquisition of more slave territory. Even the sale of a relatively small strip of land angered the Mexican people, who saw Santa Anna's actions as a betrayal of their country. They watched in dismay as he squandered the funds generated by the Purchase. Contemporary Mexican historians continue to view the deal negatively and believe that it has defined the American–Mexican relationship in a deleterious way. [2]
The purchased lands were initially appended to the existing New Mexico Territory. To help control the new land, the US Army established Fort Buchanan on Sonoita Creek in present-day southern Arizona on November 17, 1856. The difficulty of governing the new areas from the territorial capital at Santa Fe led to efforts as early as 1856 to organize a new territory out of the southern portion. Many of the early settlers in the region were, however, pro-slavery and sympathetic to the South , resulting in an impasse in Congress as to how best to reorganize the territory.
The shifting of the course of the Rio Grande would cause a later dispute over the boundary between Purchase lands and those of the state of Texas, known as the Country Club Dispute . Pursuant to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the Gadsden Treaty and subsequent treaties, the International Boundary and Water Commission was established in 1889 to maintain the border. Pursuant to still later treaties, the IBWC expanded its duties to allocation of river waters between the two nations, and provided for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, by-passed by modern social, environmental, and political issues. [49]
Growth of the region after 1854
Civil War
Social development
Economic development
From the late 1840s into the 1870s, Texas stockmen drove their beef cattle through southern Arizona on the Texas–California trail. Texans were impressed with the grazing possibilities offered by the Gadsden Purchase country of Arizona. In the last third of the century, they moved their herds into Arizona and established the range cattle industry there. The Texans contributed their proven range methods to the new grass country of Arizona, but also brought their problems as well. Texas rustlers brought lawlessness, poor management resulted in overstocking, and carelessness introduced destructive diseases. But these difficulties did force laws and associations in Arizona to curb and resolve them. The Anglo-American cattleman frontier in Arizona was an extension of the Texas experience. [54]
When the Arizona Territory was formed in 1863 from the southern portion of the New Mexico Territory, Pima County and later Cochise County —created from the easternmost portion of Pima County in January 1881—were subject to ongoing border-related conflicts. The area was characterized by rapidly growing boom towns, ongoing Apache raids, smuggling and cattle rustling across the United States-Mexico border, growing ranching operations, and the expansion of new technologies in mining, railroading, and telecommunications.
In the 1860s conflict between the Apaches and the Americans was at its height. Until 1886, almost constant warfare existed in the region adjacent to the Mexican border. The illegal cattle operations kept beef prices in the border region lower and provided cheap stock that helped small ranchers get by. Many early Tombstone, Arizona residents looked the other way when it was "only Mexicans" being robbed. [55]
Outlaws derisively called " The Cowboys " frequently robbed stagecoaches and brazenly stole cattle in broad daylight, scaring off the legitimate cowboys watching the herds. [56] Bandits used the border between the United States and Mexico to raid across in one direction and take sanctuary in the other. In December 1878, and again the next year, Mexican authorities complained about the "Cowboy" outlaws who stole Mexican beef and resold it in Arizona. The Arizona Citizen reported that both U.S. and Mexican bandits were stealing horses from the Santa Cruz Valley and selling them in Sonora. Arizona Territorial Governor Frémont investigated the Mexican government's allegations and accused them in turn of allowing outlaws to use Sonora as a base of operations for raiding into Arizona. [57]
In the 1870s and 1880s there was considerable tension in the region—between the rural residents, who were for the most part Democrats from the agricultural South, and town residents and business owners, who were largely Republicans from the industrial Northeast and Midwest. The tension culminated in what has been called the Cochise County feud , and the Earp-Clanton feud, which ended with the historic Gunfight at the O.K. Corral and Wyatt Earp 's Vendetta Ride .
The Gadsden purchase resulted in the division of the Tohono Oʼodham Nation and its ancestral lands by the new international border. This disrupted traditional migratory practices and transportation of materials and goods essential for their spirituality, economy and traditional culture. Nine communities are on the Mexican side of this boundary. Conflicts have arisen mainly in the 21st century with stronger enforcement of customs laws at the border. [58]
Railroad development
Gadsden Purchase
In 1846, James Gadsden, then president of the South Carolina Railroad , proposed building a transcontinental railroad linking the Atlantic at Charleston with the Pacific at San Diego. [59] Federal and private surveys by Lt. John G. Parke and Andrew B Gray proved the feasibility of the southern transcontinental route, but sectional strife and the Civil War delayed construction of the proposed railroad. The Southern Pacific Railroad from Los Angeles reached Yuma, Arizona, in 1877, Tucson, Arizona in March 1880, Deming, New Mexico in December 1880, and El Paso in May 1881, the first railroad across the Gadsden Purchase. [60]
At the same time, 1879–1881, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad was building across New Mexico and met the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico March 7, 1881, completing the second transcontinental railroad (the first, the central transcontinental, was completed May 10, 1869 at Promontory Summit, Utah ). Acquiring trackage rights over the SP, from Deming to Benson, the Santa Fe then built a line southwest to Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico, completed October 1882, as its first outlet to the Pacific. This line was later sold to the Southern Pacific. The Southern Pacific continued building east from El Paso, completing a junction with the Texas & Pacific in December 1881, and finally in 1883, its own southern transcontinental, the Sunset Route, California to New Orleans, Atlantic waters to the Pacific. [61] These railroads caused an early 1880s mining boom in such locales as Tombstone, Arizona , Bisbee, Arizona , and Santa Rita, New Mexico , the latter two world class copper producers. From Bisbee, a third sub-transcontinental was built across the Gadsden Purchase, the El Paso and Southwestern Railroad , to El Paso by 1905, then to a link with the Rock Island line to form the Golden State Route. The EP&SW was sold to the Southern Pacific in the early 1920s. [62]
The portion of the Southern Pacific in Arizona was originally largely in the Gadsden Purchase but the western part was later rerouted north of the Gila River to serve the city of Phoenix (as part of the agreement in purchasing the EP&SW). The portion in New Mexico runs largely through the territory that had been disputed between Mexico and the United States after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had gone into effect, and before the time of the Gadsden Purchase. The Santa Fe Railroad Company also completed a railroad across Northern Arizona , via Holbrook , Winslow , Flagstaff and Kingman in August 1883. [63] These two transcontinental railroads, the Southern Pacific (now part of the Union Pacific Railroad ) and the Santa Fe (now part of the BNSF ), are among the busiest rail lines in the United States.
During the early twentieth century, a number of short-lines usually associated with mining booms were built in the Gadsden Purchase to Ajo, Silverbell, Twin Buttes, Courtland, Gleeson, Arizona, Shakespeare, New Mexico, and other mine sites. Most of these railroads have been abandoned. [64]
The remainder of the Gila Valley pre-Purchase border area was traversed by the Arizona Eastern Railway by 1899 and the Copper Basin Railway by 1904. Excluded was a 20-mile (32 km) section
33°06′N 110°36′W / 33.1°N 110.6°W / 33.1; -110.6 in the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation , from today's San Carlos Lake to Winkelman at the mouth of the San Pedro River , including the Needle's Eye Wilderness . The section of US Highway 60 about 20 miles (32 km) between Superior and Miami via Top-of-the-World (this road segment is east of Phoenix, in the Tonto National Forest passing through a mountainous region), takes an alternate route (17.4 road miles) between the Magma Arizona Railroad and the Arizona Eastern Railway railheads on each side of this gap. This highway is well north of the Gadsden Purchase. [65] [66] Given the elevations of those three places, at least a 3% grade would have been required for rails built here, rather than the final alignment; railroads prefer 1% or less grade for better operation. [67] This rugged terrain above the Gila River confirms the engineering, technical wisdom of acquiring the Gadsden Purchase for a southern transcontinental railroad. To William H. Emory of the U. S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers who surveyed the region in the 1840s–1850s, it was a good route "to the Pacific." [68]
The boundaries of most counties in Arizona do not follow the northern boundary of the Gadsden Purchase, but six counties in Arizona do have most of their populations within the land of the Gadsden Purchase. Four of these also contain areas north of the Gadsden Purchase, but these areas have low population densities, with the exception of northeastern Pinal County including the towns of Apache Junction and Florence . Maricopa County also extends south into the area of the Gadsden Purchase, but this area is also thinly populated. Tucson is the largest city in the Gadsden Purchase.
County
Seat
Nogales
47,420
1,238
3,210
Yuma
Yuma
195,751
5,519
14,290
Total
1,767,770
32,180
83,350
The northernmost point of the Gadsden Purchase, and also along the national border during the period of 1848–53, is at approximately
Sunland Park (population 14,267 in 2010), a suburb of El Paso, Texas, in Doña Ana County, New Mexico , is the largest community of New Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase.
Lordsburg, New Mexico (population 2,797 in 2010), the county seat of Hidalgo County , was in the disputed area before the Gadsden Purchase, and Deming, New Mexico, the county seat of Luna County , was north of both the Mexican and American land claims before the Gadsden Purchase, though the proposed Bartlett–Conde compromise of 1851 would have left Deming in Mexico, or stated in positive terms, the negotiations for the Gadsden Purchase resolved the border disputes with Mexico, as well as transferred this land to the U.S. [70]
Cost effectiveness
Geologist Harold L. James stated in 1969 about the Gadsden Purchase: "Although the boundary controversy did not teach any lessons or impart any wisdom, it did lead to the purchase of an extremely valuable strip of territory that has more than paid for itself in subsequent mineral and agricultural resources. Despite the comedy of errors, chaos, and misunderstanding, the Southwest must therefore be grateful." [70]
However, economist David R. Barker estimated in 2009 that the purchase was likely not profitable for the United States federal government. Stating that "Current historical accounts take it for granted that the purchase has been a boon to the United States", he calculated that the region produces little tax revenue; most mines are on Indian reservations which receive all royalties. The federal government spent a great deal of money during the 19th century to defend the territory from Apaches that would not have been necessary without the purchase. [71]
In popular culture
The United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp commemorating 100 years since the Gadsden Purchase, on December 30, 1953. [72]
A supporting character in the 2021 novel Billy Summers by Stephen King is named "Gadsden Drake" after the Gadsden Purchase. [74]
See also
^ The Purchase treaty defines the new border as "up the middle of that river to the point where the parallel of 31° 47' north latitude crosses the same
31°47′0″N 106°31′41.5″W / 31.78333°N 106.528194°W / 31.78333; -106.528194 ; thence due west one hundred miles; thence south to the parallel of 31° 20' north latitude; thence along the said parallel of 31° 20' to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich
31°20′N 111°0′W / 31.333°N 111.000°W / 31.333; -111.000 ; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado River twenty English miles below the junction of the Gila and Colorado rivers; thence up the middle of the said Colorado river until it intersects the present line between the United States and Mexico". The new border included a few miles of the Colorado River at the western end; the remaining land portion consisted of line segments between points, including
United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
Deeds, Susan M. (1996). "Gadsden Purchase". Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. Vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 1–2.
Mauck, Jeffrey Gordon (1991). The Gadsden Treaty: The Diplomacy of Transcontinental Transportation (PhD dissertation). Indiana University.
DAI 1992 52(9): 3405-A. DA9205951.
^ Roberson (1974) , pp. 170–171.
Garber, Paul Neff (1923). The Gadsden Treaty (Thesis). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
McCarthy, Robert J. (May 12, 2011). "Adaptive Treaty Interpretation, and the International Boundary and Water Commission". Water Law Review. SSRN 1839903 .
Goldstein, Marcy Gail (1977). Americanization and Mexicanization: The Mexican Elite and Anglo-Americans in the Gadsden Purchase Lands, 1853–1880 (PhD dissertation). Case Western Reserve University.
DAI 1977 38(3): 1572-1573-A.
Sacks, Ben (1965). "The Origins of Fort Buchanan: Myth and Fact". Arizona and the West. Vol. 7, no. 3. pp. 207–226. ISSN 0004-1408 .
Sheridan, Thomas E. (1984). "Peacock in the Parlor: Frontier Tucson's Mexican Elite". Journal of Arizona History. Vol. 25, no. 3. pp. 245–264. ISSN 0021-9053 .
North, Diane (1984). "'A Real Class of People' in Arizona: a Biographical Analysis of the Sonora Exploring and Mining Company, 1856–1863". Arizona and the West. Vol. 26, no. 3. pp. 261–274. ISSN 0004-1408 .
Wilson, James A. (1967). "West Texas Influence on the Early Cattle Industry of Arizona". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. Vol. 71, no. 1. pp. 26–36. ISSN 0038-478X .
"Tombstones O.K. Corral 2" . The Old West History Net. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011. Retrieved May 5, 2011.
Ball, Larry D. (Autumn 1973). "Pioneer Lawman: Crawley P. Dake and Law Enforcement on the Southwestern Frontier". The Journal of Arizona History. Vol. 14, no. 3. Arizona Historical Society. pp. 243–256. JSTOR 41695121 .
"Tohono O'odham Nation - History and Culture" . 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
Schwantes, Carlos (2008). The West the Railroads Made. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 16. ISBN
Devine, David (2004). Slavery, Scandal, and Steel Rails: The 1854 Gadsden Purchase and the Building of the Second Transcontinental Railroad Across Arizona and New Mexico Twenty-Five Years Later. New York: iUniverse.
Pearsall, Marc (2002). Railroads of Arizona (PDF) (Map). Scale not given. Chandler: Arizona Railway Museum. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
DeskMap Systems (2005). Arizona Eastern Railway (PDF) (Map). Scale not given. Austin, TX: DeskMapSystems. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 3, 2006. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
Borneman, Walter (2010). Rival Rails, the Race to Build America's Greatest Transcontinental Railroad. New York: Random House. p. 8. ISBN
.
.
Nevins, Allan (1947). Ordeal of the Union: A House Dividing 1852–1857. OCLC 69655131 .
Nichols, Roy Franklin (1969). Franklin Pierce: Young Hickory of the Granite Hills (2nd ed.). OCLC 33126738 .
.
Roberson, Jere W. (April 1974). "The South and the Pacific Railroad, 1845–1855". The Western Historical Quarterly . Vol. 5, no. 2. pp. 163–186. JSTOR 967035 .
Further reading
stresses railroad speculation and corruption themes
Truett, Samuel (2004). "The Ghosts of Frontiers Past: Making and Unmaking Space in the Borderlands". Journal of the Southwest. 46 (2): 309–350. JSTOR 40170292 .
Map of proposed Arizona Territory. From explorations by A. B. Gray & others, to accompany memoir by Lieut. Mowry U.S. Army, Delegate elect. with some proposed railroad routes Medium-sized JPG Zoom navigator
National Park Service Map including route of the Southern Pacific railroad finally built in the 1880s.
3-cent commemorative stamp showing small version of northeast boundary of Purchase – i.e. claiming more territory for US pre-Purchase.
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61 | which city was acquired by the usa through the gadsden purchase | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/southern-u-s-border-established | This Day In History: December 30
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1853
Gadsden Purchase helps establish southern U.S. border
James Gadsden, the U.S. minister to Mexico , and General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, sign the Gadsden Purchase in Mexico City. The treaty settled the dispute over the location of the Mexican border west of El Paso, Texas , and established the final boundaries of the southern United States. For the price of $15 million, later reduced to $10 million, the United States acquired approximately 30,000 square miles of land in what is now southern New Mexico and Arizona .
How Slavery Led to Texas's Independence
Jefferson Davis , the U.S. secretary of war under President Franklin Pierce , had sent Gadsden to negotiate with Santa Anna for the land, which was deemed by a group of political and industrial leaders to be a highly strategic location for the construction of the southern transcontinental railroad. In 1861, the “big four” leaders of western railroad construction—Collis P. Huntington, Leland Stanford, Mark Hopkins and Charles Crocker—established the Southern Pacific branch of the Central Pacific Railroad.
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61 | which city was acquired by the usa through the gadsden purchase | https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/gadsden-purchase | Milestones: 1830–1860
NOTE TO READERS
“Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations” has been
retired and is no longer maintained. For more information, please
see the full notice .
Gadsden Purchase, 1853–1854
The Gadsden Purchase, or Treaty, was an agreement between the United
States and Mexico, finalized in 1854, in
which the United States agreed to pay Mexico $10 million for a 29,670 square
mile portion of Mexico that later became part of Arizona and New Mexico. Gadsden’s Purchase provided the land
necessary for a southern transcontinental railroad and attempted to resolve
conflicts that lingered after the Mexican-American
War .
Map Depicting the Gadsden Purchase
While the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo formally ended the Mexican-American War in February 1848, tensions between the Governments
of Mexico and the United States continued to simmer over the next six years. The
two countries each claimed the Mesilla Valley as part of their own country. The
Mexican Government demanded monetary compensation for Native American attacks in
the region because, under the Treaty, the United States had agreed to protect
Mexico from such attacks; however, the United States refused to comply,
insisting that while they had agreed to protect Mexico from Native American
attacks, they had not agreed to financially compensate for attacks that did
occur. The persistent efforts of private American citizens to enter Mexico
illegally and incite rebellions in an effort to gain territory exacerbated
tensions between the governments.
These continuing tensions between Mexico and the United States complicated U.S.
efforts to find a southern route for a transcontinental railroad as the only
viable routes passed through Mexican territory. In 1847, the United States
attempted to buy the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, an isthmus on the southern edge of
North America, as an alternative means of providing a southern connection
between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Mexico, however, had already granted
Mexican Don José de Garay the right to build colonies for
Americans on the isthmus with capital from the New Orleans Company. Fearing the
colonists would rebel as those in Texas had, Mexican President Juan Ceballos
revoked the grant, angering U.S. investors.
In 1853, Mexican officials evicted Americans from their property in the disputed
Mesilla Valley. When the U.S. Government did not act, Governor William Lane of
New Mexico declared the Mesilla Valley part of the U.S. territory of New Mexico.
Mexican President Antonio de Santa Anna responded by
sending troops into the valley. Attempting to defuse the situation, U.S.
President Franklin Pierce sent James Gadsden , the
new U.S. Minister to Mexico, to negotiate with Santa Anna. Secretary of State William
Marcy instructed Gadsden to renegotiate a border that provided a route
for a southern railroad, arrange for a release of U.S. financial obligations for
Native American attacks, and settle the monetary claims between the countries
related to the Garay project.
Mexican President Antonio de Santa Anna
Gadsden met with Santa Anna on September 25, 1853. President Pierce sent verbal instructions for Gadsden through
Christopher Ward, an agent for U.S. investors in the Garay project, giving
Gadsden negotiating options ranging from $50 million for lower California and a
large portion of northern Mexico to $15 million for a smaller land deal that
would still provide for a southern railroad. Ward also lied to Gadsden, stating
the President wanted the claims of the Garay party addressed in any treaty
concluded with the Mexican Government; however, President Pierce never gave Ward
these instructions because he did not believe in government involvement in
affairs between private companies and foreign governments. Santa Anna refused to
sell a large portion of Mexico, but he needed money to fund an army to put down
ongoing rebellions, so on December 30, 1853 he and Gadsden signed a treaty
stipulating that the United States would pay $15 million for 45,000 square miles
south of the New Mexico territory and assume private American claims, including
those related to the Garay deal. The United States Government agreed to work
toward preventing American raids along Mexico’s border and Mexico voided U.S. responsibility for Native American
attacks.
With a great deal of difficulty resulting from the increasing strife between the
northern and southern states, the U.S. Senate ratified a revised treaty on April
25, 1854. The new treaty reduced the amount paid to Mexico to $10 million and
the land purchased to 29,670 square miles, and removed any mention of Native
American attacks and private claims. President Pierce signed the treaty and
Gadsden presented the new treaty to Santa Anna, who signed it on June 8,
1854.
After Gadsden’s Purchase a new border dispute caused tension over the United
States’ payment, and the treaty failed to resolve the issues surrounding
financial claims and border attacks. However, it did create the southern border
of the present-day United States, despite the beliefs of the vast majority of
policymakers at the time who thought the United States would eventually expand
further into Mexico.
Table of Contents
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61 | which city was acquired by the usa through the gadsden purchase | https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/united-states-and-canada/us-history/gadsden-purchase | GADSDEN PURCHASE
The Gadsden Purchase of 1853 was the last territory acquired by the United States within the boundaries of the lower 48 states. In 1853, President Franklin Pierce (1853–1857) instructed James Gadsden , his minister to Mexico, to buy as much of the northern Mexico territory as possible, with the idea of using it as a southern route for a transcontinental railroad . Gadsden, a former railroad administrator from South Carolina who had long supported a southern railroad linking the Gulf Coast with California , was given instructions to offer Mexican leader Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (1794–1876) up to $50 million for some 250,000 square miles—including the Gila River basin in modern Arizona , parts of Baja California , and the bits of northern Mexico that had not been annexed in the Mexican War (1846–1848).
The purchase was part of Pierce's plan to unite a divided country by expanding American interests aggressively into foreign territories, a plan known as "Young America." The Gadsden Purchase was opposed by Northern antislavery senators, who suspected Pierce's long-range plan was to obtain land for the expansion of slavery—an explosive political issue in the early 1850s. It was also opposed by some southern senators who wanted even more land. Unable to stop the deal, these senators managed to limit Pierce's purchase to 55,000 square miles for $15 million.
The Gadsden Purchase added to U.S. territory, but it also emphasized the gulf that separated North and South. Some northern senators who opposed the Purchase were under pressure to do so from northern railroad interests. By December 1853, a rail route that ran through the Gadsden Purchase had already been completed, and the northern interests were campaigning hard for territory north of the Missouri Compromise line to be organized. This led to the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which broke the Compromise and allowed expansion of slavery into areas from which it had legally been excluded 34 years earlier. The northern railroad was finally established in the Pacific Railway Act (1862), which set aside public land for the building of the first transcontinental railroad , completed in 1869.
See also: Transcontinental Railroad
FURTHER READING
Cochran, Thomas Childs. Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialism in America. New York : Oxford University Press, 1981.
Garber, Paul Neff. The Gadsden Treaty. Philadelphia: Press of the University of Pennsylvania , 1923.
Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union. New York : Collier Books, 1992.
Potter, David Morris. The Impending Crisis 1848– 1861. New York : Harper & Row, 1976.
Taylor, George Rogers. The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860. New York: Rinehart, 1951.
Civil War Era, 1988">
the only expansionist achievement of the pierce administration was the gadsden purchase. and even that came to less than southerners had hoped.
james m. mcpherson, battle cry of freedom: the civil war era, 1988
Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History
| 526 |
62 | how long is ex on the beach on for | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_on_the_Beach_(American_TV_series) | Ex on the Beach (American TV series)
1 language
American reality television series
Ex on the Beach
Original release
April 19, 2018 (2018-04-19) –April 27, 2023 (2023-04-27)
Ex on the Beach is an American reality television series, based on the British series of the same name . [1] The series was announced on March 15, 2018 and premiered on MTV on Thursday, April 19. [2] [3]
The first four seasons of the series were hosted by rapper Romeo Miller . [4] [5]
On March 10, 2022, the series was renewed for a fifth and a sixth season, with the fifth season premiering later that month, on March 31, 2022. [6]
In April 2022, MTV released a casting call for the sixth season, and also announced a new format for the show, featuring couples instead of singles. [7] The season, titled Ex on the Beach Couples: Now or Never (hosted by Kamie Crawford ) premiered on February 9, 2023. [8]
Series overview
Help! I'm in a Secret Relationship! (since 2022)
The Love Experiment (since 2023)
2010sdebuts
Ex on the Beach (American TV series)
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What time will Ex on the Beach Season 5 finale air? Decision day, release date, and more about MTV’s show
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Ex on the Beach Season 5 finale airs Thursday (Image via derynn_paige/Instagram)
Ex on the Beach Season 5 is coming to an end. The finale episode will air at 8 pm ET/PT on MTV on June 16, 2022. The finale is a decision day for lovers to decide whether to leave the island alone, with their ex, or with their new partner.
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The show aired its Season 5 after a two-year-long hiatus due to the Covid-19 pandemic on March 31. The new season has seen a lot of spicy moments between the couples, shocking truths, and new bonds.
After 11 episodes, Ex on the Beach Season 5 will now come to an end with its twelfth episode on Thursday.
All about Ex on the Beach Season 5 Episode 12
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The Ex on the Beach finale will air on June 16 at 8 pm ET/PT. The synopsis of the episode, titled Setting Sail on a Relation-Ship, reads:
“After the Table of Truth leaves the villa in disarray, the singles must make the ultimate decision about whether they're leaving the island with their ex, next or simply alone. Who will be left at the dock?”
Ad
In the finale, viewers will get to see which of the remaining single contestants will head back with their partners and who will leave the island with their ex or alone.
The new season of the show was shot at MTV’s global production villa on the Gran Canaria Island with more than 20 contestants comprising of singles, exes, and newcomers, namely:
Arisce Wanzer (Strut)
Da’Vonne Rogers (Big Brother and The Challenge)
Bryce Hirschberg (Too Hot To Handle)
David Barta (Paradise Hotel)
Alain Lorenzo
Alexis Christina
Kat Dunn (Big Brother)
Minh-Ly Nguyen-Cao (Big Brother Canada)
Nicole O'Brien (Too Hot To Handle)
Ricky Rogers (Double Shot At Love)
Sher Suarez (Love Island USA)
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After 11 episodes, only a handful of the contestants are left on the island, namely – Arisce, Da’Vonne, David, Derynn, Ray, Kyra, Alian, Jonathan, Mike, Ricky, Emily, Nicole, Joelle, and Sher, to take the final call about their relationships.
Recap of Ex on the Beach Season 5 Episode 11
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In the last week’s episode , titled Where's The Lie, viewers saw Elias depart from Ex on the Beach Season 5. He came to the beach in the hope of rekindling his relationship with his ex-wife Ranin Karim , but she left the game show a few weeks ago after noticing that her ex- Elias was interested in bonding with a cast member of the show.
During the final Table of Truth this season, Elias was the first person to sit on the hot seat and to admit that he “got the closure I needed.”
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"Mine and Ranin's biggest issue was clear communication, respect, appreciation, and we were not able to resolve any of these issues and I don't care."
Other than Elias, another member who quit the show was Alexis after revealing to the other couple that she and Ray had phone s*x twice before they came to the show since the latter was saying she was into him for no reason.
Tune in on Thursday at 8 pm ET on MTV to watch the finale of Ex on the Beach.
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| 533 |
62 | how long is ex on the beach on for | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ex_on_the_Beach_episodes | List of Ex on the Beach episodes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Series overview
Series 11 (2023)
4 February 2020 (2020-02-04)
11 February 2020 (2020-02-11)
25 February 2020 (2020-02-25)
7 April 2020 (2020-04-07)
14 April 2020 (2020-04-14)
21 April 2020 (2020-04-21)
April 19, 2022 (2022-04-19)
March 18, 2024 (2024-03-18)
March 19, 2024 (2024-03-19)
April 22, 2024 (2024-04-22)
April 23, 2024 (2024-04-23)
May 6, 2024 (2024-05-06)
TBA
TBA
References
[ edit ]
List of Ex on the Beach episodes
| 534 |
62 | how long is ex on the beach on for | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebrity_Ex_on_the_Beach_(British_TV_series)_series_3 | Celebrity Ex on the Beach (British TV series) series 3
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Series 3
Series chronology
The list of famous cast members was released on February 12, 2024, [3] for the first time not only the singles but also a group of former celebrities were announced. [4] [5]
Bold indicates original cast member; all other cast were brought into the series as an ex.
Episodes
Name
Age
10
Key: = "Cast member" has an ex arrive on the beach
Key: = "Cast member" has two exes arrive on the beach
Key: = "Cast member" arrives on the beach and has an ex arrive during the same episode
Key: = "Cast member" leaves the beach
Key: = "Cast member" has an ex arrive on the beach and leaves during the same episode
Key: = "Cast member" arrives on the beach and leaves during the same episode
Key: = "Cast member" features in this episode as a guest
Key: = "Cast member" does not feature in this episode
March 18, 2024 (2024-03-18)
March 19, 2024 (2024-03-19)
April 22, 2024 (2024-04-22)
April 23, 2024 (2024-04-23)
May 6, 2024 (2024-05-06)
TBA
TBA
References
[ edit ]
External links
Celebrity Ex on the Beach (British TV series) series 3
| 535 |
62 | how long is ex on the beach on for | https://www.episodate.com/tv-show/ex-on-the-beach-mtv | Explore
- unknown -
When will be Ex on the Beach next episode air date? Is Ex on the Beach renewed or cancelled? Where to countdown Ex on the Beach air dates? Is Ex on the Beach worth watching?
Can you ever really be over your ex? In this social experiment, 10 smoking-hot celebrity singles think they're running away to a tropical island for a once-in-a-lifetime romantic vacation full of fun and sun. But just as the party is getting started, unwanted guests arrive to break up their good time. Paradise turns into a nightmare when their exes start emerging, and everyone is left wondering whose ex will be next. Caught in a complicated web of hookups, deceit and revenge, will old loves reignite? Or will the flame of romance be gone for good? Welcome to Ex on the Beach.
Status: Running
Start: 2018-04-19
Ex on the Beach Air Dates
S06E10 - Reunited Doesn't Feel So Good Air Date: 14 April 2023 01:00 -
Sorry, but right now we don't have any sources for this episode.
Spari's relationship with Shayla is pushed to the brink when Spari takes sides in villa drama; a conversation with Kamie has Thailah questioning her relationship with Jamie.
S06E11 - This Is What Heartbreak Feels Like Air Date: 28 April 2023 01:00 -
Sorry, but right now we don't have any sources for this episode.
One couple sends shock waves through the villa when they reach a breaking point, and Sorinn and Lola face hard truths about their relationship priorities at the final reflection ceremony.
S06E12 - Now or Never Air Date: 28 April 2023 02:00 -
Sorry, but right now we don't have any sources for this episode.
With the proposal ceremony on the horizon, the disconnect between Lola and Sorinn widens, and the other couples struggle to figure out if they'll stick together or break up.
S06E13 - TBA Air Date: 05 May 2023 01:00 -
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63 | who played chaka on land of the lost tv show | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cha-Ka | Cha-Ka
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the television episode. For the eponymous character, see Cha-Ka (character) .
1st episode of the 1st season of Land of the Lost
"Cha-Ka"
Episode no.
An earthquake plunges Rick, Will, and Holly Marshall to the Land of the Lost while river-rafting. When their raft washes ashore, they are met with a tyrannosaur they soon dub " Grumpy ", who chases them till they reach a homely cave located up a steep cliff.
The next day, the Marshalls explore the jungle, where they discover a large, metallic "pylon" which emits a high-pitched whirring sound and observe three manlike simians attempting to create a fire while chanting an invocation in their native language.
The creatures are interrupted in their ritual by Grumpy, who wounds the leg of the smallest of the creatures. Will carries him back to their hiding place, where they discover that the creature's name is Cha-Ka and that his people are called " Pakuni ". They mend Cha-Ka's leg and share their dinner with him.
The next morning, Cha-Ka gives them a feast of native fruits. The Marshalls conclude that Cha-Ka has become their friend.
The online review site Premium Hollywood described the episode in 2009 as "really a very boring start for the series", adding that it was likely toned down to avoid frightening its young viewership. [1]
In Sid and Marty Krofft: A Critical Study of Saturday Morning Children's Television, 1969-1993, film and television historian Hal Erickson praises Land of the Lost for not revealing all the details of the show's premise in the first episode, instead spreading out plot revelations throughout the first season. In "Cha-ka", only the dinosaurs and Pakuni are revealed; later episodes would introduce the Sleestak and other elements of the program's mythology. Erickson contrasts this with "standard operating procedure in the 1970s ... to lay all the cards on the table in the opening episode", and lauds the show's creators Sid and Marty Krofft for "having enough confidence in [their] young audience to unfold [the] series' exposition over a matter of weeks rather than minutes". [2]
Cha-Ka
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Palaeontologist Rick Marshall takes Will and Holly into a new world of danger, dinosaurs, and big bug-eyed lizard people while trying to find their way back home, save the universe, and save his reputation by doing so. The dinosaur with brains, brawn, and personality, and the adventure of scientific advancement and exotic beasts in a faraway land, all add up to time-traveling fun and frolics.
Director
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63 | who played chaka on land of the lost tv show | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip_Paley | Phillip Paley
3 languages
American actor
Phillip Paley
"Land of the Lost" . Celebrity Nooz. June 3, 2006. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
Boucher, Geoff (June 5, 2009). "In search of Cha-Ka" . Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 25 August 2013.
Weldon, Michael J. (1996). The Psychotronic Video Guide (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Griffin. p. 42. ISBN
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63 | who played chaka on land of the lost tv show | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_the_Lost_(1974_TV_series) | Land of the Lost (1974 TV series)
4 languages
1974–1976 American children's television series
Land of the Lost
Genre
Starring
Production company
Original release
Related
Land of the Lost details the adventures of the Marshall family (father Rick and his children Will and Holly), who are trapped in an alternate universe or time warp inhabited by dinosaurs , a primate-like people called Pakuni , and aggressive humanoid/lizard creatures (described as similar to insects [7] ) called Sleestak . The episode storylines focus on the family's efforts to survive and find a way back to their own world, but the exploration of the exotic inhabitants of the Land of the Lost is also an ongoing part of the story. [8]
An article on renewed studio interest in feature-film versions of Land of the Lost and H.R. Pufnstuf commented that "decision-makers in Hollywood, and some big-name stars, have personal recollections of plopping down on the family-room wall-to-wall shag sometime between 1969 and 1974 to tune in to multiple reruns of the Kroffts' Saturday morning live-action hits," and quoting Marty Krofft as saying that the head of Universal Studios , Ronald Meyer , and leaders at Sony Pictures all had been fans of Krofft programs. [9]
The prolific Krofft team was influential in live-action children's television, producing many shows that were oddly formatted, highly energetic, and filled with special effects, with most of them following a "stranger in a strange land" storyline. Most of these shows were comedic in nature, but Land of the Lost was considerably more serious, especially during its first season, though as the series progressed, the dramatic tone diminished. [14]
Plot and format
The Marshalls are brought to the mysterious world by means of a dimensional portal, [15] a device used frequently throughout the series and a major part of its internal mythology . This portal opens when they are swept down a gigantic 1,000-foot waterfall. In "Circle", which explains the time paradox, this portal is actually opened by Rick Marshall himself while in Enik's cave, as a way for the current Marshalls to return to Earth, resolving the paradox and allowing Enik to also return to his time.
Outfitted only for a short camping trip, the resourceful family from California takes shelter in a natural cave and improvises the provisions and tools that they need to survive. Their most common and dangerous encounters are with dinosaurs , particularly a Tyrannosaurus rex they nickname "Grumpy", which frequents the location of their cave. However, many of the dinosaurs are herbivores , posing no threat to the Marshalls, unless unintentionally provoked. One is a particularly tame young brontosaurus that Holly looks on as a pet and nicknames "Dopey".
They also encounter the mostly hostile Sleestak (a race of reptilian humanoids / insectoid ), and the primate -like creatures called Pakuni (one of whom, Cha-Ka , they befriend), as well as a variety of dangerous creatures, strange geography and unfamiliar technology.
The main goal of the three is to find a way to return home. They are occasionally aided in this by the Altrusian castaway Enik .
At the start of the third season, Rick Marshall (played by Spencer Milligan) abruptly disappeared while trying to use one of the pylons to get home, leaving his children behind; his disappearance is explained to having been accidentally returned to Earth alone. Rick is immediately replaced by his brother Jack, who stumbled upon his niece and nephew after having embarked on a search of his own to find them.
Though the term "time doorway" is used throughout the series, Land of the Lost is not meant to portray an era in Earth 's history, but rather an enigmatic zone whose place and time are unknown. Indeed, within the first few minutes of the pilot, the Marshall family father tells his children that he spotted three moons in the sky. The original creators of these time portals were thought to be the ancestors of the Sleestak, called Altrusians , though later episodes raised some questions about this.
Many aspects of the Land of the Lost, including the time doorways and environmental processes, were controlled by the Pylons, metallic obelisk -shaped booths that were larger on the inside than the outside and housed matrix tables – stone tables studded with a grid of colored crystals. Uncontrolled time doorways result in the arrival of a variety of visitors and castaways in the land.
Philip Paley (season 1-2 recurring; season 3 starring) as Cha-Ka
Ron Harper (season 3) as Uncle Jack Marshall
Land of the Lost is notable for its epic-scale concept, which suggested an expansive world with many fantastic forms of life and mysterious technology, all created on a children's series' limited production budget. To support the internal mythology, linguist Victoria Fromkin was commissioned to create a special language for the Pakuni, which she based on the sounds of West African speech and attempted to build into the show in a gradual way that would allow viewers to learn the language over the course of many episodes. [14] [16] The series' intention was to create a realistic fantasy world, albeit relying heavily on children's acceptance of minor inconsistencies.
In a 1999 interview, first-season story editor and writer David Gerrold claimed that he largely created the show based on photographs of various science-fiction topoi that were bound together in a book and given him by Sid Krofft and Allan Foshko. [17]
It was a marked departure from the Krofft team's previous work, which mostly featured extremely stylized puppets and sets such as those in H.R. Pufnstuf and Lidsville . [14]
The series for the first two seasons was shot on a modular indoor soundstage at General Service Studios in Hollywood, and made economical use of a small number of sets and scenic props that were rearranged frequently to suggest the ostensibly vast jungles, ancient cities, and cave systems. As is traditional in many effect scenes, miniatures or scale-version settings were used for insertion of live-action scenes. Additional locations were often rendered using scale miniatures and chroma key .
Spencer Milligan departed the show at the beginning of its third season for financial reasons. In addition to a salary increase, he believed the rest of the cast and he should receive compensation for using their images on various merchandise (mostly rack toys by Larami , [18] including a generic pack of toy dinosaurs believed to originate in Taiwan ), but also a coloring book from Whitman Publishing , a Little Golden Book , View-Master reels and a Milton Bradley board game. [19] His character, Rick Marshall, was replaced by his brother Jack, played by actor Ron Harper , with a stand-in wearing a wig with his back to the camera portraying Rick for a brief scene being transported home. [20] [21] [22]
Nonhuman characters were portrayed by actors in latex rubber suits or heavy creature makeup. Dinosaurs in the series were created using a combination of stop motion animation miniatures, rear-projection film effects , and occasional hand puppets for close-ups of dinosaur heads. The series marked a rare example of matting filmed stop-motion sequences with videotape live action, so as to avoid the telltale blue 'fringe' produced in matting with less exacting processes. Though this occasionally worked very well, the difference in lighting between the video and film sequences sometimes brought inadvertent attention to the limitations of the process.[ citation needed ]
Special-effects footage was frequently reused. Additional visual effects were achieved using manual film overlay techniques, the low-tech ancestor to later motion control photography.
The series was originally shown by NBC on Saturday mornings, along with primarily animated shows for children. It later aired in daily syndication from 1978 to 1985 as part of the "Krofft Superstars" package. In 1985, it returned to late Saturday mornings on CBS as a replacement for the canceled Pryor's Place (also a Krofft production) followed by another brief return to CBS in the summer of 1987. It was later shown in reruns on the Sci Fi Channel in the 1990s. Reruns of this series were aired on Saturday mornings on MeTV and are streamed online at any time on their website.
Home media
Despite a relatively short run, the show continued to be aired extensively through syndication. Based on that success, a remake of the series began in 1991 and ran for two seasons. [23]
In 2009, a feature film was released, which parodied the original series for adult audiences. It was directed by Brad Silberling and starred comedian Will Ferrell , with the Krofft brothers serving as co-producers.
In 2015, Sid and Marty Krofft reportedly were working on a reboot to Land of the Lost following what they called "that other movie". [24] In a 2018 podcast interview with both Sid and Marty Krofft, they reconfirmed that they are still working on an updated remake of Land of the Lost and that this time it will be an hour-long series.
See also
Woolery, George W. (1985). Children's Television: The First Thirty-Five Years, 1946-1981, Part II: Live, Film, and Tape Series. The Scarecrow Press. pp. 279–280. ISBN
.
^ Alex McNeil. Total Television: The Comprehensive Guide to Programming from 1948 to the Present. 4th Edition. New York: Penguin, 1996, 462. McNeil states that Rick Marshall is a forest ranger , a likely assumption, but never specified in dialogue.
Clodfelter, Tim (August 5, 2004). "Kids vids (review of Land of the Lost: The Complete First Season)". Winston-Salem Journal. p. 33.
"Hurricane". Land of the Lost. Season 1. Episode 16.
)
"About Theodore Sturgeon" . Theodore Sturgeon Literary Trust. Retrieved February 12, 2016.
Deggans, Eric (January 21, 1998). "'Star Trek' actor finds another frontier". St. Petersburg Times . p. 1D.
Davis, Jessica (March 9, 2004). "'Cartoon' is best when it's simple". Seattle Post-Intelligencer . p. D5.
"Circle". Land of the Lost. Season 1. Episode 17.
Walker, Kevin (June 18, 1999). "Masters of puppets – New videos. Movies deals on the table. Suddenly, former Saturday morning television kings Sid and Marty Krofft are hot again". The Tampa Tribune . p. 20.
Bobby Vinton's Rock 'n' Rollers (1978)
Anson & Lorrie (1981)
Land of the Lost (1974 TV series)
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63 | who played chaka on land of the lost tv show | https://www.slashfilm.com/1554588/land-of-the-lost-character-directors-in-trouble/ | One Land Of The Lost Character Got The Movie's Directors Into Some Trouble
Universal Pictures
April 13, 2024 4:45 pm EST
Brad Silberling's 2009 comedy/adventure "Land of the Lost" was a big-budget re-imagining of Sid and Marty Krofft's low-rent 1974 TV series of the same name. In the TV show, Marshall (Spencer Milligan), Will (Wesley), and Holly (Kathy Coleman) are on a routine river-rafting expedition when they encounter the biggest earthquake ever documented. They ride a raft through an aperture in the Earth and wind up in the Land of the Lost, a subterranean world ruled by dinosaurs and populated by ape-like proto-humans known as the Pakuni. Later in the series, there are discussions about having sailed through a time doorway, although the Land of the Lost is not prehistoric Earth, but a bizarre nether-realm filled with magic crystals, ineffable high-tech obelisks, and evil lizard people called Sleestaks. "Land of the Lost" was a touchstone of Gen-X kiddie entertainment.
In the PG-13-rated 2009 film (a spoof as much as an adaptation), Marshall (Will Farrell) , Will (Danny McBride), and Holly (Anna Friel) are no longer related, allowing the screenwriters to include more flirty, bawdy jokes between the characters. Indeed, the 2009 "Land of the Lost" includes a lot of wild drug references, leg-humping jokes, and light cussing. It was not aiming for the same younger audience that the series did.
In 2024, co-screenwriter Chris Henchy sat down with SyFy to reminisce about his silly comedy film on the event of its 15th birthday. He recalled that he and co-screenwriter Dannis McNicholas deliberately wanted a more adult tone for a "Land of the Lost" movie, as they "wouldn't have to be stuck in a PG world," adding, "It would hopefully bring [in] a new audience." One of the attempts to make "Land of the Lost" more adult, however, wasn't so beloved. Cha-Ka, it seems, was a little too risqué for some people's tastes.
Cha-Ka
NBC
In the original "Land of the Lost" TV series, Marshall, Will, and Holly befriended three Pakuni named Ta (Joe Giamalva), Sa (Sharon Baird), and the young Cha-Ka (Phillip Paley). Cha-Ka spent a lot of time with Rick, Will, and Holly and became something like a sibling/child to the family.
Because the ethos of the 2009 film was to be an adult-skewing comedy version of "Land of the Lost," Chaka (now re-spelled) was altered to be a horny doglike caveman played by Jorma Taccone from The Lonely Island . Naturally, the film version of Chaka is given a musical number, and proves to be adept at singing "I Hope I Get It" from "A Chorus Line." When the central trio first meets Chaka — rescuing him from being murdered — Chaka responds by grabbing Holly's chest. Later, Chaka dances with a series of obscene pelvic thrusts. At the end of the film, Chaka even provides a bevy of buxom beauties for Will as a reward for his capabilities as an adventurer. It's not X-rated, but the 2009 Chaka is a far cry from the 1974 version.
Henchy admitted that making Chaka more crass wasn't smiled upon by everyone. The decision, "which we got in a little trouble for," was even noted by certain critics, who felt that the humor in the film fell flat. Henchy didn't specify if he got into trouble with the studio or if he was referring to the negative reviews (the film sports a mere 26% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes), but the new Chaka was looked at a little askance.
The original "Land of the Lost" TV series is available on the Roku Channel and several other streaming services. The movie is on Prime Video. One is not required viewing to enjoy the other.
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64 | where did the world's largest recorded wave occur | https://www.livescience.com/tallest-wave-recorded-on-earth | The ultimate action-packed science and technology magazine bursting with exciting information about the universe
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In July 1958, an 8.3-magnitude earthquake at the Fairweather Fault rocked Alaska's southern coast. The ground-shaking event caused a massive landslide at nearby Lituya Bay, which triggered a devastating tsunami that ripped through the narrow body of water and killed five people.
The colossal wave leveled trees on the steep slopes surrounding the bay up to a maximum height of 1,719 feet (524 meters) above sea level — higher than New York's Empire State Building (which stands at 1,454 feet, or 443 m). This is known as the runup height, or the height the wave reaches after it makes landfall.
"It is the largest wave ever recorded and witnessed by eyewitnesses," Hermann Fritz, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology who specializes in tsunamis and hurricanes, told Live Science. There have likely been larger waves in Earth's history, which can be inferred from geological deposits, but these are open to interpretation, he added.
Fritz was the lead author of a study published in 2009 in the journal Pure and Applied Geophysics that recreated the Lituya Bay tsunami using a specialized 1:675 scale laboratory tank mimicking the shape of the bay. The team found that the maximum height of the wave responsible for leveling the trees was around 492 feet (150 m) tall, which makes it taller than any wave crest recorded on Earth .
For the tsunami to reach this height, the landslide that triggered it would have likely dumped around 1.1 billion cubic feet (30 million cubic meters) of rock into Lituya Bay, the researchers estimated. But while the extreme scale of the landslide provided the force to create such a massive wave, the shape of the bay is the real reason why the wave was so tall, Fritz said.
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During a typical landslide-generated tsunami, the resulting wave radiates out in a fan shape. But the narrow shape and steep slopes of Lituya Bay, as well as the point of origin, meant that the full power of the wave was channeled in one direction. And because there was nowhere else for the water to go, it was pushed up the surrounding slopes, which is why it had such a massive runup height, Fritz said.
In 2019, a study published in the journal Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences created a visual simulation of the wave using computer models (see below).
This type of extreme wave is known as a megatsunami — a term initially coined by the media that refers to extremely large waves caused by landslides or volcanic island collapses, Fritz said.
Landslide-generated tsunamis are much rarer than tectonic tsunamis, which are caused by disruptions to the seafloor due to the movement of tectonic plates (such as the 2011 tsunami in Japan ) and make up more than 90% of all tsunamis, Fritz said. Landslide-generated tsunamis are much more short-lived than tectonic tsunamis, he added.
"Landslide-generated tsunamis can be very large near the source but decay rapidly," Fritz said. On the other hand, tectonic tsunamis start as small waves only a few feet high that travel enormous distances and increase in height when they reach the coast, he noted.
During the Lituya Bay tsunami, the wave had reduced to a height of less than 328 feet (100 m) by the time it reached the narrow opening of the fjord and did not radiate much further into the Gulf of Alaska, Fritz said.
The 1958 tsunami was not the first of its kind in Lituya Bay. Geologists had previously discovered evidence of smaller tsunamis that occurred there in 1853, 1854 and 1936, but all evidence of these was washed away by the much bigger megatsunami, according to a report by the Western States Seismic Policy Council (WSSPC).
Other record-breaking waves
On Oct. 29, 2020, Portuguese surfer António Laureano broke the record for the tallest wave ever surfed when he rode a 101.4-foot-high (30.9 m) wave at Nazaré, a town in western Portugal. The waves were so big they were visible from space and were photographed by Landsat 8, a satellite operated by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey, Live Science previously reported . (This record is not officially recognised by the World Surf League (WSL) because no WSL officials were on hand to confirm the height of the wave.)
The official largest open-water wave ever recorded measured 62.3 feet (19 m) and was detected by a buoy in the North Atlantic on Feb. 17, 2013, according to the World Meteorological Organization .
On Nov. 17, 2020, a buoy near Vancouver Island, British Columbia, recorded the most extreme rogue wave ever. (A rogue wave is an unusually tall wave more than twice as high as the surrounding swells that spontaneously appear in the open ocean.) This wave was 58 feet (17.6 m) tall, making it more than three times as tall as surrounding swells, which researchers described as a "once in a millennium" occurrence, Live Science previously reported .
RELATED MYSTERIES
The world's largest tidal bore — a phenomenon in which an incoming tide reverses the current of a river and forms a wave, or waves, of water that travel up the river — occurs in China 's Qiantang River during the eighth month of the lunar calendar, where the wave normally reaches around 29.5 feet (9 m) high, according to The Atlantic . However, on Aug. 22, 2013, an additional surge from a typhoon caused the wave to reach around 65.6 feet (20 m) high and injured 30 spectators, according to Sky News .
The largest artificial waves ever made by humans are generated at the Delta Flume wave generator in the Netherlands, which opened in 2015. This 984-foot-long (300 m) tank, which holds 2.4 million gallons (9 million liters) of water, creates waves with a maximum height of 16.4 feet (5 m), according to the BBC .
Originally published on Live Science.
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Harry is a U.K.-based senior staff writer at Live Science. He studied marine biology at the University of Exeter before training to become a journalist. He covers a wide range of topics including space exploration, planetary science, space weather, climate change, animal behavior and paleontology. His recent work on the solar maximum won "best space submission" at the 2024 Aerospace Media Awards and was shortlisted in the "top scoop" category at the NCTJ Awards for Excellence in 2023. He also writes Live Science's weekly Earth from space series.
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64 | where did the world's largest recorded wave occur | https://www.surfertoday.com/surfing/the-biggest-wave-ever-recorded-measured-1720-feet | The biggest wave ever recorded by humans was documented on July 9, 1958, in Lituya Bay, in southeast Alaska, when an earthquake triggered a series of events that resulted in a megatsunami.
History and science books consider it the largest tsunami of modern times.
On July 9, 1958, at 10:15 p.m., a magnitude 7.8 earthquake caused a rockslide of around 40 million cubic yards (30.6 million cubic meters) in the Gilbert Inlet.
The epicenter of the earthquake was on the Fairweather Fault, in the heart of the seven-mile (11.2-kilometer) long and two-mile (3.2-kilometer) wide Lituya Bay.
According to scientists, the rocks, glaciers, and other debris fell from an altitude of approximately 3,000 feet (914 meters), and the consequences were brutal.
The event resulted in the highest wave from a massive tsunami in recorded history.
The megatsunami measured between 100 feet (30 meters) and 300 feet (91 meters), but the subsequent breaking wave became much bigger.
Total Obliteration
As the giant mountain of water started traveling across the entire length of the T-shaped Lituya Bay, it reached a peak height of 1,720 feet (524 meters) near the Gilbert Inlet and destroyed everything around.
Soil, plants, and trees were snapped off, and the shorelines were completely obliterated.
There were three fishing boats in Lituya Bay at the time of the tsunami.
"Edrie" was anchored at Anchorage Cove, on the south side of the bay, around half a mile from the mouth.
"Sunmore" and "Badge" chose the opposite side of the bay, behind the spit that extended most of the way across the mouth of the bay.
The occupants of "Edrie" and "Badge" were able to surf the massive wave as it swept them above the trees and washed them back into the bay.
The two people on "Sunmore" were caught by the large tsunami and lost their lives.
"The wave started in Gilbert Inlet just before the end of the earthquake. It was not a wave at first. It was like an explosion or a glacier sluff," described Howard G. Ulrich, the owner of "Edrie" and one of the survivors.
"The wave came out of the lower part and looked like the smallest part of the whole thing. The wave did not go up 1,800 feet [548 meters]; the water splashed there."
A Haunting Vision
The "Badger," a trolling boat anchored in Anchorage Cove near the western side of Lituya Bay's entrance, was also lucky.
"Suddenly, the glacier dropped back out of sight, and there was a big wall of water going over the point," explained Bill and Vivian Swanson, the owners of the "Badge."
"The wave started for us right after that, and I was too busy to tell what else was happening up there."
In the blink of an eye, their boat was going over trees and large rocks before crash-landing. Bill and Vivian found themselves surrounded by acres of wood debris but were later found by a rescue team.
According to the eyewitnesses, the wave crest was only between 25 and 50 feet (7.6-15.2 meters) wide, with the front slope steeper than the back of the wave.
Bill Swanson only returned to Lituya Bay in May 1962.
However, as he was entering the bay, he suffered a heart attack and passed away.
The event that produced the largest wave ever recorded was later studied and modeled by Hermann M. Fritz (1999), Charles L. Mader, and Michael L. Gittings (2002).
In 2019, scientists from Universidad de Málaga, Spain, developed an updated 3D simulation of the landslide-generated megatsunami.
The team used an accurate reconstruction of the initial slide and a shallow-water model that can reproduce how the energy released by the landslide is transmitted to the water and then propagates.
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Clement Roseyro and Justine Dupont claimed the 2025 Nazaré Big Wave Challenge at Praia do Norte, Portugal.
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64 | where did the world's largest recorded wave occur | https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/oceanography/largest-wave-ever-recorded.htm | This massive wave in Nazaré, Portugal, dwarfs the surfer in the bottom left of the image, and yet it's still not the biggest wave on record. artur carvalho / Getty Images
Scientists have long been fascinated by the ocean's dynamic nature, where the force of the water collides with atmospheric phenomena to create waves of monumental size.
The largest wave ever recorded was documented by researchers who analyze and predict marine and weather patterns. These measurements help not only in understanding the ocean's capabilities but also in preparing for natural disasters.
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So, what is the tallest wave ever recorded? Let's find out!
Contents
The Lituya Bay Tsunami and the Biggest Wave Ever Recorded
In the serene landscape of Lituya Bay, Alaska, the evening of July 9, 1958, marked a monumental event. Seismic activity along the Fairweather Fault, which runs west of Juneau along the Alaska Panhandle, triggered a massive earthquake and dislodged an enormous amount of earth.
This landslide, involving approximately 90 million tons of rock, plunged into the narrow Gilbert Inlet at tremendous speed. The displacement caused by the glacier that dropped into the inlet was so immense that it created a tsunami unlike any recorded before or since.
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As this wave hit the opposite shoreline, it generated a staggering force, causing the wave crest to break with such power that it scoured trees and soil from slopes, reshaping the terrain.
The entire length of the inlet felt the impact as the wave crest broke, reaching a height of 1,720 feet (524 meters) above sea level. To put this in perspective, the Empire State Building is 1,250 feet ( 380 meters ) tall, making the wave 470 feet (143 meters) taller than the skyscraper.
A fishing boat anchored at the mouth of the bay witnessed the massive tsunami's might as it reshaped Lituya Bay in mere moments. The boat managed to ride the wave , a testament to both the mariners' luck and the unique conditions of the bay.
The Lituya Bay tsunami not only became a crucial study point for research but also solidified its status as the largest recorded wave.
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What Are Rogue Waves?
A rogue wave is an unusually large and unexpected wave that can appear suddenly in the open ocean , posing significant dangers to ships. Also referred to as walls of water, they're disproportionately tall and steep, compared to the surrounding sea conditions.
Historically, rogue waves were considered mythical by sailors and largely unrecognized by scientists until they were conclusively detected by modern instruments. They're are often characterized as being more than twice the height of surrounding waves, making them some of the tallest waves observed at sea.
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Unlike tsunamis, which are generated by underwater disturbances like earthquakes, rogue waves seem to arise due to the merging of several smaller waves, which, due to various oceanic conditions, combine their energies into a single, exceptionally powerful wave.
This process results in towering walls of water that rise abruptly and without warning, capable of causing catastrophic damage and even capsizing vessels.
The study of rogue waves has been pivotal in understanding the dynamics of the open ocean, as these outliers challenge traditional wave models that once predicted their near impossibility. Modern marine research continues to explore how wind conditions, ocean currents and other factors contribute to the formation of these ocean phenomena.
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What Is the Highest Rogue Wave Ever Recorded?
The highest rogue wave ever recorded measured 84 feet (25.6 meters) in height and was detected by a Norwegian oil platform in the North Sea in 1995, making it the most extreme rogue wave observed in modern maritime history.
Researchers studying this wave noted that it occurred in a relatively harsh sea state, characterized by strong winds and significant wave heights, which likely contributed to its extreme formation.
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10 Other Places With Record-breaking Waves
As the quest for bigger and more thrilling waves continues, certain destinations around the world have become known for record-breaking swells. Each location has its unique geological and oceanographic conditions that produce some of the most extreme waves known to humankind.
From the legendary barrels of Tahiti to the ominous swells of Ireland's West Coast, these destinations challenge the limits of big wave surfing. Here are some of the most renowned spots where the giants of the ocean come to life.
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1. Nazaré, Portugal
Nazaré , Portugal, is renowned for its monstrous waves, attracting big wave surfers from around the globe. The underwater Nazaré Canyon funnels swell energy directly to Praia do Norte, producing some of the most extreme waves ever surfed.
2. Pe'ahi /Jaws, Maui
Jaws, also known as Pe'ahi, is a mecca off the shores of Maui for surfers seeking the challenge of mammoth waves. Known for its powerful winter swells, Jaws generates towering walls of water that offer a thrilling ride for those skilled enough to navigate its massive breaks.
This destination is a cornerstone in the history of big wave surfing, regularly drawing a crowd to witness its spectacular swells.
3. Cortes Bank, California
Located off the coast of Southern California, Cortes Bank is an underwater seamount that produces some of the biggest waves on the planet.
This spot is unique due to its remote location and the fact that its waves break miles from shore over a submerged island, making it a dangerous yet irresistible challenge for surfers.
4. Mavericks, California
Mavericks in Northern California is infamous for its cold, shark-infested waters and massive waves that crash onto a shallow reef. This spot has become a storied venue in big wave surfing lore, hosting prestigious competitions that test the limits of even the most seasoned surfers.
5. Puerto Escondido, Mexico
Known as the "Mexican Pipeline," Puerto Escondido offers some of the most powerful and dangerous waves in the world. The beach break here is famed for its consistency and ferocity , attracting surfers eager to tackle its fast-moving tubes and thick, heavy barrels.
6. Waimea, Hawaii
Waimea Bay on Hawaii's North Shore is a historic site in the world of big wave surfing. It was one of the first spots where surfers began to challenge the big waves, and it continues to be a proving ground for those looking to make their mark in the sport. The iconic waves draw spectators and surfers alike each winter.
7. Teahupo'o, Tahiti
Teahupo'o in Tahiti is perhaps best known for its visually stunning yet dangerously shallow reef break. The waves here break so close to the surface that they form a thick, hollow tube, providing one of the most challenging rides available to big wave surfers — a true test of skill and nerve.
8. Cloudbreak, Fiji
Cloudbreak off the coast of Fiji is a world-class surf spot famous for its long, winding waves and pristine beauty. This reef break can hold swells that produce significant wave heights, offering a paradise for those looking to experience big wave surfing amidst the isolated splendor of the South Pacific.
9. Mullaghmore Head, Ireland
Mullaghmore Head along Ireland's West Coast is renowned for its monstrous winter swells that attract surfers from across the globe. The cold Atlantic waters here give rise to some of the most intimidating waves in Europe, driven by deep ocean swells that crash into its rugged coastline.
10. Belharra, France
Belharra, off the coast of France, is another European hotspot for giant waves. This deep water reef comes alive during the winter when conditions align to produce massive swells that can be seen and heard from miles away.
It’s a favorite challenge for big wave surfers in the region, adding to the allure of Europe's unlikely big wave surfing scene.
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The Biggest Wave Ever Surfed
In the realm of big wave surfing, one question often echoes through the community: "Has anyone surfed a 100-foot wave?" While that exact milestone remains officially unconfirmed, a record was broken in the legendary swells at Nazaré, Portugal.
In 2020, German surfer Sebastian Steudtner rode a 86 foot wave at Nazaré. Although precise measurements can vary, this ride entered the record books and captured the world's attention, symbolizing the pinnacle of what is humanly possible in big wave surfing.
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64 | where did the world's largest recorded wave occur | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rogue_waves | List of rogue waves
Incidents of known and likely rogue waves
The Draupner wave , a single giant wave measured on New Year's Day 1995, finally confirmed the existence of freak waves, which had previously been considered near-mythical.
This list of rogue waves compiles incidents of known and likely rogue waves – also known as freak waves, monster waves, killer waves, and extreme waves. These are dangerous and rare ocean surface waves that unexpectedly reach at least twice the height of the tallest waves around them, and are often described by witnesses as "walls of water". [1] They occur in deep water, usually far out at sea, and are a threat even to capital ships , ocean liners and land structures such as lighthouses .
Anecdotal evidence from mariners' testimonies and incidents of wave damage to ships has long suggested the existence of rogue waves; however, their scientific measurement was positively confirmed only following measurements of the Draupner wave , a rogue wave at the Draupner platform , in the North Sea on 1 January 1995. In this event, minor damage was inflicted on the platform, confirming that the reading was valid.
In modern oceanography , rogue waves are defined not as the biggest possible waves at sea, but instead as extreme sized waves for a given sea state.
Many of these encounters are only reported in the media, and are not examples of open ocean rogue waves. Often a huge wave is loosely and incorrectly denoted as a rogue wave.[ citation needed ] Extremely large waves offer an explanation for the otherwise inexplicable disappearance of many ocean-going vessels. However, the claim is contradicted by information held by Lloyd's Register . [2] [3] One of the very few cases where evidence suggests a freak wave incident is the 1978 loss of the freighter MS München . This claim, however, is contradicted by other sources, which maintain that, over a time period from 1969 to 1994 alone, rogue waves were responsible for the complete loss of 22 supertankers, often with their entire crew. [4] [5] [6] In 2007, researcher Paul C. Liu of NOAA compiled a list of more than 50 incidents likely associated with rogue waves. [7] Some have suggested that, using commercially available data, a large ship completely disappears without a trace once every two years. The cause is never determined. [8]
Known or suspected rogue wave incidents
Before 1950
)
On 11 March 1861 at midday the lighthouse on Eagle Island [10] off the west coast of Ireland was struck by a large wave that smashed 23 panes, washing some of the lamps down the stairs, and broken glass damaged the reflectors beyond repair. In order to damage the uppermost portion of the lighthouse, water had to surmount a seaside cliff measuring 40 m (130 ft) in height and a further 26 m (85 ft) of lighthouse structure.
On 13 November 1865, the wooden cutter Aenid was in the Tasman Sea near Long Reef off New South Wales , Australia , when her helmsman sighted three huge waves approaching from her starboard quarter. Before he could turn the cutter to face them, they swamped Aenid and wrecked her with the loss of two lives. Four others on board survived. The wreck later was found washed up on Long Reef with part of its side smashed in. [11]
On 15 December 1900, three lighthouse keepers mysteriously disappeared from the Flannan Isles Lighthouse in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland during a storm. Although there were no surviving witnesses, a rogue wave that hit the west side of the island has been hypothesized to be responsible.
On 10 October 1903, the British passenger liner RMS Etruria was only four hours out of New York City when, at 2:30 p.m., a freak wave struck her. The wave was reported to be at least 50 feet (15 m) high and struck the ship on the port side. The wave carried away part of the forebridge and smashed the guardrail stanchions . There were a number of first-class passengers sitting in deck chairs close to the bridge and they caught the full force of the water. One passenger was fatally injured and several other passengers were hurt.
The Blue Anchor Line luxury steamer SS Waratah , an Australian ship of 16,000 gross register tons , disappeared without trace south of Durban , South Africa, in July 1909 with 211 passengers and crew aboard. No survivors or wreckage were found. The most plausible theory for her disappearance is that she encountered a rogue wave which either caused her to capsize or flooded her cargo holds, sinking her almost instantly.[ citation needed ]
On 10 January 1910, a wave struck the liner RMS Lusitania during a storm in the Atlantic Ocean west of Ireland , smashing the windows in her bridge and pilot house 75 feet (23 m) above the waterline , pushing her bridge back 2 inches (51 mm), and permanently depressing her bridge and forecastle deck by several inches. Water reached the top of her wheelhouse, 80 feet (24 m) above her deck. [12]
On 31 December 1914 at 4:40 p.m., United States Lighthouse Service Captain Fred Harrington, lighthouse keeper at Trinidad Head Light on Trinidad Head in Trinidad , California , saw a wave 200 yards (180 m) offshore approaching the bluff on which the lighthouse stood which washed completely over 93-foot-tall (28 m) Pilot Rock offshore, appeared to him to rise to the level of the lighthouse's lantern 196 feet (60 m) above sea level , and then broke over the top of the 175-foot-tall (53 m) bluff on which the lighthouse stood. It was the largest recorded ocean wave ever to strike the United States West Coast , and Harrington's report that that wave crested at the height of the lantern and that it buried the area between the lighthouse and the bluff in water which rose to the lighthouse's balcony suggests a possible wave height of 200 feet (61 m). [13] The wave's impact shook the lighthouse and extinguished the light, although Harrington restored service in four hours. [14]
On 7 November 1915 at 2:27 a.m., the British battleship HMS Albemarle suffered severe damage during a storm in the Pentland Firth when two large waves struck her in rapid succession. Water rose as high as the bottom of her lower foretop , filling it with water, sweeping her forward deck clear, smashing her forebridge – much of which was found in pieces on her upper deck – wrecking her chart house, shifting the roof of her conning tower , and flooding her forward main gun turret, mess decks, and flats. Five of her crew died, and 17 others suffered serious injuries. [15] [16] [17]
At midnight on 5–6 May 1916 the British polar explorer Ernest Shackleton was at the tiller of the small sailboat James Caird in the Southern Ocean during a storm when he thought he saw the bad weather clearing in the west, astern. He then realized that what he thought was a line of white clouds above a clear dark sky was actually the crest of a single enormous wave that struck and nearly swamped the boat. Shackleton reported that the wave was larger than any he had ever seen before in his 26 years of seafaring. [18] [19] [20]
On 29 August 1916 at about 4:40 p.m., the United States Navy armored cruiser USS Memphis was wrecked in Santo Domingo harbor in the Dominican Republic when struck in rapid succession by three waves of up to 70 feet (21 meters) in height, killing 40 men and injuring 204. The waves also damaged and nearly capsized the U.S. Navy gunboat USS Castine , which also was in the harbor. Once described as a tsunami , the waves have more recently been assessed as exceptionally large, freak wind-driven waves generated by passing hurricanes . [21] [22] [23]
In August 1924, the British ocean liner Homeric arrived in New York City late after steaming through a hurricane off the United States East Coast in which a 80-foot (24 m) rogue wave struck her, injuring seven people, smashing numerous windows and portholes , carrying away one of her lifeboats , and snapping chairs and other fittings from their fastenings. [24]
In February 1926 in the North Atlantic a massive wave hit the British passenger liner RMS Olympic , smashing four of the bridge's nine glass windows and doing some other damage. [25]
During a storm on 31 January 1930, a huge wave hit the American ocean liner Minnekahda in the Atlantic Ocean. It tore off part of the deck railing from her starboard side, damaged some of her davits , carried away several of her ventilators, and flooded her smoking room with several inches of water. [26]
In 1933 in the North Pacific , the U.S. Navy oiler USS Ramapo (AO-12) encountered a huge wave. The crew triangulated its height at 112 feet (34 m). [27]
In 1934 in the North Atlantic an enormous wave smashed over the bridge of the British passenger liner RMS Majestic , injuring the first officer and the White Star Line 's final commodore, Edgar J. Trant, who was hospitalised for a month and never sailed again. [25] [28]
In December 1942 while operating as a troopship and carrying 11,339 United States Army troops and crew, [29] the British passenger liner RMS Queen Mary was broadsided during a gale by a 92-foot (28 m) wave 608 nautical miles (700 mi; 1,126 km) from Scotland and nearly capsized. Queen Mary listed briefly about 52 degrees before slowly righting herself. Had the ship listed even three degrees more, then she would have capsized.
Second half of the 20th century
In 1966, the Italian liner Michelangelo was steaming toward New York City when a giant wave tore a hole in its superstructure, smashed heavy glass 80 feet (24 m) above the waterline, and killed a crewman and two passengers. [27]
The Wilstar, a Norwegian tanker, suffered structural damage from a rogue wave in 1974. [27]
SS Edmund Fitzgerald was a lake freighter that sank suddenly during a gale storm on 10 November 1975, while on Lake Superior , on the Canada–United States border . The ship went down without a distress signal in Canadian waters about 15 nautical miles (17 mi; 28 km) from the entrance to Whitefish Bay (at
In October 1977, the tanker MS Stolt Surf encountered a rogue wave on a voyage across the Pacific from Singapore to Portland , Oregon . Her engineer took photos of the wave, which was higher than the 72-foot (22 m) bridge deck. [31]
The six-year-old, 37,134-ton barge carrier MS München was lost at sea in 1978. At 3 a.m. on 12 December 1978 she sent out a garbled mayday message from the mid-Atlantic, but rescuers found only "a few bits of wreckage." This included an unlaunched lifeboat, stowed 66 feet (20 m) above the water line, which had one of its attachment pins "twisted as though hit by an extreme force." The Maritime Court concluded that "bad weather had caused an unusual event." It is thought that a large wave knocked out the ship's controls (the bridge was sited forward), causing the ship to shift side-on to heavy seas, which eventually overwhelmed it. Although more than one wave was probably involved, this remains the most likely sinking due to a freak wave. [32]
The 30-foot (9.1 m) sailing yacht Grimalkin was in the Celtic Sea participating in the 1979 Fastnet Race when a very steep 40-foot (12.2 m) breaking wave with a 10-foot (3 m) tall curl broke over her from astern during a storm on August 14, 1979, pitchpoling her and killing two members of her crew, incapacitating another crewman who was incorrectly presumed dead and left aboard, and prompting the other three members of her crew to abandon ship in a life raft . The man left aboard the dismasted Grimalkin and the men in the life raft were rescued, and Grimalkin eventually was recovered and repaired. [33] [34]
The Ocean Ranger ( North Atlantic , 1981), a semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling unit , sank with all hands in stormy seas of 55 to 65 feet (17 to 20 m) after a wave higher than 28 metres (92 ft) flooded the platform's ballast control room, although there has been no official suggestion that it was caused by a rogue wave.[ citation needed ]
The Fastnet Lighthouse off the south coast of Ireland was struck by a 47-meter-high (154-foot-high) wave in 1985. [35] [ non-primary source needed ]
The trimaran Rose-Noëlle , capsized on 4 June 1989, when she was struck by a rogue wave in the southern Pacific Ocean off the coast of New Zealand. [36]
The fishing boat Andrea Gail was lost with all hands off the coast of Nova Scotia on October 28, 1991, when she got caught in the 1991 Perfect Storm while returning to Gloucester , Massachusetts , after fishing on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland . Near where she was last reported, waves were running at 60 to 70 feet (18 to 21 m), and a series of buoys reported a rogue wave with a height of 100.7 feet (30.7 m), the highest ever recorded in the area. Evidence that whatever happened sank Andrea Gail very quickly was found after debris and flotsam from her washed up on Sable Island . None of the bodies of her six crewmen were ever found.[ citation needed ]
Draupner wave ( North Sea , 1995): The first rogue wave to be confirmed with scientific evidence, with a maximum height of 25.6 metres (84 ft).[ citation needed ]
The liner Queen Elizabeth 2 encountered a 29-metre (95 ft) wave during Hurricane Luis in the North Atlantic in September 1995. Her master said it "came out of the darkness" and "looked like the White Cliffs of Dover ." [37] Newspaper reports at the time described the ocean liner as attempting to " surf " the nearly vertical wave in order not to be sunk.
During the 1998 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race , a 120-foot (37 m) high rogue wave was documented in the Tasman Sea by a rescue helicopter during a storm on December 27–28, 1998. [38] [39]
In February 2000, the British oceanographic research vessel RRS Discovery , operating in the Atlantic Ocean over the Rockall Trough west of Scotland , encountered the largest waves ever recorded by scientific instruments in the open ocean, with a significant wave height of 29.1 metres (95 ft) and individual waves up to 18.5 metres (61 ft). [40]
On 4 November 2000, the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary research vessel R/V Ballena was hit by a rogue wave and capsized near Point Conception off Santa Barbara , California . The ship was 56 feet (17 m) long, and the wave estimated at 20 feet (6.1 m) high. Two United States Geological Survey (USGS) employees were trapped briefly inside the capsized ship, but they were able to find their way to the bridge doors and escaped. The life raft was inflated and all three people aboard — the vessel's captain , NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps Lieutenant Commander Mark H. Pickett, and the two USGS employees — attempted to paddle out of the surf zone. The size of the raft and drogue anchor prevented escape in the raft. The crew donned the two available life jackets and all three attempted to swim to a pocket beach on Point Arguello . After Pickett made shore he swam back out to assist both of the USGS employees to shore. One USGS employee was treated for facial lacerations and a slight concussion . Ballena, operated by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) at the time, broke apart in the waves against the rocky shore and was a total loss . Pickett received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal for heroism on 30 October 2001. [41] [42] [43] [44]
21st century
The Bahamian-registered cruise ships MS Bremen and MS Caledonian Star encountered 30-meter (98 ft) freak waves in the South Atlantic in 2001. Bridge windows on both ships were smashed, and all power and instrumentation lost.
Naval Research Laboratory ocean-floor pressure sensors detected a freak wave caused by Hurricane Ivan in the Gulf of Mexico in 2004. The wave was around 27.7 meters (91 ft) high from peak to trough, and around 200 meters (660 ft) long. [45]
Norwegian Dawn , (three waves in succession, off the coast of Georgia , 16 April 2005): "The sea had actually calmed down when the 21-metre (69 ft) wave seemed to come out of thin air… Our captain, who has 20 years on the job, said he never saw anything like it." [46] "The water exerted enough force to shear off the welds for the aluminum rail supports on the [ninth- and tenth-level] balconies of two cabins, allowing the teak balcony rails to break loose and crash into the cabin windows. The broken glass filling the drains compounded the water damage by allowing a large amount of water to enter the two cabins and damage the carpets in 61 other cabins. The ship's operating at reduced speed when the waves hit probably limited the damage." [47]
Aleutian Ballad, ( Bering Sea , 2005): Footage of a rogue wave appears in an episode of Deadliest Catch from Season 2, Episode 4 "Finish Line" (Original airdate: 28 April 2006). While sailing through rough seas during a night time storm, a "freak wave", believed to be around 60 feet (18 meters) high, violently hits the fishing vessel's starboard side. The wave cripples the vessel, causing the boat to tip onto its side at a 30-degree angle. The boat manages to right itself; some of the crew suffer minor injuries. One of the few video recordings of (what might be) a rogue wave. [48] [ non-primary source needed ]
In June 2005 a pair of rogue waves struck two participants in a fishing competition which capsized their 34-foot (10 m) boat 38 miles (33 nmi; 61 km) off Merritt Island , Bahamas . One of them later said, "One second everything is going great. The next second we're upside down in the Atlantic Ocean, 30 miles (26 nmi; 48 km) out ... We weren't going fast, but the speed of the wave – the back wave pushed us into the front one," [49] and "The sea had essentially dropped out ... It was just like we were just tumbling straight down and picking up speed at a wave that was triple the size of what we were just dealing with". [50] The United States Coast Guard rescued both people 30 hours later, after an extended search.
Brittany Ferries ' MV Pont-Aven was struck by a wave estimated at between 40 and 50 feet (12 and 15 m) in height during a Force 9 gale in the Bay of Biscay on 21 May 2006.
On 1 February 2007, Holland America 's cruise ship MS Prinsendam was hit by two 12-meter (39 ft) tall rogue waves near Cape Horn . There were around 40 injuries, with some requiring hospitalization. [51]
On 14 April 2008, 0.5 nautical miles (0.9 km; 0.6 mi) off Kleinbaai , near Gansbaai , South Africa – a freak wave hit a dive boat carrying tourists on a diving trip to see sharks . The boat capsized . Three tourists died, two were seriously injured. and a number were treated for shock. Multiple other dive boats witnessed the wave. [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57]
On 3 March 2010, in the Mediterranean Sea off Marseille , France , a 26-foot (7.9-meter) wave hit the Cypriot liner Louis Majesty , killing two people on board. The height of the wave was reported to be abnormally high with respect to the sea state at the time of the incident. [58]
In March 2014, a massive wave struck Roi-Namur in Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands on an otherwise calm, sunny day, penetrating well inland, flooding parts of the island and swamping coastal roads. [59]
On September 8, 2019, in the Cabot Strait off Channel-Port aux Basques , Newfoundland , during Hurricane Dorian , several rogue waves were detected by an off-shore buoy. Five of these rogue waves reached heights of 20 meters (66 feet) with the largest of the waves reaching 30 meters (98 feet). [60]
On 17 November 2020, a buoy moored in 45 metres (148 ft) of water on Amphitrite Bank in the Pacific Ocean 7 kilometres (4.3 mi; 3.8 nmi) off Ucluelet , British Columbia , Canada , at 48°54′N 125°36′W / 48.9°N 125.6°W / 48.9; -125.6 recorded a lone 17.6-metre (58 ft) tall wave among surrounding waves about 6 metres (20 ft) in height. One scientific paper and various press reports claimed in February 2022 that at 2.93 times the significant wave height, the Ucluelet wave set a record as the most extreme rogue wave ever recorded at the time in terms of its height in proportion to surrounding waves, and that scientists estimated that a wave about three times higher than those around it occurs on average only once every 1,300 years worldwide. [61] [62] [63] [64] The claims that the wave set a record or is especially rare are controversial, as evidence exists for even more proportionately extreme waves occurring, and on a more frequent basis. [65] [66] [67] [68]
On 29 November 2022, a rogue wave hit the Viking cruise ship Viking Polaris while she was on her way to Ushuaia , Argentina . One person died, four more were injured, and the ship's scheduled voyage to Antarctica was canceled. [69] [70]
On 18 September 2023 a suspected rogue wave or sneaker wave smashed into a beachside restaurant at Marina Beach near Southbroom , South Africa , injuring seven people. One restaurant patron was swept out to sea but rescued by lifeguards . The wave was filmed . [71]
On 20 January 2024, one or more rogue or sneaker waves struck the United States Army 's Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Roi-Namur in Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands , breaking down the doors of a dining hall, knocking several people off their feet, moderately to severely damaging the dining hall, the Outrigger Bar and Grill, the chapel, and the Tradewinds Theater, and leaving parts of the island, including the automotive complex, under water. The wave or waves penetrated 300 feet (91 m) inland and probably were between 29 and 40 feet (8.8 and 12.2 m) tall, with a significant wave height of 10 feet (3 m) to 15 feet (4.6 m). [70] The flooding of the dining hall was filmed .
^ The story that "200 large ships lost to freak waves in the past two decades" was published in The Times (May 2006). One of the first press releases, issued by the European Space Agency (cited at the page bottom), reported "200 large ships of 600 ft long or more in the past two decades sunk without a trace". At the time the claim was made, there were 142 modern ships of that size lost at sea, all with clear, known causes (source: Lloyd's Register – Fairplay Archived 6 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine ). The main culprits were the Iranian and Iraqi air forces in the 1980s (See: Iran–Iraq War ).
"Archived copy" . Archived from the original on 18 July 2009. Retrieved 1 October 2009.
"Trinidad Head Light" . Lighthouses of Humboldt County. Humboldt County Convention & Visitors Bureau. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
^ Jackson Papers, National Museum of the Royal Navy, Portsmouth, UK 255/4/31.
^ Smith, Craig B. Extreme Waves. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press, 2006. ISBN 0-309-10062-3 , pp. 68–69
.
"Gale-beaten ships dock days late" . The New York Times. 6 February 1930. p. 17. Retrieved 28 June 2022 – via Times Machine.
Smith, Craig (2007). Extreme Waves and Ship Design (PDF). 10th International Symposium on Practical Design of Ships and Other Floating Structures. Houston: American Bureau of Shipping. Table 4. Retrieved 3 December 2023.
List of rogue waves
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64 | where did the world's largest recorded wave occur | https://www.rapturecamps.com/blog/7-biggest-waves-in-the-world/ | 7 of The Biggest Waves in the World
The world’s biggest wave is a mesmerizing natural wonder that has captivated and awed people for centuries. From the monstrous swells of the open ocean to the towering walls of water created by rare geological events, the power and scale of these waves is truly impressive.
Table of contents
In this article, we will explore the different types of colossal waves that have been observed around the world, from the legendary Mavericks in California to the massive rogue waves that can strike without warning. We will also delve into the science behind what causes these behemoths to form and the incredible feats of surfing and big wave riding that have been accomplished in their presence. Whether you are a wave enthusiast, a thrill-seeker, or simply fascinated by the wonders of nature, the world’s biggest waves are a truly awe-inspiring phenomenon to learn about.
In the vast and mysterious realm of the ocean, where water meets sky and elemental forces collide, there exists a phenomenon that captures the awe and reverence of surfers, scientists, and adventurers alike – the biggest wave in the world. As the guardians of untamed waters, these colossal giants rise from the depths, reaching towering heights that defy imagination and challenge the bravest souls to conquer their peaks.
What Are the Biggest Waves in Recorded History?
Some of the biggest waves in recorded history have occurred at specific locations and events, with significant size, location, and impact. Lituya Bay in Alaska is known for the largest recorded wave, with a towering height of 1,720 feet triggered by a massive landslide in 1958, causing extensive devastation. Teahupo’o in Tahiti is famous for its incredibly large and powerful waves, reaching up to 20 feet high, attracting many experienced surfers . Banzai Pipeline in Hawaii is also renowned for its monstrous waves, reaching heights of 20 feet and creating challenging conditions for surfers. The Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 is one of the most catastrophic events, producing monstrous waves as high as 100 feet, causing widespread destruction and claiming over 230,000 lives across multiple countries. These historical events showcase the immense power and impact of the biggest waves in recorded history.
Join us on a journey into the heart of this aquatic marvel as we unravel the mysteries behind the biggest wave in the world. From the science that governs their formation to the daring surfers who seek to ride these liquid mountains, we delve into the captivating allure of these awe-inspiring natural wonders. Prepare to be swept away by the grandeur and power that define the largest waves on our planet, exploring the untamed beauty that beckons those who are willing to face the might of the ocean head-on. Welcome to the exploration of the grandest spectacle beneath the waves – the biggest wave in the world.
1. Nazaré, Portugal
Nazaré, Portugal is famous for its record-breaking waves, particularly in the big wave surfing community. The waves at Nazaré are some of the biggest and most powerful in the world, attracting surfers from all over to tackle these massive swells. The largest wave ever surfed was at Nazaré in 2011, a staggering 78 feet high by Garret McNamara , who then went ahead and broke his own record in 2013 in Nazaré by surfing a 100 feet wave.
In 2017, Rodrigo Koxa surpassed this record by riding an 80-foot (24.4-meter) wave at Nazaré, officially recognized by the World Surf League (WSL). However, the current world record belongs to Sebastian Steudtner , who surfed an 86-foot (26.2-meter) wave at Praia do Norte on October 29, 2020, verified by Guinness World Records in 2022.
The underwater Nazaré Canyon plays a significant role in creating these enormous waves, as it funnels and amplifies the Atlantic ocean’s swells, resulting in waves of immense size and power. This unique geological feature is a major draw for surfers and spectators alike, as the massive waves break close to the shore, providing an intense and exhilarating spectacle .
The influx of surfers and tourists to this once-quiet fishing village has transformed Nazaré into a mecca for big wave surfing enthusiasts. The influx of visitors has also brought economic benefits to the local community, which has now become a popular destination for extreme sports enthusiasts and nature lovers alike.
For spectators looking to witness the incredible waves of Nazaré, the best viewing spots include the North Beach viewpoint and the lighthouse, both offering breath-taking vantage points to watch the surfers take on the colossal waves. Nazaré’s combination of record-breaking waves and stunning natural beauty makes it a must-visit destination for all who are fascinated by the power of the ocean.
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2. Peahi(Jaws), Maui
Photo courtesy of BirdsEyePix
Peahi, also known as Jaws, in Maui, Hawaii is legendary for being one of the biggest and most perfect waves in the world. Surfers are attracted to the high performance and perfect nature of the waves, offering the potential for massive tube rides and double up take-offs. However, along with its reputation as a premier big wave surfing spot, Jaws also poses significant dangers. The spot’s history is marked by Laird Hamilton’s pioneering use of tow-in surfing, which allowed surfers to catch the massive waves with the help of jet skis. Despite the thrill and excitement of tackling the enormous waves, the unpredictable and dangerous nature of the break at Jaws can result in broken boards and bones. The powerful force of the waves can make it a treacherous spot even for the most experienced surfers.
In recent years, Jaws has continued to challenge surfers with its colossal waves. In January 2023, a historic swell hit Peʻahi, producing waves estimated between 70 and 80 feet (21 to 24 meters), reaffirming Jaws as a premier destination for big wave surfing.
In conclusion, Peahi (Jaws) in Maui, Hawaii, is celebrated for being a top destination for big wave surfing, but its unpredictable and dangerous nature must be approached with caution. Along with its high performance and perfect waves, Jaws is a spot that demands respect and skill from those who dare to ride its massive swells.
3. Cortes Bank, California
© Frank Quirarte/Red Bull Content Pool
Located approximately 100 miles off the coast of Southern California, Cortes Bank is an infamous big wave surfing spot known for its remote location and legendary waves. The underwater seamount rises from depths of over 6,000 feet to just 4 feet below the ocean’s surface, creating the perfect conditions for massive waves to form. When the swell lines up just right, it can produce some of the largest and most powerful waves in the world, attracting only the most experienced and daring surfers.
Surfing at Cortes Bank presents a unique set of challenges due to its isolation and the need for perfect conditions to align. The unpredictable weather and ocean conditions make it a rare and elusive surf spot, accessible only by boat and requiring a high level of skill and bravery to tackle the monstrous waves that can reach heights of over 60 feet.
The risks of surfing at Cortes Bank are as legendary as its waves, with the potential for serious injury or even death in the event of a wipeout. Notable surfers who have taken on this treacherous spot include Laird Hamilton, Greg Long, and Mike Parsons, among others, all of whom have earned respect and recognition within the surfing community for their daring exploits at Cortes Bank.
In 2008, Mike Parsons set a Guinness World Record by riding a 77-foot (23.5-meter) wave at Cortes Bank, highlighting the spot’s potential for producing some of the world’s largest surfable waves.
In 2012, Shawn Dollar paddled into a 61-foot (18.6-meter) wave at Cortes Bank, setting a world record for the largest wave ever paddled into at that time.
In recent years, surfers like Lucas Chumbo, Will Skudin, and Garrett McNamara have ventured to Cortes Bank to tackle its massive waves, further cementing its status as a premier big wave destination.
4. Mavericks, California
Mavericks, a world-renowned big wave surfing spot in Northern California
Photo courtesy of UltraView
Mavericks, located in Northern California, is a world-renowned big wave surfing spot known for its extreme danger and treacherous conditions. The waves at Mavericks can reach heights of up to 60 feet, making it one of the most challenging and thrilling surf spots in the world. The area is also notorious for its presence of great white sharks, adding an extra level of danger for surfers.
Mavericks was discovered by surfers in the 1960s and gained popularity in the 1990s when it was featured in surf films and competitions. The steep, fast, and powerful waves at Mavericks have attracted some of the most daring and skilled surfers, including legendary big wave riders like Jeff Clark, who is credited with pioneering the spot, and famous surfers like Mark Foo and Jay Moriarity.
In December 2024, 23-year-old surfer Alessandro “Alo” Slebir potentially set a new world record by riding an estimated 108-foot (32.9-meter) wave at Mavericks. If confirmed, this would surpass the current record of 86 feet (26.2 meters) held by Sebastian Steudtner at Nazaré. This monumental ride underscores Mavericks’ capacity to produce some of the largest surfable waves on the planet.
The history and significance of Mavericks lie in its reputation as a proving ground for big wave surfers, its consistently dangerous and unpredictable conditions, and the incredible feats performed by those who have successfully conquered its monstrous waves. Mavericks continues to be a revered and respected location in the world of big wave surfing.
5. Tehupoo, Tahiti
Last years host of surfing at the Olympics , Teahupoo, located in Tahiti, is known for its powerful and heavy barrels, making it one of the most challenging waves to ride. The wave breaks over a shallow and jagged reef, adding an element of danger for surfers. The unique underwater topography creates a plunging, heavy wave that forms some of the most intense barrels in the world. Its reputation as the “heaviest wave” draws experienced surfers seeking an adrenaline-pumping challenge.
During the 2024 Paris Olympics, Teahupo’o hosted the world’s top surfers, with waves reaching up to 10 feet (3 meters) during the competition window. The event saw local Tahitian surfer Kauli Vaast claim gold in the men’s division, as well as American Caroline Marks in the women’s event. This Olympic debut for Teahupo’o further cemented its reputation as one of the most formidable surf breaks in the world.
Teahupoo also gained recognition through the annual Billabong Pro Tahiti competition , where professional surfers from around the world gather to tackle the monstrous waves. The event showcases the ability and bravery of surfers as they navigate the treacherous conditions.
In August 2023, Australian big wave surfer Laurie Towner caught what many described as one of the biggest waves ever paddled at Teahupo’o, estimated at over 25 feet (7.6 meters).
The peak season for big waves at Teahupoo is typically from April to October, offering the perfect conditions for experienced surfers to test their skills. However, the wave’s immense power and the shallow reef pose significant challenges and risks, making Teahupoo a spot reserved for only the most skilled and fearless surfers.
6. Waimea, Hawaii
Waimea Bay, located on the North Shore of Oahu, is renowned for its significance in the world of big wave surfing. This iconic surf spot has played a pivotal role in the history of the sport, with its massive waves drawing surfers from around the globe. The bay’s annual event , The Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau, is a prestigious big wave competition that only takes place when wave heights reach a minimum of 20 feet. This event has become synonymous with Waimea Bay and has further solidified its status as a mecca for big wave surfers.
In January 2025, Waimea Bay hosted the Eddie Aikau Big Wave Invitational for the 11th time in its 40-year history. The competition saw waves reaching up to 20 feet (6 meters), with local surfer Landon McNamara taking the win . McNamara’s perfect 50-point ride and a total score of 135.80 secured his victory over fellow Hawaiian Mason Ho, making this edition of “The Eddie” one of the most memorable in recent years.
The unique features of Waimea Bay, compared to other surf spots on the North Shore, lie in its powerful and consistent waves, which can reach heights of up to 30 feet during the winter months. The bay’s close proximity to the shore also makes it an exhilarating yet accessible spot for spectators to witness the awe-inspiring waves and talented surfers in action.
Aside from big wave surfing, Waimea Bay and its surrounding area offer a range of activities and attractions for visitors, including snorkeling, cliff jumping, and simply relaxing on the beautiful beach. The bay is also situated near the Waimea Valley, a lush botanical garden with a waterfall and cultural exhibits, adding to the allure of this breathtaking destination.
Mullaghmore Head in Donegal Bay , Ireland, is a renowned big wave surf break known for its significant size and powerful waves. The waves at Mullaghmore Head can reach heights of over 50 feet, making it a sought-after spot for experienced big wave surfers. The optimal surfing conditions at this spot require large North Atlantic winter storms, which create the massive swells needed for big wave surfing.
In November 2023, Mullaghmore Head experienced a significant swell, producing waves up to 40 feet (12 meters) high. Local big wave surfer Conor Maguire successfully rode these massive waves, further cementing Mullaghmore’s reputation as a premier destination for big wave surfing.
The impact of these winter storms on the waves at Mullaghmore Head can be intense, presenting unique challenges and dangers for surfers. The power and force of the waves, combined with the rocky coastline, can make surfing at this spot extremely hazardous.
The key factors that contribute to the formation of the waves at Mullaghmore Head are the deep oceanic trench and the underwater landscape, which help to produce the rare and massive waves that attract surfers from around the world. However, these waves require careful timing and specific conditions for the best surfing experience, emphasizing the need for caution and expertise when attempting to ride them. Overall, Mullaghmore Head offers a thrilling but perilous big wave surfing experience for those who are up for the challenge.
FAQs
Where can I experience the thrill of riding the biggest waves in the world?
While the biggest waves can be found in various global surf destinations , consider exploring the stunning coastlines of Portugal, known for its epic surf conditions. Check out local surf camps in Portugal for an immersive experience.
What makes Portugal an ideal location for surf enthusiasts seeking the biggest waves?
Portugal’s strategic coastal positioning exposes it to powerful Atlantic swells, creating conditions that attract surfers seeking the biggest waves. Discover the allure of surf camp Portugal experiences for an unforgettable adventure.
Are there specific seasons when the biggest waves hit the Portuguese coast?
Yes, Portugal experiences optimal surf conditions during the fall and winter months when Atlantic storms generate massive swells. Surf camps in Portugal often tailor their programs to coincide with these prime surfing seasons.
Can beginners participate in Portugal surf camp programs focused on the biggest waves?
Absolutely! Many surf camps in Portugal cater to all skill levels. Beginners can receive expert guidance and enjoy the thrill of riding smaller waves while advanced surfers tackle the more massive breaks.
What are some must-visit surf spots in Portugal famous for the biggest waves?
Explore iconic surf destinations like Nazaré, Praia do Norte, and Supertubos, where surfers from around the world come to ride the biggest waves. Many surf camps in Portugal offer packages that include visits to these renowned spots.
How can I book a surf camp in Portugal to experience the thrill of the biggest waves?
Booking a surf camp in Portugal is easy. Explore online options, read reviews, and choose a program that suits your skill level and preferences. Many surf camps offer convenient online booking systems to secure your spot for an unforgettable wave-riding adventure.
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The second country with more Spanish speaking population is the US, what do ypu think this implies?
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65 | what are the four countries with a higher spanish-speaking population than the u.s | https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/ | Market Insights
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Mexico is the country with the largest number of native Spanish speakers in the world. As of 2024, 132.5 million people in Mexico spoke Spanish with a native command of the language. Colombia was the nation with the second-highest number of native Spanish speakers, at around 52.7 million. Spain came in third, with 48 million, and Argentina fourth, with 46 million.
Spanish, a world language
As of 2023, Spanish ranked as the fourth most spoken language in the world , only behind English, Chinese, and Hindi, with over half a billion speakers. Spanish is the official language of over 20 countries, the majority on the American continent, nonetheless, it's also one of the official languages of Equatorial Guinea in Africa. Other countries have a strong influence, like the United States, Morocco, or Brazil, countries included in the list of non-Hispanic countries with the highest number of Spanish speakers .
The second most spoken language in the U.S.
In the most recent data, Spanish ranked as the language, other than English, with the highest number of speakers , with 12 times more speakers as the second place. Which comes to no surprise following the long history of migrations from Latin American countries to the Northern country. Moreover, only during the fiscal year 2022. 5 out of the top 10 countries of origin of naturalized people in the U.S. came from Spanish-speaking countries.
Read more
Countries with the largest number of native Spanish speakers worldwide in 2024 (in millions)
table
Mexico
132.49
Colombia
52.7
Spain
48.45
Argentina
46.45
Supplementary notes
* The date of data collection varies among the countries surveyed. The date of survey shown is the year of publication.
Figures have been rounded.
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Instituto Cervantes. "Countries with the largest number of native Spanish speakers worldwide in 2024 (in millions)." Chart. October 31, 2024. Statista. Accessed February 28, 2025. https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/
Instituto Cervantes. (2024). Countries with the largest number of native Spanish speakers worldwide in 2024 (in millions). Statista. Statista Inc.. Accessed: February 28, 2025. https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/
Instituto Cervantes. "Countries with The Largest Number of Native Spanish Speakers Worldwide in 2024 (in Millions)." Statista, Statista Inc., 31 Oct 2024, https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/
Instituto Cervantes, Countries with the largest number of native Spanish speakers worldwide in 2024 (in millions) Statista, https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/ (last visited February 28, 2025)
Countries with the largest number of native Spanish speakers worldwide in 2024 (in millions) [Graph], Instituto Cervantes, October 31, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.statista.com/statistics/991020/number-native-spanish-speakers-country-worldwide/
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65 | what are the four countries with a higher spanish-speaking population than the u.s | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanophone | Hispanophone
People who speak the Spanish language
Not to be confused with Hispanophobe .
Geographic distribution of the Spanish language:
Official majority language
Secondary language (more than 20% Spanish speakers) or culturally important
Hispanophone refers to anything related to the Spanish language .
In a cultural, rather than merely linguistic sense, the notion of "Hispanophone" goes further than the above definition. The Hispanic culture is the legacy of the vast and prolonged Spanish Empire , and so the term can refer to people whose cultural background is primarily associated with Spain, regardless of racial or geographical differences. The whole sense of identity of the Hispanic population and the Hispanophones is sometimes referred by the term Hispanidad (Hispanicity).
When used in terms to refer to speakers of the Spanish language and the Spanish-speaking world, the Hispanosphere encompasses the following geographical areas: Spain, Hispanic America , Equatorial Guinea , and portions of the United States (namely the Southwest and Florida ). [1] When used in the broader sense to include areas where the local culture has been heavily impacted by Hispanic influences, the former Spanish East Indies colonies of Philippines and to a lesser extent, Guam are also included.
The terms are derived from the Latin word Hispanicus ("Spanish") which refers to anything pertaining to the Roman province of Hispania ("Spain"). In addition to the general definition of Hispanophone, some groups in the Hispanic world make a distinction between Castilian-speaking [i] and Spanish-speaking, with the former term denoting the speakers of the Spanish language— also known as Castilian —and the latter the speakers of the Spanish or Hispanic languages (i.e. the languages of Spain or the languages of the Hispanic nations ).
The Hispanosphere
There are an estimated 474.7 million native Spanish speakers and about 100 million second and foreign language speakers around the world as of 2022, totaling 574 million Hispanophones in total. [2] This makes Spanish the second most natively spoken language and fourth most spoken language overall globally. The vast majority of Hispanophones are concentrated in the Hispanosphere, the countries and territories where Spanish is a native or significant language.
Countries where Spanish is considered the official language de jure or de facto
During the Spanish period between 1492 and 1898, many people from Spain migrated to the new lands they had conquered . The Spaniards took with them their language and culture, and integrated within the society they had settled, creating a large empire that stretched all over the world and producing several multiracial populations. Their influences are found in the following continents and countries that were originally colonized by the Spaniards. [3]
1,454,789
28,052
10,831
Total
534,276,236
21,162,853
8,174,198
^ Note: Spanish is the second most spoken language in the U.S. and has no official status except in New Mexico.
Geographic distribution of Spanish speakers
The modern-day nationalities that live in the region of ancient Hispania are the Portuguese , Spanish, Andorran and Gibraltarian people. Historically , the modern country of Spain was formed by the accretion of several independent Iberian kingdoms through dynastic inheritance, conquest and the will of the local elites. These kingdoms had their own nationalistic[ clarification needed ] loyalties and political borders.
Today, there is no single Castilian–Spanish[ clarification needed ] identity for the whole country. Spain is a de facto plurinational state .[ citation needed ] Many Spanish citizens feel no conflict in recognising their multiple ethnic identities at the same time. Spain is a culturally heterogeneous country, home to a wide range of cultures, each one with its own customs and traditions. Some such cultures have their own language . Since the beginning of the transition to democracy in Spain and the creation of the Spanish autonomous communities , after Francoist Spain , there have been many movements towards more autonomy ( delegation of powers ) in certain territories of the country, some with the aim of achieving full independence and others with the goal of improving the system of devolution and the state of the autonomies (or self-government entities).
The existence of multiple distinct cultures in Spain allows an analogy to be drawn to the United Kingdom.[ citation needed ] Using the term Spanish for someone of Spanish descent would then be expected to be equivalent to using Briton to describe someone descending from some part of the United Kingdom. Cultures within the United Kingdom, such as English, Irish, Scottish , and Welsh , would then correspond in this analogy to cultures within Spain such as Castilian , Catalan , Galician and Basque among others. In contrast with Spain, because of centuries of gradual and mutual consolidation across the Iberian Peninsula, such distinctions tend to be blurred. It is a subtle, yet important, distinction.
In Spain, as in the United Kingdom, the economically dominant territories— Castile and England—spread their language for mutual communication. However, the political dominance in the United Kingdom tends to be sharper compared to Spain, where most of medieval realms do not correspond with the actual boundaries of the autonomous communities, and the crown was unified into a sole monarch .
United States
Percentage of the U.S. population aged 5 and over who speak the Spanish language at home in 2019, by states.
U.S. Hispanics are citizens of the United States whose ancestry or national origin is of any of the nations composing the Hispanosphere. A Hispanic person's status is independent from whether or not he or she speaks the Spanish language, for not all Hispanic Americans speak Spanish. A Hispanic person may be of any race (White, Amerindian, mixed, Black, Asian or Pacific Islander). As of 2013 [update] Hispanics accounted for 17.1% of the population, around 53.2 million people. [4] This was an increase of 29% since 2004, when Hispanics were 14.1% of the population (around 41.3 million people). The Hispanic growth rate over the July 1, 2003 to July 1, 2004, period was 3.6% — higher than any other ancestral group in the United States — and more than three times the rate of the nation's total population (at 1.0%). The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050, is 105.6 million people. According to this projection, Hispanics will constitute 25% of the nation's total population by the year 2050. [5] [6]
Historically, a continuous Hispanic presence in the territory of the United States has existed since the 16th century, earlier than any other group after the Amerindians . Spaniards pioneered the present-day United States. The first confirmed European landing on the continent was that of Juan Ponce de León , who landed in 1513 on the shore he christened La Florida . Within three decades of Ponce de León's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains , the Mississippi River , the Grand Canyon , and the Great Plains . Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast , penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine , and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon .
The Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida , in 1565. Santa Fe, New Mexico also predates Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607) and Plymouth Colony (of Mayflower and Pilgrims fame, founded in 1620). Later came Spanish settlements in San Antonio , Tucson , San Diego , Los Angeles, and San Francisco, to name just a few. The Spanish even established a Jesuit mission in Virginia 's Chesapeake Bay 37 years before the founding of Jamestown.
Two iconic American stories have Spanish antecedents, too. Almost 80 years before John Smith 's alleged rescue by Pocahontas , a man by the name of Juan Ortiz told of his remarkably similar rescue from execution by an Indian girl. Spaniards also held a thanksgiving —56 years before the famous Pilgrims festival —when they feasted near St. Augustine with Florida Indians, probably on stewed pork and garbanzo beans. As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War , Spain held claim to roughly half of today's continental United States (see New Spain ); in 1775, Spanish ships even reached Alaska . From 1819 to 1848, the United States increased the nation's area by roughly a third of former Spanish and Mexican territory, including today's three most populous states: California, Texas , and Florida. Hispanics became the first American citizens in the newly acquired Southwest territory and remained the ancestral majority in several states until the 20th century, and a large minority in the 21st century.
Hispanic Americans have fought in all the wars of the United States and have earned some of the highest distinctions awarded to U.S. soldiers ( list of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients ). [7] [8] [9] Historic figures in the United States have been Hispanic from early times. Some recent famous people of Hispanic descent in the U.S. include actress Rita Hayworth , singer Linda Ronstadt , and baseball legends Lefty Gomez and Ted Williams .
National Hispanic Heritage Month
This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2022) (
The people of Hispanophone countries encompass many different ethnic backgrounds. Though in countries like the United States, Hispanics may often be stereotyped as having a typical Mediterranean / Amerindian /Southern European appearance - olive skin , dark hair, and dark eyes. [11] [12]
Most Hispanics in the United States have their origins in countries such as El Salvador , Cuba , and Mexico, with 90% of Salvadorans, 95% of Paraguayans, and 70% [13] of Mexicans identifying as mestizo, with Mexico having the largest total mestizo population at over 66 million. [14]
In the United States, Hispanics, regardless of self-identified racial background, are labeled Hispanic by the U.S. census. They may have varying of European ancestry, such as Spanish origins, and Amerindian or African roots. [15] From 1850 to 1920, the U.S. Census form did not distinguish between whites and Mexican Americans. [16] In 1930, the U.S. Census form asked for "color or race", and census enumerators were instructed to write W for white and Mex for Mexican.[ citation needed ] In 1940 and 1950, the census reverted its decision and made Mexicans be classified as white again and thus the instructions were to "Report white (W) for Mexicans unless they were definitely of full Indigenous Indian or other non-white races (such as Black or Asian)." [16] )
Of the over 35 million Hispanics counted in the Federal 2000 Census ,[ citation needed ] 47.9% identified as White (termed White Hispanic by the Census Bureau); 42.2% some other race; 6.3% two or more races; 2% Black or African American; 1.2% American Indian and Alaska Native; 0.3% Asian; and 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. [17] Even among those Hispanics who reported one race only, most would also possess at least some ancestral lineage from one or more other races, despite the fact that only 6.3% reported as such (this is also applicable to the non-Hispanics counted in the U.S. Census, although maybe in less proportion).
According to one study (Stephens et al. 2001), from the genetic perspective, Hispanics generally represent a differential mixture of European, Native American, and African ancestry, with the proportionate mix typically depending on country of origin. [15]
The populations of Iberia (both Spain and Portugal), like all European populations, have received multiple other influences, even though they are still largely descended from the prehistoric European populations, and to a greater degree than any other major group. [18]
Equatorial Guinea
In the former Spanish province of Equatorial Guinea , although Portuguese and French are co-official languages, the majority of the population speak Spanish. [19] There is a small minority of African people who possessed Spanish and other European ancestry. These individuals form less than 1% of the population.
Portions of the north coast of Morocco were a former Spanish protectorate and Spanish remains spoken by about 1.7 million people as of 2018. This makes Morocco the country with the most Spanish speakers outside the Hispanophone world unless the United States is excluded. [20] However, demand for Spanish and overall competency in the language has fallen since the start of the 21st century and the most popular foreign language is now English (as French is considered a second and mandatory language in the country). [21]
Spanish territories in North Africa
Western Sahara
Spanish is maintained as a secondary language alongside the official Arabic in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic , a partially recognized state that claims Western Sahara , whose territory formerly comprised the Spanish colony of Spanish Sahara and now is mostly occupied by Morocco . However, Spanish is not a native language in the territory, and the Moroccan government uses Arabic and French in its administration of Western Sahara and the number of Spanish speakers in the territory itself is rather trivial compared to the former two languages. [22]
Map of the Chabacano language in Zamboanga in the Philippine Islands
See also: Spanish Filipino , Philippine Spanish , Chavacano , and Captaincy General of the Philippines
In the Philippines , the Spanish Filipino population which mostly descends from those Spanish colonists who arrived during the Spanish colonial period remains influential in Filipino society despite its small numbers. However, the vast majority of Spanish Filipinos today no longer speak Spanish. Instead, most now exclusively speak Tagalog or other local Philippine languages and English. [23] Nevertheless, the only Spanish-based creole language in Asia called Chavacano was developed on the islands and is spoken by roughly a million people.
Section 7, Article XIV of the 1987 Philippine Constitution specifies Spanish (along with Arabic ) a language to "be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis", while the Philippine Academy of the Spanish Language (Spanish: Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española) remains the state regulating body for the language. Castilian Spanish is the sole dialectal standard taught in schools, while Philippine Spanish (the local variant of the language which developed during the colonial era) currently has a few thousand native speakers left and is close to extinction. [24]
Despite its rapid decline in the 20th century, there has been a revival of interest in the Spanish language since the first decade of the 21st century among select circles. Under the rule of President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (herself a fluent speaker), Spanish was re-introduced into the educational system as an elective language in secondary schools. Nevertheless, the Spanish language's presence in the country and its cultural influence continues to decline and is no longer present in daily life outside the numerous loanwords of Spanish origin in Philippine languages. [25]
Pacific Islands
Easter Island , part of Chile , is the only island in Oceania whose official language is Spanish. [26]
Spanish is the official language of Easter Island , a territorial possession of Chile in Polynesia .
Mariana Islands
While most people living on these islands no longer speak Spanish, the native Chamorro language exhibits a noticeable Spanish influence in its vocabulary. Many Chamorros have also preserved Hispanic cultural elements such as fiestas , cockfighting , and the Catholic faith despite having integrated with the American way of life.
Spanish surnames are still prevalent on Guam, it is spoken by Catholic people and Puerto Ricans , and the custom of women keeping their maiden names after marriage is a both byproduct of Spanish culture on these islands as well as the matrilineal structure of indigenous Chamorro culture.
The Orcadas Base , an Argentine scientific station, is the oldest operating Antarctic base and the oldest with a permanent population (since 1907).
In Antarctica , there are only two civilian localities and both are inhabited primarily by native Spanish speakers. One of them is the Argentine Fortín Sargento Cabral , which has 66 inhabitants. [27] The other is the Chilean town of Villa Las Estrellas , which has a population of 150 inhabitants in summer and 80 inhabitants in winter. In each of them there is a school where students study and do research in Spanish. The Orcadas Base , an Argentine scientific station, is the oldest base in all of Antarctica still in operation and the oldest with a permanent population (since 1907).
The following countries operate scientific bases in Antarctica:
Country
The Spanish and the Portuguese took the Christian faith to their colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia; Roman Catholicism remains the predominant religion amongst most Hispanics. [28] A significant minority of Spanish speakers are also either Protestant [29] or not affiliated with any religion.
Countries
See also
"The Race Question" . Rci.rutgers.edu. Archived from the original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
It is spoken by 67.6% of the Equatorial Guinean population.
"Spanish" . Ethnologue. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
Ocampo, Ambeth (4 December 2007). "The loss of Spanish" . Makati City, Philippines: Philippine Daily Inquirer (INQUIRER.net). Opinion. Archived from the original on 11 March 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
^ Latinobarometro, Opinion Publica Latinoamericana, Enero 2018.
External links
Hispanophone
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65 | what are the four countries with a higher spanish-speaking population than the u.s | https://baselang.com/blog/travel/spanish-speaking-countries/ | Niall Quinn in Travel
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At BaseLang, we’ve helped thousands of people learn Spanish, and many of our students share the same motivation for learning Spanish: Travel.
Whether you already have the travel bug, or you’re dreaming of one day buying a plane ticket to Spain or Latin America and scratching that travel itch, learning Spanish is a no-brainer.
Not only will you be able to immerse yourself in a new culture and connect with Spanish speaking locals, but you’ll also have a list of 21 official Spanish speaking countries to add to your travel bucket list.
(Ok, we’re not recommending that you should travel to each country on the list, but you get the point.)
How Many People Speak Spanish?
493 million people speak Spanish as a native language , making it the second most-spoken language in the world (source: Instituto Cervantes, 2021). As a native language, Spanish is ahead of English, but behind Chinese, which has the world’s most native speakers.
If we include everyone who speaks decent Spanish as a second language, we can use Spanish to communicate with 591 million people worldwide ! This makes Spanish the third most-spoken language in the world, behind Chinese and English, and on par with Hindi.
Spanish is also one of the most-used languages on the internet, with huge Spanish-language communities on international social networks.
Not to mention the fact that Spanish is continuing to grow in traditionally non-Spanish-speaking countries.
Ay caramba!
List Of Spanish Speaking Countries
If you are planning to learn Spanish, or have already nailed down some of the basics, then there are tons of attractive options for putting your Español to the test.
To be exact, 21 countries have Spanish as their official language.
2. Colombia
Highlights: Caribbean flavor of Cartagena, Parque Tayrona national park, Medellin nightlife, learning salsa in Cali, touring a coffee farm in the Zona Cafetera.
3. Spain
Highlights: Barcelona & Real Madrid battling it out in “El Clasico,” eating tapas, architectural masterpieces such as Gaudí’s Sagrada Familia and the fortress/palace Alhambra, heading south for some beach hopping.
4. Argentina
Highlights: Iguazu Falls, Tango in Buenos Aires, vineyards of Mendoza, hiking in Patagonia, and visiting Ushuaia (claimed to be the most southernmost city in the world).
5. Perú
Highlights: Peruvian cuisine, Machu Picchu ruins, bustling city of Lima, Nazca Lines, visiting the Amazon, Lake Titicaca, and surfing in Mancora.
6. Venezuela
Highlights: Angel Falls (the highest waterfall in the world at 3230 feet), beachtime in Margarita Island, sand dunes of Médanos de Coro National Park.
Unfortunately, Venezuela is pretty unstable at the moment, so we cannot advise visiting there right now. In the meantime, why not head to some of the other Spanish-speaking countries around South America where you’re bound to meet plenty of Venezolanos.
7. Chile
Highlights: Easter Island, Punta Arenas (also claimed to be the southernmost city in the world), adventure sports in Pucón, Valparaiso street art, and sandboarding in the Atacama desert.
8. Ecuador
Highlights: Montañita beach town, Cotopaxi National Park, the Galápagos Islands (which inspired Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution), and Quito, one of the highest capital cities in the world (prepare for the altitude).
9. Guatemala
Highlights: Ancient Mayan city of Tikal, sunrise hike in Lake Atitlán, and adventure sports in Semuc Champey.
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10. Cuba
Highlights: Cruising around Havana in a car from the 1950s, cigar farms in Viñales, Cuba Libres & salsa in Trinidad, and beach time in Varadero.
11. Bolivia
Highlights: The salt flats of Salar de Uyuni, the infamous “death road” bicycle trail in La Paz, Lake Titicaca, and the Amazon rainforest.
12. Dominican Republic
Highlights: Cordillera Central trek, learning bachata in Santo Domingo, whale watching in Samaná Bay, and chilling at Playa Las Ballenas beach.
13. Honduras
Highlights: Ancient ruins of Copán, considered some of the best in Central America. Roatán and Utila if surfing or water activities is your thing.
14. Paraguay
Highlights: The Iguazu Falls, which borders Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay, is one of the top tourist attractions in South America.
15. El Salvador
Highlights: Joya de Cerén Archaeological Site, a pre-Columbian Maya farming village somehow incredibly intact under layers of volcanic ash. Playa El Tunco beach for catching some waves and relaxing for a few days.
16. Nicaragua
Highlights: Colonial vibes of Granada, nightlife in San Juan del Sur, surfing down the active “Cerro Negro” volcano at 93 km/hr in León.
17. Costa Rica
Highlights: Arenal Volcano national park, secluded beaches of Guanacaste, and the diversity of Corcovado National Park, an 11,000-acre rainforest.
18. Panama
Highlights: The Panama Canal, which connects the Caribbean and Pacific, Casco Viejo district in Panama city, the coast for surfing, scuba diving, snorkeling, or simply chilling by a Caribbean beach.
19. Uruguay
Highlights: Surfing in Punta del Diablo, strolling around the quaint Colonia del Sacramento, whale watching from the beaches of Piriápolis.
20. Puerto Rico
Highlights: The 16-century Castillo San Felipe del Morro fortress jutting into the Atlantic Ocean, the historic old city of San Juan, the El Yunque tropical forest, and endless beaches.
21. Equatorial Guinea
(Yes, it also took us by surprise.)
Around a third of the population in Equatorial Guinea speaks Spanish, while French, Fang, and Bubi are also spoken. The main part of the country is situated on the Atlantic Coast in central Africa, while the capital city of Malabo is on the island of Bioko off the coast of Cameroon.
Despite boasting a terrain that features plains, valleys, rainforests, and volcanoes, it seems like tourism hasn’t quite taken off, with Equatorial Guinea being among the least-visited countries in the world.
While there isn’t a whole pile of available information on traveling there, Equatorial Guinea is currently categorized as Level 1 (exercise normal precautions) by the US Department of State Travel Advisory, which means it’s pretty safe to travel there.
Bonus Country: the Philippines
Ok, while the Philippines is no longer officially a Spanish speaking country these days, this wasn’t always the case.
Although the language is on the decline since the change, Philippine Spanish (a variant of standard Spanish) is still popular with many locals continuing to speak it, and schools continuing to teach it.
Which means you may find pockets of Spanish speakers if you ever travel around the Philippines.
And if not, just hit the beaches.
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65 | what are the four countries with a higher spanish-speaking population than the u.s | https://www.speakeasybcn.com/en/blog/how-many-people-in-the-world-speak-spanish | How many people speak Spanish in the world? 42 Statistics
by Marielle Poorte
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This article was updated on 20th November 2024 with the latest figures.
Mexico is the country with the world's largest Spanish-speaking population, followed by the United States, Colombia, Spain and Argentina.
Looking for statistics on the number of Spanish speakers in the world?
Below, you’ll find 42 statistics covering the number of Spanish speakers worldwide – plus a breakdown of the populations of native speakers, non-native speakers and language students.
Information has been collected from the Instituto Cervantes , the Spanish Federation of Spanish Language Schools ( FEDELE ), and Spain's National Institute for Statistics.
The second half of the article features two lists which cover:
The 21 countries where Spanish is an official language (ranked in order of population)
The 28 countries where Spanish is not an official language (ranked in order of population of Spanish speakers)
42 statistics about Spanish speakers
Spanish speakers in the world
As of 2024, there are more than 600 million Spanish speakers worldwide. It's the first time the number of Spanish speakers recorded has crossed the 600 million mark.
Spanish speakers represent 7.5% of the global population.
The number of Spanish speakers globally, as of November 2024, is 600,607,806.
There are 499 million native Spanish speakers making up 6.06% of the global population.
Spanish is the world’s second most widely spoken mother tongue, after Mandarin.
Spanish is the fourth most widely spoken language globally (including native and non-native speakers) following English, Mandarin, and Hindi.
There are 78 million non-native Spanish speakers in the world – i.e. people who live in Spanish-speaking areas or have studied the Spanish language but it's not their mother tongue.
There are 24 million people studying Spanish worldwide – this is the fastest-growing segment of Spanish speakers globally.
Countries where Spanish is an official language
Spanish is an official language in 20 countries and 1 self-governing territory (Puerto Rico).
A total of 453 million native Spanish speakers reside in countries or territories where Spanish is an official language.
Mexico is the largest Spanish-speaking country in the world. It has a population of 133 million of which 125 million (94%) are native Spanish speakers. An additional 6.5 million are bilingual in Spanish and one of Mexico's 68 recognized indigenous languages.
Equatorial Guinea is the only Spanish-speaking African country – i.e. a country where Spanish is an official language – with 74% of the population being native speakers.
Equatorial Guinea is also the smallest Spanish-speaking country. It has a poulation of 1.6 million of which 1.2 million (74%) are native Spanish speakers, and a further 420,000 are fluent in Spanish.
The economies of Spanish-speaking nations account for over 6% of the global economy.
Countries where Spanish is not an official language
Over 45 million native Spanish speakers live in non Spanish-speaking countries – i.e. a country where Spanish is not an official language.
More than 50 million non-native Spanish speakers live in non Spanish-speaking countries – i.e. they learned Spanish later in life or were raised in a bilingual area where Spanish was not their mother tongue.
A total of 100 million Spanish speakers live in countries where Spanish is not an official language. This figure includes both native Spanish speakers and people who are fluent in Spanish but it's not their mother tongue.
In 2015 , the number of Spanish speakers in the USA surpassed the entire population of Spain for the first time. Today, the United States has second-largest population of Spanish speakers, with 57 million.
In the United States, 36 million native Spanish speakers are eligible to vote, making up 14.7% of the total U.S. electorate.
Spanish is spoken at home in 13.3% of U.S. households.
The Philippines is the Asian country with the largest population of Spanish speakers, totaling 567,000, including 4,500 native speakers and 562,000 proficient speakers. This is due to Spain being a former colonial power.
Morocco has the largest population of Spanish speakers in Africa, with 1.8 million people (native and non-native). Morocco is the closest African country geographically to Spain, and there are two Spanish enclaves on the coast of the north-african country: Ceuta and Melilla.
Excluding Spain, Switzerland is the European country with the highest number of Spanish speakers, totaling 557,000.
In Oceania, Australia has the highest number of Spanish speakers, at 560,000.
The former Netherlands Antilles has the highest population of Spanish speakers among Caribbean countries where Spanish is not an official language, with 203,000 speakers. The population of the former Netherlands Antilles is 225,000 meaning its also the region with the highest proportion of Spanish speakers (90%) – the islands that make up the so-called Dutch caribbean are either municipalities of the Kingdom of the Netherlands or constituent countries, meaning the official language is Dutch.
Spanish in the arts (and on the Internet)
Spanish is the sixth most popular language in literature, with 7% of published titles worldwide originally written in Spanish.
Spanish ranks as the second most important language in cinematography, with over 4,300 Spanish-language films produced between 2007 and 2017.
In 2023, Spanish-language songs accounted for 21% of the 500 most-listened-to songs on Spotify.
In 2022, Spanish-language songs made up 21% of the 100 most listened-to songs on YouTube.
Spanish ranks as the sixth most translated language globally, following English, French, German, Russian, and Italian.
Spanish is the second most-used language on the Internet, comprising 5.6% of all websites.
Gabriel García Márquez is the most translated Spanish-speaking author, with 1,382 translations of his works.
After English, Spanish is the language with the most Netflix-produced series, totalling 93.
Spanish language students across the world
The United States, the European Union, and Brazil account for 78% of all Spanish language students worldwide. This is due to Spanish being a common foreign language taught at elementary and secondary schools.
The United States has the highest number of Spanish language students, with 8.6 million enrolled—8 million in schools, 585,000 at universities, and 3,700 in private institutions.
Outside of Spain, France leads Europe with 3.6 million Spanish language students—3.4 million in schools, 244,000 at universities, and 9,000 in private institutions.
Ivory Coast has the largest number of Spanish students in Africa, with 798,000 enrolled—795,000 in schools and 1,800 at universities.
Australia has the highest number of Spanish students in Oceania, with 63,000 enrolled—53,000 in schools, 9,300 at universities, and 600 in private institutions.
China leads Asia in Spanish language students, with 54,000 enrolled—9,000 in schools, 35,000 at universities, and 10,000 in private institutions.
Spain is the country with the most active students either studying the Spanish language or studying other courses with Spanish as the medium of tuition. There are more than 530,000 non-native Spanish speakers studying in Spain – with 98,000 international university students and over 421,000 studying at the 400 Spanish language schools accredited by the Instituto Cervantes.
Barcelona is understood to be the Spanish city with the most Spanish language students at private institutions in 2023. According to the FEDELE association of Spanish language schools, Barcelona hosted 13,349 students and surpassed Madrid for the first time.
22% of all tourists visiting Spain declare the reason for their visit as "meeting new cultures and practising languages". With 85 million tourists visiting Spain in 2023, there could be at least 17 million more Spanish speakers in the world than the 600 million recorded by the Instituto Cervantes. If these populations were recorded as 'Spanish speakers' it would place the number of Spanish speakers in the world at over 617 million – a figure which would mean Spanish is the third most widely spoken language in the world (as there are officially 609 million Hindi speakers).
Map showing countries with the largest Spanish-speaking populations in the world.
Lists of top Spanish-speaking countries in the world
Countries and territories where Spanish is an official language
Below you’ll find a list of the 20 countries and one self-governing territory (Puerto Rico) where Spanish is an official language.
The countries are ordered by population size.
You’ll also find the latest figures on the number of native Spanish-speaking citizens per country and territory.
Mexico
Colombia
Spain
Argentina
Peru
Venezuela
Chile
Guatemala
Ecuador
Bolivia
Native Spanish speakers10 million (81%)
Cuba
Dominican Republic
Honduras
Paraguay
Nicaragua
El Salvador
Costa Rica
Panama
Uruguay
Puerto Rico
Equatorial Guinea
Fluent Spanish speakers: 1.6 million (100%)
Native Spanish speakers: 1.2 million (74%)
This map shows countries with the largest proportional populations of Spanish speakers. Countries like Belize, the Netherands Antilles, and Western Sahara have a high proportion of Spanish speakers without Spanish being an official language.
Countries and territories where Spanish is not an official language
Below you’ll find a list of the 28 countries and territories where Spanish is not an official language, but there is a significant Spanish-speaking resident population.
The countries are ordered by size of resident Spanish speakers.
You’ll also find the latest figures on numbers of native and non-native Spanish-speaking citizens. These figures are from the Instituto Cervantes and 'non-native' refers to people who are either fluent in Spanish or studied Spanish at high school or college (or the country's equivalent).
Here's the list:
Native speakers: 42 million
Non-native speakers: 15 million
Native speakers: 1.3 million
Non-native speakers: 28 million
Native speakers: 217,000
Native speakers: 13,000
Native speakers: 710,000
Non-native speakers: 665,000
Total Spanish speakers: 32,000
Native speakers: 4,900
Non-native speakers: 0
There are a further 160,000 native Spanish speaking residing in countries not featured in either of these lists.
Why are there Spanish speakers in countries where Spanish isn't an official language?
The reasons vary from country to country.
Some of the countries below have large Spanish-speaking populations as a result of immigration from Spanish-speaking nations (such as the United States and the United Kingdom).
Others have a large population due to proximity to Spanish-speaking nations (such as Morocco or Brasil).
Other countries and territories have large populations of native and bilingual Spanish speakers without Spanish being an official language (such as in Belize and Dutch Antilles).
Other nations have large numbers of Spanish speakers due to Spain being a former colonial power (such as the Philippines).
Meanwhile, other nations have large populations of non-native speakers who have studied Spanish at schools or universities (such as the United States, the EU, Canada and Australia).
Frequently Asked Questions
How many Spanish speakers are there in the world?
According to the latest Spanish in the World 2024 report by the Instituto Cervantes, there are 600.6 million Spanish speakers worldwide as of November 2024. It's the first time in history the number of Spanish speakers has reached 600 million. The figure includes 499 million native speakers, 78 million people fluent in Spanish as a second or third language, and 24 million actively studying Spanish.
What percentage of the world speaks Spanish?
Spanish speakers account for 7.5% of the global population. Meanwhile, solely native Spanish speakers represent 6.06% of the world’s population, making Spanish the second most-spoken mother tongue globally after Mandarin. These are the latest figures according to the November 2024 Spanish in the World 2024 report by the Instituto Cervantes. The report also found the number of native and non-native Spanish speakers crossed the 600 million mark for the first time in 2024.
Which Asian country has the most Spanish speakers?
The Philippines is the Asian country with the largest population of Spanish speakers with a total number of 567,000, according to the November 2024 Spanish in the World 2024 report by the Instituto Cervantes. While only 4,500 are native speakers, 562,000 can speak Spanish as a second or third language, reflecting the enduring linguistic and cultural legacy of Spanish colonization.
Which country has the most Spanish speakers?
Mexico is the largest Spanish-speaking country in the world, with a population over 133 million. Of these 133 million, 125 million are native Spanish speakers with an additional 6.5 million being fluent in Spanish but having one of Mexico's 68 indigenous language as their mother tongue – this is according to the lastest figures from the Spanish in the World 2024 report released in November 2024 by the Instituto Cervantes.
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66 | what is the meaning of lord shiva lingam | https://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/articles/shiva-lingam | Yes
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The Shiva lingam is a representation of the Hindu divinity Shiva and is used for worship in temples and homes. In traditional Indian culture, the Shiva linga is fairly seen as an image of the energy and capability of Lord Shiva Himself. The Shiv linga is often represented alongside the yoni, a symbol of Goddess Shakti, the female creative energy. The union of Shiva linga and Yoni speaks of the 'unbreakable two-in-unity of male and female, the passive space and active time from which all life originates'. Shiv linga represents the Cosmic Egg ('Brahmanda' in Sanskrit) which has neither a starting nor an end. It is believed that this evolving world ('Jagat' in Sanskrit) eventually merges or breaks down into a formless system. In this way, the Shiva lingam is the most straightforward indication of development.
Shiva linga is the holy union of lingam and yoni and represents the 'indivisible two-in-oneness of male and female, Prakriti and Purusha, the passive space and active time from which all life originates. The Lingam is seen as a symbol of the energy and potential of God, Shiva Himself and is represented alongside the yoni, a symbol of Shakti, the female creative energy.
Yellow Jade Shivling
Yellow Jade is considered to boost health, wealth and longevity, and encourages self-realization and awareness of thoughts. It is used as a good luck and prosperity charm. Pashupatinath, a form of Lord Shiva carved in this gemstone bestows the devotee with the fulfilment of desires.
Siddh Parad Shivling
It is capable of giving instant luck, wealth, position, name and fame. It blesses the devotee with unity and harmony in the family and guides devotees onto the spiritual path.
Narmada Shivling
It blesses the devotee with unity and harmony in the family and guides its devotees on the spiritual path.
Ruby Shivling
Removes poverty, and imparts prosperity, name and fame. It is beneficial to those who are aspirants for high office and political sphere.
Sphatik Shivaling
It brings prosperity, happiness and contentment to the householders where it is worshipped.
Shivling in Panchdhatu
It offers prosperity, good health, and fortune and provides relief and protection. It blesses the devotees with unity and harmony in the family and guides them to the spiritual path.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SHIVLINGAM
A Shiva Lingam has three distinct parts, which are considered as Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The lower part represents Brahma, the middle Vishnu, and the upper and the most prominent represents Shiva. Thus Shiva Lingam represents all the three powers in one- as the Para Brahma or Supreme Shiva consciousness.
There is mysterious and indescribable power in Shiva Lingam to induce the concentration of the mind. It is like crystal glazing; the mind easily attains one-pointedness and nothingness by looking at the Shiva Lingam. This is the reason why ancient scholars and sages advocated the worship of Shiva Lingam and its installations in temples for the realization of Supreme Consciousness.
The Shiva linga, when installed at home or temple, induces vibrations of peace, harmony and oneness with the source. It is the most potent form of Shiva worshipped by saints and Yogis for self-realization.
INSTALLING SHIVLING AT HOME OR TEMPLE
Shiv linga is worshipped in two common forms Chala (Moveable) Lingam and Achala (non-moveable or fixed lingam). The Chala lingam may be kept at one's own home for worship. Chala Lingams are often made of gemstones, quartz, brass, parad or other metals.
Achala Lingams and installed at temples and are unmovable once they are installed. These are usually made of stones. There are rigid rules for Achala lingams which must be followed. Achala Lingam must be offered prayers at fixed times and without failure.
Shiva lingam is made of different materials
Ashtaloha Lingam: It is made of eight metals and cures leprosy
Vaidurya Lingam: It is made of a precious stone called vaiduryam (Lapis Lazuli) and protects one from an enemy's attack.
Spatika Lingam: It is made of crystal and bestows fulfilment of all desires.
Parad Lingam: It is made of mercury and bestows abundance.
Trapu Lingam: It is made of tagara metal and makes one's life free from enemies if adored.
Ahasa Lingam: It is made of the vitriol of sulphate and relieves one from the menace of the enemies.
Seesa Lingam: It is made of lead and makes the adorer invulnerable to foes.
Narmadeshwar Shiva Lingams are found only in one place on the ENTIRE planet: Central India, on the banks of the Narmada River. They are composed of cryptocrystalline quartz and have the highest frequency or vibration of any stone on the planet! They are formed into natural egg shapes by the action of the river. The currents of the Narmada river are very strong and forceful and the stones are carried from the rocky river-sides, rendering them smooth and polished.
ABHISHEKAM PROCEDURE
Place Lingam so that Yoni faces North and you are facing the West face of the Lingam and looking towards the east. You need to sit on an Asan of wool/ Kusha.
It is best to do puja of Lord Shiva while wearing Rudraksha on your body as it is his favourite bead.
Following the rituals prescribed in the Shiva Purana, Shiv linga is given a special bath with milk, yoghurt, honey, sandalwood paste and rose water. Puja, meditation and chanting of Om Namah Shivaya accompany the ritual bath.
Following the bath, vermilion paste is applied on the linga. Traditionally, leaves of a forest tree Aegle marmelos (bilva, maredu, wood apple) are used for Shiva Puja. Thereafter, Bilva leaves, which have to be a stalk with three leaves, are kept on top of the Shiva lingam. Ber or jujube fruit is a special offering to the god on this day. Betel leaves are also offered by some. Some also offer belpatra leaves in the belief that the Goddess Lakshmi resides in them. Others believe it is offered for its cooling effects on the hot-tempered deity. Many devotees also decorate the lingam with flowers and garlands and offer incense sticks and fruit.
IMPORTANT FESTIVALS OF LORD SHIVA
Two most important festivals of Lord Shiva are Mahashivratri and Shravan Maas .
Mahashivratri:
It is one of the greatest and the most celebrated Hindu festivals when Lord Shiva is glorified, worshipped and honored with sanctifying rituals throughout the night. The word Shiva means all-auspicious. Maha means great, and Ratri means night. Maha Shivaratri means The Great Night of Shiva when the wedding of Shiva and Parvati took place. Read more
Shravan Maas:
An auspicious period of Shravan month in 2016 for Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Bihar begins from 20th July 2016 (Wednesday) which is observed as the first day of Shravan Month, followed with Sawan Somwar Vrata
These Mondays are dedicated to worship Lord Shiva. Read more
HYMNS AND MANTRAS THAT PLEASE LORD SHIVA
Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra:
The most popular mantra is Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra from the Sukla Yajurveda Samhita III.
||Om Trayambakam Yajaamahe Suganghim Pushtivardhanam
Urvaarukmiva Bandhanaan Mrityor Mokshiya Mamritaat ||
The meaning of the Mantra is as follows
I worship thee, O sweet Lord of transcendental vision (the three -eyed one or Lord Siva). O giver of health and prosperity to all, may I be free from the bonds of death, just as a melon (or cucumber) is severed effortlessly from its bondage or attachment to the creeper.
Om Namah Shivaye
Om Namah Shivaye is also called pranava mantra and is the most popular mantra of Lord Shiva. This mantra takes one to self-realization.
OM/AUM: The three parts of Om (A-U-M) encompass the three states of waking, dreaming, deep sleep, the three levels of gross, subtle, causal, and the three levels of conscious, unconscious, subconscious, as well as the three universal processes of coming, being, and going. Absolute silence beyond the three levels is the silence after AUM. It also refers to Tripura, the one who live in the 'three cities' as in Mahamrityunjaya Mantra, as well as the light referred to in Gayatri Mantra.
Namaha: Nothing is mine. It is just the absolute reality. The three levels of Om, the three worlds of gross, subtle, and causal, along with the three states of waking, dreaming, and deep sleep states of consciousness, as well as the three levels of conscious, unconscious, and subconscious themselves are 'not mine' as the true properties of who I really am. Truly, 'nothing is mine.' Rather, everything, all of these triads is 'thine' or the 'other' as the Absolute Reality.
Shivaye: That Absolute Reality that is the ground out of which the others emerge. It is that 'ink,' so to speak, that is not separate from the many forms which may appear to manifest or be created from that ink. In the Realization of this, one comes to see that he or she is one and the same with the Absolute Reality. The Mahavakyas, the great utterances, are seen to be true. Shiva (the static or ground) and Shakti (the active or creative) are seen to be one and the same. She (Shakti), while one with Shiva is realized in direct experience as the one in the three worlds (Tripura) outlined in Om.
THE 12 JYOTIRLINGAM
Jyotir Lingam thus means the radiant sign of The Almighty. It is believed that Lord Shiva first manifested himself as a Jyotirlinga on the night of the Aridra Nakshatra. Thus,the special reverence for Jyotirlinga.
Puranas talk in detail about the significance of the greatness of the Jyotirlingas. It goes on to say that by reciting the name of 12 Jyotirlinga, a devotee can eliminate all sins. Besides, the devotee becomes calm, chaste and pure as he becomes illuminated and enlightened with supreme and divine knowledge. The names of 12 Jyotirlingas are mentioned below:
Somnath in Gujrat
Traditionally, it is considered the first pilgrimage site: the Dwadashi jyotirlinga begins with the Somnath temple. The temple was rebuilt 16 times and it is rich in legend, tradition and history.
Mallikarjuna in Sri Shailam
It is a place where Shakti peetha and jyotirlinga are together. Adi Shankara composed his Sivananda Lahiri here.
Mahakala in Ujjain
The Lingam at Mahakal is believed to be Swayambhu, the only one of the 12 Jyotirlingams to be so. It is also the only one facing south and also the temple to have a Shree Yantra perched upside down at the ceiling of the Garbhagriha (where the Shiv Lingam sits).
Omkaram in Madhya Pradesh
It is on an island in the Narmada River and is home to a Jyotirlinga shrine and the Amareshwar temple.
Vaidhyanatha
Yogeshwari of Ambejogai was married to Lord Vaidyanatha of Parli. But by the time the marriage party reached, the auspicious time of the wedding had passed. As a result, the people of the marriage party turned into stone statues. Yogeshwari was waiting away from Parli. This is one story that is frequently heard there.
Bhimasankara in the Sahyadri range of Maharashtra: Contains a jyotirlinga shrine associated with Shiva destroying the demon Tripurasura.
Rameshwara in Tamil Nadu: It is revered as the southernmost of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines of India. It enshrines the Ramesvara ('Lord of Rama') pillar.
Nageshwar Temple, Dwarka in Gujrat: The term 'daruka vane' in the shloka (religious verse) for Nageshwar has also been interpreted for Jageshwar, also situated in the Himalaya. Daruka vane means deodar forest.
Kashi Vishwanath in Uttar Pradesh: The Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, is home to the Vishwanath Jyotirlinga shrine, which is perhaps the most sacred of Hindu shrines.
Trimbakeshwara Near Nashik: It is a Jyotirlinga shrine associated with the origin of the Godavari River.
Kedareshwara in Uttarakhand: Kedarnath, nestled in the snow-clad Himalayas, is an ancient shrine, rich in legend and tradition.
Grishneshwar in Maharashtra: It is believed as the Last or 12th (twelfth) Jyotirlinga on the earth.
HOW TO KEEP SHIVLINGA AT HOME: DIRECTION OF PLACEMENT OF SHIVA LINGA
As per Agama Shastra, there are two acceptable orientations of the Shiva Linga.
1. The Yoni base faces the North and the devotee faces the East (towards the West face of the Lingam).
2. The Yoni base faces the East, and the devotee faces the North (towards the South face of the Lingam). The Yoni base here shall mean the point from where the Abhishek liquid (Water or Panchamrit) flows out of Shiva Ling.
Delve into its significance, rituals, and communal celebrations of Puthandu, the Tamil New Year.
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Everything About 12 Jyotirlingas
This article contains a list of 12 Jyotirlingas which are considered the epitome of Lord Shiva’s divinity.
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Everything About 12 Jyotirlingas
This article contains a list of 12 Jyotirlingas which are considered the epitome of Lord Shiva’s divinity.
Discover the divine significance of Sphatik Shivling and explore its benefits, rituals and identification.
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Aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva
"Linga" and "Shivling" redirect here. For other uses, see Linga (disambiguation) and Shivling (disambiguation) .
A lingam with tripundra , projected on a yoni base
A lingam ( Sanskrit : लिङ्ग IAST : liṅga, lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga, is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism . [1] The word lingam is found in the Upanishads and epic literature , where it means a "mark, sign, emblem, characteristic", [2] the "evidence, proof, symptom" of God and God's power. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
The lingam of the Shaivism tradition is a short cylindrical pillar-like symbol of Shiva, made of stone, metal, gem, wood, clay or precious stones. [1] [7] It is often represented within a disc-shaped platform, [1] [8] the yoni – its feminine counterpart, [9] [10] consisting of a flat element, horizontal compared to the vertical lingam, and designed to allow liquid offerings to drain away for collection. [11]
The lingam is an emblem of generative and destructive power. While rooted in representations of the male sexual organ, [12] the lingam is regarded as the "outward symbol" of the "formless reality", the symbolization of merging of the 'primordial matter' ( Prakṛti ) with the 'pure consciousness' ( Purusha ) in transcendental context . [13] The lingam-yoni iconography symbolizes the merging of microcosmos and macrocosmos , [10] the divine eternal process of creation and regeneration, and the union of the feminine and the masculine that recreates all of existence. [11] [14]
The lingam is typically the primary murti or devotional image in Hindu temples dedicated to Shiva, also found in smaller shrines, or as self-manifested natural objects. [15] [16]
Etymology and nomenclature
Lingam, states Monier Monier-Williams , appears in the Upanishads and epic literature , where it means a "mark, sign, emblem, characteristic". [2] [17] Other contextual meanings of the term include "evidence, proof, symptom" of God and God's power. [2] [3]
The word lingam is found in Sanskrit texts , such as Shvetashvatara Upanishad , Samkhya , Vaisheshika and others texts with the meaning of "evidence" of God and God's existence, [18] or existence of formless Brahman . [19] The original meaning of lingam as "sign" is used in Shvetashvatara Upanishad , which says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", liuga ( Sanskrit : लिऊग IAST : liūga) meaning he is transcendental, beyond any characteristic and, specifically, the sign of gender. [4] [20]
The term also appears in early Indian texts on logic, where an inference is based on a sign (linga), such as "if there is smoke, there is fire" where the linga is the smoke. [2] It is a religious symbol in Hinduism representing Shiva as the generative power, [17] all of existence, all creativity and fertility at every cosmic level. [9] [21]
In early Sanskrit medical texts, linga means "symptom, signs" and plays a key role in the diagnosis of a sickness, the disease. [22] [23] [24] The author of classical Sanskrit grammar treatise, Panini, states that the verbal root ling which means "paint, variegate", has the sense "that which paints, variegates, characterizes". Panini as well as Patanjali additionally mention lingam with the contextual meaning of the "gender". [25] [26]
In the Vaisheshika Sutras, it means "proof or evidence", as a conditionally sufficient mark or sign. This Vaisheshika theory is adopted in the early Sanskrit medical literature. [5] Like the Upanishads, where linga means "mark, sign, characteristic", the texts of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy use linga in the same sense. [27] [28] In the Samkhya sutras, and in Gaudapada 's commentary on Samkhyakarika , the term linga has many contextual meanings such as in verses 1.124.136, 3.9.16 and 5.21.61, as it develops its theory of the nature of Atman (Self) and Sarira (body, prakriti ) and its proposed mechanism of rebirth. [6] [29] In the Purva Mimamsa Sutra and the Vedanta sutra, as well as the commentaries on them, the term linga appears quite often, particularly in the form of "lingadarsanacca" as a form of citing or referencing prior Hindu literature. This phrase connotes "[we have found an] indicative sign", such as the "indicative sign is in a Vedic passage". [30]
A linga-yoni in Nepal carved with four seated Buddhas
The term linga also appears in Buddhist and Jaina literature, where it means "sign, evidence" in one context, or "subtle body" with sexual connotations in another. [31] [note 1]
Lingam iconography exists in many forms, and their design are described in the Agama texts. Left: a 5th-century Mukha-linga (with face), Right: a Sahasra-linga (with 1001 carvings).
Various styles
The lingam of the Shaivism tradition is a short cylindrical pillar-like symbol of Shiva, made of stone, metal, gem, wood, clay or precious stones. [7] [1] [32]
Various styles of lingam iconography are found on the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia. [33] [34] The historic lingam iconography has included:
Lingam-yoni, wherin the lingam is placed within a lipped, disked structure that is an emblem of goddess Shakti and this is called the yoni . Together they symbolize the union of the feminine and the masculine principles, and "the totality of all existence", states Encyclopædia Britannica. [1]
Mukhalingam , where the lingam has the face of Shiva carved on it. [35] [36] An Ekmukha lingam has just one face, Chaturmukha lingam has four faces in the cardinal directions, while a Panchamukha lingam has a total of five (the fifth is on the top) and represents Sadashiva. [37] [38] Among the mukha-lingam varieties, the four face version are more common. [39]
Ashtottara-sata linga, where 108 miniature lingas are carved on the pujabhaga (main linga) following certain geometric principles. [40]
Sahasra linga, where 1001 miniature lingas are carved on the pujabhaga (main linga) following certain geometric principles (set in 99 vertical lines, 11 horizontal). [41]
Dhara linga, where lingas have five to sixty four fluted facets, with prime numbers and multiples of four particularly favored. [42]
Lingodbhavamurti , where Shiva is seen as emerging from within a fiery lingam. [1] On top of this icon is sometimes a relief of a swan or goose representing Brahma, and a boar at the bottom representing the Varaha avatar of Vishnu. This reflects the Shaiva legend describing a competition between Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu, as to who has priority and superiority. [1]
Lingam as interpreted in the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, a major school of Shaivism . The icon is regarded to represent the Parashiva and Parashakti aspects of Shiva and Parvati.
A lingam may be made of clay (mrinmaya), metal (lohaja), precious stone (ratnaja), wood (daruja), stone (sailaja, most common), or a disposable material (kshanika). [32] The construction method, proportions and design is described in Shaiva Agama texts. [32] The lingam is typically set in the center of a pindika (also called yoni or pithas, symbolizing Shakti). A pindika may be circular, square, octagonal, hexagonal, duodecagonal, sixteen sided, elliptical, triangular or another shape. [43] Some lingams are miniaturized and they are carried on one's person, such as by Lingayats in a necklace. These are called chala-lingams. [32] The Hindu temple design manuals recommend geometric ratios for the linga, the sanctum and the various architectural features of the temple according to certain mathematical rules it considers perfect and sacred. [44] Anthropologist Christopher John Fuller states that although most sculpted images ( murtis ) are anthropomorphic or theriomorphic, the aniconic Shiva Linga is an important exception. [45]
The lingam is conceptualized both as an emblem of generative and destructive power, [11] [46] particularly in the esoteric Kaula and Tantra practices, as well as the Shaivism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism. [47]
The lingam and yoni together symbolize the merging of microcosmos and macrocosmos , [10] the divine eternal process of creation and regeneration, and the union of the feminine and the masculine that recreates all of existence. [11] [14] The lingam is regarded as the "outward symbol" of the "formless Reality", the symbolization of merging of the 'primordial matter' ( Prakṛti ) with the 'pure consciousness' ( Purusha ) in transcendental context . [48] Sivaya Subramuniyaswami elaborates that the lingam signifies three perfections of Shiva . [8] The upper oval part of the lingam represents Parashiva and the lower part of the lingam, called the pitha, represents Parashakti . [8] In the representation of Parashiva, Shiva is regarded to be the absolute reality, the timeless, formless, and spaceless. In the representation of Parashakti, Shiva is regarded to be all-pervasive, pure consciousness , the power and primal substance of all that exists. Parashakti is regarded to possess form, unlike Parashiva, which is formless. [49] [4]
According to Sivananda Saraswati , the lingam speaks unmistakable language of silence: "I am one without a second, I am formless". [50] It is only the outward symbol of formless being, Shiva, who is eternal , ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe, who is your innermost Self or Atman , and who is identical with the Supreme Brahman , states Sivananda Saraswati. [50]
To some Shaivites the lingam symbolizes the axis of the universe . [51]
According to Shaiva Siddhanta , the linga is the ideal substrate in which the worshipper should install and worship the five-faced and ten-armed Sadāśiva, the form of Shiva who is the focal divinity of that school of Shaivism. [52]
Phallus symbol
According to Doniger, there is persuasive evidence in later Sanskrit literature that the early Indians associated the lingam icon with the male sexual organ; [12] the 11th-century Kashmir text Narmamala by Kshemendra on satire and fiction writing explains his ideas on parallelism with divine lingam and human lingam in a sexual context. Various Shaiva texts, such as the Skanda Purana in section 1.8 states that all creatures have the signs of Shiva or Shakti through their lingam (male sexual organ) or pindi (female sexual organ). [12] [57] According to Doniger, a part of the literature corpus regards lingam to be the phallus of Shiva, while another group of texts does not. Sexuality in the former is inherently sacred and spiritual, while the latter emphasizes the ascetic nature of Shiva and renunciation to be spiritual symbolism of lingam. This tension between the pursuit of spirituality through householder lifestyle and the pursuit of renunciate sannyasi lifestyle is historic, reflects the different interpretations of the lingam and what lingam worship means to its devotees. It remains a continuing debate within Hinduism to this day, states Doniger. [12] To one group, it is a part of Shiva's body and symbolically saguna Shiva (he in a physical form with attributes). To the other group, it is an abstract symbol of nirguna Shiva (he in the universal Absolute Reality, formless, without attributes). [12] In Tamil Shaiva tradition, for example, the common term for lingam is kuRi or "sign, mark" which is asexual. [12] Similarly, in Lingayatism tradition, the lingam is a spiritual symbol and "was never said to have any sexual connotations", according to Doniger. [12]
According to Dasgupta, the lingam symbolizes Shiva in Hinduism, and it is also a phallic symbol. [9]
Some extant ancient ligams, such as the Gudimallam Lingam , unambiguously depict a male sexual organ.
Sexualization in Orientalist literature
Since the 19th century, states Dasgupta, the popular literature has represented the lingam as the male sex organ. This view contrasts with the traditional abstract values they represent in Shaivism wherein the lingam-yoni connote the masculine and feminine principles in the entirety of creation and all existence. [9]
The colonial era Orientalists and Christian missionaries , raised in the Victorian mold where sex and sexual imagery were a taboo subject, were shocked by and were hostile to the lingam-yoni iconography and reverence they witnessed. [9] [58] [59] The 19th and early 20th-century colonial and missionary literature described lingam-yoni, and related theology as obscene, corrupt, licentious, hyper-sexualized, puerile, impure, demonic and a culture that had become too feminine and dissolute. [9] [60] [61] To the Hindus, particularly the Shaivites , these icons and ideas were the abstract, a symbol of the entirety of creation and spirituality. [9] The colonial disparagement in part triggered the opposite reaction from Bengali nationalists, who more explicitly valorised the feminine. Swami Vivekananda called for the revival of the Mother Goddess as a feminine force, inviting his countrymen to "proclaim her to all the world with the voice of peace and benediction". [60]
According to Doniger, the terms lingam and yoni became explicitly associated with human sexual organs in the western imagination after the widely popular first Kamasutra translation by Sir Richard Burton in 1883. [62] In his translation, even though the original Sanskrit text does not use the words lingam or yoni for sexual organs, and almost always uses other terms, Burton adroitly avoided being viewed as obscene to the Victorian mindset by avoiding the use of words such as penis, vulva, vagina and other direct or indirect sexual terms in the Sanskrit text to discuss sex, sexual relationships and human sexual positions. Burton used the terms lingam and yoni instead throughout the translation. [62] This conscious and incorrect word substitution, states Doniger, thus served as an Orientalist means to "anthropologize sex, distance it, make it safe for English readers by assuring them, or pretending to assure them, that the text was not about real sexual organs, their sexual organs, but merely about the appendages of weird, dark people far away." [62] Similar Orientalist literature of the Christian missionaries and the British era, states Doniger, stripped all spiritual meanings and insisted on the Victorian vulgar interpretation only, which had "a negative effect on the self-perception that Hindus had of their own bodies" and they became "ashamed of the more sensual aspects of their own religious literature". [63] Some contemporary Hindus, states Doniger, in their passion to spiritualize Hinduism and for their Hindutva campaign have sought to sanitize the historic earthly sexual meanings, and insist on the abstract spiritual meaning only. [63]
The sexualization is criticized by Stella Kramrisch [64] and Moriz Winternitz who opines that the lingam in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult. [65]
According to Alex Wayman, various works on Shaivism by some Indian authors, following the Shaiva philosophical texts and spiritual interpretations, "deny that the linga is a phallus." [66] To the Shaivites, a linga is neither a phallus nor do they practice the worship of erotic penis-vulva, rather the linga-yoni is a symbol of cosmic mysteries, the creative powers and the metaphor for the spiritual truths of their faith. [67]
According to Swami Sivananda , the correlation of the linga and phallus is wrong; the lingam is only the external symbol of Shiva's formless being. He further states that it is the light or power of consciousness, manifesting from Sadashiva . [68]
The popular belief is that the Siva Lingam represents the phallus or the virile organ, the emblem of the generative power or principle in nature. This is not only a serious mistake but a grave blunder. In the post-Vedic period, the Linga has become symbolic of the generative power of Lord Siva. Linga is the differentiating mark. It is certainly not the sex mark. [69]
Linga-yoni worship in different ways; Left: river, Right: temple.
The traditional lingam rituals in major Shiva temples includes offerings of flowers, grass, dried rice, fruits, leaves, water and a milk bath. [1] Priests chant hymns, while the devotees go to the sanctum for a darshana followed by a clockwise circumambulation of the sanctum. [1] On the sanctum walls, typically are reliefs of Dakshinamurti, Brahma and Vishnu. Often, near the sanctum are other shrines, particularly for Shakti (Durga), Ganesha and Murugan (Kartikeya). In the Hindu tradition, special pilgrimage sites include those where natural lingams are found in the form of cylindrical rocks or ice or rocky hill. These are called Svayambhuva lingam, and about 70 of these are known on the Indian subcontinent, the most significant being one in Kashi ( Varanasi ) followed by Prayaga, Naimisha and Gaya. [1] [70]
Historical development and meaning
Stone lingam and yoni pedestal found in Cát Tiên , Vietnam, circa 8th century. At 2.1 meter tall, this is the largest lingam ever found in Southeast Asia
A Buddhist stupa (above) may have influenced the later iconography of the Hindu Shiva-linga, according to Swami Vivekananda . [71] [note 2]
The colonial-era archaeologists John Marshall and Ernest Mackay proposed that certain artifacts found at Harappan sites may be evidence of yoni-linga worship in Indus Valley Civilization. [73] Jones and Ryan state that lingam/yoni shapes have been recovered from the archaeological sites at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro , part of the Indus Valley civilisation . [74] [75] According to Chakravarti, "some of the stones found in Mohenjodaro are unmistakably phallic stones". These are dated to some time before 2300 BCE. Similarly, states Chakravarti, the Kalibangan site of Harappa has a small terracotta representation that "would undoubtedly be considered the replica of a modern Shivlinga [a tubular stone]." [76] [77] According to Srinivasan, in the Harappan sites , objects that resemble "lingam" have been found. [78] That includes "a seated trident-headed ithyphallic figure", which was found on Indus seals, "has been compared to Shiva as meditating ascetic ", states Srinivasan. [78] [79]
According to Encyclopædia Britannica, while Harappan discoveries include "short cylindrical pillars with rounded tops", there is no evidence that the people of Indus Valley Civilization worshipped these artifacts as lingams. [1]
Scholars such as Arthur Llewellyn Basham dispute whether such artifacts discovered at the archaeological sites of Indus Valley sites are yoni. [73] [80]
According to the Indologist Asko Parpola , "it is true that Marshall's and Mackay's hypotheses of linga and yoni worship by the Harappans has rested on rather slender grounds, and that for instance, the interpretation of the so-called ring-stones as yonis seems untenable". [73] He quotes Dales 1984 paper, which states "with the single exception of the unidentified photography of a realistic phallic object in Marshall's report, there is no archaeological evidence to support claims of special sexually-oriented aspects of Harappan religion". [73] However, adds Parpola, a re-examination at Indus Valley sites suggest that the Mackay's hypothesis cannot be ruled out because erotic and sexual scenes such as ithyphallic males, naked females, a human couple having intercourse and trefoil imprints have now been identified at the Harappan sites. [73] The "finely polished circular stand" found by Mackay may be yoni although it was found without the linga. The absence of linga, states Parpola, maybe because it was made from wood which did not survive. [73]
Indologist Wendy Doniger rejects Srinivasan's interpretation, and states that this relatively rare artifact can be interpreted in many ways and has unduly been used for wild speculations such as being a linga. Another Indus stamp seal often called the Pashupati seal , states Doniger, has an image with a general resemblance with Shiva and "the Indus people may well have created the symbolism of the divine phallus", but given the available evidence we cannot be certain, nor do we know that it had the same meaning as some currently project them to might have meant. [81]
Vedic texts
The word lingam is not found in the Rigveda , [82] or the other Vedas. [83] However, Rudra (proto-Shiva) is found in the Vedic literature. [82] [84]
Worship of the lingam was not a part of the Vedic religion . The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva Veda Samhita sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman . Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga. [85] [86] In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva. [86]
There is a hymn in the Atharvaveda that praises a pillar ( stambha ), and this is one possible origin of linga worship. [87] According to Swami Vivekananda, the Shiva-linga had origins in the idea of Yupa-Stambha or Skambha of the Vedic rituals, where the term meant the sacrificial post which was then idealized as the eternal Brahman . The Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga, quite possibly with influence from Buddhism's stupa shaped like the top of a stone linga, according to Vivekananda. [71] [86]
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
Shvetashvatara Upanishad states that, of the three significations of Lingam, the primary one is " the imperishable Purusha ", the absolute reality , [20] whereby the linga is "sign", a mark that provides the existence of Brahman , [4] [88] which is itself formless. [19] Furthermore, it mentioned that Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic or liūga, specifically the sign of gender. [4] Linga, "sign", not only signifies the existence of perceptible "things" but also denotes the imperceptible essence of "a thing" or pieces of Brahman called Atma [88] even before that thing has come to exist in any concrete form. [note 3] The imperceptible essence of "a thing", in its potentiality, is the liūga of the thing. [4]
The insight of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad conveyed through the word liūga is formulated explicitly in Samkhya and schools of Yoga or ways of looking at things , that is, looking at their appearance and at Ultimate Reality. [4] Liriga here denotes the subtle body , (liṇga śarīra) underlying and ontologically preceding anything perceptible. [4] The perceptible state, in this context, is the gross body (sthūla śarīra), or concrete reality as it appears to the sense organs. In between the Ultimate and concrete reality is Prakṛti , also called Pradhana [4] which is the imperceptible substratum of the manifest world or pre-matter. [89] Out of this imperceptible cosmic substance, all things have come out, and to which they will return ultimately. [4]
Early iconography and temples (3rd century BCE - first mill. CE)
Linga inside a railing (left), being worshipped by Gandharvas winged creatures. Art of Mathura , circa 100 BCE. [90]
The Gudimallam Lingam , one of the oldest examples of a lingam, is still in worship in the Parashurameshwara temple, Gudimallam , in a hilly forest about 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh . [91] It has been dated to the 3rd-century BCE, [1] or to the 2nd century BCE, [92] and is mostly accepted to be from the 3rd- to 1st-century BCE, [93] though some later dates have been proposed. The stone lingam is clearly a representation of an anatomically accurate phallus , with a figure of Lakulisha , the ascetic manifestation of Shiva , [78] carved on the front, holding an antelope and axe in his hands. [93] [94] He stands on top of a Apasmara (demon) dwarf, who symbolizes spiritual ignorance, greed, sensual desires or Kama and nonsensical speech on the spiritual path, hence must be subdued in spiritual pursuits. [95] [96] [97]
In this earliest representation, the phallic representation illustrates the centrality of the energetic principle of Urdhva Retas ( Sanskrit : ऊर्ध्वरेतस् IAST : Ūrdhvaretas, lit. "ascent of vital energies or fluid") the upward flow of energy in spiritual pursuits and practice of celibacy ( Brahmacarya ), [98] contrary to fertility or release of vital energies. [99] [100] [101] [102] [103] Lakulisa as an ascetic manifestation of Shiva is seen in later peninsular Indian scriptures whose ithyphallic aspects connotes asceticism and conserved procreative potentialities ( Brahmacarya or celibacy ), rather than mere eroticism . [78] [104] According to Stella Kramrisch, the pictorial symbol of the Gudimallam lingam should not be mistaken for fertility or eroticism, due to incomplete or impure understanding of the underlying refined principles. [note 4] [note 5] [106]
The Bhita linga – now at the Lucknow museum – is also dated to about the 2nd century BCE, and has four directional faces on the pillar and a Brahmi script inscription at the bottom. [107] [108] [109] Above the four faces, the Bhita linga has the bust of a male with his left hand holding a vase and the right hand in the abhaya (no-fear) mudra. [108] [note 6] The pillar itself is, once again, a realistic depiction of phallus but neither symbolizes fertility nor sexuality, but the refined energetic principles of Urdhva Retas [note 7] during Sannyasa or Asceticism . [101] [99] [102] [108] [103]
The Mathura archaeological site has revealed similar lingams, with a standing Shiva in front (2nd century CE) and with one or four faces around the pillar (1st to 3rd century CE). [112] [113]
Numerous stone and cave temples from the mid to late 1st millennium feature lingams. The Bhumara Temple near Satna Madhya Pradesh , for example, is generally dated to late 5th-century Gupta Empire era, and it features an Ekamukha Lingam. [114] [115]
Epics and puranas
According to Wendy Doniger, lingam in the Mahabharata is represented as the phallic form which suggests Sthula sarira of Shiva, [93] [116] although not the primary significance, [4] however it connotes much more than that. [117] The anthropomorphic shape , in this specific context, functions as the "subtle body" (Lińga Śarīra) [118] of Shiva in the Mahabharata. [117] It is a superabundant evocation of fierce potency on a cosmic scale, although it states crassly phallic. [117] Doniger further finds that Shiva was called by many names, including Rudra or the Lord of the Mountain. [93] Chapter 10.17 of the Mahabharata also refers to the word sthanu in the sense of an "inanimate pillar" as well as a "name of Shiva, signifying the immobile, ascetic, desexualized form of the lingam", as it recites the legend involving Shiva , Brahma and Prajapati . [93] [119] This mythology weaves two polarities, one where the lingam represents the potentially procreative phallus (fertile lingam) and its opposite "a pillar-like renouncer of sexuality" (ascetic lingam), states Doniger. [93]
The Linga Purana (5th-10th century CE) states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch, without quality, motionless and changeless". [120] The source of the universe is the signless, and all of the universe is the manifested Linga, a union of unchanging principle and the ever changing nature. [120] The Linga Purana and Siva Gita texts builds on this foundation. [121] [122] Linga, states Alain Daniélou , means sign. [120] It is an important concept in Hindu texts, wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of someone or something. It accompanies the concept of Brahman , which as invisible signless and existent Principle, is formless or linga-less. [120]
According to the Linga Purana, the lingam is a complete symbolic representation of the formless Universe Bearer – the oval-shaped stone is the symbol of the Universe, and the bottom base represents the Supreme Power that holds the entire Universe in it. [50] A similar interpretation is also found in the Skanda Purana : "The endless sky (that great void which contains the entire universe) is the Linga, the Earth is its base. At the end of time the entire universe and all the Gods finally merge in the Linga itself." [123] In the Linga Purana, an Atharvaveda hymn is expanded with stories about the great Stambha and the supreme nature of Mahâdeva (the Great God, Shiva). [86]
According to Shiva Purana (10th-11th c. CE), the legend about the origin of the phallic form of Shiva is that some brahmin devotees of Shiva were highly engrossed in the meditation of Shiva. In the meantime, Shiva came in a hideous naked ascetic form with ashes smeared all over his body holding his phallus, to test the devotion of his devotees. The wives of the sages were scared at this sight but some embraced the holy ascetic . Although Shiva put them to test, the sages and wives did not recognize him. [124] The sages were stupefied and deluded by Śiva's power of illusion, māyā , [124] [125] became infuriated at this sight and cursed ascetic form of Shiva: [125] "You are acting pervertedly. This violates the Vedic path. Hence let your penis fall on the ground.” [note 8]
Lingodbhava is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the Lingam (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti ; Brahma on the left and Vishnu on the right are depicted bowing to Shiva in the centre.
The Shiva Purana also describes the origin of the lingam, known as Shiva-linga, as the beginning-less and endless cosmic pillar ( Stambha ) of fire, the cause of all causes. Shiva is pictured as emerging from the lingam – the cosmic pillar of fire – proving his superiority over the gods Brahma and Vishnu . It also describes right way to worship Shiva linga in its 11th chapter in detail [128] [129] [130] This is known as Lingodbhava . The Linga Purana also supports this interpretation of lingam as a cosmic pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva. [130] [71] [86]
Muslim rule
A necklace with linga-containing pendant is constantly worn by the Lingayats. [133]
Lingayats , a sect of the Shaivite religious tradition in India, wear a miniaturized linga called the istalinga. [134] Lingayats wear a lingam inside a necklace, called Ishtalinga . [135] [136] Initially known as Veerashaivas (heroic worshippers of Shiva), since the 18th century adherents of this faith are known as Lingayats. [137] This tradition originated in Karnataka around the 12th-century. [135] [138] Lingayatism is derived from the term linga and suffix ayta. [139] The term Lingayat is based on the practice of both genders of Lingayats wearing an iṣṭaliṅga (also called karasthala-linga) contained inside a box with a necklace all the time. The istalinga is a personalized and miniature oval-shaped linga and an emblem of their faith symbolising Parashiva , the absolute reality and their spirituality. [139] [140] It is viewed as a "living, moving" divinity within the Lingayat devotee. Every day, the devotee removes this personal linga from its box, places it in left palm, offers puja and then meditates about becoming one with the linga, in his or her journey towards the atma-linga. [141]
Pilgrimage sites
Left: 2 sphatika (quartz) lingams in the Shri Parkasheshwar Mahadev Temple, Dehradun; Right: Ice Lingam in the cave at the Amarnath Temple , Kashmir.
In Kadavul Temple , a 700-pound, 3-foot-tall, naturally formed Sphatika (quartz) lingam is installed. In the future, this crystal lingam will be housed in the Iraivan Temple . It is claimed as among the largest known sphatika self formed ( Swayambhu ) lingams. [143] [144] Hindu scripture rates crystal as the highest form of Shiva lingam. [145]
Shivling , 6,543 metres (21,467 ft), is a mountain in Uttarakhand (the Garhwal region of Himalayas). It arises as a sheer pyramid above the snout of the Gangotri Glacier . The mountain resembles a Shiva lingam when viewed from certain angles, especially when travelling or trekking from Gangotri to Gomukh as part of a traditional Hindu pilgrimage.[ citation needed ]
A lingam is also the basis for the formation legend (and name) of the Borra Caves in Andhra Pradesh .[ citation needed ]
Banalinga are the lingam which are found on the bed of the Narmada River . [146]
Lesser known Bhooteshwarnath Mahadeva in Gariaband district of Chhattisgarh is a rock Shivlinga and said to be the Largest Natural Shivlinga in the world., [147] whose height is increasing with each passing year. [148] [149]
The tallest Shiva lingam in the world is located at Chenkal village in Thiruvananthapuram district in the state of Kerala , India . [150]
Shiva Linga worshipped by Kushan devotees, circa 2nd century CE
Lingodbhava (Chola period)
Lingodbhava (Chola period)
A 10th-century four-face Mukhalinga , Nepal
A jatalinga with yoni (Champa, Vietnam)
Ganesha and Shiva-linga, Chiang Rai, Thailand
See also
^ Examples of this usage include the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra in Buddhism, and Sukhlalji's bhasya on Tattvarthasutra in Jainism. [31]
^ This view is shared by K.R. Subramanian, who writes that some Buddhist stupas have been worshipped by Tamil Saivites because they believe it is a Shivalinga, and some ancient stupa sculptures from Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta look so much like a linga that anyone would mistake them for one. [72]
^ The form of fire, which exists in the kindling stick in a latent form, may not be seen, yet its linga is not destroyed but be seized again by another kindling stick. [4] Fire in its latent condition, unkindled, the potential of fire, its imperceptible essence, is the liūga of fire, in contrast with and indispensable to its visible form ( Rūpa ). [4]
^ Kramrisch claims that the representation of the phallic shape in the Gudimallam Lingam does not represent sexuality. [151] It represents "seminal retention" and practice of celibacy ( Brahmacarya ) (illustration of Urdhva Retas), [101] [99] [111] [152] and represents Shiva as "he stands for complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation". [151]
^ Furthermore, the phallic shape, standing erect, always negates its function as an organ of procreation. Rather, the shape or pictorial representation is conveying that, the seed was channeled upward, not ejected for the sake of generation, but was reversed, retained and absorbed for regeneration as creative energy. [105]
^ This linga is likely a dedication memorial stone according to the inscription which states, "The Linga of the sons of Khajahuti, was dedicated by Nagasiri, the son of Vasethi. May the deity be pleased." [108] Bloch objected to "Linga of the sons" interpretation, stating it made no sense. Other scholars maintain that to be a cryptic epigraphic reference to "worshipped by", given the mention of "deity" later in the inscription. [109] [110]
^ In the practice of seminal retention through self-discipline and Sādhanā , the mind is stirred, but not by external stimuli, but the result of realisation of true nature of the Self in the path of liberation (moksha). However, due to lack of understanding of the iconography of Lingam, the representation is often misunderstood. [111] [99]
^ Although the sages were also ascetics , only because they observed established conventions, they failed when Shiva tested them with his outrageous ways. [124] The purpose of Shiva's visit to the hermitage, the place where the sages were living with their wives, was to enlighten the false sages by allowing them to humiliate him. [126] But the sages were lost in anger, but Shiva allowed himself to be humiliated in the image that met the eye of the sages. [126] Even though Shiva excited some of them as the source of their desire, they were unable to see him as the killer of desires. [127] Although Shiva revealed his true nature by his dance ( Tandava ), yet so great was his power of illusion ( māyā ), the deluded sages did not recognize him. [127] That falling phallus burnt everything in front; wherever it went it began to burn everything there. It went to all three Hindu worlds ( hell , heaven , earth ). All the worlds and the people were distressed. The sages could not recognise it as Shiva and sought refuge from Brahma . Brahma answered that they should pray to Parvati to assume a form of vaginal passage, and perform a procedure reciting vedic mantras and decorating the penis with flowers etc., so that the penis would become steady. As the phallus was held by Parvati in that form, an auspicion arrow formed. The pedestal shaped as the vagina and the phallus fixed therein are symbolic of the eternal creative forces personified as Śivā and Śiva. After the procedure was completed, the penis became static. This phallus was known as "hatesa" and "Siva Siva". [125] In one version of the story found in Vamana Purana , Shiva's visit to the hermitage in Deodar forests was an act of grace at Parvati 's request. [124]
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, Quote: "Linga or Symptomatology: Linga acquires the second position in the Tri Sutra. It includes entire signs and symptoms of the diseases and health also. Only the knowledge of Hetu is not sufficient for the diagnosis of Aaturavastha. Hence Linga or the symptomatology is very useful tool in the diagnosis of a disease."
Hartmut Scharfe (1977). Grammatical Literature . Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 105–106. ISBN
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^ Doniger 2011 , p. 500, Quote: "The British missionaries most despised what they regarded as the obscene idolatry of the lingam. The British in general, who were of course Victorian in every sense of the word, regarded the Hindus, as they regarded most colonized people of color, as simultaneously oversexed and impotent, and the British presence had a negative effect on the self-perception that Hindus had of their own bodies (Nandy 1983). For, still reeling from the onslaught of the Muslim campaigns against lingams, the Hindus who worked with and for the British internalized their colonizers' scorn."
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, Quote: "That is why today one will read in various works by Indians on Saivism a denial that the linga is a phallus; and the late Dr. Basham once told the present writer that in all the years of his India contacts he never found any Saivite admitting that the linga is a phallus."
Alex Wayman (1987). "O, that Linga!". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 68 (1/4): 29–31.
^ Lord Shiva and His Worship by Sri Swami Sivananda (1945), Chapter IX: Siva Yoga Sadhna, Section 7: Worship of Siva Lingam, 2015 edition, Allahabad Book World Ltd.
^ Lord Shiva and His Worship by Sri Swami Sivananda (1945), Chapter IX: Siva Yoga Sadhna, Section 7: Worship of Siva Lingam, Page 220, 2015 edition, Allahabad Book World Ltd.
.
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, Quote: "It has been suggested that certain large ring-shaped stones are formalized representations of the female regenerative organ and were symbols of the Mother Goddess, but this is most doubtful."
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^ Doniger 2011 , pp. 498–499: "But several of the Delhi sultans, those who were particularly devout and iconoclast Muslims, regarded the lingam as sexual and anthropomorphic, and took pride in destroying as many lingams as they could. In 1026, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the temple of Somnath, which held a famous Shiva lingam; this much, at least, seems to be historical fact. But then comes the mythologizing. According to some versions of the story, including early Turko-Persian triumphalist sources, Mahmud stripped the great gilded lingam of its gold and hacked it to bits with his sword, sending the bits back to Ghazni, where they were incorporated into the steps of the new mosque (Keay 2000: 207–209). Medieval Hindu epics of resistance created a countermythology in which the stolen image came to life (another bit of evidence that it was regarded as a living thing, a body in itself) and eventually, like a horse trotting back to the stable, returned to the temple to be reconsecrated (Davis 1997: 90–112)"
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lingam .
Lingam
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66 | what is the meaning of lord shiva lingam | https://purnesh.co/the-real-meaning-of-the-shiva-lingam/ | Distortions of the Vedic Tradition
The Shiva lingam is probably one of the best examples of how profound ancient principles and practices of the Vedic tradition have been distorted over time. It often pains me to see how the limited or wrong understanding of the ancient practices and wisdom of Vedic times have resulted in such a distorted view of India’s profound heritage and culture.
In recent centuries, the Shiva lingam came to be understood by some to represent the male reproductive organ – a misunderstanding that arose out of the misinterpretation, or rather limited interpretation, of the word ‘linga’. The Sanskrit word ‘linga’ basically means ‘that by which something can be recognized’ or ‘a distinguishing mark’. When a baby is born, there is only one way to find out what its gender is, and that is by looking at the genitals of the child. It was due to this practice that the word ‘linga’ over time became one of the most commonly used words for the male reproductive organ as well.
However, its original meaning was that of ‘a distinguishing mark’, and it is this meaning that refers to the symbol of the Shiva lingam: a symbol that the ancient Rishis chose to represent the consciousness. It shows such a profound understanding of creation: giving people a symbol so that they can give expression to their desire to worship, yet at the same time reminding them that it is just that, a symbol, and that the consciousness that they are worshiping is actually formless, unmanifest and all-pervading.
Symbol for the All-Pervading
It is thus a symbol for the unmanifest consciousness that Shiva represents. Literally, Shiva means ‘the benevolent’, and it refers to the untouched and untainted innocence of our consciousness – the most subtle aspect of our Being deep inside, that can never be corrupted. But how to worship that One Divinity that is all-pervading, omnipresent and omnipotent?
For the mind to be able to worship, for one to be able to direct one’s prayers or offerings, there has to be a focal point – otherwise where will you place the offering, where will you put the flower or lamp? It is this very reason that has led to there being something or other to direct one’s prayers to in all of the religions in the world – even the ones that denounce worship of the Divine in any object or form. Whether it is the scripture in the Sikh tradition or the Ka’aba in certain Islamic traditions, there always needs to be something to direct one’s prayers to or to captivate the devotee’s mind.
The Rishis of the ancient Vedic tradition knew how the mind works, and that is why they gave everyone the freedom to worship that One Divinity in any form or way they felt comfortable. A simple stone was perfect to remind people that it was just a symbol, representing the all-pervading consciousness that is beyond all name and form.
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66 | what is the meaning of lord shiva lingam | https://www.exoticindiaart.com/blog/why-lord-shiva-is-worshipped-in-linga-form/ | 80" Superfine Panchaloha Bronze Nataraja (Is this the Finest Bronze Nataraja ever ?)
Kamakhya Tantra and The Mysterious History of Kamakhya (English Translation of the Kamakhya Tantra)
- The Sacred Jyotirlingas
Summary-
Lord Shiva, one of the Trimurti, is worshipped in the form of a Linga, symbolizing his limitless cosmic energy. The Shiva Linga represents creation, destruction, and ultimate reality. Rooted in Vedanta, Upanishads’ profound wisdom and Puranic stories and philosophical concepts, it is revered as a source of divine wisdom and liberation, with Jyotirlingas across India being sacred pilgrimage sites. In this blog, we look at the tradition of Shiva Linga worship, legends and rituals related to the Lingam that are reiterated even today.
One of the three
paramount deities of the Hindu Pantheon, Lord Shiva or “the Auspicious One” is
loved and revered in Shaivism (one of the three most powerful groups in
contemporary Hinduism) as the Supreme God. In Hinduism, Lord Shiva in his linga
form is revered by his worshippers. It is called the Shivling or Shivalinga .
At the point when a Linga is introduced on a Yoni, it signifies the
association of Shiva and Shakti - the start of creation. It is found at a temple's focal point, resting in a rimmed, circle molded yoni. This article will
explain why Lord Shiva is worshipped in linga form. It will also dive deeper
into other significant details about Lord Shiva in Linga form.
What is Shiva Lingam?
“Linga”- means a “sign” or a “mark”, that “proves the existence of a thing”. (Stella Kramrisch in The Presence of Shiva). The term Linga in connection to Shiva appears for the first time in the Shvetasvatara Upanishad , where it is mentioned that “Shiva has no Linga or mark, meaning that he is transcendent, beyond any characteristic.” The Linga thus, is not the body or form of Shiva, but it is the shape in which he pervades the universe as an invisible, eternal power.
Shiva Linga in Purana - Shiva Lingam is the Niraakara or Nishkala (formless, faultless) Shiva, a chinha (mark or symbol) of Brahmarupa (primordial, sovereign form of the supreme being). In the Shiva Purana and Linga Purana, Shiva Linga is mentioned as a combined image of Uma-Parvati, who is represented by the Peetham or the Vedi and Shiva who is presented through the Lingam- “Linga Vedi Uma Devi, Linga Sakshan Maheshwara” (Linga Purana).
Meaning of Shiva Linga - In Hindu tradition, creation (Srishti) brings forth different life forms, all governed by the laws of nature (Prakriti). Every being has certain qualities, and any imbalance—either excess or absence—leads to faults or vices. Shiva, however, exists beyond creation and its end. He is not bound by nature's laws, nor is he defined as good or bad—he simply represents the ultimate truth of the universe. To symbolize this, he is depicted as the Lingam, a form that transcends all natural laws.
How Shiva Linga was Formed: A Story from the Puranas?
As indicated by Hindu culture, at first, when creation was yet to start, there was a fierce disagreement between Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu about who is supreme. Lord Mahadev showed up as a little section of fire between them which continued expanding both upwards and downwards. A glorious voice was then heard expressing that whoever between the two was the supreme would find the end of this fire column, for which both Brahma and Vishnu raced to either side of the fire column.
While Brahma rode to the top on his swan, Vishnu traveled to the base where inevitably he discovered that it has no closure and acknowledged his loss. But, Brahma lied that he saw the tip of the section and was penalized for his blatant lie. The column of the fire, which represented the whole universe is venerated as Lord Shiva Lingam, which holds the heavenly grandiose energy.
Even when all other gods are worshipped in their idol form, the reason behind why Lord Shiva is worshipped in linga form is because Lord Shiva Lingam signifies grand heavenly energy. Shiva, the name signifies "one who offers Mangalam (ceaseless goodness)" which is acquired through divine wisdom.
To acquire this wisdom, it is essential to venerate the Shiva linga as Dhyanalinga, which is the perpetual wellspring of energy, proposed to the admirers through its circular structure. In yogic legend, the Shiva linga is viewed as the principal structure to emerge when creation happens, and the last structure before the disintegration of creation.
Why
is Shiva Linga Called “Shiv-Linga”?
The term Shiva-Linga is made of two parts, Shiva
(Mahadeva, the god) and Linga (mark or symbol). Thus, Shiva Linga is simply a
mark or symbol of the essence of Shiva or Shiva Tattva, that can not be
depicted in any humanly conceivable form, shape, color or material.
It has been misinterpreted as a “phallus” in the
modern sources, but Puranas and other Hindu traditions are clear that Shiva
Linga is not a limb or organ, but the massive fire pillar that appeared in
front of Vishnu and Brahma, the primordial energy that orgiinates, sustains and
destroys the Universe, condensed into a form that could be seen and worshipped
by the devotees, for their benefit.
Why is Shiva’s statue not worshipped?
Shiva Linga
and statues of Shiva are both worshipped and established in temples across
India. The Shiva Purana distinguishes between nishkala Linga and sakal Ver
or idol of Shiva, which are divine and benevolent aspects of Shiva for his
devotees.
However,
there is a story in the Padma Purana that mentions why Shiva is worshipped in
the form of Linga, more popularly than his statues. According to the Purana,
Bhrigu rishi wanted to test the Trimurti or three Hindu gods, Brahma, Vishnu,
and Shiva. He visited Kailasha to meet Shiva, but Nandi informed the sage that
Mahadeva was engaged with his beloved goddess Parvati. Seeing this as his
disrespect, sage Bhrigu cursed Shiva.
Since the god ignored him and was busy in
amorous activities, Shiva was cursed to be worshiped as Linga only, with his
icons not being very widely used for rituals. While this narrative is
cited to explain why we worship Shivlinga instead of Shiva statues, in
practice, Shiva Lingam and icons of Shiva are both revered with equal devotion.
The Sacred
Jyotirlingas in India
Let’s learn what a
jyotirlinga is. A jyotirlinga is a representation of the Supreme Lord Shiva. It
is a Sanskrit word that implies " Radiance". The Shiva Purana refers
to 64 Jyotirlingas. Out of these 64, 12 Lord Shiva Lingams are called
Mahajyotirlingam or the Great Jyotirlingas.
👉🏿 Somnath : Announcing the
dawn of the Dwadash Jyotirlinga pilgrimage, the site is conventionally deemed
as the first pilgrimage site. It is noted down in history that the temple at
this site was plundered 16 times but was rebuilt again.
👉🏿 Mallikarjuna : Also called
the Srisaila, the temple at this site is an architectural splendor and houses
numerous sculptures. It houses the Lord Shiva Lingam and Shakthipeetha together.
👉🏿 Mahakaleshwar : The Lord Shiva
Lingam present here is deemed to be Swayambhu out of all the 12 Maha
Jyotirlingas. It faces the South and is the only Lord Shiva in his linga form
that has the Shri Rudra Yantra positioned upside down on the Garbhagriha’s
ceiling. It houses the Lord Shiva Lingam and Shakthipeetha together.
👉🏿 Omkareshwar : Located on an island
along the Narmada River, it is home to the Mahala temple that houses a
Jyotirlinga shrine.
👉🏿 Kedarnath : Situated closest to
Lord Shiva’s actual abode in the Kailasha mountains, this temple housing the
Lord Shiva Lingam is an important site for Hindu’s Char Dham Yatra. This site
can only be visited once every six months.
👉🏿 Bhimashankar : Located in Khed
Taluka of Daakini country, the temple that houses the Lord Shiva Lingam here is
called the Dakini Temple.
👉🏿 Vishweshwara : This Lord Shiva
lingam is located in Kashi, Varanasi. UP is supposed to be the home to
Vishwanath Jyotirlinga sanctum. It is likewise one of the Padal petra stalam of
Vada Naadu that has been referenced in Thevaaram.
It is located on the
western banks of the blessed river Ganga. Lord Shiva in the linga form present
here is known as Vishwanath, the leader of the universe. Varanasi is perhaps
the most ancient city in the world and thus the temple was built there.
👉🏿 Trayambakeshwar : This Jyotirlinga is
located on the banks of the Godavari and the legend says that this temple
represents the birth of the river also.
👉🏿 Nageshwara : This temple is
located in Gujarat, close to Jamnagar, and is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas
referenced in the Shiv Purana . This Lord Shiva Lingam is popularly called the
Dvādaśa Jyotirliṅga Stotram.
👉🏿 Baidyanath : It is viewed as
one of the holiest abode of Lord Shiva. It is situated in Deoghar in Santhal
Parganas division of the province of Jharkhand. This is prevalently called Baba
Baidyanath where the Jyotirlinga is introduced. There are additionally 21
different temples around here. According to the Hindu legends, Ravana revered Shiva
here to acquire the aid of 10 heads.
👉🏿 Rameshwaram : The southernmost
Jyotirlinga in India is located in Tamil Nadu.
👉🏿 Grishneshwar : This temple housing
the Lord Shiva Lingam is alluded to as Ghushmeshwar temple in the Shiv Purana.
It is one of the temples of Shiv referenced in the Shiv Purana.
Why do Hindus worship Shiva Linga?
Shiva Linga worship is one of the most powerful ways
of attaining all that one desires. In the Shiva Purana itself, it is mentioned
that all living beings- man, woman, people of all classes and castes have the
right (adhikaar) to worship Shiva
Linga for receiving the blessings of Shiva.
Shiva is “bhukti-mukti
dayaka”- he who gives Bhukti (land, or worldly pleasures in a wider sense)
and Mukti (Moksha or salvation from worldly desires), thus whether one is
seeking material benefits or spiritual powers, Shiva Lingam (which is form
taken by the Lord himself for the betterment of the world) is the most sacred
for his devotees.
Ways and Rituals of Worshiping the Shiva Lingam
Lord Shiva was once
enquired by Goddess Parvati about the correct way of worshipping the Lord Shiva
Lingam. While Shiva was clarifying upon the ceremonies, Nandi who was available
was also educated on this sacrosanct point. The information was given to
Sanatkumar, who thus told it to Sage Vyasa. Suta got to know it from Shailadi.
Lord Shiva had depicted the three techniques, by the assistance of which a true
devotee ought to become pure before beginning his worship-.
1.) Varuna Snan
(cleaning up in open)
2.) Bhashma Snan (spreading remains)
3.) Mantra Snan (reciting of mantra)
Lord Shiva had
explained the significance of cleaning up in a stream or a lake. As indicated
by him a man's psyche, which resembles a lotus, would never bloom except if it
got the brilliance of the sun. While explaining the strategies for taking
Bhasmasnan, he said-After cleaning up his hands and feet, a true devotee should
apply any of the accompanying things on his body to make it unadulterated- mud,
cow dung cinders, and so on.
In the wake of becoming unadulterated as indicated
by the strategies referenced above, he should then worship Lord Varuna. Having
done, this, he should take a dunk in the stream after purging the water by
reciting the holy 'Adhamarshan' mantra. He should then worship every one of the
gods by sprinkling water from the Shankh (Conch) and in the midst of the
recitation of mantras like 'Rudren Pavamanaen' and so on, he should then think
about the form of a Lord Shiva Lingam .
A true devotee ought
to initiate his love and worship solely after becoming unadulterated.
Initially, he ought to perform Pranayama multiple times so his lungs are topped
off with natural air. He ought to sanitize every one of the articles needed for
worshipping by reciting OM NAMAH SHIVAY. He ought to likewise make
contributions of rice grains, grain, flowers, and so on to Lord Shiva in the
Linga form.
Know more about
Shiva Linga
The Shiva Linga is a powerful representation of the
universe’s fundamental principles—creation, preservation, and dissolution.
Worshipping the Linga is a way to connect with Shiva’s divine energy and attain
both worldly success and ultimate liberation (Moksha). Over centuries, this
practice has remained a key aspect of Hindu devotion, reflecting the
universality of Shiva’s presence.
Want to fill every
corner of your heart with blessings from India’s golden culture? Fret not, Exotic India has you covered. Now that you’re a lot more ecstatic about shiva’s
linga and are aware of why is lingam in that shape, let’s go through an enthralling
collection of Shiva Lingas to seek the positive vibrational changes that the
linga brings in.
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I disagree. Shivlinga is a representation of Infinite. One cannot draw Infinite easily. So we see how we can draw. Any drawing takes a shape of either line or arc/circle. Hence the linga part itself is an unending line and the base is a circle. This depicts the shape of Infinite Energy.
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| 577 |
66 | what is the meaning of lord shiva lingam | https://www.vedanet.com/the-shiva-linga-and-its-meaning/ | Shiva and Shakti
Western scholars and some in India try to reduce the Shiva linga and Shakti yoni, the two main Tantric symbols of ascending and descending cosmic forces – which are often represented by upright conical stones for the Shiva linga and circular stones for the Shakti yoni – to merely male and female sex organs with no higher implications. It is wrong to look at the linga and the yoni only in human sexual terms, just as it would be to see the Deities of Shiva and Shakti as only symbols of sexuality.
This polarity of creative forces in life is connected to the great dualities of nature from electricity and magnetism, to fire and water, the sun and the moon, and the forms of the mountain and the valley going back to Agni and Soma of the Vedas and similar to yang and yin in China. This universal duality and polarity of creative forces is the basis of Tantric Yoga, working with it, and through it returning to the transcendent unity behind it.
Types of Shiva Lingas
In the Sanskrit language, the word linga refers to a ‘chief mark’ or ‘characteristic’. As a term, linga is not simply a synonym for the male sexual organ. Linga indicates what is outstanding and determinative. In Yoga philosophy, the term linga refers to the subtle body (sukshma sharira), which is the dominant principle in our nature over the physical body and consists primarily of energy. The Shiva linga is also the subtle body and can indicate the upper region of the chakras from the heart to the head.
The problem is that the modern mind since Freud tries to use sex as the main means of interpreting life, extending to art and spirituality, according to sexual symbolism or the sex lives of the persons involved! This ‘sexual reductionism’ misses the deeper and broader sensitivities and inspirations within us.
Some scholars try to reduce Hindu Devatas to merely sexual symbols, as if a figure like Ganesha, with his head cut off by his father, was nothing more than another manifestation of the Oedipus complex, missing his deeper yogic implications altogether. Such psychological studies have been done on Christianity and Judaism as well. Freud, himself of Jewish background though an atheist, tried to reduce Moses to the Oedipus complex, starting off this trend.
Symbolisms of the Shiva Linga
The Shiva linga represents the ascending energy of consciousness and life in nature. We see this in such forms as the mountain, the thunder cloud, the tree, and the upright human being. Many lingas like that at Kedarnath – the most important Shiva site in the Himalayas – are rocks in the shape of small mountains. Many lingas are associated with light, the lingas of the Sun, the Moon and Fire. There are the twelve famous Jyotirlingas or light forms of Shiva at twelve special temples throughout India.
Tamil Nadu has special Shiva linga forms for the five elements with lingas of earth, water, fire, air and ether at special temples in the region. Each element has its Shiva linga or determinative force. The famous hill of Arunachala, where the great enlightened sage Ramana Maharshi stayed, is said to be the fire linga of Shiva.
Shiva lingas are associated with gold, silver or crystal, the light powers in the metal and mineral kingdoms. The Shiva linga is often described in terms of light or transparency. Shiva is said to be pure light in its primal undifferentiated state, Prakasha matra.
The Shiva linga is connected to the upward pointed triangle, which is also the symbol of fire. The worship of the linga is connected to the worship of pillars, obelisks, standing stones and pyramids. Tantric linga worship is connected to Vedic pillar worship (Vedic stambha, skambha, dharuna), which has parallels throughout the ancient world and in indigenous cultures who can perceive the spiritual powers behind the formations of nature.
The Shiva linga is often a pillar of light. In special Vedic fire rituals, the fire could be made to rise in the shape of a pillar which could also then take the shape of a person! Dharma originally refers to what upholds things and can be symbolized by a pillar. The Shiva linga is the universal pillar of Dharma. The pillar is also an inner symbol indicating the erect spine and concentrated mind.
In terms of our human nature, there are several lingas or characteristic forces. The force of Prana is the linga or pillar force upholding the physical body according to the currents that emanate from it. This is the inner ‘Prana Linga’. The Atman or higher Self is the ultimate linga or determinative force of our nature that remains steady and elevated (transcendent) throughout all of our life experience, the ‘Atma Linga’.
Linga and Yoni
The linga and the yoni go together on the level of opposites, as the upward and downward pointed triangles. The linga with the yoni below it, the standing stone and the ring base, show the union of male and female energies, not just in sexuality, but also as electro-magnetic forces and pranic forces, extending to the Kundalini Shakti.
In addition, the linga in its movement creates a yoni, just as a point in its movement can create a circle. We can see this in the circular movement of the stars, planets and nebulae, as well as diverse phenomena in the world of nature. The central luminary is the linga and its field of revolution is the yoni. The planets form a yoni or circle as they revolve around the Sun as the linga, of the solar system, its central principle or axis. Yet the Sun itself is revolving around other stars and creating a yoni or circle of its own.
Stonehenge and other similar sacred stone sites that have standing stones formed into great circles, show the cosmic male and female or Shiva-Shakti principles, though different names were used. The linga and the yoni are also united in the chakra or the wheel, with the linga as the axis and the yoni as the circumference. Each chakra of the subtle body shows the union of the Shiva and Shakti energies operative at its level of manifestation.
The experience of the Shiva linga in Yogic meditation is of a pillar of light, energy, and eternity, expanding the mind, opening the inner eye and bringing deep peace and steadiness to the heart. From it radiate waves, currents, circles and whirlpools of Shakti spreading this grace, love and wisdom to all. To concentrate our awareness in the linga is one of the best ways of meditation, putting us in touch with our inner Being, true Self and Witness beyond all the agitation and sorrow of the world.
Om Namah Shivaya!
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| 578 |
67 | how many episodes of the killing on netflix | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Killing_(American_TV_series) | 19 languages
2011 American crime drama television series
The Killing
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
The Killing is an American crime drama television series that premiered on April 3, 2011, on AMC , based on the Danish television series Forbrydelsen (literal translation The Crime but also widely known as The Killing internationally). The American version was developed by Veena Sud and produced by Fox Television Studios and Fuse Entertainment. Set in Seattle , Washington , the series follows the various murder investigations by homicide detectives Sarah Linden ( Mireille Enos ) and Stephen Holder ( Joel Kinnaman ).
AMC announced the series's cancellation in July 2012, but picked it up for a third season after a renegotiation with Fox Television Studios and Netflix . The Killing was again cancelled by AMC in September 2013, but Netflix announced in November 2013 that it had ordered a fourth season consisting of six episodes to conclude the series. [1] The complete fourth season was released on Netflix on August 1, 2014. [2]
Evan Bird as Tom Larsen, Rosie's brother (season 1–2)
Seth Isaac Johnson as Denny Larsen, Rosie's brother (season 1–2)
Tom Butler as Lesley Adams, the mayor (season 1–2)
Garry Chalk as Lt. Michael Oakes, the detectives' boss (season 1–2)
Katie Findlay as Rosie Larsen, the teenage girl who was found dead (season 1–2)
Brandon Jay McLaren as Bennet Ahmed, a teacher at Rosie's high school (season 1–2)
Ashley Johnson as Amber Ahmed, Bennet Ahmed's wife (season 1–2)
Callum Keith Rennie as Rick Felder, Sarah's fiancé (season 1–2)
Kacey Rohl as Sterling Fitch, Rosie's best friend (season 1–2)
Alan Dale as Senator Eaton, Gwen's father (season 1–2)
Richard Harmon as Jasper Ames, Rosie's ex-boyfriend (season 1–2)
Barclay Hope as Michael Ames, Jasper's father (seasons 1–2)
Claudia Ferri as Nicole Jackson, the manager of the Wapi Eagle Casino (season 1–2)
Don Thompson as Janek Kovarsky, a figure from Stan Larsen's shady past (season 1–2)
Mark Moses as Lt. Erik Carlson, Linden's new boss at the police department (season 2)
Brian Markinson as Gil Sloane, Holder's NA sponsor (season 2)
Ben Cotton as Pastor Mike, director of Beacon House, the youth homeless shelter (season 3)
Aaron Douglas as Evan Henderson, a death row prison guard (season 3)
Nicholas Lea as Dale Daniel Shannon, a death row inmate (season 3)
Jewel Staite as Caroline Swift, Holder's girlfriend and a District Attorney (season 3–4)
Katherine Evans as Bethany Skinner, James Skinner's daughter (seasons 3–4)
Series overview
Season 2 (2012)
Season 3 (2013)
Season 4 (2014)
The pilot was ordered by AMC in January 2010 and then was picked up for a full series order in August 2010. [8] [9] The series is filmed in Vancouver , British Columbia , with some scenes in season two filmed in Coquitlam , British Columbia , at Riverview Hospital . Production began on the pilot episode on December 2, 2010. [10] The pilot is written by series creator and executive producer Veena Sud and is directed by Patty Jenkins . [9]
In contrast to the original Danish series , executive producer Veena Sud explained, "We're creating our own world. We are using the Danish series as a blueprint, but we are kind of diverging and creating our own world, our world of suspects and, potentially, ultimately who killed Rosie Larsen." Sud describes the series as "slow-burn storytelling in a sense that every moment that we don't have to prettify or gloss over or make something necessarily easy to digest, that we're able to go to all sorts of places that are honest, and dark, and beautiful and tragic, in a way that is how a story should be told." [11]
First cancellation and revival
AMC announced on July 27, 2012 that the series would not be renewed for a third season. [12] However, Fox Television Studios announced that they were attempting to shop the show to other networks. [13] In August 2012, it was revealed that Fox Television Studios was in talks with both DirecTV and Netflix in an attempt to revive the series. [14] In November 2012, it was confirmed that Fox Television Studios was in final negotiations with Netflix to continue the series for a third season. AMC, which had originally canceled the show, was also included in the deal, which would gain the network the privilege of airing the new episodes before being hosted by Netflix, in return for sharing any associated production costs with Netflix. [15] Variety reported on November 30, 2012, that the show would be returning to AMC, planning for a May 2013 debut, with production set to begin months before that. Cast members Mireille Enos and Joel Kinnaman were confirmed to return, with Veena Sud as showrunner and returning writers including executive producers Dawn Prestwich and Nicole Yorkin . [16] On December 12, 2012, it was confirmed that cast members Billy Campbell , Michelle Forbes , and Brent Sexton would not return for the third season. [17]
On January 15, 2013, AMC and Fox Television Studios announced that the series had been renewed for a 12-episode third season. Production started on February 25, 2013, in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada, [6] and ended on June 25, 2013. [18]
Second cancellation and revival
Season 1
The series premiere was praised by most critics. Metacritic gave it a score of 84/100 based on reviews from 29 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". [30] Rotten Tomatoes gave it a 94% approval rating with an average rating of 8.5/10, based on 36 critic reviews; the website's critics consensus reads, "The Killing is a slow burning mystery with an eerie, multi-dimensional story propelled by thoughtful writing, believable characters, and realistic horror, even if its season finale was unsatisfying." [31]
Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter gave the series a very positive review, calling it "excellent, absorbing and addictive. When each episode ends, you long for the next—a hallmark of great dramas." Goodman also praised Mireille Enos 's performance as the lead character Sarah, saying, "It's not until you watch Enos play Sarah for a while that it sinks in—there hasn't been a female American character like her probably ever." [32]
Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker gave it a B+, saying, "The acting is strikingly good" and that "[s]ome viewers may find The Killing a little too cold and deliberate, but give it time. Its intensity builds steadily, giving the series unexpected power." [33] Alex Strachan of The Vancouver Sun said the series "is soaked in atmosphere and steeped in the stark realism of Scandinavian crime novelists Henning Mankell and Stieg Larsson " and that it "is not as much about a young girl's murder as it is a psychological study of what happens afterward, how a tight-knit community tries to recover and how a dead child's mother, father and siblings learn to deal with their pain in their own private ways." [34] Matt Roush of TV Guide applauded the series, calling the acting "tremendous" and saying that he "was instantly hooked by the moody atmosphere of this season-long murder mystery set in Seattle." He went on to say, "What really stands out for me, in this age of cookie-cutter procedurals, is how The Killing dramatizes the devastation a violent death has on a family, a community, on the people involved in the investigation. Nothing about this show is routine." [35]
Subsequent episodes were met with lesser praise by some critics, criticizing the show's reliance upon increasingly implausible red herrings to drive each episode and the withholding of details about each character's background, especially Rosie's, thus making them difficult to relate to or empathize with. [36] [37]
The first-season finale was met with negative reviews from some critics. The Los Angeles Times called it "one of the most frustrating finales in TV history," [38] with Alan Sepinwall of HitFix.com calling the end "insulting." [39] Finally, Maureen Ryan of AOL TV said that the finale "killed off any interest I had in ever watching the show again." [40] "[The show] began last spring looking like the smartest, most stylish pilot in years," complained Heather Havrilevsky in The New York Times Magazine . "Fast-forward to the finale, in which we learn that what we've been watching is actually a 26-hour-long episode of Law & Order , and we're only halfway through it." [41]
Season 2
The early seasonal episodes received generally favorable reviews from critics, with Metacritic giving it a score of 68/100 based on reviews from 23 critics. [42] Rotten Tomatoes gave it a 67% approval rating with an average rating of 7.0/10, based on 30 critic reviews; the website's critics consensus reads, "The Killing's second season feels a bit tedious and unsure of where it wants to go, but it succeeds in keeping the audience on its toes, thanks to consistently fantastic acting and some strategic storytelling." [43]
Lori Rackl of the Chicago Sun-Times stated: "Few television shows are as addictive as this pensive, wonderfully paced suspenser." [44] The Washington Post 's Hank Stuever stated: "My own enjoyment of The Killing begins and ends with the gloom so brilliantly conveyed by its pace and performances." [45] Brian Lowry of Variety stated the series remained "compelling," adding that "the writers... are adept at overcoming the stodgy pace by dangling tantalizing clues near each hour's end, creating a strong pull to see what transpires next." [46] HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall compared this season to the first and called it "better." He added: "The performances are still good, and now the characterization is a bit better. When you add that to the fine atmosphere... and you view the mystery itself as a kind of necessary evil that allows you to see the parts of the show that do work, then it's not bad." [47]
The season finale, " What I Know ," received mixed reviews. Sepinwall stated: "I'd like to say that season 2 of The Killing was an improvement on season 1, and in some ways, it probably was. The second season certainly did a better job of doing what Veena Sud claimed to be doing last year, in that it took advantage of the extra time to sketch in some of the characters... I honestly feel like any kinder feelings I have for the second season came from the complete lack of investment I had in it." [48] Sean McKenna of TV Fanatic rated the finale 4.7 out of 5 stars, but, upon first viewing, "wasn't sure what to feel. I wasn't elated. I wasn't excited" but after watching it again was "sucked into the world, mesmerized not by the victory of our hero cops... but by the gut-wrenching moments that unfolded." [49] CraveOnline 's William Bibbiani called the finale "an odd duck." After citing Jamie's early revelation as "melodramatic silliness," Bibbiani added: "The rest of the episode gets its job done, with one major, glaring flaw. The characters end up more or less where they need to be, but some nearly ridiculous loose ends remain." [50] Brandon Nowalk of The A.V. Club rated this finale a C−, calling it "so unconvincing," adding "I couldn't believe how little all this resolution affected me after The Killing so thrillingly took my grudging engagement for a ride a few weeks ago. This is the same show that delivered Richmond’s hospital nightmare, the hunt for Holder, the anti-Western standoff " Sayonara, Hiawatha ," and the crazy train of the last two weeks? No, this is the full-circle episode, the one that takes the show back to its roots. Wah wah." [51]
Season 3
Season 4
Awards and nominations
Year
Association
Category
Mireille Enos
Michelle Forbes
Elizabeth Kling (Episode: "Pilot")
The Killing
Michelle Forbes
The Killing
Best Drama Social TV
The Killing Story Sync
In March 2013, Netflix closed negotiations with Fox Television Studios with a deal to be the exclusive subscription service for the series' third season. Netflix streamed the season approximately three months after its finale. It already provided the first two seasons. [69] In November 2013, Netflix announced it picked up the series for a fourth and final season after AMC had canceled it. [20] By July 2018, it was reported that the first three seasons would be removed from Netflix on August 1, 2018. [70] [71] [72] However, all four seasons were removed from the service in several countries on that date, with only Australia and New Zealand still hosting the complete series and Japan hosting the fourth season. [73]
As of January 2019 [update] , the complete series is streaming in the United States on both Hulu and Amazon Prime Video , with none of the seasons hosted on Netflix. [74]
Online promotion
Season-one promotion on AMC's The Killing website included "Rosie's Room", a virtual simulation of murder victim Rosie Larsen's bedroom that users could explore in order to learn more about Rosie's life and search for secrets and clues that could help lead to the discovery of who is responsible for her untimely death. Users could peek inside Rosie's dresser, look under her bed, listen to her answering machine messages, flip through her vinyl record collection, and explore her laptop computer to access her social networking profile, vlogs, photos, and emails. [75] Season-one promotion also included an interactive application called the "Suspect Tracker" whereby users could vote each week for who they think is the prime suspect in the murder investigation and discuss their theories about the case and its suspects with other fans. [76] A personality quiz titled "How Would You Be Cast in a Crime Thriller?" telling users what part they would be cast in on The Killing based on their reactions to various crime-related situations was also released prior to season one. [77] AMC's The Killing website also featured exclusive sneak-peek and behind-the-scenes videos, trivia games, numerous photo galleries, episode and character guides, a blog, and a community forum.
For season two's promotion, AMC's The Killing website added the "Rosie Larsen Interactive Case File," which gave a glimpse into the suspects, evidence, crime scene photographs, and documents related to the case. [78]
Levine, Stuart (December 12, 2012). "Campbell departs 'The Killing'" . Variety. Retrieved December 13, 2012.
Dyess-Nugent, Phil (June 9, 2013). "The Killing: Seventeen" . The A.V. Club. Retrieved July 24, 2013.
Tucker, Ken (March 25, 2011). "The Killing" . Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
"The Killing" . The A.V. Club. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
Ryan, Maureen (June 19, 2011). "'The Killing' Season 1 Finale Recap" . AOL TV. Archived from the original on September 29, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2011.
Goldberg, Lesley (April 4, 2011). "AMC's 'The Killing' Premieres Strong" . The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved April 4, 2011.
External links
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Seattle homicide detectives Sarah Linden and Stephen Holder are deeply affected by the murders they investigate in this dark, acclaimed crime series.
Starring:Mireille Enos, Joel Kinnaman, Billy Campbell
Creators:Veena Sud
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Adapted from a Danish series, this American version earned six Emmy nominations in its first season.
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Genres
Mireille EnosJoel KinnamanBilly CampbellLiam JamesMichelle ForbesBrent SextonKristin LehmanEric LadinJamie Anne AllmanEvan BirdSeth Isaac JohnsonTom ButlerAnnie CorleyPeter SarsgaardElias KoteasJoan Allen
Go behind the scenes of Netflix TV shows and movies, see what's coming soon and watch bonus videos on Tudum.com .
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67 | how many episodes of the killing on netflix | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Killing_episodes | 6 languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Killing is an American serial crime drama television series developed by Veena Sud , based on the Danish series of the same name that premiered on AMC on April 3, 2011. [1] The first two seasons center on the homicide of a young girl, Rosie Larsen, and its ensuing consequences on the police force, the suspects, and her distraught family. The third and fourth seasons focus on separate murder investigations. It stars Mireille Enos and Joel Kinnaman as two homicide detectives, as they investigate crimes in Seattle, Washington.
On July 27, 2012, AMC canceled the series after two seasons. [2] However, on January 15, 2013, AMC and Fox Television Studios announced that the series had been renewed for a third season. On September 10, 2013, AMC canceled the series again after three seasons. [3] However, on November 15, 2013, Netflix ordered a fourth and final season of six episodes, [4] which was released on August 1, 2014. [5] During the course of the series, 44 episodes of The Killing aired.
Series overview
Season
^ For the second season and the average ratings of the first season, see
For the third season, see
External links
| 586 |
67 | how many episodes of the killing on netflix | https://www.readwatchgo.com/blog/the-killing-netflix | TIME: Present Day Seattle, WA
RATING: 5/5 Cups of Tea
The Killing is a brilliant, riveting crime drama taking place in Seattle over four seasons that pulled me in right away, and turned me into a couch potato until the very end. It is an adaptation of the wildly popular Danish series Forbrydersen, and stays true to the feeling of Scandinavian Noir. Seasons 1 and 2 cover one major crime and Seasons 3 and 4 solve a major crime in each season. It’s an exciting series. But getting to know the characters is the best part.
Spoiler-Free Review:
Season one opens with the brutal murder of Rosie, a beautiful young girl just beginning to spread her wings and discover herself. Her death affects many people in different ways. I immediately related to her character, and I continued throughout the series to relate uniquely to each main character in this remarkable show. Because of the writers’ uncanny ability to delve deeply into the psyche of each person, the viewer is able to see the layers of messiness, struggles, and pain that drive each character’s decisions and behavior. Most of the characters are broken in some way or hiding some secret. Because several of them are so troubled and damaged, it will be difficult and disturbing to watch at times. We won’t agree with many of the choices they make, but we will come to understand the motivation behind them. The grief and the despair behind some of these decisions are palpable, and the ability to feel that as a viewer is what, for me, distinguishes The Killing from more action packed crime series we are often familiar with seeing.
The myriad of suspects and plot twists, as well as the intense character development, kept me transfixed to the screen wanting to watch “just one more episode” every single time.
You might find it surprising that I would choose to pair The Language of Flowers with The Killing, a gripping crime thriller. But early on in Season one when the two main characters were introduced, I right away thought this would be the perfect “watch” to The Language of Flowers.
The two main characters, Linden and Holder, are partnered together as detectives in the beginning of the series, and it becomes apparent almost immediately that they both come from hurt and troubled pasts. While Holder is cocky, brazen, and unapologetic, Linden is quiet and barely emotional. She is struggling as a fiancé and a mother, but instead of facing her feelings of inadequacy, she pours every part of herself into her job.
Mireille Enos ,who plays Homicide Detective Sarah Linden, shows a stoic demeanor that took my breath away. I wasn’t the least bit surprised to find out she had come through the foster care system until aging out at 18. Throughout the four seasons of The Killing, it’s fascinating to see how being fostered comes through her character, how she feels about herself, the decisions she makes, and how she lives her life. (No spoiler here! - you’ll find out right away she was a foster child).
Just like Victoria in The Language of Flowers who wasn’t equipped to transition into self sufficiency after being a foster child for 18 years, or to take on the many roles that were expected of her, Linden too didn’t have the blueprint to be a mom, partner, fiancé, or friend.
The Killing is absorbing, addictive, and relatable.
Watch all four seasons not only to satisfyingly see several crimes solved, but to get involved with an incredibly interesting group of characters who are multilayered and complicated, but again so relatable, with most of them deserving a great deal of empathy.
BUNDLES WITH:
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67 | how many episodes of the killing on netflix | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Killing_Eve_episodes | 5 languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Episodes from Killing Eve (2018)
In January 2020, it was renewed for a fourth and final season, [1] which premiered on 27 February 2022. [2]
Series overview
No. overall
No. inseries
Title [3]
Directed by
Written by
Psychopathic Villanelle —a young and prolific assassin—leaves a trail of high-profile murders across several countries. MI5 officer Eve Polastri connects a new assassination in Vienna to a series of such killings which she has been researching on her own time. Her theory that the assassin is a woman is dismissed by her superiors, but her unauthorised interview with the only witness confirms it. The witness is murdered while in a London hospital, along with a nurse and two guards, causing MI5 to fire Eve and her associate Bill. Impressed by Eve, Carolyn Martens, head of the Russia Section of MI6, recruits her for an off-the-books assignment to track the killer.
2
2
Following her assignment in Bulgaria, Villanelle's handler Konstantin is concerned about her increasing recklessness. He informs her that a covert MI6 task force, led by Eve, is investigating her string of assassinations. Eve realises that a nurse she saw at the hospital before the murders may be the killer. Carolyn introduces Eve to Kenny (Carolyn's son) who has been gathering evidence on the assassinations, and allows Eve furthermore to recruit Elena and Bill as her assistants. Villanelle forms a relationship with her neighbour Sebastien and carries out another murder, of a successful parfumier, at a dinner party in Paris.
3
3
Villanelle lures Eve to Berlin by using Eve's name while committing another murder, and trails Eve as she investigates it. Bill spots Villanelle and follows her to a nightclub. Before Eve can get to him, Villanelle stabs Bill repeatedly, killing him.
4
4
Konstantin punishes Villanelle for her recent unpredictable behaviour by making her work with two other operatives: Nadia and Diego. The three are to assassinate Frank Haleton, Eve's former MI5 boss, whom Eve has discovered is a mole. Eve and Elena rush to Frank's rescue, while Villanelle manipulates Nadia into killing Diego, then runs over Nadia with Diego's car.
5
5
Eve and Carolyn get Frank to a safe house, and he tells them that he is being paid by a shadow organisation "the Twelve" that uses Villanelle for purposeful destabilisation. There are hints that Elena and Kenny may have a romantic relationship. Villanelle breaks into Eve's home to talk to her and takes her phone, which Villanelle uses to track down Frank at the safe house and kill him. Konstantin tells Villanelle that Nadia is alive and has to be killed before she can be questioned.
6
6
Damon Thomas
George Kay
Eve and Carolyn track down Nadia to a Moscow prison, and are allowed to speak to her due to Carolyn's camaraderie with two Russian Intelligence officers, one of whom is Konstantin. Eve and Carolyn offer Nadia a deal, but before she can accept, she is killed by Villanelle, whom Konstantin had transferred to the prison for that purpose.
7
7
Eve investigates Anna, Villanelle's former teacher, with whom she had a deep relationship before Villanelle killed her husband. Villanelle is broken out from prison, meets her new handler and is given her next target: Konstantin. Villanelle breaks into Konstantin's home but he escapes. Eve discovers that Carolyn secretly met Villanelle at the prison earlier that day, before she escaped.
8
8
Konstantin goes to Carolyn and Eve for help, fearing for his and his daughter's lives. Villanelle goes to Anna for her passport and money. Eve had taken the passport and left her a note. Villanelle gets angry, but Anna kills herself before Villanelle can. Villanelle calls Eve to come to a cafe and bring her passport and Konstantin. Eve complies and a fight starts in the cafe, during which Villanelle shoots Konstantin and escapes. Carolyn fires Eve from MI6, but Eve independently tracks down Villanelle to her Paris apartment. The pair confess their obsession with each other. Eve stabs Villanelle and Villanelle flees.
Series 2 (2019)
No. overall
No. inseries
Continuing directly from the end of the first series, Eve searches for the wounded Villanelle. Without finding her, Eve is called back to London to investigate a murder case believed to have been ordered by the Twelve. Villanelle has a rough time as she makes her way from a Paris hospital to London.
10
2
Eve meets her new team and deduces that the murderer is not Villanelle, but a new assassin for the Twelve whom she nicknames "the Ghost". Villanelle is close to London, and tricks a man, Julian, into taking her home and helping her heal, but he tries to trap her at his house. After a few days she escapes, killing him and meets her new handler, Raymond.
11
3
21 April 2019 (2019-04-21)
Villanelle is ordered by Raymond to perform a clean assassination like the Ghost. She kills her target in a lift and delivers lipstick to Eve with the name "Love in an Elevator" to ensure that Eve knows who performed the assassination. Eve is struggling with balancing her job and her strained relationship with Niko.
12
4
The Ghost's body count is much larger than expected and appears to be based around Aaron Peel. Villanelle tries to get Eve's attention with an assassination in Amsterdam based on The Corpses of the De Witt Brothers , but is angered when Eve does not show up to investigate.
13
5
In a desperate attempt to get closer to Villanelle, Eve puts out a hit on herself, hiring Villanelle to do the job. Instead, Eve and Carolyn hire Villanelle to work with MI6. The Ghost is coerced by Villanelle into giving up information about who ordered the murder contract. Villanelle meets Niko and tells him about her and Eve in Paris.
14
6
Niko confronts Eve about what really happened in Paris. With new information about Aaron Peel, Villanelle goes undercover as a New Yorker named Billie to befriend Aaron's sister, Amber but there is conflict between Villanelle and Aaron.
15
7
Aaron apologises to Villanelle and invites her to go to Rome. Villanelle interrogates Niko whilst Eve visits the psychologist. In Rome, Villanelle discovers Aaron's plans but Eve becomes jealous of their relationship.
16
8
Villanelle discovers Aaron's dark secret and says the 'safe word'. Eve dresses as a cleaner to save Villanelle but she saves Eve instead. Raymond attacks Villanelle but she is saved by Eve, who kills Raymond. Villanelle and Eve escape to Hadrian's Villa (Teatro Marittimo, Tivoli, Lazio ) and have an argument there. Villanelle reveals that she wanted Eve to kill Raymond to see how it feels to kill. Eve rejects Villanelle's plan for them to run away together and walks away. Villanelle shoots Eve and leaves.
Series 3 (2020)
No. overall
No. inseries
Six months after the events in Rome, Villanelle has settled down in Spain and is about to be married when former assassin Dasha appears. Dasha trained Villanelle and now asks her to return to working for the Twelve. Villanelle asks to be promoted to the role of "Keeper" in return, which would make her more powerful than both Dasha and Konstantin. To prove her loyalty, she is tasked with killing a local political agitator in Barcelona . At MI6 Paul has been appointed to 'oversee' Carolyn's Desk. Meanwhile, Eve survives the shooting, but has left MI6 and now works at a Korean restaurant in New Malden . Kenny has also quit MI6 and now works as a journalist independently investigating the Twelve. Eve agrees to meet him for after-work drinks, but finds his office deserted. She discovers his dead body outside, having apparently been thrown from the roof by an unknown assailant.
18
2
Eve gets drunk at Kenny's funeral after learning his death was declared a suicide. She tries to access his phone, but is blocked by the password. Kenny's boss Jamie offers to unlock it in exchange for her co-operation in investigating Kenny's death. Carolyn approaches Eve separately, frustrated that she cannot investigate Kenny's death after being put on bereavement leave. She believes that Villanelle is active again. Eve hesitates, but ends up agreeing to help Carolyn. The two are unaware that Konstantin is eavesdropping on them. Meanwhile, Villanelle is assigned to mentor Felix, a promising young assassin. They infiltrate a children's birthday party to kill their target, but Felix diverges from the plan and Villanelle kills him. She returns home to find Konstantin waiting for her, and he informs her that Eve is alive.
19
3
Eve finds that Kenny had been looking into financial records and that a bank account in Geneva, used by the Chinese diplomat Villanelle killed in season 1 , has suddenly become active again. Carolyn engineers a meeting with Henrik, a Swiss banker and her former flame, to find out who manages the account. The trail leads to Charles Kruger, a former Russian agent who disappeared at the end of the Cold War. Eve suspects that he is the Twelve's accountant. Villanelle tracks her down on a bus and the two briefly fight; Villanelle gains the upper hand, but Eve surprises her by kissing her before headbutting her. Eve realises that Villanelle might be in London to kill Carolyn. She tries to warn Carolyn as she visits Kruger, but she is too late. Disguised as a police officer, Villanelle kills Kruger. Eve returns to her apartment to find a stuffed toy reciting a recorded message from Villanelle.
20
4
Eve finds a connection between a murder committed by Villanelle and another death in 1974, and is disturbed by the delivery of a birthday cake sent by Villanelle. Konstantin tracks down Kruger's widow and convinces her to send him a file that Kruger had set aside as an insurance policy. He travels to Barcelona and gives Villanelle information on her family, promising her more if she kills Kruger's widow. Meanwhile, Niko leaves England for Poland to manage his PTSD . Eve repeatedly tries to get in contact with him, but receives no response. Dasha is approached by an agent of the Twelve who orders her to make sure Villanelle remains focused. She follows Niko to Poland and steals his phone, using it to lure Eve to his farmhouse. Dasha stabs Niko in front of Eve, but remains hidden from view. She leaves a message to make Eve think Villanelle is responsible as Villanelle arrives at her hometown in Russia.
21
5
Villanelle's return to her family home in Russia is met with surprise and suspicion from her extended family. She bonds with her reclusive brother Pyotr and her Elton John -obsessed half-brother Bor'ka, and reunites with her mother Tatiana. She settles into family life and for a time enjoys herself. Things come to a head when the family visit the local Harvest Festival; Bor'ka enters a cooking competition, but does not win. He confides in Villanelle that Tatiana shamed him for embarrassing her afterwards. Villanelle confronts Tatiana over her abandoning Villanelle at an orphanage as a child. Tatiana demands she leave before claiming that Villanelle's father, whom she adored, was in fact afraid of her. Heartbroken, Villanelle kills Tatiana before blowing up the house, sparing only Bor'ka and Pyotr. Villanelle leaves money for Bor'ka to buy tickets to an Elton John show and escapes aboard a train, where she starts crying and dancing in her seat to the music on her headphones.
22
6
Villanelle is promoted to Keeper by Hélène, an agent of the Twelve, and ordered to kill a Romanian politician. Disappointed and frustrated that the work is no different, she approaches Konstantin and asks to join his plan to run away. Konstantin is reluctant because his daughter Irina hates her. Villanelle and Irina bond over their shared dislike of their mothers. Paul assigns Konstantin to investigate Kruger's wife's death and tells him that the person who arrange the hit is the one they have been looking for. Carolyn continues her investigation into Kenny's death and is shocked to learn that Kenny believed Konstantin was his father. Meanwhile, Niko survives his attack but rejects Eve. Eve deduces that Villanelle did not attack Niko. She visits Dasha in Barcelona, who taunts her; Eve is unfazed and tells her that she knows she attacked Niko. Dasha returns to her apartment and finds an injured Villanelle. Villanelle admits that she wants to escape the life of a killer for hire. Konstantin prepares to flee with Irina but is horrified when she runs over her stepfather with a car.
23
7
Villanelle meets with Hélène over her commitment to the job. Villanelle asks for another assignment instead. She and Dasha travel to Aberdeen to kill an American businessman at a golf resort. After luring the American into the woods, Villanelle hits Dasha over the head with a golf club and leaves her for dead. Eve tracks Villanelle's credit card to Aberdeen and finds Dasha semi-conscious in the woods. Dasha admits to stabbing Niko and Eve is tempted to kill her by standing on her chest. Carolyn's aide, Mo, discovers something connecting Paul to the Twelve but he is killed by Rhian, an assassin for the Twelve. Meanwhile, Konstantin is frustrated by his inability to get Irina released from prison. He returns to England and is called by Villanelle to pick her up after she attacks Dasha. As they prepare to board a train, he begins having a heart attack. Villanelle promises to return for Konstantin, but abandons him instead, and he is found by Eve. As Villanelle's train leaves, she looks out the window to see Eve on the platform. She calls Eve. Konstantin wakes up in a hospital and finds Dasha in the bed next to him.
24
8
Damon Thomas
31 May 2020 (2020-05-31)
Villanelle approaches Carolyn and offers to become an informant for MI6; Carolyn rejects her when she cannot provide any information. Villanelle then asks Eve to retrieve a package Konstantin had hidden to aid his escape. Their meeting is interrupted by Rhian, who summons Villanelle to meet Hélène. Villanelle kills Rhian. Konstantin checks himself out of hospital and argues with Dasha over their handling of Villanelle. The stress causes Dasha to die of a heart attack. Konstantin reaches Eve when Paul calls him and demands to see him. They arrive at Paul's house to find Carolyn holding him at gunpoint and Villanelle joins them. Having seen a video of Kenny and Konstantin on the day Kenny died, Carolyn demands an explanation from Konstantin. He claims he tried to recruit Kenny into the Twelve to save him, but Kenny got scared and fell to his death. Carolyn eventually spares him and kills Paul. She concludes that she will never be able to stop the Twelve. Eve and Villanelle leave together. They make a pact to walk away and never see each other again, but the two stop walking and look back at each other.
Series 4 (2022)
No. overall
No. inseries
An unspecified amount of time after the end of the third series, Villanelle has turned to religion in an effort to redeem herself and is living in a church in England with vicar Phil and his daughter May. Eve, still going after the Twelve and now working in private security, tracks down Konstantin, who is now mayor of a Russian town, and obtains a lead on Hélène. Carolyn, having been demoted after killing Paul, also continues to hunt down the Twelve and finds out someone has been killing its members. Frustrated with her lack of official powers, she enlists the help of Eve and later defects to Russia in search of more information. Villanelle invites Eve to her baptism, but she does not attend. Villanelle makes a surprise visit to Eve, but Eve does not acknowledge her efforts to change. Frustrated, Villanelle returns to the church and attempts to kill May by drowning her in the baptismal font but manages to stop herself. Later that night, Villanelle has a vision of Jesus in the form of herself in drag.
26
2
Guided by her vision of Jesus, Villanelle joins Phil, May and their congregation on a camping trip. Villanelle appears to make amends with May after the attempted drowning, and May confides in Villanelle that her father Phil is responsible for her mother's death by crashing their car while driving drunk. Villanelle reveals this to the rest of the congregation in an attempt to hold Phil accountable, but she is met with rejection. She later overhears Phil and May talking about her negatively, lashes out and kills them. She then leaves the campsite, abandoning her vision of Jesus. Meanwhile, Eve tracks Hélène to an apartment in Paris. She is aided by her colleague Yusuf, with whom she also has a casual sexual relationship. They travel to Paris, where Eve confronts Hélène in her apartment. Hélène reveals to Eve that she is responsible for the murders of the members of the Twelve that Carolyn uncovered. She is doing this to find the leader of the Twelve. Eve and Hélène agree to help each other.
27
3
Villanelle returns to London and breaks into Eve's hotel room. Eve, having returned from Paris, finds her there and rejects her calls for help, but allows her to stay in the room. Eve leaves to track down Hélène's car to a parking garage where she runs into a disgruntled ex-girlfriend of Hélène. Eve invites her for drinks in an attempt to obtain information on Hélène's target and learns she was married in Cuba to a presumably German man named Lars, before her relationship with Hélène. Eve believes Lars could be Hélène's target. Hélène meets with Pam, an assassin-in-training who expresses a wish to start working to escape her abusive family. After hesitation, Hélène agrees and assigns Konstantin as her handler. Using Eve's tablet, Villanelle arranges a meeting with Eve's psychiatrist friend Martin and holds him hostage at his home, forcing him to give her therapy. Martin tells her that her psychopathic tendencies were learned, and can possibly be unlearned. Eve returns to her hotel room and finds out Villanelle went after Martin. She meets Villanelle at Martin's home, shortly followed by armed police requested by Eve, who arrest and imprison Villanelle.
28
4
Anu Menon
Kayleigh Llewellyn
Villanelle is released from prison with the help of Hélène, who tells her that it is impossible to leave the Twelve and gives her a new assignment in Cuba. In Havana , Cuba, Villanelle kidnaps Carolyn, who has traveled there to interrogate Rustem, a member of the Twelve who survived an assassination attempt ordered by Hélène. She assaults Carolyn but spares her life after Carolyn reveals to Villanelle that she has known her since she was a child in the orphanage. Carolyn encourages Villanelle to interrogate and torture Rustem, who gives up the name of a restaurant before being killed by Villanelle. Carolyn runs into Lars at the restaurant, who is surprised to see Carolyn and flees. She tells Villanelle that she was in a relationship with Lars and that he is likely headed for Berlin. Meanwhile, Eve meets Hélène who confirms that Lars is in fact her target, and challenges Eve to find him before she does. While following up on a lead in Paris, she is contacted by Hélène who invites Eve to her apartment and taunts her with the news that Villanelle is out of prison. In response, Eve kisses Hélène and leaves the apartment.
29
5
In 1979, Carolyn and Konstantin attend an anarchist meeting in Berlin, led by Lars. When Lars is gathering ideas for names for their group, Carolyn suggests they name themselves after the number of founding members—twelve. Carolyn and Konstantin flirt, and eventually spend the night together. She later discovers that her father, a British spy, has committed suicide after being blackmailed. After learning that Konstantin is Russian, she confronts him at a lake. Konstantin says he is a KGB spy and responsible for blackmailing her father. Lars finds the two arguing and a fight ensues during which he falls into the lake and disappears, presumed dead.
In the present day, Villanelle murders the abusive husband of her Cuban hostess , then leaves Cuba to meet Konstantin in Margate in an attempt to locate Hélène. Eve acquires an old Super 8 film of Lars and his British girlfriend. Viewing the recording, she recognizes a young Carolyn. Eve abducts Hélène's daughter Chloe from Paris as a response to Hélène bailing Villanelle out of prison. Hélène retaliates by driving Eve out to Margate, where Eve is forced to watch Villanelle being struck by an arrow and falling unconscious. Eve runs to Villanelle and cradles her.
30
6
Emily Atef
Kayleigh Llewellyn
Villanelle's injuries are treated by Eve, Konstantin and Pam. Gunn, a Twelve assassin from Scotland who was also trained by Konstantin, might be behind the attack. An unsuspecting Villanelle later meets Gunn, who slips her a note stating that she was ordered to kill Villanelle by Hélène but chose to spare her, and that Hélène is in a hotel in Berlin. Eve travels to Berlin after being told by Villanelle that Carolyn and Lars are there, but only finds Hélène and follows her to her hotel room. Villanelle, who was already hiding in that room, kills Hélène in front of Eve. Still upset with Eve for having her arrested, Villanelle abandons Eve. She leaves for Scotland to meet Gunn after being given her location by Konstantin. Eve tracks down Carolyn and confronts her outside Lars' cabin near Berlin. Carolyn says that she is not part of the Twelve and that she is only there to get information out of Lars. To Carolyn's disappointment, Eve enters the cabin and kills Lars. Carolyn searches Lars' body to find a notebook. Villanelle arrives at the remote Scottish island where Gunn lives. She meets Gunn and asks if she can stay with her.
31
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Stella Corradi
Sarah Simmonds
Villanelle wakes up on Gunn's island and accompanies Gunn on a hunting trip. The two exchange stories and kiss. Gunn immediately becomes attached to Villanelle, but Villanelle rejects Gunn upon learning that she is still loyal to the Twelve, and attempts to leave the island. Gunn responds by chasing Villanelle with a machete. Meanwhile, Eve is invited to karaoke by Yusuf, where she experiences flashbacks of her former husband and MI5 colleagues. Yusuf permanently leaves Eve after she tells him she cannot move on from her past. Eve visits Martin for guidance, who advises her to connect with the people who truly understand her. Eve receives a cryptic message on Hélène's phone and visits Konstantin, who tells her it is an announcement for a Twelve meeting. He advises her to bring Villanelle along with her and gives her the location of Gunn's island. Pam visits Konstantin after Eve leaves, and kills Konstantin on Hélène's final orders. A dying Konstantin reveals Hélène's death to Pam and asks her to deliver a letter and love declaration to Carolyn. Eve travels to Gunn's island and is ambushed by Gunn while Villanelle, who has hidden in the bushes, watches from nearby.
32
8
Eve blinds Gunn during their struggle, and she and Villanelle escape the island. They spend a loving day and night together travelling through the Scottish countryside to reach the Twelve meeting in London, after Eve convinces Villanelle to help her. Meanwhile, Pam delivers Konstantin's letter to Carolyn. Pam is offered a job by Carolyn, but she refuses and walks away. Carolyn, having followed clues in Lars' notebook, arrives at the Twelve's proposed meeting place shortly followed by Eve and Villanelle. Hélène's phone receives a message indicating that the meeting place has changed to a boat on the River Thames where a wedding is also taking place. At night, Eve and Villanelle board the boat, where Villanelle slaughters the present Twelve members while Eve distracts the wedding guests. Right afterwards Villanelle is shot by an unseen sniper. Villanelle saves Eve by shielding her and taking the shot as the two jump in the Thames, where Villanelle sinks into the depths with Eve unable to reach her. Carolyn, watching from a distance, acknowledges the assassination on a walkie-talkie. Eve resurfaces in the middle of the river and screams in anguish.
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68 | when does the next episode of rebels come out | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Star_Wars_Rebels_episodes | List of Star Wars Rebels episodes
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The series was previewed throughout August 2014 with a set of shorts introducing the main characters before the television film pilot episode premiered on Disney Channel on October 3, 2014. The regular series premiered on Disney XD on October 13, 2014. [1] [2] The second season started on June 20, 2015, and the third season premiered on September 24, 2016. [3] [4] [5] The two-part season three finale aired on March 25, 2017. The fourth and final season premiered on October 16, 2017, with the two-part episode "Heroes of Mandalore", and continued to air until November 13, 2017 taking a winter break and preparations for the release of the film Star Wars: The Last Jedi . The series picked up on February 19, 2018, Disney XD then released two episodes a week, airing the final two episodes on March 5, 2018. A total of 75 episodes were aired, with the narrative of the series being continued in the 2023 live-action miniseries Ahsoka .
Series overview
101A
Following a raid on an Imperial supply convoy, the Ghost is pursued by TIE fighters, which take out its shields and communication system. Only one TIE fighter remains after a dogfight and Chopper destroys it.
2
101B
Sabine infiltrates a TIE fighter landing platform to create a diversion for the Ghost to escape. She taunts the Stormtroopers to chase her and leaves behind an explosive that covers them with purple paint.
3
"Entanglement"
101C
Zeb walks through an alley on Lothal and intervenes when he sees two Stormtroopers harassing a salesman. The Stormtroopers call for reinforcements and they fire at him, but accidentally cause a fuel leak in a TIE fighter, which explodes.
4
101D
Ezra witnesses the Ghost shoot down a TIE fighter and goes to the wreckage. When the pilot shows no gratitude to Ezra for saving him, Ezra steals from him several items, including his helmet. The pilot fires at Ezra, who evades and incapacitates him with an energy slingshot before walking away wearing the helmet.
Season 1 (2014–15)
2
2
102
Street thief Ezra Bridger is an orphan on Lothal, an Outer Rim world. He interferes with the theft of blaster rifles from the Empire by three Ghost crew members: leader Kanan Jarrus, Mandalorian saboteur Sabine Wren, and Lasat strongman Garazeb "Zeb" Orrelios. Ezra ends up stuck with the crew while making their getaway and also meets Twi'lek pilot Hera Syndulla and her C1 astromech droid Chopper. Ezra finds a lightsaber and a holocron in Kanan's room and steals the holocron. The rifles are sold to buy food and information from black market dealer and crime lord Cikatro Vizago. The food is given to the displaced people of Lothal while the information leads them to the location of several Wookiees captured by the Empire. However, this is a trap, and Ezra is captured by Agent Kallus. Ezra somehow opens the holocron and sees a message from Obi-Wan Kenobi . Ezra is saved by the Ghost crew after learning where the Wookiees have been sent. During the rescue of the Wookiees, Kanan draws his lightsaber, revealing himself as a Jedi , and together with the Wookiees, he defeats Agent Kallus and escapes. Having proven himself by opening the holocron, Kanan offers to make Ezra his apprentice.
3
3
The Ghost crew steal a shipment of disruptor weapons from Minister Maketh Tua to sell to Vizago, accidentally bringing the Imperially serviced droids C-3PO and R2-D2 with them in the process. Zeb objects to the mission since the same weapons were used to nearly wipe out his species, the Lasats. Agent Kallus intercepts C-3PO's distress call and follows the Ghost to Lothal. Zeb sees that Agent Kallus uses a Bo Rifle, a weapon only used by the Lasat Honor Guard, which Kallus had taken from a guardsman he killed himself. In the ensuing duel between Zeb and Kallus, Ezra saves Zeb by instinctively using the Force combatively for the first time, pushing Kallus away and knocking him unconscious. allowing the crew to escape after setting the weapons to self-destruct as a diversion. Kanan returns the two droids to their rightful owner Bail Organa , who surveys R2-D2's recordings of the rebel crew's actions.
4
4
Chopper ends up causing a fight between Ezra and Zeb, so Hera sends them out on a supply run together to keep them from bickering with each other, specifying that they do not return without a rare meiloorun fruit. The two find that the market's sole supply of meilooruns has been purchased by the Empire. Ezra's attempt to steal the fruit leads to an entanglement against the stormtroopers, forcing Zeb to hijack a TIE fighter for the two to escape in. En route to their rendezvous with the Ghost, the two find farmer Morad Sumar — a friend of Ezra's parents — and his family being arrested over a property dispute with the Empire. Using the TIE fighter to their advantage, Ezra and Zeb are able to rescue Sumar and retrieve the fruit. On their return to the Ghost after supposedly crashing the fighter, Hera is pleased to see Ezra and Zeb are more friendly towards each other.
5
5
Ezra has started his Jedi training, but struggles with the basics while Kanan also struggles in his new role as a mentor. The rebels discover an underground transmission reporting that Jedi Master Luminara Unduli has survived Order 66 and is being held in a high-security Imperial prison on Stygeon Prime. Frustrated with his own inability to teach Ezra, Kanan leads his crew to rescue Luminara, hoping she will be a more capable teacher for Ezra. Upon reaching her cell, Kanan and Ezra discover that Luminara is long dead, and that her remains are being used as bait by an Inquisitor to lure the Jedi into a trap. The two work together to escape the Inquisitor before Hera rescues them aboard the Phantom. After Ezra reveals his insecurities over Kanan trying to find him another mentor, Kanan resolves to train Ezra himself.
6
6
Ezra goes undercover as an Imperial Academy cadet to help foil a shipment of kyber crystals . Thanks to his training Ezra quickly proves the most capable student in the class. During his operation, he befriends fellow cadets Zare Leonis and Jai Kell, the former of whom has similarly infiltrated the academy in search of his missing sister, Dhara. After completing the mission, Ezra discovers that the Inquisitor, having taken notice of his and Jai's abilities, intends to take them prisoner. With Zare and the other rebels' help, the three are able to fight their way out of the facility during an Imperial walker training exercise. Jai goes into hiding while Zare remains at the academy to continue his search for Dhara.
7
7
Chopper's antics cause Ezra and Zeb to forget to carry out an important repair on the Phantom. Hera and Sabine set out to an abandoned Republic asteroid base to retrieve supplies provided by Fulcrum, an anonymous informant whom Hera has been in contact with. Sabine voices her displeasure towards Hera's secrecy about their mission, feeling as though neither she nor Kanan trust her. Due to the fuel tank leaking on the Phantom, the two are left stranded on the base, which is infested with deadly fyrnocks. The two work together to survive the creatures long enough for the rest of the crew to rescue them aboard the Ghost, allowing Sabine to overcome her trust issues while Hera tells her to have faith in the growing rebellion.
Note: This is the last episode to take place in 5 BBY.
8
8
Kanan tries to teach Ezra how to use the Force to make a connection to other living creatures. The rebels destroy the Empire's new prototype TIE fighter during a parade celebrating the 15th anniversary of the Empire's creation. Ezra, who was born on the original Empire day and has turned 15, is preoccupied with his feelings towards his missing parents and opts out of the mission. He soon discovers that his parents' Rodian friend Tseebo is wanted by the Empire, and rejoins his friends to look for him. Tseebo is found hiding in the basement of Ezra's old house, where Ezra reveals his parents were arrested for making anti Empire radio broadcasts, after which Tseebo had gone to work for the Empire. The rebels learn that Tseebo has allowed himself to be implanted with cybernetics so he could steal information that is valuable to the Empire, though the sheer amount of information he uploaded has affected his mind. The Rebels smuggle him off of Lothal aboard the Ghost. During the ensuing chase led by the Inquisitor, Tseebo regains his senses and reveals that he knows what happened to Ezra's parents.
Note: This is the first episode to take place in 4 BBY.
9
9
Learning that Tseebo failed to save his parents from being abducted by the Empire, Ezra lashes out at Tseebo for betraying his parents' trust. Amidst the chase, the Imperials attach a homing beacon to the hull of the Phantom, which Kanan opts to detach from the Ghost in hyperspace with himself and Ezra on board to mislead the Imperials. The two arrive at Fort Anaxes, where Kanan teaches Ezra to forgive Tseebo by admitting his fear of not knowing what happened to his parents. The two tame the fyrnocks by connecting to them through the Force and set them against the arriving Imperial forces, but are cornered by the Inquisitor, who injures Kanan. Overcome with anger, Ezra uses the dark side of the Force to summon a giant fyrnock against the Inquisitor, allowing the two to escape. Back on the Ghost, Sabine gives Ezra a picture of his parents she found in his house. Afterwards, the Ghost crew take Tseebo to Fulcrum, while Hera offers to relay to Ezra what Tseebo knows of his parents' fate.
10
10
Concerned with Ezra's previous display of the dark side against the Inquisitor, Kanan brings him to a hidden Jedi Temple on Lothal to be tested for his readiness in Jedi training. While Kanan stays behind, Ezra makes his way through the temple alone and is faced with a series of visions showing the Inquisitor killing Kanan and the rest of the Ghost crew. After seeing through the illusions, Ezra is guided by the disembodied voice of Jedi Master Yoda , who helps him admit his fear of being alone again. Kanan also speaks with Yoda about his own ability to teach Ezra. Yoda leads Ezra to a kyber crystal, which he uses to build his own lightsaber.
11
11
Zeb bets and loses Chopper to smuggler Lando Calrissian in a game of sabacc, forcing the Ghost crew to assist Lando with a dangerous smuggling run to get their droid back. However, during the smuggling run Lando trades Hera to crime lord Azmorigan in exchange for a puffer pig, which can detect precious minerals for mining purposes, leaving Hera to escape in an escape pod. Humiliated, Azmorigan and his henchmen intercept the rebels on Lothal to take revenge. The crew successfully drive the gangsters away. The rebels part ways with Lando, though not before Chopper steals the fuel to Lando's ship, which the smuggler concedes as payment for their help.
12
12
During lightsaber practice, Ezra has a fragmented vision of meeting Gall Trayvis, an exiled Imperial senator and rebel sympathizer, and assumes that Trayvis knows about his parents. The rebels receive a transmission from Trayvis notifying them of a secret rally on Lothal, but Ezra receives a tip from Zare Leonis that Kallus is planning to use the senator to lure the rebels into a trap. Following Trayvis's transmission, the rebels find him and save him from Kallus by escaping into Lothal's sewer systems. To Ezra's dismay, Trayvis reveals himself to be an Imperial spy who has used his anti-Imperial transmissions to identify rebel sympathizers, and claims that Ezra's parents are dead and gone. Having suspected his treachery, Hera outsmarts Trayvis and knocks him out so that the rebels can escape. Although disappointed by the betrayal, Ezra and the other rebels remain hopeful of their cause.
13
13
Grand Moff Tarkin visits Lothal to deal with the rebels. In light of discovering that Trayvis is actually an Imperial spy, the rebels debate broadcasting a message to the nearby star systems about their cause. Ezra adamantly supports the idea, since his parents had broadcast secret messages from their basement for years. Kanan decides to invade the main Imperial communications tower on Lothal. The Rebels think they have the element of surprise, but they do not take into account the arrival of Tarkin, who has deduced where they will strike. The Inquisitor and Kallus are sent out to capture Kanan alive to earn back Tarkin's trust. When the Imperial forces attack the group at the tower, Kanan instructs the team to leave him and thus is captured. The team is able to have Ezra send a message of hope, urging those living under the oppression of the Empire to fight, before Tarkin orders the tower to be destroyed, ending their broadcast.
14
14
After failing to find where Kanan is being detained, Hera is urged by Fulcrum to put the crew of the Ghost into hiding. Against Hera's orders to leave Kanan, Ezra devises a plan to rescue him. He strikes a deal with Vizago for an unspecified favor in the future and learns that due to the destruction of the Imperial communications tower the Empire is forced to send all its messages via courier droids. Meanwhile, Kanan is brought aboard Tarkin's ship where he is tortured by the Inquisitor as the Empire hopes to gain more information about the rebels. The crew of the Ghost substitute a disguised Chopper for an Imperial courier droid so he can access the Empire's data on Kanan, eventually learning that Tarkin plans to transfer Kanan to the prison on Mustafar where, according to Hera, Jedi go to die.
15
15
The crew of the Ghost seize an Imperial transport and use the TIE fighter that Zeb and Ezra had previously stolen to infiltrate and disable Tarkin's star destroyer in the Mustafar system. Ezra frees Kanan using the duct system while Hera, Sabine and Zeb attempt to secure an escape route. Ambushed in the engine room, Ezra and Kanan face the Inquisitor in a lightsaber duel, during which Ezra falls and is believed dead by Kanan. Abandoning his fear of losing Ezra, Kanan succeeds in destroying the Inquisitor's lightsaber and rupturing the ship's engine, into which the defeated Inquisitor casts himself to his death. Ezra reveals himself to be alive (and to have gotten a scar during the battle with the Inquisitor) and escapes with Kanan. Both groups successfully emerge from the doomed destroyer with stolen TIEs. Chopper arrives in the stolen transport alongside a number of other ships, and they all successfully escape into hyperspace . The rebels are greeted by Senator Organa and Fulcrum, the latter of whom is revealed to be Ahsoka Tano , who tells the group that they are just one cell out of many working for a larger rebellion. On Lothal, Tarkin introduces Agent Kallus to Darth Vader , who has been selected by Emperor Palpatine to hunt the rebels in the Inquisitor's place.
Season 2 (2015–16)
17
2
202
On orders to hunt down the Rebels and especially the Jedi among them, Darth Vader begins an oppressive campaign against Lothal's populace in order to find the group. The Ghost crew starts working with the wider Rebel cells, but are divided between joining the larger network and waging open war on the Empire, or staying out of a large-scale fight. The situation is even more complicated when Minister Maketh Tua, fearing punishment for failing to neutralize the Lothal rebels, tries to defect to them in order to escape Vader, offering to reveal the truth behind why the Emperor wants the planet. However, Vader uses this to his advantage and orchestrates Tua's murder by shuttle explosion, framing the rebels for the act and turning Lothal's population against them. The Ghost crew tries to flee but are cornered by Vader, who injures Kanan and Sabine and nearly kills Ezra before they finally escape. After being smuggled off-world by Lando Calrissian to escape the Empire, the demoralized crew meet up with Ahsoka's rebel cell, but Vader pursues them and proceeds to wipe out most of the rebel ships, discovering Ahsoka's presence during a mental encounter via the Force. Ahsoka is horrified to discover that Vader is in fact her former master and her mind is temporarily overwhelmed in the process. She later joins the Ghost crew as they vow to join the wider fight against the Empire. Darth Vader later reports Ahsoka's existence to Darth Sidious, who issues Vader new orders to dispatch another one of their Inquisitors to capture the crew of the Ghost.
18
3
Having barely escaped total destruction of the rebel cell Phoenix Squadron by Darth Vader, Ahsoka Tano sends the Ghost Crew to locate a former military commander somewhere in the Seelos system who has the knowledge of useful hideouts in the Outer Rim. The crew discover the commander to be former clone trooper Captain Rex , accompanied by Commander Wolffe and clone commando Gregor. Kanan is immediately hostile as soon as he finds out about them being clones due to their role in Order 66 although Rex claims they removed their brain chips. Ezra negotiates with Rex for information relating to potential bases. In return Gregor enlists them for a hunt by using Zeb as bait to catch an elusive Joopa. With the hunt successful, Rex holds up his end of the deal but Sabine discovers that Wolffe betrayed the Ghost crew's location to the Empire. A skirmish with an Imperial probe having damaged the Phantom shuttle, the crew is temporarily stranded with the clones waiting for an Imperial assault.
19
4
Bosco Ng
Steven Melching
The Empire tracks the Lothal Rebels to Seelos. Admiral Konstantine and Agent Kallus arrive at the Seelos System to capture the Jedi. Rex gives the Lothal Rebels a datachip containing old Republic bases in the Outer Rim. Ezra tries to persuade the clones to join the Rebellion, but Rex and the clones instead offer to delay the Empire so the Lothal Rebels can escape. Agent Kallus commands the clones to hand over the Rebels, but when Rex refuses, Kallus arrives with three AT-ATs. Taking advantage of a sandstorm and the Force, Kanan, Ezra and the clones use their AT-TE's main gun to destroy one of the AT-ATs. Meanwhile, Admiral Konstantine is summoned away by Darth Vader. Instead of meeting him, the admiral meets Fifth Brother, an inquisitor, who claims that he will succeed where Kallus and Konstantine have failed. The Lothal Rebels prepare to leave on the Phantom, but Ezra is unwilling to leave Rex and the clones behind. Kanan, Ezra, and Zeb commandeer one of the AT-ATs and turn its weapons on Kallus' AT-AT which Rex destroys with a critical hit. Kallus flees the battle on a speeder. Hera returns to pick up the clones and the Ghost crew. Returning to the Rebel flotilla, the Lothal Rebels and Rex reunite with Ahsoka.
20
5
Zeb, Sabine, and Chopper, with Ezra volunteering himself to avoid Kanan and Rex, head out to an Old Republic medical base in search of vital medical supplies only to encounter Fifth Brother and Seventh Sister, another inquisitor. Seventh Sister captures Ezra and interrogates him about the whereabouts of Ahsoka Tano while Sabine is also captured by Fifth Brother. Zeb and Chopper eventually rescue them and they all barely escape the Inquisitors and head back to the rebel fleet where Ezra pointedly questions Kanan about the extra Inquisitors.
21
6
Saul Ruiz
Bill Wolkoff
Ezra receives a distress signal from Vizago's ship. Ezra and Chopper decide to see what has happened. When they arrive, they find out that the ship has been taken over by Hondo Ohnaka , who claims to have won it from Vizago in a game of sabacc. Ezra, assuming the name Lando Calrissian, works out a deal to help Hondo in exchange for some sorely-needed power generators. Impressed with Ezra's skill, Hondo offers him a place in his pirate crew. However, Ezra and Chopper discover Vizago imprisoned in his ship's brig and Ezra helps him get it back in hopes of developing a useful contact for the Rebels.
22
7
Phoenix Squadron tries to break an Imperial blockade in order to provide food supplies to those who need it, but their transport is destroyed and the mission fails. Hera is then tasked to go to a planet whose atmosphere is very difficult to fly in to get a ship being built by a Mon Calamari named Quarrie that can break the blockade. After nearly crashing her shuttle, Hera convinces Quarrie to let her pilot the ship, called the Blade Wing, or B-Wing for short. With the Blade Wing's firepower, Hera singlehandedly destroys one of the Imperial blockade ships, allowing the Ghost to break the blockade and deliver the needed supplies.
23
8
Sabine is sent by Hera to acquire an unknown information courier. She goes with Ezra and Chopper and they find that the courier is a clunky droid. They then encounter Ketsu Onyo ( Gina Torres ), Sabine's estranged friend who works as a bounty hunter and is now after the droid. When some Stormtroopers begin to fire at them, Sabine and Chopper steal a ship and go off planet with the droid, unfortunately with Ezra left behind. Ketsu also escapes in her own ship and, after a confrontation with Sabine, captures Chopper and the two meet up to exchange droids. Their activity draws the attention of an Imperial cruiser and the two team up to escape by setting charges on the stolen ship. Sabine is knocked out and almost abandoned with the ship, but Ketsu saves her and the explosion allows them to fly the droid to a rebel location and then rejoin Ezra and Hera before Ketsu leaves on better terms with Sabine.
24
9
Ezra and Commander Sato are captured when a new Imperial weapon—an experimental Interdictor-class Star Destroyer—generates a gravity well strong enough to pull ships out of hyperspace. Hera sends Kanan, Rex and Chopper to rescue them, using a stolen shuttle, stormtrooper armor, and Rex's knowledge of Imperial codes and protocols to infiltrate the Interdictor, although Kanan's lingering distrust of Rex initially hampers the mission. Ezra and Chopper head to the reactor to sabotage the Interdictor, but Rex is captured as he and Kanan escort Sato and his crew to their shuttle. Kanan heads back to rescue Rex and they deploy an escape pod, as Chopper's sabotage causes the gravity well projectors to overload, pulling the other Imperial cruisers towards the Interdictor and destroying it.
Note: This is the last episode to take place in 4 BBY.
25
10
Saul Ruiz
Bill Wolkoff
Ahsoka informs Kanan that she's continuing her investigation on the Sith Lord Darth Vader, but finding information on him is difficult. In the meantime, she receives word of two sets of coordinates that cross the Imperial net. She heads to look into one of them while dispatching Kanan, Ezra, Zeb, and Chopper to the other. Ahsoka arrives at her location first, a ransacked passenger ship adrift in space, and finds signs of weapon damage all over. The lone survivor, a grandmother, claims "two redblades" kidnapped her grandchild from her and disappeared. Ahsoka informs the team at their destination on a distant planet that the two Inquisitors are involved. Zeb and Chopper locate the Inquisitors' fighters at the spaceport and reclaim the baby stored in one before destroying them, while Kanan and Ezra find the distressed mother of the second child. Chopper takes the first child to the Phantom shuttle while Zeb encounters the Inquisitors on the street after relieving a fleeing droid of the second baby. Kanan, Zeb, and Ezra discover that the children are force sensitive and were targeted by the Inquisitors to ensure they do not become Jedi. They attempt to lose the Inquisitors through a housing block on their way back to the shuttle, but are overpowered by them. Ahsoka appears and easily defeats both of the Inquisitors while the rest escape, using the Force to jump up and join them in the shuttle as it passes overhead. The Rebels escape, but not before one of Seventh Sister's probe droids hears Ezra saying they are going to the planet Garel.
Note: This is the first episode to take place in 3 BBY.
26
11
"Legacy"
Ezra has a vivid dream about his parents, which he is convinced is a vision which will lead him to discover their fate. Hera and Kanan reveal that they have secretly spent months investigating Imperial prisons, and have heard about a recent prison break. As the Ghost prepares to return to Lothal to investigate Ezra's visions, the Imperial fleet arrives at Garel based on the intelligence from the Seventh Sister's probe droid. Ezra and Kanan escape to Lothal in the Phantom, while the Ghost remains behind to assist the escape of the rebel fleet. On Lothal, Ezra follows a Loth-cat which appeared in his dream to Prisoner X-10, one of the escapees who is the former Governor of Lothal, Ryder Azadi. Azadi tells Ezra that his parents heard his broadcast and it had inspired them to organize the prison break in which he had escaped, but Ezra's parents were killed during the breakout. While saddened at his parents' deaths, Ezra takes solace in that they heard his message, and Kanan comforts him by telling him that his parents live on inside him.
27
12
While Ezra grapples with the news about his parents, the rebels make plans with Senator Bail Organa to secure three much-needed cruisers. Leading the mission is an agent hand-picked by the Senator: his daughter, Princess Leia . Leia meets up with Kanan and Ezra and plans to have them take her ships, giving the pretext that the Rebels hijacked them so as not to reveal Alderaan's support. However, their plans are thwarted when Imperial security proves to be much stronger than expected. The trio link back up with rest of the Ghost crew, rescuing Azadi from an Imperial patrol in the process. Leia then inspires the crew to come up with a plan to steal the cruisers, with Leia distracting the guards while the Phantom provides air support and Azadi disables the gravity locks on the cruisers. The plan is a success, with the Rebels stealing all three cruisers and Leia further masking her involvement by blaming the Imperials for their failure to protect them. Inspired by the actions of Leia and the Rebels, Azadi decides to join the cause.
28
13
Brad Rau
With the Empire tightening its cordon around Lothal, the Rebels look for a new smuggling route. Hera and Sabine head out to the world of Concord Dawn to request safe passage from the Protectors, the Mandalorian faction that controls the world. However, the Protectors reveal that they have sided with the Empire and immediately attack. Hera and Sabine escape, but Hera is critically wounded. Kanan and Sabine return to Concord Dawn, with Kanan still wanting to negotiate with the Protectors and Sabine wanting to get revenge for Hera. They discover the Protector's leader, Fenn Rau ( Kevin McKidd ), is being bribed by the Empire. Kanan meets with Rau, revealing that Rau had saved his life during the Clone Wars. Meanwhile, Sabine attempts to sabotage the Protectors' fighters but is caught. She reveals to the Protectors that she is from House Vizsla, and challenges Rau to single combat. Working together, Kanan and Sabine capture Rau, and he agrees to allow the Rebels safe passage through Concord Dawn.
29
14
Following a tip from Hondo, the Ghost crew rescues a pair of Lasats from Imperial custody: Chava the Wise and Gron, who both recognize Zeb as Captain of the Lasan Honor Guard. Chava and Gron explain that they are searching for the mythical world of Lira San, [33] where the surviving Lasats can find refuge. However, Zeb is reluctant to help due to his guilt over failing to protect Lasan from the Empire. With some encouragement from Ezra, Zeb transforms his Bo-Rifle into its true form and combines it with Chava's staff, revealing Lira San's location in uncharted Wild Space. However, they find their way blocked by a dense cluster of black holes while Agent Kallus pursues them. Trusting in Chava's wisdom, Zeb uses the energy from his Bo-Rifle to create a protective field around the Ghost, allowing it to navigate the black hole cluster safely. On the other side, they find the world of Lira San, which is the true home planet of the Lasat people. After dropping off Chava and Gron, Zeb decides to stay on the Ghost in order to find more Lasat survivors to guide back to Lira San. It is in this episode that the ancient names of the sides of the Force are first revealed by Chava, calling the light side the ashla, and the dark side the bogan, and repeated by The Bendu on Atollon in a later episode of Rebels.
30
15
The Ghost crew is on a mission to capture a fuel shipment from the Mining Guild to the Empire, in order to restock the Rebel fleet's own dwindling supplies. While travelling to the Guild's asteroid refinery, the Ghost encounters a flock of purrgil, space-travelling creatures whom Hera considers dangerous. However, Ezra establishes contact with them through the Force and learns that his crew and the purrgil actually pursue the same basic goal, if for slightly differing priorities. Upon reaching the Mining Guild base, the crew finds the Mining Guild attempting to exterminate the purrgil. Kanan plans to raid the base and steal the shipment, while igniting the rest of the fuel to create a diversion. However, Ezra stops him when he realizes that the purrgil also need the fuel. When it appears as if the Mining Guild forces will overwhelm the crew, the purrgil arrive and attack the Mining Guild, giving the crew the time they need to escape with the fuel. As the Ghost flies away, the crew witnesses the purrgil going into hyperspace, confirming rumors that they are a migratory species capable of faster-than-light travel without technology.
31
16
"Homecoming"
In order to provide a safe shelter for their fighters, the Rebels plan to capture an Imperial carrier currently stationed above Ryloth, Hera's home planet. In order to pull the mission off, the Ghost crew contacts Hera's father, the famed Twi'lek resistance fighter Cham Syndulla. However, Cham desires to destroy the carrier as a demonstration of power, and only grudgingly agrees to capture it. Hera later tells Ezra that she and her father are not on the best of terms, as Hera believes Cham is obsessed with the Twi'lek Resistance while Cham believes Hera's faith in the Rebellion is misguided. Piloting a captured TIE Bomber, Hera successfully infiltrates the crew and Cham's team into the carrier, but Cham's team betrays them and moves to destroy the carrier. Ezra uses a Jedi mind trick on the captain to have the crew abandon ship while Zeb and Sabine subdue Cham's men. Hera convinces Cham to help her, and they destroy a pursuing Imperial cruiser, achieving the demonstration Cham wanted. After adding the carrier to the Rebel fleet, Hera and Cham reconcile before parting ways.
32
17
The Ghost crew receives a tip about Imperial activity around the planet Geonosis and go to investigate only to find the planet completely devoid of life and evidence of a large weapon having been constructed in orbit. When the crew boards one of the abandoned construction modules, they are ambushed by Agent Kallus. Most of the crew is able to escape back to the ship, but Zeb is forced to take an escape pod. Kallus pursues Zeb into the pod, which gets damaged during their struggle and the pair crash land on one of Geonosis' icy moons. Kallus' leg is injured in the crash, and he and Zeb are forced to work together to survive by fending off hostile monsters and climbing out of the cave they are trapped in. During this, Kallus admits to Zeb that he respects Lasats as warriors, but dislikes them due to his first squad being wiped out by a Lasat. He also reveals he did not agree with the Empire's decision to exterminate the Lasats and that the Bo Rifle he claimed to have stolen from a dead Lasat Honour Guard was actually given to him by the guard after defeating him in an honourable duel. Upon reaching the surface, they activate their emergency transponder. The Ghost arrives to rescue Zeb shortly after. Kallus wishes to take his chances and wait for Imperial rescue rather than be a Rebel prisoner, and both he and Zeb part ways with a newfound respect for each other. Returning to his Star Destroyer, Kallus is greeted rather coldly, even by Imperial standards, and the episode concludes with him sitting in his quarters, deep in thought.
33
18
Ezra and Kanan, after facing off with the Inquisitors again, decide it is not safe for them to be around the Rebels while they are being targeted by the Empire, and decide to get advice from Ahsoka. On her advice, the three set out for the Jedi Temple on Lothal, where each have a separate vision; Ezra, of Master Yoda, Kanan, of the Temple Guard who is testing him, and Ahsoka, of Anakin/Vader. As the Inquisitors track the group to the temple and force their way inside, Ezra is told by Yoda to "find Malachor ", Kanan is warned by the Guard, who reveals himself as the former Grand Inquisitor , to beware Ezra's turning toward the Dark Side, dubbing Kanan the official rank of Jedi Knight , a rank he was never able to achieve due to the execution of Order 66 and the extermination of the Jedi Order. During her vision, Ahsoka faces her guilt over not being present during the fall of the Jedi, while also accepting the fact that her former master, Anakin Skywalker, has become the Sith Lord Darth Vader. The three escape as the shades of the Temple Guards hold off the Inquisitors. Vader and the Empire's forces arrive at the Temple, as Ahsoka informs Ezra that Malachor is actually a place.
34
19
While on a mission to steal fuel, Chopper steals a replacement strut for his original leg. Chopper is separated from the Ghost crew and finds himself stranded on an Imperial freighter. He is eventually discovered by the ship's inventory droid, AP-5, who does not report him upon finding out that Chopper is a veteran of the Clone Wars, just like him. AP-5 complains to Chopper that the Empire does not appreciate his previous role as a strategist, and the freighter crew constantly mistreats him. Chopper removes AP-5's restraining bolt, and the two work together to trap the crew in the cargo hold and detach it from the ship. Chopper makes contact with the Ghost, and AP-5 warns them that the Empire knows their destination and has set up a trap. AP-5 is shot by the freighter captain as he transmits new coordinates, but the Ghost crew repairs him by using parts from the leg Chopper stole.
35
20
Bosco Ng
Steven Melching
After finally finding a planet that is safe from the Empire, the Rebel fleet lands to set up their base. However, one of their scouts goes missing after setting up a sensor beacon. Sabine and Rex go to investigate when they are attacked by a swarm of Krykna spiders. Sabine is rescued by the Ghost crew, but Rex is captured by the spiders. The crew follows them and rescues Rex, but cannot escape upon finding that the spiders have trapped the Ghost with a web. Sabine discovers that the spiders cannot go near the sensor beacons they had set up, and uses one to ward them away while the rest of the crew cuts the web and escapes. Back at the base, instead of abandoning the planet, the Rebels use their sensor beacons as a makeshift barrier to keep the spiders away. Ezra, Kanan, and Ahsoka decide to head for Malachor to find a way to deal with the Inquisitors.
36
21
March 30, 2016 (2016-03-30)
37
22
222
Ahsoka, Ezra, Kanan and Chopper arrive on Malachor – a Sith world long forbidden to the Jedi – in search of knowledge, discovering a cavern containing a Sith Temple amid the site of an ancient battlefield between Sith and Jedi who used cross guard lightsabers . They soon are attacked by a new Inquisitor, the Eighth Brother, who is hunting a mysterious hermit calling himself "Old Master." When Ezra encounters the hermit, he reveals himself to be Maul ( Sam Witwer ) and offers to help Ezra get into the Temple, aiding him in recovering a Sith holocron . When the other Inquisitors arrive and alert Darth Vader of their presence, Ezra convinces the group to work together in spite of Kanan's fears that Maul is corrupting his student, allowing them to finally kill the three Inquisitors. However, Maul soon betrays the group and blinds Kanan with his lightsaber, revealing his true intentions of making Ezra his apprentice. Although sightless, Kanan dons the mask of a fallen Jedi Temple Guard and throws Maul from the top of the temple. Ahsoka finally faces Darth Vader – who has cornered Ezra and destroyed his lightsaber – and comes to terms with his identity as Anakin Skywalker as she engages him in a duel, while Kanan and Ezra remove the Sith Holocron. Unable to abandon her old Master, Ahsoka stays within the crumbling temple and stalls Vader while Ezra, Kanan, and Chopper flee the planet and reunite with the Ghost crew. Maul flees Malachor in one of the Inquisitor's ships while Vader, who survived the destruction of the temple, walks away as a convor watches from above and an unknown figure is briefly seen limping into the shadows. As the Ghost crew tries to cope with their losses, Ezra continues to meditate on the Sith Holocron and finally succeeds in opening it.
Note: This is the last episode to take place in 3 BBY.
Season 3 (2016–17)
Steven Melching & Matt Michnovetz
September 24, 2016 (2016-09-24)
39
2
302
Six months after the events of the previous season, Ezra leads a mission to rescue Hondo Ohnaka from an Imperial prison, wielding a new lightsaber and displaying Force skills that he's learned from the Sith holocron in the process. Hondo's intel regards a squadron of Y-wings due to be destroyed at an Imperial shipyard that the Rebels set out to appropriate, with Ezra being given command of the mission. Kanan, meanwhile, is struggling with his blindness when he discovers Ezra's use of the holocron and confiscates it, before being summoned out into the Atollon wilds by a mysterious call that proves to be from the Bendu ( Tom Baker ), an ancient Force user who is neither Jedi nor Sith but rather "the one in the middle". Meanwhile, Governor Pryce decides that the growing rebel threat requires a greater response and requisitions the Seventh Fleet, which is revealed to be under the leadership of the recently promoted Grand Admiral Thrawn ( Lars Mikkelsen ). The Bendu helps Kanan to realize that the Force grants him abilities that can make up for his lost sight, and on sensing Ezra's peril on the mission Kanan leaves to go help him, leaving the holocron with the Bendu. The Rebels secure a handful of fighters but lose the Phantom after Ezra sets the shipyard plummeting, and it is only the timely arrival of the Ghost and other rebel ships that saves them after Thrawn determines that they are not dealing with the entire rebel fleet and orders his forces to allow their escape. Ezra is suspended, but expresses his gratitude to Kanan for rejoining the action while the rebels learn that the Y-wings are to be delivered to General Dodonna 's unit.
Note: This is the first episode set in 2 BBY.
40
3
Kanan and Ezra are scheduled to rendezvous with a Rebel corvette, which they discover to have been attacked. They find a survivor who claims that a "red blade" cut him and was forced to give up the Ghost crew's location. They contact Hera only to find out that Maul has already captured them. Kanan and Ezra agree to give Maul both the Sith and Jedi holocrons. If not, the rest of the crew of the Ghost will die. Kanan and Ezra return to the Bendu to retrieve the Sith holocron. The Bendu first tests Kanan and Ezra by having them navigate a cave, infested with Atollon's native krykna hexapod spiders. Kanan teaches Ezra to move among the spiders without alerting them and retrieve the holocron. The Bendu then warns the pair that if the Jedi and Sith holocrons are combined, they would be able to grant the wielder immeasurable knowledge, but at a price. Kanan and Ezra then meet with Maul. Kanan rescues the Ghost crew while Maul combines the holocrons with Ezra. Ezra asks how to defeat the Empire while Maul asks for the whereabouts of someone. Kanan interrupts the process before it can be completed, but Ezra and Maul sense that the answers to both of their questions can be found on " a planet with twin suns ". Maul flees, gleefully muttering "he lives". Ezra receives visions of various locations, but cannot make sense of them, and Kanan assures him they will find the answers.
41
4
The Rebellion begins suffering heavy casualties due to Imperial ambushes on their convoys, and they risk running out of pilots. Fortunately, they receive a tip from a new "Fulcrum" that several Imperial cadets at Skystrike Academy are willing to defect. Sabine is selected to infiltrate the academy and she meets and befriends a fellow cadet named Wedge Antilles ( Nathan Kress ). Ezra and Kanan wait in space with a transport ready to evacuate Sabine once she finds the defectors. Meanwhile, Governor Pryce and Agent Kallus arrive at the academy to root out the defectors. Sabine figures out Wedge is one of the defectors, and assures him that she will get him and his friends Hobbie and Rake to the Rebellion. Pryce then organizes a trap by arranging a training flight in space. Sabine and Wedge take the bait, only to find out their fighters have been sabotaged. Sabine, Wedge, and Hobbie are captured and Rake is killed while Ezra and Kanan are forced to retreat. Pryce attempts to interrogate Sabine, but Sabine knocks her out and escapes, freeing Wedge and Hobbie as well. Kallus secretly provides assistance to Sabine in order to repay his debt to Zeb. Sabine and Wedge steal a TIE bomber, rendezvous with Ezra, and return to the Rebel base safely.
42
5
The Ghost crew makes a supply run to the Twi'lek resistance on Ryloth, only to find out from Cham that under Thrawn's leadership, the Imperials have begun to seize the upper hand, and have captured their home and converted it into their headquarters. This also means that their "kalikori", an important family heirloom, is in Imperial hands as well. Determined to retrieve her kalikori, Hera decides to return to her home and infiltrate the Imperial headquarters. She and Ezra sneak into the base while the rest of the crew and Cham distract the Imperial patrols. However, Thrawn predicts Hera's actions and captures her and Ezra, and decides to keep her kalikori for himself. He then arranges a deal with Cham where Hera and Ezra's lives will be spared if Cham turns himself in. However, with Chopper's help, Hera creates a distraction by destroying her home and the Imperial HQ with explosives and everybody escapes on the Ghost. Meanwhile, Thrawn observes the entire event, and impressed with Hera's ingenuity, decides to let the rebels escape. Back on the Ghost, Hera reassures her crew that even though she wasn't able to recover her kalikori, the most important thing is that she's back with her family and friends.
43
6
On a salvage mission to an old Clone Wars battlefield led by Captain Rex , the Ghost crew is captured by a unit of old battle droids. Their commander, a Super Tactical Droid named "General Kalani", [46] had avoided the army-wide shutdown command and now wants to pit his forces against Rex and the Jedi in order to determine whether the Separatist or Republic forces are superior once and for all. As Rex, Ezra, and Kanan battle the droids, Chopper sneaks away and sends a distress signal to Hera and Sabine. Ezra then discovers Chopper immediately afterwards, with Chopper also having discovered a trio of intact and still-spaceworthy Neimoidian shuttles. However, the Empire also receives the distress call and dispatches an assault force. Rex and the Jedi reach "Kalani", and Ezra points out to him that neither the Republic nor the Separatists won the Clone Wars, but were in fact both defeated by the Empire. Ezra also notes that since the Separatists were originally fighting to resist tyranny, the battle droids should naturally oppose the Empire. "Kalani" sees the logic in Ezra's words, with the Ghost crew and the droids working together to escape the Imperial assault force in two of the three vintage Neimoidian shuttles Chopper found; the one on which the Spectres escape replaces the lost Phantom. Calculating that the Rebellion has less than a 1% chance of succeeding against the Empire, "Kalani" amicably parts ways with the Rebels. Rex congratulates Ezra for doing what no Senator, Clone, or Jedi ever could: convincing clones and battle droids to set aside their differences and agree to peace.
Note: This episode features the title logo and end credits theme of Star Wars: The Clone Wars .
44
7
Sabine continues to try to convince Fenn Rau to have his Protectors formally join the Rebellion, but Fenn remains staunchly loyal to Mandalore. When contact with the Protectors is lost, Sabine, Ezra, and Chopper are sent with Fenn to investigate. However, when they arrive, they find the Protectors base completely destroyed. After they destroy an Imperial probe droid, a squad of Imperial Mandalorians led by Gar Saxon arrive to investigate. Ezra and Chopper are captured while Sabine and Fenn escape. While spying on Gar, Fenn realizes that the Empire intended to destroy him and the Protectors all along, and he decides to join forces with Sabine. Sabine rescues Ezra and Chopper, but Fenn seemingly betrays them when he takes their shuttle and escapes without them. Gar explains how Sabine's defection to the Rebellion caused disgrace to her family, who have now pledged their allegiance to the Empire. Sabine, Ezra, and Chopper try to flee from Gar and his men, and are assisted by Fenn who helps them escape, but not before Sabine defeats Gar in hand to hand combat. Fenn, impressed by Sabine's loyalty to the Rebellion and her friends, decides to officially join the Rebellion.
45
8
The Ghost crew arrives at a planet to help evacuate anti-Imperial dissidents. They are assisted by another armed freighter that identifies itself as Iron Squadron. Commander Sato explains that Iron Squadron used to be led by his brother, but he was killed in combat, leaving the squadron under the leadership of his headstrong nephew Mart ( Zachary Gordon ). While the rest of the crew evacuates the dissidents, Ezra and Sabine board Iron Squadron's ship and meet Mart and his crew. However, they are young and inexperienced, and their hyperspace drive is inoperable. When Thrawn learns of Iron Squadron, he sends a larger force. Ezra, Sabine, and Mart's crew flee while Mart stays behind to try to fight the Imperials but his freighter is disabled. The Ghost crew and Commander Sato return to rescue Mart, and barely escape Thrawn's ambush. Now safe, Mart and his friends decide to join the rebels.
46
9
The Rebels form an uneasy alliance with Hondo in order to break into an abandoned Imperial ship to steal its valuable cargo, with Hondo promising them a shipment of proton bombs in return. However, the cargo ship is dangerously close to a heavy storm, making any salvage attempt hazardous. They enlist the aid of AP-5, but Kanan and Hera are worried that Ezra puts too much trust in Hondo. The group boards the ship and finds the cargo they are looking for. However, as they load the cargo onto the Ghost, they are attacked by Imperial sentry droids which were protecting the ship. Both the Rebels and Hondo's crew narrowly escape the cargo ship before it plunges into the storm, and while the Rebels are able to retrieve most of the proton bombs, Hondo is unable to secure any of the treasure. In addition, Ezra comes to realize how little Hondo cares about his own crew or "business partners".
47
10
Ezra and Kanan return to Lothal to scout the Imperial factory there, intending to destroy it. With the help of a local resistance cell led by Azadi, they infiltrate the factory disguised as workers in order to gain intelligence on a new weapon the Empire is developing. However, Thrawn is also present in the factory and locks it down, suspecting rebel spies are sabotaging the vehicles being made there. Ezra, Kanan, and Chopper steal the weapon data, and are assisted by Kallus, who reveals that he is Fulcrum. The three escape the factory in stolen walkers and get the data to the rebels. After analyzing the data, they discover that Thrawn is developing a new type of TIE fighter : the TIE Defender, which unlike other TIE fighters, comes equipped with shields. Thrawn deduces that the rebels could not have retrieved the data without help from the inside. However, instead of hunting for the spy, Thrawn decides to wait, intending to use the spy against the rebels.
48
11
Ezra is plagued by visions of Maul, who approaches him and Kanan as they consult the Bendu, offering a deal. Maul threatens to reveal Chopper Base to the Empire unless Ezra accompanies him to complete a ritual in order to reveal to both of them the information they sought from the Jedi and Sith holocrons. Maul and Ezra arrive on Dathomir, where they use dark magic to complete their holocron vision—a desert planet with two suns, where what they both seek is located. As the ritual completes, Ezra and Maul are attacked by the spirits of the Nightsister clan. Kanan and Sabine arrive, having tracked Ezra to Dathomir, but they are possessed by the Nightsisters and made to attack Ezra and Maul. Maul escapes, and Ezra uses the Force to push Sabine out of the range of the altar which is the source of the spirits' power. He offers himself to the Nightsisters to free Kanan, but then destroys the altar. As they leave, Sabine grabs the Darksaber used by Maul. Kanan asks Ezra about his vision and he reveals that his means to defeat the Sith and the target of Maul's vengeance are one and the same; the Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi .
49
12
January 7, 2017 (2017-01-07)
313
After the legendary Saw Gerrera ( Forest Whitaker ) and his rebel squad go missing on Geonosis, the Ghost crew is sent to investigate. Ezra, Kanan, Rex, and Chopper split off to search for Saw while Hera, Sabine, and Zeb stay behind to salvage a still operational shield generator. Ezra and his group are rescued from a battle droid ambush by Saw, who explains that the droids killed the rest of his team, and that they were rebuilt by a Geonosian survivor. Ezra, Saw, and the rest of the group pursue the Geonosian and it activates more battle droids which attack Sabine and Zeb. Ezra corners the Geonosian and Saw destroys its control device, disabling all of the battle droids. Saw then begins to interrogate the Geonosian, demanding that it tell him what the Empire was building on Geonosis. In response to Saw's questions, the Geonosian (nicknamed "Klik-Klak") draws two circles in the dirt . Not understanding what Klik-Klak is trying to say, Saw handcuffs Klik-Klak and forces him to lead them deeper into the ruins. Ezra becomes concerned at the hostility Saw is showing to Klik-Klak, and Rex explains that Saw's sister was killed by a Geonosian-built gunship during the Clone Wars. Meanwhile, an Imperial patrol detects life signs on Geonosis and sends scouts to investigate. Underground, Klik-Klak leads the Rebels to his hideout, where he was protecting a Geonosian Queen egg. The rebels then bring Klik-Klak back to the Ghost, where Saw begins torturing Klik-Klak and threatens to destroy the egg if he does not talk, ignoring the crew's objections. Ezra then points out Saw would be no better than the Empire if he destroys the Geonosians' last chance of survival as a species, causing Saw to reconsider. However, the Imperials send an attack force after the Ghost, forcing it to flee deep underground. In an underground chamber, they find large containers full of poison gas that the Imperials had used to exterminate the Geonosians. Saw decides to give the Geonosians a second chance at survival and lets Klik-Klak go. Klik-Klak flees deeper into the tunnels. The Rebels then try to escape with the gas containers to use them as proof of the Empire's atrocities, but they are lost when they blast their way through an Imperial cruiser. Bail Organa notes that without the containers, there is insufficient evidence for the Senate to act, but the pictures the crew had taken can be used as propaganda to further the Rebel cause. Kanan reminds Ezra that like Saw, not all Rebels fight for the same cause or for the same reasons, but Hera muses that despite her misgivings about him, Saw proved that he was better than the Imperials.
51
14
"Warhead"
While the rest of the Ghost's crew and Phoenix Squadron are away on an exercise mission, Zeb is left in charge of security at Chopper Base. At the same time, the Empire launches a large number of disguised infiltrator droids throughout the galaxy, and one of these units lands near Chopper Base. Damaged by the Krykna spiders and losing its memory, it is taken in by Zeb, Chopper and AP-5; but after a warning from Agent Kallus about the nature of their foundling, Zeb tries to apprehend it. Once it realizes that it is inside a rebel base, the droid's original programming kicks back in and it adopts combat mode. Cannibalizing the base's droids to repair itself, the infiltrator proves a tough nut to crack, especially since this battle is confined to a storage area filled with explosive ordnance. After a hard struggle, Zeb and the droids take it down before it can transmit its position to the Empire, but the infiltrator activates a self-destruct device inside its chassis. Faced with the prospect of the droid either blowing up the base or the Empire coming to look for it when it fails to report, Zeb instructs AP-5 to set the detonator to stall its countdown until the infiltrator transmits its collected information to the Empire. After reactivation, the droid travels back to its base ship and blasts it apart when it self-destructs; but this event nevertheless gives Grand Admiral Thrawn enough information to narrow down his search for the rebel base.
52
15
Upon being told by Fenn Rau what status the Darksaber Sabine recovered from Dathomir holds among the Mandalorians – especially the prestigious House Vizsla, who once ruled Mandalore – Kanan decides that Sabine should wield it in order to rally the Mandalorians into the ranks of the Rebel Alliance. Sabine, who resents her family, reluctantly agrees to the proposal and retreats with Kanan and Ezra to the Bendu's abode to be trained in the saber's use, but her persistent frustration at the expectations thrust upon her starts to fray Kanan's own patience. Tensions escalate between the two until Sabine walks away from her training to cool off; after a talk with Hera and a mutual apology upon Sabine's return, Kanan offers her the Darksaber, and the training begins in earnest. As it progresses, Kanan forces Sabine to let her own emotional turmoil loose, revealing at last the truth about her past: she feels guilty about what the weapons she designed at the Imperial Academy had done to her own people and she wanted to make up for it by saving them from the Empire's clutches, only for her family to turn its back on her out of fear of the Empire. After this difficult confession, Kanan, Ezra and Rau profess their loyalty to Sabine, no matter what course she eventually chooses.
53
16
Sabine, Ezra, Kanan and Rau travel from Atollon to Krownest in the Mandalore sector in order to straighten out matters with Sabine's estranged family. However, the initial reception is quite hostile, since Sabine is still considered a traitor to her family due to her defection from the Empire. Upon being presented with the Darksaber, Sabine's mother, Countess Ursa, allows her daughter the benefit of a personal conversation, but is still too fearful of an Imperial reprisal against her people, given that they hold her husband hostage, to join with the Rebellion, and so she decides to sell out the Jedi to Gar Saxon in exchange for Sabine's freedom. Saxon, however, immediately goes back on his word and denounces the entire Clan Wren as traitors to the Empire. Clan Wren and the rebels battle the Imperial collaborators, and, wielding Ezra's lightsaber, Sabine duels Saxon and the Darksaber. Sabine emerges victorious, but as she turns away from him and Saxon prepares to shoot her in the back, Ursa kills him, repairing her relationship with her daughter. Foreseeing the chaos Mandalore will face with the demise of its Imperial governor, Sabine and Rau decide to stay behind and help restore order and to find the one person truly worthy of leading Mandalore into the war against the Empire.
54
17
An Imperial light cruiser over Lothal intercepts a shuttle fleeing the planet. On board are Ezra Bridger (disguised as a bounty hunter) and the droids Chopper and AP-5. Ezra tells Agent Kallus that the Rebels believe the Empire has intercepted his last transmission as Fulcrum, and they have come to help him defect if his cover is blown. Grand Admiral Thrawn arrives in his Star Destroyer Chimaera, and informs the officers on board that he has asked Colonel Wullf Yularen of the ISB to locate the Rebel spy in their midst. Kallus swaps his code cylinder with that of Lieutenant Lyste, and uses Lyste's credentials to free Ezra and infiltrate Thrawn's office, where the droids erase Atollon from Thrawn's database and transmit clearance codes for Kanan and Rex to rescue them. Lyste, believing Governor Pryce to be the traitor, stuns her as she tries to stop the rebels from leaving, and he is arrested as the spy. With Lyste believed to be Fulcrum, Kallus decides to remain with the Empire—although in conversation with Yularen, Thrawn reveals that he knows Kallus is the spy, and intends to use him to their advantage.
55
18
The crew of the Ghost waits in a junk field to rendezvous with and refuel a Rebel ship carrying a secret cargo. The Ghost is found by an Imperial infiltrator probe droid, which the crew destroys, but not before it transmits their location to the Empire. The Rebel ship arrives, and the "cargo" is revealed to be Senator Mon Mothma, who is on the run after recently speaking out against the Emperor in the Senate. Two Imperial cruisers arrive, and Ezra joins Gold Squadron to fight off the TIE fighters and disable one of the cruisers, as Mothma and her crew evacuate to the Ghost. Grand Admiral Thrawn surmises that Hera will attempt to escape the sector via the Archeon Nebula, and he sends two Star Destroyers and the prototype TIE Defender to intercept them. Hera destroys two TIEs by flying close to a star, but the Defender survives and destroys most of Gold Squadron except for Ezra and Gold Leader. As the Ghost leaves the nebula, it is caught in a tractor beam by Governor Pryce's Star Destroyer. Ezra and Gold Leader disable the TIE Defender with ion cannons, then exit the nebula and fire their proton torpedoes into it, triggering an explosion which causes massive damage to the Star Destroyers. Escaping into hyperspace, the Ghost brings Mothma to Dantooine, where she transmits a message to all Rebel cells, urging the formation of the Rebel Alliance. As the Ghost crew watches in amazement, dozens of capital ships from around the galaxy drop out of hyperspace in response to the call to rebellion.
56
19
Chopper, AP-5, and Wedge are sent on a mission to an Imperial facility to steal access codes for the factory on Lothal. AP-5 successfully locates and steals the codes. Meanwhile, Chopper accesses the Imperial network and draws the attention of the Controller, an Imperial agent who controls an advanced spy ship. Using his ship's capabilities, the Controller remotely seizes control of Chopper, intending to use him to locate the Rebel base. With their mission successful, Chopper, AP-5, and Wedge head back to rendezvous with the Ghost. AP-5 begins to suspect something is wrong when Chopper acts uncharacteristically nice. The rest of the crew thinks AP-5 is just squabbling with Chopper again though Hera begins to have her suspicions as well. The Controller then uses Chopper to lock the crew in the cargo hold while he attempts to hack the Ghost's computer. AP-5 overrides the door controls, allowing the crew to disable Chopper. Angry that the Imperials have harmed her droid, Hera sends a counter signal back to the Controller, overloading his ship's systems and causing it to explode. Chopper returns to normal and begins bickering with AP-5 again.
57
20
After receiving a holocron message, Ezra Bridger tells the Ghost crew that they must go to Tatooine to save Obi-Wan Kenobi from Maul . The crew refuses, believing Kenobi died during Order 66 and that the message is a trap set by Maul. Ezra and Chopper nonetheless sneak away and head to Tatooine, but their ship is destroyed by Tusken Raiders soon after they arrive.
Guided by the holocron, Ezra and Chopper set off across the desert in search of Kenobi. After hours of aimless wandering, Chopper runs out of power and shuts down. Ezra is then haunted by visions of Maul, telling him that he failed his loved ones. Shortly afterward, Ezra passes out. Upon awakening, he finds that Kenobi has rescued him and Chopper. Ezra tries to warn Kenobi that Maul is after him and asks him to help the rebellion . However, Kenobi refuses, saying that the rebellion already has what it needs to fight the Empire . He also has no intention of fighting Maul, though he knows it is now inevitable.
As Maul finds the pair, Kenobi sends Ezra and Chopper to safety and faces off with Maul in a lightsaber duel. After a period of tension, Maul strikes first but is quickly countered and defeated by Kenobi. Before Maul dies, Kenobi stays by his side and reveals to him that he is watching over whom he believes is the Chosen One , with Maul's last words being, "He will avenge us".
Ezra and Chopper return to base on Maul's ship. Ezra tells the rebels that Maul is gone, and apologizes for sneaking away. The episode ends with Kenobi watching a young Luke Skywalker at the Lars moisture farm from a distance.
58
21
322
Various Rebel cells begin gathering at Atollon to prepare for the attack on Lothal. However, Thrawn is aware of the Rebel plans and tells Governor Pryce and Grand Moff Tarkin that "The real performance is about to begin" and he has already planned a trap for them. Kallus tries to warn the Rebels, but is captured by Thrawn. Thrawn traces Kallus's transmission and determines the Rebel base's location at Atollon. Thrawn sends his fleet to Atollon, which includes two Interdictor-class Star Destroyers. With the Interdictors in orbit, it is impossible for the Rebel ships to escape and the fleet is forced to fight a losing battle against the Imperials. Knowing that their only chance is to send someone out to summon the rest of the Rebel fleet, Commander Sato sacrifices himself by crashing his carrier into Konstantine's Interdictor, giving Ezra a window to escape. On Atollon, Kanan attempts to ask the Bendu for help, but the Bendu is reluctant due to its neutral role. Kanan then accuses the Bendu of being a coward, which angers the Bendu and it disappears. In hyperspace, Ezra contacts Mon Mothma for help, but she is unable to send reinforcements due to fear of them getting caught in another of Thrawn's traps. With no options left, Ezra decides to ask Sabine for help. With the battle going poorly, the Rebels are forced to retreat back to their base on Atollon and activate its shield generator, protecting them from the Imperial fleet's bombardment. Thrawn responds by sending a ground force to assault the base. Ezra reaches Sabine and convinces her and Rau to lead a small Mandalorian force to destroy the remaining Interdictor cruiser, which will allow the Rebels to escape. Thrawn's forces breach the base's defenses, but before he can capture the Rebels, the Bendu intervenes, attacking the Imperial forces and distracting them long enough for the Rebels to evacuate, but attacks them as well. At the same time, Ezra and Sabine destroy the Interdictor. Kallus escapes imprisonment and ejects in an escape pod to be picked up by the Ghost crew. The Rebel fleet then escapes. Back on the surface, Thrawn incapacitates the Bendu, who warns Thrawn that it has already foreseen his defeat. Refusing to believe this, Thrawn attempts to kill the Bendu personally, but it disappears before the shot can hit it. The remaining Rebel fleet leaves to rendezvous with the rest of the Rebellion at Yavin IV, and Hera promises to help Sabine and the Mandalorians on an upcoming mission. Ezra is worried about the massive defeat the Rebellion has suffered, but Kanan points out that it is in fact a victory since they escaped. He then tells Ezra that he foresees a future where everybody is free, but that they will have to fight to make it happen.
Note: This is the last episode to take place in 2 BBY.
Season 4 (2017–18)
402
Sabine, Kanan and Ezra lead Clan Wren in a raid on a Clan Saxon outpost to rescue Sabine’s father who is being held captive by Clan Saxon on behalf of the Empire. The outpost turns out to be a trap to capture Sabine but they are rescued by Lady Bo-Katan of Clan Kryze. As Bo-Katan should have become ruler of Mandalore after her sister, Duchess Satine, was murdered, Sabine attempts to give her the Darksaber but Bo-Katan refuses to accept it. Sabine’s father is to be moved to the capital city for a public execution, so Sabine plans to rescue him as he is being transported there. They attack the convoy and succeed in rescuing Sabine’s father, Alrich Wren, who turns out to be as much of an artist as Sabine. Sabine is contacted by her mother just as the Empire reveals a new weapon, the sound of which Sabine recognises. They rush to the site of the attack and find every Mandalorian warrior vaporized. Sabine is devastated as she realises they were killed by a weapon she personally designed for the Empire, but is relieved to find her mother and brother have survived the attack. As more Imperials arrive, Sabine and her allies are rescued by Clan Kryze, while Bo-Katan and Ezra destroy the pursuing TIE fighters. Saxon shows a recording of the weapon's field test to Thrawn—the weapon superheats an alloy in Mandalorian armor, killing the occupant, but leaving stormtroopers unharmed. At Bo-Katan's camp, her men confront Sabine for her role in the creation of the weapon which she named the Duchess, after Bo-Katan's sister, Satine. Sabine convinces Clan Kryze to join her in a raid on Saxon's Star Destroyer to destroy the weapon. During the assault, Sabine is incapacitated by Saxon, who orders her to adjust the weapon to its full power. She does so, but she also recalibrates the weapon to target Imperial armor, which stuns the Imperial troops. Sabine slashes the weapon with the Darksaber, breaching its power core and destroying the Star Destroyer. At the Kryze camp, Sabine gives Bo-Katan the Darksaber, making her the true leader of Mandalore.
Note: This is the first episode to take place in 1 BBY.
62
3
404
Ezra, Kanan and Sabine arrive on Yavin 4 to join the main group of the Rebel Alliance. Hera's squadron also arrives in an emergency fuel dump landing, having barely survived an Imperial ambush, which Bail Organa attributes to an Imperial communications relay on Jalindi. A droid projects a hologram of Saw Gerrera , who mocks Mon Mothma for her unwillingness to go to any lengths to defeat the Empire, and Mothma angrily responds, refusing to stoop to the violence and extremism committed by Gerrera's cell. She sends the Ghost crew on a mission to intercept the relay's transmissions. Sabine inadvertently connects them to the main channel on an approaching light cruiser, forcing Ezra to impersonate an Imperial officer—unfortunately it is the very officer who is commanding the cruiser, Brom Titus. Sabine calls for Hera to pick them up, as they have been seen. Before she can do so, a U-wing piloted by Gerrera arrives, picks up Ezra and Sabine, then bombs the relay dish, destroying it and the cruiser. Hera demands Gerrera transfer Ezra and Sabine, but he jumps into hyperspace. Gerrera convinces Ezra and Sabine to aid him in discovering the secret weapon he is convinced the Empire is working on. They board an Imperial cargo shuttle disguised as a regular civilian spacecraft, and discover a group of prisoner engineers from the planet Coruscant who are being shipped to Jedha for an apparent project. Gerrera insists that this is more evidence of a secret weapon. They also find a giant kyber crystal, which they plan to haul out of there with the prisoners. Chopper attempts to get the prisoners out of harm's way via escape pod, though they are stopped by the Empire. When the plans to get the crystal off of the ship fail, Gerrera blasts it so that it will explode. He calls Two-Tubes to pick him up, and Ezra and Sabine are rescued by the Ghost crew after destroying a massive Star Destroyer. The engineers decide they want to join the Rebel cause, and they head back to Yavin 4.
64
5
The rebels are informed by Ryder Azadi that the Empire is building a new and improved version of the TIE Defender. Ezra and the Ghost crew depart for Lothal, using Vizago to smuggle them in because the Empire has severely tightened its grip around the planet and nearly crushed the local rebel cell. They find the environment ruined from the Empire's activities, and that some acquaintances like Old Jho were arrested and executed for aiding rebels. Identified and chased, Ezra's crew finds unexpected aid from Ezra's old Academy friend Jai Kell and Azadi himself, who ferry them to safety, but are sorely disappointed to hear that the Rebel Alliance is unable to execute a liberation strike on Lothal. Ezra tries to stay optimistic by telling them that they can destroy the TIE Defender factory by working together, though Azadi remains skeptical due to having witnessed the capabilities of the TIE Defender Elite.
65
6
The Ghost crew scouts an Imperial air field where the TIE Defender Elite is being tested. Sabine hits upon the idea of stealing its flight data recorder to obtain the information the rebels need about the TIE, but unfortunately Grand Admiral Thrawn appears to witness a combat demonstration of the new fighter. Cornered, Sabine steals the fighter to get herself and Ezra to safety, but due to an installed kill switch the fighter ends up stranded in the hills of Lothal. While hiding the TIE's hyperdrive for later retrieval and then trying to evade the Imperial search parties, Ezra catches several unexpected glimpses of a white Loth-Wolf, a rare predatory species. Eventually, the Loth-Wolf appears before him, sends Sabine to sleep and carries them back to their friends, only to disappear as mysteriously as it appeared, leaving Ezra with the strange parting message "Dume" to ponder over.
66
7
"Kindred"
Ezra, Jai Kell and Zeb move to secure the TIE Defender Elite's hyperdrive before the Imperial recovery team can find it, but Thrawn has already dispatched an additional helper for the search: Rukh, an assassin and unerringly accurate tracker. As Zeb takes the hyperdrive to safety, Ezra and Jai end up being chased by Rukh; they elude him with much difficulty, but a tracking beacon Rukh attached to their speeder leads Governor Pryce to the Ghost crew's hideout. While Hera and Chopper evacuate to Yavin with the stolen flight recorder, the rest of the rebels face the incoming Imperials to cover their retreat. Just before the two groups clash, the white Loth-Wolf reappears and leads them into a hidden tunnel complex imbued with the Force. Walking mysterious paths, the rebels inexplicably find themselves in a hidden settlement halfway across the planet which was visited in ancient times by the Jedi who erected the secret temple on Lothal, and discover that the Loth-Wolf is a messenger of the Force, here to tell them of a more sinister goal pursued by the Empire.
67
8
After the Lothal rebels have taken shelter in the ancient settlement, they discover a Mining Guild ore crawler stripping Lothal's surface for raw materials passing by, and decide to hijack it to establish contact with Hera and the Yavin rebel base with its communicators. However, the crawler's captain shuts down the vehicle and raises the alarm, and as Sabine works to reactivate it, Kanan and Zeb discover a number of slaves in the hull, among them Vizago, who was sold to the Guild by the Empire. Working together, the rebels and the former slaves waylay an incoming Imperial patrol investigating the distress call and prevent the captain from destroying the crawler. In the meantime, Hera, unwilling to wait any longer, inspires rebel command to conduct an immediate assault on the factory where the TIE Defender is being produced, and after communication is established, Ezra's team agrees to coordinate the impending assault from the planet's surface.
68
9
Hera and her assault team arrive at Lothal and begin to battle their way past the Imperial blockade, while the Ghost crew on the ground sabotage the anti-aircraft batteries to allow an unhindered attack on the TIE factory at Lothal's capital. However, with Thrawn coordinating the Imperial defenses, the Rebel attack force is annihilated, with only a few survivors – Hera, Chopper and pilot Mart Mattin – managing to reach the surface and regroup safely. As Hera's group attempts to slip out of the city under constant pursuit by Rukh, Kanan returns to the capital to look for her, only to be stopped by the Loth-Wolf, and he asks it what he should do. Hera opens an escape route, but is captured by Rukh before she can use it. Mart and Chopper are then picked up by Kanan and brought to the rebels' hideout as the Loth-Wolf watches.
69
10
While Hera is being tortured by Governor Pryce, Ezra, Kanan and Sabine prepare to rescue her. With Admiral Thrawn absent on Coruscant, they infiltrate the Lothalian Imperial command center using gliders they built to look like Loth-bats, and as Ezra and Sabine secure a gunship as an escape craft, Kanan recovers Hera's kalikori—an important family heirloom that was taken by Thrawn earlier in the series—and frees Hera before she (under the effect of a truth serum) can reveal the location of the Rebel base. As they attempt to escape on one of the gliders, Kanan instructs Hera to land them inside Lothal City's fuel depot. Just as Ezra and Sabine pick them up, Pryce orders her troops to open fire on the fuel tanks, causing an explosion. Caught on top of the tank, Kanan uses the Force to control the explosion and push Hera and his friends away from the blast, at the cost of his own life.
70
11
"DUME"
With the destruction of the Imperial fuel depot and the resulting shutdown of the TIE Defender project, Governor Pryce decides to cover up her blunder by throwing a victory parade, but Thrawn is not deceived. While Sabine and Zeb depart for Lothal City to spoil that party, Ezra sinks into despair until he is challenged by the Loth-Wolves and led toward a gigantic Loth-Wolf called Dume, who confronts him with his fears and tells him to return to the Lothal Jedi temple. Meanwhile, after noticing that the Imperial TIE factory has been shut down, Sabine and Zeb encounter and engage in combat with Rukh; after beating him unconscious, they send him, covered in Sabine's graffiti, back to Lothal City to show that the rebels are still willing to fight. Hera overcomes her own grief by adding a token for Kanan to her kalikori, and by being told by Sabine and Zeb of how Kanan essentially fulfilled their goal of stopping the TIE Defender project. Ezra then informs his friends of their important mission to go to the Jedi temple and recover its precious knowledge from the hands of the Imperials.
71
12
With the aid of the Loth-Wolves, Ezra, Hera, Sabine, Zeb and Chopper head for the Jedi temple, which they find being occupied by a Mining Guild excavation team led by Imperial Minister Hydan, who is very close to penetrating the temple's secrets. By interpreting an unearthed mural depicting the Mortis Gods (Father, Son and Daughter) , Ezra uses the Force to bring the images to life, which show him the location of the door. However, despite their disguises as Imperial scouts, their presence is found out and the alarm is raised. Ezra escapes through the door into the temple just before he can be captured.
72
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N/A
Sabine ends up being questioned by Hydan and asked by him to interpret the pictograms he has found within the Jedi temple, thereby learning that Darth Sidious intends to breach the barriers between life and death as a final stepping stone to controlling the Force within the entire universe. Just after she has deciphered how to close the portal, Sabine is extracted by Hera and Zeb. In the meantime, Ezra wanders within the "World Between Worlds," a void between space and time until he is led by Morai to another portal, which opens Ahsoka's final battle against Darth Vader . Just before her imminent demise, Ezra pulls her through the portal into the void, saving her. Thinking that he has a chance to save Kanan as well, he considers an attempt, but is dissuaded by Ahsoka, who tells him realizing that if he had pulled Kanan out, he and the others would have perished instead. But with the opening of the Lothal door, Sidious is finally able to reach into the void and attack them. Ezra and Ahsoka separate and escape through the portals through which they have come. With Sabine's hint, Ezra is able to seal the portal to the void, which also triggers the full collapse of the temple. After a narrow escape, Hera returns to the temple, which has completely vanished. With what he has learned in the void, Ezra is finally able to overcome his grief over Kanan's death.
73
14
Hera, Rex, and Kallus recruit Hondo, Gregor, Wolffe, and Ketsu for a plan to liberate Lothal, which they agree to out of respect for Ezra. Back on Lothal, Ezra receives a vision that Thrawn is returning from Coruscant, meaning that they must enact their plan to seize the capital right away. At the capital, Pryce is secretly contacted by Ryder, who offers to betray the Rebels to her in return for his own safety. Pryce and Rukh lead an assault force on the Rebel base, while Hera attempts to return with reinforcements but must first slip past the Imperial blockade. The Imperials quickly gain the upper hand and capture the Rebels, but Ryder reveals that his betrayal was merely a ruse to lure Pryce out of the capital. Hera then arrives with the Ghost and her reinforcements while Ezra summons the Loth-Wolves to aid in the battle. The Imperials are swiftly defeated and Pryce is captured, but Ezra reminds everybody that the battle to liberate Lothal is just beginning.
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Dave Filoni, Henry Gilroy, Kiri Hart, Simon Kinberg & Steven Melching
March 5, 2018 (2018-03-05)
With Pryce as their prisoner, the Rebels force her to give them the clearance codes to infiltrate the Imperial command center at the capital. They seize the control room and plan to issue an evacuation order for all Imperial forces to return to the command center, then launch it into space to self destruct. Rukh overhears the plan and warns Thrawn, who tasks him with disabling the planetary shield. Kallus issues the evacuation order and all Imperial forces enter the command center, but before they can launch, Thrawn arrives and positions his Star Destroyer directly above the city. Once Rukh disables the shield generators, Thrawn orders the Rebels to surrender or he will bombard the city. Ezra decides to surrender to stall Thrawn while the rest of the Rebels move to reactivate the shields. Thrawn puts Ezra in contact with a hologram of Darth Sidious. Meanwhile, Mart realizes the plan is in trouble, and takes the Ghost to enact a backup plan Ezra had given him by sending a signal over frequency zero to summon help. As the Rebels fight their way to the shield generator, Sidious tries to tempt Ezra with a promise to revive his parents. Ezra refuses the Emperor's deal and escapes custody, while the Rebels are able to raise the shield before Thrawn can commence bombardment of the city. Zeb is able to trap Rukh inside the generator as it activates, killing him. Gregor is mortally wounded in the fight and dies. Ezra fights his way to Thrawn, and reveals that he arranged Mart to call the purrgil , who arrive and destroy Thrawn's fleet. The purrgil then grab Thrawn's flagship and prepare to drag it into hyperspace. Despite pleas from his friends, Ezra decides to stay on the ship to make sure Thrawn is defeated for good, and they jump away. With Thrawn's fleet gone, the Rebels proceed with the plan to launch and destroy the command center. Pryce chooses to stay and go down with it rather than remain a prisoner of the Rebels. Upon witnessing the destruction of the command center, the people of Lothal celebrate, and Hera is confident that they will be able to resist any Imperial attempts to recapture the planet.
Five years later, thanks to the Rebel Alliance's victory at the Battle of Endor , which both Hera and Rex took part in, the feared Imperial counterattack on Lothal never comes, and the Ghost crew go their separate ways. Zeb takes Kallus to Lira San to show him that he didn't truly exterminate all of the Lasat species, and that he is welcomed there as one of them. Hera and Rex continued to fight with the Rebel Alliance, and it is revealed Hera gave birth to her and Kanan's son, Jacen Syndulla. Sabine teams up with Ahsoka Tano to search for Ezra, leaving behind a mural on Lothal depicting the Ghost crew.
Monday Cable Finals (Report). Nielsen Media Research. October 21, 2014.
Pucci, Douglas (November 12, 2014). "Monday Final Nationals: ABC, NBC Share Victory" . TV Media Insights. Cross Mediaworks. Archived from the original on November 21, 2014. Retrieved November 12, 2014.
Monday Cable Finals (Report). Nielsen Media Research. January 8, 2015.
Monday Cable Finals (Report). Nielsen Media Research. January 21, 2015.
Metcalf, Mitch (February 3, 2015). "Top 25 Monday Cable Originals: 2.2.2015" . Show Buzz Daily. Archived from the original on February 3, 2015. Retrieved February 4, 2015.
Note: The ratings are in the comments section.
Note: The rating is in the comments section.
Note: The rating's in the comments section.
Metcalf, Mitch (March 3, 2015). "Top 25 Monday Cable Originals: 3.2.2015" . Show Buzz Daily. Archived from the original on March 5, 2015. Retrieved March 3, 2015.
"UPDATED: showbuzzdailys-top-150-saturday-cable-originals-network-finals" . ShowBuzz Daily. March 17, 2017. Archived from the original on March 21, 2017. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
"Kindred" . Disneyabcpress.com. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
"Crawler Commandeers" . Disneyabcpress.com. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
"Rebel Assault" . Disneyabcpress.com. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
List of Star Wars Rebels episodes
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The series mines material from the 19 years that follow Episode III: Revenge of the Sith and precede the Episode IV: A New Hope. In other words, using the life of the Skywalker twins as a measure, the series is active in the story years that come after their separation as newborns and before their (unwitting) reunion on the prison level of the Death Star.
If you like Star Wars Rebels you may also like
posted 10 years ago
I think in games they have the best accuracy (like Jedi Outcast or Jedi Academy).
by Suasor
by toidol
onehunga said:
I watched the first 3 eps and while i do want to like it, something is missing for me compared to the old show but maybe that will still come. So i keep watching for now.
What is missing for me is the complete inability of any of the stormtroopers to hit anything. I know the heroes are meant to be the best, but seriously, every shot the stormtroopers take, no matter how close misses, and every shot the heroes take hits. If the stormtroopers, Tie fighters etc are so bad at hitting anything how are they in charge of the galaxy? They train for years to be that poor shots! ;)
by onehunga
HomerS said:
I watched the first 3 eps and while i do want to like it, something is missing for me compared to the old show but maybe that will still come. So i keep watching for now.
What is missing for me is the complete inability of any of the stormtroopers to hit anything. I know the heroes are meant to be the best, but seriously, every shot the stormtroopers take, no matter how close misses, and every shot the heroes take hits. If the stormtroopers, Tie fighters etc are so bad at hitting anything how are they in charge of the galaxy?
by Suasor
posted 10 years ago
I like the vibe so far. The scripts and production values are good and it appears to be doing well in the ratings.
by HomerS
posted 10 years ago
I watched the first 3 eps and while i do want to like it, something is missing for me compared to the old show but maybe that will still come. So i keep watching for now.
by Orlando
posted 10 years ago
1x02 lol it didn't take long for c3po and r2 to come along Also, it's funny to hear Steve Blum voice three different characters in the same scene.
by Orlando
posted 10 years ago
Star Wars Rebels https://i.imgur.com/XzPo1Bs.jpg Set between the events of Star Wars: Episodes III and IV, the story unfolds during a dark time when the evil Galactic Empire is tightening its grip of power on the galaxy. Imperial forces have occupied a remote planet and are ruining the lives of its people. The motley but clever crew of the starship Ghost — cowboy Jedi Kanan, ace pilot Hera, street-smart teenager Ezra, the “muscle” Zeb, warrior firebrand Sabine, and cantankerous old astromech droid Chopper — is among a select few who are brave enough to stand against the Empire. Together, they will face threatening new villains, encounter colorful adversaries, embark on thrilling adventures, and become heroes with the power to ignite a rebellion. Just got around to watching the pilot, very enjoyable and entertaining, looking forward for more.
| 590 |
68 | when does the next episode of rebels come out | https://starwars.fandom.com/wiki/Star_Wars_Rebels | Star Wars Rebels
(30-minute time slot)
(total)
Network(s)
Contents
Premise[
"…we're going to really show the origins of the rebellion. When our series begins, it's not the Rebel Alliance yet; we start with a group of rebels. It'll be really interesting to show the progress of the Alliance forming…"
―Executive producer Greg Weisman, Star Wars Insider 146 [26]
The series begins five years before Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope , fourteen years into the reign of the Galactic Empire . [27] [28] The general premise is described as follows:
"It is a dark time in the galaxy , as the evil Galactic Empire tightens its grip of power from world to world. As the series begins, Imperial forces have occupied a remote planet , ruling with an iron fist and ruining the lives of its people. But there are a select few who are brave enough to stand up against the endless Stormtroopers and TIE fighters of the Empire: the clever and motley crew of the starship Ghost . Together, this ragtag group will face threatening new villains, have thrilling adventures, and become heroes." [29]
Development[
Conception[
"They wanted to do an animated show and I loved [Cartoon Network's] Clone Wars and grew up with a lot of animated shows. So we just started to talk about where it would fall in the general Star Wars timeline. Really there was no predetermination going in. It could have been a prequel, sequel, a stand-alone universe."
Star Wars Rebels was created by Dave Filoni , Simon Kinberg , and Carrie Beck . [3] The concept originated with Beck, who suggested it be about "this A-team group that went around righting wrongs." This reminded Filoni of his original concept for Star Wars: The Clone Wars , [31] which he described in The Art of Star Wars: The Clone Wars : "My rough idea was to deal with a small number of characters [a Jedi Master and Padawan, a smuggler and his girlfriend, and a Gungan "strongman" called Lunker], have them based on a Millennium Falcon -style smuggling ship, and involve them in black market trade, war espionage, and other stories that existed outside the giant galactic conflict going on in the background." [32]
Discussion of where Rebels would fall in the Star Wars timeline led to the decision to center the series on the Rebel Alliance. Thus, the series was placed between Star Wars: Episode III Revenge of the Sith and Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope, during the reign of the Galactic Empire, though not so close to A New Hope that it would feel repetitive. [30] In contrast to the galaxy-hopping structure of The Clone Wars, it was decided Rebels would depict the Rebellion from one group of characters' point of view. According to Filoni, Kinberg likened it to imagining a show set during the American Revolution "that was about five guys that were locked up in a farmhouse somewhere fighting against the local British military and without any real knowledge of the larger political movements." He also noted how the original trilogy mentioned events like the dissolution of the Imperial Senate without depicting them. [33]
The development team set out to differentiate the series from The Clone Wars by basing much of the visuals on the designs of Ralph McQuarrie —the artist who developed concept art for much of the original trilogy of films. [30] Rebels was influenced by ideas developed by George Lucas for Star Wars: Underworld , [34] and much of the action in Rebels was influenced by the Indiana Jones franchise. [35] Early in development, Disney wanted a more comedy-oriented series than Lucasfilm was interested in making. Kathleen Kennedy and the Rebels creative team had to make their case otherwise. [36] At one point, Filoni considered involving the Death Star plans in the show, but abandoned the idea after Rogue One began development. [37] He later planned to have appearances from the Death Star and Orson Krennic , but decided it was best to focus on things that directly affect the Ghost crew. [38]
Production[
"It has been great seeing the mind meld between our executive producers Dave Filoni, Simon Kinberg, and Greg Weisman during the writers' conferences. [...] Everyone on the team is so passionate about Rebels, and of course it helps that we are all huge fans of Star Wars!"
―Athena Portillo, Star Wars Insider 146 [8]
Ralph McQuarrie–inspired concept art of the starship Ghost, chased by TIE fighters.
Lucasfilm Ltd. veteran sculptor Darren Marshall , who worked on Star Wars: The Clone Wars prior to its cancellation, developed sculpts for the core characters of Star Wars Rebels before leaving Lucasfilm in June 2013 . [39] By December 2013, the production crew had finished developing the series' first season and had begun animating the first script. [40] As of January 2014, the scripts for Season One were halfway completed. Voice-recording had been finished for five episodes, with three more episodes undergoing storyboarding, two more undergoing animation, and the first episode undergoing lighting. Sound design was also underway, with a theme in place for the series. [41] Greg Weisman joined the project as an executive producer in May 2013, though the series had been under development well before then. [42]
On January 17 , animation supervisor Keith Kellogg announced that the production crew had wrapped up animation on the first episode of the series. [43] To aid in animating the show, Lucasfilm developed a special tool for Adobe Photoshop that emulates Ralph McQuarrie's artistic style; [44] the character Zeb Orrelios is based on McQuarie's original concept art for the Wookiee Chewbacca . [22] The series' look is also inspired by the work of Hayao Miyazaki —a favorite of Lucasfilm President Kathleen Kennedy . [45] Filoni requested that the animation crew look at the Disney film Tangled , for which 2D facial expressions were created using 3D animation. [46] Simon Kinberg wrote the series' first two episodes, which serve as a short story arc to introduce the show's main characters. [30] By March 2014, the entire first season had been mapped out, and according to Greg Weisman, the series as a whole is organized as a three-act play. The first season serves as the first act of the overall series, while the second and third acts may take more than one season. [42]
Star Wars Rebels was overseen by three executive producers: Dave Filoni, Simon Kinberg, and Greg Weisman. [47] In addition to Filoni, the Rebels production team included several crew members returning from Star Wars: The Clone Wars: Athena Yvette Portillo as line producer, Kilian Plunkett as art director, Joel Aron as CG effects supervisor, Keith Kellogg as animation supervisor, and Steward Lee as episodic director. Lee, Filoni's longest-running episodic director from The Clone Wars, was joined in directorial duties by brother Steven G. Lee , a veteran of LucasArts . [27] Kevin Kiner , who was previously the composer for Star Wars: The Clone Wars, returned as the new music composer for Star Wars Rebels. [48] Lucasfilm hired music producer Flux Pavillion to remix Kiner's Rebels main theme. [49] Other returning crew members from The Clone Wars included Amy Beth Christenson , Andre Kirk , Pat Presley , and Chris Glenn on the concept art team, managed by Liz Cummings , as well as Paul Zinnes on the development team. [47] Pablo Hidalgo , a member of the Lucasfilm Story Group , also worked with the team as a fact-checker. [27] [26] The crew aimed for an overall aesthetic similar to the original trilogy. As such, Joel Aron tried to give the visuals a "grainy look," Matthew Wood used many of the original trilogy's sound effects for the series' soundtrack, [50] and the crew animated the lightsabers in such a way as to emulate the look of those in the original trilogy. [51]
Release[
Imperial propaganda poster created to promote the series
"Citizens of Lothal: It is by Imperial Decree that you are requested to proudly display these posters on behalf of your Empire. As loyal residents of one of the Empire's most vital stations on the Outer Rim, your compliance is appreciated. Imperial Service is a noble endeavor which paves the way for your freedom and security. Remember, it is the will of Emperor Palpatine to ensure the future of a stable and prosperous galaxy."
―Letter included in the Star Wars Rebels propaganda poster mailing promotion [52]
Star Wars Rebels was first announced on March 11 , 2013, as an unnamed animated series set to replace Star Wars: The Clone Wars. [53] Its name and fall 2014 premiere were announced in a press release on May 20 , 2013. [1] The first Star Wars Rebels teaser trailer debuted on the Star Wars YouTube channel on October 7 , 2013. [54] The series' main characters were first revealed at the January 2014 Nuremberg International Toy Fair , which showcased forthcoming LEGO Star Wars Rebels sets. The sets, which depict the Ghost and the attack shuttle Phantom , included minifigures for Ezra Bridger, Zeb Orrelios, Hera Syndulla, and a placeholder for Kanan Jarrus. [55] The box originally identified Zeb's last name as "Orretios," [56] but the finalized boxes at the New York Toy Fair not long afterward corrected the name and included Jarrus' minifigure. [57]
On February 4 , 2014, Lucasfilm distributed six original artwork pieces by Amy Beth Christenson exclusively to six select websites across the Internet— Empire , [58] ET Online , [59] IGN , [60] Mashable , [61] Omelete [62] and TheForce.net [63] —to promote Star Wars Rebels. The artwork, presented in the form of Imperial propaganda posters, was part of an exclusive mailing campaign, in which limited-edition cards featuring the artwork were sent to 2,500 people around the world on February 5 . [64] The mailings arrived in black-embossed envelopes addressed from the Commission for the Preservation of the New Order on Coruscant [65] and included a letter urging citizens to proudly display the posters in support of the Imperial occupation of Lothal. [52] The six card backs, when combined together, formed the Rebels phoenix logo. [66]
Starting with Chopper, the "grumpy astromech droid" on January 28 , [67] a series of videos was released that introduced each of the crew members of the Ghost. Kanan was introduced as "the Cowboy Jedi" on February 12 , [19] and "the Street-Smart Hero" Ezra Bridger followed on February 14 . [18] Two Rebels teasers, entitled "Spark" and "Ignite," were released on February 17 , [68] [69] and videos introducing Garazeb Orrelios, "the Muscle," Sabine Wren, "the Explosive Artist," and Hera Syndulla, "the Pilot," were released on February 18 , [22] 19 , [21] and 20 respectively. [20] The videos were released by independent news sources such as TV Guide, IGN, and Entertainment Weekly, and then were posted on the official Star Wars YouTube channel shortly afterwards. [70] On April 16 , in conjunction with a following panel at WonderCon 2014 , a clip featuring the character Hera Syndulla was released on the Star Wars YouTube channel. [48]
Star Wars Rebels movie-style poster, released in advance of San Diego Comic-Con 2014
The first full-length trailer for Rebels was released on May 4, 2014. A thirty-second preview of the trailer aired on May 2 on Good Morning America , followed by the full trailer on May 4, which aired throughout the day on various Disney networks and became available online at StarWars.com and Disney.com. [71] On July 9, 2014, ESPN's Wednesday Night Baseball game between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Pittsburgh Pirates featured a Star Wars theme, including elements from Star Wars Rebels. [72] On July 24, 2014, Lucasfilm hosted a panel at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con . Known as "The Heroes of Star Wars Rebels," the panel featured Dave Filoni, Simon Kinberg, and the series' principal voice cast. [73] Attendees were each given "HoloNet registration cards" that directed them to a re-launched version of HoloNetNews.com that features videos of Imperial propaganda. [74] Around this time, several more promotional videos were released, including two more full-length trailers, [75] [76] two previews exclusive to San Diego Comic-Con, [77] [78] as well as videos that introduced Imperial Security Bureau Agent Kallus and The Inquisitor. [79] [80] August saw the release of a seven-minute preview, [81] a four-minute preview, [82] as well as three television spots. [83] [84] [85] Beginning on August 11, four three-minute prelude shorts were released consecutively (on a weekly basis) on Disney XD . [86] In September, six more TV spots and another trailer were released. [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] [92] [93] Also that month, the Toys "R" Us website began releasing a series of promotional videos called "Secrets of the Star Wars Rebels" that will run through October. [94]
On October 2, 2014, Disney announced that it had renewed Star Wars Rebels for a second season. [17] The series debuted the next day on the Disney Channel with the TV movie Star Wars Rebels: Spark of Rebellion . [3] Two final TV spots were released prior to the debut of regular episodes on Disney XD on October 13 . [95] [96] [1]
All four seasons of the series are available on the Disney+ streaming service, which launched on November 12, 2019. [97]
Continuity[
"We're all very dedicated, and we know this show is going to be canon, so we take that responsibility very seriously. We know that on the one hand there's an audience who's going to be watching this that knows everything there is to know about Lucasfilm canon and knows beyond that tons of stuff from the Expanded Universe, which may or may not turn out to be canon once Lucasfilm decides what is official and what's not. So we want the show to work for that group, the most extreme fanboys out there. At the same time, we also have the responsibility that for a certain generation of kids, this is going to be their first exposure to Star Wars."
Lucasfilm's Pablo Hidalgo first provided a timeline for Star Wars Rebels of approximately fourteen years after the events of Star Wars: Episode III Revenge of the Sith, which corresponds to around five years before the events of Star Wars: Episode IV A New Hope. [27] Although the official StarWars.com press release announcing the Rebels character Chopper later alternatively stated a timeline of four years prior to the events of A New Hope, [67] Hidalgo quickly reaffirmed the original timeframe via Twitter. [28] In reprinting portions of the original StarWars.com Chopper press release, the Launch Pad department from Star Wars Insider 148 also stated a series timeline of 4 BBY. [98] Simon Kinberg told Empire magazine that the series would have strong connections to the overall saga: "[I've] always felt [Star Wars Rebels] would lead into IV and potentially set up characters you might not meet until V, or VI, or even VII, but the notion was that this would stand alone from Episode VII. That doesn't mean that we can't introduce Easter eggs that will pay off in VII, VIII, IX." [99]
Dave Filoni originally claimed that Zeb Orrelios was of a new species based on Ralph McQuarrie's concept art for the Wookiee Chewbacca, [22] but a preexisting Expanded Universe species known as the Lasat had already been based on the concept art. [100] Star Wars Insider 148 identified Orrelios as a Lasat, though it misspelled his last name as "Orrelious." [98] Star Wars Insider 149 issued an editorial apology for the misspelling but nonetheless misspelled the character's name again, this time as "Orrilios." [101]
John Jackson Miller 's novel A New Dawn , which serves as a prequel to Star Wars Rebels, is said to be the first narrative to be part of Lucasfilm's Story Group. [102]
Seasons[
"The series takes place between Episodes III and IV. By this time, Order 66 has been executed and the Empire's search for the last of the Jedi Knights is in full effect. The events seen in the show take place closer to A New Hope in the Star Wars timeline. However, if you stay tuned, you may be in for some surprises…"
―Athena Portillo, Star Wars Insider 146 [8]
The series logo was redesigned in the style of The Clone Wars TV series for the sixth episode of Season Three
Season
Episodes
Credits[
"We have these phenomenal voice sessions with, like I said, this terrific cast. We've gotten some incredible guest stars, some names you'll have heard of and some names that you won't have heard of, but you'll be wondering why you've never heard of them before once you hear what they are doing."
Cast
Crew
Concept art of a TIE fighter crashing into a mound
Notes and references[
↑ Star Wars Rebels — " Legacy "
(link obsolete; content only found on older version of webpage: backup link )
(content obsolete and backup link not available)
("Zeb" at Disney.com)
("Fight" at Disney.com)
("New Series" at Disney.com)
("Empire" at Disney.com)
("Sabine & Hera" at Disney.com)
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| 591 |
68 | when does the next episode of rebels come out | https://screenrant.com/star-wars-rebels-timeline-seasons-events-when-explained/ | Star Wars Rebels Timeline Explained: When Each Season Takes Place
Star Wars Rebels takes place in one of the most important portions of the Star Wars timeline , with events that connect to the original trilogy as well as to live-action shows such as The Mandalorian and Ahsoka. Despite being a spiritual successor to Star Wars: The Clone Wars, Rebels is set more than a decade after the fall of the Jedi. Disney's first major Star Wars release followed a unique group of rebels during the Age of the Empire, the setting of upcoming Star Wars TV shows like Tales of the Empire.
Star Wars Rebels premiered in 2013, while Star Wars Rebels' ending aired in 2018. Before Luke Skywalker joined the Rebel Alliance, other heroes were being forged across the galaxy. This includes the Ghost crew, the lovable main characters of the show played by Star Wars Rebels' voice cast . In the Star Wars timeline, the Battle of Yavin, which happens in A New Hope, is ground zero for Star Wars' chronology. As such, BBY refers to events before the Battle of Yavin, while ABY denotes events after. Concerning Rebels specifically, here is how each season fits in the saga's extensive timeline.
When Star Wars Rebels Season 1 Begins In The Timeline
Five years before the Battle of Yavin, the story of Star Wars Rebels begins.
Star Wars Rebels season 1 begins in 5 BBY, meaning the show starts five years before the events of A New Hope. The Rebel Alliance - as introduced in the original Star Wars movie - had yet to be formed, although the Empire was already noticing more organized rebel operations. This included Saw Gerrera’s rebel cell, which had always caused trouble for the Empire. This year is also when Saw Gerrera abandoned Jyn Erso, which is depicted in Rogue One: A Star Wars Story’s flashbacks.
Andor season 1 is another Star Wars story that takes place concurrently with Rebels, as the former show also begins in 5 BBY.
The political background of the Star Wars galaxy is very much the same in Andor season 1 and Rebels season 1. The crew of the Ghost was assumed to be one of many isolated rebel cells the Empire was dealing with. However, Andor shows that a more solid rebellion was being crafted by the likes of Mon Mothma and Luthen Rael. Star Wars Rebels season 1’s finale reveals that Hera was working within a larger operation, setting up Phoenix Squadron's role in the Galactic Civil War during Rebels season 2.
Major Star Wars Cameos In Rebels Season 1
Episode Number and Name
C-3PO
Lando Calrissian
Obi-Wan Kenobi
Grand Moff Tarkin
Episode 13 - "Call to Action" Episode 14 - "Rebel Resolve" Episode 15 - "Fire Across the Galaxy"
Rebels Season 2's Place In The Star Wars Timeline
The second season of Rebels takes place one year after season 1.
Close
Star Wars Rebels season 1’s final episodes take place in 4 BBY, as confirmed by the celebration of the 15th Empire Day. The death of the Grand Inquisitor and the rebels’ escape all happened in 4 BBY, meaning Star Wars Rebels season 2 begins four years before A New Hope. In 4 BBY, Leia Organa becomes a junior senator and begins to secretly help rebel cells on behalf of her father, Bail Organa. Leia would then appear in Star Wars Rebels season 2, episode 12 on what was supposed to be a diplomatic mission on Lothal.
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Not much had changed between 5 BBY and 4 BBY, although the existence of an organized rebellion was now more obvious. Star Wars' Ahsoka Tano joined Phoenix Squadron and became an important ally of the Rebellion, with Darth Vader briefly taking part in the search for the rebels of Lothal. Following the death of the Grand Inquisitor, Vader deployed two new Inquisitors to search for the Ghost crew – the Fifth Brother and the Seventh Sister. The battle between Ahsoka and Vader, as well as the deaths of three Inquisitors in Malachor, also happened in 4 BBY.
Aside from Leia and Ahsoka, other Rebels season 2 cameos include Darth Vader, Maul, Captain Rex, Hondo Ohnaka, and another appearance from Yoda.
When Star Wars Rebels Season 3 Fits Into The Timeline
Rebels' third season marks the biggest time jump between installments.
There is a noticeable time jump between the end of Rebels season 2 and the beginning of Rebels season 3, the latter of which is set in 2 BBY. This is a crucial year not only for the Rebels crew but for Star Wars as a whole. It is in 2 BBY that Star Wars' Grand Admiral Thrawn is enlisted to deal with the rebellion, serving as the main villain for Rebels season 3. It was also in 2 BBY that Wedge Antilles, who would go on to become one of the Rebellion’s most important pilots, left the Imperial Academy.
With two years left before the events of the original Star Wars, the scattered rebel cells were reorganized into the Alliance to Restore the Republic, also known as the Rebel Alliance.
Mon Mothma’s transition from a senator to a leader also happens in 2 BBY and is covered in Rebels season 3. Following the Ghorman massacre, Mon Mothma publically criticized Emperor Palpatine and asked people to rebel against the Empire. Mon Mothma left Coruscant to become one of the Rebellion’s leaders. With two years left before the events of the original Star Wars, the scattered rebel cells were reorganized into the Alliance to Restore the Republic, also known as the Rebel Alliance. This is a defining moment for the Star Wars galaxy, officially starting the war covered in the original trilogy.
The year of 2 BBY is also when Maul dies on Tatooine. More than 17 years after Star Wars: The Clone Wars' timeline , the former Sith finally found Obi-Wan Kenobi. The Maul vs. Kenobi rematch was brief, and the exiled Jedi Master killed his old nemesis. Following the Battle of Atollon, Thrawn momentarily stepped away from the Galactic Civil War. Lastly, the Mandalorian Civil War began in 2 BBY. This war pitted Clan Saxon's Imperial Mandalorians against the rebel Mandalorians of Clan Wren. While the rebels won, the Empire would soon answer with the Great Purge of Mandalore .
Star Wars Rebels Season 4's Place in The Timeline
Another year splits the stories of Rebels season 3 and Rebels season 4.
With only one year left before the Death Star destroys Alderaan, Star Wars Rebels entered original trilogy territory with season 4. Most of the events of Rebels season 4 take place before 2016’s Rogue One. For example, Rebels season 4 features one of the final chronological appearances of Saw Gerrera before his death in the film. The High Command of the Rebel Alliance chooses Yavin-4, which debuted in the original Star Wars movie, as its base. Following the end of the Mandalorian Civil War, Sabine Wren chose to give the Darksaber to Bo-Katan Kryze, despite Mandalorian traditions.
Most of the key Rogue One moments take place very close to the end of 1 BBY. This includes the destruction of Jedha during the Death Star’s test run, Saw Gerrera’s death, the recruitment of Jyn Erso by the Rebellion, the death of Galen Erso, and the Battle of Scarif. Chopper and Hera Syndulla are in Yavin-4 during the final portion of Rogue One, which takes place after Kanan Jarrus’ death and the Battle of Lothal from Star Wars Rebels season 4.
How Much Time Passes Between Rebels Season 4 & Its Epilogue And Ahsoka
Ahsoka season 1 ties to the very final scenes of Star Wars Rebels.
When Star Wars Rebels epilogue took place in the franchise’s timeline was a mystery when season 4’s finale aired, and it was difficult to say how much time had passed between Return of the Jedi and the epilogue. For the most part, Rebels' epilogue scenes seemed to take place in the four-year gap between season 4 and Return of the Jedi. Ahsoka, essentially a live-action sequel to Rebels, later revealed that the reunion between Tano and Wren happened around 9 ABY. Therefore, at least nine years passed between the Battle of Lothal and the reunion between Sabine and Ahsoka.
In this epilogue, Sabine Wren narrates the success of the Rebellion and the fall of the Empire following the Battle of Endor, and both Rebels and Ahsoka revealed these characters' fates. Ezra and Grand Admiral Thrawn were still both missing, and Sabine looked for him as she trained as Ahsoka's Jedi Padawan. Hera had risen in the ranks of the Rebellion to become a general, and she had given birth to her and Kanan's son, Jacen Syndulla. Zeb took Kallus to Lira San for a while, but eventually returned to help train new recruits for the New Republic rangers.
Interestingly, Ahsoka completely changed elements of Star Wars Rebels' epilogue. In the latter, Ahsoka can be shown wearing a white gown with a white staff when she meets Sabine. However, Ahsoka episode 2 recreates this scene, retconning it so that Ahsoka does not have her white attire. This transformation into Ahsoka the White comes later in Ahsoka season 1, proving how the show retconned Rebels' epilogue. Upcoming shows such as Ahsoka season 2’s story and movies like The Mandalorian & Grogu are set to further explore the New Republic timeline, which links directly to the ending of Star Wars Rebels.
TV Show
Tiya Sircar
Set between Episodes III and IV of the Star Wars film franchise, Star Wars Rebels is a canon animated series that follows a group of ragtag heroes who band together to face the Empire. In an age where the Galactic Empire is hunting down the last of the Jedi, a teenage outcast named Ezra Bridger is discovered to be force sensitive by a surviving Jedi known as Kanan Jarrus. Agreeing to join them and accept Jedi training, Ezra becomes a part of a small but growing crew of rebels determined to destroy the empire covertly.
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| 592 |
68 | when does the next episode of rebels come out | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars_Rebels | Star Wars Rebels
American animated television series
Star Wars Rebels
Related
The series premiered as a one-hour television film , Spark of Rebellion, on October 3, 2014, on Disney Channel prior to the premiere of the series on October 13 on Disney XD . [4] [5] The second season premiered on June 20, 2015, with a one-hour television film, The Siege of Lothal. The third season premiered on September 24, 2016, with the television film, Steps Into Shadow. The fourth and final season premiered on October 16, 2017, with another one-hour television film, Heroes of Mandalore. Its final episode aired on March 5, 2018. [6] [7]
Dave Filoni , Simon Kinberg , and Greg Weisman served as executive producers of the first season. Weisman left the show after the first season. [8] Filoni was also the supervising director for the first two seasons, a role he relinquished after accepting a promotion that expanded his creative role into overseeing all Lucasfilm Animation projects; he chose Justin Ridge to succeed him for the third season. [9] Filoni re-assumed the role for the fourth season.
A number of tie-in media have been released to expand upon the series' lore such as the comic book series Kanan , the novel A New Dawn , and the novel series Thrawn . Characters, storylines, and elements introduced in the series would also appear in subsequent Star Wars media. The series' storyline continues in the Disney+ live-action series Ahsoka .
Fourteen years after the fall of both the Galactic Republic and the Jedi Order and the rise of the Galactic Empire , [10] a motley group of rebels called the Spectres unite aboard a light freighter called the Ghost and begin to conduct covert operations against Imperial forces on and around the planet Lothal and on other planets that are menaced by the Empire.
Cast and characters
Taylor Gray as Ezra Bridger , a teenage street kid who is taken in by Kanan to be trained as a Jedi
Vanessa Marshall as Hera Syndulla , a Twi’lek pilot turned Rebel Commander (later General) and the daughter of Ryloth freedom fighter Cham Syndulla .
Freddie Prinze Jr. as Kanan Jarrus , formerly known as Jedi Padawan Caleb Dume, who survived the events of Order 66. He is Ezra's mentor and leader of the Ghost crew.
Tiya Sircar as Sabine Wren , a young Mandalorian warrior who's fixated on art.
Steve Blum as Garazeb "Zeb" Orrelios , a former Lasat honor guard member and rebel who wants the Empire to pay for massacring his people.
Dave Filoni as Chopper (credited as "Himself" prior to the series finale ), Hera's astromech droid who can be a bit reckless.
David Oyelowo as Agent Kallus , an influential member of the Imperial ground team who is tasked with overviewing Imperial activities.
James Earl Jones as Darth Vader (seasons 1–2, 4), a powerful Sith Lord who was once the Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker, but is now the apprentice of Darth Sidious. This would be the final time Jones would voice Darth Vader himself after signing over the rights to recreate his voice [11]
Matt Lanter as Anakin Skywalker, a former Jedi Knight who became Darth Vader.
Jason Isaacs as the Grand Inquisitor (season 1–2), a former Jedi Temple Guard who turned to the dark side and was tasked with hunting down surviving Jedi.
David Shaughnessy as Commandant Cumberlayne Aresko and Taskmaster Myles Grint (season 1), Imperial officers stationed on the planet Lothal.
Yogar Lyste (season 1–3), an Imperial lieutenant stationed on Lothal.
Morad Sumar (season 1, 3), a farmer on Lothal, and an old friend of Ezra Bridger's parents.
Keith Szarabajka as Cikatro Vizago (season 1–2, 4), a Devaronian crime lord who the Ghost crew occasionally runs errands and smuggles goods for in exchange for credits and information.
Maketh Tua (season 1–2), a Lothal native and a minister for the Galactic Empire, and a graduate of the Imperial Academy.
Mira Bridger (season 1–2, 4), Ezra's mother, who was taken captive by the Empire
Phil LaMarr as Bail Organa (season 1, 3–4), the Senator of planet Alderaan, owner of the droids C-3PO and R2-D2, secretly one of the leaders organizing the Rebel Alliance, and adoptive father of Leia Organa.
Brent Spiner as Gall Trayvis (season 1), an Imperial Senator posing as a dissident in an attempt to lure rebel forces out of hiding.
Dante Basco as Jai Kell (season 1, 4), a Lothalian aiding Ezra and the Ghost crew during the Imperial occupation of Lothal as part of Ryder Azadi's rebel cell
Kassius Konstantine (season 1–3), a dismissive Imperial Navy admiral in charge of the Imperial blockade on Lothal and later assisting in the Empire's rebellion pursuit.
Ephraim Bridger (season 1–2, 4), Ezra's father, who was taken captive by the Empire
Old Jho (season 1–3), an Ithorian who operated a cantina known as Old Jho's Pit Stop on Lothal
Ashley Eckstein as Ahsoka Tano (season 1–2, 4), the former Padawan of Anakin Skywalker, who aids the rebellion with pivotal assets.
Grand Moff Tarkin (season 1, 3–4), a ruthless Imperial officer who oversees many of the Empire's activities.
AP-5 (season 2–3), an inventory droid that sides with the Rebels and assists them in finding a suitable base after developing an unlikely friendship with Chopper.
Ben Kenobi (season 3), a Jedi Knight in exile on Tatooine .
Keone Young as Commander Jun Sato (seasons 2–3), the leader of the Phoenix Squadron rebel cell.
Ian McDiarmid as Darth Sidious , (season 2 [a] , 4) the tyrannical ruler of the galaxy and the Sith Lord known to the galaxy as Emperor Palpatine as well as the master of Darth Vader.
Philip Anthony-Rodriguez as Fifth Brother (season 2), an Inquisitor of an unknown species and the partner of the Seventh Sister.
Sarah Michelle Gellar as Seventh Sister (season 2), a Mirialan Inquisitor and the partner of the Fifth Brother.
Jim Cummings as Hondo Ohnaka (season 2–4), a Weequay who led a group of space pirates that operated on the Outer Rim during the Clone Wars.
Gina Torres as Ketsu Onyo (season 2, 4), a Mandalorian bounty hunter working for the Black Sun, is an old friend of Sabine Wren.
Clancy Brown as Ryder Azadi (season 2–4), the former Governor of Lothal and a family friend to Ephraim and Mira Bridger.
Kevin McKidd as Fenn Rau (season 2–4), the Protectors of Concord Dawn, part of the elite Protectors organization who guard the royal family of Mandalore.
Sam Witwer as Maul (season 2–3), a rogue Sith Lord and former apprentice to Darth Sidious who seeks to hunt down his nemesis Obi-Wan Kenobi.
:a.
^ Witwer also voice Darth Sidious in season 2.
Lars Mikkelsen as Grand Admiral Thrawn (season 3–4), a Chiss high-ranking senior officer of the Galactic Empire known for his tactical cunning.
Mary Elizabeth McGlynn as Arihnda Pryce (season 3–4), a high-ranking officer of the Galactic Empire and Governor of the Lothal sector. She is mentioned in prior seasons but does not physically appear until S3.
Tom Baker as The Bendu (season 3), a Force-sensitive alien who resided on the remote planet of Atollon and represented the "center" of the Force, between the light side and the dark side.
Nathan Kress as Wedge Antilles (season 3–4), a former Imperial TIE fighter pilot who defects to the rebellion.
Mario Vernazza as Vult Skerris (season 3–4), a pilot who served as a Imperial captain, he flew a TIE/IN interceptor with red markings, and wore a TIE pilot flight suit with yellow stripes on the helmet and arms.
Zachary Gordon as Mart Mattin (season 3–4), a nephew of Commander Jun Sato and the leader of Iron Squadron.
Forest Whitaker as Saw Gerrera (season 3–4), a Rebel extremist and former freedom fighter.
Sharmila Devar as Ursa Wren (season 3–4), Sabine's mother, the current leader of Clan Wren, and former member of Death Watch.
Ritesh Rajan as Tristan Wren (season 3–4), Sabine's brother.
Genevieve O'Reilly as Mon Mothma (season 3–4), the official leader of the Rebel Alliance.
Michael Bell as Jan Dodonna (season 3–4), a general and leader of the Rebel base on Yavin IV.
Warwick Davis as Rukh (season 4), a Noghri assassin who, while technically not being a part of the Empire's forces, serves as an agent and tracker to Admiral Thrawn.
Guest appearances
James Arnold Taylor as Obi-Wan Kenobi , a Jedi Master. Appears as a message on the holocron.
Greg Ellis as Valen Rudor, a TIE fighter pilot from Corulag in service to the Galactic Empire on Lothal.
Bryton James as Zare Leonis, a Imperial cadet at the Academy for Young Imperials on the planet Lothal who worked as a spy for the rebels.
Peter MacNicol as Tseebo, a Rodian who worked for the Imperial Information Office on Lothal.
Frank Oz as Yoda , the wise and powerful Grand Master of the Jedi who is exiled on the planet Dagobah .
James Hong as Azmorigan, a Jablogian crime lord whom the Ghost crew encounter while working with other smugglers.
Derek Partridge as Brom Titus, a imperial officer male who served as an admiral and later as a commander in the Galactic Empire's navy.
Julie Dolan as Princess Leia Organa , the princess of the planet Alderaan, Bail Organa's adopted daughter, and rebel.
Robin Atkin Downes as Cham Syndulla, Hera's father who in the aftermath of the Clone Wars, opposes the newly established Galactic Empire's occupation of his world.
Gobi Glie, a Twi'lek rebel, Cham Syndulla's right hand.
Quarrie, a Mon Calamari who built a prototype B-wing starfighter on the remote planet Shantipole.
Catherine Taber as Numa, a Twi'lek rebel under the command of Cham Syndulla.
Grey DeLisle as Chava the Wise, a Lasat mystic who survived the fall of Lasan at the hands of the Galactic Empire.
Gary Anthony Williams as Gron, a Lasat member of the Lasan High Honor Guard who survived the fall of Lasan at the hands of the Galactic Empire.
Fred Tatasciore as Yushyn, a Moyn who worked as the boss of a Mining Guild Asteroid Belt Gas Refinery.
Robbie Daymond as the Eighth Brother, a Terrellian Inquisitor sent to hunt down Maul.
Trevor Devall as Derek "Hobbie" Klivian, a former Imperial TIE fighter pilot, who defects to the rebellion.
André Sogliuzzo as Slavin, a Imperial officer who served as a captain during the Imperial occupation of Ryloth.
Gregg Berger as General Kalani , a super tactical droid who leads a still-active, but depleted, army of Separatist Battle Droids and Droidekas on Agamar.
Ray Stevenson as Gar Saxon, the Imperial Viceroy of Mandalore, having been appointed as a figurehead leader by the Empire, and the leader of the Imperial Super Commandos.
Meredith Anne Bull as Gooti Terez, a Theelin who served as member of Iron Squadron.
Eric Lopez as Jonner Jin, a human who served as member of Iron Squadron.
Tom Kane as Wullf Yularen, an admiral during the Clone Wars, becoming a colonel in the Imperial Security Bureau.
Josh Brener as Erskin Semaj, a commander who served as an aide to Senator Mon Mothma in the rebellion and later served in the Alliance to Restore the Republic.
Yuri Lowenthal as Jon "Dutch" Vander, an ace pilot, served as the leader of Gold Squadron, a squadron made up of BTL Y-wing light bombers, with the rank of captain.
Josh Gad as LT-319, a controller and officer that served in the Galactic Empire's Information Office.
Katee Sackhoff as Bo-Katan Kryze , a regent of Mandalore, former member of the Mandalorian group known as Death Watch during the Clone Wars, opposing the ideals of her sister Duchess Satine under Pre Vizsla until he was usurped by Darth Maul and forming the Nite Owls to oppose him.
Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as Alrich Wren, Sabine's father.
Tobias Menzies as Tiber Saxon, a Mandalorian who served as the governor of Mandalore following the death of his brother, Viceroy Gar Saxon.
Andrew Kishino as Hark, a Mandalorian who served as a captain in the Imperial Super Commandos.
Seth Green as Seevor, a male Trandoshan who worked for the Mining Guild.
Malcolm McDowell as Veris Hydan, an adviser with the title of minister who served the Galactic Emperor Palpatine.
At the 2013 New York Comic Con , it was revealed that the series would take place 14 years after Revenge of the Sith and 5 years before A New Hope . [17] An image of the Inquisitor, the main villain of the series, was shown at the convention. [18] [17]
In its April 2014 announcement of the Star Wars Legends decision, Lucasfilm explained that Star Wars Rebels would be part of the new Star Wars canon and would incorporate elements introduced in Legends, such as the Inquisitor, the Imperial Security Bureau and Sienar Fleet Systems. [19]
The first two episodes, titled Spark of Rebellion, premiered on October 3, 2014, on Disney Channels worldwide and on Family Channel in Canada. [20] In Australia, the series premiered on October 17 on Disney XD . [21] The Siege of Lothal premiered on June 28, 2015, [22] and the second season debuted on October 18. [23] In Canada, the series premiered on October 19 on the DHX-owned Disney XD . [24] However, due to DHX Media losing the rights to Disney content, the show was later moved to Disney Channel . [25] The second season premiered on November 7, and it was moved to the Corus-owned Disney XD channel on December 1. [26] [27]
In the Middle East and Africa, Spark of Rebellion premiered on October 11 and the series debuted on October 18 on Disney XD. [28] Siege of Lothal premiered on October 10, followed the official season premiere on October 17. [29] In Southeast Asia, Spark of Rebellion premiered on Disney XD on October 4 and the series officially started on November 29. [30] [31] Siege of Lothal premiered on October 3 on Disney XD and Disney Channel , and the second season was released on October 24. [32] [33] [34] [35] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the series debuted on October 16 on Disney XD . [36] Siege of Lothal premiered on July 18, 2015, [37] followed by the second-season debut on October 17. [38]
Home media
October 14, 2014
October 13, 2014
Complete Season One [40]
September 1, 2015 [41]
September 14, 2015 [42]
September 16, 2015 [43]
September 1, 2015 [44]
September 14, 2015 [45]
Complete Season Two [46]
August 30, 2016 [47]
October 3, 2016 [48]
November 2, 2016 [49]
August 30, 2016 [50]
October 3, 2016 [51]
January 21, 2017
January 22, 2017
January 23, 2017
February 9, 2017
February 10, 2017
February 18, 2017
February 19, 2017
February 20, 2017
March 9, 2017
March 12, 2017
October 2, 2017
December 6, 2017
August 29, 2017
October 2, 2017
Complete Season Four
August 12, 2018
October 26, 2018
November 28, 2018
August 12, 2018
October 26, 2018
Star Wars Rebels: Spark of Rebellion was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on DVD in the US at all retailers on October 14, 2014. DVD bonus features include character shorts, a 3D model kit of the Ghost ship, and a preview of season 1. [54]
The Complete Season One of Star Wars Rebels was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on DVD and Blu-ray on September 1, 2015, in America, [55] and in Germany on September 10, 2015. The Season 1 collection contains the expanded version of Spark of Rebellion with the Darth Vader / Grand Inquisitor prologue shown on ABC-TV. The Complete Season Two of Star Wars Rebels was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on DVD and Blu-ray on August 30, 2016, in North America. The Complete Season Three of Star Wars Rebels was released on DVD and Blu-Ray on August 29, 2017. [56] The Complete Season Four is announced to be released on DVD and Blu-ray on November 15, 2018, in Germany, [57] and July 31, 2018, in the United States. [58]
The series is also available on the Disney+ streaming service, which launched on November 12, 2019. [59]
In the United States, the one-hour special garnered 2.74 million viewers on Disney Channel [60] and 2.40 million viewers on ABC (excluding Boston, whose local station WCVB preempted it for a Steve Harvey special). [61] Worldwide, it delivered a total of 6.5 million viewers. [62] On Disney Channel, the first and second episodes delivered 2.33 million and 1.92 million viewers, respectively. [63] The third and fourth episodes garnered 2.32 million and 1.84 million, respectively. [64] The fifth, sixth and seventh episodes were watched by 1.43 million, 1.30 million and 1.60 million viewers, respectively. [65] The eighth and ninth episodes got 1.92 and 1.44 million viewers, respectively. [66]
In Canada, the second episode was watched by 274,500 viewers, making it the most-watched broadcast ever on the network. [67] In the United Kingdom, the film was the highest-rated broadcast that week, with 81,000 viewers. [68]
Season
22
On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes , the first season has received a 92% positive score, based on 13 reviews with an average rating of 8.20/10, the website's critics consensus reads, "Rebels adds new dimension to an unexplored sector of the Star Wars timeline, inserting a ragtag group of lovable characters into a galactic adventure that all ages can enjoy." Seasons 2 and 3 have received a 100% score based on 6 reviews for season 2 and 6 reviews for season 3, with an average rating of 7.40/10 for season 2 and 9/10 for season 3. Season 4 has received a 100% score based on 10 reviews with an average rating of 9.20/10, the website's critics consensus reads, "The Force is with these Rebels in a thrilling conclusion that plays to its characters' strengths while serving up plenty of galactic spectacle." [72] [73] [74] [75] On Metacritic , the first season has a weighted average score of 78 out of 100 based on 4 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". [76]
IGN and Variety in particular had strong praise for the pilot film, Spark of Rebellion, with their only criticism being the appearance of the Wookiees in the film, being cited as not all that impressive compared to the rest of the animation. [77] SyFy Wire calls the series "Pure fun", further stating that it "captures the awe and joy of A New Hope " and is "thematically ambitious" with a "dramatic edge". [78] Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media called the series "exciting" with cartoon violence and "positive messages." Ashby also argued that the series has a "broad appeal for kids and adults" particularly those interested in Star Wars. [79] Graeme Virtue of The Guardian wrote that the series was inspired by the television Space Western Firefly . [80]
Accolades
[ edit ]
Award
Category
Recipient
Result
Nathaniel Villanueva & Douglas Lovelace
Best Male Lead Vocal Performance in a Television Series – Action/Drama
Nominated
Best Female Lead Vocal Performance in a Television Series – Action/Drama
Nominated
Nominated
Best Male Vocal Performance in a Television Series in a Supporting Role – Action/Drama
Won
Best Female Vocal Performance in a Television Series in a Supporting Role – Action/Drama
Nominated
Best Male Vocal Performance in a Television Series in a Guest Role – Action/Drama
Star Wars Rebels
Best Female Lead Vocal Performance in a Television Series – Action/Drama
Nominated
Kevin Kiner for Twilight of the Apprentice
Nominated
Nominated
Outstanding Achievement, Editorial in an Animated TV/Broadcast Production
Joe E. Elwood and Alex McDonnell for Twilight of the Apprentice
Nominated
Nominated
2016 BTVA Awards
Best Male Vocal Performance in a Television Series in a Supporting Role
Nominated
Star Wars Rebels
Star Wars Rebels
Nominated
Best Male Vocal Performance in a Television Series in a Guest Role
Won
Best Female Vocal Performance in a Television Series in a Supporting Role
Star Wars Rebels
Nominated
Nominated
Chopper and the Ghost appear in the 2016 film Rogue One: A Star Wars Story . [81] Hera's surname is called on a loudspeaker at the Rebel base on Yavin IV, where Chopper can briefly be seen. In addition, the Ghost takes part in the climactic battle over Scarif. [82]
The Ghost also appears in the 2019 film Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker during the final battle over Exegol. [83] The voice of Freddie Prinze Jr. as Kanan Jarrus can also be heard in the film as one of the voices of Jedi past who provide Rey with encouragement to defeat Emperor Palpatine .
Television series
Sabine Wren, Ezra Bridger, and Hera Syndulla made their live-action debut in the series Ahsoka , portrayed by Natasha Liu Bordizzo , Eman Esfandi, and Mary Elizabeth Winstead , respectively. [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] [92] Dave Filoni and Lars Mikkelsen reprise their roles as Chopper and Grand Admiral Thrawn . [93] Clancy Brown reprises his role as Ryder Azadi , the governor of Lothal. Vinny Thomas appears as Jai Kell, who was previously voiced by Dante Basco . Evan Whitten appears as Jacen Syndulla: Hera and Kanan Jarrus's son. Temuera Morrison appears as Rex in the fifth episode in flashbacks.
Animation television series
On September 2, 2014, Del Rey Books published Star Wars: A New Dawn, a prequel novel by John Jackson Miller telling the story of how Kanan and Hera met [77] [94] (set about six years before the series). [95] One of the first canon Star Wars novels to be released by Disney Publishing Worldwide and Del Rey Books, [96] [94] It includes a foreword by Dave Filoni.
In 2017, a new novel, entitled Thrawn , was released. The book marked the entrance of Grand Admiral Thrawn into the current canon. It was written by the character's original creator, Timothy Zahn . [97] A sequel to Thrawn, titled Thrawn: Alliances , was released on July 24, 2018. It explored Thrawn's partnerships with Darth Vader and Anakin Skywalker. [98] [99] Another Thrawn novel, Thrawn: Treason was released on July 23, 2019. It takes place during the events of Star Wars Rebels' fourth season. [100]
Hera Syndulla would go on to appear in Alexander Freed's Star Wars: Alphabet Squadron novel trilogy, as a general of the recently christened New Republic's eponymous starfighter squadron in the final days of the Galactic Civil War, hunting down the weakened Imperial forces after the battle of Endor and the death of Emperor Palpatine.[ citation needed ]
From April 1, 2015, through March 16, 2016, Marvel Comics published a 12-issue comic series, titled Kanan , and set during the events of the first season. Written by former executive producer of the series Greg Weisman and illustrated by Pepe Larraz, Jacopo Camagni and Andrea Broccardo, the story is centered on Kanan having flashbacks to his days as a Padawan in the Jedi Temple and the Clone Wars . The other members of the Ghost crew also appear. [101]
In the summer of 2017, Marvel announced that a comic book miniseries adaptation of Zahn's Thrawn novel was being planned, scheduled to be released in early 2018. [102] The first issue was released on February 14, 2018, with new issues being released over the following five months.
A few days after the series finale was aired, IDW Publishing released the seventh issue of the long-running Star Wars Adventures multi-era comic book series, which contained the first of a two-part comic arc, set between the second and third season, in which the Spectres embark on a mission to save a rare endangered bird from Imperial custody. [103] The second part appeared in the next issue, which was released on March 28, 2018. [104]
Video games
A side-scrolling run-and-gun game based on the show's first season, titled Star Wars Rebels: Recon Missions, was released by Disney Mobile on iOS , Android and Windows Store in early 2015, before being discontinued on July 28, 2016, due to the limitations of the support team . Ezra Bridger is the only playable character, with other characters available via in-app purchases , which also grant early access to most of the game's levels in the mobile versions and are required to play the full campaign in the Windows Store version.
Vanessa Marshall reprises her role as Hera Syndulla for the 2020 video game Star Wars: Squadrons , providing voice work and motion capture for the character. [105]
See also
Goldman, Eric (May 4, 2014). "Star Wars Rebels Trailer" . IGN . Archived from the original on July 9, 2014. Retrieved July 4, 2014.
Ng, Philiana (October 12, 2013). "Disney, Lucasfilm Unveil 'Star Wars Rebels' Villain (Photo)" . The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on June 8, 2023. Retrieved May 19, 2024.
"Star Wars Rebels: The Siege of Lothal" . Foxtel Insider. Foxtel. June 25, 2015. Archived from the original on October 4, 2015. Retrieved October 3, 2015.
"Express: October 2015" . Foxtel Insider. Foxtel. September 30, 2015. Archived from the original on September 17, 2015. Retrieved October 3, 2015.
"Star Wars Rebels Season 2" . Disney Channel Canada. October 27, 2015. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
"Disney XD" . disneychannel.ca Buzz Blog. Corus Entertainment. November 1, 2015. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
Germishuys, Andrew (August 31, 2015). "Disney XD Programming Highlights For October 2015" . South African Movie Database. Archived from the original on October 5, 2015. Retrieved October 3, 2015.
Disney XD Asia (September 26, 2014). "Star Wars Rebels" . Facebook. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
"Star Wars Rebels" . Disney Channel. Archived from the original on October 11, 2015. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
"Disney XD TV Listings" . TV Guide UK. Archived from the original on October 17, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2015.
Star Wars Rebels Season 1 , Walt Disney Studios HE, September 14, 2015, archived from the original on March 7, 2021, retrieved September 16, 2016
"Star Wars: Rebels – Season 1" . September 10, 2015. Archived from the original on September 11, 2015. Retrieved September 10, 2015.
Star Wars Rebels , Walt Disney Studios HE, September 14, 2015, archived from the original on March 24, 2021, retrieved September 16, 2016
Star Wars Rebels: Complete Season 2 , Walt Disney, October 3, 2016, archived from the original on January 15, 2023, retrieved September 16, 2016
G., Matt (November 16, 2019). "Disney+ in NZ – Your Questions Answered" . Star Wars New Zealand. Archived from the original on August 5, 2020. Retrieved November 29, 2019.
"Weekly Top 10" . Broadcasters' Audience Research Board. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved February 17, 2015.
Note: The ratings must be searched for.
Metcalf, Mitch (March 3, 2015). "Top 25 Monday Cable Originals: 3.2.2015" . Show Buzz Daily. Archived from the original on March 5, 2015. Retrieved March 3, 2015.
.
Morales, Jonathan (November 28, 2017). "Thrawn: Alliances – A sneak peak[sic] at the cover" . Dork Side of the Force. Archived from the original on March 24, 2018. Retrieved March 24, 2018.
Nickerson, Sean (March 7, 2018). "Star Wars Adventures #7 Review" . Adventures in Poor Taste. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
External links
Star Wars Rebels
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69 | who produced a change is gonna come | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Change_Is_Gonna_Come | 14 languages
"It's Got The Whole World Shakin'" (1965)
"A Change Is Gonna Come" is a song by American singer-songwriter Sam Cooke . It initially appeared on Cooke's album Ain't That Good News , released mid-February 1964 [1] by RCA Victor ; a slightly edited version of the recording was released as a single on December 22, 1964. Produced by Hugo & Luigi and arranged and conducted by René Hall , the song was the B-side to " Shake ".
The song was inspired by various events in Cooke's life, most prominently when he and his entourage were turned away from a whites-only motel in Louisiana. Cooke felt compelled to write a song that spoke to his struggle and of those around him, and that pertained to the Civil Rights Movement and African Americans .
Though only a modest hit for Cooke in comparison with his previous singles, "A Change Is Gonna Come" is widely considered one of Cooke's greatest and most influential compositions and has been voted among the greatest songs ever recorded by various publications. In 2007, the song was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress by the National Recording Registry , having been deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." [2] In 2021, Rolling Stone magazine placed it at number 3 on its list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ", [3] and in 2025, the magazine placed it at number 1 on its list of "The 100 Best Protest Songs of All Time." [4]
On October 8, 1963, en route to Shreveport, Louisiana , Cooke called ahead to the Holiday Inn North to make reservations for his wife, Barbara, and himself, but when he and his group arrived, the desk clerk glanced nervously and explained there were no vacancies. [5] While his brother Charles protested, Sam was furious, yelling to see the manager and refusing to leave until he received an answer. His wife nudged him, attempting to calm him down, telling him, "They'll kill you," to which he responded, "They ain't gonna kill me, because I'm Sam Cooke." [5] When they eventually persuaded Cooke to leave, the group drove away calling out insults and blaring their horns. When they arrived at the Castle Motel on Sprague Street downtown, the police were waiting for them, arresting them for disturbing the peace. [5] The New York Times ran a UPI report the next day, headlined "Negro Band Leader Held in Shreveport," [6] but African-Americans were outraged. In 2019, then-Shreveport mayor Adrian Perkins apologized to Cooke's family for the event, and posthumously awarded Cooke the key to the city. [7]
In addition, upon hearing the Bob Dylan song " Blowin' in the Wind " in 1963, Cooke was greatly moved that such a poignant song about racism in America could come from someone who was not black and also ashamed he had not yet written something like that himself. [8] However, his image and fears of losing his large white fan base had prevented him from doing so. [9] Cooke loved Dylan's song so much it was immediately incorporated into his repertoire. [10] He was further influenced by the message of the dream in Martin Luther King Jr's I Have a Dream speech at the civil rights march on Washington that year. Toward the end of 1963, according to Cooke, the Change composition came to him in a dream. [11]
Research by Ian Mance shows that Cooke was in Durham, North Carolina during sit-ins by North Carolina College at Durham students and others and that Cooke wrote his first draft on a Durham bus. [12]
Photographic documentation and a personal conversation with Sam Cooke by Cecil J. Williams , a former JET magazine photographer, revealed that although Cooke's inspiration to write the lyrics to "A Change Is Gonna Come' may have resulted from multiple incidents, his earliest reference was to an incident at the Columbia Township Auditorium in February 1961— a time two years earlier than other references. Williams, a native of Orangeburg, South Carolina , was backstage with Cooke before his performance, and being an avid fan of Cooke's, he asked what his next song would be. Cooke replied, "With s**t like this happening, things have got to change. I think I'm going to sing something about, "a long time coming, but change is gonna come...Change gotta come." Cooke was referring to a heated discussion with the venue management and a plainclothes law enforcement officer about having to perform with black and white spectators being forced to comply with segregated facilities. Flyers advertising the show indicated white people would be accommodated in special seating—upstairs. In addition to recalling this conversation, Williams' images of his wife with Cook and closeup images of his performing add much credibility to his assertion.[ citation needed ]
Recording and production
Following Christmas 1963, Cooke invited J.W. Alexander to his home to preview a new song he had just written, one Cooke was excited about. When he arrived, Cooke ran through the number on his guitar twice, the second time going over it line by line. [13] Both were excited to record the song, with Alexander viewing it as more personal and political than anything he had yet attempted. He warned Cooke that he might not profit off the song as he had with lighter, poppier songs, but Cooke did not care. [14] He explained to Alexander that he hoped the song would make his father proud. [14] "It was less work than any song he'd ever written," biographer Peter Guralnick says. [10] "It almost scared him that the song—it was almost as if the song were intended for somebody else. He grabbed it out of the air and it came to him whole, despite the fact that in many ways it's probably the most complex song that he wrote. It was both singular—in the sense that you started out, 'I was born by the river'—but it also told the story both of a generation and of a people." [10]
Cooke handed the song to his arranger René Hall , with no specific instructions as to what he personally wanted, but to give it "the kind of instrumentation and orchestration that it demanded." [15] Previously, the duo had collaborated on arrangements, but this was the first occasion in which Hall was granted complete control of the eventual arrangement, and he composed it as he would a movie score , with lush, symphonic strings. [15] "I wanted it to be the greatest thing in my [life]—I spent a lot of time, put out a lot of ideas, and then changed them and rearranged them," said Hall. [15] Cooke was well known as a perfectionist and "control freak" in the recording studio, so giving Hall total latitude was unprecedented. [10]
AFO drummer John Boudreaux was intimidated by the orchestral arrangement and refused to leave the control room; session player and close collaborator Earl Palmer was working next door and filled in for the song. Luigi Creatore asked Cooke to provide one more take, and the eighth take was "nearly perfect." [16] Luigi was pleased with the song, considering it among his best, both serious and still uniquely his own. Cooke had initially imagined that Luigi, first and foremost a pop hitmaker, would not respect the socially conscious song. [16]
Problems playing this file? See media help .
Each verse is a different movement, with the strings carrying the first, the horns the second, and the timpani carrying the bridge. [10] The French horn present in the recording was intended to convey a sense of melancholy. [15]
Cooke also incorporated his personal experiences into the song, such as encounters in Memphis , Shreveport, and Birmingham , to reflect the lives and struggles of all African-Americans of the time. [14] The lines "I don't know what's up there / Beyond the sky" could refer to Cooke's doubt for absolute true justice on earth. [14] The final verse, in which Cooke pleads for his "brother" to help him, is a metaphor for what Alexander described as "the establishment". The verse continues, 'But he winds up knocking me / back down on my knees.'" [14]
Cooke first performed "A Change Is Gonna Come" on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on February 7, 1964. Cooke's new manager, Allen Klein , was infatuated with the song and persuaded Cooke to do away with promoting his most recent single, " Ain't That Good News ", and perform "Change" instead, feeling that that was the statement he needed to make before a national audience. [17] Cooke objected, noting that the album's release was a month away and that he had no time to pull together an arrangement within such a short time frame. [17] Klein arranged for RCA to pay for a full string section and Cooke performed the song that Friday on The Tonight Show after performing "Basin Street". [18] An NBC timekeeper logged down the number as "It's a Long Time Coming," but the network did not save the tape of the performance. [17] [18] Klein and Alexander both felt it would become a milestone moment in Cooke's career, but it was overshadowed by the Beatles ' performance on The Ed Sullivan Show on CBS just two days later. [18]
The song was issued on March 1 as a track on Cooke's album Ain't That Good News . It would not be issued as a single for another nine months.
Cooke elected not to perform "A Change Is Gonna Come" again in his lifetime, both because of the complexity of the arrangement and because of the ominous nature of the song. [10] When shown to his protégé Bobby Womack , he responded that it sounds "like death." Cooke responded in return, "Man, that's kind of how it sounds like to me. That's why I'm never going to play it in public." Womack clarified his thoughts, that it wasn't deathly, but rather "spooky," but Cooke never performed the song again. [10]
In December, "A Change Is Gonna Come" was prepared for single release, with the verse and chorus preceding the bridge ("I go to the movies...") deleted for radio airplay. [19] The civil rights movement picked up on "A Change Is Gonna Come" with near immediacy. [10] On December 11, 1964, two weeks before the song was released, Sam Cooke was fatally shot at a Los Angeles motel. [20] Cash Box described the single as "a moving, string-filled ‘message’ tune." [21]
"A Change Is Gonna Come" became an anthem for the Civil Rights Movement, and is widely considered one of Cooke's greatest compositions. Over the years, the song has garnered significant praise. In 2004, it was voted number 12 by representatives of the music industry and press in Rolling Stone magazine's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . [22] It was then voted number 3 in Rolling Stone's 2021 edition of the list, [23] and in 2025, the magazine placed it at number 1 on its list of "The 100 Best Protest Songs of All Time." [24] The song was ranked number 3 in the webzine Pitchfork Media 's The 200 Greatest Songs of the 60s. [25] The song is also among 300 songs deemed the most important ever recorded by National Public Radio (NPR). [26] NPR called the song "one of the most important songs of the civil rights era." [10]
In 2007, the song was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress , with the National Recording Registry deeming the song "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important." [2]
The words “A change is gonna come” are on a wall of the Contemplative Court, a space for reflection in the Smithsonian 's National Museum of African American History and Culture ; the museum opened in 2016. [27]
In other media
Otis Redding covered the song for his 1965 album Otis Blue , saying he wanted to "fill the silent void" created by Cooke's death. [28] His version, retitled "Change Gonna Come," is a more restrained arrangement without any orchestration. [28] Aretha Franklin covered the song in 1967, which is featured on her first top ten album, I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You . The 5th Dimension covered it on their 1970 album Portrait , in a medley with the United States Declaration of Independence and People Got to Be Free , and released a popular single of the three songs. [29] [30] Baby Huey covered it in a posthumous album released in 1971.
"A Change Is Gonna Come" was featured in the 1992 Spike Lee -directed movie, Malcolm X , for the scene near the end in which Malcolm X (played by Denzel Washington ) is driving to the ballroom where he is about to be assassinated. [31]
The song served as a sample for rappers Ghostface Killah (1996), Ja Rule (2003), Papoose (2006), Lil Wayne (2007) "Long Time Coming (Remix)" Charles Hamilton , Asher Roth , B.o.B (2009), Nas 's It Was Written album also features a similar opening as the song, On their album The Reunion hip-hop artists Capone-N-Noreaga used an excerpt from the song on the opening track which shares the same title as the Cooke original, and Bizzle (2011).
After winning the 2008 United States presidential election , Barack Obama referred to the song, stating to his supporters in Chicago , "It's been a long time coming, but tonight, change has come to America." A duet of the song by Bettye LaVette and Jon Bon Jovi was included in We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial . In Washington DC, in the days leading up to Obama's inauguration , this song could be heard playing constantly in the city center.
In 2008, Wayne Brady performed the song on his debut studio album A Long Time Coming and British singer Seal covered it for his album Soul . In 2010, Shinyribs performed the song on their album Well After Awhile.
On June 1, 2013, Beyoncé Knowles sang the song during The Sound of Change Live concert in London, as part of Chime for Change , an organization that supports total equality between women and men in all areas of life. Mark Sutherland of Rolling Stone magazine noted that Knowles belted out the song, [32] while Alice Vincent from The Daily Telegraph noted that the rendition of the song reflected the event's purpose. [33] Later, on July 20, 2013, Knowles performed the song during a stop in Detroit as part of her Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . The performance followed the city's recent file for bankruptcy . As Knowles performed, the screen behind her displayed photos of Detroit's landmarks and icons including Aretha Franklin , Aaliyah , Eminem , Anita Baker , Bob Seger , Kid Rock , the White Stripes , Berry Gordy Jr. , Joe Louis . The montage ended with the declaration "Nothing Stops Detroit!" and Knowles closed the performance by saying "I love you, Detroit". [34] [35] [36] A spokesperson for the singer described the performance as a "unique tribute to the history of an incredible city and a celebration of the strong spirit of its people". [35] A black-and-white video of the cover was uploaded on Knowles' official YouTube channel on July 30, 2013. It closes with a quote from Henry Ford: “Failure is simply the opportunity to start over, this time more intelligently." [36] A reporter for The Huffington Post reported that the singer's "heartfelt" cover of the song "touched" her fans and the people who loved Detroit. [37] Latifah Muhammad of the Black Entertainment Television wrote that Knowles' "powerful" rendition of the song came right on time. [38] An editor for Essence described Knowles' cover as a "moving tribute to Detroit". [39] Jordan Sargent of Spin wrote, "It all might come off as a bit heavy-handed if it wasn't for the fact that, well, Beyonce absolutely slays the cover." [40] Lauren Moraski from CBS News described the tribute to the city as "touching". [41]
In 2017, Greta Van Fleet released a cover of the song on their double EP From the Fires , and Kimie released her cover on her 2017 album Proud as the Sun.
In 2019, Céline Dion performed the song as a part of a tribute to Aretha Franklin called "Aretha! A Grammy Celebration For The Queen of Soul". The tribute was broadcast by CBS in March 2019. [42]
In June 2020, a version of the song was recorded by Laurie Wright and Chris Faice with 100% of proceeds going to the Minnesota Freedom Fund.
"A Change Is Gonna Come" was recorded on January 30, 1964, at RCA Studios in Hollywood , California . [43] The engineer present was Wally Heider, and the session was conducted and arranged by René Hall . The musicians also recorded "Falling in Love" the same day. Credits adapted from the liner notes to the 2003 compilation Portrait of a Legend: 1951–1964 . [43]
Sam Cooke – lead vocals
SR Crain – backing vocals
Paul Foster – backing vocals
Jimmie Outler – backing vocals
Richard Gibbs – backing vocals
JJ Farley – backing vocals
William Kurasch – trumpet
Louis Blackburn – trombone
John Ewing – trombone
David Wells – trombone
Harry Hyams – viola
Alexander Neiman – viola
Israel Baker – violin
Irving Lipschultz – violin
Leonard Malarsky – violin
Jack Pepper – violin
Ralph Schaeffer – violin
Sidney Sharp – violin
Darrel Terwilliger – violin
Tibor Zelig – violin
Emmet Sargeant – cello
46
See also
"Billboard" . The Billboard Publishing Co. 22 February 1964.
.
Portrait of a Legend 1951-1964. Abkco Records, 2003. Los Angeles, California.
.
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| 599 |
69 | who produced a change is gonna come | https://blogs.loc.gov/now-see-hear/2021/02/on-the-recording-registry-a-change-is-gonna-come-1964/ | On the Recording Registry: "A Change is Gonna Come" (1964)
February 26, 2021
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This piece by B.G. Rhule is one in a collection of essays on National Recording Registry titles. The complete list can be found here .
So much has been written over these many decades about “A Change is Gonna Come,” Sam Cooke’s mellifluous and soulful ode to the struggles, yet prevailing hopes, of a black citizen living under the oppression of Jim Crow laws in the segregated South, that one may wonder, with 2019 approaching to mark the 55th year of its release to the public, exactly what is left to learn of the song’s etymology, and how it may be inextricably bound to the life experiences of its composer /lyricist. The answer, succinctly put, is plenty. Furthermore, unknown to the public are several intrinsic, key factors related to Sam Cooke’s personal and professional lives that, ironically, were played out against the backdrop of the Civil Rights era in which he lived and worked.
It is a commonly held truth by those who knew and worked with Sam that the song was first inspired by the awe he felt and expressed for singer Bob Dylan’s “Blowin’ in the Wind.” During a dinner break from his on-the-road performance travels, Sam, in the company of his band, tuned on the hotel room TV to watch the now-infamous 1963 March on Washington, and heard Dylan’s stirring and equally infamous anti-Jim Crow folk protest ballad. Yet, contrary to what some have written in stating that Sam was “angry” that a white boy wrote the song (which would have run totally counter to his lack of prejudice, a fact bolstered by his plethora of racially-variegenated friends and music business associates), Sam, instead, was buoyed by and inspired by Dylan’s lyrics, just as he had been by Pete Seeger’s “If I Had a Hammer.” Rather, it was more of a feeling that he, as a black man, should also write such a song, especially given the fact that on numerous occasions he had personally experienced the ugliness of Jim Crow when performing down south on the “chitlin circuit,” as the black road tours were historically dubbed, first with his early gospel group, the Soul Stirrers, and later as a solo pop performer.
During my interview with the late rock ‘n’ roll pioneer Fats Domino at his home in 2011, Domino recalled fondly his travels with Sam and others on those southern highways, yet, despite suffering from early onset of Alzheimer’s disease, he could still recall the bitterness they felt at not being able to eat at the same establishments that white folks enjoyed. So Fats often turned chef, feeding the guys himself. He said, “I learned to cook real fast,” he said, then patting his stomach and adding, “and pretty good too. We all ate great, just to show ‘em!”
When Sam, a notoriously skilled, backstage craps player, was subsequently owed $5,000 by singer Eddie Fisher, with whom he co-starred on an “Ed Sullivan Show” in the latter 1950’s, Fisher gave Cooke the keys to his Maserati as payment. Sam decided to take the car on the open road when he soon afterward commenced a road tour in Shreveport, Louisiana. After checking into a hotel there, with a less-than-friendly manager who had only rented them a room because of Sam’s celebrity, Sam and the band were freshening up, preparing to order dinner and start a card game to pass the evening. Suddenly, the Maserarti’s horn began to blare unceasingly. Road manager S.R. Crain had already taken it to a mechanic, who apparently failed to properly fix the horn, which roiled Sam so much so that when the manager pounded on the door complaining, Sam told him, “Look, man. I’m a singer, I’m no damn mechanic! What do you want me to do?” The entire entourage ended up in jail, bailed out by a large cache of money S.R. Crain kept in a briefcase at all times for just such incidents.
Dorothy Holloway Miller, who Sam first met as a 17 year-old Washington, DC model when he was a fresh-faced 20 year-old tenor for The Soul Stirrers, and remained, according to family, the love of his life for the next 13 years, recalled Sam being arrested with that group, which probably precipitated always having cash on hand when touring.
Sam received death threats when he appeared down south on Dick Clark’s Caravan of Stars tour. Clark had offered him the right to legally back out with his full blessing, but Sam would not hear of it. Bravely, he performed in defiance of the threats, well aware that on another tour years previously, his dear friend, singer Jesse Belvin (“Goodnight My Love”), who had refused to perform at a second show where Jim Crow segregation laws would be strictly enforced, thus regulating black concert-goers to the balcony, paid the ultimate price with his life and the life of his young wife, Joann, when Klansmen slashed their tires prior to their departure. The tires collapsed, causing their car to slam head on into oncoming traffic.
Sam and Jackie Wilson, both on that same tour, had never gotten over their palpable anger that Jim Crow ostensibly orphaned Jesse and Joann’s two toddler sons. If faced with a segregated audience, Sam made sure that his 5’9”, 160 lb. frame frequently faced the marginalized black section. He did not mean to slight the white kids who paid their money but, he figured, they would be the ones to raise a fuss, which could possibly force changes in the policy.
Legendary “twangy” guitarist Duane Eddy confided that he had toured the South briefly with Sam and observed him regularly getting “the red carpet treatment,” despite his race. He was, after all, articulate, educated, well-dressed, affable and classy. People often described him as someone who made a room better just by having been in it. Yet, Sam lived by a different creed, one that was taught to him by his father, the Rev. Cook, which was to show the same respect and dignity he would demand of others; to live the Golden Rule; to think in Christian terms of “otherness,” particularly for the least among us, just as Sam’s mother, Annie Mae, would by sharing their food with less fortunate neighbors and friends, including Sam’s best bud, Lou Rawls, who he would look out for his entire life.
Most of all, never forget where you came from, Rev. and Mrs. Cook would remind all of their seven children. Sam may have had a poolside home in the hills of LA’s posh Los Feliz area, and may have worn $500 silk shirts when he performed, but he never lost sight of his early childhood poverty in Clarkesdale, Mississippi, nor as an adolescent in Chicago’s Bronzeville neighborhood. “A Change is Gonna Come,” then, was his dedication song to those who were oppressed by the sinful social structures created by the complicit partnership of obscene wealth with racism; those ostracized, forced by Jim Crow to live on the margins of society, told where they were permitted to be, but mostly where not to be.
The late Eliot Chavers, a sometime bandleader and saxophonist who often traveled the South with Sam, recalled Sam defiantly correcting a Texas highway patrolman who’d called him “Sammy, in a smarmy fashion.” He also recalled the bone-chilling apprehension they shared upon witnessing more than one of the noon-time lynchings of black men, a sick and perverse form of white southern entertainment in its day.
Sam Cooke was the first black pop singer to own his own record labels (SARS and Derby), and publishing company (KAGS, named for friend Lou Rawls’ eccentric stepfather); and the first to wear his hair in a natural, shunning the processed “conk” so common for black entertainers who felt pressured to acquiesce to the white hairstyles of that era. He was the first black singer to produce other young black talent, including Bobby Womack and his brothers who performed as The Valentinos, as well as Billy Preston, Mel Carter, Johnny Taylor, the Sims Twins, and others.
At the time of Cooke’s December 1964 death, he was also set to produce two Italian singer-songwriters, Angelo Spezze and his nephew, Kenny Ancell, who brought their composition “Day Late and a Dollar Short” to Sam. Famed music producer Lou Adler, who roomed with Sam when he first came to LA to record “You Send Me,” told me, “Sam Cooke was colorblind. He didn’t care what you looked like, he was after a sound. Sam taught me to close my eyes and listen to the song.”
Imagine the reaction of the top brass at RCA, who produced Sam, upon learning that he was producing other artists, both black and white, thereby cutting out their distributors at the mobbed-up Liberty Records. The very conduit for a black singer/songwriter’s freedom, namely independent production, would be the very reason Sam Cooke would later be set up to be killed.
Sam had discovered days before his death that not only had Klein stolen his titles, removing his and his father’s name from the list of officers, but monies from his SARS publishing was going straight to subsidiary WL Records, who was also siphoning proceeds from Specialty Records, home label of singers Little Richard, Lloyd Price, and Larry Williams (“Boney Maronie,” “Short Fat Fanny,” “Slow Down”), the latter of whom would also later be found shot to death, a police-ruled “suicide,” even though the wound was in the back of his head. At the time of his death, Williams was being managed by J.W. Alexander, Sam’s labels partner who later admitted to family members that he had been the one Klein had forced to register the forged titles of operation in Reno, Nevada. Coincidentally, Allen Klein had for a time managed the Beatles who recorded “Slow Down,” for which Williams had also been missing song royalties. WL Records’ “bag man” was John Montague, who worked for Sam Giancana and with J.W. Alexander. Montague was also skimming from singer Bobby Vinton.
When Sam had a brief, chance encounter with the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. at the Atlanta airport, sometime after that March on Washington, he committed not only a song to him, but agreed to organize other artists for a compilation album of folk and gospel songs, the proceeds of which, according to family members, he would completely donate to the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). It was never Sam’s intention to profit personally from the song; too much blood and too many tears had been shed already. This was Sam Cooke’s sole opportunity to contribute to the movement and he was thrilled to volunteer his talents toward this end.
Cooke knew once “Change” was written that it was unquestionably a spectacular statement in song. It ingeniously weaved a powerful statement with a powerful vocal within an equally powerful production—strings, horns, bass. It had all the makings of a potential number one hit. Why then did it lie dormant for four months? Obviously, Sam never had any intention of releasing it as a commercial song. Logically, it would also take some time to organize other artists. Surely he would have employed the talents of his protégés, as well as friends Lou Rawls and Leroy Crume, who now sang with the Soul Stirrers. One can only imagine how unique an LP this would have been under Sam’s tutelage. Sadly, Sam did not have the opportunity to bring his concept to fruition, but a similar LP was subsequently produced by Harry Belafonte in 1965, which only enjoyed moderate success.
While Sam eyed artistic and production independence in the soon-to-be new year, others had different ideas. His nefarious manager Allen Klein, who was most likely highly involved in Sam’s set-up murder on December 11, 1964, would soon own Sam’s entire catalog weeks later, per some shady probate hearings in an LA courthouse. There, the hastily re-typed catalogue sat in stark contrast to the original recordings, such as “Chain Gang,” co-written by Sam’s brother and driver Charles. (Written when Same and Charles literally came upon a chain gang in the Deep South, and Sam got out of the car to offer food and cigarettes to the men. The feelings Sam shared with his brother about the sufferings of those poor black men in chains was a forerunner to “A Change is Gonna Come.”)
A man who obviously did not share that same empathy was Klein, who would stick the initial release of “A Change” onto the “B” side of the dance tune “Shake”; this was very telling. Thus, it rendered Sam the victim of a still-rigged and racist judicial system that neither would preclude his reputation from being irreparably smeared in death at the bogus coroner’s inquest hearing, nor mete out justice for his ideals and the well-being of his family. Klein’s personal attorney, Marty Marchat (to whom Klein quietly paid $6,000 a month for life, long after they’d stopped speaking), was representing the Cooke Estate, a clear violation of ethics and a conflict of interest. Stunningly, after Sam passed, the family received threatening phone calls from Klein not to investigate. Every attorney they hired was paid off and summarily disappeared. It was Sam’s brother-in-law, husband of his baby sister Agnes, who had devoted his life to getting justice for Sam and for the family, working as a Cook County investigator, who uncovered the dirty truth: Allen Klein had re-filed Sam’s Tracey Records Limited (named for his youngest daughter), listing himself as President, with his wife, Betty, business associate Henry Newfeld, and J.W Alexander, Sam’s labels partner, as Vice-Presidents. Alexander would soon afterward be paid off and removed from the company altogether.
The night of Sam’s murder, he would actually be blamed for having kidnapped one Elisa Boyer, who, it would be claimed, took his clothes, causing the allegedly naked singer to beat down the door of a $3.00 a night flophouse and ultimately be shot by a motel manager in what was declared at the scene as “justifiable homicide.” Boyer, in fact, was a prostitute known to record companies and police departments alike as Crystal Chi Young, and had been squired to Martoni’s Restaurant by Pete Bennett, Liberty Records’ A&R man, and a co-conspirator with Klein, both having been caught by the feds, in later years, selling $35,000 worth of Beatles promo records. Sam had had a dinner meeting with sound engineer Al Schmitt and his wife. When Gold Star Studios co-owner and producer Stan Ross entered Martoni’s at 10:30, Sam was alone at the bar, the Schmitts and Young both gone.
After Ross departed home to his wife, Vera, at 12:30 a.m., Sam got a phone call from a hysterical Johnny Morisette at P.J.’s nightclub on the Sunset Strip, begging him to hurry over there. Morisette’s family has steadfastly maintained that Johnnny told them Klein ordered a gun pointed at his head at the time. Witnesses Morisette and the Olympics’ Walter Ward both saw Sam leave with Young, who had asked him for a ride home to the Hacienda Hotel, even though she gave testimony to living elsewhere. Is there any serious question as to who killed Sam Cooke? Only days before, Sam had told his father that he would be shedding Klein’s management, explaining, “Papa, this is a dog-eat-dog business. I intend to eat that dog before it eats me.” Sam had a foreboding of violent forces surrounding him, and sought to extricate himself from their vile criminality, but failed to stop them in time. The Spezes, in fact, active in the close-knit Italian-American community of LA, discovered that they knew at least two of Sam’s killers, who admitted to beating and later shooting the singer inside Klein’s limo. All of this adds a fierce urgency to Sam’s premonitory focus on death in “A Change is Gonna Come.”
Sam’s late nephew, Eugene Jamison, had earlier told me that it had been of utmost importance to Sam that his father, Rev. David Cook, Sr., a Baptist minister, hear the gospel music influence and flavor of the tune, an homage to Sam’s own spiritual and musical roots which coincided when he first sang in his father’s children’s choir as a nine year-old. He wanted for his father to be proud, as well as the family’s honest reaction to the song.
Sam’s only surviving brother, David Cook (the family does not spell their name with an “e” at the end, which had been given to Sam by his first record producer Bob Keane), recalled the afternoon in late summer 1964, when Sam bought the first pressing of the song for the family to be played on their portable phonograph in his mother’s Bronzeville kitchen.
“We were beyond impressed,” David told me recently:
I was just so amazed by it. I thought it was beautiful. Just beautiful. When I heard the lines, “I go to the movies/And I go downtown/Someone keep telling me/Don’t come around…” and then the lines, “I go to my brother/And I say, brother, help me please/But he just keep on knockin’ me/Back down on my knees…” I was so moved. I thought about Sam’s earlier days on the gospel circuit, traveling through those treacherous towns.
Of course, a black person did not need to necessarily be doing anything to incur intense scrutiny and the wrath of racist whites. Blind singer Al Hibler, a friend of Sam’s, was arrested by the notorious Birmingham, Alabama, Sheriff Bull Connor (who, ironically, served as Public Safety Commissioner), merely for standing on a sidewalk–“Someone keep telling me don’t come around…”
David Cook recalls Sam telling them, “This was the hardest song I’ve ever sat down to write.” After being stunned by the haunting beauty of the song, they all understood why it posed such a formidable challenge to Sam. There was so much of him in that song. Bobby Womack had said he was “terrified because the song sounded like death.”—“It’s been too hard livin’/But I’m afraid to die/I don’t know what’s up there/Beyond the sky…”
Cooke’s great love, Dorothy Miller, added her memories of observing Sam writing songs on cocktail napkins or envelopes, and writing often after he read extensively about a topic that interested him. She attests to his deep spirituality, calling him “a religious person, through his beliefs, and often his actions. I remember Papa Cook would always be telling him, ‘Go with God. No matter where you are, Son, don’t forget God.’ Sam had premonitions about things, including life, and its ultimate end. He deeply felt ‘A Change is Gonna Come’”; that’s why he wrote ‘A Change is Gonna Come.’”
Undoubtedly the drowning death of his 18 month-old son Vincent in the family pool on June 17, 1963, had broken a piece of Sam’s heart and left his already teetering four-year marriage to his wife, Barbara, in shambles. “He wasn’t quite the same after that,” Eugene Jamison and Doncella Pamon, Sam’s niece, both told me. Each kept separate apartments while Sam’s labels’ manager, Zelda Sands, often watched the children in their house on Ames Avenue in LA, along with a housekeeper. Death of a baby, death of a marriage, and then, only known to a few, Sam’s lingering confrontation with his own mortality, brought him full circle with his own questions about Christological salvation in the afterlife.
Cooke’s staunch support of friends Mohammad Ali and Malcolm X’s black entrepreneurialism was juxtaposed against his own Baptist upbringing. At the time of his death, Sam was also attempting to create business opportunities for family and friends, including the mothers of his other children. Freedom, independence, liberating one’s creative spirit from oppressive domination: Sam Cooke not only died for these God-given rights, he fought for the rights of others to enjoy the same.
“A Change is Gonna Come” was as cathartic a songwriting experience for Sam Cooke as it was transformative a song for anyone who has heard it. It is an allegorical civics tale, snugly wrapped in the soothing Balm of Gilead, mesmerizingly delivered by Sam Cooke’s honey-drenched tenor. Fifty-four years after Sam’s death, it continues to captivate Millennials and Baby Boomers alike. It knows no age, gender or racial barriers, though undoubtedly, as the Anthem of the Civil Rights Movement for which it was intended, its uplifting qualities, and soulful inspiration remain boundless. Of this, Sam Cooke would be most proud.
B.G. Rhule is the author of the book “One More River to Cross: The Redemption of Sam Cooke.”
*The views expressed in this essay are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Library of Congress.
Copyright Aug, 2018, all rights reserved.
August 18, 2024 at 12:57 pm
The most Soul touching song to have even been written . You can feel the spirit within your “Soul” ! Really hurts just to think about of all the Races of People that are in America , why only Black Americans wer and sometimes are still mistreated and abused to this day by mainly Whites(especially Policemen):anywhere .
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69 | who produced a change is gonna come | https://www.songhall.org/awards/winner/a_change_is_gonna_come | Towering Song
The Towering Song Award is presented to the creator(s) of an individual song that has influenced our culture in a unique way over many years. Previous Towering Songs have included “Take Me Out To The Ballgame,” “Moon River,” “Bridge Over Troubled Water,” “It Was A Very Good Year” and “Stand By Me.” “A Change Is Gonna Come” was written by Sam Cooke in 1963 and recorded in January of 1964 in Hollywood, CA. The track was released as a single in December of 1964. This evocative composition was adopted as an anthem by the Civil Rights Movement virtually upon its release and is widely considered to be Cooke’s most significant and enduring composition.
“A Change Is Gonna Come” has garnered over 500 recorded versions, including covers by Aretha Franklin, Otis Redding, Solomon Burke, Bobby Womack, the Fugees, Jon Bon Jovi, Seal, R. Kelly, Gavin DeGraw, Terrence Trent D’Arby, the Righteous Brothers, Al Green and many others. Over the years, “A Change Is Gonna Come” has garnered great accolades and in 2005, was voted #12 by representatives of the music industry and media in Rolling Stone’s 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, and voted #3 in Pitchfork Media’s The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s. The song is also among those deemed as “the most important ever recorded” by National Public Radio (NPR) and was selected by the Library of Congress for inclusion in the National Recording Registry. After the results of the 2008 U.S. presidential election, President-elect Barack Obama specifically referred to “A Change Is Gonna Come,” stating “It’s been a long time coming, but tonight, change has come to America” to the supporters gathered in Chicago’s Grant Park. In the days leading up to the president’s inauguration, “A Change Is Gonna Come” could be heard repeatedly at different events throughout the Capital in Washington DC including a duet version by Bettye LaVette and Jon Bon Jovi at the Lincoln Memorial. Cooke’s hopeful tome and vision for a multi-cultural society had come to fruition many years after he prophetically recorded the song, which is a cipher for righteous causes seeking change, equality and justice.
Cooke was posthumously inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987. His songwriting catalog contains over 150 songs with more than 50 years after starting his songwriting career, his songs still endure to this day with recordings by major artists such as Amy Winehouse, the Rolling Stones, Jackie Wilson, Eric Clapton, Tina Turner, Rod Stewart, the Neville Brothers, Leela James, Arcade Fire, Nas, Billy Bragg, the Band, Nina Simone, Cat Stevens, Shemekia Copeland, the Animals and Ray Charles among many others.
About ABKCO: ABKCO Music & Records is one of the world’s leading independent entertainment companies. It is home to iconic catalog assets that include compositions and recordings by Sam Cooke, The Rolling Stones, Bobby Womack, Eric Burdon, The Animals, Herman’s Hermits, Marianne Faithfull, The Kinks as well as the Cameo Parkway masters by such artists as Chubby Checker, Bobby Rydell, Clint Eastwood, The Orlons, The Dovells, & The Mysterians, Charlie Gracie, The Tymes and Dee Dee Sharp. Soundtrack releases include Wes Anderson’s 2013 Academy Award® nominated Moonrise Kingdom, The Darjeeling Limited and the 2010 Academy Award® nominated Fantastic Mr. Fox, Independent Spirit Award® Winner Safety Not Guaranteed, Our Idiot Brother, the international blockbuster Fast Five, Edgar Wright’s Scott Pilgrim vs. The World, Percy Jackson & The Olympians: The Lightning Thief, The Men Who Stare At Goats and the soundtrack to the first season of the hit Showtime® series, Californication. ABKCO is active on many fronts including the release of critically lauded compilations and reissues from its catalog, film and commercial placement of its master recordings and music publishing properties in all media. ABKCO Films most recent release is The Rolling Stones Charlie Is My Darling – Ireland 1965. It has been involved with many successful movies including The Greek Tycoon starring Anthony Quinn and Jacqueline Bisset, La Grande Bouffe winner of the International Critics prize at the 1973 Cannes Film Festival and The Concert for Bangladesh featuring Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Bob Dylan and Ringo Starr. Renowned cult director Alejandro Jodorowsky’s classics El Topo and The Holy Mountain, fully restored and remastered to HD, were shown at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival (Classics section) and at the prestigious 44th New York Film Festival. In 2003 ABKCO won a Grammy for the DVD release of Sam Cooke – Legend and the following year released the DVD of The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus to universal acclaim. Upcoming releases include a restoration of the Spaghetti Western Blindman starring Ringo Starr. ABKCO Films is in pre-production on a biopic on the life of Sam Cooke. www.abkco.com www.facebook.com/abkco www.twitter.com/abkco www.YouTube.com/abkco
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69 | who produced a change is gonna come | https://americansongwriter.com/sam-cooke-behind-the-song-a-change-is-gonna-come/ | By
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“A Change Is Gonna Come” | Written by Sam Cooke
When Bettye LaVette performed “A Change Is Gonna Come,” in duet with Jon Bon Jovi, at the first inaugural concert for President Obama, a new generation of listeners was introduced to a classic composition by one of the most influential writers and vocalists in pop history, Sam Cooke. In the 45 years since it was first released, “Change” has grown into an anthem of the civil rights movement, an epitaph for a great performer, and an iconic piece of music. Few works have been as eloquent in their depiction of triumph over adversity (“there’s been times that I thought I couldn’t last for long/But now I think I’m able to carry on”), and indeed the history behind “A Change Is Gonna Come” is every bit as interesting, and conflicted, as the song itself.
For starters, radio listeners in 1965 were not even able to hear the whole song. In his writing of “Change” Sam Cooke had been inspired by “Blowin’ in the Wind,” the 1963 protest song by Bob Dylan. At the time Cooke, a gospel music veteran whose creamy voice and good looks had carried him to pop crossover fame, was longing to explore something more serious in his music. This new sense of urgency, the desire to make a political statement, was manifested in one of “Change’s” most striking lines: “I go to the movies and I go downtown/But somebody keeps telling me, don’t hang around.” But according to Cooke’s business partner, gospel vocalist J.W. Alexander (speaking in Peter Guralnick’s 1986 book, Sweet Soul Music), the potentially controversial line was cut when “Change” was issued posthumously as a single in late 1964. Only long-playing album buyers heard the full version, with politicized lyrics intact. Ironically, those in charge of promoting “Change” subjected it to the same inequitable standards Cooke had meant to criticize.
In addition, Cooke’s sudden and tragic death ensured that “Change” was already imbued with an elegiac air by the time it was released. To date, no one is quite sure what happened that night on December 11, 1964, when Cooke was shot to death at the Hacienda Motel in a downtrodden section of Los Angeles. Biographer Guralnick clearly believes that, rather than being linked to a deliberate plot to kill an African-American singer who had become too successful for his own good (as some have argued), Cooke’s murder came as the combined result of a fast lifestyle and bad timing. Still, the questions and conspiracy theories remain, and they lend poignancy to another of “Change’s” memorable lines: “It’s been too hard living, but I’m afraid to die/Cause I don’t know what’s up there, beyond the sky.” Sam Cooke was only 33.
From its initial release as a B-side (to the fun but largely forgettable “Shake”), “A Change Is Gonna Come” grew in stature slowly, building a reputation as the civil rights and other social movements reached full flowering in the years to come. In time it became a metaphor for human uplift, recast in numerous versions by artists as diverse as Aretha Franklin, the Nylons, and Israeli performer Anat Cohen. Few of these interpretations have been as moving, however, as LaVette’s rendition on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial the Sunday prior to Obama’s inauguration. For one thing, LaVette is one of the few contemporary rhythm & blues artists whose own career dates to the years of Cooke’s prime. She lived through the “package tours” in the South during the early 1960s, when African-American performers were turned away from whites-only hotels and other establishments (it was one such incident, in fact, which was said to inspire Cooke’s own writing of “Change”).
For another, LaVette brought to the song her own sense of improvisation, proving that a classic need not be frozen in time; its meaning can shift and deepen with the passage of years. She restored the once-contested line in her own way (“I used to try to go to the movies, and I’d try to go downtown, but somebody was always telling me, little girl, you can’t come around”) then sang “but I know change has come,” in acknowledgement of battles fought and, at least for now, won.
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70 | discuss the measures undertaken for poverty alleviation in india | https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/policies-and-programmes-towards-poverty-alleviation/ | Poverty Alleviation - Programmes And Policies (UPSC Notes)
Poverty Alleviation Programmes aims to reduce the rate of poverty in the country by providing proper access to food, monetary help, and basic essentials to households and families belonging to below the poverty line threshold.
According to the World Bank, Poverty is a pronounced deprivation in well-being and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life.
As per the Planning Commission of India, the level of poverty in a country can be estimated based on the consumer expenditure surveys that are conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. This article will talk about the various Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India and the initiatives taken by the Government of India towards poverty alleviation.
Candidates preparing for the IAS Exam must have a thorough knowledge of all the poverty alleviation programmes in India. Candidates can also download the notes PDF at the end of this article.
Table of Contents:
What is Poverty Alleviation?
Poverty Alleviation is the set of steps taken in an economic and humanitarian way to eradicate poverty in a country. According to the World Bank, if a person is living on $1.90 a day or less, then he/she is living in extreme poverty, and currently, 767 million people in the world fall under that category. According to the last released official data, in 2011, 268 million people in India were surviving on less than $1.90 a day. Various Programmes and Schemes under the Government of India were launched to eradicate poverty and to provide basic amenities to poor households.
Schemes like Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana and Housing for All by 2022 were developed to provide housing to the rural and urban poor. The latest government schemes like Start-Up India and Stand Up India focus on empowering people to earn their livelihood.
Candidates would find this article very helpful while preparing for the Civil Services Exam .
To complement your preparation for the upcoming exam, check the following links:
What is Below Poverty Line (BPL)?
Below Poverty Line (BPL) can be defined as an economic benchmark used in the identification of economically weaker people and households. BPL is set by the Government of India based on a threshold income. The households or individuals having an income below this threshold value are considered to be under the below poverty line.
Measuring BPL in India
The poverty line solely depends on the per capita income in India rather than the level of prices. The poverty line is the minimum income required to purchase the basic goods and services that are essential to satisfy the basic human needs. The proportion of the population that is below this poverty line is called the poverty ratio or headcount ratio. Similar approaches are followed by most countries and international institutions for determining BPL.
In India, the first official rural and urban poverty lines at the national level were introduced in 1979 by Y. K. Alagh Committee. Criteria for the measurement of BPL are different for the rural and urban areas.
Currently, according to the Tenth Five-Year Plan, the degree of deprivation is measured with the help of parameters with scores given from 0–4, with 13 parameters.
Families with 17 marks or less (formerly 15 marks or less) out of a maximum of 52 marks have been classified as BPL.
The poverty line is calculated every 5 years. According to the recent estimation based on inflation, the threshold income should be more than Rs. 962 a month for urban areas and Rs 768 a month in rural areas i.e., above Rs. 32 a day in an urban area and above Rs. 26 a day in a rural area.
Poverty Alleviation in India – Five-Year Plans
Eleven Five Year Plans were launched to eradicate poverty in India. The list of these Five Year Plans that started in the year 1951 is given below:
First Five Year Plan (1951- 1956): The plan focused mainly on agriculture and irrigation and aimed at achieving an all-round balanced development.
Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961): It focused on the growth of basic and heavy industries, expansion in employment opportunities, and an increase of 25 per cent in the national income.
Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966): The Chinese aggression (1962), Indo-Pak war (1965), and the severest drought led to the complete failure of the third five-year plan. It was replaced by three annual plans that continued from 1966 to 1969.
Fourth Five Year Plan (1966-1974): It aimed at increasing national income by 5.5 per cent, creating economic stability, reducing inequalities in income distribution, and achieving social justice with equality.
Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979): This plan mainly focused on the removal of poverty (Garibi Hatao) and aimed in bringing larger sections of the poor masses above the poverty line. It also assured a minimum income of Rs. 40 per person per month calculated at 1972-73 prices. The plan was terminated in 1978 instead of (1979) when the Janata Government came to power.
Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985): Removal of poverty was the main objective of the sixth five-year plan with a major focus on economic growth, elimination of unemployment, self-sufficiency in technology, and raising the lifestyles of the weaker sections of the society.
Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90): The Seventh Five Year Plan aimed in improving the living standards of the poor with a significant reduction in the incidence of poverty.
Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97): This plan aimed at employment generation but later failed in achieving most of its targets.
Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002): The ninth five-year plan focused on the areas of agriculture, employment, poverty, and infrastructure.
Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007): The tenth five-year plan aimed at the reduction of the poverty ratio from 26 per cent to 21 per cent by the year 2007 and also to help the children in completing five years of schooling by 2007.
Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012): The eleventh five-year plan targets towards reducing poverty by 10 percentage points, generating 7 crore new employment opportunities, and ensuring electricity connection to all villages.
Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India
As per the 2011-2012 estimation by the Planning Commission of India, 25.7 % of the rural population was under the below-poverty line and for the urban areas, it was 13.7 %. The rate of poverty in the rural areas is comparatively higher than that in the urban areas due to the lack of proper infrastructure, insufficient food supply, and poor employment system.
The major Poverty Alleviation Programmes that were developed with an initiative to eradicate poverty are mentioned in the table below:
List of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India
Name of the Scheme/Programme
1978
Ministry of Rural Development
To raise the families of identified target groups living below the poverty line through the development of sustainable opportunities for self-employment in the rural sector.
Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana
1985
Ministry of Rural Development
To create housing units for everyone along with providing 13 lakh housing units to the rural areas.
To provide loans at subsidized rates to the people.
To augment wage employment opportunities to the households by providing employment on-demand and through specific guaranteed wage employment every year.
Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS)
15th August 1995
Ministry of Rural Development
To provide pensions to the senior citizens of India of 65 years or higher and living below the poverty line.
It provides a monthly pension of Rs.200 for those aged between 60-79 years and Rs.500 for people aged above 80 years.
National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS)
August 1995
Ministry of Rural Development
To provide a sum of Rs.20,000 to the beneficiary who will be the next head of the family after the death of its primary breadwinner.
Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY)
1st April 1999
Developing the infrastructure of the rural areas which included connecting roads, schools, and hospitals.
To provide sustained wage employment to families belonging to the below poverty line.
Annapurna
1999-2000
Ministry of Rural Development
To provide 10 kg of free food grains to eligible senior citizens who are not registered under the National Old Age Pension Scheme.
Food for Work Programme
Ministry of Rural Development
It aims at enhancing food security through wage employment. Food grains are supplied to states free of cost, however, the supply of food grains from the Food Corporation of India (FCI) godowns has been slow
Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)
The main objective of the scheme continues to be the generation of wage employment, the creation of durable economic infrastructure in rural areas and the provision of food and nutrition security for the poor.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
2005
Ministry of Rural Development
The Act provides 100 days of assured employment every year to every rural household. One-third of the proposed jobs would be reserved for women. The central government will also establish National Employment Guarantee Funds.
Similarly, state governments will establish State Employment Guarantee Funds for implementation of the scheme. Under the programme, if an applicant is not provided employment within 15 days s/he will be entitled to a daily unemployment allowance.
National Food Security Mission
Ministry of Agriculture
To increase production of rice, wheat, pulses and coarse cereals through area expansion and productivity enhancement in a sustainable manner in the identified districts of the country
National Rural Livelihood Mission
Ministry of Rural Development
It evolves out of the need to diversify the needs of the rural poor and provide them with jobs with regular income on a monthly basis. Self Help groups are formed at the village level to help the needy
National Urban Livelihood Mission
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
It focuses on organizing urban poor in Self Help Groups, creating opportunities for skill development leading to market-based employment and helping them to set up self-employment ventures by ensuring easy access to credit
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana
2014
Ministry of Finance
It aimed at direct benefit transfer of subsidy, pension, insurance etc. and attained the target of opening 1.5 crore bank accounts. The scheme particularly targets the unbanked poor
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana
2015
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
It will focus on fresh entrants to the labour market, especially labour market and class X and XII dropouts
Saansad Aadarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY)
2014
Ministry of Rural Development
To develop the institutional and physical infrastructure in three villages by 2019. The scheme aims to develop five ‘Adarsh Villages’ or ‘Model Villages’ by 2024.
Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana
2015
Ministry of Finance
The scheme provides life coverage to the poor and low-income sections of society. The scheme offers a maximum assured amount of Rs.2 lakhs
Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana
2015
Ministry of Finance
The scheme is an insurance policy to the people belonging to the underprivileged sections of the society
National Maternity Benefit Scheme
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW)
To provide a sum of Rs.6000 to a pregnant mother who is aged above 19 years.
The sum is provided normally 12–8 weeks before the birth in three instalments and can also be availed even after the death of the child.
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)
2016
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
It envisages the distribution of 50 million LPG connections to women below the poverty line
Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY)
2016
Ministry of Finance
the scheme provides an opportunity to declare unaccounted wealth and black money in a confidential manner and avoid prosecution after paying a fine of 50% on the undisclosed income. An additional 25% of the undisclosed income is invested in the scheme which can be refunded after four years, without any interest.
Solar Charkha Mission
Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME)
It aims at Employment generation for nearly one lakh people through solar charkha clusters in rural areas
National Nutrition Mission (NNM), Poshan Abhiyan
2018
Ministry of Women and Child Development
to reduce the level of undernutrition and also enhance the nutritional status of children in the country. Also, to improve the nutritional outcomes of adolescents, children, pregnant women and lactating mothers
Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan-Dhan (PM-SYM)
2019
Ministry of Labour and Employment
It is a central government scheme that is introduced for old age protection and social security of Unorganised Workers (UW)
Prime Minister Street Vendor’s AtmaNirbhar Nidhi – PM SVanidhi
2020
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA)
It aims to provide micro-credit facilities to street vendors affected by COVID-19 pandemic
Apart from eradicating poverty in India, the Poverty Alleviation Programmes also took the initiative to provide employment opportunities to the households of the BPL categories.
Aspirants can go through the detailed information on various schemes mentioned above in the table below-
Role of Public Distribution System in Poverty Alleviation
The Public Distribution System (PDS) which evolved as a system of management for food and distribution of food grains plays a major role in poverty alleviation. This programme is operated jointly by the Central Government and the State Government of India. The responsibilities include:
Allocations of commodities such as rice, wheat, kerosene, and sugar to the States and Union Territories.
Issue of Ration Cards for the people below the poverty line.
Identification of families living below the poverty line.
Management of food scarcity and distribution of food grains.
PDS was later relaunched as Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) in June 1997 and is controlled by the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Government of India. TPDS plays a major role in the implementation and identification of the poor for proper arrangement and delivery of food grains. Therefore, the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) under the Government of India plays the same role as the PDS but adds a special focus on the people below the poverty line.
Why is employment generation important in poverty alleviation in India?
The unemployment issue in India is considered as one of the major causes of poverty in India. The poverty rate of a country can be reduced with high economic growth and by reducing the unemployment problem. Various poverty alleviation programmes are set up under the Government of India that aim to eradicate poverty by providing employment on-demand and through specific guaranteed wage employment every year to households living below the poverty line.
The generation of employment is important in poverty alleviation because of the following reasons:
It will increase the income level of poor household families and will help in reducing the rate of poverty in the country. Hence, there is a significant relationship between unemployment and poverty.
It will decrease the rural-urban migration through the generation of employment programs in rural areas.
An increase in the income level through the generation of employment programs will help the poor in accessing basic facilities including education, health facilities, and sanitation.
What are the reasons for the ineffectiveness of poverty alleviation programs?
The major reasons for the ineffectiveness of the poverty alleviation programs are mentioned below:
The poverty alleviation program may not properly identify and target the exact number of poor families in rural areas. As a result, some of the families who are not registered under these programs benefit the facilities rather than the eligible ones
Overlapping of similar government schemes is a major cause of ineffectiveness as it leads to confusion among poor people and authorities and the benefits of the scheme do not reach the poor.
Overpopulation in the country increases the burden of providing the benefits of the schemes to a large number of people and thus reduces the effectiveness of the programs.
Corruption at various levels of implementation of schemes is another major reason.
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70 | discuss the measures undertaken for poverty alleviation in india | https://www.fairobserver.com/world-news/india-news/the-world-should-learn-from-poverty-alleviation-in-india/ | Support Fair Observer
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The World Should Learn From Poverty Alleviation in India
India has moved over 415 million people out of poverty in a 15-year period, according to the UN. Aggressive government efforts to alleviate multiple factors of poverty—improving access to food, fuel and electricity—are largely to thank. Narendra Modi’s India should be a model and an inspiration to countries around the world fighting poverty.
By
Wednesday, August 23, 2023
Gopalganj, Bihar, India-27 June 2023: An elderly woman takes a sigh of relief while cooking food on gas stove in her rural house.
© PradeepGaurs / shutterstock.com
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The report takes a multidimensional approach to poverty. Since national governments use vastly different definitions of poverty, a multidimensional approach is necessary to assess poverty in an accurate and objective way. This captures information that might be obscured or skewed by a one-dimensional analysis, such as an analysis of income. The report takes the following ten dimensions of poverty into account: nutrition, child mortality, years of schooling, school attendance, cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing and personal assets.
It is worth noting that, since the UNDP did not collect data from every country in the study at the same time, it is not possible to directly compare countries within a single year. The study is more useful for assessing trends within countries over time. This goes especially for India, for which we have three periods of available data. The report details India from 2005–2006, 2015–2016 and 2019–2021.
India’s impressive poverty reduction
In the period from 2005–2006, 55.1% of the Indian population—or some 645 million people—were suffering from multidimensional poverty. A decade later, this figure had dropped to 27.7% percent—370 million people—in 2015–2016 after 10 years. In other words, the rate of decrease in the percentage of poverty was 5.4% per year on average.
By the period of 2019–2021, the proportion of people suffering from poverty had declined further to only 16.4% of the total population, or 230 million people. In just five years, 140 million people moved out of poverty. This means that the pace of poverty reduction had accelerated to a whopping 9.1% per year. Stunningly, India achieved this record in spite of the Covid pandemic. Although full post-Covid data are not available for nearly any countries in the report, more than one year of the worst pandemic in India is included in the period covered.
From 2005–2006 to 2019–2021, India’s multidimensional poverty index (out of a total of 1.000) plummeted from 0.283 down to just 0.069. The report also includes scores for each of the ten dimensions of poverty considered by the study. The proportion of people without adequate sanitation dropped impressively from 50.4% to 11.3%, and the proportion of those without adequate drinking water plummeted from 16.4% down to just 2.7%. Deprivation in terms of school attendance dropped from 19.8% down to only 3.9%. Conditions in India are dramatically improving. Not only the frequency, but the intensity of poverty is substantially lower than it was 15 years ago.
This is good news for India, and the country can justifiably feel proud of its achievement. But it is also an important lesson for the world. India’s efforts to alleviate multidimensional poverty can be a model and inspiration for the world.
Narendra Modi’s Indian model
Narendra Modi’s government has had a special focus on the determinants of multidimensional poverty.
According to UNICEF, the child mortality rate in India has come down to just 30.6 per 1000 live births as of 2021, down from 46.2 in 2014. This is living proof of better health for Indian children. There has also been a huge improvement in nutrition, with deprivation of nutrition coming down from 21.1% in 2015–2016 to only 11.8% in 2019–2021, according to the UNDP report. To turn to housing, we can note that about 30 million houses , both in urban and rural areas, have been built so far in the last 8 years under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana program thanks to 5 trillion rupees ($60 billion) in assistance from the central government.
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Har Ghar Nal Se Jal (“Piped Water to All Homes”), another ambitious scheme of the Modi government, has worked swiftly, cutting the number of those without access to water by more than half from 2015–2016 to 2019–2021, according to the report. 110 million latrines and 223,000 restroom complexes have been constructed in the last eight years . Under the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana program, 95.9 million impoverished women have received liquified petroleum gas (LPG) connections. The total number LPG connections has doubled in the last 9 years to 312.6 million .
Various efforts of the government in the context of hunger and nutrition are also bearing fruit. Due to a free grain ration for 800 million people that will continue throughout 2023, all Indians, in principle, will have access to food. Electricity, too, has reached even the remotest villages in the country. According to the UNDP report, indeed, 97.9% of Indians had access to electricity during the 2019–2021 period. That number will continue to get closer and closer to 100%. Already, Modi says, there is not a single village in the country that is without electricity.
This is a lesson for the world. Multidimensional poverty can also be removed if the political will and the necessary effort are there.
The views expressed in this article are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect Fair Observer’s editorial policy.
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70 | discuss the measures undertaken for poverty alleviation in india | https://borgenproject.org/poverty-reduction-initiatives-in-india/ | 5 Poverty Reduction Initiatives in India
Since the 2000s, India has made great strides towards decreasing poverty. Between 2011 and 2019, some 262 million people rose above the poverty level. While the COVID-19 outbreak reversed this trend, India expects to make a comeback thanks to its government initiatives addressing poverty. Here are five poverty reduction initiatives in India.
Saansad Aadarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY): Prime Minister Narendra Modi started Saansad Aadarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY) after considering the increasing poverty rates in October 2014. SAGY is a government program that focuses on the social and cultural development of villages . A central goal of SAGY’s is for each Member of Parliament to develop three villages by 2019. These villages serve as model villages providing basic amenities and livelihood opportunities. The overall purpose of the program is to improve the living conditions and overall quality of life for all residents. This occurs by increasing educational opportunities, raising literacy rates and updating social norms and customs. In an effort to improve the development of communities, SAGY converts schools into “ smart schools .” The smart schools are equipped with IT-enabled classrooms, e-libraries and web-based teaching in an effort to make all students e-literate. If students are e-literate, they are more likely to receive a quality education. Between SAGY’s initiation in 2014 and a June 2017 referendum , it implemented 2,649 social development projects, completed 1,239 projects and had another 539 still in progress. In addition to social development, SAGY also has thousands of projects devoted to health, economic development, infrastructure and more.
National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM): The Ministry of Rural Development started National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) in June 2011 to provide the impoverished with a stable monthly income . Unemployment serves as one of the many reasons for poverty in India. In 2019, more than 75% of households in India did not have a stable source of income. NRLM provides households with the means to self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities to improve their livelihoods. The program emerged upon the belief in the hidden skills and capabilities of those in poverty. All it takes is guidance and resources to create a sustainable life. Such resources include institutional platforms that the World Bank partially funds, entitlements, access to rights and public services. NRLM’s strategy allows the economy of the country to build from within and flourish. NRLM increases household revenue and savings by increasing finance accessibility and jobs, and decreasing loan dependency. Both men and women also experienced increased participation in the labor force. After evaluation, researchers found that the program impacted the households in the treatment villages more than in the controlled villages. Treatment households experienced a 19% increase in income over 2.5 years.
Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM): The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM) similarly works to reduce poverty and vulnerability by providing access to self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs began the NULM in September 2013. The poor in India’s urbanized areas have low education rates, harsh living conditions and minimal work opportunities. DAY-NULM motivates the urban poor, trains them, provides shelter and establishes rights-based linkages with other programs. The Employment through Skills Training & Placement (EST&P) Component constitutes one of DAY-NULM’s programs that showcases great results . This initiative provides three types of programs. Firstly, it trains fresh entrants to the job market. Second, it offers skill up-gradation of those employed. Thirdly, it extends formal recognition and certification of those with both informal and non-formal skills training in any vocational trade or craft.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) passed in August 2005 and launched the following February. MGNREGA’s mission is to provide 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to inexperienced workers. It also seeks to increase economic security and decrease labor migration from rural to urban areas. A portion of the jobs is specifically for women. Since its launch, job opportunities increased by 240% in large part thanks to MGNREGA’s role. The equality and quality of labor also improved in rural India, including diminished wage fluctuation and the gender pay gap. MNREGA also provides minimum wages to employees, making basic amenities accessible and helping increase income and purchasing power. Since 2006, MNREGA gave jobs cards to nearly 900 million households. Of the nearly 315 million who demanded jobs, 98% received employment. From 2006 until 2015, an average of 45 million households received employment annually, constituting 30% of India’s entire rural household population.
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY): In August 2014, Modi launched Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY). Driven by financial inclusion, PMJDY endeavors to secure communities with affordable financial services . These financial services include pension, insurance, savings and deposit accounts, remittance, credit and insurance. PMJDY opened 12.54 billion accounts by January 2015, with deposits surpassing Rs 10,000 crores ($133 billion). In total, PMJDY achieved opening 17.9 billion accounts during the first year of implementation. As a result, deposits doubled between 2015 to 2020.
How Poverty Reduction Initiatives in India Have Helped
The government’s investment in these five poverty reduction initiatives in India, among others, helped decrease India’s poverty rate tremendously. Each individual initiative provides the impoverished with effective ways and resources to escape poverty. Like the NRLM states, the impoverished have strong desires to overcome poverty and have the capabilities to do so. All it takes is initiative.
– Destiny Jackson Photo: Flickr
-The Huffington Post
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70 | discuss the measures undertaken for poverty alleviation in india | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_India | Poverty in India
Share of population in extreme poverty, 1981 to 2017
Poverty rate map of India by prevalence in 2012, among its states and union territories
Slums near the international airport in Mumbai/Bombay
India Poverty rate since 1993 based on World Bank $2.00 ppp value
Poverty in India remains a major challenge despite overall reductions in the last several decades as its economy grows. According to an International Monetary Fund paper, extreme poverty, defined by the World Bank as living on US$1.9 or less in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms, in India was as low as 0.8% in 2019, and the country managed to keep it at that level in 2020 despite the unprecedented COVID-19 outbreak . [1] [2] According to the World Bank, India experienced a significant decline in the prevalence of extreme poverty from 22.5% in 2011 to 10.2% in 2019. A working paper of the bank said rural poverty declined from 26.3% in 2011 to 11.6% in 2019. The decline in urban areas was from 14.2% to 6.3% in the same period. The poverty level in rural and urban areas went down by 14.7 and 7.9 percentage points, respectively. [3] According to United Nations Development Programme administrator Achim Steiner, India lifted 271 million people out of extreme poverty in a 10-year time period from 2005–2006 to 2015–2016. A 2020 study from the World Economic Forum found "Some 220 million Indians sustained on an expenditure level of less than Rs 32 / day—the poverty line for rural India—by the last headcount of the poor in India in 2013." [4]
The World Bank has been revising its definition and benchmarks to measure poverty since 1990–1991, with a $0.2 per day income on purchasing power parity basis as the definition in use from 2005 to 2013. [5] Some semi-economic and non-economic indices have also been proposed to measure poverty in India. For example, in order to determine whether a person is poor, the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index places a 33% weight on the number of years that person spent in school or engaged in education and a 6.25% weight on the financial condition of that person. [6]
The different definitions and underlying small sample surveys used to determine poverty in India have resulted in widely varying estimates of poverty from the 1950s to 2010s. In 2019, the Indian government stated that 6.7% of its population is below its official poverty limit . [7] Based on 2019's PPPs International Comparison Program , [8] [9] [10] According to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG) programme, 80 million people out of 1.2 billion Indians, roughly equal to 6.7% of India's population, lived below the poverty line of $1.25 [11] and 84% of Indians lived on less than $6.85 per day in 2019. [12] According to the second edition of the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) released by Niti Aayog, approximately 14.96% of India's population is considered to be in a state of multidimensional poverty. [13] The National Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) assesses simultaneous deprivations in health, education, and standard of living, with each dimension carrying equal weight. These deprivations are measured using 12 indicators aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). [14] On July 17, 2023, Niti Aayog reported a significant reduction in the proportion of poor people in the country, declining from 24.8% to 14.9% during the period from 2015–16 to 2019–21. This improvement was attributed to advancements in nutrition, years of schooling, sanitation, and the availability of subsidized cooking fuel. [15] As per the report, approximately 135 million people in India were lifted out of multidimensional poverty between 2015–16 and 2019–21. [16]
From the late 19th century through the early 20th century, under the British Raj , poverty in India intensified, peaking in the 1920s. [17] [18] Famines and diseases killed millions in multiple cycles throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. [19] [20] After India gained its independence in 1947, mass deaths from famines were prevented. [21] Since 1991, rapid economic growth has led to a sharp reduction in extreme poverty in India. [22] [23] However, those above the poverty line live a fragile economic life. [24] As per the methodology of the Suresh Tendulkar Committee report, the population below the poverty line in India was 354 million (29.6% of the population) in 2009–2010 and was 269 million (21.9% of the population) in 2011–2012. [25] In 2014, the Rangarajan Committee said that the population below the poverty line was 454 million (38.2% of the population) in 2009–2010 and was 363 million (29.5% of the population) in 2011–2012. [26] Deutsche Bank Research estimated that there are nearly 300 million people who are in the middle class. [27] If these previous trends continue, India's share of world GDP will significantly increase from 7.3% in 2016 to 8.5% by 2020. [28] In 2012, around 170 million people, or 12.4% of India's population, lived in poverty (defined as $1.90 (Rs 123.5)), an improvement from 29.8% of India's population in 2009. [29] [30] In their paper, economists Sandhya Krishnan and Neeraj Hatekar conclude that 600 million people, or more than half of India's population, belong to the middle class. [31]
The Asian Development Bank estimates India's population to be at 1.28 billion with an average growth rate of 1.3% from 2010 to 2015. In 2014, 9.9% of the population aged 15 years and above were employed. 6.9% of the population still lives below the national poverty line and 6.3%[ additional citation(s) needed ] in extreme poverty (December 2018). [32] The World Poverty Clock shows real-time poverty trends in India, which are based on the latest data, of the World Bank, among others. As per recent estimates, the country is well on its way of ending extreme poverty by meeting its sustainable development goals by 2030. [33] According to Oxfam , India's top 1% of the population now holds 73% of the wealth, while 670 million citizens, comprising the country's poorer half, saw their wealth rise by just 1%. [34]
Definition of poverty
Poverty is the state of not having enough material possessions or income for a person's basic needs. Poverty may include social, economic, and political elements. Absolute poverty is the complete lack of the means necessary to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter.
Economic measures
There are several definitions of poverty, and scholars disagree as to which definition is appropriate for India. [35] [36] Inside India, both income-based poverty definition and consumption-based poverty statistics are in use. [37] Outside India, the World Bank and institutions of the United Nations use a broader definition to compare poverty among nations, including India, based on purchasing power parity (PPP), as well as nominal relative basis. [38] [39] Each state in India has its own poverty threshold to determine how many people are below its poverty line and to reflect regional economic conditions. These differences in definitions yield a complex and conflicting picture about poverty in India, both internally and when compared to other developing countries of the world. [40]
According to the World Bank, India accounted for the world's largest number of poor people in 2012 using revised methodology to measure poverty, reflecting its massive population. However, in terms of percentage, it scored somewhat lower than other countries holding large poor populations. [41] In July 2018, World Poverty Clock , a Vienna-based think tank, reported that a minimal 5.3% or 70.6 million Indians lived in extreme poverty compared to 44% or 87 million Nigerians. In 2019, Nigeria and Congo surpassed India in terms of total population earning below $1.9 a day. [42] [43] Although India is expected to meet the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals on extreme poverty in due time, a very large share of its population lives on less than $3.2 a day, putting India's economy safely into the category of lower middle income economies.
As with many countries, [44] poverty was historically defined and estimated in India using a sustenance food standard. This methodology has been revised. India's current official poverty rates are based on its Planning Commission's data derived from so-called Tendulkar methodology. [45] It defines poverty not in terms of annual income, but in terms of consumption or spending per individual over a certain period for a basket of essential goods. Furthermore, this methodology sets different poverty lines for rural and urban areas . Since 2007, India has set its official threshold at ₹ 26 a day ($0.43) in rural areas and about ₹ 32 per day ($0.53) in urban areas. [46] While these numbers are lower than the World Bank's $1.25 per day income-based definition, the definition is similar to China's US$0.65 per day official poverty line in 2008. [47]
The World Bank's international poverty line definition is based on purchasing power parity basis, at $1.25 per day. [48] [49] This definition is motivated by the fact that the price of the same goods and services can differ significantly when converted into local currencies around the world. A realistic definition and comparison of poverty must consider these differences in costs of living, or must be on purchasing power parity (PPP) basis. On this basis, currency fluctuations and nominal numbers become less important, the definition is based on the local costs of a basket of essential goods and services that people can purchase. By World Bank's 2014 PPP definition, India's poverty rate is significantly lower than previously believed. [40]
Mixed, semi-economic and non-economic measures
As with economic measures, there are many mixed or non-economic measures of poverty and experts contest which one is most appropriate for India. For example, Dandekar and Rath in 1971 suggested a measure of poverty rate that was based on number of calories consumed. [50] In 2011, Alkire et al. suggested a poverty rate measure so-called Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which only puts a 6.25% weight to assets owned by a person and places 33% weight on education and number of years spent in school. [6] These non-economic measures remain controversial and contested as a measure of poverty rate of any nation, including India. [51] [52]
In 2023, the NITI Aayog published the National Multidimensional Poverty Index: A Progress Review 2023. [53] The percentage of the total population who are multidimensionally poor in each State and Union Territory and the percentage point change in the headcount ratio between 2015-16 and 2019-21 are given below: [54]
State or Union Territory
Percentage point change in headcount ratio between 2015-16 and 2019-21
Country
Comparison with alternate international definitions
India determines its household poverty line by summing up the individual per capita poverty lines of the household members. This practice is similar to many developing countries, but different from developed countries such as the United States who adjusts their poverty line on an incremental basis per additional household member. For example, in the United States, the poverty line for a household with just one member was set at $11,670 per year for 2014, while it was set at $23,850 per year for a 4-member household (or $5963 per person for the larger household). [60] The rationale for the differences arise from the economic realities of each country. In India, households may include surviving grandparents, parents, and children . They typically do not incur any or significant rent expenses every month particularly in rural India, unlike housing in mostly urban developed economies. The cost of food and other essentials are shared within the household by its members in both cases. However, a larger portion of a monthly expenditure goes to food in poor households in developing countries, [61] while housing, conveyance, and other essentials cost significantly more in developed economies.
For its current poverty rate measurements, India calculates two benchmarks. The first includes a basket of goods, including food items but excluding the implied value of home, value of any means of conveyance or the economic value of other essentials created, grown or used without a financial transaction, by the members of a household. The second poverty line benchmark adds rent value of residence as well as the cost of conveyance, but nothing else, to the first benchmark. [62] This practice is similar to those used in developed countries for non-cash income equivalents and a poverty line basis. [63] [64]
India's proposed but not yet adopted official poverty line, in 2014, was ₹972 (US$11) a month in rural areas or ₹1,407 (US$16) a month in cities. The current poverty line is 1,059.42 Indian Rupees (62 PPP USD) per month in rural areas and 1,286 Indian rupees (75 PPP USD) per month in urban areas. [65] India's nationwide average poverty line differs from each state's poverty line. For example, in 2011–2012, Puducherry had its highest poverty line of ₹1,301 (US$15) a month in rural and ₹1,309 (US$15) a month in urban areas, while Odisha had the lowest poverty thresholds of ₹695 (US$8.00) a month for rural and ₹861 (US$9.90) a month for its urban areas. [66]
Poverty prevalence and estimates
During the 19th and early 20th century, when the country was under British colonial rule , parts of India saw a widespread increase in poverty. [17] [67] Beginning from the 18th century onwards, British officials in India implemented a series of policies which resulted in the de-industrialisation of India by reducing garments and other finished products manufactured by artisans in India. Instead, they imported these products from Britain's expanding industry due to the many industrial innovations of the 19th century. Additionally, the colonial authorities simultaneously encouraged the conversion of more land into farms and more agricultural exports from India. [68] [69] Eastern regions of India along the Ganges river plains, such as those now known as eastern Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , Jharkhand and West Bengal , [70] were dedicated to producing poppy and opium. These items were then exported to southeast and east Asia, particularly China. The East India Company initially held an exclusive monopoly over these exports, and the colonial British institutions later did so as well. [71]
The economic importance of this shift from industry to agriculture in India was large; [72] by 1850, it created nearly 1,000 square kilometres of poppy farms India's fertile Ganges plains. This consequently led to two opium wars in Asia, with the Second Opium War fought between 1856 and 1860. After China agreed to be a part of the opium trade, the colonial government dedicated more land exclusively to poppy. [69] The opium agriculture in India rose from 1850 through 1900, when over 500,000 acres of the most fertile Ganges basin farms were devoted to poppy cultivation. [73] Additionally, opium processing factories owned by colonial officials were expanded in Benares and Patna , and shipping expanded from Bengal to the ports of East Asia such as Hong Kong, all under exclusive monopoly of the British. By the early 20th century, 3 out of 4 Indians were employed in agriculture, famines were common, and food consumption per capita declined in every decade. [18] The issue of Company rule in India and its effects on Indian poverty was raised by Anglo-Irish Whig politician Edmund Burke in the House of Commons of Great Britain ; in 1778, Burke began an impeachment trial against East India Company officail Warren Hastings on charges including mismanagement of the Indian economy; Hastings was ultimately cleared of the charges in 1785. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray argued the economy established by the East India Company in 18th-century Bengal was a form of plunder and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of India, depleting food and money stocks and imposing high taxes that helped cause the famine of 1770, which killed a third of Bengali population. [74] In London, the late 19th century British parliament debated the repeated incidence of famines in India, and the impoverishment of Indians due to this diversion of agriculture land from growing food staples to growing poppy for opium export under orders of the colonial British empire. [69] [73]
Poverty was intense during colonial era India. Numerous famines and epidemics killed millions of people each. [19] [75] Upper image is from 1876 to 1879 famine in South of British India that starved and killed over 6 million people, while lower image is of child who starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943.
These colonial policies moved unemployed artisans into farming, and transformed India into a region increasingly abundant in land, unskilled labour, and low productivity. This consequently made India scarce in skilled labour, capital and knowledge. [17] [18] On an inflation adjusted 1973 rupee basis, the average income of an Indian agrarian labourer was Rs. 7.20 per year in 1885, against an inflation adjusted poverty line of Rs. 23.90 per year. Thus, not only was the average income below the poverty line, but the intensity of poverty was also severe. The intensity of poverty increased from 1885 to 1921, before being reversed. However, the absolute poverty rates continued to be very high through the 1930s. [17] [76] The colonial policies on taxation and its recognition of land ownership claims of zamindars and mansabdars , or Mughal era nobility, made a minority of families wealthy. Additionally, these policies weakened the ability of poorer peasants to command land and credit. The resulting rising landlessness and stagnant real wages intensified poverty. [17] [77]
The National Planning Committee of 1936 noted the appalling poverty of undivided India. [78]
(...) there was lack of food, of clothing, of housing and of every other essential requirement of human existence... the development policy objective should be to get rid of the appalling poverty of the people.
Nehru, The Discovery of India, (1946)
The National Planning Committee, notes Suryanarayana, then defined goals in 1936 to alleviate poverty by setting targets in terms of nutrition (2400 to 2800 calories per adult worker), clothing (30 yards per capita per annum) and housing (100 sq. ft per capita). [78] This method of linking poverty as a function of nutrition, clothing and housing continued in India after it became independent from British colonial empire.
These poverty alleviation goals were theoretical, with administrative powers resident in the British Empire. Poverty ravaged India. In 1943, for example, despite rising agricultural output in undivided South Asia, the Bengal famine killed millions of Indians from starvation, disease and destitution. Destitution was so intense in Bengal, Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Orissa, that entire families and villages were "wiped out" of existence. Village artisans, along with sustenance farming families, died from lack of food, malnutrition and a wave of diseases. [20] The 1943 famine was not an isolated tragedy. Devastating famines impoverished India every 5 to 8 years in the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Between 6.1 and 10.3 million people starved to death in British India during the 1876–1879 famine, while another 6.1 to 8.4 million people died during the 1896–1898 famine. [79] The Lancet reported that 19 million people died from starvation and the consequences of extreme poverty in British India between 1896 and 1900. [80] Sir MacDonnell observed the suffering and poverty in 1900, and noted, "people died like flies" in Bombay. [81]
After Independence
514
222
512
Minhas published his estimates of poverty rates in 1950s India as cyclical and a strong function of each year's harvest. Minhas disagreed with the practice of using calories as the basis for poverty estimation and proposed a poverty line based on real expenditure per year (Rs 240 per annum). In 1956–57, a good harvest year, he computed India's poverty rate to be 65% (215 million people). [82] [83] For 1960, Minhas estimated the poverty to be 59%. [84]
1960s
A Working Group was formed in 1962 to attempt to set a poverty line for India. [85] [86] This Working Group used calories required for survival, and income needed to buy those calories in different parts of rural India, to derive an average poverty line of Rs. 20 per month at 1960–61 prices. [87]
Estimates of poverty in India during the 1960s varied widely. Dandekar and Rath, on the behalf of then Indian government, estimated that the poverty rate in 1960s remained generally constant at 41%. Ojha, in contrast, estimated that there were 190 million people (44%) in India below official poverty limit in 1961, and that this below-poverty line number increased to 289 million people (70%) in 1967. Bardhan also concluded that Indian poverty rates increased through the 1960s, reaching a high of 54%. [84] [88] Those above the 1960s poverty level of Rs 240 per year, were in fragile economic groups as well and not doing well either. Minhas estimated that 95% of India's people lived on Rs 458 per year in 1963–64, while the richest 5% lived on an average of Rs 645 per year (all numbers inflation adjusted to 1960–61 Rupee). [82]
1970s – 1980s
Dandekar and Rath [89] in 1971 used a daily intake of 2,250 calories per person to define the poverty line for India. Using NSSO data regarding household expenditures for 1960–61, they determined that in order to achieve this food intake and other daily necessities, a rural dweller required an annual income of ₹ 170.80 per year (₹ 14.20 per month, adjusted to 1971 Rupee). An urban dweller required ₹ 271.70 per year (₹ 22.60 per month). They concluded from this study that 40 percent of rural residents and 50 percent of urban residents were below the poverty line in 1960–61. [90]
Poverty alleviation has been a driver for India's Planning Commission 's Task Force on Projections of Minimum Needs and Effective Consumption Demand of the Perspective Planning Division. This division, in 1979, took into account differences in calorie requirements for different age groups, activity levels, and sex. They determined that the average rural dweller needed around 2400 calories, and those in urban areas required about 2100 calories per person per day. To satisfy the food requirement, the Task Force estimated that a consumer spending in 1973–74 of Rs.49.09 per person per month in rural areas and Rs.56.64 in urban areas was appropriate measure to estimate its poverty line. [91]
Poverty remained stubbornly high in India through the 1970s and 1980s. It created slogans such as Garibi Hatao (meaning eliminate poverty) for political campaigns, during elections in early 1970s through the 1980s. [92] Rural poverty rate exceeded 50%, using India's official poverty line for 1970s. [93] [94]
Additionally, in 1976, the Indian government passed the Bonded Labor System Act in an effort to end debt bondage in India , a practice which contributes to generational poverty. [95] Nevertheless, this system is still in place today due to weak enforcement of this law. [95]
1990s
Another Expert Group was instituted in 1993, chaired by Lakdawala, to examine poverty line for India. It recommended that regional economic differences are large enough that poverty lines should be calculated for each state. From then on, a standard list of commodities were drawn up and priced in each state of the nation, using 1973–74 as a base year. This basket of goods could then be re-priced each year and comparisons made between regions. The Government of India began using a modified version of this method of calculating the poverty line in India. [96]
There are wide variations in India's poverty estimates for 1990s, in part from differences in the methodology and in the small sample surveys they poll for the underlying data. A 2007 report for example, using data for late 1990s, stated that 77% of Indians lived on less than ₹ 20 a day (about US$0.50 per day). [97] In contrast, S.G.Datt estimated India's national poverty rate to be 35% in 1994, at India's then official poverty line of Rs 49 per capita, with consumer price index adjusted to June 1974 rural prices. [94]
2000s
The Saxena Committee report, using data from 1972 to 2000, separated calorific intake apart from nominal income in its economic analysis of poverty in India, and then stated that 50% of Indians lived below the poverty line. [98] The Planning Commission of India, in contrast, determined that the poverty rate was 39%.
The National Council of Applied Economic Research estimated that 48% of the Indian households earn more than ₹90,000 (US$1,039.90) annually (or more than US$ 3 PPP per person). According to NCAER, in 2009, of the 222 million households in India, the absolutely poor households (annual incomes below ₹45,000 (US$520)) accounted for only 15.6% of them or about 35 million (about 200 million Indians). Another 80 million households are in the income levels of ₹45,000 (US$520) to ₹90,000 (US$1,000) per year. These numbers are similar to World Bank estimates of the "below-the-poverty-line" households that may total about 100 million (or about 456 million individuals). [99]
The Suresh Tendulkar Committee set up to look into the people living under the poverty line in India submitted its report in November 2009. [100] It provided a new method of calculating the poverty line based on per capita consumption expenditure per month or day. For rural areas, it was Rs 816 per month or Rs 27 per day. For urban areas, it was Rs 1000 per month or Rs 33 per day. Using this methodology, the population below the poverty line in 2009–2010 was 354 million (29.6% of the population) and that in 2011–2012 was 269 million (21.9% of the population). [101]
Reserve Bank of India (2012)
In its annual report of 2012, the Reserve Bank of India named the state of Goa as having the least poverty of 5.09% while the national average stood at 21.92% [7] The table below presents the poverty statistics for rural, urban and combined percentage below poverty line (BPL) for each State or Union Territory. [7] The highest poverty statistics for each category column is coloured light red and the lowest poverty statistics for each category column is coloured light Blue in the table below.
State or Union Territory
No. of Persons(Thousands) Rural
Poverty line (Rs)/month (Rural)
No. of Persons(Thousands) Urban
Poverty line (Rs)/month (Urban)
No. of Persons(Thousands) Combined
0
0.00
26
12.62
26
9.86
Delhi
50
12.92
1145.00
1646
9.84
1134.00
1696
9.91
Lakshadweep
0
0.00
2
3.44
2
2.77
Puducherry
69
17.06
1301.00
55
6.30
1309.00
124
9.69
India
216658
25.70
816.00
53125
13.70
1000.00
269783
21.92
2010s
The World Bank has reviewed its poverty definition and calculation methodologies several times over the last 25 years. In early 1990s, The World Bank anchored absolute poverty line as $1 per day. This was revised in 1993, and the absolute poverty line was set at $1.08 a day for all countries on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis, after adjusting for inflation to the 1993 US dollar. In 2005, after extensive studies of the cost of living across the world, The World Bank raised the measure for global poverty line to reflect the observed higher cost of living. [5] Thereafter, the World Bank determined poverty rates from those living on less than US$1.25 per day on 2005 PPP basis, a measure that has been widely used in media and scholarly circles.
In May 2014, after revisiting its poverty definition, methodology and economic changes around the world, the World Bank proposed another major revision to PPP calculation methodology, international poverty line and indexing it to 2011 US dollar. [40] The new method proposes setting poverty line at $1.78 per day on 2011 PPP basis. According to this revised World Bank methodology, India had 179.6 million people below the new poverty line, China had 137.6 million, and the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line on an equivalent basis as of 2013. India, in other words, while having 17.5% of total world's population, had 20.6% share of world's poor. [10] [40] In October 2015, the World Bank updated the international poverty line to US$1.90 a day.
The Rangarajan Committee set up to look into the poverty line estimation in India submitted its report in June 2014. [102] It amended the calculation of the poverty line based on per capita consumption expenditure per month or day given by the Tendulkar Committee. [103] The new poverty threshold for rural areas was fixed at Rs 972 per month or Rs 32 per day. For urban areas, it was fixed at Rs 1407 per month or Rs 47 per day. Under this methodology, the population below the poverty line in 2009–2010 was 454 million (38.2% of the population) and that in 2011–2012 was 363 million (29.5% of the population). [104]
From November 2017, the World Bank started reporting poverty rates for all countries using two new international poverty lines: a "lower middle-income" line set at $3.20 per day and an "upper middle-income" line set at $5.50 per day. These are in addition to the earlier poverty line of $1.90 per day. The new lines are supposed to serve two purposes. One, they account for the fact that achieving the same set of capabilities may need a different set of goods and services in different countries and, specifically, a costlier set in richer countries. Second, they allow for cross-country comparisons and benchmarking both within and across developing regions. India falls in the lower middle-income category. Using the $3.20 per day poverty line, the percentage of the population living in poverty in India (2011) was 60%. This means that 763 million people in India were living below this poverty line in 2011. [105]
2020s
The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation conducted the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) during August 2022 to July 2023 and the factsheet was published on 24 February 2024. [106] This survey on household consumption expenditure was aimed at generating estimates of household Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE) and its distribution separately for rural and urban areas. [107] The below table shows the average MPCE (in rupees) across fractile classes (all-India) in 2022-23: [108]
Fractile class of MPCE
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
0-5%
1,441
2,087
1,373
2,001
5-10%
1,864
2,695
1,782
2,607
10-20%
2,196
3,241
2,112
3,157
20-30%
2,540
3,839
2,454
3,762
30-40%
2,856
4,422
2,768
4,348
40-50%
3,183
5,032
3,094
4,963
50-60%
3,545
5,726
3,455
5,662
60-70%
3,978
6,579
3,887
6,524
70-80%
4,551
7,721
4,458
7,673
80-90%
5,447
9,625
5,356
9,582
90-95%
6,725
12,430
6,638
12,399
95-100%
10,581
20,846
10,501
20,824
3,860
6,521
3,773
6,459
*Imputation includes quantity of consumption for a number of items, received and consumed free of cost through various social welfare programmes.
Based on the above consumption expenditure survey, a State Bank of India report stated that rural poverty was 7.2% and urban poverty was 4.6% in 2022-23 with a new consumption expenditure-based poverty line for India of Rs 1,622 per person per month for rural areas and Rs 1,929 per person per month for urban areas in India based on the recommendations of the Suresh Tendulkar committee. [109] [110]
Semi-economic measures of poverty
Other measures such as the semi-economic Multi-dimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which places 33% weight on education and number of schooling years in its definition of poverty, and places 6.25% weight on income and assets owned, suggests there were 650 million people (53.7% of population) living in MPI-poverty in India. [6] 421 million of MPI-defined poor are concentrated in eight North Indian and East Indian states of Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Jharkhand , Madhya Pradesh , Orissa , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal . The table below presents this semi-economic poverty among the states of India based on the Multi-dimensional Poverty Index, using a small sample survey data for Indian states in 2005. [111]
MPI rank
India
1,164.7
0.296
55.4%
53.5%
645.0
1
Kerala
35.0
0.065
15.9%
40.9%
0.6%
5.6
2
Goa
1.6
0.094
21.7%
43.4%
0.0%
0.4
3
Punjab
27.1
0.120
26.2%
46.0%
1.0%
7.1
4
Other estimates
According to a 2011 poverty Development Goals Report, as many as 320 million people in India and China are expected to come out of extreme poverty in the next four years, with India's poverty rate projected to drop from 51% in 1990 to about 22% in 2015. [112] The report also indicates that in Southern Asia, only India is on track to cut poverty by half by the 2015 target date. [112] In 2015, according to United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MGD) programme, India has already achieved the target of reducing poverty by half, with 24.7% of its 1.2 billion people in 2011 living below the poverty line or having income of less than $1.25 a day, the U.N. report said. The same figure was 49.4% in 1994. India had set a target of 23.9% to be achieved by 2015. [113]
According to Global Wealth Report 2016 [114] compiled by Credit Suisse Research Institute, India is the second most unequal country in the world with the top one per cent of the population owning 58% of the total wealth. [115]
According to the World Food Programme , around 21.25% of India's population live on less than US$1.90 a day. The WFP also says that India is home to a quarter of the world's undernourished people. [116]
Global Hunger Index
Global Hunger Index (GHI) is an index that places a third of weight on proportion of the population that is estimated to be undernourished, a third on the estimated prevalence of low body weight to height ratio in children younger than five, and remaining third weight on the proportion of children dying before the age of five for any reason. According to 2011 GHI report, India has improved its performance by 22% in 20 years, from 30.4 to 23.7 over 1990 to 2011 period. [117] However, its performance from 2001 to 2011 has shown little progress, with just 3% improvement. A sharp reduction in the percentage of underweight children has helped India improve its hunger record on the Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2014. India now ranks 55 among 76 emerging economies. Between 2005 and 2014, the prevalence of underweight children under the age of five fell from 43.5% to 30.7%. [118]
Poverty: 2011–2012 Percentage of people by Caste [119]
Findings below are based on a survey conducted during 2011–12.
Total population of India then: 1,276,267,631
Caste-wise population distribution: [119]
Caste
FC
12.5%
44.6M
3.5%
OBC
20.7%
116.5M
9.1%
SC
29.4%
71.2M
5.8%
ST
43.0%
49.0M
3.8%
Total
281M
22%
From the above 2 tables, we could derive the following to see if the distribution of poverty follows as that of the total population:
Caste
FC
28.0%
15.9%
OBC
44.1%
41.4%
SC
19.0%
25.3%
ST
8.9%
17.4%
Poverty in India based on Social and Religious Classes: The Sachar Committee looked at the Poverty by Social and Religious Classes [120]
Social and Religious Class
Urban Hindus
Since the 1950s, the Indian government and non-governmental organisations have initiated several programs to alleviate poverty, including subsidising food and other necessities, increased access to loans, improving agricultural techniques and price supports, promoting education, and family planning . These measures have helped eliminate famines , cut absolute poverty levels by more than half, and reduced illiteracy and malnutrition .
Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades, its growth has been uneven when comparing social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas. [121] [122] For the year 2015–16, the GSDP growth rates of Andhra Pradesh , Bihar and Madhya Pradesh was higher than Maharashtra , Odisha or Punjab . [123] Though GDP growth rate matters a lot economically, the debate is moving towards another consensus in India, where unhealthy infatuation with GDP growth matters less and holistic development or all-inclusive growth matters more. [124] While India may well be on the path to eradicating extreme poverty, it still lags well behind in other important development indicators, even in comparison to some of its neighbouring countries, especially in regard to health and education. [125]
Despite significant economic progress, one quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of ₹32 per day (approximately US$ 0.6). [126]
According to the 2001 census, 35.5% of Indian households used banking services, 35.1% owned a radio or transistor, 31.6% a television, 9.1% a phone, 43.7% a bicycle, 11.7% a scooter, motorcycle or a moped , and 2.5% a car, jeep or van; 34.5% of the households had none of these assets. [127] As part of creating the capacity to give access to individuals who are still outside the scope of financial services, Confederation of Indian Industry 's president Sanjiv Bajaj called for additional new banks and non-banking financial companies . [128]
According to Department of Telecommunications of India, the phone density reached 73.34% by December 2012 and as an annual growth decreased by −4.58%. [129] This tallies with the fact that a family of four with an annual income of ₹137,000 (US$1,600) could afford some of these luxury items.
The World Bank's Global Monitoring Report for 2014–15 on the Millennium Development Goals says India has been the biggest contributor to poverty reduction between 2008 and 2011, with around 140 million or so lifted out of absolute poverty. [130] On July 17, 2023, a NITI Aayog report highlighted that 13.5 crore People were lifted out of multidimensional poverty between 2015–16 and 2019–21. The report was developed using the most recent data from National Family Health Survey conducted between 2019 and 2021 and represents the second iteration of the National Multidimensional Poverty Index. [131] Since the early 1950s, the Indian government has initiated various schemes to help the poor attain self-sufficiency in food production. A few examples of these initiatives include ration cards and price controls over the supply of basic commodities, particularly food at controlled prices, available throughout the country. These efforts prevented famines, but did little to eliminate or reduce poverty in rural or urban areas between 1950 and 1980. [132]
India's rapid economic growth rate since 1991 is one of the main reasons for a record decline in poverty. [22] [23] [133] Another reason proposed is India's launch of social welfare programs such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and the Midday Meal Scheme in government schools. [134] In a 2012 study, Klonner and Oldiges, concluded that MGNREGA helps reduce rural poverty gap (intensity of rural poverty) and seasonal poverty, but not overall poverty. [135] [136] However, there is a disturbing side, as deprivation has tended to increase, and that too among the most deprived sections. According to the latest statistics published by the Census of India, among scheduled tribes, 44.7% of people were farmers working on their own land in 2001; however, this number came down to 34.5% in 2011. Among scheduled castes, this number declined from 20% to 14.8% during the same period. This data is corroborated by other data from the census, which also says that the number of people who were working on others' land (landless laborers), increased from 36.9% in 2001 to 44.4% among scheduled castes SC and from 45.6% to 45.9% among scheduled tribes. [137]
India has achieved annual growth exceeding 7 percent over the last 15 years and continues to pull millions of people out of poverty, according to the World Bank. The country has halved its poverty rate over the past three decades and has seen strong improvements in most human development outcomes, a report by the international financial institution has found. Growth is expected to continue and the elimination of extreme poverty in the next decade is within reach, said the bank, which warned that the country's development trajectory faces considerable challenges. [138]
UN
According to a United Nations report on 12 July 2023, India lifted approximately 415 million individuals out of poverty between 2005/2006 and 2019/2021. The United Nations reported that 25 nations, including India, achieved a remarkable milestone by reducing their global MPI (Multidimensional Poverty Index) values by half within a span of 15 years. Additionally, the report highlighted that India experienced a reduction in deprivation across all indicators, with notable progress seen among the most impoverished states and marginalised populations, including children and disadvantaged caste groups. [139]
See also
References
^ a b c d e T. Roy, London School of Economics, Globalization, Factor Prices and Poverty in Colonial India, Australian Economic History Review, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 73–94 (March 2007)
It is important to note that there has not been a major famine in India since it gained its independence in 1947.
^ a b Bhagwati & Panagariya (2013), Why Growth Matters: How Economic Growth in India Reduced Poverty and the Lessons for Other Developing Countries, Public Affairs,
Sepoy, Inzamul (2019). Indian Economic Development. p. 84.
^ Poverty in India . Asian Development Bank. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
^ Erenstein (2011), Livelihood Assets as a Multidimensional Inverse Proxy for Poverty: A District‐level Analysis of the Indian Indo‐Gangetic Plains, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 12(2), pp. 283–302.
^ Krishna & Shariff (2011), The irrelevance of national strategies? Rural poverty dynamics in states and regions of India, 1993–2005. World Development, 39(4), pp. 533–549.
^ Chandy, L., & Gertz, G. (2011), Poverty in numbers: The changing state of global poverty from 2005 to 2015, Brookings Institution
^ Gordon Fisher, The Development and the history of poverty thresholds Social Security Bulletin, Vol 55, No 4 (Winter 1992), US Government. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
^ Panagariya & Mukim (2014), A comprehensive analysis of poverty in India. Asian Development Review, 31(1), pp. 1–52.
^ Chen & Ravallion (2013), More Relatively‐Poor People in a Less Absolutely‐Poor World, Review of Income, Wealth, 59(1), pp. 1–28.
^ Paul, S. (1989), A model of constructing the poverty line, Journal of Development Economics, 30(1), pp. 129–144
^ Sumner (2004), Economic Well-being and Non-economic Well-being, A Review of the Meaning and Measurement of Poverty,
^ the official poverty line in the United States varies with number of people in a household, $13 per day is per person in a family of four
... the official poverty line used in the United States is $13 a day in 2005 (per person, for a family of four).
^ Press Note on Poverty Estimates, 2011–12 Government of India, p. 5.
^ Sarkar (1983), The colonial economy, In: S. Sarkar (Editor) Modern India: 1885–1947, Macmillan,
^ These were variously called or were parts of United Provinces, Northwestern Provinces, Oudh, Behar, Bengal and Rewa in 19th century South Asia
^ Kranton and Swamy, Contracts, Hold-Up, and Exports: Textiles and Opium in Colonial India, American Economic Review, 98(3): 967–989.
^ Rajat Kanta Ray, "Indian Society and the Establishment of British Supremacy, 1765–1818," in The Oxford History of British Empire: vol. 2, The Eighteenth Century ed. by P. J. Marshall, (1998), pp 508–29.
^ Singh (2002), Population And Poverty, Mittal,
^ Raychaudhuri (1982), Non-agricultural production: Mughal India, In: T. Raychaudhuri, and I. Habib, (Editors), The Cambridge Economic History of India, Cambridge University Press.
Richard Peet; Michael Watts, eds. (2004). Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development and Social Movements. London: Routledge. pp. 44–49. ISBN
.
"Poverty Puzzle" . The Statesman. 22 November 2013. Archived from the original on 15 July 2014.
^ P. Sarangi, Consumption, Poverty And Inequality,
"Poverty in India" . Economic and Political Weekly. 6 (2). 9 January 1971. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
"Report of The Expert Group on Estimation of Proportion and Number of Poor" (PDF). Perspective Planning Division, Planning Commission. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
^ Banerjee & Somanathan (2007), The political economy of public goods: Some evidence from India, Journal of development Economics, 82(2), pp. 287–314
^ Chen, S., G. Datt, and M. Ravallion (1994), Is poverty increasing in the developing world?, Review of Income and Wealth, 40 (4): 359–376.
"Rangarajan Report on Poverty" . Press Information Bureau, Government of India. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
"Rangarajan defends poverty estimates" . The Hindu. 7 July 2014. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
"Resource Watch" . resourcewatch.org. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
"Household Consumption Expenditure Survey: 2022-23" (PDF). Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
"Country Briefing: India" (PDF). Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative. 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
Roli Mahajan (20 October 2018). "Good progress with further room for improvement" . D+C, development and cooperation. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
Jayati Ghosh (4 October 2011). "India's official poverty line" . The Guardian. London. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
^ Ravallion & Datt (2002), Why has economic growth been more pro-poor in some states of India than others?, Journal of development economics, 68(2), 381–400
Suman, Santosh Kumar. "Relevance of MGNREGA in India" (PDF). AEBM. 3 (7). Krishi Sanskriti Publications: 781–783. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
Further reading
External links
"Chapter 4: DEFINING AND EXPLAINING INCLUSIVE GROWTH AND POVERTY". INDIA (PDF). International Monetary Fund. 2014.
See also
Poverty in India
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In the mid-19th century and early 20th century, we saw an increase in poverty during the colonial age. The colonial rules moved unwaged artisans into farming and converted the nation into a province gradually rich in land-living, uneducated labor, and low efficiency. Thus, it made the nation scarce in labor, capital, and knowledge.
Poverty Alleviation Relief, or Reduction, is a set of ways, by which governments’ policies can intend to permanently lift people out of the poverty line. As per the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 2020, India ranks at 62nd position out of 107 nations with an MPI score of 0.123. Recently a study also revealed that of six multidimensionally poor people, five were from lower tribes or castes, and according to the Global Hunger Index 2021, with a score of 27.5, India ranks 101st out of 116 countries, and according to the data, the level of hunger is serious.
There are some major reasons for poverty in India, less financial support to the lower-income group, overpopulation, fewer job opportunities, discrimination and casteism in society, lack of education, and huge corruption in society.
India’s most persuasive task is the removal of poverty and for that the Indian government has taken various programs, schemes, policies based on two main objectives:
Launching anti-poverty programs to address a specific group of people.
Increasing economic growth of the country by providing job opportunities to the lower-income groups.
Some of the Major Programs Initiated by the Government:
After India got its independence, various initiatives were taken to reduce the poverty in India in 1950 Minhas estimated the poverty rates in India, and in 1960 a working group was formed to set up a poverty line for India and various others following that. For the first time in post-Independence history, poverty was considered a national issue under the Chairmanship of India’s third prime minister Indira Gandhi. To achieve two main objectives, removal of poverty ‘Garibi Hatao‘ and attainment of self-reliance, D.D. Dhar prepared and launched the 5th Five Years Plan through the better distribution of income, promotion of a high growth rate, and significant growth in the rural area.
1. Integrated Rural Development Programme:
It was started in the year 1980-81 to create self-employment for poor people in rural areas. The main aim of IRDP was to decrease the levels of the families in the below-poverty line category permanently by providing them revenue-generating resources and access to other inputs.
2. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana:
It was launched on April 1st, 1989, by an amalgamation of the National Rural Employment Program (NREP) and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) to create employment options and improve the quality of life for the unemployed and under-employed public in rural parts by generating community and social assets and the rural economic infrastructure. The objective of the program was supplementary profitable employment for the unemployed and underemployed people in the rural parts, to create constant employment by strengthening the rural financial structure and assets supporting the poor people in the rural parts for their continuous benefits. In this Yojana, thirty percent of the employment options are held in reserve for females in rural parts.
3. Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana:
The Jawahar Rozgar Yojana was again reformed as Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana on 1st April 1999. This scheme on 25th September 2001 was further modified to the Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana. The objective is to generate demand-driven community village infrastructure that would enable the poor people in the rural parts to increase sustained employment opportunities and durable possessions at the village level. It also includes the creation of additional employment options for the unemployed in the rural parts. Wage employment could be provided to below-poverty-line (BPL) families.
4. Employment Assurance Scheme:
It was launched on October 2nd, 1993. It covers drought-prone parts, desert parts, tribal parts, and hill region areas. This scheme during the year 1994-95 was implemented across the nation’s 409 blocks and by April 1997 this scheme was extended to cover all the blocks. The primary objective of this scheme was to generate supplementary wage employment options when there is an acute shortage in manual work during lean agricultural seasons for all able adult poor persons of rural areas who are in need of work at that time, and the secondary objective of this scheme is to generate of financial infrastructure and community assets for employment and growth for rural India.
5. Food for Work Programme:
It was launched in the year 1977-78 by providing food grains as a substitute for wages. This was then restructured with changes implemented in 2001 for the most 150 backward districts of the country to create additional employment for the provisions of lives. The objective is to make available supplementary resources apart from the ones available below the Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana to the 150 most backward districts of the nation. This program can lead to the creation of additional wage employment opportunities and make available food safety through generating need-based societal, financial, and communal assets in these backward districts.
6. Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana:
It was launched in the year 2001 by merging the Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana and the Employment Assurance scheme by the Ministry of Rural Development. The main aim of the scheme was to provide supplementary wage employment options, provide food safety and improved nutritional stages in all parts, generate durable community social and monetary assets, and infrastructural expansion for the poor in rural areas.
7. Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awas Yojana:
Earlier referred to as Indira Awaas Yojana, the Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana was launched in the year 2015 is created to provide the construction of free houses for the rural poor in India who are below the poverty line.
The objective is the advancement of affordable housing options through the credit-linked subsidy process, restoration of slum dwellers with the involvement of the private sector using the land-dwelling as a resource, and reasonable housing in association with government and private subsidy.
8. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP):
It was launched on 15th August 1995 with the objective of secure social security and welfare program to provide support to widows, aged persons, disabled persons, and bereaved those families on the death of the primary breadwinner, belonging to BPL households for the fulfillment of the Article 41 and Article 42 of Directive Principles of State Policy which is mentioned in Part IV of the Constitution of India. It also had three components namely,
A. National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS): It was launched in the year 1995 to provide pensions to the person who is “destitute” having little or no source of income or monetary support. The main aim is to make available social safety for the eligible beneficiaries. In this, senior citizens 60 years or above receive a monthly pension and it a non-contribution person, wherein the beneficiary does not have to contribute any amount to receive the pension.
B. National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS): It was launched in the year 1995 to support with a lumpsum amount to the household below the poverty line who then becomes the head of the family after the death of the main wage earner. It provides a lump sum amount of Rs.10,000/- to the household and it is applicable in the age group of 18-64 years.
C. National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS): In the National Maternity Benefit Scheme, a financial grant is provided to women belonging to poor families for pre-natal and post-natal care. It is for women aged 19 years and above up to the first two live births. It is a cash-based maternity assistance scheme.
9. Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP):
REGP was started by the Government of India in order to create self-employment opportunities in the small town and rural areas. The Khadi and Village Industries Commission implemented this programme. With this programme, an individual could get financial assistance to set up small industries in the form of bank loans.
10. Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY):
Under this scheme, the educated unemployed people from rural and urban areas who are from low income families were given financial help by the government. With the given financial help, these people can set up any kind of enterprise that generates employment. During the Eight Five Year Plan (1992-97), by setting up 7 lakh micro-enterprises, the Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana made an attempt to generate employment. With the help of this scheme, 3 million people got employment by the year 2003-04.
The government merged the above two schemes; i.e., REGP and PMRY and introduced a new programme known as Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP). This scheme came into effect from 1st April 2008. The two main objectives of this scheme are:
Generating employment opportunities in the rural and urban areas by setting up new self-employment ventures.
Bringing unemployed youth and the dispersed traditional artisians together and give them self-employment opportunities at their place.
11. Swarna Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY):
The primary objective of SJSRY is to create employment opportunities for both self-employment and wage employment in urban areas. By encouraging people to set up self-employment ventures or through provision of wage employment, the Swarna Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana seeks to provide gainful employment. This scheme is centrally sponsored and is funded between the Centre and the States on 75:25 basis.
12. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY):
Earlier families and individuals used to get financial assistance through self-employment programmes. However, since the 1990s the government started to provide assistance through SGSY. The basic aim of Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana is to promote micro enterprises and bring the assisted poor families, also known as Swarozgaris above the poverty line. The scheme tries to bring the Swarozgaris above the poverty line by organising them into Self-Help Groups (SHGs).
Through SHGs, people forming them are encouraged to save money lend the same among themselves as a loan. Later on, with the help of banks, the government provides partial financial assistance to these groups. These groups after getting assistance decides who will get the loan for the slf-employment activities.
13. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):
This act was passed in the parliament, in August 2005. The basic aim of MGNREGA is to enhance the livelihood security of people living in rural areas by guaranteeing them 100 days of wage employment in one financial year. The wage employment is given to the rural household whose adult members volunteer to do the unskilled manual work.
Therefore, every individual (poor) who is willing to work at a minimum wage can report for work in those areas where MGNREGA is implemented. In the year 2019-20, 57.4 million people had sought work under MGNREGA.
Conclusion:
The social clusters are most susceptible to poverty, and they are categorized as SC and ST in the economic clusters, the most susceptible are the agricultural labor in rural parts and the casual labor in the urban parts. The challenges lie ahead such as the rural and the urban parts showing vast differences in poverty.
It is true that poverty has been reduced but not up to the intended level. As a citizen or as a government, still we have to focus on the food chain, clothing, population control, free education at the basic level, empowerment of women and fiscally weaker sections of society, medical facilities, etc. for better results.
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71 | which of the following periods provided particularly high returns to stock investors | https://www.businessinsider.com/personal-finance/investing/average-stock-market-return | A white circle with a black border surrounding a chevron pointing up. It
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The S&P 500 has gained about 10.5% on average annually since it was introduced in 1957. d3sign/Getty Images
The S&P 500 has gained about 10.5% annually since its introduction in 1957.
The S&P 500's annual average return in 2024 was 23.31%, a little less than 2023's 26% jump.
Returns may fluctuate widely yearly, but holding onto investments over time can help.
It can be nerve-racking to watch the stock market fluctuate up and down, but short-term fluctuations are normal. The market generally trends up down the line, providing significant returns to patient, long-term investors.
The best way to track the stock market's long-term performance is by looking at major market indexes. Your specific choice of benchmark may depend on your investing style, but the S&P 500 is used the most for general market analysis.
While it excludes smaller companies, the S&P 500 is often considered a good proxy for the market overall. It tracks the financial performance of large, well-known companies tied to broad economic trends like consumer spending and business investment.
That said, other indexes, like the Russell 2000, which contains around 2,000 small companies (by public company standards), or the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which includes 30 large companies, can still provide insights into the strength of the overall stock market.
Since it's the most popular benchmark option, we analyzed the average annual stock market returns using the S&P 500 index. Here is how it has performed over the years.
Historical average stock market return
In some years, the stock market changes a lot, and in others, it hardly changes. It can feel like a big gamble if you only invest for a short period, such as one year or less.
Year-to-year gains vary widely. According to Berkshire Hathaway , here's how the yearly returns from the S&P 500, including dividends, have looked over the past 10 years.
Year
2015
1.4%
2016
12%
2017
21.8%
2018
-4.4%
2019
31.5%
2020
18.4%
2021
28.7%
2022
-18.1%
2023
26.3%
2024
23.31%
For the 10 years ending in December 2024, the S&P 500 has outpaced the historical average a bit, returning an annual average of 13.3% with dividends.
This is similar to the 12.55% return of the Russell 3000 index, which represents almost the entire US equity market. The smaller Russell 2000 index hasn't been quite as strong over the past decade but has still moved in the same direction, with a 7.82% annual gain, according to LSEG .
The market's long-term returns are historically positive, so if you can stay in the market for several years — or even decades when investing for retirement , for instance — that's when you see the most growth.
Long-term stock market average
According to DQYDJ , since the S&P 500 was introduced in 1957, its annual return, including dividends, has averaged over 10% through the end of 2024.
Going back even further to 1928, using data from other large-cap indexes to account for the period predating the S&P 500, the annual return averages 10.06%.
And if you had invested $100 in 1928, you'd have nearly $800,000 as of the end of 2023, according to data compiled by NYU Stern professor Aswath Damodaran .
Inflation-adjusted stock market return
While the S&P 500's 10%+ average annual returns outperform many other investments — including Treasury bonds, corporate bonds, gold, and residential real estate, as Damodaran's data shows — it's important to consider the impact of inflation .
From 1957 to 2024, the S&P 500's average inflation-adjusted return was 3.8%, according to DQYDJ, meaning it exceeded the inflation rate by 3.8% per year.
This does not necessarily mean that inflation makes other assets better long-term investments since all assets face the same underlying inflation rate.
Hypothetically, if gold returned 9% in a year with 3% inflation and stocks returned 10%, the real return would be 6% for gold and 7% for stocks.
That said, accounting for inflation may affect your investment decisions based on factors such as your risk tolerance and your conviction that certain assets might perform better than others during periods of high inflation.
However, because it's very hard to predict economic conditions and investment returns — the only thing we really know is that stocks tend to outperform over the long term — you shouldn't necessarily get too caught up in weighing inflation-adjusted returns.
Variability of stock market returns
Despite the strong annual average of the S&P 500 and many other indexes, it's important to realize that returns can vary significantly yearly. Some years have double-digit positive returns, while others have double-digit negatives.
For example, in 1928, the equivalent of the S&P 500 gained 43.81%, but the Great Depression followed, with annual returns of -8.30%, -25.12%, -43.84%, and -8.64% from 1929 to 1932.
Then, in 1933, the market bounced back with a 49.98% gain, only to fall again slightly in 1934 with -1.19%. But if you had pulled your money out, you would have missed out on the 46.74% gains in 1935.
This same dynamic has played out throughout history, such as during the Great Recession and even as recently as 2021 to 2023, when the market bounced up and down.
These trends exemplify how short-term investing can be risky, yet if you stay invested long-term, you can still potentially navigate difficult periods like the Great Depression.
When many years of returns are put together, the ups and downs of the S&P 500 annual returns start to smooth out because the long-term gains have been around 10% per year.
Factors influencing stock market returns
While the stock market fairly reliably trends upward over the long run, that doesn't happen in a vacuum. At their core, stocks reflect a company's future value that investors are willing to pay today. Some of the underlying factors that affect these valuations include:
Economic growth
When the economy overall is strong, that tends to lead to higher stock market returns.
For example, if unemployment is low, that contributes to consumers having money to spend compared with periods of high unemployment where individuals may pull back from spending, thereby affecting corporate profits.
Other factors, like GDP growth, also indicate whether the economy is expanding, which is a good sign for businesses that they can earn more revenue.
Interest rates
Typically, low interest rates boost stock prices, while high interest rates hurt them. That occurs for a few reasons, such as the fact that in a low-interest-rate environment, there can be more demand for stocks over other assets like bonds since bonds aren't paying much interest. That demand can drive up stock prices.
Also, low interest rates can help companies' bottom lines, such as by making it less expensive to borrow money for investing in business expansion activities.
Corporate earnings
Publicly traded companies in the US must report their earnings every quarter, which reveals information like total revenue and profit. This data directly shows how companies have been doing financially, and these reports also tend to include future guidance.
Investors can use that data to determine whether the stock price accurately reflects the company's value.
Investor sentiment
Markets aren't always rational. There can be a psychological component with investor sentiment moving markets up or down, even if the financials don't necessarily support that.
For example, if investors start worrying about a possible recession, even if there's not much indicating that's likely, they might begin selling stocks. As that selling drives down prices, it might cause more investors to panic and sell, driving down the market further.
Geopolitical events
What's happening globally can also affect the U.S. stock market. Wars in the Middle East, for example, can affect oil prices, which then affects companies' energy costs and consumers' budgets, so that might cause investors to sell stocks if they fear that geopolitical events could affect companies' bottom lines.
Importance of average stock market returns
Regardless of your chosen benchmark, examining average stock market returns can help you set realistic expectations for the future.
Although past performance is never a guarantee of future results, it can help to understand that if the future does resemble the past, then stock market returns may be similar.
The S&P 500 has returned over 10% per year on average. This gives investors confidence in investing in the stock market rather than more conservative investments like bonds or fixed-income assets.
"Investing can be a good way to grow wealth over the long term and offers the potential for higher returns compared to a typical checking or savings account," says Jordan Gilberti, CFP and senior lead planner at Facet.
The importance of diversified long-term investing
As yearly returns demonstrate, there's a lot of variability in stock market returns. And because many factors influence stock prices, it's important to realize that even if conditions seem positive, such as if the economy is humming, unexpected events like foreign wars could make the market tumble.
Moreover, looking at the returns of specific stocks rather than broad indexes, you might see even more variability. The largest companies now might seem like sure bets, for example, but if you look back in time, you'll see that many of those at the top eventually lose their status.
The S&P 500 continuously rebalances to reflect companies that are growing or shrinking, so the 500 companies in there now might not be the same as what will be there in five, 10, or 50 years.
"Investing carries risks — you may be subject to losses and may even lose all the money you put into an investment," Gilberti notes.
That's why many experts suggest diversifying your investments , such as putting money into an index fund that reflects a broad range of stocks, not just one company. Investing experts, including Warren Buffett and investing author and economist Benjamin Graham, also say the best way to build wealth is to keep investments for the long term, a strategy called buy-and-hold investing.
There's a simple reason why this generally works. While investments will likely go up and down with time, keeping them long-term helps even out these swings. Like the S&P 500's changes noted above, maintaining investments for the long term could help investments and their returns get closer to that average.
Also, it's worth noting that annual returns are calculated in a way that may not represent actual investing habits. The figures are based on data from the year's first trading day compared with the year's end.
\But the typical investor doesn't buy on the first of the year and sell on the last. While they indicate the investment's growth over the year, they're not necessarily representative of an actual investor's return, even in one year.
Also, indexes are not directly investable. Investors often turn to index funds that invest in the companies that comprise the indexes, but these funds charge fees that cut into returns. The fees are usually low for index funds, but the higher they are, the more you generally lag the index.
In other words, your personal rate of return might not exactly match broader stock market indexes like the S&P 500, depending on factors like when you invest and what funds you invest in. Still, buy-and-hold investors tend to experience significant gains over the long term.
Note: Wealthfront is one of the best robo-advisor investing options for low-cost automated or self-managed portfolios. Read our Wealthfront investing review .
What to expect in 2025 and beyond
Recent turbulence in August and September 2024 might sour your view of the stock market, but again, zooming out shows a better picture, with the S&P 500 approaching 20% gains for the year. But will this trend continue into 2025 and beyond?
You can find plenty of expert predictions for specific years or even shorter periods of time, but remember, long-term investing tends to win out. So, rather than trying to figure out whether the stock market will go up or down in just 2025, it's worth considering that most experts view the historical trend of the stock market gaining value as likely continuing for the foreseeable future.
That said, 10% may be a little on the high end. Many experts are a bit more conservative with their projections. For example, for 2024-2033, Charles Schwab projects that U.S. large-cap stocks will average 6.2% compounding returns, U.S. small company stocks will return 6.3%, and international large caps will average 7.6%. In comparison, Schwab forecasts annual returns of 5.7% for U.S. investment-grade bonds and 3.6% for cash equivalents.
Other long-term forecasts, compiled by Morningstar , show U.S. equities returning between 4-7% on average over the next 10-15 years, with higher expectations for international stocks. In most cases, these predictions still see U.S. stocks outperforming U.S. corporate bonds.
Much depends on what happens with factors like inflation, interest rates, economic policy, and how current geopolitical conflicts play out. But as history has shown, even when the stock market has some struggles, it tends to provide positive returns over the long term.
Stock market return FAQs
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No, the average stock market return is not guaranteed by any means. The average return simply reflects what has happened in the past and how, over the long term, downturns tend to be outweighed by positive gains.
What is the best way to invest in the stock market?
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It indicates an expandable section or menu, or sometimes previous / next navigation options.
The best way to invest in the stock market depends on factors like your age and risk tolerance, but in general, investing in low-cost, diversified funds, such as index funds or ETFs, is considered a best practice. Consider contacting a financial advisor or using an online robo-advisor for more guidance.
How can I protect my investments during market downturns?
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It indicates an expandable section or menu, or sometimes previous / next navigation options.
To protect your investments during market downturns, use strategies like diversification — including within asset classes like stocks but also across other asset classes — along with taking a long-term approach can potentially help you navigate market downturns.
Investing and Retirement Reporter
Tessa Campbell is an investing and retirement reporter on Business Insider’s personal finance desk. Over two years of personal finance reporting, Tessa has built expertise on a range of financial topics, from the best credit cards to the best retirement savings accounts.ExperienceTessa currently reports on all things investing — deep-diving into complex financial topics, shedding light on lesser-known investment avenues, and uncovering ways readers can work the system to their advantage.As a personal finance expert in her 20s, Tessa is acutely aware of the impacts time and uncertainty have on your investment decisions. While she curates Business Insider’s guide on the best investment apps, she believes that your financial portfolio does not have to be perfect, it just has to exist. A small investment is better than nothing, and the mistakes you make along the way are a necessary part of the learning process.Expertise: Tessa’s expertise includes:
Credit cards
Investing apps
Retirement savings
Retail investing
Education: Tessa graduated from Susquehanna University with a creative writing degree and a psychology minor.When she’s not digging into a financial topic, you’ll find Tessa waist-deep in her second cup of coffee. She currently drinks Kitty Town coffee, which blends her love of coffee with her love for her two cats: Keekee and Dumpling. It was a targeted advertisement, and it worked.
Jake Safane is a freelance writer specializing in finance and sustainability. He runs a corporate sustainability blog, Carbon Neutral Copy , and his work has appeared in publications such as The Economist, CBS MoneyWatch, and the Los Angeles Times.ExperienceJake has been working in financial journalism since 2011, covering areas such as banking and investing for both businesses and individuals. His career has included a mix of in-house reporting jobs at B2B finance publications such as Global Custodian and FundFire, a role in sponsored research at The Economist, and freelance engagements with online publications, financial advisors, and fintech companies.His interest in personal finance dates back to joining his middle school stock trading club, where he learned about markets by doing simulated trading. A high school field trip to the New York Fed further cemented his fascination with the financial system and how seemingly academic concepts can make a big difference in the average person's life.His personal interest in the environment has also carried over into finance, such as by covering ESG and impact investing. He believes that one of the top ways to solve the climate crisis is by helping both businesses and individuals realize the long-term financial benefits that sustainability can bring.In his personal life, he also enjoys playing tennis, going to the gym, and going to the beach with his family — though often just for walks along a paved path, because vacuuming sand trekked in by a toddler and dog really cuts into writing time.ExpertiseJake’s areas of personal finance expertise include:
Investing
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EducationJake is a graduate of Boston University, where he wrote for The Daily Free Press and had a show on the school's radio station.
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Time, Not Timing, Is What Matters
Time, not timing, is what matters
Investors learning how to invest in the stock market might ask when to invest. Knowing when to invest, however, isn’t as important as how long you stay invested.
Trying to navigate the peaks and valleys of market returns, investors seem to naturally want to jump in at the lows and cash out at the highs. But no one can predict when those will occur. Of course we’d all like to avoid declines. The anxiety that keeps investors on the sidelines may save them that pain, but it may ensure they’ll miss the gain. Historically, each downturn has been followed by an eventual upswing, although there is no guarantee that will always happen.
The chart below shows two hypothetical investments in the S&P 500 over the 20-year period ending December 31, 2023. Each investor contributed $10,000 every year. One investor somehow managed to pick the very best day (the market low) of each year to invest. The average annual return on that investment would have been 12.64%. The other investor was not so lucky and actually picked the worst day (market high) each year. Even with the worst investment timing, the average annual return would have been 10.78%. At the end of 20 years, the cumulative investment of $200,000 had a value of $640,469.
So even selecting the worst day each year to invest, someone who continued investing in the market over the past 20 years would have come out ahead. It’s important to note that regular investing neither ensures a profit or protects against a loss. However, the tables below illustrate how regular investing can be beneficial.
Timing isn’t critical to long-term success
Best-day investments
(Market lows)
Riding it out
Note that the hypothetical investors above didn’t pull out of the market but stayed the course for 20 years. That perseverance helped improve the chances that they would come out ahead. In fact, history has shown that positive outcomes occur much more often over longer periods than shorter ones.
Over the past 96 years, the S&P 500 has gone up and down each year. In fact 27% of those years had negative results. As you can see in the chart below, one-year investments produced negative results more often than investments held for longer periods. If those short-term one-year investors had held on for just two more years, they would have experienced nearly half as many negative periods.
And the longer the time frame — through highs and lows — the greater the chances of a positive outcome. Indeed, over the past 96 years, through December 31, 2023, 94% of 10-year periods have been positive ones. Investors who have stayed in the market through occasional (and inevitable) periods of declining stock prices historically have been rewarded for their long-term outlook.
History has shown the longer the period, the greater the chances of a positive outcome
Source: S&P 500 Index
Rather than trying to predict highs and lows, it’s important to stay invested through a full market cycle. Focus on the time you stay invested, not the timing of your investments.
S&P 500 Index is a market capitalization-weighted index based on the results of approximately 500 widely held common stocks. This index is unmanaged, and its results include reinvested dividends and/or distributions but do not reflect the effect of sales charges, commissions, account fees, expenses or U.S. federal income taxes.
Investments are not FDIC-insured, nor are they deposits of or guaranteed by a bank or any other entity, so they may lose value.
Investors should carefully consider investment objectives, risks, charges and expenses. This and other important information is contained in the fund prospectuses and summary prospectuses , which can be obtained from a financial professional and should be read carefully before investing.
There have been periods when the results lagged the index(es) and/or average(s).
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What Is the Average Stock Market Return?
The average stock market return is about 10% per year for nearly the last century, as measured by the S&P 500 index. In some years, the market returns more than that, and in other years it returns less.
Many, or all, of the products featured on this page are from our advertising partners who compensate us when you take certain actions on our website or click to take an action on their website. However, this does not influence our evaluations. Our opinions are our own. Here is a list of our partners and here's how we make money .
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James F. Royal, Ph.D., is a former NerdWallet writer. His work has also
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Jody D’Agostini, financial advisor with Equitable Advisors, focuses her practice in the areas of comprehensive financial planning and wealth management for individuals and closely held businesses using a goal-based, holistic approach to their finances. She specializes in the areas of retirement and estate planning, having obtained a certificate in retirement planning from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania. D’Agostini has been working with family law attorneys and mediators for over 15 years providing insight into the financial issues surrounding divorce to assist individuals in achieving a fair and equitable settlement, but most importantly to assist in making decisions that give them a clear view of their future and a path toward achieving their life goals. She helps them feel empowered to move forward towards a brighter future.
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What is the average stock market return?
The average stock market return is about 10% per year, as measured by the S&P 500 index, but that 10% average rate is reduced by inflation . Investors can expect to lose purchasing power of 2% to 3% every year due to inflation.
» Learn about purchasing power with the inflation calculator .
Investing in the stock market is most effective when you utilize long-term investments — money you don't need for at least five years. For shorter time frames, you'll want to stick to lower-risk options — such as a high-yield online savings account — and you'd expect to earn a lower return in exchange for that safety.
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The average stock market return isn't always average
While 10% might be the average, the returns in any given year are far from average. In fact, between 1926 and 2024, returns were in that “average” band of 8% to 12% only eight times. The rest of the time they were much lower or, usually, much higher.
But even when the market is volatile, returns tend to be positive in a given year. Of course, it doesn’t rise every year, but over time the market has gone up just over 70% of years.
Definition
Return
The profit or loss on an investment since its purchase. If you bought a stock for $10 and it's worth $11 now, that's a 10% return.
Index
A group of stocks whose performance is used as a measuring stick for the whole stock market, like the S&P 500 or Dow Jones Industrial Average.
Market cycle
The repeating pattern of the stock market — alternating between bull markets (upward trends) and bear markets (downward trends).
Portfolio
The group of investments you own, like stocks, bonds and funds.
5-year, 10-year, 20-year and 30-year S&P 500 returns
Below is a table showing the S&P 500's price returns over different timeframes, as of the end of 2022.
The table shows that while the market has a long-term average annual return of 10%, year-to-year returns can vary significantly. The five-year return factors in the post-pandemic surge and the 2023 recovery. The 20-year return includes the Great Recession, and the 30-year return includes the dot-com crash of the early 2000s.
» Want some practice first? Try paper trading
Period (start-of-year to end-of-2023)
5 years (2019-2023)
9.67%
Stock data is from macrotrends.net and is intended solely for informational purposes, not for trading purposes
[0]
What to expect from the average stock market return
There are no guarantees in the market, but this 10% average has held remarkably steady for a long time.
So what kind of return can investors reasonably expect today from the stock market?
The answer to that depends a lot on what’s happened in the recent past. But here’s a simple rule of thumb: The higher the recent returns, the lower the future returns, and vice versa. Generally speaking, if you're estimating how much your stock-market investment will return over time, we suggest using an average annual return of 6% and understanding that you'll experience down years as well as up years. You can use NerdWallet's investment calculator to see what 6% growth looks like based on how much you're planning to invest.
1. Temper your enthusiasm during good times. Congratulations, you’re making money. However, when stocks are running high, remember that the future is likely to be less good than the past. It seems investors have to relearn this lesson during every bull market cycle.
2. Become more optimistic when things look bad. A down market should cause you to celebrate: You can buy stocks when they're essentially on sale and anticipate higher future returns.
3. You get the average return only if you buy and hold. If you trade in and out of the market frequently, you can expect to earn less, sometimes much less. Commissions and taxes eat up your returns, while poorly timed trades erode your bankroll. Study after study shows that it’s almost impossible for even investing professionals to beat the market. It's good to rebalance your portfolio occasionally. That means selling off a little bit of the investments that have gained more than expected, and buying a little bit of the ones that have underperformed in order to bring the portfolio back to its target composition. But other than a little bit of rebalancing, try to touch your investments as little as possible.
Over time even a few percentage points can make the difference between retiring with a tidy nest egg and continuing to drudge away in your golden years.
Ready to get started?
If the market’s long-term return sounds attractive to you, it’s easy to get started. You’ll first need to open a brokerage account , which allows you to buy and sell stock market investments.
» Need a little help? Check out our list of the best online brokers
James F. Royal, Ph.D., is a former NerdWallet writer. His work has also
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Investing in the stock market is one of the best ways to grow your money and build wealth over time. As businesses grow their earnings, shareholders are often rewarded with dividends and higher stock prices.
Owning a diversified basket of stocks, such as an S&P 500 index fund , is one of the best investments you can make, but some stocks will do dramatically better than the market indexes.
Here are the best-performing stocks over the past decade.
Best-performing stocks over the past 10 years
*Data as of Sept. 13, 2024. Source: macrotrends .
1. Nvidia (NVDA)
Nvidia is one of the best-performing stocks of all time and has richly rewarded shareholders over the past decade. Nvidia initially rose to prominence due to its chips used for video game graphics, but its business skyrocketed in late 2022 thanks to the rise of artificial intelligence . Revenue at Nvidia grew to $60.9 billion in its 2024 fiscal year, up from $27.0 billion in 2023.
10-year annualized return: 74.4 percent
Market cap: $2.93 trillion
2. Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)
AMD is a semiconductor company that offers a variety of products used in data centers, supercomputers and more. The company is also benefiting from the rise of AI and machine-learning technologies. AMD generated $22.7 billion in revenue in 2023.
10-year annualized return: 44.1 percent
Market cap: $246.4 billion
3. Champion Homes (SKY)
Champion Homes is one of the largest North American builders of mobile homes, better known as manufactured homes. With 48 manufacturing facilities throughout the U.S. and Western Canada, Champion Homes also builds auxiliary dwelling units (tiny homes), park-model RVs and modular buildings. It generated $2.6 billion in annual revenue in 2023, a 18.1 percent increase from the prior year.
10-year annualized return: 42.8 percent
Market cap: $5.5 billion
4. Fair Isaac Corp. (FICO)
Fair Isaac describes itself as an applied analytics company, but you’re probably familiar with its FICO score, which is used by banks, credit card issuers, insurers and retailers to measure consumer credit risk. Fair Isaac generated $1.5 billion in revenue during its 2023 fiscal year.
10-year annualized return: 41 percent
Market cap: $46.1 billion
5. Builders FirstSource (BLDR)
Builders FirstSource is a manufacturer and supplier of building materials, manufactured components and construction services to professional homebuilders, subcontractors, remodelers and consumers. The company has integrated more than 60 acquisitions since 1998 and generated $17.1 billion in revenue in 2023.
10-year annualized return: 39.7 percent
Market cap: $21.9 billion
6. Casella Waste Systems (CWST)
Casella Waste Systems provides resource management services, including solid waste collection and disposal, transfer, recycling and organics services. Casella Waste Systems generated $1.3 billion in revenue for 2023, a 16.5 percent increase from the prior year.
10-year annualized return: 38.5 percent
Market cap: $6.3 billion
Comfort Systems USA is a leading national provider of HVAC services, specializing in installation, maintenance and repair for commercial and industrial facilities, including manufacturing plants, office buildings and government facilities. It generated $5.2 billion in annual revenue in 2023, a 25.8 percent increase from the prior year.
10-year annualized return: 38 percent
Market cap: $12.4 billion
8. Broadcom (AVGO)
Broadcom designs, develops and supplies semiconductor and infrastructure software solutions. The company acquired VMware in November 2023 for roughly $86.3 billion. Broadcom generated $35.8 billion in revenue in the 2023 calendar year.
10-year annualized return: 37.8 percent
Market cap: $781.9 billion
9. Camtek (CAMT)
Camtek, a relatively small Israeli-based company, has been making waves in the semiconductor industry with its metrology equipment, which plays a vital role in ensuring quality. Camtek’s technology has helped semiconductor manufacturers improve their production processes and boost their bottom line. Camtek generated $315 million in annual revenue in 2023.
10-year annualized return: 36.3 percent
Market cap: $3.7 billion
Monolithic Power Systems is a company that provides high-performance, semiconductor-based power electronic solutions. The company is headquartered in Kirkland, Washington, and also has offices in Asia and Europe. Monolithic Power Systems generated $1.8 billion in revenue in 2023.
10-year annualized return: 36.1 percent
Market cap: $44.5 billion
Bottom line
While owning a diversified portfolio, such as an S&P 500 index fund, is a solid investment strategy, there are certain stocks that have substantially outperformed the market over the past decade. Companies like Nvidia, Advanced Micro Devices and Camtek have seen significant growth thanks to the rise of artificial intelligence. Like any investment, even the best investments , it’s important to conduct thorough research and remain mindful of the risks when investing.
— Bankrate’s Brian Baker contributed to an earlier version of this story.
Editorial Disclaimer: All investors are advised to conduct their own independent research into investment strategies before making an investment decision. In addition, investors are advised that past investment product performance is no guarantee of future price appreciation.
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APA: Christian, R. (2024, September 16). Best-performing stocks over the past decade. Bankrate. Retrieved February 28, 2025, from https://www.bankrate.com/investing/best-performing-stocks-over-past-decade/
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Bankrate.com is an independent, advertising-supported publisher and comparison service. We are compensated in exchange for placement of sponsored products and services, or by you clicking on certain links posted on our site. Therefore, this compensation may impact how, where and in what order products appear within listing categories, except where prohibited by law for our mortgage, home equity and other home lending products. Other factors, such as our own proprietary website rules and whether a product is offered in your area or at your self-selected credit score range, can also impact how and where products appear on this site. While we strive to provide a wide range of offers, Bankrate does not include information about every financial or credit product or service.
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| 628 |
72 | what are the active materials of a lead acid battery | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead–acid_battery | Lead–acid battery
Rechargeable battery type often used in motor vehicles
Lead–acid battery
Self-discharge rate
Min. −35°C, max. 45°C
The lead-acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté . It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern rechargeable batteries, lead-acid batteries have relatively low energy density . Despite this, they are able to supply high surge currents . These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles in order to provide the high current required by starter motors . Lead-acid batteries suffer from relatively short cycle lifespan (usually less than 500 deep cycles) and overall lifespan (due to the double sulfation in the discharged state), as well as long charging times.
As they are not expensive compared to newer technologies, lead-acid batteries are widely used even when surge current is not important and other designs could provide higher energy densities. In 1999, lead-acid battery sales accounted for 40–50% of the value from batteries sold worldwide (excluding China and Russia), equivalent to a manufacturing market value of about US$15 billion . [8] Large-format lead-acid designs are widely used for storage in backup power supplies in telecommunications networks such as for cell sites , high-availability emergency power systems as used in hospitals, and stand-alone power systems . For these roles, modified versions of the standard cell may be used to improve storage times and reduce maintenance requirements. Gel cell and absorbed glass mat batteries are common in these roles, collectively known as valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries .
When charged, the battery's chemical energy is stored in the potential difference between metallic lead at the negative side and lead dioxide on the positive side.
The French scientist Nicolas Gautherot observed in 1801 that wires that had been used for electrolysis experiments would themselves provide a small amount of secondary current after the main battery had been disconnected. [9] In 1859, Gaston Planté 's lead-acid battery was the first battery that could be recharged by passing a reverse current through it. Planté's first model consisted of two lead sheets separated by rubber strips and rolled into a spiral. [10] His batteries were first used to power the lights in train carriages while stopped at a station. In 1881, Camille Alphonse Faure invented an improved version that consisted of a lead grid lattice into which a lead oxide paste was pressed, forming a plate. This design was easier to mass-produce. An early manufacturer (from 1886) of lead-acid batteries was Henri Tudor .[ citation needed ]
Using a gel electrolyte instead of a liquid allows the battery to be used in different positions without leaking. Gel electrolyte batteries for any position were first used in the late 1920s, and in the 1930s, portable suitcase radio sets allowed the cell to be mounted vertically or horizontally (but not inverted) due to valve design. [11] In the 1970s, the valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA), or sealed, battery was developed, including modern absorbed glass mat (AGM) types, allowing operation in any position.
It was discovered early in 2011 that lead-acid batteries do in fact use some aspects of relativity to function, and to a lesser degree, liquid metal and molten-salt batteries such as the Ca-Sb and Sn-Bi also use this effect. [12] [13]
Fully discharged: two identical lead sulfate plates and diluted sulfuric acid solution
In the discharged state, both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4), and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water.
Negative plate reaction
Pb(s) + HSO−4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e−
The release of two conduction electrons gives the lead electrode a negative charge.
As electrons accumulate, they create an electric field that attracts hydrogen ions and repels sulfate ions, leading to a double layer near the surface. The hydrogen ions screen the charged electrode from the solution, which limits further reaction unless charge is allowed to flow out of the electrode.
Positive plate reaction
The total reaction can be written as
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
E
c
e
l
l
2.05
V
{\displaystyle E_{cell}^{\circ }=2.05{\text{ V}}}
The net energy released per mole (207 g) of Pb(s) converted to PbSO4(s) is approximately 400 kJ, corresponding to the formation of 36 g of water. The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mole, so theoretically a cell can produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs ) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 2-volt cell (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery). This comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but in practice, a lead-acid cell gives only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent parts.
Fully charged: Lead dioxide positive plate, lead negative plate, and concentrated aqueous sulfuric acid solution.
In the fully charged state, the negative plate consists of lead and the positive plate is lead dioxide . The electrolyte solution has a higher concentration of aqueous sulfuric acid, which stores most of the chemical energy.
Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water , which bubbles out and is lost. The design of some types of lead-acid battery (e.g., "flooded", but not VRLA (AGM or gel) ) allows the electrolyte level to be inspected and topped up with pure water to replace any that has been lost this way.
Effect of charge level on freezing point
Ion motion
Measuring the charge level
A hydrometer can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a measure of its state of charge.
Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries: it is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte; the specific gravity falls as the battery discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating balls of differing density . When used in diesel-electric submarines , the specific gravity was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged. [14]
The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge. [15] If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole; otherwise, the overall battery voltage may be assessed.
Voltages for common usage
IUoU battery charging is a three-stage charging procedure for lead-acid batteries. A lead-acid battery's nominal voltage is 2.2 V for each cell. For a single cell, the voltage can range from 1.8 V loaded at full discharge, to 2.10 V in an open circuit at full charge.
Float voltage varies depending on battery type (flooded cells, gelled electrolyte, absorbed glass mat ), and ranges from 1.8 V to 2.27 V. Equalization voltage, and charging voltage for sulfated cells, can range from 2.67 V to almost 3 V [16] (only until a charge current is flowing). [17] [18] Specific values for a given battery depend on the design and manufacturer recommendations, and are usually given at a baseline temperature of 20 °C (68 °F), requiring adjustment for ambient conditions. IEEE Standard 485-2020 (first published in 1997) is the industry's recommended practice for sizing lead–acid batteries in stationary applications. [19]
Internal view of a small lead–acid battery from an electric-start –equipped motorcycle
The lead–acid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the two electrodes. However, such a construction produces only around one ampere for roughly postcard-sized plates, and for only a few minutes.
Gaston Planté found a way to provide a much larger effective surface area. In Planté's design, the positive and negative plates were formed of two spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of cloth and coiled up. The cells initially had low capacity, so a slow process of forming was required to corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and roughening them to increase surface area. Initially, this process used electricity from primary batteries; when generators became available after 1870, the cost of producing batteries greatly declined. [8] Planté plates are still used in some stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically grooved to increase their surface area.
In 1880, Camille Alphonse Faure patented a method of coating a lead grid (which serves as the current conductor) with a paste of lead oxides, sulfuric acid, and water, followed by curing phase in which the plates were exposed to gentle heat in a high-humidity environment. The curing process changed the paste into a mixture of lead sulfates which adhered to the lead plate. Then, during the battery's initial charge (called formation), the cured paste on the plates was converted into electrochemically active material (the active mass). Faure's process significantly reduced the time and cost to manufacture lead–acid batteries, and gave a substantial increase in capacity compared with Planté's battery. [20] Faure's method is still in use today, with only incremental improvements to paste composition, curing (which is still done with steam, but is now a very tightly controlled process), and structure and composition of the grid to which the paste is applied.
The grid developed by Faure was of pure lead with connecting rods of lead at right angles. In contrast, present-day grids are structured for improved mechanical strength and improved current flow. In addition to different grid patterns (ideally, all points on the plate are equidistant from the power conductor), modern-day processes also apply one or two thin fiberglass mats over the grid to distribute the weight more evenly. And while Faure had used pure lead for his grids, within a year (1881) these had been superseded by lead– antimony (8–12%) alloys to give the structures additional rigidity. However, high-antimony grids have higher hydrogen evolution (which also accelerates as the battery ages), and thus greater outgassing and higher maintenance costs. These issues were identified by U. B. Thomas and W. E. Haring at Bell Labs in the 1930s and eventually led to the development of lead– calcium grid alloys in 1935 for standby power batteries on the U.S. telephone network. Related research led to the development of lead– selenium grid alloys in Europe a few years later. Both lead–calcium and lead–selenium grid alloys still add antimony, albeit in much smaller quantities than the older high-antimony grids: lead–calcium grids have 4–6% antimony while lead–selenium grids have 1–2%. These metallurgical improvements give the grid more strength, which allows it to carry more weight, and therefore more active material, and so the plates can be thicker, which in turn contributes to battery lifespan since there is more material available to shed before the battery becomes unusable. High-antimony alloy grids are still used in batteries intended for frequent cycling, e.g. in motor-starting applications where frequent expansion/contraction of the plates need to be compensated for, but where outgassing is not significant since charge currents remain low. Since the 1950s, batteries designed for infrequent cycling applications (e.g., standby power batteries) increasingly have lead–calcium or lead–selenium alloy grids since these have less hydrogen evolution and thus lower maintenance overhead. Lead–calcium alloy grids are cheaper to manufacture (the cells thus have lower up-front costs), and have a lower self-discharge rate, and lower watering requirements, but have slightly poorer conductivity, are mechanically weaker (and thus require more antimony to compensate), and are more strongly subject to corrosion (and thus a shorter lifespan) than cells with lead–selenium alloy grids.
The open-circuit effect is a dramatic loss of battery cycle life, which was observed when calcium was substituted for antimony. It is also known as the antimony free effect. [21]
Modern approach
Modern-day paste contains carbon black , blanc fixe ( barium sulfate ), and lignosulfonate . The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the lead–to– lead-sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the formation of long needle–like dendrites . The long crystals have more surface area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging. Carbon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a more effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This dispersant improves the dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead particles, and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It extends battery life by increasing end-of-charge voltage. Sulfonated naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures. [22]
Once dry, the plates are stacked with suitable separators and inserted in a cell container. The alternate plates then constitute alternating positive and negative electrodes, and within the cell are later connected to one another (negative to negative, positive to positive) in parallel. The separators inhibit the plates from touching each other, which would otherwise constitute a short circuit. In flooded and gel cells, the separators are insulating rails or studs, formerly of glass or ceramic, and now of plastic. In AGM cells, the separator is the glass mat itself, and the rack of plates with separators are squeezed together before insertion into the cell; once in the cell, the glass mats expand slightly, effectively locking the plates in place. In multi-cell batteries, the cells are then connected to one another in series, either through connectors through the cell walls, or by a bridge over the cell walls. All intra-cell and inter-cell connections are of the same lead alloy as that used in the grids. This is necessary to prevent galvanic corrosion .
Deep-cycle batteries have a different geometry for their positive electrodes. The positive electrode is not a flat plate but a row of lead–oxide cylinders or tubes strung side by side, so their geometry is called tubular or cylindrical. The advantage of this is an increased surface area in contact with the electrolyte, with higher discharge and charge currents than a flat-plate cell of the same volume and depth-of-charge. Tubular-electrode cells have a higher power density than flat-plate cells. This makes cylindrical-geometry plates especially suitable for high-current applications with weight or space limitations, such as for forklifts or for starting marine diesel engines. However, because cylinders have less active material in the same volume, they also have lower energy densities than otherwise comparable flat-plate cells, and less active material at the electrode also means they have less material available to shed before the cells become unusable. Cylindrical electrodes are also more complicated to manufacture uniformly, which tends to make them more expensive than flat-plate cells. These trade-offs limit the range of applications in which cylindrical batteries are meaningful to situations where there is insufficient space to install higher-capacity (and thus larger) flat-plate units.
About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type lead–acid battery rated around 60 A·h is lead or internal parts made of lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and the case. [8] For example, there are approximately 8.7 kilograms (19 lb) of lead in a typical 14.5-kilogram (32 lb) battery.
)
Separators between the positive and negative plates prevent short circuits through physical contact, mostly through dendrites (treeing), but also through shedding of the active material. Separators allow the flow of ions between the plates of an electrochemical cell to form a closed circuit. Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose , and PVC or polyethylene plastic have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but it deteriorates in the acid electrolyte.
An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties, including permeability , porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area , mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance , ionic conductivity , and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation . The area of the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over the battery's operating temperature range.
Absorbent glass mat
)
In the absorbent glass mat (AGM) design, the separators between the plates are replaced by a glass fibre mat soaked in electrolyte. There is only enough electrolyte in the mat to keep it wet, and if the battery is punctured, the electrolyte will not flow out of the mats. The principal purpose of replacing liquid electrolyte in a flooded battery with a semi-saturated fiberglass mat is to substantially increase the gas transport through the separator; hydrogen or oxygen gas produced during overcharge or charge (if the charge current is excessive) is able to freely pass through the glass mat and reduce or oxidize the opposing plate, respectively. In a flooded cell, the bubbles of gas float to the top of the battery and are lost to the atmosphere. This mechanism for the gas produced to recombine and the additional benefit of a semi-saturated cell providing no substantial leakage of electrolyte upon physical puncture of the battery case allows the battery to be completely sealed, which makes them useful in portable devices and similar roles. Additionally, the battery can be installed in any orientation, though if it is installed upside down, then acid may be blown out through the overpressure vent.
To reduce the water loss rate, calcium is alloyed with the plates; however, gas build-up remains a problem when the battery is deeply or rapidly charged or discharged. To prevent over-pressurization of the battery casing, AGM batteries include a one-way blow-off valve, and are often known as valve-regulated lead–acid (VRLA) designs.
Another advantage to the AGM design is that the electrolyte becomes the separator material and is mechanically strong. This allows the plate stack to be compressed together in the battery shell, slightly increasing energy density compared to liquid or gel versions. AGM batteries often show a characteristic bulging in their shells when built in common rectangular shapes, due to the expansion of the positive plates.
The mat also prevents the vertical motion of the electrolyte within the battery. When a normal wet cell is stored in a discharged state, the heavier acid molecules tend to settle to the bottom of the battery, causing the electrolyte to stratify. When the battery is then used, the majority of the current flows only in this area, and the bottom of the plates tends to wear out rapidly. This is one of the reasons a conventional car battery can be ruined by leaving it stored for a long period and then used and recharged. The mat significantly prevents this stratification, eliminating the need to periodically shake the batteries, boil them, or run an equalization charge through them to mix the electrolyte. Stratification also causes the upper layers of the battery to become almost completely water, which can freeze in cold weather; AGMs are significantly less susceptible to damage due to low-temperature use.
While AGM cells do not permit watering (typically it is impossible to add water without drilling a hole in the battery), their recombination process is fundamentally limited by the usual chemical processes. Hydrogen gas will even diffuse right through the plastic case itself. Some have found that it is profitable to add water to an AGM battery, but this must be done slowly to allow for the water to mix throughout the battery via diffusion. When a lead–acid battery loses water, its acid concentration increases, increasing the corrosion rate of the plates significantly. AGM cells already have a high acid content in an attempt to lower the water loss rate and increase standby voltage, and this brings about shorter life compared to a lead–antimony flooded battery. If the open circuit voltage of AGM cells is significantly higher than 2.093 volts, or 12.56 V for a 12 V battery, then it has a higher acid content than a flooded cell; while this is normal for an AGM battery, it is not desirable for long life.
AGM cells that are intentionally or accidentally overcharged will show a higher open-circuit voltage according to the water lost (and acid concentration increased). One amp-hour of overcharge will electrolyse 0.335 grams of water per cell; some of this liberated hydrogen and oxygen will recombine, but not all of it.
Gelled electrolytes
During the 1970s, researchers developed the sealed version or gel battery , which mixes a silica gelling agent into the electrolyte ( silica-gel -based lead–acid batteries used in portable radios from the early 1930s were not fully sealed). This converts the formerly liquid interior of the cells into a semi-stiff paste, providing many of the same advantages of the AGM. Such designs are even less susceptible to evaporation and are often used in situations where little or no periodic maintenance is possible. Gel cells also have lower freezing and higher boiling points than the liquid electrolytes used in conventional wet cells and AGMs, which makes them suitable for use in extreme conditions.
The only downside to the gel design is that the gel prevents rapid motion of the ions in the electrolyte, which reduces carrier mobility and thus surge current capability. For this reason, gel cells are most commonly found in energy storage applications like off-grid systems.
Maintenance-free, sealed, and valve-regulated lead–acid (VRLA)
Both gel and AGM designs are sealed, do not require watering, can be used in any orientation, and use a valve for gas blowoff. For this reason, both designs can be called maintenance-free, sealed, and VRLA. However, it is quite common to find resources stating that these terms refer to one or another of these designs, specifically.
In a valve-regulated lead–acid (VRLA) battery, the hydrogen and oxygen produced in the cells largely recombine into water. Leakage is minimal, although some electrolyte still escapes if the recombination cannot keep up with gas evolution. Since VRLA batteries do not require (and make impossible) regular checking of the electrolyte level, they have been called maintenance-free batteries. However, this is somewhat of a misnomer: VRLA cells do require maintenance. As electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells dry out and lose capacity. This can be detected by taking regular internal resistance , conductance , or impedance measurements. Regular testing reveals whether more involved testing and maintenance is required. Maintenance procedures have recently been developed allowing rehydration, often restoring significant amounts of lost capacity.
VRLA types became popular on motorcycles around 1983, [23] because the separator improves resistance to vibration and prevents the acid electrolyte from spilling. [24] They are also popular in stationary applications such as telecommunications sites, due to their small footprint and installation flexibility. [25]
Most of the world's lead–acid batteries are automobile starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries, with an estimated 320 million units shipped in 1999. [8] In 1992 about 3 million tons of lead were used in the manufacture of batteries.
Wet cell stand-by (stationary) batteries designed for deep discharge are commonly used in large backup power supplies for telephone and computer centres, grid energy storage , and off-grid household electric power systems. [26] Lead–acid batteries are used in emergency lighting and to power sump pumps in case of power failure .
Traction (propulsion) batteries are used in golf carts and other battery electric vehicles . Large lead–acid batteries are also used to power the electric motors in diesel–electric (conventional) submarines when submerged, and are used as emergency power on nuclear submarines as well. Valve-regulated lead–acid batteries cannot spill their electrolyte. They are used in back-up power supplies for alarm and smaller computer systems (particularly in uninterruptible power supplies ) and for electric scooters , electric wheelchairs , electrified bicycles , marine applications, battery electric vehicles or micro hybrid vehicles , and motorcycles. Many electric forklifts use lead–acid batteries, where the weight is used as part of a counterweight. Lead–acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage, with 2 V common in early vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers.
Portable batteries for miners' cap headlamps typically have two or three cells. [27]
Lead–acid batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep discharge. They have a large number of thin plates designed for maximum surface area, and therefore maximum current output, which can easily be damaged by deep discharge. Repeated deep discharges will result in capacity loss and ultimately in premature failure, as the electrodes disintegrate due to mechanical stresses that arise from cycling.
Starting batteries kept on a continuous float charge will suffer corrosion of the electrodes which will also result in premature failure.[ citation needed ] Starting batteries should therefore be kept open circuit but charged regularly (at least once every two weeks) to prevent sulfation .
Starting batteries are lighter than deep-cycle batteries of the same size, because the thinner and lighter cell plates do not extend all the way to the bottom of the battery case. This allows loose, disintegrated material to fall off the plates and collect at the bottom of the cell, prolonging the service life of the battery. If this loose debris rises enough, then it may touch the bottom of the plates and cause failure of a cell, resulting in loss of battery voltage and capacity.
Deep-cycle batteries
Specially-designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles ( forklift , golf cart , electric cars , and others), and uninterruptible power supplies . These batteries have thicker plates that cannot deliver as much peak current but can withstand frequent discharging. [28]
Some batteries are designed as a compromise between starter (high-current) and deep cycle. They are able to be discharged to a greater degree than automotive batteries, but less so than deep-cycle batteries. They may be referred to as marine, motorhome, or leisure batteries.
Fast and slow charge and discharge
Charge current needs to match the ability of the battery to absorb the energy. Using too great a charge current on a small battery can lead to boiling and venting of the electrolyte. In this image a VRLA battery case has ballooned due to the high gas pressure developed during overcharge.
The capacity of a lead–acid battery is not a fixed quantity but varies according to how quickly it is discharged. The empirical relationship between discharge rate and capacity is known as Peukert's law .
When a battery is charged or discharged, only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte, are initially affected. With time, the charge stored in the chemicals at the interface, often called interface charge or surface charge, spreads by diffusion of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.
Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start the car. [29] As long as the charging voltage stays below the gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead–acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state.
Sulfation and desulfation
Sulfated plates from a 12-V 5-Ah battery
Lead–acid batteries lose the ability to accept a charge when discharged for too long due to sulfation, the crystallization of lead sulfate . [30] They generate electricity through a double sulfate chemical reaction. Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the battery's plates, react with sulfuric acid in the electrolyte to form lead sulfate . The lead sulfate first forms in a finely divided, amorphous state and easily reverts to lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid when the battery recharges. As batteries cycle through numerous discharges and charges, some lead sulfate does not recombine into electrolyte and slowly converts into a stable crystalline form that no longer dissolves on recharging. Thus, not all the lead is returned to the battery plates, and the amount of usable active material necessary for electricity generation declines over time.
Sulfation occurs in lead–acid batteries when they are subjected to insufficient charging during normal operation, it also occurs when lead–acid batteries left unused with incomplete charge for an extended time. [31] It impedes recharging; sulfate deposits ultimately expand, cracking the plates and destroying the battery. Eventually, so much of the battery plate area is unable to supply current that the battery capacity is greatly reduced. In addition, the sulfate portion (of the lead sulfate) is not returned to the electrolyte as sulfuric acid. It is believed that large crystals physically block the electrolyte from entering the pores of the plates. A white coating on the plates may be visible in batteries with clear cases or after dismantling the battery. Batteries that are sulfated show a high internal resistance and can deliver only a small fraction of normal discharge current. Sulfation also affects the charging cycle, resulting in longer charging times, less-efficient and incomplete charging, and higher battery temperatures.
SLI batteries (starting, lighting, ignition; e.g., car batteries) suffer the most deterioration because vehicles normally stand unused for relatively long periods of time. Deep-cycle and motive power batteries are subjected to regular controlled overcharging, eventually failing due to corrosion of the positive plate grids rather than sulfation.
Sulfation can be avoided if the battery is fully recharged immediately after a discharge cycle. [32] There are no known independently-verified ways to reverse sulfation. [8] [33] There are commercial products claiming to achieve desulfation through various techniques such as pulse charging, but there are no peer-reviewed publications verifying their claims. Sulfation prevention remains the best course of action, by periodically fully charging the lead–acid batteries.
A typical lead–acid battery contains a mixture with varying concentrations of water and acid. Sulfuric acid has a higher density than water, which causes the acid formed at the plates during charging to flow downward and collect at the bottom of the battery. Eventually the mixture will again reach uniform composition by diffusion , but this is a very slow process. Repeated cycles of partial charging and discharging will increase stratification of the electrolyte, reducing the capacity and performance of the battery because the lack of acid on top limits plate activation. The stratification also promotes corrosion on the upper half of the plates and sulfation at the bottom. [34]
Periodic overcharging creates gaseous reaction products at the plate, causing convection currents which mix the electrolyte and resolve the stratification. Mechanical stirring of the electrolyte would have the same effect. Batteries in moving vehicles are also subject to sloshing and splashing in the cells, as the vehicle accelerates, brakes, and turns.
Car lead–acid battery after explosion showing brittle fracture in casing ends
Excessive charging causes electrolysis , emitting hydrogen and oxygen in a process known as gassing. Wet cells have open vents to release any gas produced, and VRLA batteries rely on valves fitted to each cell. Catalytic caps are available for flooded cells to recombine hydrogen and oxygen. A VRLA cell normally recombines any hydrogen and oxygen produced inside the cell, but malfunction or overheating may cause gas to build up. If this happens (for example, on overcharging), then the valve vents the gas and normalizes the pressure, producing a characteristic acidic smell. However, valves can fail, such as if dirt and debris accumulate, allowing pressure to build up.
Accumulated hydrogen and oxygen sometimes ignite in an internal explosion . The force of the explosion can cause the battery's casing to burst, or cause its top to fly off, spraying acid and casing fragments. An explosion in one cell may ignite any combustible gas mixture in the remaining cells. Similarly, in a poorly ventilated area, connecting or disconnecting a closed circuit (such as a load or a charger) to the battery terminals can also cause sparks and an explosion, if any gas was vented from the cells.
Individual cells within a battery can also short circuit , causing an explosion.
The cells of VRLA batteries typically swell when the internal pressure rises, thereby giving a warning to users and mechanics. The deformation varies from cell to cell, and is greatest at the ends where the walls are unsupported by other cells. Such over-pressurized batteries should be carefully isolated and discarded. Personnel working near batteries at risk of explosion should protect their eyes and exposed skin from burns due to spraying acid and fire by wearing a face shield , overalls , and gloves. Using goggles instead of a face shield leaves the face exposed to possible flying acid, case or battery fragments, and heat from a potential explosion.
Attempts are being made to develop alternatives (particularly for automotive use) because of concerns about the environmental consequences of improper disposal and of lead smelting operations, among other reasons. Alternatives are unlikely to displace them for applications such as engine starting or backup power systems, since the batteries, although heavy, are inexpensive in up-front cost.
A worker recycling molten lead in a battery recycling facility
According to the Battery Council, an industry group, lead–acid battery recycling is one of the most successful recycling programs in the world. In the United States 99% of all battery lead was recycled between 2014 and 2018. [37] [ dubious – discuss ][ better source needed ] However, documents of the U.S. Environmental Protection Administration , since 1982, have indicated rates varying between 60% and 95%. [38] [39]
Lead is highly toxic to humans, and recycling it can result in pollution and contamination of people, resulting in numerous and lasting health problems. [40] [41] One ranking identifies lead–acid battery recycling as the world's most deadly industrial process, in terms of disability-adjusted life years lost—resulting in 2,000,000 to 4,800,000 estimated years of individual human life lost, globally. [42]
Lead–acid battery-recycling sites have themselves become a source of lead pollution, and by 1992, the EPA had selected 29 such sites for its Superfund clean-up, with 22 on its National Priority List. [39]
An effective pollution control system is a necessity to prevent lead emission. Continuous improvement in battery recycling plants and furnace designs is required to keep pace with emission standards for lead smelters.
Chemical additives have been used ever since the lead–acid battery became a commercial item, to reduce lead sulfate buildup on plates and improve battery condition when added to the electrolyte of a vented lead–acid battery. Such treatments are rarely, if ever, effective. [43]
Two compounds used for such purposes are Epsom salts and EDTA . Epsom salts reduce the internal resistance in a weak or damaged battery and may allow a small amount of extended life. EDTA can be used to dissolve the sulfate deposits of heavily discharged plates. However, the dissolved material is then no longer available to participate in the normal charge-discharge cycle, so a battery temporarily revived with EDTA will have a reduced life expectancy. Residual EDTA in the lead–acid cell forms organic acids which will accelerate corrosion of the lead plates and internal connectors.
The active materials change physical form during charge/discharge, resulting in growth and distortion of the electrodes, and shedding of electrodes into the electrolyte. Once the active material has fallen out of the plates, it cannot be restored into position by any chemical treatment. Similarly, internal physical problems such as cracked plates, corroded connectors, or damaged separators cannot be restored chemically.
Corrosion problems
Corrosion of the external metal parts of the lead–acid battery results from a chemical reaction of the battery terminals, plugs, and connectors.
Corrosion on the positive terminal is caused by electrolysis, due to a mismatch of metal alloys used in the manufacture of the battery terminal and cable connector. White corrosion is usually lead or zinc sulfate crystals. Aluminum connectors corrode to aluminum sulfate . Copper connectors produce blue and white corrosion crystals. Corrosion of a battery's terminals can be reduced by coating the terminals with petroleum jelly or a commercially available product made for the purpose. [44]
If the battery is overfilled with water and electrolyte, then thermal expansion can force some of the liquid out of the battery vents onto the top of the battery. This solution can then react with the lead and other metals in the battery connector and cause corrosion.
The electrolyte can seep from the plastic-to-lead seal where the battery terminals penetrate the plastic case.
Acid fumes that vaporize through the vent caps, often caused by overcharging, and insufficient battery box ventilation can allow the sulfuric acid fumes to build up and react with the exposed metals.
See also
"Product Specification Guide" (PDF). Trojan Battery Company. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-04. Retrieved 2014-01-09.
^ For one example account of the importance of battery specific gravity to submariners, see
Ruhe, William J. (1996). War in the Boats: My World War II Submarine Battles. Brassey's. p. 112. ISBN
^ United States Patent 5,948,567
Sudhan S. Misra (25 May 2007). "Advances in VRLAnext term battery technology for telecommunications". Journal of Power Sources. 168 (1): 40–8. Bibcode : 2007JPS...168...40M . doi : 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.11.005 .
Isoi, T.; Furukawa, H. (1996). "Valve-regulated lead/Acid batteries for SLI use in Japan". Journal of Power Sources. 59 (1–2): 143–146. Bibcode : 1996JPS....59..143I . doi : 10.1016/0378-7753(95)02315-1 .
.
J W Simms. The Boy Electrician. George G Haerrap & Co. p. 65.
A K Pandey. "What Is Battery Sulfation and How To Prevent It?" .
^ Equalize charging can prevent sulfation if performed prior to the lead sulfate forming crystals.
Broussely, Michel; Pistoia, Gianfranco, eds. (2007). Industrial applications of batteries: from cars to aerospace and energy storage. Elsevier. pp. 502–3. ISBN
"2.3 LEAD DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS" (PDF), TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR LEAD, USA: CDC Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, August 2007, p. 31, retrieved 2013-09-26,
These data suggest that certain subtle neurobehavioral effects in children may occur at very low PbBs. (PbB means lead blood level)
DeCicco, John M.; Kliesch, James (February 2001). ACEEE's Green Book: The Environmental Guide to Cars and Trucks. American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy. ISBN
"Battery Council International" (PDF). Battery Council. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
^ http://museum.nist.gov/exhibits/adx2/partii.htm Archived 2016-03-14 at the Wayback Machine A dispute on battery additives when Dr. Vinal of the National Bureau of Standards reported on this for the National Better Business Bureau.
Horst Bauer, ed. (1996). Automotive Handbook (4th ed.). Robert Bosch. p. 805. ISBN
comcast.net , sme technical details on lead–acid batteries
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lead-acid batteries .
btterycouncil.org (BCI), lead–acid battery manufacturers' trade organization.
batteryfaq.org , car and deep-cycle battery FAQ
atsdr.cdc.gov , lead (Pb) toxicity: key concepts | ATSDR – environmental medicine & environmental health education - CSEM case studies in environmental medicine (CSEM), agency for toxic substances and disease registry
alton-moore.net , lead–acid battery desulfator (Home Power #77 June/July 2000)]
Lead–acid battery
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72 | what are the active materials of a lead acid battery | https://byjus.com/chemistry/lead-acid-battery/ | What is a Lead-acid Battery?
The Lead-acid battery is one of the oldest types of rechargeable batteries. These batteries were invented in the year 1859 by the French physicist Gaston Plante.
Despite having a small energy-to-volume ratio and a very low energy-to-weight ratio, its ability to supply high surge contents reveals that the cells have a relatively large power-to-weight ratio.
Lead-acid batteries can be classified as secondary batteries. The chemical reactions that occur in secondary cells are reversible. The reactants that generate an electric current in these batteries (via chemical reactions ) can be regenerated by passing a current through the battery (recharging).
The chemical process of extracting current from a secondary battery (forward reaction) is called discharging. The method of regenerating active material is called charging.
Sealed Lead Acid Battery
The sealed lead-acid battery consists of six cells mounted side by side in a single case. The cells are coupled together, and each 2.0V cell adds up to the overall 12.0V capacity of the battery.
Despite being relatively heavy, lead-acid batteries are still preferred over other lightweight options owing to their ability to deliver large surges of electricity (which is required to start a cold engine in an automobile).
A completely charged lead-acid battery is made up of a stack of alternating lead oxide electrodes, isolated from each other by layers of porous separators.
All these parts are placed in a concentrated solution of sulfuric acid . Intercell connectors connect the positive end of one cell to the negative end of the next cell hence the six cells are in series.
Chemical Reaction for Discharging
When the battery is discharged, it acts as a galvanic cell and the following chemical reaction occurs.
Negative:
Positive:
Lead Acid Battery Discharging
Lead sulfate is formed at both electrodes. Two electrons are also transferred in the complete reaction. The lead-acid battery is packed in a thick rubber or plastic case to prevent leakage of the corrosive sulphuric acid.
Lead Acid Battery Charging
The sulphuric acid existing in the lead discharge battery decomposes and needs to be replaced. Sometimes, the plates change their structure by themselves. Eventually, the battery becomes less efficient and should be charged or changed.
Lead Acid Battery Charging
When car batteries spend considerable durations of time in their discharged states, the lead sulfate build-up may become extremely difficult to remove. This is the reason why lead-acid batteries must be charged as soon as possible (to prevent the building up of lead sulfate). Charging of the lead batteries is usually done by providing an external current source.
A plug is inserted which is linked to the lead-acid battery and the chemical reaction proceeds in the opposite direction. In cases where the sulphuric acid in the battery (or some other component of the battery) has undergone decomposition, the charging process may become inefficient. Therefore, it is advisable to check the battery periodically.
Chemical Reaction for Recharging
The chemical reaction that takes place when the lead-acid battery is recharging can be found below.
Negative:
Positive:
PbSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) –> PbO2(s) + HSO4–(aq) + 3H3O+(aq) + 2e– (oxidation)
While recharging, the automobile battery functions like an electrolytic cell. The energy required to drive the recharging comes from an external source, such as an engine of a car. It is also important to note that overcharging of the battery could result in the formation of by-products such as hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. These gases tend to escape from the battery, resulting in the loss of reactants.
Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs
What is in a lead acid battery?
The negative plate is made up of lead and the positive plate of lead dioxide in the fully charged state. Concentrated sulphuric acid is the electrolyte, which retains most of the chemical energy.
Q2
How a lead-acid battery is made?
Utilizing lead alloy ingots and lead oxide, the lead battery is made of two chemically dissimilar lead-based plates immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid.
Q3
How do you maintain a lead-acid battery?
Apply a fully saturated charge of 14 to 16 hours to keep lead acid in good condition. If this is not permitted by the charge cycle, give the battery once every few weeks a fully saturated charge.
Q4
Is a lead-acid battery wet or dry?
Different versions of the lead-acid battery are wet cell (flooded), gel cell, and absorbed glass mat (AGM). There are two styles of wet cell; serviceable and maintenance-free. Both are electrolyte-filled and are basically the same.
Q5
What type of battery is lead-acid?
Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the plate of the battery, react to lead sulfate in the electrolyte with sulphuric acid. The lead sulfate first forms in a finely divided, amorphous state, and when the battery recharges easily returns to lead, lead dioxide, and sulphuric acid.
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| 630 |
72 | what are the active materials of a lead acid battery | https://testbook.com/question-answer/active-materials-of-a-lead-acid-cell-are--5f104ef8458b6e24f1015dc6 | This question was previously asked in
UPPCL JE Previous Paper 6 (Held On: 25 November 2019 Shift 1)
Lead peroxide and filler caps
Lead peroxide and pillar
Sponge lead and pillar
Answer (Detailed Solution Below)
Option 1 : Lead peroxide, sponge lead and dilute sulfuric acid
7 K Users
The active elements of the lead-acid are
Lead peroxide (PbO2): It forms the positive active material; The PbO2 is dark chocolate brown in color
Spongy lead: It forms the negative active material; It is grey in color
Dilute Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) – It is used as an electrolyte; It contains 31% of sulfuric acid
Charging reaction:
Discharging reaction:
Last updated on Jun 4, 2024
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72 | what are the active materials of a lead acid battery | https://www.power-sonic.com/blog/batteries/a-guide-to-sealed-lead-acid-battery-construction/ | A Guide To Sealed Lead Acid Battery Construction
The sealed lead acid battery is the most commonly used type of storage battery and is well-known for its various applications including UPS, automotive, medical devices and telecommunications. The battery is made up of cells, each cell consists of plates immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulfuric acid. The construction of the lead acid battery is illustrated below.
Sealed Lead Acid Battery Construction
Battery Terminals
Depending on the model, batteries come either with AMP Faston type terminals made of tin plated brass, post type terminals of the same composition with threaded nut and bolt hardware, or heavy duty flag terminals made of lead alloy. A special epoxy is used as sealing material surrounding the terminals.
Battery Plates (Electrodes)
Power Sonic utilizes the latest technology and equipment to cast grids from a lead-calcium alloy free of antimony. The small amount of calcium and tin in the grid alloy imparts strength to the plate and guarantees durability even in extensive cycle service. Lead dioxide paste is added to the grid to form the electrically active material. In the charged state, the negative plate paste is pure lead and that of the positive lead dioxide. Both of these are in a porous or spongy form to optimize surface area and thereby maximize capacity. The heavy duty lead calcium alloy grids provide an extra margin of performance and life in both cyclic and float applications and give unparalleled recovery from deep discharge.
Electrolyte
Battery Relief Valve
In case of excessive gas pressure build-up inside the battery, the relief valve will open and relieve the pressure. The one-way valve not only ensures that no air gets into the battery where the oxygen would react with the plates causing internal discharge, but also represents an important safety device in the event of excessive overcharge. Vent release pressure is between 2-6 psi; the seal ring material is neoprene rubber.
Battery Separators
Power Sonic lead acid battery separators are made of non-woven glass fiber cloth with high heat and oxidation resistance. The material further offers superior electrolyte absorption and retaining ability, as well as excellent ion conductivity.
Battery Container & Case Sealing
Case and lid material is ABS, high impact, resin with high resistance to chemicals and flammability. Case and cover are made of non-conductive ABS plastic to UL94-HB like our PS-1270 or UL94 V-0 like our PS-1270 FR . Depending on the model the case sealing is ultrasonic, epoxy or heat seal.
RELIABLE AND ROBUST SEALED LEAD ACID BATTERIES
A full line of sealed lead acid batteries covering almost any applications. From deep cycle AGM to high-rate discharge batteries, Power Sonic has the right battery for your application.
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| 632 |
72 | what are the active materials of a lead acid battery | https://batteryguy.com/kb/knowledge-base/what-is-a-lead-acid-battery/ | Flooded
Gel
Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
Note that both Gel and AGM are often simply referred to as Sealed Lead Acid batteries .
The Gel and AGM batteries are a variation on the flooded type so we’ll start there.
Structure of a flooded lead acid battery
Flooded lead acid battery structure
A lead acid battery is made up of eight components
Positive and negative lead or lead alloy plates
A lead oxide paste which is applied to the positive plates
A lead oxide paste with the addition of powdered sulfates which is applied to the negative plates
Porous separators which stop the negative and positive plates touching each other but allow current to move between them
Positive straps which connect the positive plates together in each cell and negative straps which connect the negative plates together in each cell
Cell connectors which join the positive strap of one cell to the negative strap of the next cell
Electrolyte – either as a solution of water and sulfuric acid or a gel
A case and lid – normally made from a polypropylene plastic
Terminal posts (usually lead) to connect the battery to an appliance
Manufacturing process for lead acid batteries
The three most common types of plates are:
grid plates – the plates have a grid like honeycomb type structure, most popular in starter batteries
grooved plates – the surface of the plates is made up of V shaped grooves
tubular plates – each plate is made up of one row of tubes side by side providing greater strength and so more popular in deep cycle batteries
The plates do not need to be flat, in some battery types such as those that use Spiral Cell technology they are wound to create a cylindrical shape.
An active material is needed on the lead plates. This is lead oxide (powdered lead and other materials) on the positive plates and lead oxide with powdered sulfates on the negative plates. The active material is usually made into a paste by adding sulfuric acid and water. The paste acts like a sponge soaking up the electrolyte that is added later and keeping this electrolyte close to the plates to improve the battery’s performance.
Figure 1: each cell is connected to the next in series
The plates are then assembled in alternating order – positive, negative, positive, negative, etc. Positive plates are always positioned between two negative plates so in any assembly there will always be one more negative plate than positive. A porous separator is placed between the plates to avoid them touching which would cause them to short out and kill off the battery. Two metal elements are then added – one connects all the positive plates together (the positive strap) and one connects all the negative plates (the negative strap).
The number of plates may vary but each collection of plates assembled as above is a cell. The battery case itself is divided into compartments to take one cell each.The cells are then connected to each other in series by joining the positive strap of one cell to the negative strap of the next cell with a cell connector.
The battery case is deeper than the lead plates. This is because as the battery is used bits of the active material (paste) fall off the plates and build up at the bottom of the battery. If there was no space for them to do so they would cause a connection between the positive and negative plates, the cell would short out and the battery would die.
The compartments of the case are then filled with electrolyte – a solution of water and sulfuric acid – until the plates are completely covered. A lid and external terminals are added. Lids vary in design. Some have plugs which can be opened so the electrolyte can be topped up while others will just have a safety valve to release any excess gas that could build up if, for example, the battery is overcharged.
The battery is then left to allow the electrolyte to soak into the paste – a process known as ‘soaking‘ or ‘pickling‘ – before being attached to an electrical supply to charge – known as ‘forming‘.
Lead acid battery types
Wet cell or flooded batteries are the ones described above where the electrolyte is a liquid solution. These are popular as they are cheapest option available due to their low manufacturing costs. Traditionally they came with removable vents or caps in the lid so electrolyte levels could be topped up. Later ‘maintenance free’ batteries were introduced which were designed to prevent liquid loss by containing gases created during normal operation and then converting these back into liquid later. Maintenance free batteries still have vents to release excessive gas build up caused by such events as over charging which may otherwise cause the battery to explode.
However even though some flooded batteries are effectively sealed they should not be confused with the terms Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) or valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA). These refer to batteries where the electrolyte is not in liquid form – the two most common types are Gel and Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM).
Gel batteries are a type of sealed lead acid (SLA) where the electrolyte is made up of sulfuric acid and silica to form a jelly like solution that gradually dries out and holds the plates with their paste in place.Gel batteries are more expensive to produce than flooded versions but cheaper than Absorbent Glass Mat.
Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) are sealed lead acid (SLA) batteries where a fiberglass mat is impregnated with sulfuric acid and placed between the plates.
Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) / Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) vs Wet Cell/Flooded
The way electrolyte is stored in a sealed lead acid battery means that they have a number of advantages over the older wet cell/flooded design:
There is no liquid to spill or leak so the batteries are easier to ship and can be mounted at angles.
They are better at delivering power. Manufacturers of deep cycle flooded batteries often recommend a 4:1 ratio between the amp hour capacity and the largest load it will have to handle while for sealed lead acid this drops to 3:1 which saves space.
As the plates are held in place:
they need less of their own strength and so can be made of a purer lead which improves the power to size ratio.
they are less prone to buckle during deeper discharges so the batteries can be used for deep cycle applications such as powering emergency lights, electric wheelchairs, etc.
they are less likely to touch and short out in high vibration applications such as sports vehicles or yachts.
No space is needed below the plates for the collection of active material that gradually flakes off the plates in a wet cell so the power to size ratio improves further.
They can operate underwater making them popular with marine applications.
They offer better performance at lower temperatures due to the stabilized electrolyte found in the absorbent glass matt design of the battery, slowing down the chemical reaction within the battery.
They can be recharged faster and more efficiently. Flooded batteries convert 15-20% of electrical energy from a charger into heat instead of stored power, Gel cells convert 10-16% while the best AGMs lose just 4%. The design of the Absorbent Glass matt (AGM) in the the sealed lead acid battery allows for faster charge times. Because the glass matt absorbs and immobilises the electrolyte available to the plates it allows a faster reaction between the plate material and the electrolyte. The AGM battery has extremely low internal electrical resistance. This, combined with faster acid migration, allows the AGM batteries to deliver and absorb higher rates of amperage than other sealed batteries. True gel batteries have a lower peak charge voltage due to bubbles that can occur in the gel and cause damage, the lower peak charge voltage slowing their overall charge time.
They suffer less from sulfation because they contain less antimony alloy, lowering the internal discharge of the battery from 8% and 40% with Wet cell/ flooded batteries to 2% and 10% a month with Sealed Lead Acid (SLA). Wet Cell/ flooded batteries with their cavities inside for electrolyte use a lead-antimony alloy to increase mechanical strength. SLA batteries do not require mechanical strength like Wet Cell batteries due to their (AGM) mat material. Usually calcium is alloyed with the lead to reduce gassing and the internal discharge rate
They discharge at a lower rate when not in use. Flooded batteries discharge at a rate of about 1% per day compared to 1-3% per month from sealed lead acid units.
They vent little or no gas under normal usage because they operate under pressure which helps recombine the hydrogen and oxygen back into water so they can be placed in enclosed spaces with low ventilation.
Disadvantages including:
being easier to damage when overcharged.
causing burn out in alternators designed to charge flooded cell batteries.
shorter lives – The standard lifespan for SLA batteries is three to five years; for wet-cell batteries it’s up to 20 years.
There is also a small difference between AGM and Gel during their lives. The capacity of AGM batteries tends to decline gradually while Gel batteries maintain their capacity until relatively close to the end.
AGM batteries are preferred when a high burst of amps may be required. Although they are more expensive than flooded versions their flexibility and lower price point compared to Gel’s (see below) makes them popular in standby applications such as emergency lights, electric wheelchairs and smaller UPS systems.
Gel batteries excel in slow discharge rate situations and slightly higher ambient operating temperatures. They are popular as starter batteries for motorcycles, sports vehicles and handle situations where temperature varies widely.
Lead acid battery ratings
Lead acid batteries carry a number of standard ratings which were set up by Battery Council International to explain their capacity:
Cold Cranking Amps (CCA) – how many amps the battery, when new and fully charged, can deliver for 30 seconds at a temperature of 0°F (-18°C) while maintaining at least 1.2 volts per cell (7.2 volts for a 12 volt battery). This is important for starter batteries where the battery must deliver a large amount of power to turn an engine.
Cranking Amps (CA) is the same measurement as Cold Cranking Amps but at 32°F (0°C).
Reserve Capacity (RC) is the number of minutes a new and fully charged battery can discharge 25 amps before the battery drops below 1.75 volts per cell (10.5 volts for a 12 volt battery).
Amp Hour (Ah) ratings are usually found on deep cycle batteries and are an indication of how much power the battery can store. The most common is the ’20 hour rating’ which you will often come across when batteries are being compared. A 100Ah rating means the battery will be able to power a 5 amp appliance for 20 hours ( 5 x 20 = 100) before the cell voltage drops below 1.75 volts per cell ( 10.5 volts for a 12 volt battery).
However it does not mean the battery can power a 50 amp appliance for 2 hours due to Peukert’s Law which states that the faster you discharge a battery, the less capacity it actually has. Peukert’s Law is a mathematical calculation which can be used to work this out. When applied it will show, for example, that a battery with a 100Ah rating will last just over 7 hours when powering a 10 amp appliance.
Peukert’s Law may be useful but it has real world drawbacks. Batteries rarely power one appliance consistently for such a long time period. As such the Amp Hour rating is most useful for general comparisons of one battery over a another – the greater the rating, the more power the battery can store. You can try it out with our calculator in the article Peukert’s Law – how long an amp hour battery will last under a given load .
Watts/Cell is often used for high rate discharge batteries that need to provide substantial power over a short period (usually about 30 minutes). These battery types are often used as backups for computer systems or other critical appliances. Watts/Cell give an indication of how much power the battery can provide in these circumstances rather than how long it is expected to last under a given load.
Further reading
Contents
Knowledge Base Articles
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73 | where are the orcs made in lord of the rings | https://lotr.fandom.com/wiki/Orcs | Languages
Lifespan
Varies drastically;may be similar to Men or may even be immortal [citation needed]
Distinctions
Almost man-high, or short
Orcs were the primary soldiers of both Dark Lords ' armies, and their most common servants. Invented by Morgoth during the Years of the Trees of the First Age , they served him and later his successor, Sauron , in their aims to dominate Middle-earth . It was believed by the Eldar that before Oromë first discovered Cuiviénen , Morgoth had kidnapped some of them and cruelly deformed them, twisting them into the first Orcs. [1]
After the Battle of the Powers , many Orcs alongside other servants of Melkor survived in the deep caves, pits, chambers, and tunnels of Melkor's underground fortress, Angband . They multiplied there and later spread through northern Middle-earth. They were first seen by the Dwarves who reported them to Thingol , King of Doriath , causing the latter to seek weapons of war for the first time. [2] From that time forward, Orcs would be present in almost all scenes of war and strife in Beleriand, and in Middle-earth after the First Age until Mordor was destroyed.
Orcs referred to themselves in the Black Speech with the term Uruk, which generally referred to the strongest of their kind such as the Uruk-hai and Uruks of Mordor.
Contents
History
"They were Elves once, taken by the dark powers , tortured and mutilated, a terrible, ruined form of life..."
First Age
It is not known with certainty how the Orcs came to be. Melkor was the first to learn of the Awakening of the Elves at Cuiviénen, and soon began sending evil spirits among them, who planted seeds of doubt against the Valar. It is rumoured that some of these Elves were being captured by a "Rider" if they strayed too far, and it was believed by the Eldar that these unfortunate Elves were brought to Utumno , where they were cruelly tortured and twisted into Orcs.
In the last six centuries of the First Age, thousands of Orcs were bred in Angband by Morgoth and to participate in the Battles of Beleriand , which began after the Ñoldor arrived to north-western Middle-earth. They first appeared in the Battle of the Lammoth , where they were defeated by the Elves. When the House of Fëanor returned to Middle-earth Morgoth sent a force of Orcs against them. Although the Orcs outnumbered the exiles they were no match for the power and wrath of the Ñoldor, and were quickly and easily defeated . However, Fëanor could not defeat the power of Morgoth alone and he was killed by Balrogs , leaving the Orcs to continue to breed under the Dark Lord . Years later, when the House of Fingolfin arrived in Middle-earth, Orcs were sent against them as well, but they were utterly defeated in the Battle of the Lammoth .
Orcs served under Morgoth in the First Age and Sauron in the Second and Third Ages
After their crushing defeat in the Dagor Aglareb and in a minor raid on Hithlum , the Orcs nevertheless regained their numbers. In the Dagor Bragollach and Nírnaeth Arnoediad , they and their master won crushing victories against the free peoples. However, they were nearly destroyed in the War of Wrath that ended in FA 585 , and those that survived fled eastwards into the Mountains of Angmar , Grey Mountains , or Red Mountains .
Second Age
Sometime around SA 1000 , Sauron reappeared in Middle-earth and made the land of Mordor his realm, and then started to build the foundations of Barad-dûr . During the War of the Elves and Sauron in SA 1700 , the Orcs formed the main host of Sauron's power. Despite the immeasurable number of Orcs present, the battle was won by the Elves and the Númenóreans due to their united force, superior weaponry, greater strength and stature and combat skill.
However, Sauron had not been able to gather all the Eastern Orcs into his armies, as they at first scorned him, seeing only his fair form. It was after his first defeat that Sauron went back among them, in a dark guise, and subdued them, and was able to begin rebuilding his power.
Until Sauron's final downfall in the Third Age , Orcs remained the backbone of the armies of Mordor , and of Isengard while the wizard Saruman ruled it.
Third Age
After the War of the Last Alliance Mordor was desolate and the surviving Orcs were concentrated in the Misty Mountains . With the return of Sauron to Dol Guldur and the spread of his evil influence, their numbers began to increase once more. In TA 2475 at the ending of the Watchful Peace , a new tougher, stronger breed of Orc appeared; the Uruk-hai , specifically bred for fighting Men .
Following the abandonment of Khazad-dûm by the Dwarves, Orcs eventually colonised the abandoned halls, killing King Thrór when he sought to enter his lost realm. This triggered the War of the Dwarves and Orcs , a massive conflict where the Dwarves gathered their full strength and destroyed every Orc-hold they could find in the Misty Mountains. This and the Battle of Five Armies greatly reduced the numbers of Northern Orcs, weakening their contribution to the War of the Ring .
In the meantime Sauron had returned to Mordor, rebuilding his fortress and creating a vast army of Orcs. He bred a huge breed of Orcs-soldiers with great strength, the Uruk-hai , some time before TA 2475 , when they creatures first appeared from Mordor ravaging Ithilien and Osgiliath . Later, some of these Uruks populated the Misty Mountains and subdued local Orkish tribes. Sauron's pawn, Saruman the Wizard, also bred those Uruk-hai , who descended from the Hithaeglir and served him as mercenaries; he also experimented on cross-breeding of Orcs and Men, producing Half-Orcs even taller than Uruk-hai.
Following the destruction of the One Ring , the Orcs scattered, eventually dwindling and being hunted to extinction (or near-extinction levels) in the Fourth Age .
Characteristics
"For all that race were bred by Melkor of the subterranean heats and slime. Their hearts were of granite and their bodies deformed; foul their faces which smiled not, but their laugh that of the clash of metal, and to nothing were they more fain than to aid in the basest of the purposes of Melkor."
Orcs of Mordor as depicted by John Howe
Two different breeds of Orcs, as depicted by Alan Lee
Orcs made no beautiful things, but many clever ones including machines, tools, weapons, and instruments of torture. They were delighted by wheels, engines, and explosions, and could tunnel and mine as well as any but the most skilled Dwarves, though they are often untidy and dirty. [3] This was so since the time Melkor created them (in an unknown process). They hated themselves, and had an even deeper secret hatred for Melkor, thus resulting as a violent and warlike race in a perpetual state of chaos with itself and others (this portrayal has differed over time, with shows such as The Rings of Power trying to give a more sympathetic portrayal of Orcs). Despite their abominable nature, Orcs were often crafty and clever rather than dim-witted. Tolkien writes that they were capable smiths and craftsmen, though things of their making are described as crude compared to those of the Free Peoples . Orcs also developed tunnel-making, so as to dwell underground away from the light. It is also worth noting that Orcs prefer to do no more work than they can help, as they would rather coerce others into working for them. [4]
Wickedness and violence were their nature, and it was not uncommon for them to kill each other in petty quarrels. [5] They had a destructive effect on nature, especially forests, and often destroyed trees to fuel their war-making, particularly those near Isengard . Orcs had unchangeable disdain for all Elves, Dwarves, and Men, though they fought alongside wicked men under Morgoth and then Sauron in the First , Second , and Third Ages and were also said to have made alliances with wicked Dwarves.
Etymology
In Tolkien's Sindarin language, Orc is orch, plural yrch. In his late, post-Lord of the Rings writings (published in The Peoples of Middle-earth ), he preferred the spelling "Ork", evidently mainly to avoid the form Orcish, which would be naturally pronounced with the c as /s/ instead of /k/. (In Tolkien's languages the letter c was always pronounced /k/.) It is also possible that the word is a Common Tongue Version of 'orch', the Sindarin word for Orc. The original sense of the word seems to be "bogey", "bogeyman" , that is, something that provokes fear, as seen in the Quenya cognate urko, pl. urqui. In the old English Orc means "demon." [6] The term Uruk-hai merely means "orc-folk" in the Black Speech, and was the Uruk-hai's name for themselves.
Other names
Glamhoth was a Sindarin word for the Orcs that meant 'din-horde'. [7]
Gorgûn was the name that the wild men of the Drúadan Forest used for Orcs in their own language. Although is was also the name of an orc in specific.
Yrch was the term used by Haldir and his brothers, who were Elves of Lothlórien . This same word was also used by Legolas , indicating that it was either Sindarin or Silvan Elvish in origin.
Uruk was the term used by Orcs in general, which referred to their race overall and their stronger kin in their own language (Black Speech)
Terminology
"Orc is not an English word. It occurs in one or two places [in The Hobbit] but is usually translated goblin (or hobgoblin for the larger kinds)."
Tolkien explained in a note at the start of The Hobbit that he was using English to represent the languages used by the characters, and that goblin (or hobgoblin for the larger kind) was the English translation he was using for the word Orc, the hobbits' form of the name. Tolkien used the term goblin extensively in The Hobbit, and also occasionally in The Lord of the Rings , as when the Uruk-hai of Isengard are first described: "four goblin-soldiers of greater stature".
A clear illustration that Tolkien considered Goblins and Orcs to be the same thing, the former word merely being the English translation of the latter is that in The Hobbit (the only one of Tolkien's works in which he usually refers to Orcs as goblins), Gandalf asks Thorin if he remembers Azog the Goblin who killed his grandfather Thrór , [8] while in all his other writings Tolkien describes Azog as a "great Orc". [9]
In The Hobbit , Tolkien mentions Orcs as a large variety of Goblins, leading some to the notion that the Northern Orcs of the Misty Mountains were of smaller build than average Orcs, although the " Great Goblin " and " Azog the Goblin" (as he was called in The Hobbit ) were massive in size. Tolkien also described Goblins as big, ugly creatures, "cruel, wicked, and bad-hearted."
Named Orcs
Quotes about Orcs
"But of those unhappy ones [elves] who were ensnared by Melkor little is known of a certainty. For who of the living has descended into the pits of Utumno, or has explored the darkness of the counsels of Melkor? Yet this is held true by the wise of Eressëa , that all those of the Quendi who came into the hands of Melkor, ere Utumno was broken, were put there in prison, and by slow arts of cruelty were corrupted and enslaved; and thus did Melkor breed the hideous race of the Orcs in envy and mockery of the Elves, of whom they were afterwards the bitterest foes. For the Orcs had life and multiplied after the manner of the Children of Ilúvatar ; and naught that had life of its own, nor the semblance of life, could ever Melkor make since his rebellion in the Ainulindalë before the Beginning: so say the wise. And deep in their dark hearts the Orcs loathed the Master whom they served in fear, the maker only of their misery. This it may be was the vilest deed of Melkor, and the most hateful to Ilúvatar ."
J. R. R. Tolkien, The Silmarillion , Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor
"And ere long the evil creatures came even to Beleriand , over passes in the mountains, or up from the south through the dark forests. Wolves there were, or creatures that walked in wolf-shapes, and other fell beings of shadow; and among them were the Orcs, who afterwards wrought ruin in Beleriand: but they were yet few and wary, and did but smell out the ways of the land, awaiting the return of their lord. Whence they came, or what they were, the Elves knew not then, thinking them perhaps to be Avari who had become evil and savage in the wild; in which they guessed all too near, it is said."
J. R. R. Tolkien, The Silmarillion , Of the Sindar
In other writings
Goblins appear in some of Tolkien's other writings outside of the legendarium . For example, in Letters From Father Christmas they were enemies of Father Christmas and of Red Gnomes , Green Elves and Snow Elves. In this account, Goblins used a pictographic writing system. [10]
In adaptations
In The Hobbit (1977 animated film)
In The Hobbit , the Orcs are called Goblins and have a more bloated and squat appearance compared to other adaptations plus they tend to have horns.
Orcs (1978)
In The Lord of the Rings (1978 animated film)
In The Lord of the Rings , the Orcs are voiced by extras. They are all humanoid beings with red eyes and many inhuman features; there doesn't seem to be much variation among them outside of three types.
The first and most prominent type is distinguished by their clawed hands and feet, fangs, black body hair, feline cheeks, and potentially green skin. In addition, they are quite broad-shouldered and have a stooped posture. Their attire is mostly consistent: many wear robes resembling togas and double-horned helms similar to Viking helmets; a few members of Uglúk's group seem to be wearing jet-black body suits instead of togas (and these ones tend to be skinnier than the rest); further still, at least two Orcs (seen both at Moria and as a part of Uglúk's group) wear very scaly armor and are shorter than the rest.
Another less-common Orc type has more apelike features, including large mouths, thick teeth, heavy brows, long faces with flat noses, and a lot of head hair; they stand tall, lack claws, and wear robe-like tunics and no headgear. They appear after Merry and Pippin are captured and are extensively featured throughout the Battle of Helm's Deep.
Finally, a third type is observed, faintly resembling the previous two but wearing tunics and head-bandages that reveal nothing but their eyes and noses (though, at least one can be seen with fangs). They are the least prominent variety, appearing until after Merry and Pippin are captured.
Orcs (1980)
In The Return of the King (1980 animated film)
In The Return of the King , the Orcs are voiced by Paul Frees. They resemble the Goblins seen in The Hobbit , but have grey skin and are generally more thin.
In Peter Jackson's films
In Peter Jackson 's two film trilogies, Orcs range greatly in appearance. Skin colour ranges from bone white ( Azog and Bolg ) to peachy colours (Orcs like the lieutenant Gothmog in The Return of the King ), to shades of green. Most Orcs however are shown as having darker shades of black or brown skin. Some are more human-like than others; Azog looks like a large and muscular but pale and hairless human, whilst Gothmog has a very deformed face. In general the Orcs tend to be shorter than most men. Some Orcs shown are particularly slack with poor posture and broad with long arms, a shape represented best in Grishnákh 's portrayal in The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers ; others, such as all Uruks , have a human posture. A new rendition of Orcs was introduced in The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey : short mutated creatures covered in dubious warts and unidentified growths. They have pallid pinkish-white skin, large heads, and bat-like or porcine facial features.
In The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power
Their closer portrayal in the series compared to in previous adaptations (e.g. Adar and his followers who had renounced their loyalty to both Morgoth and his successor Sauron, and the revelation of Glûg having a wife and child he deeply cherished) has stirred controversy among fans, as with other changes.
Ironically, this was something Tolkien was also troubles by as the notion of Orcs being evil as a race contradicted his Catholic upbringing which influenced his works. [citation needed]
Orcs in the Rings of Power are generally less "developed", having emerged from the War of Wrath, and are presumably descended from the elves corrupted and tortured into becoming the first Orcs. After the War of Wrath, they are gathered by Sauron, who wants to become the next Dark Lord, and experiments cruelly on Orcs in the fortress of Durnost in Forodwaith during the early Second Age. These experiments alienate Adar, who hates Sauron further when Sauron gives a lengthy speech to the Orcs on his coronation, telling them they have no choice but to follow him, since their race is hated by everyone else, and after an Orc tries to assasinate him, cruelly stabs the Orc in the eye multiple times. This prompts Adar, who is trusted with crowning Sauron, to stab Sauron in the back with his crown, and the Orcs help Adar "kill" Sauron, hailing Adar as their new leader; after this, they travel to the Southlands, enduring many hardships.
Upon reaching the Southlands, Orc-holds are established, with Adar and his followers building tunnels and enslaving Elves and Southlanders to build tunnels above ground; many Uruks of the Southlands help capture Arondir and others, and were injured or slain when Arondir led a failed revolt; these Uruks later hailed Adar as he approached them, and were noted to speak of him with reverence. During the Battle of Ostirith, many Uruks were injured; after the Battle of Tirharad, Uruks happily chanted "Udun" as Mordor was brought into being.
During Adar's rule of Mordor, many Uruks/Orcs helped him enslave and brand (or kill) the remaining Southlanders in Mordor. The legions of Orcs/Uruks are later led out of Mordor by Adar, who hears from Halbrand (Sauron in disguise) that Sauron is alive and seeking to enslave the "children" of Adar again.
Adar, after getting the proof from a captive Galadriel that Sauron is Halbrand, and is in Eregion, leads the Uruks/Orcs to war against Eregion. However, as Adar makes decisions that are rash and lead to the deaths of many Uruks, while showing less concern due to his desire to defeat Sauron to free the Uruks from his potential control, many Uruks led by his right-hand, Glug, begin opposing Adar. When Glug and his soldiers encounter Sauron later during the siege of Eregion, they submit to Sauron, and stab Adar to death, hailing Sauron as their new "Dark Lord"; the Uruks/Orcs who did not betray Adar, upon hearing an Uruk/Orc referring to "Lord Sauron", are forced to submit to him as well. However, the Orcs/Uruks retreat after Dwarves reinforce Eregion, but are forced back into war by Sauron, who kills Glug sadistically for reporting to him that many Orcs/Uruks will die if they continue fighting.
In video games
Note: This is a section stub . Expand it by clicking Edit to right of the section title.
J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, Volume 1 (1994) for SNES. Orcs appear as minotaur-like creatures in four different colors: green, blue, red, and gray.
Orcs
Orc Archer at the Battle of the Pelennor
Gothmog in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy
Trivia
Considering how much J.R.R. Tolkien's classic Middle-earth saga influenced countless fantasy works after it, there's no doubt Orcs became the basis for their countless iterations in other fantasy works such as Dungeons & Dragons , World of Warcraft, Delicious in Dungeon , Dungeon Keeper, and many more. Though such portrayal tend to emphasize their barbaric lifestyle, Orcs in such works are, nonetheless, more than often a naturally occuring race (not descended from members of pre-existing ones corrupted and disfigured by evil like Tolkien's Orcs suggested), and even displayed better capacity to choose between good and evil.
Translations
Croatian
Orci
Czech
Skřeti
Danish
Orker
Dutch
Orks
Esperanto
Orko
Finnish
Örkit
French
Orques
Galician
Orco
Georgian
ორკები
German
Orks
Greek
Ορκς
Gujarati
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Where Do The Orcs In The Lord Of The Rings Come From?
Orcs may not be the strongest creatures in Middle Earth, as even the hobbits were able to take out several of them, but they do have the numbers. In The Lord of the Rings, there is a scene where viewers see what is apparently some type of birth, where full-sized and viscous Orcs are born from a muddy, sludge-filled membrane ready to fight. This scene leaves a lot of questions like how does this happen, are they all born this way, and where did the first Orcs come from.
There is some confusion about the different types of Orcs there are, as well. Tolkien used different terms to describe these creatures, but no matter what they are called, they are still all classified as Orc-type. The different divisions of Orcs include Uruk-hai (which are the Orcs bred in Isengard, sometimes called Isengarders), Hobgoblins (a breed that is stronger and larger than a normal Orc), and Goblins (who live underground in places like the Misty Mountains ). There are also lesser-known divisions like Half-Orcs and Mordor Orcs. There was a Dark Lord before Sauron was in the picture. Morgoth (also known as Melkor) was the first Dark Lord, and he is the one who first bred the Orcs. Mordor Orcs refer to the Orcs that Sauron bred for his own army.
The first Dark Lord Melkor took hostage some Elves from Cuiviénen. He tortured them, beat them, and broke their bodies into the first deformed and twisted beings known as Orcs. Tolkien confirmed that female Orcs did exist. The fallen Maiar (spiritual beings that have existed since the beginning of time) and Orcs led by Melkor lived underground in the dark depths of the world, where the Orcs began breeding and multiplying. This large group of festering evil lived underground and out of sight until they emerged from the depths of their own Middle Earthly hell . The first race to encounter the Orcs was the Dwarves. The Orcs were scattered, divided, and leaderless at first, not posing much of a threat.
When viewers find themselves asking where did the Orcs come from after watching The Lord of the Rings, they are most likely asking about the Uruk-hai and the birthing scene. Although this division refers to Orcs bred in Isengard, there were also Uruks from Mordor who worked in Sauron's Dark Tower called Barad-dûr, and they used the symbol of the Great Eye to bestow fear in Middle Earth, just like the Uruk-hai from Isengard used a white handprint or white Elven rune to symbolize that they were from Isengard and served the White Wizard. Unlike the first Orcs who were created from the tortured and mangled bodies of Elves, the Uruk-hai were bred by Saruman the White using the dark arts.
Magic in The Lord of the Rings is more of the mind than the physical . Saruman conjured up the Uruk-hai not so much by waving a wand and the Uruk-hai were there, but more so from a formula and spell—like a curse. Saruman also enchanted the minds of Men or were enemies of Rohan into joining forces with the Orc army. It's not said in any book or even by Peter Jackson (director of the trilogy), but it is suggested that the Uruk-hai were the result of crossbreeding Man and Orc. There are several works of fiction (usually horror movies) that explore the idea of putting a curse on a woman's baby (either before or after it is born like in Rosemary's Baby), and the type of magic Saruman used was similar to this to result in the Uruk-hai—which are different than Half-Orcs.
Saruman briefly explains how the first Orcs came to be, asking one of the Uruk-hai, "Do you know how the Orcs first came to being? They were Elves once, taken by the dark powers, tortured, and mutilated. A ruined and terrible form of life. And now, perfected. My fighting Uruk-hai." In the films, Saruman's Uruks rip their way out of a membrane of some kind that is deep under the Earth, and other Orcs help dig them out of the mud. Like the Eye of Sauron, this was another interpretation of the book that Peter Jackson, Fran Walsh, and Philippa Boyens made based on what Tolkien once said about how Orcs "worm their way out of the ground like maggots."
Saruman bred the Uruk-hai to be stronger, bigger, and with better armor than Sauron's first Orcs were. And although there was a bit of magic involved, the Orcs were made from hate, evil, and pain. The scene in Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings was just a metaphor for how nasty and mean the Orcs were and how they seemed to come out of the ground (since that is where they first lived) from nowhere, and it might have been a little strange to see thousands of Orc or human women giving birth to baby Orcs.
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What origin story of the Orcs do you prefer?
As we all know Tolkien was very undecided of the origin of Orcs. Even though the published origin is the capturing and twisting of the first Elves by Morgoth, many later texts from Tolkien show that he himsepf wasn't sure where the Orcs come from.
I really like the published Origin story of the Orcs. It gives a completely different moral question about if Orcs are redeemable and wether their Fëa is getting send to Mandos or maybe to Morgoth behind the door of night.
What's your favorite interpretation of the Orcs backstory?
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73 | where are the orcs made in lord of the rings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orc | Orc
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Humanoid monster in Tolkien's fiction
This article is about the fictional humanoid monster. For other uses, see Orc (disambiguation) .
Details
Multiple alternative origins proposed by Tolkien, e.g. corrupted elves, or bred by Morgoth
In Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings , orcs appear as a brutish, aggressive, ugly, and malevolent race of monsters , contrasting with the benevolent Elves . He described their origins inconsistently, including as a corrupted race of elves, or bred by the Dark Lord Morgoth , or turned to evil in the wild. [4] [5] Tolkien's orcs serve as a conveniently wholly evil enemy that could be slaughtered without mercy. [6]
The orc was a sort of "hell-devil" in Old English literature, and the orc-né (pl. orc-néas, "demon-corpses") was a race of corrupted beings and descendants of Cain , alongside the elf, according to the poem Beowulf . Tolkien adopted the term orc from these old attestations, which he professed was a choice made purely for "phonetic suitability" reasons. [T 1]
Tolkien's concept of orcs has been adapted into the fantasy fiction of other authors, and into games of many different genres such as Dungeons & Dragons , Magic: The Gathering , and Warcraft .
Latin orcus is glossed as Old English "orc, þyrs ꝉ hel-deofol" ("Goblin, spectre or hell-devil") in the 10th century Cleopatra Glossaries .
The Anglo-Saxon word orc, which Tolkien used, is generally thought to be derived from the Latin word/name Orcus, [7] though Tolkien himself expressed doubt about this. [8] The term orcus is glossed as "orc, þyrs, oððe hel-deofol" [a] ("Goblin, spectre, or hell-devil") in the 10th century Old English Cleopatra Glossaries , about which Thomas Wright wrote, " Orcus was the name for Pluto , the god of the infernal regions, hence we can easily understand the explanation of hel - deofol . Orc, in Anglo-Saxon, like thyrs , means a spectre, or goblin." [9] [10] [b]
In the sense of a monstrous being, the term is used just once in Beowulf , as the plural compound orcneas, one of the tribes belonging to the descendants of Cain , alongside the elves and ettins (giants) condemned by God:
þanon untydras ealle onwocon
swylce gigantas þa wið gode wunnon
lange þrage he him ðæs lean forgeald
—Beowulf, Fitt I, vv. 111–14 [11]
Thence all evil broods were born,
ogres and elves and evil spirits
—the giants also, who long time fought with God,
Beowulf 's eotenas ond ylfe ond orcneas, " ogres and elves and demon-corpses", inspiring Tolkien to create orcs and other races
The meaning of Orcneas is uncertain. Frederick Klaeber suggested it consisted of orc < L. orcus "the underworld" + neas "corpses", to which the translation "evil spirits" failed to do justice. [13] [c] It is generally supposed to contain an element -né, cognate to Gothic naus and Old Norse nár, both meaning 'corpse'. [7] [d] If *orcné is to be glossed as orcus 'corpse', then the compound word can be construed as "demon-corpses", [15] or "corpse from Orcus (i.e. the underworld)". [13] Hence orc-neas may have been some sort of walking dead monster, a product of ancient necromancy , [13] or a zombie -like creature. [15] [16]
Tolkien wrote that his orcs were influenced by the goblins in George MacDonald 's 1872 The Princess and the Goblin . [T 1] Illustration "The goblins fell back a little when he began, and made horrible grimaces" by Jessie Willcox Smith , 1920
The term "orc" is used only once in the first edition of Tolkien's 1937 The Hobbit , which preferred the term "goblins". "Orc" was later used ubiquitously in The Lord of the Rings. [17] [T 2] The "orc-" element occurs in the sword name Orcrist , [e] [T 2] [17] which is given as its Elvish language name, [T 3] [18] and glossed as "Goblin-cleaver". [T 4]
Stated etymology
Tolkien began the more modern use of the English term "orc" to denote a race of evil humanoid beings. His earliest Elvish dictionaries include the entry Ork (orq-) "monster", "ogre", "demon", together with orqindi and "ogresse". He sometimes used the plural form orqui in his early texts. [f] He stated that the Elvish words for orc were derived from a root ruku, "fear, horror"; in Quenya , orco, plural orkor; in Sindarin orch, plurals yrch and Orchoth (as a class). [T 5] [T 1] They had similar names in other Middle-earth languages: uruk in Black Speech; [T 1] in the language of the Drúedain gorgûn, "ork-folk"; in Khuzdul rukhs, plural rakhâs; and in the language of Rohan and in the Common Speech , orka. [T 5]
Tolkien stated in a letter to the novelist Naomi Mitchison that his orcs had been influenced by George MacDonald 's The Princess and the Goblin . [T 1] He explained that his word "orc" was "derived from Old English orc 'demon', but only because of its phonetic suitability", [T 1] [17] and
I originally took the word from Old English orc (Beowulf 112 orc-neas and the gloss orc: þyrs ('ogre'), heldeofol ('hell-devil')). [g] This is supposed not to be connected with modern English orc, ork, a name applied to various sea-beasts of the dolphin order". [T 6] [1]
Tolkien also observed a similarity with the Latin word orcus , noting that "the word used in translation of Q[uenya] urko, S[indarin] orch is Orc. But that is because of the similarity of the ancient English word orc, 'evil spirit or bogey', to the Elvish words. There is possibly no connection between them". [T 5]
Orcs are of human shape, and of varying size. [T 7] They are depicted as ugly and filthy, with a taste for human flesh. They are fanged, bow-legged and long-armed. Most are small and avoid daylight. [T 8]
By the Third Age , a new breed of orc had emerged, the Uruk-hai, larger and more powerful, and no longer afraid of daylight. [T 8] Orcs eat meat, including the flesh of Men , and may indulge in cannibalism : in The Two Towers , Grishnákh, an orc from Mordor , claims that the Isengard orcs eat orc-flesh. Whether that is true or spoken in malice is uncertain: an orc flings Peregrin Took stale bread and a "strip of raw dried flesh ... the flesh of he dared not guess what creature". [T 8]
Half-orcs appear in The Lord of the Rings, created by interbreeding of orcs and Men; [T 9] they were able to go in sunlight. [T 8] The "sly Southerner" in The Fellowship of the Ring looks "more than half like a goblin"; [T 10] similar but more orc-like hybrids appear in The Two Towers "man-high, but with goblin-faces, sallow, leering, squint-eyed." [T 11]
Peter Jackson had an orc modelled on the Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein after a disagreement. [19]
In Peter Jackson 's Lord of the Rings films , the actors playing orcs are made up with masks designed to make them look evil. After a disagreement with the film producer Harvey Weinstein , Jackson had one of the masks made to resemble Weinstein, as an insult to him. [19]
Orkish language
The Orcs had no language of their own, merely a pidgin of many various languages. However, individual tribes developed dialects that differed so widely that Westron , often with a crude accent, was used as a common language. [T 8] [20] When Sauron returned to power in Mordor in the Third Age , Black Speech was used by the captains of his armies and by his servants in his tower of Barad-dûr . A sample of debased Black Speech can be found in The Two Towers , where a "yellow-fanged" guard Orc of Mordor curses Uglúk of Isengard (an Uruk-hai chief) with the words "Uglúk u bagronk sha pushdug Saruman-glob búbhosh skai!" In The Peoples of Middle-earth , Tolkien gives the translation: "Uglúk to the cesspool, sha! the dungfilth; the great Saruman-fool, skai!" [T 12] However, in a note published in Vinyar Tengwar he gives an alternative translation: "Uglúk to the dung-pit with stinking Saruman-filth, pig-guts, gah!" [21] Alexander Nemirovsky [ ru ] speculated that Tolkien might have drawn upon the language of the ancient Hittites and Hurrians for Black Speech. [22]
In-fiction origins
The origin(s) of orcs were explained in multiple inconsistent ways by Tolkien. [23] Early works depict them as creations of Morgoth, mimicking the forms of the Children of Ilúvatar. [23] Alternatively, they may have been East Elves (Avari) enslaved, tortured, and bred by Morgoth (as Melkor became known), [T 13] or, "perhaps ... Avari [(a race of elves)] ... [turned] evil and savage in the wild", both according to The Silmarillion. [T 14] [h]
The orcs "multiplied" like Elves and Men, meaning that they reproduced sexually . [24] Tolkien stated in a letter dated 21 October 1963 to a Mrs. Munsby that "there must have been orc-women". [T 16] [25] [26] In The Fall of Gondolin Morgoth made them of slime by sorcery, "bred from the heats and slimes of the earth". [T 17] Or, they were "beasts of humanized shape", possibly, Tolkien wrote, Elves mated with beasts, and later Men. [T 18] Or again, Tolkien noted, they could have been fallen Maiar , perhaps a kind called Boldog, like lesser Balrogs ; or corrupted Men. [T 9]
Shippey writes that the orcs in The Lord of the Rings were almost certainly created just to equip Middle-earth with a continual supply of enemies who one could kill without compunction, [24] or in Tolkien's words from The Monsters and the Critics "the infantry of the old war" ready to be slaughtered. [24] Shippey states that all the same, orcs share the human concept of good and evil, with a familiar sense of morality , though he notes that, like many people, orcs are quite unable to apply their morals to themselves. Shippey opined that Tolkien, as a Catholic, took it as a given that "evil cannot make, only mock", so orcs could not have an equal and opposite morality to that of men or elves. [27] In a 1954 letter, Tolkien wrote that orcs were "fundamentally a race of 'rational incarnate' creatures, though horribly corrupted, if no more so than many Men to be met today." [T 19] The scholar of English literature Robert Tally wrote in Mythlore that despite the uniform presentation of orcs as "loathsome, ugly, cruel, feared, and especially terminable", "Tolkien could not resist the urge to flesh out and 'humanize' these inhuman creatures from time to time", in the process giving them their own morality. [28] Shippey notes that in The Two Towers, the orc Gorbag disapproves of the "regular elvish trick" (an immoral act) of abandoning a comrade, as he wrongly supposes Sam Gamgee has done to Frodo Baggins . Shippey describes the implied concept of evil as Boethian – that evil is the absence of good. He notes, however, that Tolkien did not agree with that concept of evil; Tolkien believed that evil had to be actively fought, with war if necessary. That is something that Shippey describes as representing the Manichean position– that evil coexists with good, and is at least equally as powerful. [29]
The origins and morality of Orcs: the Catholic Tolkien's dilemma
Created evil?
Like animals?
Moral implication
Orcs have no power of speech and morality .
Orcs have morality just like Men. [29] [28]
Resulting problem
Orcs like Gorbag have a moral sense (even if they cannot keep to it) and can speak, which conflicts with their being wholly evil or not even sentient. Since evil cannot make, only mock, orcs cannot have an equal and opposite morality to Men. [28] [27]
Orcs should be treated with mercy, where possible.
Debated racism
Imagemap with clickable links of Tolkien's moral geography of Middle-earth, according to John Magoun [30]
The possibility of racism in Tolkien's descriptions of orcs has been debated. In a private letter, Tolkien describes orcs as: [T 20]
squat, broad, flat-nosed, sallow-skinned, with wide mouths and slant eyes: in fact degraded and repulsive versions of the (to Europeans) least lovely Mongol-types. [T 20]
O'Hehir describes orcs as "a subhuman race bred by Morgoth and/or Sauron (although not created by them) that is morally irredeemable and deserves only death. They are dark-skinned and slant-eyed, and although they possess reason, speech, social organization and, as Shippey mentions, a sort of moral sensibility, they are inherently evil." [31] He notes Tolkien's own description of them, saying it could scarcely be more revealing as a representation of the " Other ", and states "it is also the product of his background and era, like most of our inescapable prejudices. At the level of conscious intention, he was not a racist or an anti-Semite " and mentions Tolkien's letters to this effect. [31] The literary critic Jenny Turner, writing in the London Review of Books , endorses Andrew O'Hehir's comment on Salon.com that orcs are "by design and intention a northern European's paranoid caricature of the races he has dimly heard about". [32] [31]
Tally describes the orcs as a demonized enemy , despite (he writes) Tolkien's own objections to demonization of the enemy in the two World Wars. [33] In a letter to his son, Christopher , who was serving in the RAF in the Second World War, Tolkien wrote of orcs as appearing on both sides of the conflict:
Yes, I think the orcs as real a creation as anything in 'realistic' fiction ... only in real life they are on both sides, of course. For 'romance' has grown out of 'allegory', and its wars are still derived from the 'inner war' of allegory in which good is on one side and various modes of badness on the other. In real (exterior) life men are on both sides: which means a motley alliance of orcs, beasts, demons, plain naturally honest men, and angels. [T 21]
John Magoun, writing in the J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia , states that Middle-earth has a "fully expressed moral geography ". [30] Any moral bias towards a north-western geography, however, was directly denied by Tolkien in a letter to Charlotte and Denis Plimmer, who had recently interviewed him in 1967:
Auden has asserted that for me 'the North is a sacred direction'. That is not true. The North-west of Europe, where I (and most of my ancestors) have lived, has my affection, as a man's home should. I love its atmosphere, and know more of its histories and languages than I do of other parts; but it is not 'sacred', nor does it exhaust my affections. I do have, for instance, a particular fondness for the Latin language, and among its descendants for Spanish. That it is untrue for my story, a mere reading of the synopses should show. The North was the seat of the fortresses of the Devil [ie. Morgoth ]. [T 22]
Peter Jackson 's film versions of Tolkien's orcs have been compared to wartime caricatures of the Japanese (here, an American propaganda poster). [34]
Scholars of English literature William N. Rogers II and Michael R. Underwood note that a widespread element of late 19th century Western culture was fear of moral decline and degeneration; this led to eugenics . [35] In The Two Towers, the Ent Treebeard says: [T 23]
It is a mark of evil things that came in the Great Darkness that they cannot abide the Sun; but Saruman 's orcs can endure it, even if they hate it. I wonder what he has done? Are they Men he has ruined, or has he blended the races of orcs and Men ? That would be a black evil! [T 23]
The Germanic studies scholar Sandra Ballif Straubhaar however argues against the "recurring accusations" of racism, stating that "a polycultured, polylingual world is absolutely central" to Middle-earth, and that readers and filmgoers will easily see that. [36] The historian and Tolkien scholar Jared Lobdell likewise disagreed with any notions of racism inherent or latent in Tolkien's works, and wondered "if there were a way of writing epic fantasy about a battle against an evil spirit and his monstrous servants without its being subject to speculation of racist intent". [37]
The journalist David Ibata writes that the interpretations of orcs in Peter Jackson 's Lord of the Rings films look much like "the worst depictions of the Japanese drawn by American and British illustrators during World War II ". [34]
Other fiction
In games
Orcs based on The Lord of the Rings have become a fixture of fantasy fiction and role-playing games .
Dungeons & Dragons
In the fantasy tabletop role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D), orcs are creatures in the game, and somewhat based upon those described by Tolkien. [40] These D&D orcs are implemented in the game rules as a multi- tribed race of hostile and bestial humanoids . [41] [43] [44]
The D&D orcs are endowed with muscular frames, large canine teeth like boar's tusks, and snouts rather than human-like noses. [44] [42] While a pug-nose ("flat-nosed" [T 20] ) was attributable to Tolkien's written correspondence, the pig-headed (pig-faced [45] ) look was imparted on the orc by the D&D original edition (1974). [46] It was later modified from bald-headed to hairy in subsequent editions. [46] In the third version of the game the orc became gray-skinned, [47] [48] [49] even though a complicated color-palleted description of a (non-gray) orc had been implemented in the Monster Manual for the first edition (1977). [50] Newer versions seem to have dropped references to skin-color. [42]
Early versions of the game introduced the "half-orc" as race. [51] The orc was described in the first edition of Monster Manual ( op. cit. ), as a fiercely competitive bully, a tribal creature often dwelling and building underground; [52] in newer editions, orcs (though still described as sometimes inhabiting cavern complexes) had been shifted to become more prone to non-subterranean habitation as well, adapting captured villages into communities, for instance. [53] [42] The mythology and attitudes of the orcs are described in detail in Dragon #62 (June 1982), in Roger E. Moore 's article, "The Half-Orc Point of View". [54]
The orc for the D&D offshoot Pathfinder RPG are detailed in the 2008 book Classic Monsters Revisited issued by the game's publisher Paizo . [55]
Games Workshop 's Warhammer universe features cunning and brutal orcs in a fantasy setting, who are driven not so much by a need to do evil as to obtain fulfilment through the act of war. [56] In the Warhammer 40,000 series of science-fiction games, they are a green-skinned alien species, called Orks . [57]
Orcs are an important race in Warcraft , a high fantasy franchise created by Blizzard Entertainment . [58] Several orc characters from the Warcraft universe are playable heroes in their crossover multiplayer game Heroes of the Storm . [59]
Other products
In The Elder Scrolls series, many orcs or Orsimer are skilled blacksmiths. [61] In Hasbro 's Heroscape products, orcs come from the pre-historic planet Grut. [62] They are blue-skinned, with prominent tusks or horns. [63] The Skylander Voodood from the first game in the series, Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure , is an orc. [64]
Savage orc
Orc Grunt, an orc from Warcraft
See also
Orc (slang) – the modern pejorative usage of the word
Troll (Middle-earth) – large humanoids of great strength and poor intellect, also used by Sauron
^ Here: "orcus [orc].. þrys ꝉ heldeofol" is the redaction given by Pheifer 1974 , p. 37n but þrys appears to be a mistranscription for þyrs. The original text uses "ꝉ", the scribal abbreviation for Latin vel meaning "or", which Wright has silently expanded as Anglo-Saxon oððe.
^ The Corpus Glossary (Corpus Christi College MS. 144, late 8th to early 9th century) has the two glosses: "orcus, orc" and "orcus, ðyrs, hel-diobul. Pheifer 1974 , p. 37n
^ Klaeber here takes orcus to be the world and not the god, as does Bosworth & Toller 1898 , p. 764: "orc, es; m. The infernal regions (orcus)", though the latter seems to predicate on synthesizing the compound "Orcþyrs" by altering the reading of the Cleopatra glossaries as given by Wright's Voc. ii. that he sources.
^ The usual Old English word for corpse is líc, but -né appears in nebbed 'corpse bed', [14] and in dryhtné 'dead body of a warrior', where dryht is a military unit.
^ Parma Eldalamberon volume XII: "Quenya Lexicon Quenya Dictionary": 'Ork' ('orq-') monster, ogre, demon. "orqindi" ogresse. [The original reading of the second entry was >'orqinan' ogresse.< Perhaps the intended meaning of the earlier form was 'region of ogres'; cf. 'kalimban', 'Hisinan'. 'The Poetic and Mythologic Words of Eldarissa' gives 'ork' 'ogre, giant' and 'orqin' 'ogress', which may be a feminine form. ...]"
^ In the Cleopatra Glossaries , Folio 69 verso; the entry is illustrated above.
^ The orcs are described as "foul broodlings of Melkor who fared abroad doing his evil work" in The Tale of Tinúviel . [T 15]
^ Wizards of the Coast acquired TSR in 1997, and subsequently published editions of D&D and Monster Manual.
^ Tolkien 1937 , ch. 4 "Over Hill and Under Hill"
^ Tolkien 1955 book 6, ch. 1, "The Tower of Cirith Ungol"
^ Tolkien 1954a , Book 1, ch. 11 "A Knife in the Dark"
^ Tolkien 1954 , Book 3, ch. 9 "Flotsam and Jetsam"
^ Tolkien 1996 , Part One: the Prologue and Appendices to The Lord of the Rings. Draft of Appendix F.
^ Carpenter 2023 , letter 153 to Peter Hastings, draft, September 1954
^ Shippey 2005 , pp. 362, 438 (chapter 5, note 14).
(Repr. Sandpaper Books, 1998 ISBN 0-19-811164-9 ), Gloss #698: orcus orc (Épinal); orci orc (Erfurt).
^ a b c Klaeber 1950 , p. 183: "orcneas: 'evil spirits' does not bring out all the meaning. Orcneas is compounded of orc (from the Lat. orcus "the underworld" or Hades) and neas "corpses". Necromancy was practised among the ancient Germani and was familiar among the pagan Norsemen who revived it in England when they invaded".
Brehaut, Patricia Kathleen (1961). Moot passages in Beowulf (Thesis). Stanford, California: Stanford University . p. 8.
.
.
^ "'Orc' (from Orcus) is another term for an ogre or ogre-like creature. Being useful fodder for the ranks of bad guys, monsters similar to Tolkien's orcs are also in both games."
Gygax, Gary (March 1985). "On the influence of J.R.R. Tolkien on the D&D and AD&D games". The Dragon . No. 95. pp. 12–13.
Williams, Skip ; Tweet, Jonathan ; Cook, Monte (1 October 2000). Monster Manual: Core Rulebook III (3 ed.). Wizards of the Coast. p. 146. ISBN
Orcs are aggressive humanoids that raid, pillage, and battle other creatures
.
^ "Orcs gather in tribes that exert their dominance and satisfy their bloodlust by plundering villages, devouring or driving off roaming herd, and slaying any humanoids that stand against them". [42] quoted by Young (2015) , p. 96.
Mohr, Joseph (7 December 2019). "Orcs in Dungeons and Dragons" . Old School Role Playing. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
orcs... look like primitive humans with gray skin, coarse hair, stooped postures, low foreheads, and porcine faces with prominent lower canines... they have lupine ears.
Williams, Skip ; Tweet, Jonathan ; Cook, Monte (July 2003). Monster Manual: Dungeons & Dragons Core Rulebook (3.5 ed.). Wizards of the Coast. p. 203. ISBN
.
[The Creature] looks like a primitive human with gray skin and coarse hair. It has a stooped posture, low forehead, and a piglike face with prominent lower canines that resemble a boar's tusks.
^ And the "Gray orc" introduced as a race. [44]
Gygax, Gary (December 1977). Monster Manual (1 ed.). TSR. p. 76.
Orcs appear particularly disgusting because their coloration ― brown or brownish green with bluish sheen ― highlights their pinkish snouts and ears. Their bristly hair is dark brown or black, sometimes with tan patches.
^ Either the D&D first edition [44] or Advanced D&D, [46]
^ Moore, Roger E . "The Half-Orc Point of View." Dragon #62 (TSR, June 1982).
^ Baur, Wolfgang , Jason Bulmahn , Joshua J. Frost, James Jacobs , Nicolas Logue, Mike McArtor, James L. Sutter, Greg A. Vaughan , Jeremy Walker. Classic Monsters Revisited (Paizo, 2008) pages 52–57.
Priestley, Rick ; Thornton, Jake (2000). Warhammer Fantasy Battles Army Book: Orcs & Goblins (6th ed.). Games Workshop: Nottingham. pp. 10–11.
Vessenes, Ted (8 February 2002). "Lessons of the Past" . The One Ring. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
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7
The question as to how Orcs reproduce is one that has come up many times, and the answer is basically, as they are just corrupted Elves they do it in the traditional fashion.
For the Orcs had life and multiplied after the manner of the Children of Ilúvatar; and naught that had life of its own, nor the semblance of life, could ever Melkor make....
However, I do have a further question upon this. That being, quite how are Orcs so prolific in Middle-earth?
It seems established that Elves reproduce slower than Humans and less often. They're a dying race. I recall reading that their pregnancy lasts a year, and they can only reproduce for a brief spell when young by Elf standards (old by Human standards).
Orcs however... They're the complete opposite of Elves in Middle-earth. They're practically rats—infesting every dark corner in vast numbers. Their tactics revolve around Human (Orkish) waves.
Just how did a handful of captured Elves—it seems to have been just a small number rather than a significant chunk of the race—give rise to such a widespread race?
asked Oct 8, 2022 at 21:30
the other one the other one
33311 silver badge66 bronze badges
9
13
No question about the fundamental nature or origin of the orcs is going to have a satisfactory answer, since Tolkien never resolved these kinds of questions to his own satisfaction.
5
Why wouldn’t part of the corruption be that they reproduce faster than elves?
1
You've answered your own question. The elves had few children because they weren't a passionate race, hence procreation was a rare event. Humans (and Orcs) on the other hand, are at it like knives and have lots of babies
1
2
I am not much knowledgeable about the LOTR, so I cannot provide a proper answer. But a shadow of an answer might be this: watch the movie "Idiocracy", if you did not watch it already. There, both the "orcs" and the "elves" are just people. Yet, the difference stands - the "orcs" multiply much faster than the "elves".
7
Because they are left unmolested for long periods of time. We can see this by looking at entries between wars in the Tale of Years (LotR appendix B).
For example, the beginning of the second age follows the War of Wrath, in which Morgoth's forces were destroyed. At this point, many elves have left Middle-Earth and the Edain are living peacefully on the island of Numenor. According to the Tale of Years, Sauron starts the building of Barad-dur around SA1000, but the war of the Elves and Sauron doesn't start until SA1693. There is nothing to indicate that anyone tried to disrupt the build-up of his forces. Six years later, Sauron defeats the Elves, but then the Numenoreans intervene. The entries for SA1700 and 1701 just say that Sauron is defeated and driven out of Eriador, but the History of Galadriel and Celeborn in the Unfinished Tales spells out the magnitude of the defeat:
In the Battle of the Gwathlo Sauron was routed utterly and he himself
only narrowly escaped. His small remaining force was assailed in the
east of Calenardhon, and he with no more than a bodyguard fled to the
region afterwards called Dagorlad (Battle Plain) ... The army that was
besieging Imladris was caught between Elrond and Gil-Galad, and
utterly destroyed.
Thus the whole of Sauron's invading army is wiped out, but there is no record of any subsequent major fighting until the time of the Last Alliance with war starting in SA3429, more than 700 years after the Battle of the Gwathlo.
There is a similar pattern in the Third Age. According to the Tale of Years, the Nazgul reoccupy Mordor in TA1980 and seize Minas Ithil in TA2000. Between that time and the War of the Ring, the orcs of the Misty Mountains take a beating in the War of the Dwarves and Orcs [TA2793-2799] and at the Battle of Five Armies [TA2941], and there is some fighting between Gondor and Rohan on one side and forces of Mordor/Minas Morgul on the other. However (as was often the case), Sauron let the Haradrim, Easterlings and Corsairs do a lot of his dirty work [TA2475, 2510, 2758, 2885, 2901]. There is no record of Gondor making a major attack against Mordor or Minas Morgul during this time, and Sauron had plenty of time to build up a large force of orcs.
Gandalf remarks upon this in The Last Debate:
... he [Sauron] has not built up his power by waiting until his
enemies are secure, as we have done.
That's a bit harsh when applied to Gondor and Rohan, since they lacked the strength to attack Sauron directly. On the other hand, much evil might have been averted if the Numenoreans had acted more agressively after the Battle of the Gwathlo.
9
3
There remains the question of what they can find to eat, particularly in devastated lands. Their orconomy seems unsustainable.
1
@Valorum --- Unfortunately, the good side doesn't tend to take agressive action when Sauron is inactive, so what we have here is an absence of quotes: there are no records of anyone trying to disrupt the build-up of Sauron's forces because that did not happen. That said, there is a remark from Gandalf on precisely this point, and I'll edit that in when I remember its location.
5
@InvisibleTrihedron --- "Neither he [Sam] nor Frodo knew anything of the great slave-worked fields away south in this wide realm [Mordor] ... nor of the great roads that ran away east and south to tributary lands." (The Land of Shadow)
2
'Sauron had plenty of time to build up a large force of orcs' The "no big bosses" conversation between Gorbag and Shagrat suggests that, in the lead-up to the War of the Ring, Sauron didn't so much build up a large force of orcs as take control of an existing large (and militarised) population of orcs that had arisen without his involvement.
– user134664
1
@DanielHatton --- Without his direct involvement perhaps, but the Nazgul re-entered Mordor more than 1,000 years before the War of the Ring started.
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Dockets and Court Documents in State and Federal Courts: Federal Courts
Federal Court Dockets and Documents
Compared to state court documents, federal court case documents are frequently available electronically. U.S. District and Appellate case dockets and filings are available via the federal system's Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) . Attorneys practicing in federal courts not only use PACER to download case documents, they also file case documents directly through this system. The UCLA law library does not have an institutional subscription that students, faculty, and staff can search, but most of the resources below pull their documents directly from PACER. When you cannot locate the item you need electronically, you can contact the court directly using the federal court Lookup tool .
Publicly Accessible Resources
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74 | how do federal courts calendar and docket cases | https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcp/rule_16 | Rule 16. Pretrial Conferences; Scheduling; Management
Rule 16. Pretrial Conferences; Scheduling; Management
(a) Purposes of a Pretrial Conference. In any action, the court may order the attorneys and any unrepresented parties to appear for one or more pretrial conferences for such purposes as:
(1) expediting disposition of the action;
(2) establishing early and continuing control so that the case will not be protracted because of lack of management;
(3) discouraging wasteful pretrial activities;
(4) improving the quality of the trial through more thorough preparation; and
(5) facilitating settlement.
(b) Scheduling.
(1) Scheduling Order. Except in categories of actions exempted by local rule, the district judge—or a magistrate judge when authorized by local rule—must issue a scheduling order:
(A) after receiving the parties’ report under Rule 26(f) ; or
(B) after consulting with the parties’ attorneys and any unrepresented parties at a scheduling conference.
(2) Time to Issue. The judge must issue the scheduling order as soon as practicable, but unless the judge finds good cause for delay, the judge must issue it within the earlier of 90 days after any defendant has been served with the complaint or 60 days after any defendant has appeared.
(3) Contents of the Order.
(A) Required Contents. The scheduling order must limit the time to join other parties, amend the pleadings, complete discovery, and file motions.
(B) Permitted Contents. The scheduling order may:
(i) modify the timing of disclosures under Rules 26(a) and 26(e)(1) ;
(ii) modify the extent of discovery;
(iii) provide for disclosure, discovery, or preservation of electronically stored information;
(iv) include any agreements the parties reach for asserting claims of privilege or of protection as trial-preparation material after information is produced, including agreements reached under Federal Rule of Evidence 502 ;
(v) direct that before moving for an order relating to discovery, the movant must request a conference with the court;
(vi) set dates for pretrial conferences and for trial; and
(vii) include other appropriate matters.
(4) Modifying a Schedule. A schedule may be modified only for good cause and with the judge's consent.
(c) Attendance and Matters for Consideration at a Pretrial Conference.
(1) Attendance. A represented party must authorize at least one of its attorneys to make stipulations and admissions about all matters that can reasonably be anticipated for discussion at a pretrial conference. If appropriate, the court may require that a party or its representative be present or reasonably available by other means to consider possible settlement.
(2) Matters for Consideration. At any pretrial conference, the court may consider and take appropriate action on the following matters:
(A) formulating and simplifying the issues, and eliminating frivolous claims or defenses;
(B) amending the pleadings if necessary or desirable;
(C) obtaining admissions and stipulations about facts and documents to avoid unnecessary proof, and ruling in advance on the admissibility of evidence;
(D) avoiding unnecessary proof and cumulative evidence, and limiting the use of testimony under Federal Rule of Evidence 702 ;
(E) determining the appropriateness and timing of summary adjudication under Rule 56 ;
(F) controlling and scheduling discovery, including orders affecting disclosures and discovery under Rule 26 and Rules 29 through 37 ;
(G) identifying witnesses and documents, scheduling the filing and exchange of any pretrial briefs, and setting dates for further conferences and for trial;
(H) referring matters to a magistrate judge or a master;
(I) settling the case and using special procedures to assist in resolving the dispute when authorized by statute or local rule;
(J) determining the form and content of the pretrial order;
(K) disposing of pending motions;
(L) adopting special procedures for managing potentially difficult or protracted actions that may involve complex issues, multiple parties, difficult legal questions, or unusual proof problems;
(M) ordering a separate trial under Rule 42(b) of a claim, counterclaim, crossclaim, third-party claim, or particular issue;
(N) ordering the presentation of evidence early in the trial on a manageable issue that might, on the evidence, be the basis for a judgment as a matter of law under Rule 50(a) or a judgment on partial findings under Rule 52(c) ;
(O) establishing a reasonable limit on the time allowed to present evidence; and
(P) facilitating in other ways the just, speedy, and inexpensive disposition of the action.
(d) Pretrial Orders. After any conference under this rule, the court should issue an order reciting the action taken. This order controls the course of the action unless the court modifies it.
(e) Final Pretrial Conference and Orders. The court may hold a final pretrial conference to formulate a trial plan, including a plan to facilitate the admission of evidence. The conference must be held as close to the start of trial as is reasonable, and must be attended by at least one attorney who will conduct the trial for each party and by any unrepresented party. The court may modify the order issued after a final pretrial conference only to prevent manifest injustice.
(f) Sanctions.
(1) In General. On motion or on its own, the court may issue any just orders, including those authorized by Rule 37(b)(2)(A)(ii) –(vii), if a party or its attorney:
(A) fails to appear at a scheduling or other pretrial conference;
(B) is substantially unprepared to participate—or does not participate in good faith—in the conference; or
(C) fails to obey a scheduling or other pretrial order.
(2) Imposing Fees and Costs. Instead of or in addition to any other sanction, the court must order the party, its attorney, or both to pay the reasonable expenses—including attorney's fees—incurred because of any noncompliance with this rule, unless the noncompliance was substantially justified or other circumstances make an award of expenses unjust.
Notes
(As amended Apr. 28, 1983, eff. Aug. 1, 1983; Mar. 2, 1987, eff. Aug. 1, 1987; Apr. 22, 1993, eff. Dec. 1, 1993; Apr. 12, 2006, eff. Dec. 1, 2006; Apr. 30, 2007, eff. Dec. 1, 2007; Apr. 29, 2015, eff. Dec. 1, 2015.)
Notes of Advisory Committee on Rules—1937
1. Similar rules of pre-trial procedure are now in force in Boston, Cleveland, Detroit, and Los Angeles, and a rule substantially like this one has been proposed for the urban centers of New York state. For a discussion of the successful operation of pre-trial procedure in relieving the congested condition of trial calendars of the courts in such cities and for the proposed New York plan, see A Proposal for Minimizing Calendar Delay in Jury Cases (Dec. 1936—published by The New York Law Society); Pre-Trial Procedure and Administration , Third Annual Report of the Judicial Council of the State of New York (1937), pp. 207–243; Report of the Commission on the Administration of Justice in New York State (1934), pp. (288)–(290). See also Pre-Trial Procedure in the Wayne Circuit Court , Detroit, Michigan, Sixth Annual Report of the Judicial Council of Michigan (1936), pp. 63–75; and Sunderland, The Theory and Practice of Pre-Trial Procedure (Dec. 1937) 36 Mich.L.Rev. 215–226, 21 J.Am.Jud.Soc. 125. Compare the English procedure known as the “summons for directions,” English Rules Under the Judicature Act (The Annual Practice, 1937) O. 38a; and a similar procedure in New Jersey, N.J.Comp.Stat. (2 Cum.Supp. 1911–1924); N.J. Supreme Court Rules, 2 N.J.Misc.Rep. (1924) 1230, Rules 94, 92, 93, 95 (the last three as amended 1933, 11 N.J.Misc.Rep. (1933) 955).
2. Compare the similar procedure under Rule 56(d) (Summary Judgment—Case Not Fully Adjudicated on Motion). Rule 12(g) (Consolidation of Motions), by requiring to some extent the consolidation of motions dealing with matters preliminary to trial, is a step in the same direction. In connection with clause (5) of this rule, see Rules 53(b) (Masters; Reference) and 53(e)(3) (Master's Report; In Jury Actions).
Notes of Advisory Committee on Rules—1983 Amendment
Introduction
Rule 16 has not been amended since the Federal Rules were promulgated in 1938. In many respects, the rule has been a success. For example, there is evidence that pretrial conferences may improve the quality of justice rendered in the federal courts by sharpening the preparation and presentation of cases, tending to eliminate trial surprise, and improving, as well as facilitating, the settlement process. See 6 Wright & Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil §1522 (1971). However, in other respects particularly with regard to case management, the rule has not always been as helpful as it might have been. Thus there has been a widespread feeling that amendment is necessary to encourage pretrial management that meets the needs of modern litigation. See Report of the National Commission for the Review of Antitrust Laws and Procedures (1979).
Major criticism of Rule 16 has centered on the fact that its application can result in over-regulation of some cases and under-regulation of others. In simple, run-of-the-mill cases, attorneys have found pretrial requirements burdensome. It is claimed that over-administration leads to a series of mini-trials that result in a waste of an attorney's time and needless expense to a client. Pollack, Pretrial Procedures More Effectively Handled , 65 F.R.D. 475 (1974). This is especially likely to be true when pretrial proceedings occur long before trial. At the other end of the spectrum, the discretionary character of Rule 16 and its orientation toward a single conference late in the pretrial process has led to under-administration of complex or protracted cases. Without judicial guidance beginning shortly after institution, these cases often become mired in discovery.
Four sources of criticism of pretrial have been identified. First, conferences often are seen as a mere exchange of legalistic contentions without any real analysis of the particular case. Second, the result frequently is nothing but a formal agreement on minutiae. Third, the conferences are seen as unnecessary and time-consuming in cases that will be settled before trial. Fourth, the meetings can be ceremonial and ritualistic, having little effect on the trial and being of minimal value, particularly when the attorneys attending the sessions are not the ones who will try the case or lack authority to enter into binding stipulations. See generally McCargo v. Hedrick , 545 F.2d 393 (4th Cir. 1976); Pollack, Pretrial Procedures More Effectively Handled , 65 F.R.D. 475 (1974); Rosenberg, The Pretrial Conference and Effective Justice 45 (1964).
There also have been difficulties with the pretrial orders that issue following Rule 16 conferences. When an order is entered far in advance of trial, some issues may not be properly formulated. Counsel naturally are cautious and often try to preserve as many options as possible. If the judge who tries the case did not conduct the conference, he could find it difficult to determine exactly what was agreed to at the conference. But any insistence on a detailed order may be too burdensome, depending on the nature or posture of the case.
Given the significant changes in federal civil litigation since 1938 that are not reflected in Rule 16, it has been extensively rewritten and expanded to meet the challenges of modern litigation. Empirical studies reveal that when a trial judge intervenes personally at an early stage to assume judicial control over a case and to schedule dates for completion by the parties of the principal pretrial steps, the case is disposed of by settlement or trial more efficiently and with less cost and delay than when the parties are left to their own devices. Flanders, Case Management and Court Management in United States District Courts 17, Federal Judicial Center (1977). Thus, the rule mandates a pretrial scheduling order. However, although scheduling and pretrial conferences are encouraged in appropriate cases, they are not mandated.
Discussion
Subdivision (a); Pretrial Conferences; Objectives . The amended rule makes scheduling and case management an express goal of pretrial procedure. This is done in Rule 16(a) by shifting the emphasis away from a conference focused solely on the trial and toward a process of judicial management that embraces the entire pretrial phase, especially motions and discovery. In addition, the amendment explicitly recognizes some of the objectives of pretrial conferences and the powers that many courts already have assumed. Rule 16 thus will be a more accurate reflection of actual practice.
Subdivision (b); Scheduling and Planning . The most significant change in Rule 16 is the mandatory scheduling order described in Rule 16(b), which is based in part on Wisconsin Civil Procedure Rule 802.10. The idea of scheduling orders is not new. It has been used by many federal courts. See, e.g ., Southern District of Indiana, Local Rule 19.
Although a mandatory scheduling order encourages the court to become involved in case management early in the litigation, it represents a degree of judicial involvement that is not warranted in many cases. Thus, subdivision (b) permits each district court to promulgate a local rule under Rule 83 exempting certain categories of cases in which the burdens of scheduling orders exceed the administrative efficiencies that would be gained. See Eastern District of Virginia, Local Rule 12(1). Logical candidates for this treatment include social security disability matters, habeas corpus petitions, forfeitures, and reviews of certain administrative actions.
A scheduling conference may be requested either by the judge, a magistrate when authorized by district court rule, or a party within 120 days after the summons and complaint are filed. If a scheduling conference is not arranged within that time and the case is not exempted by local rule, a scheduling order must be issued under Rule 16(b), after some communication with the parties, which may be by telephone or mail rather than in person. The use of the term “judge” in subdivision (b) reflects the Advisory Committee's judgment that is it preferable that this task should be handled by a district judge rather than a magistrate, except when the magistrate is acting under 28 U.S.C. §636(c). While personal supervision by the trial judge is preferred, the rule, in recognition of the impracticality or difficulty of complying with such a requirement in some districts, authorizes a district by local rule to delegate the duties to a magistrate. In order to formulate a practicable scheduling order, the judge, or a magistrate when authorized by district court rule, and attorneys are required to develop a timetable for the matters listed in Rule 16(b)(1)–(3). As indicated in Rule 16(b)(4)–(5), the order may also deal with a wide range of other matters. The rule is phrased permissively as to clauses (4) and (5), however, because scheduling these items at an early point may not be feasible or appropriate. Even though subdivision (b) relates only to scheduling, there is no reason why some of the procedural matters listed in Rule 16(c) cannot be addressed at the same time, at least when a scheduling conference is held.
Item (1) assures that at some point both the parties and the pleadings will be fixed, by setting a time within which joinder of parties shall be completed and the pleadings amended.
Item (2) requires setting time limits for interposing various motions that otherwise might be used as stalling techniques.
Item (3) deals with the problem of procrastination and delay by attorneys in a context in which scheduling is especially important—discovery. Scheduling the completion of discovery can serve some of the same functions as the conference described in Rule 26(f).
Item (4) refers to setting dates for conferences and for trial. Scheduling multiple pretrial conferences may well be desirable if the case is complex and the court believes that a more elaborate pretrial structure, such as that described in the Manual for Complex Litigation , should be employed. On the other hand, only one pretrial conference may be necessary in an uncomplicated case.
As long as the case is not exempted by local rule, the court must issue a written scheduling order even if no scheduling conference is called. The order, like pretrial orders under the former rule and those under new Rule 16(c), normally will “control the subsequent course of the action.” See Rule 16(e). After consultation with the attorneys for the parties and any unrepresented parties—a formal motion is not necessary—the court may modify the schedule on a showing of good cause if it cannot reasonably be met despite the diligence of the party seeking the extension. Since the scheduling order is entered early in the litigation, this standard seems more appropriate than a “manifest injustice” or “substantial hardship” test. Otherwise, a fear that extensions will not be granted may encourage counsel to request the longest possible periods for completing pleading, joinder, and discovery. Moreover, changes in the court's calendar sometimes will oblige the judge or magistrate when authorized by district court rule to modify the scheduling order.
The district courts undoubtedly will develop several prototype scheduling orders for different types of cases. In addition, when no formal conference is held, the court may obtain scheduling information by telephone, mail, or otherwise. In many instances this will result in a scheduling order better suited to the individual case than a standard order, without taking the time that would be required by a formal conference.
Rule 16(b) assures that the judge will take some early control over the litigation, even when its character does not warrant holding a scheduling conference. Despite the fact that the process of preparing a scheduling order does not always bring the attorneys and judge together, the fixing of time limits serves
to stimulate litigants to narrow the areas of inquiry and advocacy to those they believe are truly relevant and material. Time limits not only compress the amount of time for litigation, they should also reduce the amount of resources invested in litigation. Litigants are forced to establish discovery priorities and thus to do the most important work first.
Report of the National Commission for the Review of Antitrust Laws and Procedures 28 (1979).
Thus, except in exempted cases, the judge or a magistrate when authorized by district court rule will have taken some action in every case within 120 days after the complaint is filed that notifies the attorneys that the case will be moving toward trial. Subdivision (b) is reenforced by subdivision (f), which makes it clear that the sanctions for violating a scheduling order are the same as those for violating a pretrial order.
Subdivision (c); Subjects to be Discussed at Pretrial Conferences . This subdivision expands upon the list of things that may be discussed at a pretrial conference that appeared in original Rule 16. The intention is to encourage better planning and management of litigation. Increased judicial control during the pretrial process accelerates the processing and termination of cases. Flanders, Case Management and Court Management in United States District Courts , Federal Judicial Center (1977). See also Report of the National Commission for the Review of Antitrust Laws and Procedures (1979).
The reference in Rule 16(c)(1) to “formulation” is intended to clarify and confirm the court's power to identify the litigable issues. It has been added in the hope of promoting efficiency and conserving judicial resources by identifying the real issues prior to trial, thereby saving time and expense for everyone. See generally Meadow Gold Prods. Co. v. Wright , 278 F.2d 867 (D.C. Cir. 1960). The notion is emphasized by expressly authorizing the elimination of frivolous claims or defenses at a pretrial conference. There is no reason to require that this await a formal motion for summary judgment. Nor is there any reason for the court to wait for the parties to initiate the process called for in Rule 16(c)(1).
The timing of any attempt at issue formulation is a matter of judicial discretion. In relatively simple cases it may not be necessary or may take the form of a stipulation between counsel or a request by the court that counsel work together to draft a proposed order.
Counsel bear a substantial responsibility for assisting the court in identifying the factual issues worthy of trial. If counsel fail to identify an issue for the court, the right to have the issue tried is waived. Although an order specifying the issues is intended to be binding, it may be amended at trial to avoid manifest injustice. See Rule 16(e). However, the rule's effectiveness depends on the court employing its discretion sparingly.
Clause (6) acknowledges the widespread availability and use of magistrates. The corresponding provision in the original rule referred only to masters and limited the function of the reference to the making of “findings to be used as evidence” in a case to be tried to a jury. The new text is not limited and broadens the potential use of a magistrate to that permitted by the Magistrate's Act.
Clause (7) explicitly recognizes that it has become commonplace to discuss settlement at pretrial conferences. Since it obviously eases crowded court dockets and results in savings to the litigants and the judicial system, settlement should be facilitated at as early a stage of the litigation as possible. Although it is not the purpose of Rule 16(b)(7) to impose settlement negotiations on unwilling litigants, it is believed that providing a neutral forum for discussing the subject might foster it. See Moore's Federal Practice 16.17; 6 Wright & Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil §1522 (1971). For instance, a judge to whom a case has been assigned may arrange, on his own motion or a at a party's request, to have settlement conferences handled by another member of the court or by a magistrate. The rule does not make settlement conferences mandatory because they would be a waste of time in many cases. See Flanders, Case Management and Court Management in the United States District Courts , 39, Federal Judicial Center (1977). Requests for a conference from a party indicating a willingness to talk settlement normally should be honored, unless thought to be frivolous or dilatory.
A settlement conference is appropriate at any time. It may be held in conjunction with a pretrial or discovery conference, although various objectives of pretrial management, such as moving the case toward trial, may not always be compatible with settlement negotiations, and thus a separate settlement conference may be desirable. See 6 Wright & Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil §1522, at p. 751 (1971).
In addition to settlement, Rule 16(c)(7) refers to exploring the use of procedures other than litigation to resolve the dispute. This includes urging the litigants to employ adjudicatory techniques outside the courthouse. See, for example, the experiment described in Green, Marks & Olson, Settling Large Case Litigation: An Alternative Approach , 11 Loyola of L.A. L.Rev. 493 (1978).
Rule 16(c)(10) authorizes the use of special pretrial procedures to expedite the adjudication of potentially difficult or protracted cases. Some district courts obviously have done so for many years. See Rubin, The Managed Calendar: Some Pragmatic Suggestions About Achieving the Just, Speedy and Inexpensive Determination of Civil Cases in Federal Courts , 4 Just. Sys. J. 135 (1976). Clause 10 provides an explicit authorization for such procedures and encourages their use. No particular techniques have been described; the Committee felt that flexibility and experience are the keys to efficient management of complex cases. Extensive guidance is offered in such documents as the Manual for Complex Litigation.
The rule simply identifies characteristics that make a case a strong candidate for special treatment. The four mentioned are illustrative, not exhaustive, and overlap to some degree. But experience has shown that one or more of them will be present in every protracted or difficult case and it seems desirable to set them out. See Kendig, Procedures for Management of Non-Routine Cases , 3 Hofstra L.Rev. 701 (1975).
The last sentence of subdivision (c) is new. See Wisconsin Civil Procedure Rule 802.11(2). It has been added to meet one of the criticisms of the present practice described earlier and insure proper preconference preparation so that the meeting is more than a ceremonial or ritualistic event. The reference to “authority” is not intended to insist upon the ability to settle the litigation. Nor should the rule be read to encourage the judge conducting the conference to compel attorneys to enter into stipulations or to make admissions that they consider to be unreasonable, that touch on matters that could not normally have been anticipated to arise at the conference, or on subjects of a dimension that normally require prior consultation with and approval from the client.
Subdivision (d); Final Pretrial Conference . This provision has been added to make it clear that the time between any final pretrial conference (which in a simple case may be the only pretrial conference) and trail should be as short as possible to be certain that the litigants make substantial progress with the case and avoid the inefficiency of having that preparation repeated when there is a delay between the last pretrial conference and trial. An optimum time of 10 days to two weeks has been suggested by one federal judge. Rubin, The Managed Calendar: Some Pragmatic Suggestions About Achieving the Just, Speedy and Inexpensive Determination of Civil Cases in Federal Courts , 4 Just. Sys. J. 135, 141 (1976). The Committee, however, concluded that it would be inappropriate to fix a precise time in the rule, given the numerous variables that could bear on the matter. Thus the timing has been left to the court's discretion.
At least one of the attorneys who will conduct the trial for each party must be present at the final pretrial conference. At this late date there should be no doubt as to which attorney or attorneys this will be. Since the agreements and stipulations made at this final conference will control the trial, the presence of lawyers who will be involved in it is especially useful to assist the judge in structuring the case, and to lead to a more effective trial.
Subdivision (e); Pretrial Orders . Rule 16(e) does not substantially change the portion of the original rule dealing with pretrial orders. The purpose of an order is to guide the course of the litigation and the language of the original rule making that clear has been retained. No compelling reason has been found for major revision, especially since this portion of the rule has been interpreted and clarified by over forty years of judicial decisions with comparatively little difficulty. See 6 Wright & Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil §§1521–30 (1971). Changes in language therefore have been kept to a minimum to avoid confusion.
Since the amended rule encourages more extensive pretrial management than did the original, two or more conferences may be held in many cases. The language of Rule 16(e) recognizes this possibility and the corresponding need to issue more than one pretrial order in a single case.
Once formulated, pretrial orders should not be changed lightly; but total inflexibility is undesirable. See, e.g., Clark v. Pennsylvania R.R. Co ., 328 F.2d 591 (2d Cir. 1964). The exact words used to describe the standard for amending the pretrial order probably are less important than the meaning given them in practice. By not imposing any limitation on the ability to modify a pretrial order, the rule reflects the reality that in any process of continuous management what is done at one conference may have to be altered at the next. In the case of the final pretrial order, however, a more stringent standard is called for and the words “to prevent manifest injustice,” which appeared in the original rule, have been retained. They have the virtue of familiarity and adequately describe the restraint the trial judge should exercise.
Many local rules make the plaintiff's attorney responsible for drafting a proposed pretrial order, either before or after the conference. Others allow the court to appoint any of the attorneys to perform the task, and others leave it to the court. See Note, Pretrial Conference: A Critical Examination of Local Rules Adopted by Federal District Courts , 64 Va.L.Rev. 467 (1978). Rule 16 has never addressed this matter. Since there is no consensus about which method of drafting the order works best and there is no reason to believe that nationwide uniformity is needed, the rule has been left silent on the point. See Handbook for Effective Pretrial Procedure , 37 F.R.D. 225 (1964).
Subdivision (f); Sanctions . Original Rule 16 did not mention the sanctions that might be imposed for failing to comply with the rule. However, courts have not hesitated to enforce it by appropriate measures. See, e.g., Link v. Wabash R. Co ., 370 U.S. 628 (1962) (district court's dismissal under Rule 41(b) after plaintiff's attorney failed to appear at a pretrial conference upheld); Admiral Theatre Corp. v. Douglas Theatre , 585 F.2d 877 (8th Cir. 1978) (district court has discretion to exclude exhibits or refuse to permit the testimony of a witness not listed prior to trial in contravention of its pretrial order).
To reflect that existing practice, and to obviate dependence upon Rule 41(b) or the court's inherent power to regulate litigation, cf. Societe Internationale Pour Participations Industrielles et Commerciales, S.A. v. Rogers , 357 U.S. 197 (1958), Rule 16(f) expressly provides for imposing sanctions on disobedient or recalcitrant parties, their attorneys, or both in four types of situations. Rodes, Ripple & Mooney, Sanctions Imposable for Violations of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 65–67, 80–84, Federal Judicial Center (1981). Furthermore, explicit reference to sanctions reenforces the rule's intention to encourage forceful judicial management.
Rule 16(f) incorporates portions of Rule 37(b)(2), which prescribes sanctions for failing to make discovery. This should facilitate application of Rule 16(f), since courts and lawyers already are familiar with the Rule 37 standards. Among the sanctions authorized by the new subdivision are: preclusion order, striking a pleading, staying the proceeding, default judgment, contempt, and charging a party, his attorney, or both with the expenses, including attorney's fees, caused by noncompliance. The contempt sanction, however, is only available for a violation of a court order. The references in Rule 16(f) are not exhaustive.
As is true under Rule 37(b)(2), the imposition of sanctions may be sought by either the court or a party. In addition, the court has discretion to impose whichever sanction it feels is appropriate under the circumstances. Its action is reviewable under the abuse-of-discretion standard. See National Hockey League v. Metropolitan Hockey Club, Inc ., 427 U.S. 639 (1976).
Notes of Advisory Committee on Rules—1987 Amendment
The amendments are technical. No substantive change is intended.
Notes of Advisory Committee on Rules—1993 Amendment
Subdivision (b) . One purpose of this amendment is to provide a more appropriate deadline for the initial scheduling order required by the rule. The former rule directed that the order be entered within 120 days from the filing of the complaint. This requirement has created problems because Rule 4(m) allows 120 days for service and ordinarily at least one defendant should be available to participate in the process of formulating the scheduling order. The revision provides that the order is to be entered within 90 days after the date a defendant first appears (whether by answer or by a motion under Rule 12) or, if earlier (as may occur in some actions against the United States or if service is waived under Rule 4), within 120 days after service of the complaint on a defendant. The longer time provided by the revision is not intended to encourage unnecessary delays in entering the scheduling order. Indeed, in most cases the order can and should be entered at a much earlier date. Rather, the additional time is intended to alleviate problems in multi-defendant cases and should ordinarily be adequate to enable participation by all defendants initially named in the action.
In many cases the scheduling order can and should be entered before this deadline. However, when setting a scheduling conference, the court should take into account the effect this setting will have in establishing deadlines for the parties to meet under revised Rule 26(f) and to exchange information under revised Rule 26(a)(1). While the parties are expected to stipulate to additional time for making their disclosures when warranted by the circumstances, a scheduling conference held before defendants have had time to learn much about the case may result in diminishing the value of the Rule 26(f) meeting, the parties’ proposed discovery plan, and indeed the conference itself.
New paragraph (4) has been added to highlight that it will frequently be desirable for the scheduling order to include provisions relating to the timing of disclosures under Rule 26(a). While the initial disclosures required by Rule 26(a)(1) will ordinarily have been made before entry of the scheduling order, the timing and sequence for disclosure of expert testimony and of the witnesses and exhibits to be used at trial should be tailored to the circumstances of the case and is a matter that should be considered at the initial scheduling conference. Similarly, the scheduling order might contain provisions modifying the extent of discovery ( e.g ., number and length of depositions) otherwise permitted under these rules or by a local rule.
The report from the attorneys concerning their meeting and proposed discovery plan, as required by revised Rule 26(f), should be submitted to the court before the scheduling order is entered. Their proposals, particularly regarding matters on which they agree, should be of substantial value to the court in setting the timing and limitations on discovery and should reduce the time of the court needed to conduct a meaningful conference under Rule 16(b). As under the prior rule, while a scheduling order is mandated, a scheduling conference is not. However, in view of the benefits to be derived from the litigants and a judicial officer meeting in person, a Rule 16(b) conference should, to the extent practicable, be held in all cases that will involve discovery.
This subdivision, as well as subdivision (c)(8), also is revised to reflect the new title of United States Magistrate Judges pursuant to the Judicial Improvements Act of 1990.
Subdivision (c) . The primary purposes of the changes in subdivision (c) are to call attention to the opportunities for structuring of trial under Rules 42, 50, and 52 and to eliminate questions that have occasionally been raised regarding the authority of the court to make appropriate orders designed either to facilitate settlement or to provide for an efficient and economical trial. The prefatory language of this subdivision is revised to clarify the court's power to enter appropriate orders at a conference notwithstanding the objection of a party. Of course settlement is dependent upon agreement by the parties and, indeed, a conference is most effective and productive when the parties participate in a spirit of cooperation and mindful of their responsibilities under Rule 1.
Paragraph (4) is revised to clarify that in advance of trial the court may address the need for, and possible limitations on, the use of expert testimony under Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence. Even when proposed expert testimony might be admissible under the standards of Rules 403 and 702 of the evidence rules, the court may preclude or limit such testimony if the cost to the litigants—which may include the cost to adversaries of securing testimony on the same subjects by other experts—would be unduly expensive given the needs of the case and the other evidence available at trial.
Paragraph (5) is added (and the remaining paragraphs renumbered) in recognition that use of Rule 56 to avoid or reduce the scope of trial is a topic that can, and often should, be considered at a pretrial conference. Renumbered paragraph (11) enables the court to rule on pending motions for summary adjudication that are ripe for decision at the time of the conference. Often, however, the potential use of Rule 56 is a matter that arises from discussions during a conference. The court may then call for motions to be filed.
Paragraph (6) is added to emphasize that a major objective of pretrial conferences should be to consider appropriate controls on the extent and timing of discovery. In many cases the court should also specify the times and sequence for disclosure of written reports from experts under revised Rule 26(a)(2)(B) and perhaps direct changes in the types of experts from whom written reports are required. Consideration should also be given to possible changes in the timing or form of the disclosure of trial witnesses and documents under Rule 26(a)(3).
Paragraph (9) is revised to describe more accurately the various procedures that, in addition to traditional settlement conferences, may be helpful in settling litigation. Even if a case cannot immediately be settled, the judge and attorneys can explore possible use of alternative procedures such as mini-trials, summary jury trials, mediation, neutral evaluation, and nonbinding arbitration that can lead to consensual resolution of the dispute without a full trial on the merits. The rule acknowledges the presence of statutes and local rules or plans that may authorize use of some of these procedures even when not agreed to by the parties. See 28 U.S.C. §§473(a)(6), 473(b)(4), 651–58; Section 104(b)(2), Pub. L. 101–650. The rule does not attempt to resolve questions as to the extent a court would be authorized to require such proceedings as an exercise of its inherent powers.
The amendment of paragraph (9) should be read in conjunction with the sentence added to the end of subdivision (c), authorizing the court to direct that, in appropriate cases, a responsible representative of the parties be present or available by telephone during a conference in order to discuss possible settlement of the case. The sentence refers to participation by a party or its representative. Whether this would be the individual party, an officer of a corporate party, a representative from an insurance carrier, or someone else would depend on the circumstances. Particularly in litigation in which governmental agencies or large amounts of money are involved, there may be no one with on-the-spot settlement authority, and the most that should be expected is access to a person who would have a major role in submitting a recommendation to the body or board with ultimate decision-making responsibility. The selection of the appropriate representative should ordinarily be left to the party and its counsel. Finally, it should be noted that the unwillingness of a party to be available, even by telephone, for a settlement conference may be a clear signal that the time and expense involved in pursuing settlement is likely to be unproductive and that personal participation by the parties should not be required.
The explicit authorization in the rule to require personal participation in the manner stated is not intended to limit the reasonable exercise of the court's inherent powers, e.g., G. Heileman Brewing Co. v. Joseph Oat Corp ., 871 F.2d 648 (7th Cir. 1989), or its power to require party participation under the Civil Justice Reform Act of 1990. See 28 U.S.C. §473(b)(5) (civil justice expense and delay reduction plans adopted by district courts may include requirement that representatives “with authority to bind [parties] in settlement discussions” be available during settlement conferences).
New paragraphs (13) and (14) are added to call attention to the opportunities for structuring of trial under Rule 42 and under revised Rules 50 and 52.
Paragraph (15) is also new. It supplements the power of the court to limit the extent of evidence under Rules 403 and 611(a) of the Federal Rules of Evidence, which typically would be invoked as a result of developments during trial. Limits on the length of trial established at a conference in advance of trial can provide the parties with a better opportunity to determine priorities and exercise selectivity in presenting evidence than when limits are imposed during trial. Any such limits must be reasonable under the circumstances, and ordinarily the court should impose them only after receiving appropriate submissions from the parties outlining the nature of the testimony expected to be presented through various witnesses, and the expected duration of direct and cross-examination.
Committee Notes on Rules—2006 Amendment
The amendment to Rule 16(b) is designed to alert the court to the possible need to address the handling of discovery of electronically stored information early in the litigation if such discovery is expected to occur. Rule 26(f) is amended to direct the parties to discuss discovery of electronically stored information if such discovery is contemplated in the action. Form 35 is amended to call for a report to the court about the results of this discussion. In many instances, the court's involvement early in the litigation will help avoid difficulties that might otherwise arise.
Rule 16(b) is also amended to include among the topics that may be addressed in the scheduling order any agreements that the parties reach to facilitate discovery by minimizing the risk of waiver of privilege or work-product protection. Rule 26(f) is amended to add to the discovery plan the parties’ proposal for the court to enter a case-management or other order adopting such an agreement. The parties may agree to various arrangements. For example, they may agree to initial provision of requested materials without waiver of privilege or protection to enable the party seeking production to designate the materials desired or protection for actual production, with the privilege review of only those materials to follow. Alternatively, they may agree that if privileged or protected information is inadvertently produced, the producing party may by timely notice assert the privilege or protection and obtain return of the materials without waiver. Other arrangements are possible. In most circumstances, a party who receives information under such an arrangement cannot assert that production of the information waived a claim of privilege or of protection as trial-preparation material.
An order that includes the parties’ agreement may be helpful in avoiding delay and excessive cost in discovery. See Manual for Complex Litigation (4th) §11.446. Rule 16(b)(6) recognizes the propriety of including such agreements in the court's order. The rule does not provide the court with authority to enter such a case-management or other order without party agreement, or limit the court's authority to act on motion.
Changes Made After Publication and Comment . This recommendation is of a modified version of the proposal as published. Subdivision (b)(6) was modified to eliminate the references to “adopting” agreements for “protection against waiving” privilege. It was feared that these words might seem to promise greater protection than can be assured. In keeping with changes to Rule 26(b)(5)(B), subdivision (b)(6) was expanded to include agreements for asserting claims of protection as trial-preparation materials. The Committee Note was revised to reflect the changes in the rule text.
The proposed changes from the published rule are set out below. [Omitted]
Committee Notes on Rules—2007 Amendment
The language of Rule 16 has been amended as part of the general restyling of the Civil Rules to make them more easily understood and to make style and terminology consistent throughout the rules. These changes are intended to be stylistic only.
When a party or its representative is not present, it is enough to be reasonably available by any suitable means, whether telephone or other communication device.
Changes Made After Publication and Comment . See Note to Rule 1, supra.
Committee Notes on Rules—2015 Amendment
The provision for consulting at a scheduling conference by “telephone, mail, or other means” is deleted. A scheduling conference is more effective if the court and parties engage in direct simultaneous communication. The conference may be held in person, by telephone, or by more sophisticated electronic means.
The time to issue the scheduling order is reduced to the earlier of 90 days (not 120 days) after any defendant has been served, or 60 days (not 90 days) after any defendant has appeared. This change, together with the shortened time for making service under Rule 4(m), will reduce delay at the beginning of litigation. At the same time, a new provision recognizes that the court may find good cause to extend the time to issue the scheduling order. In some cases it may be that the parties cannot prepare adequately for a meaningful Rule 26(f) conference and then a scheduling conference in the time allowed. Litigation involving complex issues, multiple parties, and large organizations, public or private, may be more likely to need extra time to establish meaningful collaboration between counsel and the people who can supply the information needed to participate in a useful way. Because the time for the Rule 26(f) conference is geared to the time for the scheduling conference or order, an order extending the time for the scheduling conference will also extend the time for the Rule 26(f) conference. But in most cases it will be desirable to hold at least a first scheduling conference in the time set by the rule.
Three items are added to the list of permitted contents in Rule 16(b)(3)(B).
The order may provide for preservation of electronically stored information, a topic also added to the provisions of a discovery plan under Rule 26(f)(3)(C). Parallel amendments of Rule 37(e) recognize that a duty to preserve discoverable information may arise before an action is filed.
The order also may include agreements incorporated in a court order under Evidence Rule 502 controlling the effects of disclosure of information covered by attorney-client privilege or work-product protection, a topic also added to the provisions of a discovery plan under Rule 26(f)(3)(D).
Finally, the order may direct that before filing a motion for an order relating to discovery the movant must request a conference with the court. Many judges who hold such conferences find them an efficient way to resolve most discovery disputes without the delay and burdens attending a formal motion, but the decision whether to require such conferences is left to the discretion of the judge in each case.
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74 | how do federal courts calendar and docket cases | https://law.gwu.libguides.com/dockets | Access Icon Key
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A docket is a "formal record in which a judge or court clerk briefly notes all the proceedings and filings in a court case."
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After a case is filed, the court assigns it a docket number, which is the court's case number or tracking number. The docket lists the judge, parties, and the attorneys of record, along with a summary of each document filed in the case, the date when it was filed, and the court case number assigned to the document.
A docket number may be composed of a number or letter indicating the court, a two-digit number to identify the year, the case type (either CV/cv for civil cases or CR/cr for criminal cases), a four- or five-digit case number, and the judge’s initials. For example, 1:21-cv-5678-MW is the docket number for the 5,678th civil case filed in the year 2021 and assigned to court number 1 and the Honorable Martha Washington.
Court records may include the case file containing the docket sheet and all documents filed in the case, as well as other documents generated during the proceedings, including, for example, trial transcripts and instructions to juries. The online availability of court dockets and records depends on the jurisdiction. Some have free online docket systems; others require a subscription to their docket system.
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"The RECAP Archive is a searchable collection of millions of PACER documents and dockets. PACER is the government-run system where nearly every legal document is filed from federal cases. The archive also includes every free PACER opinion."
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National Archives and Records Administration (NARA): Court Records
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"Court Records at the National Archives cover more than 200 years of court proceedings at the federal level. The earliest court records in our holdings date to approximately 1790. . . . Generally, federal court records less than 15 years old are still in the possession of individual courts and are not held by the National Archives. To obtain access to those records, researchers must contact the appropriate federal court" (see Federal Court Finder ).
Federal Court Records Disposition Schedules
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The retention and disposition of judiciary records are controlled by records disposition schedules (RDSs) jointly established by the Judicial Conference and the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). Included in the Guide to Judiciary Policy, the schedules govern most judiciary records, including those that federal courts create and maintain in electronic or paper case files.
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74 | how do federal courts calendar and docket cases | https://www.macelree.com/what-is-a-scheduling-order/ | April 1, 2022
A scheduling order is an order issued by a Judge before trial that sets deadlines on when certain events in a case must occur. Often the most significant deadlines concern discovery and exchange of trial exhibits. Discovery is the process where a party can formally request information that is relevant to the case, such as documents or answers to questions in writing or orally. Discovery is usually requested from the opposing party but can be requested from non-parties as well. The scheduling order will usually set a deadline when discovery must be completed, and can prohibit discovery outside the timeframe set forth in the scheduling order.
Similarly, many scheduling orders require each side to provide copies of exhibits to the other side in advance of trial. Exhibits not provided in accordance with the scheduling order may not be admitted as evidence, even if they would otherwise be admissible. It is very helpful to have a knowledgeable family law attorney assist you after a Judge has issued a scheduling order. A knowledgeable family law attorney can work with you to seek information through discovery that will help prepare the case for trial or foster settlement. Similarly, a knowledgeable attorney can determine which documents will be admissible at trial, and if so, under what conditions, and select exhibits that will present your case in a persuasive manner.
At MacElree Harvey, Ltd., we have knowledgeable, experienced attorneys practicing exclusively in the area of family law, who have handled numerous cases with scheduling orders. We would be happy to assist with your matter as well.
Patrick J. Boyer concentrates his practice on family law. He advocates in various areas including, but not limited to, divorce, property division, alimony, child custody and visitation, child support, and domestic violence. In addition, Patrick assists his clients with issues involving guardianship and third-party visitation. He is licensed in Delaware and Pennsylvania and works out of the firm’s Centreville, Delaware office.
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75 | when was the design period known as art deco | https://www.britannica.com/art/Art-Deco | Read Next
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Also known as: Moderne, style moderne
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What is Art Deco?
Art Deco is a popular design style of the 1920s and ’30s characterized especially by sleek geometric or stylized forms and by the use of man-made materials.
When was the Art Deco era?
Characteristics of the Art Deco style originated in France in the mid-to-late 1910s, came to maturation during the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925, and developed into a major style in western Europe and the United States during the 1930s.
What are the main characteristics of the Art Deco style?
The characteristic features of Art Deco reflect admiration for the modernity of the machine and for the inherent design qualities of machine-made objects—e.g., relative simplicity, planarity, symmetry , and unvaried repetition of elements. Art Deco objects often showcase simple, clean shapes, usually with a “streamlined” look; ornament that is geometric or stylized from representational forms such as florals, animals, and sunrays; and use of man-made substances, including plastics , vita-glass, and reinforced concrete , often combined with such natural materials as jade , silver , ivory , and chrome.
What was Art Deco influenced by?
Among the formative influences on Art Deco were Art Nouveau , the Bauhaus , Cubism , and Serge Diaghilev ’s Ballets Russes . Practitioners of Art Deco also found inspiration in American Indian , Egyptian , and early Classical sources as well as from nature.
What is the difference between Art Deco and Art Nouveau?
Like Art Deco, Art Nouveau is an ornamental style applied to such media as architecture, interior design, jewelry, and illustration. Both styles were popular in Europe and the United States, but Art Nouveau flourished earlier, between 1890 and 1910; Art Deco reached its height in the late 1920s and early ’30s. Art Nouveau emphasized nature, and objects were characterized especially by asymmetrical sinuous lines, often taking the form of flower stalks and buds, vine tendrils, insect wings, and other delicate natural objects. Art Deco, on the other hand, celebrated the modern machine and promoted geometric lines and sleek forms.
Know about the Art Deco style and its influence on the architectural design of the Chicago Board of Trade BuildingA discussion of Art Deco and its influence on the design of the Chicago Board of Trade Building.
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The distinguishing features of the style are simple, clean shapes, often with a “streamlined” look; ornament that is geometric or stylized from representational forms; and unusually varied, often expensive materials, which frequently include man-made substances (plastics, especially Bakelite; vita-glass; and ferroconcrete) in addition to natural ones ( jade , silver , ivory , obsidian , chrome , and rock crystal ). Though Art Deco objects were rarely mass-produced, the characteristic features of the style reflected admiration for the modernity of the machine and for the inherent design qualities of machine-made objects (e.g., relative simplicity, planarity, symmetry , and unvaried repetition of elements).
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Among the formative influences on Art Deco were Art Nouveau , the Bauhaus , Cubism , and Serge Diaghilev ’s Ballets Russes . Decorative ideas came from American Indian , Egyptian, and early classical sources as well as from nature. Characteristic motifs included nude female figures, animals, foliage, and sun rays, all in conventionalized forms.
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Most of the outstanding Art Deco creators designed individually crafted or limited-edition items. They included the furniture designers Jacques Ruhlmann and Maurice Dufrène; the architect Eliel Saarinen ; metalsmith Jean Puiforcat; glass and jewelry designer René Lalique ; fashion designer Erté ; artist-jewelers Raymond Templier, H.G. Murphy, and Wiwen Nilsson; and the figural sculptor Chiparus. The fashion designer Paul Poiret and the graphic artist Edward McKnight Kauffer represent those whose work directly reached a larger audience. New York City’s Rockefeller Center (especially its interiors supervised by Donald Deskey ; built between 1929 and 1940), the Chrysler Building by William Van Alen, and the Empire State Building by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon are the most monumental embodiments of Art Deco. During the 1930s the style took over South Beach in Miami , Florida, producing an area known as the Art Deco historic district.
Although the style went out of fashion in most places during World War II , beginning in the late 1960s there was a renewed interest in Art Deco design. Into the 21st century Art Deco continued to be a source of inspiration in such areas as decorative art , fashion , and jewelry design.
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75 | when was the design period known as art deco | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco | Art Deco
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
20th-century architectural and art style
This article is about the art style. For other uses, see Art Deco (disambiguation) .
This article may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines . Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure. (August 2023) (
Art Deco
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Art Deco, short for the French Arts décoratifs ( lit. 'Decorative Arts'), [1] is a style of visual arts, architecture , and product design , that first appeared in Paris in the 1910s (just before World War I ), [2] and flourished in the United States and Europe during the 1920s to early 1930s. Through styling and design of the exterior and interior of anything from large structures to small objects, including how people look ( clothing , fashion, and jewelry), Art Deco has influenced buildings (from skyscrapers to cinemas), bridges, ships, ocean liners , trains, cars, trucks, buses, furniture, and everyday objects including radios and vacuum cleaners. [3]
Art Deco got its name after the 1925 Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes ( International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts ) held in Paris . [4] Art Deco has its origins in the bold geometric forms of the Vienna Secession and Cubism . From its outset, it was influenced by the bright colors of Fauvism and of the Ballets Russes , and the exoticized styles of art from China , Japan , India , Persia , ancient Egypt , and Maya .
During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance and faith in social and technological progress. The movement featured rare and expensive materials, such as ebony and ivory, and exquisite craftsmanship. It also introduced new materials such as chrome plating , stainless steel and plastic. In New York, the Empire State Building , Chrysler Building , and other buildings from the 1920s and 1930s are monuments to the style. The largest concentration of art deco architecture in the world is in Miami Beach, Florida . [5]
In the 1930s, during the Great Depression , Art Deco gradually became more subdued. A sleeker form of the style, called Streamline Moderne , appeared in the 1930s, featuring curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. [6] Art Deco was a truly international style, but its dominance ended with the beginning of World War II and the rise of the strictly functional and unadorned styles of modern architecture and the International Style of architecture that followed. [7] [8]
Art Deco took its name, short for Arts Décoratifs, from the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts held in Paris in 1925, [4] though the diverse styles that characterised it had already appeared in Paris and Brussels before World War I .
Arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858 in the Bulletin de la Société française de photographie. [9] In 1868, the Le Figaro newspaper used the term objets d'art décoratifs for objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de l'Opéra . [10] [11] [12] In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewellers, glass-workers, and other craftsmen were officially given the status of artists by the French government. In response, the École royale gratuite de dessin (Royal Free School of Design), founded in 1766 under King Louis XVI to train artists and artisans in crafts relating to the fine arts, was renamed the École nationale des arts décoratifs (National School of Decorative Arts). It took its present name, ENSAD (École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs), in 1920.
The actual term art déco did not appear in print until 1966, in the title of the first modern exhibition on the subject, held by the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris, Les Années 25 : Art déco, Bauhaus, Stijl, Esprit nouveau, which covered a variety of major styles in the 1920s and 1930s. [13] The term was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in The Times (London, 12 November), describing the different styles at the exhibit. [14]
Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major academic book on it, Art Deco of the 20s and 30s . [3] He noted that the term was already being used by art dealers, and cites The Times (2 November 1966) and an essay named Les Arts Déco in Elle magazine (November 1967) as examples. [15] In 1971, he organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts , which he details in his book The World of Art Deco. [16] [17]
In its time, Art Deco was tagged with other names, like style moderne, Moderne, modernistic or style contemporain, and was not recognized as a distinct and homogenous style. [8]
New materials and technologies, especially reinforced concrete , were key to the development and appearance of Art Deco. The first concrete house was built in 1853 in the Paris suburbs by François Coignet. In 1877 Joseph Monier introduced the idea of strengthening the concrete with a mesh of iron rods in a grill pattern. In 1893, Auguste Perret built the first concrete garage in Paris, then an apartment building, house, then, in 1913, the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées . The theatre was denounced by one critic as the "Zeppelin of Avenue Montaigne", an alleged Germanic influence, copied from the Vienna Secession . Thereafter, the majority of Art Deco buildings were made of reinforced concrete, which gave greater freedom of form and less need for reinforcing pillars and columns. Perret was also a pioneer in covering the concrete with ceramic tiles , both for protection and decoration. The architect Le Corbusier first learned the uses of reinforced concrete working as a draftsman in Perret's studio. [18]
Other new technologies that were important to Art Deco were new methods in producing plate glass , which was less expensive and allowed much larger and stronger windows, and for mass-producing aluminium , which was used for building and window frames and later, by Corbusier, Warren McArthur , and others, for lightweight furniture.
Vienna Secession and Wiener Werkstätte (1897–1912)
Detail of the Stoclet Palace's façade, made of reinforced concrete covered with marble plaques
Society of Decorative Artists (1901–1945)
The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, who until late in the 19th century were considered simply artisans. The term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875[ citation needed ], giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs (Society of Decorative Artists), or SAD, was founded in 1901, and decorative artists were given the same rights of authorship as painters and sculptors. A similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the decorative arts, the Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Decorativa Moderna , was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration and L'Art décoratif moderne. Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon d'Automne . French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, as French designers felt challenged by the increasing exports of less expensive German furnishings. In 1911, SAD proposed a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912. No copies of old styles would be permitted, only modern works. The exhibit was postponed until 1914; and then, because of the war, until 1925, when it gave its name to the whole family of styles known as "Déco". [20]
Lady with Panther by George Barbier for Louis Cartier (1914). Display card commissioned by Cartier shows a woman in a Paul Poiret gown.
Parisian department stores and fashion designers also played an important part in the rise of Art Deco. Prominent businesses such as silverware firm Christofle , glass designer René Lalique , and the jewellers Louis Cartier and Boucheron began designing products in more modern styles. [21] [22] Beginning in 1900, department stores recruited decorative artists to work in their design studios. The decoration of the 1912 Salon d'Automne was entrusted to the department store Printemps , [23] [24] and that year it created its own workshop, Primavera. [24] By 1920 Primavera employed more than 300 artists, whose styles ranged from updated versions of Louis XIV , Louis XVI , and especially Louis Philippe furniture made by Louis Süe and the Primavera workshop, to more modern forms from the workshop of the Au Louvre department store. Other designers, including Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann and Paul Follot, refused to use mass production, insisting that each piece be made individually. The early Art Deco style featured luxurious and exotic materials such as ebony , ivory and silk, very bright colours and stylized motifs , particularly baskets and bouquets of flowers of all colours, giving a modernist look. [25]
Salon d'Automne (1903–1914)
Set for Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov 's ballet Sheherazade by Léon Bakst (1910)
Art Deco armchair made for art collector Jacques Doucet (1912–13)
Display of early Art Deco furnishings by the Atelier français at the 1913 Salon d'Automne from Art et décoration magazine (1914)
At its birth between 1910 and 1914, Art Deco was an explosion of colours, featuring bright and often clashing hues, frequently in floral designs, presented in furniture upholstery , carpets, screens, wallpaper and fabrics. Many colourful works, including chairs and a table by Maurice Dufrêne and a bright Gobelin carpet by Paul Follot were presented at the 1912 Salon des artistes décorateurs . In 1912–1913 designer Adrien Karbowsky made a floral chair with a parrot design for the hunting lodge of art collector Jacques Doucet . [26] The furniture designers Louis Süe and André Mare made their first appearance at the 1912 exhibit, under the name of the Atelier français, combining polychromatic fabrics with exotic and expensive materials, including ebony and ivory. After World War I, they became one of the most prominent French interior design firms, producing the furniture for the first-class salons and cabins of the French transatlantic ocean liners . [27]
The vivid hues of Art Deco came from many sources, including the exotic set designs by Léon Bakst for the Ballets Russes , which caused a sensation in Paris just before World War I. Some of the colours were inspired by the earlier Fauvism movement led by Henri Matisse ; others by the Orphism of painters such as Sonia Delaunay ; [28] others by the movement known as Les Nabis , and in the work of symbolist painter Odilon Redon, who designed fireplace screens and other decorative objects. Bright shades were a feature of the work of fashion designer Paul Poiret , whose work influenced both Art Deco fashion and interior design. [27] [29] [30]
Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1910–1913)
Théâtre des Champs-Élysées by Auguste Perret at 15, avenue Montaigne, Paris (1910–1913). Reinforced concrete gave architects the ability to create new forms and bigger spaces.
La Danse, bas-relief on the façade of the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées by Antoine Bourdelle (1912)
Interior of the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, with Bourdelle's bas-reliefs over the stage
Dome of the Theater, with Art Deco rose design by Maurice Denis
Apollon et sa méditation entourée des 9 muses (Apollo and His Meditation Surrounded by the 9 Muses), bas-relief on the façade of the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées by Bourdelle (1910–1912). This work represents one of the earliest examples of what became known as Art Deco sculpture.
The Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1910–1913), by Auguste Perret , was the first landmark Art Deco building completed in Paris. Previously, reinforced concrete had been used only for industrial and apartment buildings, Perret had built the first modern reinforced-concrete apartment building in Paris on rue Benjamin Franklin in 1903–04. Henri Sauvage , another important future Art Deco architect, built another in 1904 at 7, rue Trétaigne (1904). From 1908 to 1910, the 21-year-old Le Corbusier worked as a draftsman in Perret's office, learning the techniques of concrete construction. Perret's building had clean rectangular form, geometric decoration and straight lines, the future trademarks of Art Deco. The décor of the theatre was also revolutionary; the façade was decorated with high reliefs by Antoine Bourdelle , a dome by Maurice Denis , paintings by Édouard Vuillard , and an Art Deco curtain by Ker-Xavier Roussel . The theatre became the venue for many of the first performances of the Ballets Russes . [31] Perret and Sauvage became the leading Art Deco architects in Paris in the 1920s. [32] [33]
Detail of the entrance of La Maison Cubiste at the 1912 Salon d'Automne
Le Salon Bourgeois, designed by André Mare inside La Maison Cubiste, in the decorative arts section of the 1912 Salon d'Automne. Metzinger's Femme à l'Éventail can be seen hanging on the left wall.
Cubist villa at 3-49 Libušina Street, Vyšehrad (Prague), by Josef Chochol (1912–13). Chochol was one of three Czech architects (members of the Mánes Union of Fine Arts ), with Pavel Janák and Josef Gočár , influenced by Cubism.
The art movement known as Cubism appeared in France between 1907 and 1912, influencing the development of Art Deco. [31] [28] [29] In Art Deco Complete: The Definitive Guide to the Decorative Arts of the 1920s and 1930s Alastair Duncan writes "Cubism, in some bastardized form or other, became the lingua franca of the era's decorative artists." [29] [34] The Cubists, themselves under the influence of Paul Cézanne , were interested in the simplification of forms to their geometric essentials: the cylinder, the sphere, the cone. [35] [36]
In 1912, the artists of the Section d'Or exhibited works considerably more accessible to the general public than the analytical Cubism of Picasso and Braque. The Cubist vocabulary was poised to attract fashion, furniture and interior designers. [28] [30] [36] [37]
In the Art Décoratif section of the 1912 Salon d'Automne, an architectural installation was exhibited known as La Maison Cubiste . [38] [39] The façade was designed by Raymond Duchamp-Villon . The décor of the house was by André Mare . [40] [41] La Maison Cubiste was a furnished installation with a façade, a staircase, wrought iron banisters, a bedroom, a living room—the Salon Bourgeois, where paintings by Albert Gleizes , Jean Metzinger , Marie Laurencin , Marcel Duchamp , Fernand Léger and Roger de La Fresnaye were hung. [42] [43] [44] Thousands of spectators at the salon passed through the full-scale model. [45]
The façade of the house, designed by Duchamp-Villon, was not very radical by modern standards; the lintels and pediments had prismatic shapes, but otherwise the façade resembled an ordinary house of the period. For the two rooms, Mare designed the wallpaper, which featured stylized roses and floral patterns, along with upholstery, furniture and carpets, all with flamboyant and colourful motifs. It was a distinct break from traditional décor. The critic Emile Sedeyn described Mare's work in the magazine Art et Décoration: "He does not embarrass himself with simplicity, for he multiplies flowers wherever they can be put. The effect he seeks is obviously one of picturesqueness and gaiety. He achieves it." [46] The Cubist element was provided by the paintings. The installation was attacked by some critics as extremely radical, which helped make for its success. [47] This architectural installation was subsequently exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show , New York City, Chicago and Boston. [28] [36] [48] [49] [50] Thanks largely to the exhibition, the term "Cubist" began to be applied to anything modern, from women's haircuts to clothing to theater performances." [47]
The Cubist influence continued within Art Deco, even as Deco branched out in many other directions. [28] [29]
Cubism's adumbrated geometry became coin of the realm in the 1920s. Art Deco's development of Cubism's selective geometry into a wider array of shapes carried Cubism as a pictorial taxonomy to a much broader audience and wider appeal. (Richard Harrison Martin, Metropolitan Museum of Art) [51]
Rococo – Chest of drawers, by Jacques Dubois (1750–1755), various wood types and gilt bronze mounts, Waddesdon Manor , Buckinghamshire, UK
Rococo influences – Commode, by Paul Iribarne Garay ( c. 1912), mahogany and tulip wood frame, slate top, green-tinted shagreen upholstery, ebony knobs, base and garlands, Museum of Decorative Arts , Paris
Beaux Arts influences – Avenue de Versailles no. 70–72, Paris, "Modern" decor in an established typology, designed by Paul Delaplace and sculpted by Jean Boucher (1928)
Louis XVI style influences – Dressing table and chair set, by Paul Follot (1919), marble and wood encrusted, lacquered and gilded, Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris
Neoclassical influences – Prometheus , a stylised Art Deco update of classical sculpture, by Paul Manship (1936), gilded bronze, Rockefeller Center , New York City
Art Nouveau influences – Sinuous curves on the façade of Avenue Montaigne no. 26, Paris, by Louis Duhayon and Marcel Julien (1937) [52]
Art Deco was not a single style, but a collection of different and sometimes contradictory styles. In architecture, Art Deco was the successor to (and reaction against) Art Nouveau, a style which flourished in Europe between 1895 and 1900, and coexisted with the Beaux-Arts and neoclassical that were predominant in European and American architecture. In 1905 Eugène Grasset wrote and published Méthode de Composition Ornementale, Éléments Rectilignes, [53] in which he systematically explored the decorative (ornamental) aspects of geometric elements, forms, motifs and their variations, in contrast with (and as a departure from) the undulating Art Nouveau style of Hector Guimard , so popular in Paris a few years earlier. Grasset stressed the principle that various simple geometric shapes like triangles and squares are the basis of all compositional arrangements. The reinforced-concrete buildings of Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage, and particularly the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées , offered a new form of construction and decoration which was copied worldwide. [54]
Ancient and non-European civilizations
Egyptian influences – Dress with lotus flowers inspired by Ancient Egyptian decoration, by Jenny (couturier) and Lesage (embroiderer) (1925), silk, metallic thread, and crocheted embroidery, Musée Galliera , Paris
Sub-Saharian African influences – Winter 1930, by Léon Benigni , oil on canvas, private collection
Early 20th-century avant-garde movements
Cubism – Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), by Pablo Picasso (1909–10), oil on canvas, Tate Modern , London
Cubist influences – Cubic coffee service, by Erik Magnussen (1927), silver, in a temporary exhibition called the " Jazz Age " at the Cleveland Museum of Art , US
Influences of the Expressionist theatre and film – Interior of the Apollo Victoria Theatre in London, by Ernest Wamsley Lewis (1928–1930) [67]
Futurism – Staircase house with elevators from four street levels, part of La Città Nuova, by Antonio Sant'Elia (1914), ink and pencil on paper, Musei Civici, Como , Italy [68]
Futurist influences – Rue du Laos no. 25 in Paris, by Charles Thomas (1930) [68]
Expressionist architecture influences – Aux Trois-Quartiers department store in Paris, by Louis Faure-Dujarric (1932) [69]
Other styles borrowed included Futurism , Orphism, Functionalism , and Modernism in general. Cubism discovers its decorative potential within the Art Deco aesthetic, when transposed from the canvas onto a textile material or wallpaper. Sonia Delaunay conceives her dress models in an abstract and geometric style, "as live paintings or sculptures of living forms". Cubist-like designs are created by Louis Barrilet in the stained-glass windows of the American bar at the Atrium Casino in Dax (1926), but also including names of fashionable cocktails. In architecture, the clear contrast between horizontal and vertical volumes, specific both to Russian Constructivism and the Frank Lloyd Wright - Willem Marinus Dudok line, becomes a common device in articulating Art Deco façades, from individual homes and tenement buildings to cinemas or oil stations. [70] [36] [58] [71] [72] Art Deco also used the clashing colours and designs of Fauvism, notably in the work of Henri Matisse and André Derain , inspired the designs of Art Deco textiles, wallpaper, and painted ceramics. [36] It took ideas from the high fashion vocabulary of the period, which featured geometric designs, chevrons, zigzags, and stylized bouquets of flowers. It was influenced by discoveries in Egyptology , and growing interest in the Orient and in African art. From 1925 onwards, it was often inspired by a passion for new machines, such as airships, automobiles and ocean liners, and by 1930 this influence resulted in the style called Streamline Moderne . [73]
International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts (1925)
Pavilion of the Galeries Lafayette department store
The event that marked the zenith of the style and gave it its name was the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts which took place in Paris from April to October in 1925. This was officially sponsored by the French government, and covered a site in Paris of 55 acres, running from the Grand Palais on the right bank to Les Invalides on the left bank, and along the banks of the Seine. The Grand Palais, the largest hall in the city, was filled with exhibits of decorative arts from the participating countries. There were 15,000 exhibitors from twenty different countries, including Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the new Soviet Union . Germany was not invited because of tensions after the war; the United States, misunderstanding the purpose of the exhibit, declined to participate. The event was visited by sixteen million people during its seven-month run. The rules of the exhibition required that all work be modern; no historical styles were allowed. The main purpose of the Exhibit was to promote the French manufacturers of luxury furniture, porcelain, glass, metalwork, textiles, and other decorative products. To further promote the products, all the major Paris department stores, and major designers had their own pavilions. The Exposition had a secondary purpose in promoting products from French colonies in Africa and Asia, including ivory and exotic woods.
The Hôtel du Collectionneur was a popular attraction at the Exposition; it displayed the new furniture designs of Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, as well as Art Deco fabrics, carpets, and a painting by Jean Dupas . The interior design followed the same principles of symmetry and geometric forms which set it apart from Art Nouveau, and bright colours, fine craftsmanship rare and expensive materials which set it apart from the strict functionality of the Modernist style. While most of the pavilions were lavishly decorated and filled with hand-made luxury furniture, two pavilions, those of the Soviet Union and Pavilion de L'Esprit Nouveau , built by the magazine of that name run by Le Corbusier, were built in an austere style with plain white walls and no decoration; they were among the earliest examples of modernist architecture . [74]
Late Art Deco
Piața Sfântul Ștefan no. 1 in Bucharest , by unknown architect ( c. 1930)
Stairway of the Economic and Social Council in Paris, originally the Museum of Public Works, built for the 1937 Exposition, by Auguste Perret (1937)
High School in King City, California , built by Robert Stanton for the Works Progress Administration (1939)
In 1925, two different competing schools coexisted within Art Deco: the traditionalists, who had founded the Society of Decorative Artists; included the furniture designer Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, Jean Dunand , the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, and designer Paul Poiret; they combined modern forms with traditional craftsmanship and expensive materials. On the other side were the modernists, who increasingly rejected the past and wanted a style based upon advances in new technologies, simplicity, a lack of decoration, inexpensive materials, and mass production. The modernists founded their own organisation, The French Union of Modern Artists , in 1929. Its members included architects Pierre Chareau , Francis Jourdain , Robert Mallet-Stevens , Corbusier, and, in the Soviet Union, Konstantin Melnikov ; the Irish designer Eileen Gray; the French designer Sonia Delaunay; and the jewellers Georges Fouquet and Jean Puiforcat . They fiercely attacked the traditional Art Deco style, which they said was created only for the wealthy, and insisted that well-constructed buildings should be available to everyone, and that form should follow function. The beauty of an object or building resided in whether it was perfectly fit to fulfil its function. Modern industrial methods meant that furniture and buildings could be mass-produced, not made by hand. [75] [76] [ page needed ]
The Art Deco interior designer Paul Follot defended Art Deco in this way: "We know that man is never content with the indispensable and that the superfluous is always needed...If not, we would have to get rid of music, flowers, and perfumes..!" [77] However, Le Corbusier was a brilliant publicist for modernist architecture; he stated that a house was simply "a machine to live in", and tirelessly promoted the idea that Art Deco was the past and modernism was the future. Le Corbusier's ideas were gradually adopted by architecture schools, and the aesthetics of Art Deco were abandoned. The same features that made Art Deco popular in the beginning, its craftsmanship, rich materials and ornament, led to its decline. The Great Depression that began in the United States in 1929, and reached Europe shortly afterwards, greatly reduced the number of wealthy clients who could pay for the furnishings and art objects. In the Depression economic climate, few companies were ready to build new skyscrapers. [36] Even the Ruhlmann firm resorted to producing pieces of furniture in series, rather than individual hand-made items. The last buildings built in Paris in the new style were the Museum of Public Works by Auguste Perret (now the French Economic, Social and Environmental Council ), the Palais de Chaillot by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau , Jacques Carlu and Léon Azéma , and the Palais de Tokyo of the 1937 Paris International Exposition ; they looked out at the grandiose pavilion of Nazi Germany, designed by Albert Speer , which faced the equally grandiose socialist-realist pavilion of Stalin's Soviet Union.
After World War II, the dominant architectural style became the International Style pioneered by Le Corbusier, and Mies van der Rohe . A handful of Art Deco hotels were built in Miami Beach after World War II, but elsewhere the style largely vanished, except in industrial design, where it continued to be used in automobile styling and products such as jukeboxes. In the 1960s, it experienced a modest academic revival, thanks in part to the writings of architectural historians such as Bevis Hillier. In the 1970s efforts were made in the United States and Europe to preserve the best examples of Art Deco architecture, and many buildings were restored and repurposed. Postmodern architecture , which first appeared in the 1980s, like Art Deco, often includes purely decorative features. [36] [58] [78] [79] Deco continues to inspire designers, and is often used in contemporary fashion, jewellery, and toiletries. [80]
Workers sorting the mail, a mural in the Ariel Rios Federal Building, Washington, D.C. , by Reginald Marsh (1936)
Art in the Tropics, mural in the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building , Washington, D.C., by Rockwell Kent (1938)
There was no section set aside for painting at the 1925 Exposition. Art deco painting was by definition decorative, designed to decorate a room or work of architecture, so few painters worked exclusively in the style, but two painters are closely associated with Art Deco. Jean Dupas painted Art Deco murals for the Bordeaux Pavilion at the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition in Paris, and also painted the picture over the fireplace in the Maison du Collectionneur exhibit at the 1925 Exposition, which featured furniture by Ruhlmann and other prominent Art Deco designers. His murals were also prominent in the décor of the French ocean liner SS Normandie . His work was purely decorative, designed as a background or accompaniment to other elements of the décor. [81]
The other painter closely associated with the style is Tamara de Lempicka . Born in Poland, she emigrated to Paris after the Russian Revolution . She studied under Maurice Denis and André Lhote , and borrowed many elements from their styles. She painted portraits in a realistic, dynamic and colourful Art Deco style. [82]
In the 1930s, a dramatic new form of Art Deco painting appeared in the United States. During the Great Depression, the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration was created to give work to unemployed artists. Many were given the task of decorating government buildings, hospitals and schools. There was no specific Art Deco style used in the murals; artists engaged to paint murals in government buildings came from many different schools, from American regionalism to social realism ; they included Reginald Marsh , Rockwell Kent and the Mexican painter Diego Rivera . The murals were Art Deco because they were all decorative and related to the activities in the building or city where they were painted: Reginald Marsh and Rockwell Kent both decorated U.S. postal buildings, and showed postal employees at work while Diego Rivera depicted automobile factory workers for the Detroit Institute of Arts . Diego Rivera's mural Man at the Crossroads (1933) for 30 Rockefeller Plaza featured an unauthorized portrait of Lenin . [83] [84] When Rivera refused to remove Lenin, the painting was destroyed and a new mural was painted by the Spanish artist Josep Maria Sert . [85] [86] [87]
Spirit of Light or Spirit of Power, metal sculpture on the façade of the Niagara Mohawk Building in Syracuse, N.Y. , by Clayton Frye (1932)
Polish coat of arms (unofficial) on the façade of the post office in Warsaw , by Julian Puterman-Sadłowski (1934)
Atlas , bronze sculpture in front of the Rockefeller Center, by Lawrie (1936–37)
Mail Delivery East , one of four bas-relief sculptures on the Nix Federal Building in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania, by Edmond Amateis (1937)
Sculpture was a very common and integral feature of Art Deco architecture. In France, allegorical bas-reliefs representing dance and music by Antoine Bourdelle decorated the earliest Art Deco landmark in Paris, the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées , in 1912. The 1925 Exposition had major sculptural works placed around the site, pavilions were decorated with sculptural friezes, and several pavilions devoted to smaller studio sculpture. In the 1930s, a large group of prominent sculptors made works for the 1937 Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne at Chaillot. Alfred Janniot made the relief sculptures on the façade of the Palais de Tokyo. The Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris , and the esplanade in front of the Palais de Chaillot, facing the Eiffel Tower, was crowded with new statuary by Charles Malfray , Henry Arnold, and many others. [88]
Public Art Deco sculpture was almost always representational, usually of heroic or allegorical figures related to the purpose of the building or room. The themes were usually selected by the patrons, not the artist. Abstract sculpture for decoration was extremely rare. [89] [90]
In the United States, the most prominent Art Deco sculptor for public art was Paul Manship , who updated classical and mythological subjects and themes in an Art Deco style. His most famous work was the statue of Prometheus at Rockefeller Center in New York City, a 20th-century adaptation of a classical subject. Other important works for Rockefeller Center were made by Lee Lawrie , including the sculptural façade and the Atlas statue .
During the Great Depression in the United States, many sculptors were commissioned to make works for the decoration of federal government buildings, with funds provided by the WPA, or Works Progress Administration . They included sculptor Sidney Biehler Waugh, who created stylized and idealized images of workers and their tasks for federal government office buildings. [91] In San Francisco, Ralph Stackpole provided sculpture for the façade of the new San Francisco Stock Exchange building. In Washington D.C., Michael Lantz made works for the Federal Trade Commission building.
In Britain, Deco public statuary was made by Eric Gill for the BBC Broadcasting House , while Ronald Atkinson decorated the lobby of the former Daily Express Building in London (1932).
One of the best known and certainly the largest public Art Deco sculpture is the Christ the Redeemer by the French sculptor Paul Landowski , completed between 1922 and 1931, located on a mountain top overlooking Rio de Janeiro , Brazil.
Studio sculpture
Actaeon by Paul Manship (1925), in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art , US
Speed, a design for a radiator ornament by Harriet Whitney Frishmuth (1925)
Tânără (Girl), bronze, ivory and onyx, by Demétre Chiparus ( c. 1925)
Dansatoare (Dancer), bronze and ivory, by Chiparus ( c. 1925)
Many early Art Deco sculptures were small, designed to decorate salons. One genre of this sculpture was called the Chryselephantine statuette, named for a style of ancient Greek temple statues made of gold and ivory. They were sometimes made of bronze, or sometimes with much more lavish materials, such as ivory, onyx , alabaster, and gold leaf.
One of the best-known Art Deco salon sculptors was the Romanian-born Demétre Chiparus , who produced colourful small sculptures of dancers. Other notable salon sculptors included Ferdinand Preiss , Josef Lorenzl , Alexander Kelety, Dorothea Charol and Gustav Schmidtcassel. [92] Another important American sculptor in the studio format was Harriet Whitney Frishmuth , who had studied with Auguste Rodin in Paris.
Pierre Le Paguays was a prominent Art Deco studio sculptor, whose work was shown at the 1925 Exposition. He worked with bronze, marble, ivory, onyx, gold, alabaster and other precious materials. [93]
François Pompon was a pioneer of modern stylised animalier sculpture. He was not fully recognised for his artistic accomplishments until the age of 67 at the Salon d'Automne of 1922 with the work Ours blanc, also known as The White Bear, now in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. [94]
Graphic arts
Interpretation of Harlem Jazz I by Winold Reiss ( c. 1920)
Cover of the Jester of Columbia , unattributed (1931)
The Art Deco style appeared early in the graphic arts, in the years just before World War I. It appeared in Paris in the posters and the costume designs of Léon Bakst for the Ballets Russes, and in the catalogues of the fashion designers Paul Poiret. [96] The illustrations of Georges Barbier , and Georges Lepape and the images in the fashion magazine La Gazette du bon ton perfectly captured the elegance and sensuality of the style. In the 1920s, the look changed; the fashions stressed were more casual, sportive and daring, with the woman models usually smoking cigarettes. American fashion magazines such as Vogue , Vanity Fair and Harper's Bazaar quickly picked up the new style and popularized it in the United States. It also influenced the work of American book illustrators such as Rockwell Kent. In Germany, the most famous poster artist of the period was Ludwig Hohlwein , who created colourful and dramatic posters for music festivals, beers, and, late in his career, for the Nazi Party. [97]
During the Art Nouveau period, posters usually advertised theatrical products or cabarets. In the 1920s, travel posters, made for steamship lines and airlines, became extremely popular. The style changed notably in the 1920s, to focus attention on the product being advertised. The images became simpler, precise, more linear, more dynamic, and were often placed against a single-color background. In France, popular Art Deco designers included Charles Loupot and Paul Colin , who became famous for his posters of American singer and dancer Josephine Baker . Jean Carlu designed posters for Charlie Chaplin movies, soaps, and theatres; in the late 1930s he emigrated to the United States, where, during the World War, he designed posters to encourage war production. The designer Charles Gesmar became famous making posters for the singer Mistinguett and for Air France . Among the best-known French Art Deco poster designers was Cassandre , who made the celebrated poster of the ocean liner SS Normandie in 1935. [97]
In the 1930s a new genre of posters appeared in the United States during the Great Depression. The Federal Art Project hired American artists to create posters to promote tourism and cultural events.
The architectural style of Art Deco made its debut in Paris in 1903–04, with the construction of two apartment buildings in Paris, one by Auguste Perret on rue Benjamin Franklin and the other on rue Trétaigne by Henri Sauvage. The two young architects used reinforced concrete for the first time in Paris residential buildings; the new buildings had clean lines, rectangular forms, and no decoration on the façades; they marked a clean break with the art nouveau style. [98] Between 1910 and 1913, Perret used his experience in concrete apartment buildings to construct the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, 15 avenue Montaigne . Between 1925 and 1928 Sauvage constructed the new Art Deco façade of La Samaritaine department store in Paris. [99]
The Art Deco style was not limited to buildings on land; the ocean liner SS Normandie, whose first voyage was in 1935, featured Art Deco design, including a dining room whose ceiling and decoration were made of glass by Lalique . [100]
Art Deco architecture is sometimes classified into three types: Zigzag [Moderne] (aka Jazz Moderne [101] ); Classic Moderne; and Streamline Moderne . [102]
Zigzag Moderne
Classic Moderne
Streamline Moderne
In the late 1930s, a new variety of Art Deco architecture became common; it was called Streamline Moderne or simply Streamline, or, in France, the Style Paquebot, or Ocean Liner style. Buildings in the style had rounded corners and long horizontal lines; they were built of reinforced concrete and were almost always white; and they sometimes had nautical features, such as railings and portholes that resembled those on a ship. The rounded corner was not entirely new; it had appeared in Berlin in 1923 in the Mossehaus by Erich Mendelsohn , and later in the Hoover Building , an industrial complex in the London suburb of Perivale . In the United States, it became most closely associated with transport; Streamline moderne was rare in office buildings but was often used for bus stations and airport terminals, such as the terminal at La Guardia airport in New York City that handled the first transatlantic flights, via the PanAm Clipper flying boats; and in roadside architecture, such as gas stations and diners. In the late 1930s a series of diners, modelled upon streamlined railroad cars, were produced and installed in towns in New England; at least two examples still remain and are now registered historic buildings. [104]
The nautical-style rounded corner of Broadcasting House in London (1931)
Building in the Paquebot or ocean liner style, at 3, boulevard Victor, Paris , by Pierre Patout (1935)
The Hoover Building canteen in Perivale in London's suburbs, by Wallis, Gilbert and Partners (1938)
Building types
Crown of the General Electric Building (also known as 570 Lexington Avenue) in New York City by Cross & Cross (1933)
American skyscrapers marked the summit of the Art Deco style; they became the tallest and most recognizable modern buildings in the world, designed to show the prestige of their builders through height, shape, their color, and dramatic illumination at night. [105] The American Radiator Building by Raymond Hood (1924) combined Gothic and Deco modern elements in the design of the building. Black brick on the frontage of the building (symbolizing coal) was selected to give an idea of solidity and to give the building a solid mass. Other parts of the façade were covered in gold bricks (symbolizing fire), and the entry was decorated with marble and black mirrors. Another early Art Deco skyscraper was Detroit's Guardian Building , which opened in 1929. Designed by modernist Wirt C. Rowland , the building was the first to employ stainless steel as a decorative element, and the extensive use of colored designs in place of traditional ornaments.
New York City's skyline was radically changed by the Chrysler Building in Manhattan (completed in 1930), designed by William Van Alen . It was a giant seventy-seven-floor tall advertisement for Chrysler automobiles. The top was crowned by a stainless steel spire, and was ornamented by deco "gargoyles" in the form of stainless steel radiator cap decorations. The base of the tower, thirty-three stories above the street, was decorated with colorful Art Deco friezes, and the lobby was decorated with Art Deco symbols and images expressing modernity. [106]
The Chrysler Building was soon surpassed in height by the Empire State Building by William F. Lamb (1931), in a slightly less lavish Deco style and the RCA Building (now 30 Rockefeller Plaza) by Raymond Hood (1933) which together completely changed New York City's skyline. The tops of the buildings were decorated with Art Deco crowns and spires covered with stainless steel, and, in the case of the Chrysler building, with Art Deco gargoyles modeled after radiator ornaments, while the entrances and lobbies were lavishly decorated with Art Deco sculpture, ceramics, and design. Similar buildings, though not quite as tall, soon appeared in Chicago and other large American cities. Rockefeller Center added a new design element: several tall buildings grouped around an open plaza, with a fountain in the middle. [107]
"Cathedrals of Commerce"
Interior door in the Chrysler Building (1930)
Ceiling and chandelier detail on the lobby of the Carew Tower in Cincinnati , Ohio, by Walter W. Ahlschlager (1930)
Foyer of the Tuschinski Theatre in Amsterdam by Hijman Louis de Jong (1921)
The grand showcases of American Art Deco interior design were the lobbies of government buildings, theaters, and particularly office buildings. Interiors were extremely colorful and dynamic, combining sculpture, murals, and ornate geometric design in marble, glass, ceramics and stainless steel. An early example was the Fisher Building in Detroit, by Joseph Nathaniel French ; the lobby was highly decorated with sculpture and ceramics. The Guardian Building (originally the Union Trust Building) in Detroit, by Wirt Rowland (1929), decorated with red and black marble and brightly colored ceramics, highlighted by highly polished steel elevator doors and counters. The sculptural decoration installed in the walls illustrated the virtues of industry and saving; the building was immediately termed the "Cathedral of Commerce". The Medical and Dental Building called 450 Sutter Street in San Francisco by Timothy Pflueger was inspired by Mayan architecture, in a highly stylized form; it used pyramid shapes, and the interior walls were covered with highly stylized rows of hieroglyphs. [109]
In France, the best example of an Art Deco interior during this period was the Palais de la Porte Dorée (1931) by Albert Laprade , Léon Jaussely and Léon Bazin . The building (now the National Museum of Immigration, with an aquarium in the basement) was built for the Paris Colonial Exposition of 1931, to celebrate the people and products of French colonies. The exterior façade was entirely covered with sculpture, and the lobby created an Art Deco harmony with a wood parquet floor in a geometric pattern, a mural depicting the people of French colonies; and a harmonious composition of vertical doors and horizontal balconies. [109]
Movie palaces
The Paramount in Shanghai , China, by S. J. Young (1933)
Decoration and motifs
Allegorical representations – Pediment of the Mihai Zisman House (Calea Călărașilor no. 44) in Bucharest , by Soru (1920)
Stylized flowers (especially spiral flowers and converging fascicles) – Architectural element for the Parfumerie d'Orsay in Paris, by Georges Béal (1922)
The urn – Corner cabinet made of mahogany with rose basket design of inlaid ivory, by Jacques-Émile Ruhlmann (1923), Brooklyn Museum , New York City
The flower basket – Balconies and pediment of Avenue Montaigne no. 41 in Paris, unknown architect or sculptor (1924) [111]
Repeating patterns – Decorative ironwork of the Madison Belmont Building (Madison Avenue no. 181–183) in New York City, by Ferrobrandt (1925) [112]
Simplified reinterpretations of the Doric columns (with a basic rectangular capital or base, or just as a shaft) – Grave of Gustave Simon in Préville Cemetery , Nancy, France, unknown architect (after 1926)
Decoration not just through ornaments, but also through combinations of volumes - Withuis ( Avenue Charles Woeste no. 183) in Brussels , Belgium, by Joseph Diongre (1927) [115]
Ingenious games of light and darkness – Stage design for Meșterul Manole (The Master Builder Manole), by Victor Feodorov (1927–28), collection of the National Theatre , Bucharest
The stepped motif – Entrance hall of the Chrysler Building in New York City, by William Van Allen (1928–1930)
The artesian fountain – Lamp, by Paul Kiss ( c. 1930), glass and metal, in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art , US
The cornucopia – Avenue des Champs-Élysées no. 77 in Paris, unknown architect ( c. 1930)
Complex zigzags – Foot of a console table, by Paul Fehér ( c. 1930), metal, in a temporary exhibition called the "Jazz Age" at the Cleveland Museum of Art
Streamlining – Rue Gramme no. 17–21 in Paris, by Marcel Chappey (1930)
The sunburst – Detail above the entrance of the Eastern Columbia Building (S. Broadway no. 849) in L.A., by Claud Beelman (1930)
An aesthetic of artificial lighting – Maison de France (now showroom for Louis Vuitton ), Avenue des Champs-Élysées no. 101 in Paris, by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau and Charles-Henri Besnard (1931) [118]
Ziggurat – Union Hotel (Strada Ion Câmpineanu no. 11) in Bucharest, by Arghir Culina (1931) [118]
Vertical and horizontal luminous surfaces – Entrance hall of the Villa Cavrois in Croix , France, by Rob Mallet-Stevens (1932) [119]
The undulating line – Relief on the Grave of the Străjescu Family in Bellu Cemetery , Bucharest, by George Cristinel (1934) [120]
Decoration in the Art Deco period went through several distinct phases. Between 1910 and 1920, as Art Nouveau was exhausted, design styles saw a return to tradition, particularly in the work of Paul Iribe. In 1912 André Vera published an essay in the magazine L'Art Décoratif calling for a return to the craftsmanship and materials of earlier centuries and using a new repertoire of forms taken from nature, particularly baskets and garlands of fruit and flowers. A second tendency of Art Deco, also from 1910 to 1920, was inspired by the bright colours of the artistic movement known as the Fauves and by the colourful costumes and sets of the Ballets Russes. This style was often expressed with exotic materials such as sharkskin, mother of pearl, ivory, tinted leather, lacquered and painted wood, and decorative inlays on furniture that emphasized its geometry. This period of the style reached its high point in the 1925 Paris Exposition of Decorative Arts. In the late 1920s and the 1930s, the decorative style changed, inspired by new materials and technologies. It became sleeker and less ornamental. Furniture, like architecture, began to have rounded edges and to take on a polished, streamlined look, taken from the streamline modern style. New materials, such as nickel or chrome-plated steel, aluminium and bakelite , an early form of plastic, began to appear in furniture and decoration. [121]
Throughout the Art Deco period, and particularly in the 1930s, the motifs of the décor expressed the function of the building. Theatres were decorated with sculpture which illustrated music, dance, and excitement; power companies showed sunrises, the Chrysler building showed stylized hood ornaments; The friezes of Palais de la Porte Dorée at the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition showed the faces of the different nationalities of French colonies. The Streamline style made it appear that the building itself was in motion. The WPA murals of the 1930s featured ordinary people; factory workers, postal workers, families and farmers, in place of classical heroes. [122]
Angular – Entrance of the Chrysler Building in New York City, by William Van Allen (1928–1930)
Dressing table and chair of marble and encrusted, lacquered, and gilded wood by Follot (1919–20)
Corner cabinet of Mahogany with rose basket design of inlaid ivory by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann (1923)
Cabinet covered with shagreen or sharkskin by André Groult (1925)
Cabinet by Ruhlmann (1926)
Cabinet design by Ruhlmann
Desk of an administrator, by Michel Roux-Spitz for the 1930 Salon of Decorative Artists
Art Deco club chair (1930s)
Late Art Deco furniture and rug by Jules Leleu (1930s)
French furniture from 1910 until the early 1920s was largely an updating of French traditional furniture styles, and the art nouveau designs of Louis Majorelle , Charles Plumet and other manufacturers. French furniture manufacturers felt threatened by the growing popularity of German manufacturers and styles, particularly the Biedermeier style, which was simple and clean-lined. The French designer Frantz Jourdain, the president of the Paris Salon d'Automne, invited designers from Munich to participate in the 1910 Salon. French designers saw the new German style and decided to meet the German challenge. The French designers decided to present new French styles in the Salon of 1912. The rules of the Salon indicated that only modern styles would be permitted. All of the major French furniture designers took part in Salon: Paul Follot, Paul Iribe, Maurice Dufrêne, André Groult, André Mare and Louis Suë took part, presenting new works that updated the traditional French styles of Louis XVI and Louis Philippe with more angular corners inspired by Cubism and brighter colours inspired by Fauvism and the Nabis. [124]
The painter André Mare and furniture designer Louis Süe both participated the 1912 Salon. After the war the two men joined to form their own company, formally called the Compagnie des Arts Française, but usually known simply as Suë and Mare. Unlike the prominent art nouveau designers like Louis Majorelle, who personally designed every piece, they assembled a team of skilled craftsmen and produced complete interior designs, including furniture, glassware, carpets, ceramics, wallpaper and lighting. Their work featured bright colors and furniture and fine woods, such as ebony encrusted with mother of pearl, abalone and silvered metal to create bouquets of flowers. They designed everything from the interiors of ocean liners to perfume bottles for the label of Jean Patou .The firm prospered in the early 1920s, but the two men were better craftsmen than businessmen. The firm was sold in 1928, and both men left. [125]
The most prominent furniture designer at the 1925 Decorative Arts Exposition was Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann , from Alsace. He first exhibited his works at the 1913 Autumn Salon, then had his own pavilion, the "House of the Rich Collector", at the 1925 Exposition. He used only most rare and expensive materials, including ebony , mahogany , rosewood , ambon and other exotic woods, decorated with inlays of ivory, tortoise shell, mother of pearl, Little pompoms of silk decorated the handles of drawers of the cabinets. [126] His furniture was based upon 18th-century models, but simplified and reshaped. In all of his work, the interior structure of the furniture was completely concealed. The framework usually of oak, was completely covered with an overlay of thin strips of wood, then covered by a second layer of strips of rare and expensive woods. This was then covered with a veneer and polished, so that the piece looked as if it had been cut out of a single block of wood. Contrast to the dark wood was provided by inlays of ivory, and ivory key plates and handles. According to Ruhlmann, armchairs had to be designed differently according to the functions of the rooms where they appeared; living room armchairs were designed to be welcoming, office chairs comfortable, and salon chairs voluptuous. Only a small number of pieces of each design of furniture was made, and the average price of one of his beds or cabinets was greater than the price of an average house. [127]
Jules Leleu was a traditional furniture designer who moved smoothly into Art Deco in the 1920s; he designed the furniture for the dining room of the Élysée Palace , and for the first-class cabins of the steamship Normandie. his style was characterized by the use of ebony, Macassar wood, walnut, with decoration of plaques of ivory and mother of pearl. He introduced the style of lacquered Art Deco furniture in the late 1920s, and in the late 1930s introduced furniture made of metal with panels of smoked glass. [128] In Italy, the designer Gio Ponti was famous for his streamlined designs.
The costly and exotic furniture of Ruhlmann and other traditionalists infuriated modernists, including the architect Le Corbusier, causing him to write a famous series of articles denouncing the arts décoratif style. He attacked furniture made only for the rich and called upon designers to create furniture made with inexpensive materials and modern style, which ordinary people could afford. He designed his own chairs, created to be inexpensive and mass-produced. [129]
In the 1930s, furniture designs adapted to the form, with smoother surfaces and curved forms. The masters of the late style included Donald Deskey, who was one of the most influential designers; he created the interior of the Radio City Music Hall. He used a mixture of traditional and very modern materials, including aluminium, chrome, and bakelite, an early form of plastic. [130] Other top designers of Art Deco furniture of the 1930s in the United States included Gilbert Rohde , Warren McArthur , and Kem Weber .
The Waterfall style was popular in the 1930s and 1940s, the most prevalent Art Deco form of furniture at the time. Pieces were typically of plywood finished with blond veneer and with rounded edges, resembling a waterfall. [131]
Philips radio set (1931)
Electrolux vacuum cleaner (1937)
Streamline was a variety of Art Deco which emerged during the mid-1930s. It was influenced by modern aerodynamic principles developed for aviation and ballistics to reduce aerodynamic drag at high velocities. The bullet shapes were applied by designers to cars, trains, ships, and even objects not intended to move, such as refrigerators , gas pumps , and buildings. [60] One of the first production vehicles in this style was the Chrysler Airflow of 1933. It was unsuccessful commercially, but the beauty and functionality of its design set a precedent; meant modernity. It continued to be used in car design well after World War II. [132] [133] [134] [135]
New industrial materials began to influence the design of cars and household objects. These included aluminium, chrome , and bakelite , an early form of plastic. Bakelite could be easily moulded into different forms, and soon was used in telephones, radios and other appliances.
Ocean liners also adopted a style of Art Deco, known in French as the Style Paquebot, or "Ocean Liner Style". The most famous example was the SS Normandie, which made its first transatlantic trip in 1935. It was designed particularly to bring wealthy Americans to Paris to shop. The cabins and salons featured the latest Art Deco furnishings and decoration. The Grand Salon of the ship, which was the restaurant for first-class passengers, was bigger than the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles . It was illuminated by electric lights within twelve pillars of Lalique crystal; thirty-six matching pillars lined the walls. This was one of the earliest examples of illumination being directly integrated into architecture. The style of ships was soon adapted to buildings. A notable example is found on the San Francisco waterfront, where the Maritime Museum building, built as a public bath in 1937, resembles a ferryboat, with ship railings and rounded corners. The Star Ferry Terminal in Hong Kong also used a variation of the style. [36]
Abundance textile design by André Mare (1911), Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York City
Design of birds from Les Ateliers de Martine by Paul Iribe (1918)
Rose pattern textiles designed by Mare ( c. 1919), Metropolitan Museum of Art
Rose Mousse pattern for upholstery, cotton and silk (1920), Metropolitan Museum of Art
Textiles were an important part of the Art Deco style, in the form of colourful wallpaper, upholstery and carpets, In the 1920s, designers were inspired by the stage sets of the Ballets Russes , fabric designs and costumes from Léon Bakst and creations by the Wiener Werkstätte . The early interior designs of André Mare featured brightly coloured and highly stylized garlands of roses and flowers, which decorated the walls, floors, and furniture. Stylized Floral motifs also dominated the work of Raoul Dufy and Paul Poiret , and in the furniture designs of J.E. Ruhlmann. The floral carpet was reinvented in Deco style by Paul Poiret . [136]
The use of the style was greatly enhanced by the introduction of the pochoir stencil-based printing system, which allowed designers to achieve crispness of lines and very vivid colours. Art Deco forms appeared in the clothing of Paul Poiret , Charles Worth and Jean Patou . After World War I, exports of clothing and fabrics became one of the most important currency earners of France. [137]
Late Art Deco wallpaper and textiles sometimes featured stylized industrial scenes, cityscapes, locomotives and other modern themes, as well as stylized female figures, metallic finishes and geometric designs. [137]
Evening dress from the Journal des Dames et des Modes, illustrated by George Barbier (1913), Chester Beatty Library , Dublin
Illustration by Barbier of a gown by Paquin (1914). Stylised floral designs and bright colours were a feature of early Art Deco.
Evening dress by the Maison Agnès (1920–1930), silk, pearls, strass, cabochon, and other materials, Musée Galliera , Paris
Desiree Lubovska in a dress by Jean Patou ( c. 1921)
Skirt by the Maison Agnès (1925–1927), silk, Musée Galliera
Coco Chanel in a sailor's blouse and trousers (1928)
Louise Brooks with an à la garçonne hairstyle, in a publicity photo for Diary of Lost Girl (1929)
Fashion changed dramatically during this period, thanks in particular to designers Paul Poiret and later Coco Chanel . Poiret introduced the concept of draping , a departure from the tailoring and patternmaking of the past. [138] He designed clothing cut along straight lines and constructed of rectangular motifs. [138] His styles offered structural simplicity [138] The corseted look and formal styles of the previous period were abandoned, and fashion became more practical, and streamlined. With the use of new materials, brighter colours and printed designs. [138] The designer Coco Chanel continued the transition, popularising the style of sporty, casual chic. [139]
A particular typology of the era was the Flapper , a woman who cut her hair into a short bob, drank cocktails, smoked in public, and danced late into the night at fashionable clubs, cabarets or bohemian dives. Of course, most women didn't live like this, the Flapper being more a character present in popular imagination than a reality. Another female Art Deco style was the androgynous garçonne of the 1920s, with flattened bosom, dispelled waist and revealed legs, reducing the silhouette to a short tube, topped with a head-hugging cloche hat. [140]
Cigarette case of leather and gold leaf by Pierre Legrain (1922), presenting a polychrome geometric decoration, Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York City
Gold buckle set with diamonds and carved onyx, lapis lazuli, jade, and coral, by Boucheron (1925)
Molded glass pendants on silk cords by René Lalique (1925–1930)
In the 1920s and 1930s, designers including René Lalique and Cartier tried to reduce the traditional dominance of diamonds by introducing more colourful gemstones, such as small emeralds, rubies and sapphires. They also placed greater emphasis on very elaborate and elegant settings, featuring less-expensive materials such as enamel, glass, horn and ivory. Diamonds themselves were cut in less traditional forms; the 1925 Exposition saw many diamonds cut in the form of tiny rods or matchsticks. Other popular Art Deco cuts include:
emerald cut, with long step-cut facets;
asscher cut, more square-shaped than emerald with a high crown and the first diamond cut to ever be patented;
marquise cut, to give the illusion of being bigger and bolder;
baguette cut: small, rectangular step-cut shapes often used to outline bolder stones; [141]
old European cut, round in shape and cut by hand so sparks of color (called fire) flash from within the stone. [142]
The settings for diamonds also changed; More and more often jewellers used platinum instead of gold, since it was strong and flexible, and could set clusters of stones. Jewellers also began to use more dark materials, such as enamels and black onyx , which provided a higher contrast with diamonds. [143]
Jewellery became much more colourful and varied in style. Cartier and the firm of Boucheron combined diamonds with colourful other gemstones cut into the form of leaves, fruit or flowers, to make brooches, rings, earrings, clips and pendants. Far Eastern themes also became popular; plaques of jade and coral were combined with platinum and diamonds, and vanity cases, cigarette cases and powder boxes were decorated with Japanese and Chinese landscapes made with mother of pearl, enamel and lacquer. [143]
Rapidly changing fashions in clothing brought new styles of jewellery. Sleeveless dresses of the 1920s meant that arms needed decoration, and designers quickly created bracelets of gold, silver and platinum encrusted with lapis-lazuli, onyx, coral, and other colourful stones; Other bracelets were intended for the upper arms, and several bracelets were often worn at the same time. The short haircuts of women in the twenties called for elaborate deco earring designs. As women began to smoke in public, designers created very ornate cigarette cases and ivory cigarette holders. The invention of the wristwatch before World War I inspired jewelers to create extraordinary, decorated watches, encrusted with diamonds and plated with enamel, gold and silver. Pendant watches, hanging from a ribbon, also became fashionable. [144]
The established jewellery houses of Paris in the period, Cartier, Chaumet , Georges Fouquet, Mauboussin , and Van Cleef & Arpels all created jewellery and objects in the new fashion. The firm of Chaumet made highly geometric cigarette boxes, cigarette lighters, pillboxes and notebooks, made of hard stones decorated with jade , lapis lazuli , diamonds and sapphires. They were joined by many young new designers, each with his own idea of deco. Raymond Templier designed pieces with highly intricate geometric patterns, including silver earrings that looked like skyscrapers. Gerard Sandoz was only 18 when he started to design jewelry in 1921; he designed many celebrated pieces based on the smooth and polished look of modern machinery. The glass designer René Lalique also entered the field, creating pendants of fruit, flowers, frogs, fairies or mermaids made of sculpted glass in bright colors, hanging on cords of silk with tassels. [144] The jeweller Paul Brandt contrasted rectangular and triangular patterns, and embedded pearls in lines on onyx plaques. Jean Despres made necklaces of contrasting colours by bringing together silver and black lacquer, or gold with lapis lazuli. Many of his designs looked like highly polished pieces of machines. Jean Dunand was also inspired by modern machinery, combined with bright reds and blacks contrasting with polished metal. [144] Suzanne Belperron contributed sculptural designs using materials like rock crystal and semi-precious stones, exploring the period's emphasis on non-traditional elements. Jean Fouquet , influenced by Cubism, worked with materials such as ebony and chrome-plated steel, bringing a distinctly modernist approach to Art Deco jewelry. [145] Other notable names in the Art Deco movement include Boucheron , Lacloche, and Danish silversmith Georg Jensen , known for his work with silver and less expensive gemstones. American jewelry houses such as Tiffany & Co. , Black, Starr & Frost , and Marcus & Co. also made significant contributions, producing pieces that included clocks and objets d'art, as well as jewelry. [146]
Glass art
Angular chandeliers by Lanchester & Lodge ( c. 1929–1936), Brotherton Library , University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK [147]
Like the Art Nouveau period before it, Art Deco was an exceptional period for fine glass and other decorative objects designed to fit their architectural surroundings. The most famous producer of glass objects was René Lalique, whose works, from vases to hood ornaments for automobiles, became symbols of the period. He had experimented with glass before World War I, designing bottles for the perfumes of François Coty , but he did not begin serious production of art glass until after World War I. In 1918, at the age of 58, he bought a large glass works in Combs-la-Ville and began to manufacture both artistic and practical glass objects. He treated glass as a form of sculpture, creating statuettes, vases, bowls, lamps and ornaments. He used demi-crystal rather than lead crystal, which was softer and easier to form, though not as lustrous. He sometimes used coloured glass, but more often used opalescent glass, where part or the whole of the outer surface was stained with a wash. Lalique provided the decorative glass panels, lights and illuminated glass ceilings for the ocean liners SS Île de France in 1927 and the SS Normandie in 1935, and for some of the first-class sleeping cars of the French railroads. At the 1925 Exposition of Decorative Arts, he had his own pavilion, designed a dining room with a table setting and matching glass ceiling for the Sèvres Pavilion, and designed a glass fountain for the courtyard of the Cours des Métiers, a slender glass column which spouted water from the sides and was illuminated at night. [148]
Other notable Art Deco glass manufacturers included Marius-Ernest Sabino, who specialized in figurines, vases, bowls, and glass sculptures of fish, nudes, and animals. For these he often used an opalescent glass which could change from white to blue to amber, depending upon the light. His vases and bowls featured molded friezes of animals, nudes or busts of women with fruit or flowers. His work was less subtle but more colourful than that of Lalique. [148]
Other notable Deco glass designers included Edmond Etling , who also used bright opalescent colours, often with geometric patterns and sculpted nudes; Albert Simonet, and Aristide Colotte and Maurice Marinot , who was known for his deeply etched sculptural bottles and vases. The firm of Daum from the city of Nancy , which had been famous for its Art Nouveau glass, produced a line of Deco vases and glass sculpture, solid, geometric and chunky in form. More delicate multi-coloured works were made by Gabriel Argy-Rousseau, who produced delicately shaded vases with sculpted butterflies and nymphs, and Francois Decorchemont, whose vases were streaked and marbled. [148]
The Great Depression impacted on the decorative glass industry, which depended upon wealthy clients. Some artists turned to designing stained glass windows for churches. In 1937, the Steuben glass company began the practice of commissioning famous artists to produce glassware. [148] Louis Majorelle , famous for his Art Nouveau furniture, designed a remarkable Art Deco stained glass window portraying steel workers for the offices of the Aciéries de Longwy , a steel mill in Longwy , France.
Amiens Cathedral has a rare example of Art Deco stained glass windows in the Chapel of the Sacred Heart, made in 1932–34 by the Paris glass artist Jean Gaudin based on drawings by Jacques Le Breton. [149]
Metal art
A grill with two wings called The Pheasants, made by Paul Kiss and displayed at the 1925 Exposition of Decorative and Industrial Arts
Iron and copper grill called Oasis by Edgar Brandt, displayed at the 1925 Paris Exposition
Table mirror by Franz Hagenauer of Werkstätte Hagenauer Wien ( c. 1930)
Cocktail set of chrome-plated steel by Norman Bel Geddes (1937)
Art Deco artists produced a wide variety of practical objects in the Art Deco style, made of industrial materials from traditional wrought iron to chrome-plated steel. The American artist Norman Bel Geddes designed a cocktail set resembling a skyscraper made of chrome-plated steel. Raymond Subes designed an elegant metal grille for the entrance of the Palais de la Porte Dorée, the centre-piece of the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition. The French sculptor Jean Dunand produced magnificent doors on the theme "The Hunt", covered with gold leaf and paint on plaster (1935). [150]
Art Deco Skyscrapers in Falling Hare (1943).
Art Deco architecture around the world
Most Art Deco buildings in Africa were built during European colonial rule, and often designed by Italian, French and Portuguese architects.
Many Art Deco buildings in Asia were designed by European architects. But in the Philippines, local architects such as Juan Nakpil , Juan Arellano , Pablo Antonio and others were preeminent. Many Art Deco landmarks in Asia were demolished during the great economic expansion of Asia the late 20th century, but some notable enclaves of the architecture still remain, particularly in Shanghai and Mumbai .
The Indian Institute of Architects, founded in Mumbai in 1929, played a prominent role in propagating the Art Deco movement. In November 1937, this institute organised the 'Ideal Home Exhibition' held in the Town Hall in Mumbai which spanned over 12 days and attracted about one hundred thousand visitors. As a result, it was declared a success by the 'Journal of the Indian Institute of Architects'. The exhibits displayed the 'ideal', or better described as the most 'modern' arrangements for various parts of the house, paying close detail to avoid architectural blunders and present the most efficient and well-thought-out models. The exhibition focused on various elements of a home ranging from furniture, elements of interior decoration as well as radios and refrigerators using new and scientifically relevant materials and methods. [153] Guided by their desire to emulate the west, the Indian architects were fascinated by the industrial modernity that Art Deco offered. [153] The western elites were the first to experiment with the technologically advanced facets of Art Deco, and architects began the process of transformation by the early 1930s. [153]
Mumbai's expanding port commerce in the 1930s resulted in the growth of educated middle class population. It also saw an increase of people migrating to Mumbai in search of job opportunities. This led to the pressing need for new developments through Land Reclamation Schemes and construction of new public and residential buildings. [154] Parallelly, the changing political climate in the country and the aspirational quality of the Art Deco aesthetics led to a whole-hearted acceptance of the building style in the city's development. Most of the buildings from this period can be seen spread throughout the city neighbourhoods in areas such as Churchgate, Colaba, Fort, Mohammed Ali Road, Cumbala Hill, Dadar, Matunga, Bandra and Chembur. [155] [156]
Australia and New Zealand
Elmslea Chambers in Goulburn , Australia (1933)
Anzac Memorial in Sydney, Australia (1934)
Several towns in New Zealand, including Napier and Hastings were rebuilt in Art Deco style after the 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake , and many of the buildings have been protected and restored. Napier has been nominated for UNESCO World Heritage Site status, the first cultural site in New Zealand to be nominated. [157] [158] Wellington has retained a sizeable number of Art Deco buildings. [159]
North America
Edificio El Moro in Mexico City, Mexico (1936)
In Mexico, the most imposing Art Deco example is interior of the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts), finished in 1934 with its elaborate décor and murals. Examples of Art Deco residential architecture can be found in the Condesa district, many designed by Francisco J. Serrano .
In the United States, Art Deco buildings are found from coast to coast, in all the major cities. It was most widely used for office buildings, train stations, airport terminals, and cinemas; residential buildings are rare. During the 1920s and 1930s architects in the Southwestern United States , particularly in the US state of New Mexico , combined Pueblo Revival with Territorial Style and Art Deco to create Pueblo Deco , as seen in the KiMo Theater in Albuquerque . In the 1930s, the more austere streamline style became popular. Many buildings were demolished between 1945 and the late 1960s, but then efforts began to protect the best examples. The City of Miami Beach established the Miami Beach Architectural District to preserve the fine collection of Art Deco buildings found there.
Central America and the Caribbean
Lopez Serrano Building in Havana, Cuba (1932)
A rundown Art Deco building in Havana, Cuba
Casa Presidencial in Guatemala City
Éden Theatre in Lisbon , Portugal (1931)
Palais de Tokyo , Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, France (1937)
Ventilation tower of the Maastunnel in Rotterdam , Netherlands (1937) [160]
The architectural style first appeared in Paris with the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (1910–13) by Auguste Perret but then spread rapidly around Europe, until examples could be found in nearly every large city, from London to Moscow. In Germany two variations of Art Deco flourished in the 1920s and 30s: The Neue Sachlichkeit style and Expressionist architecture . Notable examples include Erich Mendelsohn's Mossehaus and Schaubühne in Berlin, Fritz Höger 's Chilehaus in Hamburg and his Kirche am Hohenzollernplatz in Berlin, the Anzeiger Tower [ de ] in Hanover and the Borsig Tower [ af ] in Berlin. [161]
One of the largest Art Deco buildings in Western Europe is the National Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg , Brussels. In 1925, architect Albert van Huffel won the Grand Prize for Architecture with his scale model of the basilica at the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes in Paris. [162]
Spain and Portugal have some striking examples of Art Deco buildings, particularly movie theaters. Examples in Portugal are the Capitólio Theater (1931) and the Éden Cine-Theatre (1937) in Lisbon , the Rivoli Theater (1937) and the Coliseu (1941) in Porto and the Rosa Damasceno Theater (1937) in Santarém . An example in Spain is the Cine Rialto in Valencia (1939).
During the 1930s, Art Deco had a noticeable effect on house design in the United Kingdom, [58] as well as the design of various public buildings. [78] Straight, white-rendered house frontages rising to flat roofs, sharply geometric door surrounds and tall windows, as well as convex-curved metal corner windows, were all characteristic of that period. [79] [163] [164]
The London Underground is famous for many examples of Art Deco architecture, [165] and there are a number of buildings in the style situated along the Golden Mile in Brentford. Also in West London is the Hoover Building, which was originally built for The Hoover Company and was converted into a superstore in the early 1990s.
Bucharest , once known as the "Little Paris" of the 19th century, engaged in a new design after World War I, redirected its inspiration towards New York City. The 1930s brought a new fashion which echoed in the cinema, theatre, dancing styles, art and architecture. Bucharest during the 1930s was marked by more and more Art Deco architecture from the bigger boulevards like Bulevardul Magheru to the private houses and smaller districts. The Telephone Palace , an early landmark of modern Bucharest, was the first skyscraper of the city. It was the tallest building between 1933 and the 1950s, with a height of 52.5 metres (172 ft). The architects were Louis Weeks and Edmond van Saanen Algi and engineer Walter Troy. The Art Deco monuments are a crucial part of the character of Bucharest since they describe and mark an important period from its history, the interbellic life (World War I–World War II). Most of the buildings from those years are prone to catastrophe, as Bucharest is located in an earthquake zone. [166]
South America
Palácio Duque de Caxias in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil (1941)
Central do Brasil Station in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1943)
Abasto Market in Buenos Aires, Argentina ( c. 1945)
Palacio Municipal and fountain in Laprida (Buenos Aires), Argentina
Art Deco in South America is especially present in countries that received a great wave of immigration in the first half of the 20th century, with notable works in their richest cities, like São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and Buenos Aires in Argentina. The Kavanagh Building in Buenos Aires (1934), by Sánchez, Lagos and de la Torre, was the tallest reinforced-concrete structure when it was completed and is a notable example of late Art Deco style.
Preservation and neo-Art Deco
Strada Romulus no. 75 in Bucharest (1930s) by unknown architect, in a state of decay
U-Drop Inn , a roadside gas station and diner on U.S. Highway 66 in Shamrock, Texas (1936), now a historical monument
Messeturm in Frankfurt , Germany, by Helmut Jahn (1990), a Postmodern building that is reminiscent of Art Deco architecture [167]
Rue Henri Heine no. 3–5 in Paris by J.J. Ory (2001), a neo-Art Deco building [168]
Capella Hanoi in Vietnam (2021), a neo-Art Deco building
In many cities, efforts have been made to protect the remaining Art Deco buildings. In many U.S. cities, historic Art Deco cinemas have been preserved and turned into cultural centres. Even more modest Art Deco buildings have been preserved as part of America's architectural heritage; an Art Deco café and gas station along Route 66 in Shamrock, Texas is an historic monument. The Miami Beach Architectural District protects several hundred old buildings, and requires that new buildings comply with the style. In Havana , Cuba, many Art Deco buildings have badly deteriorated. Efforts are underway to bring the buildings back to their original appearance.
In the 21st century, modern variants of Art Deco, called Neo Art Deco (or neo-Art Deco), have appeared in some American cities, inspired by the classic Art Deco buildings of the 1920s and 1930s. [169] Examples include the NBC Tower in Chicago, inspired by 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City; the Smith Center for the Performing Arts in Las Vegas, Nevada, which includes Art Deco call backs to the Hoover Dam ; 99 Hudson in Jersey City, New Jersey , the state's tallest building and the 46th tallest in the United States , which features Art Deco-inspired limestone and glass lineation; and the Brooklyn Tower in Brooklyn, New York , the borough's tallest building and the 19th tallest in the country, with its black glass and bronze piping. [169] [170] [171] [172] [173] [174] [175]
Municipal Auditorium of Kansas City , Missouri: Hoit Price & Barnes, and Gentry, Voskamp & Neville (1935)
Niagara Mohawk Building , Syracuse, N.Y.. Melvin L. King and Bley & Lyman, architects, completed in 1932
Palacio de Bellas Artes , Mexico City, Federico Mariscal, completed in 1934
Women's Smoking Room at the Paramount Theatre, Oakland . Timothy L. Pflueger , architect (1931)
Henryk Kuna , Rytm ("Rhythm"), in Skaryszewski Park, Warsaw , Poland (1925)
Snowdon Theatre , Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Daniel J. Crighton, architect. Opened 1937, closed in 1984
Federal Art Project poster promoting milk drinking in Cleveland (1940)
U.S. Works Progress Administration poster, John Wagner, artist, ca. 1940
The Statue of Hygieia in Art Deco style in Kraków , Poland (1932)
See also
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Benton, Charlotte; Benton, Tim; Wood, Ghislaine (2010). Art Déco dans le monde- 1910–39. Renaissance du Livre. pp. 16–17. ISBN
"Bergère - Adrien Karbowsky" . www.musee-orsay.fr. Musee d'Orsay. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
Collins, Peter (1959). Concrete: The Vision of a New Architecture. New York: Horizon Press.
Duncan, Alastair (2009). Art Deco Complete: The Definitive Guide to the Decorative Arts of the 1920s and 1930s. Abrams. ISBN
^ La Section d'or, 1912-1920-1925, Cécile Debray, Françoise Lucbert, Musées de Châteauroux, Musée Fabre, exhibition catalogue, Éditions Cercle d'art, Paris, 2000
^ Eve Blau, Nancy J. Troy, "The Maison Cubiste and the meaning of modernism in pre-1914 France", in Architecture and Cubism, Montreal, Cambridge, MA, London: MIT Press−Centre Canadien d'Architecture, 1998, pp. 17–40,
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^ André Mare, Salon Bourgeois, Salon d'Automne, The Literary Digest, Doom of the Antique, 30 November 1912, p. 1012
"La Maison Cubiste, 1912" . kubisme.info (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 13 March 2013.
Grasset, Eugène (1905). "Méthode de composition ornementale, Éléments rectilignes" (in French). Librarie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris. Retrieved 18 December 2012 – via Gallica.
Grasset, Eugène (1905). "Méthode de composition ornementale" (in French) (published 10 March 2001). Retrieved 18 December 2012.
Jones, Denna, ed. (2014). Architecture The Whole Story. Thames & Hudson. ISBN
Weston, Richard (2011). 100 Ideas That Changed Architecture. Laurence King. p. 21. ISBN
Hauffe, Thomas (1998). Design: A Concise History (1 ed.). London: Laurence King.
"Art Deco Study Guide" . Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 25 October 2008. Retrieved 1 November 2008.
Juster, Randy. "Introduction to Art Deco" . decopix.com. Archived from the original on 29 October 2008. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
"How Art Deco came to be". University Times. 36 (4). University of Pittsburgh. 9 October 2003.
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Criticos, Mihaela (2009). Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. p. 51. ISBN
Jirousek, Charlotte (1995). "Art, Design and Visual Thinking" . Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
^ Le Corbusier, Vers une architecture, Flammarion, republished in 1995, page xix
Heindorf, Anne (24 July 2006). "Art Deco (1920s to 1930s)" . Archived from the original on 7 February 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2008.
^ Blondel, Alain (1999). Tamara de Lempicka: a Catalogue Raisonné 1921–1980. Lausanne: Editions Acatos.
^ Balfour, Alan (1978). Rockefeller Center: Architecture as Theater. McGraw-Hill, Inc., p. 311,
^ Brian Catley, Deco and other Bronzes, pp. 203–209,
^ John Burchard and Albert Bush Brown, The Architecture of America (1966), Atlantic, Little and Brown, page 277
Criticos, Mihaela (2009). Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. p. 189. ISBN
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Criticos, Mihaela (2009). Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. p. 196. ISBN
"Art Déco" . monument.heritage.brussels. Retrieved 24 May 2024.
Criticos, Mihaela (2009). Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. p. 44. ISBN
Hardwood, Elain (2019). Art Deco Britain - Buildings of the Interwar Years. Batsford. p. 113. ISBN
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^ Explanatory text on Art Deco in the Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris.[ full citation needed ]
McCready, Karen (1997). Art Deco and Modernist ceramics. Thames & Hudson. ISBN
Griffith Winton, Alexandra (October 2008). "Design, 1925–50" . Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Cooper, Dan (November 2011). "Furniture of the Jazz Age" . Old-House Interiors. 7 (6). William J. O'Donnell: 42.
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^ De Morant, Henry, Histoire des arts décoratifs (1970), pg. 448-453
^ a b Beltra, Rubio, Exploring Art Deco in Textile and Fashion Design, 20 December 2016, Site of Metropolitan Museum
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Blackman, Cally (2012). 100 Years of Fashion. Laurence King. p. 12. ISBN
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Hardwood, Elain (2019). Art Deco Britain - Buildings of the Interwar Years. Batsford. p. 60. ISBN
"Napier Earthquake" . Artdeconapier.com. 3 February 1931. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
"Home – Art Deco Trust" . Artdeconapier.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
"Ventilatiegebouwen Maastunnel, Rotterdam" . Amsterdamse School Platform (in Dutch). 24 November 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
James, Kathleen (1997). Erich Mendelsohn and the Architecture of German Modernism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
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"The Smith Center for the Performing Arts" . David M. Schwarz Architects, Inc. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
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Ardman, Harvey (1985). Normandie, Her Life and Times. New York: Franklin Watts. ISBN
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Okroyan, Mkrtich (2008–2011). Art Deco Sculpture: From Root to Flourishing (vol.1,2) (in Russian). Russian Art Institute. ISBN
Plagnieux, Philippe (2003). Cathérale Notre Dame d'Amiens (in French). Éditions du Patrimoine, Centre des Monuments Nationaux. ISBN
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Savage, Rebecca Binno; Kowalski, Greg (2004). Art Deco in Detroit (Images of America). Arcadia. ISBN
Texier, Simon (2012). Paris: Panorama de l'architecture (in French). Parigramme. ISBN
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Vincent, G.K. (2008). A History of Du Cane Court: Land, Architecture, People and Politics. Woodbine Press. ISBN
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Ward, Mary; Ward, Neville (1978). Home in the Twenties and Thirties. Ian Allan. ISBN
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Art Deco architecture .
Look up art deco in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
1945–1959
| 645 |
75 | when was the design period known as art deco | https://www.theartstory.org/movement/art-deco/ | Egyptienne chiming clock (1927)
Mariage d'Amour. . . Mariage de Raison Cover Design for Harper's Bazaar (1927)
Young Lady With Gloves (1930)
Chrysler Building (completed 1930)
Philco Model 41-230T Table Radio, Bakelite Cabinet, Two Band (1941)
American Progress Murals (1937)
History and Ideas
Art Nouveau and Art Deco
Art Deco and Modernism
Streamline Moderne
Art Deco and the United States
Global Growth of Art Deco
Concepts, Styles, and Trends
Summary of Art Deco
The Art Deco style manifested across the spectrum of the visual arts: from architecture, painting, and sculpture to the graphic and decorative arts. While Art Deco practitioners were often paying homage to modernist influences such as Cubism , De Stijl , and Futurism , the references were indirect; it was as though they were taking the end results of a few decades of distilling compositions to the most basic forms and inventing a new style that could be visually pleasing but not intellectually threatening. The Art Deco style originated in Paris, but has influenced architecture and culture as a whole. Art Deco works are symmetrical, geometric, streamlined, often simple, and pleasing to the eye. This style is in contrast to avant-garde art of the period, which challenged everyday viewers to find meaning and beauty in what were often unapologetically anti-traditional images and forms.
Key Ideas & Accomplishments
Art Deco, similar to Art Nouveau , is a modern art style that attempts to infuse functional objects with artistic touches. This movement is different from the fine arts (painting and sculpture) where the art object has no practical purpose or use beyond providing interesting viewing.
With the advent of large-scale manufacturing, artists and designers wished to enhance the appearance of mass-produced functional objects - everything from clocks and ashtrays to cars and buildings. Art Deco's pursuit of beauty in all aspects of life was directly reflective of the relative newness and mass usage of machine-age technology rather than traditional crafting methods to produce many objects. The Bauhaus school was also interested in industrial production, but in a sense The Bauhaus is the polar opposite as it refrained from artistic embellishments - preferring clean and simple geometric forms.
The Art Deco ethos diverged from the Art Nouveau and Arts and Crafts styles, which emphasized the uniqueness and originality of handmade objects and featured stylized, organic forms. That crafted quality was emblematic of a kind of elitism in opposition to Art Deco's more egalitarian aim: to make aesthetically appealing, machine-made objects that were available to everyone.
Streamline Moderne, the American version of the Art Deco style was a stripped-down and sleek version of the more elaborate and often bespoke European Art Deco style. In many ways, the American style grew and evolved to have a much bigger following and use in the U.S. than in Europe.
Overview of Art Deco
"To return decorative artâ¦to the important place it occupied in the past," Francis Jourdain said, defined the intent of Art Deco. In every design richly employed decorative elements conveyed luxurious modernity.
Progression of Art
Artist: René Lalique
Lalique's sculpture nearly shouts "Art Deco," so exemplary is it of the style that had by 1930, become the American aesthetic par excellence. Spanning many media and even functions, the style was stamped on everything from luxury ocean liners and racing cars, to toasters and toilets. This piece stands on its own as a sculpture but it doubles as the added, elegant touch to the automobile for which it was designed to grace the hood. With Victoire, the craft of glassblowing produces both a fine art sculptural object and a functional although inarguably luxurious product. Lalique was a French designer known for his glass art, perfume bottles, vases, jewelry, chandeliers, and clocks which he produced first in the Art Nouveau and then in the Art Deco style. The use of glass, a fragile and brittle material, increases the object's status as a rare and decadent purchase. Victoire represents a female figure, who seems to be facing into the wind, her face eagerly jutting forward, hair trailing behind her like a single, sharply ordered wing. Although only her head is visible, one can imagine her body arching into the force of the wind (maybe even like the pose of the ancient Greek sculpture of Winged Victory in the Louvre Museum, a work that likely influenced Lalique in many ways). Lalique's sculpture and car hood ornament embodies the sensation of speed. In fact, the Art Deco style was, among other things, a celebration of the machine age, which found expression in the sleek new machines for transport, such as trains, cars, motorcycles, and ships. Proponents of the movement paid homage to the social and physical liberation that technological innovations brought in the 1920s.
Glass hood decoration for an automobile - Glass hood mascot, Victoria and Albert Museum, London
1922
Ãmile-Jacques Ruhlmann was born in Paris to a family that owned a decorating business, so it seemed only natural that his creativity would find expression in the luxurious home wares for which he became renowned. From furniture and light fixtures to a variety of other decorative elements such as wallpaper, Ruhlmann produced one-of-a-kind, elegant home furnishings using rare, exotic woods with ivory embellishments from Africa and the Far East, thereby incorporating the era's preoccupation with the art of previously considered "primitive" countries. Bridging the divide between the uniqueness of Art Nouveau pieces and the Art Deco impulse to incorporate unusual materials, his pieces demonstrates a blending of Art Deco and the more lavish and ornamental Art Nouveau style that preceded it. This cabinet, which diverges from Art Nouveau in its symmetry and limited palette resulting from the use of the wood contrasting with the ivory, still features a somewhat elaborate floral design that borrows from Art Nouveau. It is less a departure from the older style than an updating and simplification of it.
Macassar ebony, amaranth, ivory, oak, lumber-core plywood, poplar, chestnut, mahogany, silvered brass - The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Artist: A.M. Cassandre
A.M. Cassandre, one of the most influential poster artists and graphic designers in the Art Deco style, created this poster for the French liqueur Pivolo Aperitif in 1924. It won an award at the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes in Paris that same year, which was an exhibition that was widely regarded as having launched the Art Deco style on an international scale. Cassandre is best known for his distinctive, sleek and minimal advertising posters promoting furniture, travel, and alcohol. He is also considered to be one of the pioneers of modern graphic design, including innovations in the design of new, distinctly Art Deco typefaces, some of which were inspired by notable artists such as Pablo Picasso and Max Ernst. In this poster, a stylized, monochrome bird is perched behind a small glass of honey-colored liqueur. Though representational, both images are simplified in a manner similar to Cubist deconstruction and reconstruction: objects are broken down into basic, overlapping geometric shapes. The artist relies on a limited palette of black, gray, and a narrow range of cool colors contrasted with warm ones - the royal blue of the text juxtaposed with the inviting amber hue of the aperitif - to create a harmonious coexistence between elements in this piece. Cassandre's minimalist typography plays an integral part in the image. Basic geometric forms are combined to create the letters. Those making up the words "Pivolo" at the top of the page look as though they could have been machine-produced and assembled, themselves resembling the simple, functional machines cropping up everywhere in the era of Art Deco. The advertising or functional aspect of this piece fuses seamlessly with the aesthetic side: even the individual characters of the text become artful components of the overall work.
Egyptienne chiming clock
Artist: Louis Cartier
When the British archaeologist Howard Carter excavated the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamun in 1922, the event sparked immediate global fascination. Suddenly, Ancient Egypt become a common subject in popular culture, including music, films, popular literature, and the decorative arts. The French jeweler Louis Cartier translated this fascination with Ancient Egypt into his works of the 1920s, many of which incorporate traditionally Egyptian materials and decorative techniques. For some pieces, Cartier even used authentic historical relics. The American iteration of the Art Deco style is particularly evocative of the Ancient Egyptian visual aesthetic. The use of simplified geometric shapes, fields of unblended color, symmetry, and an emphasis on line are exemplary of this, for American Art Deco artists, architects, and designers strived to create a truly international style. Just as the nation had established itself as a genuine world power politically, economically, and militarily, so it endeavored to occupy a superior position on the cultural world stage. Incorporating characteristics of the most notable historical artistic styles from around the world was part of the strategy for the U.S. to attain a culturally respected stature. This elaborate clock mimics Egyptian temple architecture and decoration with its inlaid reliefs depicting human and divine figures. The base of the clock is carved from Lapis Lazuli which is a deep blue stone thought to possess divine powers and commonly associated with the creator goddess Isis, who is represented by the winged figure who appears at the top of the clock.
Gold, Vermeil, Mother of Pearl, Coral, Lapis Lazuli, Polychrome and Enamel over Brass Clock Mechanisms - Private Collection
Mariage d'Amour. . . Mariage de Raison Cover Design for Harper's Bazaar
Artist: Romain de Tirtoff
The work of the prolific Russian-French artist, Romain de Tirtoff, better known by the pseudonym Erté, spanned a number of disciplines. His set and costume designs were featured in the Ziegfeld Follies, the Folies Bergère, and a number of silent films produced by Louis B. Mayer. Between 1915 and 1937, he designed more than two hundred magazine covers. Many of these, as in the example above, were for the popular, upscale fashion magazine, Harper's Bazaar. His designs and illustrations also appeared in many widely read women's glossies of the day, including Vogue, Cosmopolitan, and Ladies' Home Journal. Since the majority of Americans were more likely to read magazines and go to movies than to visit galleries and museums, the fact that Erté's work was so visible in popular culture made it possible for the Art Deco style to be disseminated more widely rather than remaining largely the domain of a wealthy elite. In this cover illustration for the May 1927 issue of Harper's Bazaar, a seated female figure with short, bobbed hair in the flapper style holds a spherical orange flower in her right hand. In her left hand, she delicately grasps a length of an immense strand of pearls heaped in an elaborate red box. As a pictorial allegory of marriage, she is debating the choice to marry for love, which is represented by the flowers, or for money, which is represented by the pearls. Erté also drew inspiration from Egyptian art as well as representations from the Italian Commedia dell'arte, imagery from ancient Greek pottery, among other diverse historical sources. His is a more elegant and curvilinear version of the simplified style of Art Deco, in its way a less direct departure from the more complex forms and signature serpentine lines of the preceding Art Nouveau style.
Gouache on Cardboard - Gouache on Cardboard
Polish-born painter Tamara de Lempicka became a major proponent of the Art Deco style in Europe and North America, creating high-end stylized, trendy portraits of the famous and fashionable: actors, socialites, and aristocrats. She was rewarded richly for her work, which earned her notoriety and critical acclaim. Lempicka was actively involved in the bohemian scene in Paris during the 1920s, where she befriended Picasso as well as the writers Andre Gide and Jean Cocteau. Her dramatic love life often attracted comment and scandal. This painting is among her best known works. Young Lady With Gloves depicts a fashionably demure woman in a green dress, wearing a matching white hat and gloves and vivid, red lipstick. The sharp linearity, fractured planes of green fabric, the shallow gray background, and the stark interplay of light and shadow on her face reveal the substantial influence of Cubism on the Art Deco style, although Lempicka avoids the more extensive abstraction of that style. The majority of her works are figurative and their bold colors and precise, clean lines are common features of the streamlined and elegant Art Deco style. Lempicka's work reflects another common feature of the Art Deco style, tasteful sensuality. In this portrait, the young woman's silk dress clings to the contours of her body, accentuating her abdomen and breasts. In fact, what was at the time regarded as the sexually provocative nature of this painting sparked controversy when it was first exhibited at Paris' Salon des Independants in 1932.
Oil on Plywood - Musée du Luxembourg, Paris
completed 1930
Chrysler Building
Artist: William Van Alen
This Art Deco icon of the New York skyline was designed by William Van Alen, a French-trained American architect previously known for designing several eye-catching skyscrapers in Midtown Manhattan. The building was completed in less than two years since roughly four floors were completed per week, which at the time was a surprisingly rapid rate. As the skyscraper was financed by Walter P. Chrysler, founder of the automobile company that bears his name, and the architectural details were designed to reference Chrysler products. This includes the building's gargoyles, modeled after the Chrysler hood ornament, and details along the exterior of the thirty-first floor that are reminiscent of radiator caps. The most recognizable aspects of the building are the seven arched crowns at its top, each of which bears a distinctive sunburst pattern. The arches of the shimmering spire evoke spinning chrome hubcaps as well as rising suns, and the slick, geometric quality of the crown reflects the drive toward streamlined, machine-age elegance typical of American Art Deco. Many of the iconic buildings in New York City were built at the height of the Art Deco movement. In countries such as India, Cuba, and the Philippines, Art Deco architecture continued to be popular and commonplace well into the 1960s. Dozens of cities in the world are heralded for their Art Deco architecture.
Brick Building with Steel Frame and Stainless Steel Crown - Lexington Avenue and East 42nd Street, New York
1941
Philco Model 41-230T Table Radio, Bakelite Cabinet, Two Band
Streamline Moderne is the culmination of the American Art Deco style. It developed during the 1930s and is evident in objects as diverse as elegant skyscrapers to budget-friendly kitchen supplies. This pared-down aesthetic also fit with the more subdued world view prevalent in the U.S. following the 1929 stock market crash. Whereas previous designers often incorporated exotic and expensive materials, Streamline Moderne utilized cheap, readily available industrial materials, such as plastic and chrome. With this radio, there are no extraneous details and the functional features of the radio are turned into integral elements of the design. The design pairs a modern aesthetic with modern technology. It uses Bakelite, a recently invented plastic that was light, durable, and inexpensive to produce, meaning that these objects could be mass-produced and sold as design-driven consumer items to the large middle-class market.
Bakelite radio
Artist: Jose Maria Sert
The well-known mural painter Jose Maria Sert was commissioned in 1937 to create decorative imagery for the main lobby of the Rockefeller Center, a classic of modernist Art Deco architecture, which was scheduled to open officially in 1939. Diego Rivera was originally chosen to create the murals, but he offended the Rockefeller family by painting the Communist revolutionary Lenin as part of his design for the work, Man at the Crossroads (1934), and so the mural was subsequently destroyed, and the job was offered to Sert instead. The work exemplifies Art Deco's typical combination of classical and contemporary. The painting features allegory and tropes from classical painting such as the muses of poetry and dance. Simultaneously, it is also a celebration of the people and values that contributed to modern American life, featuring historical figures such as Abraham Lincoln and Ralph Waldo Emerson. It is an assertion of America's forward-thinking developments in all areas of the arts and sciences, and as Clare Cardinal-Pett argues "celebrates technological progress and themes of man's capacity for mastering the universe" in a uniquely American way. There is a palpable nationalist spirit to the work, similar to other public murals produced in the U.S. between the two World Wars. Murals are designed to function in harmony with the architecture of the room so that fine art and design merge quite seamlessly, a feature that became distinctly characteristic of the Art Deco style. In this example, the painted figure of Atlas appears to be holding up the ceiling of the room, striding between two real supporting pillars. Heavy-limbed, blocky figures like these were common features of the Art Deco style; if Art Nouveau emphasized the sensuous curve, Art Deco could be said to focus on the angular and, at most, the slightly curvilinear. The robust, muscular bodies of the figures in Sert's mural are reminiscent of those on the Sistine Chapel ceiling painted by Michelangelo, a reference that was very deliberate on the part of the artist. Just as the Sistine Ceiling so exemplified the best of the Italian Renaissance, so the murals by Sert were intended to express the excellence of American creativity, production, and innovation during the prosperous, post-WWI period of the 1920s and 30s, a golden age in the United States.
Murals - Main Lobby of 30 Rockefeller Plaza
1935
Delahaye 135M Figoni & Falaschi Competition Coupe
Artist: Giuseppe Figoni and Ovidio Falaschi
This sporty, two-seater coupe was designed by the Italian-born French coachbuilders Giuseppe Figoni and Ovidio Falaschi for rally races. The car was commissioned by a French racing driver and was later owned by a countess and a Hollywood actress, so broad was the appeal of this more sensual iteration of the Art Deco style, one that resisted the minimalism and emphasis on the right-angle and symmetry. The automobile's aerodynamic design, gracefully flowing lines, and chrome, teardrop-shaped accents make it an iconic representation of Art Deco style, particularly in its celebration of speed in the fast-paced modern world. The curving front and rear fenders sweep down to cover the wheels, and the car sits quite low to the ground, giving it the illusion of moving forward at speed even when parked. The vehicle blends the peak of technological innovation, modern materials, and performance with streamlined, contemporary elegance through the elliptical chrome embellishments, luxurious interior wood trim, and headlights and door handles melded seamlessly into the frame. A driver of this car was doing nothing less than becoming a component of a completely functional work of art.
Aluminum Frame with Chrome Accents - The Patterson Collection, Louisville, Kentucky
Beginnings of Art Deco
By the end of the 19th century in France, many of the notable artists, architects, and designers who had played important roles in the development of the Art Nouveau style recognized that it was becoming increasingly passé. At the close of a century that saw the Industrial Revolution take hold, contemporary life became very different from a few decades earlier. It was time for something new, something that would shout "20th Century" from tasteful, modernist rooftops.
The Society of Decorative Artists in France
From this desire to move into the new century in step with innovation rather than being held back by nostalgia, a group of French artistic innovators formed an organization called the Societé des Artistes Décorateurs (The Society of Decorative Artists). The group was comprised of both well-known figures such as the Art Nouveau-style designer and printmaker Eugene Grasset, and the Art Nouveau architect Hector Guimard, along with emerging decorative artists and designers such as Pierre Chareau and Francis Jourdain. The French state supported and fostered this direction of artistic activity.
One of the major goals of the new group was to challenge the hierarchical structure of the visual arts that relegated decorative artists to a lesser status than the more classical painting and sculpting media. Jourdain is famously quoted as saying, "We consequently resolved to return decorative art, inconsiderately treated as a Cinderella or poor relation allowed to eat with the servants, to the important, almost preponderant place it occupied in the past, of all times and in all of the countries of the globe." The plan for a major exhibition presenting a new type of decorative art was originally conceived for 1914, but had to be put on hold until after World War I ended and then pushed back for various reasons until 1925.
The Exhibition that officially launched the movement
The French government, which hosted the exhibition between the esplanade of the golden-domed Les Invalides and the entrances of the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais on both sides of the Seine River, endeavored to showcase the new style. Over 15,000 artists, architects, and designers displayed their work at the exposition. During the seven months of the exhibition, over 16 million people toured the many individual exhibits. This exhibition was the catalyst for the beginning of the movement.
Art Nouveau and Art Deco
Art Deco was a direct response aesthetically and philosophically to the Art Nouveau style and to the broader cultural phenomenon of modernism. Art Nouveau began to fall out of fashion during WWI as many critics felt the elaborate detail, delicate designs, often expensive materials and production methods of the style were ill-suited to a challenging, unsettled, and increasingly more mechanized modern world. While the Art Nouveau movement derived its intricate, stylized forms from nature and extolled the virtues of the hand-crafted, the Art Deco aesthetic emphasized machine-age streamlining and sleek geometry.
Art Deco and Modernism
The Exposition Internationale brought together not only works in the Art Deco style, but put crafted items near examples of avant-garde paintings and sculptures in styles such as Cubism , Constructivism , Bauhaus , De Stijl , and Futurism . By the 1920s, Art Deco was an exuberant, but largely mainstream, counterpoint to the more cerebral Bauhaus and De Stijl aesthetics. All three shared an emphasis on clean, strong lines as an organizing design principle. Art Deco practitioners embraced technological innovation, modern materials, and mechanization and attempted to emphasize them in the overall aesthetic of the style itself. Practitioners also borrowed and learned from other modernist movements. Art Deco came to be regarded by admirers who were in-step with the forward-looking perspectives of contemporary avant-garde movements. Ironically, modernist painting and sculpture played a secondary role in the exhibition with the few exceptions of the Soviet pavilion and Le Corbusier's Esprit Nouveau pavilion.
Art Deco After The Great Depression
The onset of the second phase of Art Deco coincided with the beginning of the Great Depression. Austerity, in fact, might be the core aesthetic for both pragmatic and conceptual reasons for this second development of Art Deco. Whereas Art Deco architecture, for instance, had been vertically oriented with skyscrapers climbing to lofty heights, the later Art Deco buildings with their mostly unornamented exteriors, graceful curves, and horizontal emphases symbolized sturdiness, quiet dignity, and resilience. During the worst years of economic disaster, from 1929 to 1931, American Art Deco transitioned from following trends to setting them.
Streamline Moderne
Streamline Moderne became the American continuation of the European Art Deco movement. Beyond the serious economic and philosophical influences, the aesthetic inspiration for the first Streamline Moderne structures were buildings designed by proponents of the New Objectivity movement in Germany, which arose from an informal association of German architects, designers, and artists that had formed in the early-20th century. New Objectivity artists and architects were inspired by the same kind of sober pragmatism that compelled the proponents of Streamline Moderne to eliminate excess, including the emotionality of expressionist art. New Objectivity architects concentrated on producing structures that could be regarded as practical, as reflective of the demands of real life. They preferred their designs to adapt to the real world rather than making others adjust to an aesthetic that was impractical. To that end, New Objectivity architects even pioneered prefabrication technology (helping quickly and efficiently house Germany's poor).
Devoid of ornament, Streamline Moderne architecture featured clean curves, long horizontal lines (including bands of windows), glass bricks, porthole-style windows, and cylindrical and sometimes nautical forms. More so than ever, there was an emphasis on aerodynamics and other expressions of modern technology. The more expensive and often exotic materials of Art Deco were replaced with concrete, glass, and chrome hardware in Streamline Moderne. Color was used sparingly as off-white, beige, and earth tones replaced the more vivid colors of Art Deco. The style was first introduced to architecture and then expanded to other objects, similarly to the traditional Art Deco style.
Art Deco is Named Retroactively
Originally, the term "Art Deco" was used pejoratively by a famous detractor, the modernist architect Le Corbusier , in articles in which he criticized the style for its ornamentation, a characteristic that he regarded as unnecessary in modern architecture. While proponents of the style hailed it as a stripped-down, modernist response to the excessive ornamentation, especially in comparison to its immediate predecessor, Art Nouveau, as any decoration was superfluous for Le Corbusier. It wasn't until the late 1960s, when interest in the style was reinvigorated, that the term "Art Deco" was used in a positive manner by British art historian and critic Bevis Hillier.
Art Deco and the United States
In the U.S., the reception of the Art Deco movement developed in a different trajectory. Herbert Hoover, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce at the time, decreed that American designers and architects could not exhibit their work at the Exposition Internationale as he contended that the country had yet to conceive of a distinctly American style of art that was satisfactorily "new enough." As an alternative, he sent a delegation to France to assess the offerings at the Exposition; and then to apply what they saw to a contemporary American artistic and architectural style. Included in the contingent of aesthetic emissaries sent by Hoover were important figures from the American Institute of Architecture, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and The New York Times. The mission inspired an almost immediate boom in artistic innovation in the U.S.
By 1926 a smaller version of the French fair called "A Selected Collection of Objects from the International Exposition Modern, Industrial and Decorative Arts" traveled through many U.S. cities such as New York, Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, St. Louis, Boston, Minneapolis, and Philadelphia. The American World Fairs in Chicago (1933) and New York City (1939) prominently featured Art Deco designs while Hollywood embraced the aesthetic and made it glamorous across the country. Even American corporations such as General Motors and Ford built pavilions in the New York World Fair.
Among the best-known examples of the American Art Deco style are skyscrapers and other large-scale buildings. In fact, the American iteration of Art Deco in building designs has been referred to as Zigzag Modern for its angular and geometric patterns as elaborate architectural facades. However, overall American Art Deco is often less ornamental than its European predecessor. Beyond the clean lines and strong curves, bold geometric shapes, rich color, and sometimes lavish ornamentation, the American version is more stripped-down. As important influences such as the New Objectivity and the International Style of architecture as well as the serious economic setbacks of the late 1920s and early 1930s began to exert themselves on the Art Deco aesthetic, the style became far less lavish. For instance, this transformation might be symbolized by the replacement of gold with chrome, of mother of pearl with Bakelite, of granite with concrete, etc.
The American Art Deco style developed as a celebration of technological advancement, including mass production, and a restored faith in social progress. In essence, these achievements could be considered a reflection of national pride. In the 1930s under Roosevelt's Works Progress Administration (WPA) , many of the works that were created were Art Deco, from municipal structures like libraries and schools to massive public murals. The WPA was intended to jumpstart the post-war U.S. economy by creating jobs in public works, and sought to serve the community by creating jobs and instilling American values within design. The use of American Art Deco thus brought forth an expression of democracy through design. Some materials often used in the Art Deco creation were expensive and therefore beyond the reach of the average man. However, the use of inexpensive or new materials made it possible to produce a broad range of affordable products, and thus brought beauty into the public sphere in a new way. Art Deco inspired the design and production of an array of objects - from magazine covers and colorful advertisements to functional items such as flatware, furniture, clocks, cars, and even ocean liners.
Global Growth of Art Deco
The Art Deco style took hold in world capitals as diverse as Havana, Cuba, Mumbai, and Jakarta. Havana boasts an entire neighborhood built in the Art Deco style. The London Underground railway system heavily incorporates the style. The port of Shanghai contains more than fifty Art Deco structures, most of which were designed by the Hungarian Laszlo Hudec. From war monuments to hospitals, cities as far reaching as Sydney and Melbourne in Australia have absorbed the phenomenal style as well.
Art Deco: Concepts, Styles, and Trends
Art Deco's main visual characteristics derive from repetitive use of linear and geometric shapes including triangular, zigzagged, trapezoidal, and chevron-patterned forms. Similar to its predecessor, Art Nouveau, when objects such as flowers, animals, or human figures are represented, they are highly stylized and simplified to keep with the overall aesthetic of Art Deco. The nature and extent of the stylization and simplification or stripping down varies depending upon the regional iteration of the style. For instance, a figure like The Firebird (1922) by the French designer René Lalique, is elegantly slender and attenuated, while Lee Lawrie's Atlas (1937) outside of Rockefeller Center is solid and robust with emphatically linear musculature although both are considered fine representations of Deco style.
In keeping with the movement's emphasis on modern technology, Art Deco artists and designers exploited modern materials such as plastics, Bakelite, and stainless steel. But when a splash of wealth and refinement was needed, designers incorporated more exotic materials such as ivory, horn, and zebra skin. As with the Art Nouveau and the Arts and Crafts movements, the Art Deco style was applied far less to the traditionally highest-ranking visual art forms of expression: painting and sculpture.
Design
The Art Deco style exerted its influence over the graphic arts in a manner that reveals the influence of Italian Futurism with its love for speed and adoration of the machine. Futurist artists used lines to indicate movement, known as "speed whiskers" which would streak out from the wheels of fast-moving cars and trains. In addition, practitioners of Art Deco utilized parallel lines and tapering forms that suggest symmetry and streamlining. Typography was affected by the international influence of Art Deco and the typefaces Bifur, Broadway, and Peignot immediately call the style to mind.
In terms of imagery, simple forms and large areas of solid color are reminiscent of Japanese woodblock prints, which had become a major source of influence for Western artists, especially in France, following the end of the isolationist Edo period in 1868. The subsequent influx of art from Japan to Europe made an enormous impact. In particular, artists found in the formal simplicity of woodblock prints a model for creating their own distinctly modern styles beginning with the Impressionist.
Furniture
Until the late 1920s, avant-garde furniture design in France was mostly variations on the Art Nouveau style but simplified and less curvilinear. As the decade progressed, Ãmile-Jacques Ruhlmann emerged as the foremost furniture designer (Ruhlmann had a pavilion of his own at the 1925 Exposition). While his designs were primarily inspired by pieces from the 18th century produced in the neoclassical style, he eliminated much of the ornamentation while still using exotic materials favored by Art Nouveau designers such as mahogany, ebony, rosewood, ivory, and tortoise shell. Of course, his pieces were often too expensive to acquire for anyone aside from the most affluent.
In contrast to Ruhlmann's lavish designs, which seemed to straddle the Art Nouveau and Art Deco styles, the more definitively Art Deco furniture designer in France was Jules Leleu. He had been a traditional designer until the new style supplanted Art Nouveau and is known for the design of the grand dining room of the Elysee Palace in Paris, and the luxurious cabins on the first-class deck of the elegant steamer, the Normandie.
In contrast to Leleu and Ruhlmann, Le Corbusier was a proponent of a very pared-down, ornament-free version of the Art Deco style, often creating furniture suitable for the austere interiors his own architectural structures. His intention was to design prototypes, particularly of chairs, that could be mass-produced and therefore affordable to a broader market. Also of note, Donald Deskey's interior design of New York City's famous landmark, Radio City Music Hall, is an excellent example of American Art Deco furniture design which is still intact in its original form today.
Architecture
Art Deco architecture is characterized by hard-edged, often richly embellished designs, accentuated by gleaming metal accents. Many of these buildings have a vertical emphasis, constructed in a manner intended to draw the eye upward. Rectangular, often blocky forms are arranged geometrically, with the addition of rooftop spires and/or curved ornamental elements to provide a streamlined effect. New York skyscrapers and Miami's pastel-colored buildings rank among the most famous American examples, though the style was deployed in a variety of structures throughout the world.
In the United States, the Works Progress Administration helped Art Deco architecture become mainstream. Interestingly, the merger of Art Deco and Beaux-Arts classicism seen in many Depression-era public works has come to be known as PWA Moderne or Depression Moderne.
Later Developments - After Art Deco
Art Deco fell out of fashion during the years of the Second World War in Europe and North America, with the austerity of wartime causing the style to seem ever gaudy and decadent. Metals were salvaged to use toward constructing armaments, as opposed to decorating buildings or interior spaces. Furnishings were no longer considered status objects. Further technological advances allowed for cheaper production of basic consumer items, driving out the need and popularity of Art Deco designers.
Useful Resources on Art Deco
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videos
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The books and articles below constitute a bibliography of the sources used in the writing of this page. These also suggest some accessible resources for further research, especially ones that can be found and purchased via the internet.
Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors
"Art Deco Movement Overview and Analysis". [Internet]. . TheArtStory.org
Content compiled and written by Jen Glennon
Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors
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First published on 03 Nov 2016. Updated and modified regularly
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ART DECO 101
The Art Deco style as we understand it today first appeared in France just before the First World War but saw its full expression between 1925 and 1940. Like any design style, Art Deco fits in the continuum of art history, with antecedents and successors that it helped inform. The Arts and Crafts Movement, Cubism, and the Vienna Secession all influenced its beginnings, and Art Deco, in turn, paved the way for the Modern Movement that followed the Second World War. In the century before Art Deco buildings were built, the most common building style was known as beaux arts.
The Beaux-Arts style was taught at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and was the predominant established style of architecture in Europe and America from the 1830s to the early 20th century. It drew mostly from neoclassicism in its ornamentation and massing but also incorporated modern materials such as steel, iron and glass. This style was particularly influential in the United States from 1870 to 1920, and many prominent American architects of the period studied at the Ecole.
Beaux-Arts buildings typically employ rich, bold classical ornamentation. The massing of the building is symmetrical with a central entrance signified by classically ordered columns or pilasters. The façade of the building is layered horizontally with a rusticated first floor providing a base. The roof is often flat and the line of the top parapet is horizontal and uninterrupted. The exterior materials are typically stone or brick, and the colors monochrome or subtly polychrome. Most important public buildings in the United States were designed in this style as late as the mid-1920s, but as early as the 1890s there were voices for change.
The advent of the modern skyscraper, in particular, which employed structural steel rather than load bearing masonry, allowed buildings to reach much greater heights than had been practical hitherto, and began to call into question the established way to design and ornament a building. Louis Sullivan and others began to openly advocate for a different style of architecture that did not rely so heavily on obvious classical European influences and better reflected the practical requirements of this new American building type.
In 1916, New York City, in response to the unwanted impacts of large tall buildings, enacted the nation’s first zoning code to address skyscrapers. The main purpose was to prevent large buildings from blocking light and air from reaching the streets below, and it established limits to a building’s massing at various heights. The ordinance was generally interpreted as requiring a series of setbacks as a building rose from street level. This was famously rendered in a series of massing studies by the illustrator Hugh Ferriss. While originally no more than a technical response to the ordinance, the idea of setbacks to the façade would soon become a stylistic element incorporated into the design of every tall building around the world. In this context, Beaux-Arts classicism no longer made sense. Something had to change.
THREE MAIN INFLUENCES OR CATYLISTS FOR CHANGE
WORLD WAR I CHANGED EVERYTHING
The First World War was a global war that lasted from August of 1914 to November of 1918. It ended a century of relative peace and unprecedented prosperity in Europe and resulted directly in the deaths of more than 20 million people. The war was a significant turning point in the political, cultural, economic, and social climate of the world. It toppled four empires, redrew the map of Europe and ushered in the emergence of America as a global power.
The war had a lasting impact on society. It was seen by many as the end of an era stretching back well into the 19th century. The optimism that marked the period at the turn of the 20th century was swept away. Across Europe it was seen as a watershed and a failure of the established order. After the war, the establishment was rejected in every way. This impacted every aspect of society including music, dance, fashion, art, and architecture. People no longer looked to the past with nostalgia. They looked to the future and embraced it.
CHIGAGO TRIBUNE COMPETITION
In 1922 a design competition was held for a new headquarters building for the Chicago Tribune newspaper. Chicago was a center of American architectural philosophy. The Chicago School, as it was called, included such notable architects as H.H. Richardson, Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. At the time, there was considerable media attention drawn to the competition. It attracted 260 architects from around the world vying for a $50,000 grand prize.
The winning design was by John Howells and Raymond Hood. Their design parti was a Gothic tower with strong vertical lines and buttresses at the top that were said to be inspired by the cathedral of Rouen. The critics however, were not impressed. It drew very heavily from historicism and did not reflect a new direction in design. It was a missed opportunity. The second place winner however, by the Finnish architect Eliel Saarinen, was their clear favorite. Also influenced by soaring vertical Gothic lines, it reinvented and modernized them. He also employed a series of setbacks as the building rose from the street--a clear reference to the New York zoning code. It was this un-built design by Saarinen that much of the architectural profession recognized as the future of skyscraper design. Two years later Hood, himself, would reflect this in his design for the American Radiator Building in New York. The Chicago Tribune competition in many ways changed how architects approached the design of buildings and set the stage for Art Deco in America.
PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1925
L’exposition internationale des arts decoratifs et industiels modernes was held in Paris from April to October of 1925. It was conceived as a way to highlight the new style of art, architecture, furniture, decorative arts and industrial design that was emerging in Europe and throughout the world. The organizers made it clear that the purpose of the event was to spotlight and exhibit only new, modern design and that no historical revival styles would be permitted. There were 15,000 exhibitors from 20 countries present, and more than 16 million visitors. While there was no formal American presence, hundreds of American architects, designers, department store buyers, artists and patrons of the arts came to the Exposition.
At the exposition, there were two main philosophical camps. Designers such as Lalique, Cartier, Ruhlmann, and Brandt came from a long line of decorative artists whose work required wealthy patrons. Their work used expensive, exotic and rare materials employing traditional craftsmanship, but expressed in entirely new ways and forms. Their work represented luxury, glamour, and exuberance. The other camp considered themselves “modernists” and disdained what they considered to be unnecessary ornament, preferring instead machine-made objects rather than those requiring fine handcraftsmanship. Among these were the architects LeCorbusier, Melinkov, and Millet-Stevens who, like others in the Bauhaus School, believed that buildings should be “machines for living” and that the objects in them should be available to everyone. To them, decoration, no matter how it was reimagined, represented the past. It was this philosophy that eventually won the day in architecture schools.
ART DECO
The term ‘Art Deco’ came into use in the 1960s from a book by Bevis Hillier titled Art Deco which was an adaptation of “artes decoratifes” from the full name of the 1925 Paris exposition. During the period, buildings of this style were simply called modern or modernistic. Art Deco as an architectural style is an umbrella term and encompasses several different variations, but all with a theme of modernity, rejecting the immediate past and reimagining ancient and exotic motifs. Some of these characteristics may be seen to be mixed and matched, so it can often be difficult to clearly categorize a building by style. Some types of decoration you will find on any Art Deco building regardless of style or location. These are typically stylized geometric forms such as zigzags, chevrons, squares within squares, diamonds etc. It is also common to find stylized organic forms mixed with the geometrics: fern tendrils, flowers of all kinds, and fountains were common. There were also unique regional elements that would vary by region and country. In Los Angeles you see palm fronds, grape clusters, sunbursts, and ocean waves, all representing the Southern California arcadia. Art Deco rejected the immediate past but often looked to the distant past for inspiration. Ancient cultures, such as the Egyptian, Mayan, and Assyrian, were stylized and re-imagined. But most of all Art Deco looked to the future, embraced technology and celebrated it.
ART DECO IN L.A.
Southern California and Los Angeles, in particular, was heavily marketed to the east coast with promises of open land, abundant sunshine, and palm-tree-lined streets. It worked. In 1870 the population of L.A. was 5,700. By 1890 it was 50,000. The population then doubled with every census afterwards (except for the one when it tripled)! By 1920 it was 575,000,. In 1930 it was 1.2 million. Finally, the effects of the Depression slowed the growth rate, but nevertheless, by 1940, the city had grown to 1.6 million. From 1920 to 1940, the period of Art Deco, 1 million people moved to Los Angeles. These people needed a place to live, work, shop, and go to the cinema. Architects could hardly keep up.
Art Deco buildings began to appear in LA in the late 1920s during a period of considerable business expansion caused by the population growth. The earliest buildings were mostly zigzag in style, but soon the stock market crash and the lingering depression caused this exuberant version of the style to give way to the more restrained Streamline and WPA Moderne. By 1940, a nascent fourth Art Deco style began to appear. A variant of the “Hollywood Regency” style, practiced by Paul Williams and others, this version was stopped in its tracks by the building restrictions caused by WWII. A few buildings built just before and after the war exhibit this style but generally by the late ’40s, the architectural profession was looking in a completely new direction and the period of Art Deco was over.
There are three main architectural variations of Art Deco buildings, each with its own distinctive characteristics. They are: Zigzag, or Jazz Moderne; WPA, or Classical Moderne; and Streamline Moderne.
ZIGZAG MODERNE
This is the earliest style of Art Deco architecture. In the U.S. it traces its origins to the Chicago Tribune competition of 1922 and the rendering studies of Hugh Ferriss. This style is the reinterpretation of Gothic architecture and is typified by vertical lines, rich, stylized ornamentation and the use of vibrant colors.
Typical elements:
Line of the parapet typically interrupted by vertical elements.
Asymmetric building massing.
Upper floors of the building set back from main footprint of the building.
Rich ornamentation.
Geometric patterns mixed with stylized organic elements.
Zigzags and chevrons most common geometric ornament
In L.A., stylized organic elements often include fern tendrils, palm fronds, grape clusters, sunbursts and ocean waves. These vary by region and country.
Stylized design elements from exotic ancient cultures are commonly seen (Egyptian, Mayan, and Assyrian most common).
Use of vibrant or dramatic color on the façade.
Notable Los Angeles Examples:
Bullocks Wilshire, 1929 (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Eastern Columbia 1929 (Beelman)
Richfield Tower, 1928 (Styles O. Clements)-Demolished 1969
WPA / CLASSICAL MODERNE
This style is most commonly found with the New Deal-funded projects of the WPA and PWA and is often seen in governmental and institutional buildings of the mid to late ’30s. It became more popular as the Depression wore on and the more extravagant zigzag style began to be seen as excessive and expensive. This style is a reinterpretation of a Beaux-Arts building, with classical ornamentation that is highly stylized and edited. There are many examples in the Los Angeles area, including Post Offices, City Halls, Schools and Banks.
Typical elements:
Symmetrical building massing.
Stylized fluted pilasters on the façade.
Use of murals and other public art in the interior.
Notable Los Angeles Examples:
Federal Reserve Bank (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Hollywood Post Office, 1935 (Beelman)
Santa Monica City Hall (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Venice Police Station, and High School
STREAMLINE MODERNE
This style is more rare in L.A. and has its roots in the more industrial look of the European International Style. Another key influence was the fascination with technology, in particular, transportation technology, that was occurring at the same time. The design of trains, automobiles, ships and even Zeppelins all exhibited aerodynamic qualities that were translated into this architectural style. It is typified by low horizontal lines, curved or rounded edges, the use of pipe railing, round porthole-type windows and other ship-like elements. There is often a sense of movement with this style and some buildings of this type look like ships on land.
Typical Elements:
Curved or rounded corners and edges.
Round windows.
Use of pipe railing and other ship-like elements.
Very minimal ornamentation.
Pan Pacific Auditorium, 1935 (Wurdman and Beckett) - Demolished 1989
Firestone Tire Store, 1937 (8th & La Brea)
Mauretania Apartment Bldg, 1936 (Black)
NBC Radio City, 1938 (John C Austin) – Demolished 1964
Bullocks Wilshire, Richfield Building (demolished), Wilshire Professional Building, Wiltern Theatre, Milk, Vision Theatre, Leimert Park. Photo credits: Bullocks Wilshire, Milk, Leimert Park Theatre (Margot Gerber), Wilshire Professional Building (Al Russell/SoCal Landmarks), Wiltern detail (Brian Boskind).
Art deco society of los angeles
P.O. Box 972
Hollywood, California 90078
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75 | when was the design period known as art deco | https://www.nypl.org/blog/2020/11/09/art-deco-95-years-and-thriving | By Miguel Rosales, Librarian III
November 9, 2020
Le messager. NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 1562090
Art Deco is one of the most distinctive styles thanks to its far-reaching influence across the arts and culture and across time. Characterized by its sharp-edged looks and stylized geometric patterns it is a decorative style that flourished between 1919 and 1939 throughout Europe and the United States. Initially known as "le style moderne" or "Jazz Moderne" the style originated in France and garnered international attention thanks to a government-sponsored exhibition Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes which occurred from April to October of 1925 in Paris.
The style was crafted by the French to represent elegance, wealth, and sophistication and served as a continuation of both the Arts and Crafts movement and Art Nouveau by continuing the trend within the decorative arts of reacting against a Machine Age standardization that was sacrificing aesthetic beauty in favor of mass production. It was a movement closely connected with an appreciation for the decorative arts which was only starting to garner validation as an art form.
Rosalinde. NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 826000
The Art Deco aesthetic is closely associated with the opulence and extravagance that defined the 1920s. During its height, it was regarded as futuristic because of its streamlined forms and for that reason, it is important to understand the mood of the period during which it emerged. The Roaring Twenties , also known as the Jazz Age, was a decade that saw economic growth, widespread prosperity, and intellectual liberation. Modern technologies such as radios and automobiles were fairly new phenomenons providing individuals with access to travel, entertainment, and information in new and exciting forms. The Machine Age also introduced the possibility that commodities could be mass-produced which opened the door to notions of excess. In the United States, it also coincided with the Harlem Renaissance, the 19th Amendment (which granted women the right to vote), the liberated modern woman known as the flapper , and the notion of the modern city which resulted in the move towards erecting the modern skyscraper. Prospects were looking good.
350 Fifth Avenue - West 34th Street NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 1557871
Unfortunately, the Great Depression brought devastating effects at an international level not only deflating the economy but the lively spirit of the people as well. The once-glamorous Deco style and the notion of excess were no longer apropos and so the style evolved into a less flashy version known as Streamline Moderne . Art Deco fell out of favor in 1939 with the start of World War II and the emergence of modernism.
The 1960s brought about a resurgence of the style in both the scholarly and the popular level. This may be because of the similarities between the two periods for once again an era was emerging with a focus on liberation and the world of tomorrow. It was during this time that the term Art Deco , short for “arts décoratif,” gained popularity as the official term for the style.
The first instance during the 1960s where the term Art Deco showed up in print was with the 1966 exhibition Les Années '25': Art déco. Bauhaus. Stijl. Esprit nouveau curated by Yvonne Brunhammer at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris. She would later go on to curate other exhibitions on the style, such as the exhibition on French glass designer René Lalique , and ultimately publish a book in 1984 entitled The Art Deco Style .
New York Times, January 28, 1923. ProQuest Historical Newspapers
Then there was the newspaper article published in a November 1966 edition of The Times (London) which discussed the recent interest in 1920’s fashion and ornamentation. The article, "Art Deco" by Hilary Gelson, addresses the popularity of the term by individuals who she dubs “connoisseurs.” She mentions the Brunhammer exhibition of the same year to point out the increase in interest and even provides suggestions for “shopping in the 1920s style”.
Pop art was at its height during the 1960s but it did not stop Art Deco from penetrating the world of artists. Roy Lichenstein, for example, was influenced by the style, creating retro-modernist works that encompassed a 1920s feel with a futuristic appeal. Another artist who became interested in the style was, “collector extraordinaire,” as a Washington Post article described him, Andy Warhol, who had amassed a rather impressive collection of Art Deco which ended up selling after his death at a 1988 Sotheby’s auction .
1968 book Art Deco of the '20s and '30s.
It was with the publication of the 1968 book Art Deco of the 20s and 30s by art historian Bevis Hillier that the term “Art Deco” amassed widespread popularity. It is the first major academic book focused on answering the question “What is Art Deco?” He explains the term as stemming from the title of the 1925 French exhibition that showcased the style to the international community and mentions why he prefers this term for describing the style.
“First, it is easily anglicized, simply by removing the accent. Secondly, this name has a similarity to Art Nouveau which rightly suggests a kinship between the two styles. Thirdly, “Art Deco” unlike the other names, does not associate the style only with the 1920s...Finally, Art Deco is already a name in reasonably common use."
Since the 1960s, Art Deco has had other revivals. For example, during the 1970s it also managed to garner interest thanks to the release of the 1974 film The Great Gatsby which romanticized the era and starred Robert Redford and Mia Farrow. In the 1980s the style also influenced the Italian avant-gardist Memphis Group which caused another resurgence that was later picked up by the television series Miami Vice .
The enduring appeal of Art Deco is quite remarkable. We believe that it is due in part to the fact that it is a style that truly permeates every aspect of the arts giving it an everlasting quality. It is a symbol of the modern city and can be seen in the architecture of big and small cities alike. It is a style focused on the essence of what is visually appealing. It is also a paradox both nostalgic yet vanguard. We never know when it will pop up again.
Are we due for another resurgence? An April 2020 Washington Post article points to the similarities between 1920 and 2020 and claims that the time is here. To this, we say that we are ready...
For anyone interested in the style we would like you to know that the Art & Architecture Collection has excellent holdings of primary resource materials on the style. This includes pattern books, design manuals, and catalogs from the original Paris Exposition of 1925. Many secondary resource materials are also available in the Library collections, from monographs on art, architecture, and design to survey histories of the period.
In conjunction with this blog post, we have also prepared a Libguide titled Art Deco: A Research Guide and our librarians are available to help answer questions via email at [email protected] .
Sources
"A century after art deco’s birth, designers say we’re due for a revival" Washington Post . (1974-Current file), Apr 2 2020, p. E1 Gale Academic OneFile. 17 August 2020.
"Art Deco" Times (London, England) . (1785-Current file), Nov 2 1966, p. E1 Times Digital Archive. 17 August 2020.
Margulies, Phillip. (2004). The Roaring Twenties . San Diego, Calif: Greenhaven Press.
Sanders, Steven. (2010). Miami Vice . Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
"The Collected Legacy of Andy Warhol" Washington Post . (1974-Current file), Mar 13 1988, p. E1 ProQuest Historical Newspapers. 17 August 2020.
More at NYPL
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76 | who plays eowyn in lord of the rings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89owyn | Éowyn
Fictional noblewoman in The Lord of the Rings
This article is about The Lord of the Rings character. For other uses, see Eowyn (disambiguation) .
Fictional character
Éowyn's brief courtship by Faramir has been seen by scholars as influenced by Tolkien's experience of war brides from the First World War . She has been seen, too, as one of the few strong female characters in the story, especially as interpreted in Peter Jackson 's film trilogy , where her role, played by Miranda Otto , is far more romantic than Tolkien made her . [2]
In The Two Towers , Éowyn, a daughter of the House of Eorl and the niece of King Théoden of Rohan , is introduced in Meduseld, the King's hall at Edoras. She is the daughter of Éomund and Théodwyn (Théoden's sister), and the sister of Éomer . When she is only seven years old, her father is killed fighting orcs , and her mother dies of grief. Éowyn and Éomer are raised in her uncle's household as his own children. [T 1] [T 2]
She longs to win renown in battle—especially since she is royal—but being female, her duties are reckoned to be at Edoras. [T 3] When Théoden's mind is poisoned by his corrupt adviser Gríma Wormtongue , Éowyn is obliged to care for her uncle, and his deterioration pains her deeply. To make matters worse, she is constantly harassed by Gríma, who lusts after her. When Gandalf arrives, he frees Théoden from Wormtongue's influence. [T 1] Éowyn falls in love with Aragorn , but though he respects her, he does not return her feelings, as he is betrothed to the elf Arwen . [3] [4] As Aragorn points out, [T 4] her duty is with her people; she has to shoulder the responsibility of ruling Rohan in Théoden's stead when the war-host of Rohan go to war. [T 1]
I am weary of skulking in halls, and wish to face peril and battle. … am I not of the House of Eorl, a shieldmaiden … may I not now spend my life as I will? … All your words are but to say: you are a woman and your part is in the house. But when the men have died in battle and honour, you have leave to be burned in the house, for the men will need it no more. But I am of the House of Eorl and not a serving-woman. I can ride and wield blade, and I do not fear either pain or death. …[I fear] A cage, To stay behind bars, until use and old age accept them, and all chance of doing great deeds is gone beyond recall or desire. [T 4]
Éowyn disguises herself as a man and, under the alias of Dernhelm (from Old English dern meaning "secret, concealed" [5] ), travels with the Riders of Rohan to the battle outside Minas Tirith in Gondor on her horse Windfola, carrying with her the hobbit Merry Brandybuck , who had also been ordered to remain behind. [T 5]
In the Battle of the Pelennor Fields , she confronts the Witch-King of Angmar, Lord of the Nazgûl , after Théoden is mortally injured. The Witch-King threatens that he will "bear thee away to the houses of lamentation, beyond all darkness, where thy flesh shall be devoured, and thy shrivelled mind be left naked to the Lidless Eye ". He boasts "No living man may hinder me", [T 6] whereupon Éowyn removes her helmet and declares: [T 6]
But no living man am I! You look upon a woman. Éowyn I am, Éomund's daughter. You stand between me and my lord and kin. Begone, if you be not deathless! For living or dark undead, I will smite you, if you touch him. [T 6]
The Nazgûl leader's flying steed attacks Éowyn, but she kills it, cutting off its head with her sword. The Nazgûl then shatters her shield and breaks her shield-arm with his mace , but is distracted by Merry, who stabs him behind the knee with a barrow-blade . Éowyn seizes the opportunity to strike the Nazgûl with a killing thrust "between crown and mantle". Then, as her sword shatters, his withering form collapses and he vanishes with a final cry of anguish. [T 6] Éowyn passes out from the pain in her arm, and is believed dead until Prince Imrahil realizes she still lives. [T 6] Éowyn is brought to the Houses of Healing, hovering near death from the effects of having struck the Nazgûl. [T 3] There Éowyn meets Faramir , with whom she soon falls in love. Her outlook on life also changes: "Then the heart of Éowyn changed, or else at last she understood it. ... I will be a shieldmaiden no longer, nor vie with the great Riders, nor take joy only in the songs of slaying. I will be a healer, and love all things that grow and are not barren." [T 7]
After the demise of Sauron , Éowyn and Faramir marry and settle in Ithilien , of which Faramir is made the ruling Prince by Aragorn. [T 8] Faramir and Éowyn have a son, Elboron. [T 9]
Concept and creation
Originally, Tolkien intended for Éowyn to marry Aragorn. Later, however, he decided against it because Aragorn was "too old and lordly and grim". He considered making Éowyn the twin sister of Éomund, and having her die "to avenge or save Théoden". He also considered having Aragorn truly love Éowyn and regret never marrying after her death. Tolkien once described Éowyn as "a stern Amazon woman". [T 10] Later he wrote: "Though not a 'dry nurse' in temper, she was also not really a soldier or 'Amazon', but like many brave women was capable of great military gallantry at a crisis." [T 11] (Here he alludes to Éowyn's statement to Aragorn: "But am I not of the House of Eorl, a shieldmaiden and not a dry-nurse?" [T 4] )
In Old English , the language Tolkien used to represent his invented language of Rohirric , the word eoh means "war-horse" while wyn means "delight", [6] so Éowyn can be taken to mean "Delight in horses". [7] Her name in Rohirric is not given, but it would have started with the element Lô- or Loh-, meaning "horse". [8]
Julaire Andelin, in the J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia , writes that prophecy in Middle-earth depended on characters' understanding of the Music of the Ainur , the divine plan for Arda , and was often ambiguous. Thus, Glorfindel's prophecy "not by the hand of man will [the Lord of the Nazgûl] fall" did not lead the Lord of the Nazgûl to suppose that he would die at the hands of a woman and a hobbit. [T 12] [9] The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey states that the prophecy, and the Witch-king's surprise at finding Dernhelm to be a woman, parallel the witches' statement to Macbeth that he may "laugh to scorn / The power of man, for none of woman born / Shall harm Macbeth" (Act 4, scene 1), and Macbeth's shock at learning that Macduff "was from his mother's womb / Untimely ripp'd" (as Macduff was born by Caesarean section : Act 5, scene 8). Thus, Shippey notes, despite Tolkien's stated dislike of Shakespeare 's treatment of myth, he read Macbeth closely . [1]
Tolkien's First World War experience of war brides may be reflected in Éowyn's brief courtship. [10] The scholar of literature Melissa A. Smith notes that Tolkien wrote in response to criticism that "In my experience feelings and decisions ripen very quickly (as measured by mere 'clock-time', which is actually not justly applicable) in periods of great stress, and especially under the expectation of imminent death". [T 13] She notes that Tolkien indeed married Edith Bratt just before he was posted to the Western Front in France. [10]
Thum states that Éowyn wears in turn two masks, the first unconventional, the second conventional. [11] She appears initially as a medieval romance heroine, a "woman clad in white", [T 1] standing silent and obedient behind King Théoden 's throne. But soon it becomes clear that she is no meek subordinate, as "she looked on the king with cool pity in her eyes": [T 1] she thinks for herself. Further, she appears conventionally beautiful as a romance lady: "Very fair was her face, and her long hair was like a river of gold." [T 1] But, Thum writes, this too is swiftly gainsaid: "Slender and tall she was ... but strong she seemed and stern as steel, a daughter of kings." [T 1] Éowyn's second mask is the appearance of a male Rider of Rohan , "Dernhelm", as, against orders, she rides to battle. [T 5] [11] In Old English dern means "secret, concealed", while helm is "helmet", a covering for the head. [5] Thum comments that this unconventional mask conveys Éowyn's rebellious nature far more powerfully than would any overt account of her thinking. [11]
Jessica Yates wrote that Éowyn meets all the requirements for a classic woman warrior : a strong identity; skill in fighting; weapons and armour; a horse; special powers, seen when she turns the Ringwraith's prophecy of doom back onto him; and being modest and chaste. [12] [13] Carol Leibiger added that Éowyn is the only strong human female in The Lord of the Rings (Galadriel and Arwen being Elves), noting that her rejection of the woman's place in the home leads her to fulfil the prophecy about the leader of the Ringwraiths, the Witch-King of Angmar, that "not by the hand of man will [he] fall". [14]
Melissa Hatcher wrote in Mythlore that The Lord of the Rings has as a central theme the way that "the littlest person, a hobbit, overcom[es] the tides of war": that the real power is that of healing, protecting, and preserving. [12] She noted that Éowyn tries the path of the warrior and then becomes a healer, and that some academics have interpreted her choice as weak submission. Hatcher stated that instead, Éowyn is following Tolkien's "highest ideal: a fierce commitment to peace", embodying the "full-blooded subjectivity" that Tolkien believed necessary for peace. [12] She described Éowyn as "a complete individual who fulfills Tolkien's theme of peace, preservation, and cultural memory." [12]
Hatcher cited the philosopher Gregory Bassham's list of the six essential ingredients of happiness in Middle-earth, namely "delight in simple things, making light of one's troubles, getting personal, cultivating good character, cherishing and creating beauty, and rediscovering wonder", and stated that these are all seen in Éowyn and the Hobbit Sam, the gardener who inherits Frodo's Bag End and restores the Shire , "but in very few others". [12] [15]
Portrayal in adaptations
Early films
Peter Jackson
Shippey states that the Hollywood studio sent a "script doctor" to New Zealand to bring Jackson's direction into line with their view, which was that since Aragorn needed a single love interest, Arwen could be deleted and "Aragorn should then marry Éowyn instead of politely dissuading her. ... The script doctor's advice was ignored." [3] Brian Robb and Paul Simpson concur with Shippey that Jackson does, however, make Aragorn far more romantic than do either Tolkien or Bakshi, devoting substantial viewing time to Aragorn's "modern love triangle" and providing "clear on-screen chemistry" with Éowyn. [2] [21]
The scholar of English Helen Young writes that while neither Tolkien nor Jackson give Éowyn any thanks for killing the Witch-King, Jackson's film version does at least invert the gender roles depicted by the Norwegian artist Peter Nicolai Arbo in his 19th century painting Hervor's Death, though when she falls as if dead, the film scene looks in her opinion much like that in the painting. The film reduces Éowyn's role as cup-bearer, which in Tolkien's text describes a genuine Germanic ceremony in which a woman embodied the weaving of peace. Young suggests this was because the screenwriters feared the audience would misinterpret the scene. The extended edition of the "Return to Edoras" scene however includes the ceremony for Théoden. [22]
The film scholar Sarah Kozloff writes that, if the film series can be seen as a melodrama , Jackson's Éowyn symbolizes the modern " tomboy / feminist " psychic figure, the role being played "in a realistic performance style". [23]
Feminist scholar Penny Griffin writes that in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, Éowyn is "probably the movies' closest approximation to an SFC [Strong Female Character]". [24] Her credentials for this, Griffin notes, include rebelling against the injunction to stay behind when the Riders of Rohan go off to fight, disguising herself as a man, riding to battle, and fighting the leader of the Ringwraiths. The feminist effect is spoiled, Griffin notes, when her story ends (according to Tolkien's text, not the film) with her disavowing battle and marrying Faramir to live "happily every after". [24]
The scholar of literature Maureen Thum comments that Jackson "stresses what Tolkien implies" by portraying Éowyn's feelings for Aragorn and her skill in battle. [25] Thum writes that Tolkien's narrative, having Éowyn ride to war under the name "Dernhelm", meaning "secret helmet", far more powerfully conveys her rebellious nature than would any explicit description of her thinking. [11] The Tolkien scholar Jane Chance notes that Jackson's Two Towers includes a moment of swordplay between Éowyn and Aragorn, the latter using a knife; Chance describes this as "a scene of sexual symbolism nowhere found in Tolkien's text". [26]
^ Tolkien 1955 , Appendix A, "The House of Eorl"
^ Tolkien 1955 , book 6, ch. 5 "The Steward and the King"
^ Tolkien 1955 , book 6, ch. 6 "Many Partings"
^ Tolkien 1996 , ch. 7 "The Heirs of Elendil"
^ Tolkien 1989 , ch. 26 "The King of the Golden Hall"
^ Carpenter 2023 , #244, from a draft to a reader of The Lord of the Rings
^ Tolkien 1955 , Appendix A, "Gondor and the Heirs of Anárion"
^ Carpenter 2023 , #244 to a reader of The Lord of the Rings, fragment, c. 1963
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"Nellie Bellflower" . Behind the Voice Actors. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
"Elin Jenkins" . Famous Welsh. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
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The gender-role inversion in Arbo's painting does not last for long: later in the film, Éowyn takes the same position as the shield maiden Hervor in the painting, lying on a field strewn with dead bodies, where her brother, Éomer, finds her. The colors in Arbo's painting are the golds, reds, yellows, and blues found in Rohan in the film, down to the white of the steed that, in the painting, has survived its rider.
Kozloff, Sarah (2006). "The Lord of the Rings as Melodrama" . In Mathijs, Ernest; Pomerance, Murray (eds.). From Hobbits to Hollywood: Essays on Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings. Amsterdam: Rodopi. p. 169. ISBN
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Éowyn
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76 | who plays eowyn in lord of the rings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Otto | Miranda Otto
42 languages
Australian actress (born 1967)
Born
Miranda Otto (born 16 December 1967) is an Australian actress. She is the daughter of actors Barry and Lindsay Otto and the paternal half-sister of actress Gracie Otto . Otto began her acting career in 1986 at age 18 and appeared in a variety of independent and major studio films in Australia. She made her major film debut in Emma's War in 1987 in which she played a teenager who moves to Australia's bush country during World War II . [1]
Early life
Otto was born on 16 December 1967 [2] in Brisbane and was raised there and in Newcastle . She briefly lived in Hong Kong following her parents' divorce at age six. [3] She spent weekends and holidays with her father in Sydney and developed an interest in acting through him. [4]
During her childhood, Otto and her friends wrote scripts and designed costumes and flyers in their spare time. [5] She appeared in several plays at the Nimrod Theatre , which attracted the attention of casting director Faith Martin. Subsequently, Otto received a role in the 1986 World War II drama Emma's War . [4]
She had wanted to be a ballerina but was forced to abandon this goal due to moderate scoliosis . [3] Otto graduated from the National Institute of Dramatic Art in Sydney in 1990. [6] Prior to graduation, she appeared in minor film roles including Initiation (1987) and The 13th Floor (1988). [7]
Otto's first post-graduation film role in 1991, as Nell Tiscowitz in The Girl Who Came Late , was her breakthrough role which brought her to the attention of the Australian film industry and the general public. In the film, directed by Kathy Mueller, she starred as a young woman who could communicate with horses. Her appearance garnered Otto her first Australian Film Institute nomination for the best actress award the following year. [8]
Otto's next role was in The Last Days of Chez Nous (1991), which portrayed the complex relationships between the members of an Australian family. The film earned Otto her second Australian Film Institute nomination, this time for the best supporting actress award. [8]
In 1993, Otto co-starred with Noah Taylor in the sexually provocative comedy film The Nostradamus Kid , which was based on the memories of author Bob Ellis during the 1960s. Otto was drawn to the film because she was "fascinated by the period and the people who came out of it". [9] A small role in the independent film Sex Is a Four Letter Word followed in 1995. [10]
In 1995, she began to doubt her career choice as she failed to get the parts for which she auditioned. She retreated to her home in Newcastle for almost a year, during which she painted her mother's house. [6] In 1996, director Shirley Barrett cast Otto as a shy waitress in the film Love Serenade . She played Dimity Hurley, a lonely young woman who competes with her older sister Vicki-Ann for the attention of a famous DJ from Brisbane . She starred in the 1997 films The Well and Doing Time for Patsy Cline . When Otto received the film script for The Well, she refused to read it, fearing that she would not get the part. Otto believed that she could not convincingly play the role of Katherine, who is supposed to be 18, as she was 30 at the time. [6] The film, directed by Samantha Lang, starred Otto as a teenager involved in a claustrophobic relationship with a lonely older woman. The Well received mixed reviews; critic Paul Fisher wrote that Otto's performance was not "convincing" as she was "playing another repetitious character about whom little is revealed", while Louise Keller stated that Otto had delivered "her best screen performance yet." [11] Otto earned her third Australian Film Institute nomination for the film. [8] Later that year, she co-starred with Richard Roxburgh in the drama Doing Time for Patsy Cline. The low-budget Australian film required Otto to perform country music standards and also received mixed reviews from film critics. [12]
Soon after the release of The Well and Doing Time for Patsy Cline, magazines and other media outlets were eager to profile the actress. In 1997, Otto began dating her Doing Time for Patsy Cline co-star Richard Roxburgh. Her involvement with Roxburgh made her a regular subject of Australian tabloid magazines and media at the time, a role to which she was unaccustomed. [13]
Otto's next project was the romantic comedy Dead Letter Office (1998). The film was Otto's first with her father, Barry , who makes a brief appearance. In the Winter Dark , directed by James Bogle, followed later that year. Otto played Ronnie, a pregnant woman recently abandoned by her boyfriend. The film was a critical success in Australia, and Otto was nominated for her fourth Australian Film Institute Award. [8] A small role in The Thin Red Line (1998) led to further film roles outside of Australia, [14] such as in Italy, where she co-starred as Ruth in the low-budget Italian film La volpe a tre zampe ("The Three-legged Fox"), [15] produced in 2001 and broadcast for the first time on Italian television in March 2009. [16]
Otto's first Hollywood role was the suspense thriller What Lies Beneath in 2000. She played Mary Feur, a mysterious next-door neighbour. [17]
In 2001, she was cast as a naturalist in the comedy Human Nature . Writer Charlie Kaufman , impressed by her audition two years earlier for his film Being John Malkovich , arranged for Otto to audition and meet with the film's director Michel Gondry . [18] Critic Jeffrey M. Anderson criticised Otto's French accent and wrote that she "doesn't seem to mesh with what's going on around her". [19]
Otto at Ring*Con in Germany in 2006
Otto's next project was playing the lead in the Australian film Danny Deckchair (2003). She then took on the Australian television miniseries Through My Eyes: The Lindy Chamberlain Story (2004). The film is a drama that portrays the story of Lindy Chamberlain , who was wrongfully convicted in 1982 of killing her baby daughter, Azaria, in one of the country's most publicized murder trials. Otto was cast as Chamberlain, and her husband, Peter O'Brien , was cast as prosecutor Ian Barker. She was drawn to the role because it provided her with the "prospect of exploring an unconventional character." [25] At the 2005 Logie Awards , Otto won Most Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series for her role. [26]
Otto at InStyle Women of Style Awards Red Carpet 2012.
Director Steven Spielberg , impressed by Otto's performance in The Lord of the Rings, called her to ask if she would play opposite Tom Cruise in the big-budget science fiction film War of the Worlds (2005). Otto, pregnant at the time, believed she would have to turn down the role, but the script was reworked to accommodate her. After giving birth to her daughter, she took a rest from films to concentrate on motherhood and theatre roles in Australia. [1]
In 2007, Otto starred as Cricket Stewart, the wife of a successful director, in the television miniseries The Starter Wife . [27] That same year, she was cast in the American television series Cashmere Mafia . In the series she plays Juliet Draper, a successful female executive who must rely on her friends to juggle the demands of a career and family in New York City. [28] Otto chose to star in the series because "American television at the moment is so interesting and, particularly, the characters for women are so fantastic" and she "liked the idea of having a character over a long period of time and developing it." [29] The series was cancelled in May 2008. [30]
In 2013 Otto played the role of American poet Elizabeth Bishop opposite Glória Pires in Brazilian director Bruno Barreto ’s Reaching for the Moon. [31]
On 31 May 2020, Otto joined Josh Gad 's YouTube series Reunited Apart, which reunites the cast of popular films through video-conferencing and promotes donations to non-profit charities, with her fellow Lord of the Rings cast and crew members. [35]
Otto at The Ivy Ballroom in 2013
Otto made her theatrical debut in the 1986 production of The Bitter Tears of Petra Von Kant for the Sydney Theatre Company . [38] Three more theatrical productions for the Sydney Theatre Company followed in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In 2002, she returned to the stage playing Nora Helmer in A Doll's House opposite her future husband Peter O'Brien. Otto's performance earned her a 2003 Helpmann Award nomination and the MO Award for "Best Female Actor in a Play". [39]
Her next stage role was in the psychological thriller Boy Gets Girl (2005), in which she played Theresa, a journalist for a New York magazine. Otto committed to the project days before she found out she was pregnant. Robyn Nevin, the director, rescheduled the production from December 2004 to September 2005 so that Otto could appear in it. [1]
Personal life
Filmography
[ edit ]
Film
[ edit ]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1986
1993
Nominated—Australian Film Institute Award for Best ActressNominated—Film Critics Circle of Australia Award for Best Female Actor
Nominated—Film Critics Circle of Australia Award for Best Female Actor
1999
2007
TV series, 1 episode
TV series, 1 episode
1991
Edwina Rouse
Susy
2002
Nominated
1993
Best Acting Ensemble
Nominated
Won
Nominated
Nominated
Won
2004
Best Ensemble Acting
Won
2005
Nominated
2011
Arts & Culture
^ Williams, Sue. "Doing It Her Way" Archived 26 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine . The Australian Women's Weekly. July 2003; retrieved 6 April 2007.
^ Bass, Matthew. "Miranda Otto Interview" . Cinema Papers. October 1997; retrieved 7 April 2007.
^ Fisher, Paul and Louise Keller. "The Well Reviews" . UrbanCinefile.com.au. 1997; retrieved 7 April 2007.
Romney, Jonathan (26 February 1999). "Treading the line" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2023.
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^ Anderson, Jeffrey M. (April 2002), "To Err Is 'Human'" . CombustibleCelluloid.com. Retrieved 11 April 2007.
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76 | who plays eowyn in lord of the rings | https://lotr.fandom.com/wiki/%C3%89owyn | Éowyn
White Lady ofRohan, [2] Shieldmaiden of
Rohan,Lady of the Shield-arm, [3] Lady of Ithilien,Lady of Emyn Arnen
Birth
Éowyn, to Aragorn [5]
Éowyn was a shieldmaiden of Rohan , daughter of Éomund and Théodwyn , younger sister of Éomer and niece of King Théoden . After the War of the Ring , she married Faramir and had one son with him, Elboron .
Contents
Young Éomer and Éowyn, by Anna Lee
Éowyn was the second child of Éomund and Théodwyn. Like her brother Éomer, she was related to King Théoden through their mother, the King's sister. Her father was slain and her mother died of illness in TA 3002 . Afterwards, Théoden took Éomer and Éowyn in his household and raised them as his children.
War of the Ring
Prior to the War of the Ring , Éowyn was forced to stay in Meduseld and care for her declining uncle for several years, as he was weakened by the influence of Saruman and Gríma Wormtongue . When Gandalf restored the King, he prepared to defend Rohan against Isengard . Since Théoden planned to ride to battle himself, he asked his doorwarden Háma , to suggest a leader for the people in his absence. Háma recommended Éowyn, who, though a woman, was "fearless" and "all love[d] her".
Éowyn during the exodus to Helm's Deep, by Venlian
Éowyn reluctantly obeyed the King's orders to lead the people of Edoras to shelter in the White Mountains , while Aragorn , Théoden, and the rest of the men bravely faced Saruman's army in the Battle of the Hornburg . When Aragorn passed through Dunharrow to take the Paths of the Dead she confessed her growing feelings for him, but already betrothed, he reluctantly refused her.
When Denethor II urgently called for Théoden's aid against Mordor , Éowyn again, begged to be allowed to ride to battle, but Théoden refused.
Éowyn beside Théoden her uncle, as seen by Angelo Montanini
Resentfully, she disguised herself as a man, taking the alias Dernhelm, and rode to Minas Tirith on her horse Windfola . She took Meriadoc Brandybuck along because he likewise wanted to follow his friends to battle, but had been refused by Théoden. Because Éowyn weighed less than a man of similar height, Windfola was able to bear both her and Merry. [1]
In the Battle of the Pelennor Fields , she fought in Théoden's escort; when he and his company were attacked by the Witch-king of Angmar , Lord of the Nazgûl , she and Merry were the only riders who did not flee. As Théoden lay mortally wounded and crushed beneath Snowmane , Éowyn challenged the Witch-king, who boasted that "no living man may hinder me". In answer, she removed her helmet, releasing her hair, which "gleamed with pale gold upon her shoulders", and declared, "But no living man am I! You look upon a woman. Éowyn I am, Éomund's daughter... Begone, if you be not deathless! For living or dark undead, I will smite you, if you touch him." [3]
Éowyn as Dernhelm riding with Merry and the Rohirrim to Minas Tirith - by Matthew Stewart
In a rage, the Witch-king attacked her, but she clove the head of his winged steed . The Witch-king shattered her shield with a blow of his mace, breaking her arm, but stumbled when Merry stabbed his leg from behind with the Barrow-blade . Éowyn drove her sword through the Witch-king's head, killing him [3] and fulfilling Glorfindel 's prophecy from a thousand years earlier, at the Battle of Fornost , that "not by the hand of man" would the Witch-king fall. [6]
Éowyn facing the Witch-king, by Donato Giancola
Her constitution already weakened by loneliness and despair, combined with physical injuries, Éowyn then succumbed to the Black Breath . Théoden, not knowing that she was nearby, told Merry with his dying words that she had been "dearer than daughter" to him. Seeing her lying apparently dead on the battlefield caused her brother Éomer to go temporarily mad, and charge in fury at the enemy. But during the battle she was found by Prince Imrahil , who noticed that she was still alive, though barely, and ordered her taken to the Houses of Healing . There she was healed there by Aragorn, the cure of the plant Athelas , and the entreaties of her distraught brother. [7]
Éowyn at the Houses of Healing
Éowyn remained behind in Minas Tirith while the Army of the West marched toward the Black Gate , to challenge Sauron . She met and fell in love with Faramir , who had likewise been injured before the battle. After the War of the Ring had ended, she decided to give up dreams of glory in battle and devote her life to peace and a happy marriage. [7]
Later years
At Éowyn's insistence, Merry was made a Knight of the Riddermark. He attended Théoden's funeral and Éomer's coronation as King of Rohan , where Éowyn presented Merry with a parting gift: the Horn of Rohan , a small silver horn taken from the hoard of Scatha , the dragon .
Faramir and Éowyn settled in Ithilien , where they had at least one son, Elboron , and their grandson was Barahir , who wrote The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen in the Fourth Age . The date of Éowyn's death is nowhere recorded.
Etymology
Éowyn means "horse lover" in Anglo-Saxon (the language Tolkien used to represent Rohanese ).
The name was derived from an old Welsh name, Øwyn - slightly altered to sound like "A-O-win". The name in Welsh means "Horse friend", with the prefix Éo- (said "ey - oh") meaning 'horse' and the suffix -wyn ("whün") meaning 'friend'.
Titles
Éowyn's title was "Lady of Rohan", or sometimes "The White Lady of Rohan" due to her pale complexion. She also used the alias "Dernhelm" when riding with Rohan's army to Gondor , and after her wounding by the Witch-king in the Pelennor Fields as "Lady of the Shield-arm". [3] After her marriage to Faramir she was called the Lady of Ithilien (in contrast to Faramir, who was styled Prince of Ithilien ), and Lady of Emyn Arnen .
Other versions
The character Éowyn had at first been the daughter of King Théoden. In another version, she had a cousin named Idis , the daughter of the King, who was later removed in the manuscript as her role was eclipsed by Éowyn's. [8]
Éowyn was also once the twin-sister of Éomund . [8]
Parallels & interpretation
Macbeth
In Shakespeare 's Macbeth , the title character believes he is invincible because the three Witch Sisters have prophesied that "no man of woman born" will defeat him. Macduff , however, finds a loophole in this prophecy by declaring that he was "from his mother's womb untimely ripped" (which is usually interpreted to mean that he was delivered by Caesarean section ).
Éowyn and Merry, likewise, exploit a loophole in Glorfindel's prophecy, since she was a woman and Merry was a hobbit. Similar to Shakespeare's character Macbeth, the Witch-king was likely made overconfident by the prophecy, and unsettled by Éowyn's announcement that it did not apply to her.
Feminism
As the female character most present in J.R.R. Tolkien's stories, Éowyn (along with Lúthien ) is most central to scholarly assessment made of Tolkien's portrayal of women. Among many examples is a section of Lisa Coutras' Tolkien's Theology of Beauty (2016), arguing that Éowyn displays the Marian "glory" of self-sacrifice and is dignified by old, archetypal feminine images which Tolkien was re-inventing. [9] Candice Fredrick and Sam McBride evaluate the character and treatment of Éowyn - to a different conclusion - and others in their study Women Among the Inklings (2001).
In Ralph Bakshi's The Lord of the Rings
Éowyn does appear in the 1978 animated film The Lord of the Rings , which incorporates The Fellowship of the Ring and the first half of The Two Towers (ending with the charge of the Rohirrim out of Helm's Deep ), but does not have any spoken lines.
Éowyn as seen in 1980
Rankin/Bass's The Return of the King
In the 1980 animated film The Return of the King , Éowyn was voiced by Nellie Bellflower . Because the film was produced in isolation (without accompanying versions of The Fellowship of the Ring or The Two Towers), and hastily compresses the plot of the book, Éowyn does not appear in the film at all until the climactic moment on the Pelennor Fields when she reveals her identity to the Witch-king and attacks him.
Éowyn and Faramir
In Peter Jackson 's film versions of The Two Towers and The Return of the King , Éowyn is portrayed by Australian actress Miranda Otto . The role was originally offered to actress Alison Doody, but Doody had to withdraw from the project due to pregnancy.
The theatrical version of The Two Towers makes several changes and additions to Éowyn's role:
Wormtongue approaches her over Théodred 's deathbed, trying to win her affection, but she rebuffs him;
Éowyn accompanies Théoden as he leads Edoras 's people to Helm's Deep ; when the column was attacked by Warg-riders , she asks to fight, but Théoden orders her to lead the people on to the fortress. Along the way, she attempts to show her affection for Aragorn by serving him lunch and he gives an amusing reaction to her bad cooking.
Éowyn watches over the women and children hiding in the Glittering Caves while the battle rages outside;
Éowyn embraces Aragorn after the battle, thrilled to see him alive.
Several additional scenes are added in the extended edition :
While Edoras is being evacuated, Aragorn notices the Riders trying to restrain Brego , and Éowyn "introduces" them to each other.
While Aragorn and the other men are preparing to defend Helm's Deep, Éowyn protests that she has been assigned to wait in the caves instead of being allowed to fight on the walls; when Aragorn tries to comfort her, she blurts that the others who "love" him are being allowed to fight at his side (this reproduces dialogue from The Return of the King, when she is pleading with him to let her ride with the Grey Company on the Paths of the Dead ).
In a short clip which appeared in the trailer, though not in either version of the finished film, Éowyn has a sword ready when a stray Uruk-hai enters the caves beneath Helm's Deep.
In the original theatrical release of The Return of the King, Éowyn's injuries after fighting the Witch-king are less severe than in the novel; her arm is broken but she maintains consciousness after the Witch-king dies, and next appears at Aragorn's coronation in Minas Tirith, side by side with Faramir.
Several additional scenes are added in the extended edition:
On the night after the Battle of Helm's Deep, she wakes up on her bed in Meduseld and tells Aragorn that she had a dream about the fall of Númenor ;
At Dunharrow , after she rebukes Éomer for making fun of Merry's desire to join in the fighting, he lectures her that war should be left to men;
Before the army reaches Minas Tirith, she tells Merry to have courage, but Merry counsels her not to wish too much for death, as she has so much to live for;
After the toppling Mûmak unhorses Éowyn and Merry, they both fight on foot to defend Théoden from several attacking Orcs and Haradrim . Éowyn personally duels Gothmog , and inflicts a crippling leg wound on him.
After the Witch-king dies, Éowyn crawls around looking for Merry, but is spotted by an enraged Gothmog, who crawls after her but is killed by Aragorn and Gimli before he can reach her;
In the aftermath of the battle, Éomer finds her on the battlefield, unconscious and apparently dead, and grieves, but she recovers in the Houses of Healing and catches sight of Faramir for the first time;
As the Army of the West marches out of Minas Tirith, Éowyn and Faramir watch them go, and he comforts her.
Voice dubbing actors
Andrea Karnasová
Italian (Italy)
Ilaria Stagni
In radio
In the The Lord of the Rings broadcast on BBC4, Elin Jenkins does the voice for Éowyn.
In video games
Éowyn from The Lord of the Rings Online
In The Lord of the Rings Online , Éowyn is first met in Edoras , shortly before the arrival of Gandalf and the Three Hunters. After King Théoden departs with his host, the player stays behind and helps Éowyn with various preparations before moving the citizens to Dunharrow . As Dernhelm, she travels to Minas Tirith with permission of Elfhelm , who keeps her secret and gives her the sword of her late cousin Théodred taken from the Fords of Isen . It is this very sword that Éowyn uses to slay the Witch-king of Angmar , though it breaks in doing the deed. After healing from her wounds, she attends the coronation of King Elessar, but departs for Edoras prior to Aragorn and Arwen 's wedding.
Gallery
Éowyn at Edoras
Éowyn at Edoras
Éowyn after her dream
Éowyn and Éomer hear the news of the lighting of the beacons
Éowyn at Aragorn's Coronation
Translations
Еовін
References
↑ The Lord of the Rings , Appendix A : Annals of the Kings and Rulers, I: The Númenórean Kings, (iv): "Gondor and the Heirs of Anárion"
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Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings trilogy has long been regarded as one of the greatest in cinematic history. One thing that made it so well-received is how perfectly it was cast. From Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn to Cate Blanchett's Galadriel, everyone fits into their role seamlessly. It's an impressive feat and has certainly contributed to how loved the films are today.
However, it's hard to imagine Lord of the Rings without Miranda Otto as Éowyn. Despite her somewhat limited screen time, she's one of the saga's most iconic and important characters. Her fight against the Witch King of Angmar is one of the greatest moments ever put to film. However, she almost didn't get the chance to play the role, as director Peter Jackson offered it to someone else before Otto was given the opportunity to audition.
Uma Thurman Almost Played Eowyn
Action heroine and frequent Tarantino collaborator Uma Thurman was the first choice for Éowyn. However, she had to decline. She had just had her first child -- actress Maya Hawke -- and chose to stay home with her rather than fly out to New Zealand to film. It's a decision any mother would have made, which made sense at the time. Still, it's heartbreaking to know she lost her chance to be part of something so beautiful.
Thurman later (understandably) told Stephen Colbert that she considers it " one of the worst decisions ever. " The Lord of the Rings films went on to be both financial and critical successes. Even now, Return of the King holds the record for the most Academy Award wins. However, it may be for the best that she didn't portray the shieldmaiden of Rohan . Lord of the Rings, though it was initially filmed earlier than that, continued shooting annually from 2001-2003. This would have interfered with the filming schedule of Kill Bill and perhaps could have prevented the movie from being made at all since The Bride was created exclusively for Thurman. Just as it's a tragedy that she didn't get to play Éowyn, it would have been a tragedy for Kill Bill to have never been made.
Thurman would have been well-suited to the role. She's a skilled swordfighter (as she proved time and time again with her work in Kill Bill), so the combat aspects wouldn't have been an issue for her. She expertly carried the emotional weight of roles like Fantine in Les Misérables, so the pining aspect of Éowyn's character also would have been accurately represented. And she's no stranger to playing roles where women take control of their own fate despite all odds, such as in Gattaca . All of these would've come together to give us a brilliant portrayal of such an important character. Éowyn would have been the cherry on top of an outstanding career if only the timing had been right.
All three Lord of the Rings movies are currently streaming on Max.
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76 | who plays eowyn in lord of the rings | https://lotr.fandom.com/wiki/Miranda_Otto | Her career in Hollywood launched in 2000 with the movie What Lies Beneath , which starred Harrison Ford and Michelle Pfeiffer.
Contents
The Lord of the Rings[
Miranda Otto was given the part of Éowyn of Rohan , niece of King Théoden , in The Lord of the Rings after Alison Doody turned it down due to giving birth. Otto spent six months filming her scenes. She was required to learn horseback riding and sword fighting for the part. She made her first appearance in the second movie, The Two Towers , at Edoras , and would have the most screen time of female characters in the trilogy.
In some of the fight choreography, Otto took real blows at enemy stuntmen with her sword, because Peter Jackson thought the fake blows were not real enough. In The Return of the King 's extended edition DVDs, one documentary notes how Otto earned the respect and admiration of the stunt actors for the intense effort in fight scenes.
In The Two Towers and The Return of the King, Otto did many scenes with Viggo Mortensen ( Aragorn ) which she describes as some of the most emotional. Her character in the movies has no committed love interests, but perhaps a strong admiration for Aragorn—however, in the theatrical release of the films, her character gives Faramir , played by David Wenham , a few suggestive glances at the end of The Return of the King, falling short of the kiss and romantic conversation their characters share in the books. David Wenham and Miranda Otto had previously played lovers in an Australian radio play; Wenham recalled one scene in which they could not complete a bathtub love-scene because neither actor could stop laughing.
Documentary appearances[
Otto appears in the following features of the extended edition of the trilogy.
Personal life[
Otto is the daughter of prolific Australian actor Barry Otto , and sister of actress Gracie Otto. She had been very passionate about ballet as a child, then in later years decided against studying a medical career to finally pursue acting. She graduated from Australian theatrical school NIDA.
She married Peter O'Brien in 2003, and they have one daughter, Darcey, with whom Otto was pregnant while filming War of the Worlds (2005).
Trivia[
She appeared in the 2010 film South Solitary , which also featured Marton Csokas .
She appeared in the 2011-2020 TV series Homeland , which also featured Nazanin Boniadi .
She appeared in the 2013 film The Turning alongside Cate Blanchett and Hugo Weaving.
She appeared in the 2014 film I, Frankenstein , which also featured Bruce Spence .
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77 | write the name of raw materials used in dressmaking | https://dugarco.com/en/raw-materials-for-garment-manufacturing/ | Home » Blog » 4+ Important Raw Materials For Garment Manufacturing
January 15, 2024
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Garment manufacturing is a complex process that involves many different stages. In it, raw materials for garment manufacturing play a very important role, which can have a significant impact on the final product. Let’s learn about the top 4 raw materials for apparel manufacturing with Dugarco .
Contents
1. What are the main raw materials for making clothes?
Manufacturing raw materials are the primary substance which is utilized as input into a production process and then goes through many processing stages to finally be modified into a finished good. Raw materials may be in a processed or unprocessed state.
The basic definition of raw materials and clothing raw materials
Raw materials for garment manufacturing are the foundational materials needed to create clothing products. The production of clothes and textiles begins with raw materials, which are then turned into finished goods through a variety of procedures like spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing, and finishing. These materials can be natural or synthetic and can include:
Fibre
Yarn
Fabric
Dyes
>>>> CLICK NOW: Top 10 best eco friendly garments , quality
2. Synthesize the needed raw materials for garment manufacturing
The manufacturing of clothing is a complicated process that uses a variety of raw materials. Each material plays a crucial role in the ultimate product’s quality and appearance. The following is the synthesis of the needed raw materials for garment manufacturing.
2.1. Fiber
Fibre is one of the most crucial components of manufacturing raw materials. Fibres can be derived from nature, including cotton, wool, silk, and linen, or synthetic which are manually produced, such as polyester, nylon, and acrylic. Depending on the required qualities of the garment, such as softness, durability, stretch, and moisture-wicking capabilities, the manufacturer should choose the appropriate fibre material.
Fiber raw materials manufacturing
2.2. Fabric
Fabrics are planar raw materials for making clothes structure, made by weaving together threads or filaments. The majority of fabrics are formed by knitting or weaving, although some are also made using non-woven techniques including twisting, felting, and braiding. Each garment’s fabric must be carefully chosen by the manufacturer, taking into account aspects like cost, availability, and environmental effect.
Fabric raw materials manufacturing
2.3. Cotton
Cotton, which makes up more than a third of all raw material used in manufacturing, is the natural material that is most frequently used to manufacture apparel. It is utilized in lace, knit fabric, and woven cloth. Similar to how it is used to make hybrid textiles, it is blended with other fibres.
Cotton is the raw material used in manufacturing
2.4. Nylon
Nylon has increasingly been popular in the garment manufacturing industry because of its durability, versatility, and hardness. Nylon is renowned for its durability, resistance to shrinking, and resistance to wrinkles, in addition to the characteristics of durability and ease of mass production at low cost. Therefore, nylon becomes a common and necessary material in everyday life.
Nylon raw materials manufacturing
However, nylon production can have negative environmental impacts, particularly in terms of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. As such, it is important for garment manufacturers to weigh the benefits and drawbacks of using nylon and consider more sustainable alternatives.
2.5. Silk
Silk is one of the most pricey and highly desired raw materials for garment manufacturing. It is a natural fabric made by silkworms, thus bringing a silky, smooth feel and an attractive drape. Silk is renowned for being strong and long-lasting, making it the perfect fabric for high-end apparel. Besides frequently being linked with upscale fashion and formal settings, silk clothing may also be worn on a daily basis, bringing convenience to wearers every day.
Silk is raw material used in manufacturing
2.6. Polyester
Polyester is a synthetic fabric that is frequently used in the production of clothing. It is renowned for its affordability, resistance to wrinkles, and durability. Polyester clothing is simple to maintain and can be washed and dried in a machine without shrinking or losing its form.
Polyester is raw material for garment manufacturing
They are also perfect for sporting and outdoor clothes since they are lightweight and quick to dry. Polyester can be blended with other fibres, such as cotton or wool, to create fabrics that combine the best properties of each material.
2.7. Flax
The production of clothing has long utilized the natural fabric flax. It is made from the flax plant’s stem and is renowned for its toughness, tenacity, and breathability. Bed sheets, tablecloths, and napkins have all historically been made of linen due to their strength. Additionally, it has gained popularity in the world of fashion, particularly for summery garments like dresses, shirts, and pants.
Flax raw materials for garments
2.8. Wool
Wool is a natural fibre that comes from the fleece of sheep and other animals such as goats, alpacas, and llamas. It is one of the most popular raw materials in garment factory because of its warmth, softness, and durability. Wool clothes are excellent for cold weather because wool fibres are naturally crimped, which helps them retain air and generate insulation. Wool also naturally wicks away moisture, thus allowing wearers to sweat without feeling damp or unpleasant.
Wool raw materials for fashion industry
2.9. Dye stuff
Dyestuffs are a crucial part of the garment production process since they are used to provide textiles and garments with colour and aesthetic appeal. The dye is often applied in an aqueous solution, and a mordant is used to increase the dye’s fastness on the fibre. The following dyes are used:
Reactive dye
Disperse dye
Acid dye
Basic dye
Direct dye
Sulfur dye
Azoic dye
Vat dye
2.10. Chemical and auxiliaries
Chemicals and auxiliaries are raw materials for garment manufacturing that are frequently utilized in the clothing production industry. These components are used to give clothing additional colour, texture, and other aesthetic qualities. While some compounds may be helpful in obtaining desired outcomes, their usage might have detrimental effects on the environment and people’s health.
Chemical and auxiliaries
3. Synthetic vs. natural materials sources
Raw materials may be derived from synthetic or natural sources. Since each variety is produced differently, the textile industry uses them in various ways. Natural sources are defined as substances or materials that originate in natural settings such as forests, water bodies, minerals, or productive land and then are subsequently extracted by people undergoing many processing stages.
Synthetic and natural materials sources
Synthetic materials are raw materials for garment manufacturing that are processed through a variety of techniques and machines created by humans, and then widely applied in the garment industry.
4. The importance of raw materials for garments production
Raw materials are the foundation of garment production, which represent about 50 to 70% of the production cost of a short-staple yarn. Choosing the right raw materials is essential for creating garments that are comfortable, durable, and visually appealing.
The importance of raw materials for garments production
From 60 to 70 per cent of the entire cost of constructing a garment goes into the purchase of raw materials, which is the primary cost component. Therefore, the selection of raw materials can also affect the cost impact of garment production. Therefore, it is clear how important raw materials are to the textile and garment industries.
There is no denying the importance of raw materials for garment manufacturing. Please don’t hesitate to contact Dugarco for detailed advice if you have any queries or would want to know more about this production process.
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Fabrics for Dresses: Top 10 fabrics for your dress (Complete Guide)
Sewing dresses is where a lot of sewers and fashion designers start. They are generally easier to fit and sew than garments like trousers yet offer endless style and cut options to experiment with. This makes a dress the perfect piece of clothing to hone your design and sewing skills on.
There are hundreds (if not thousands) of different fabrics to choose from for your dress design – so, how do you know which fabric is the best choice? In this article, we’ll show you how to select the perfect dressmaking fabric, as well as give you our top 10 fabric picks for sewing dresses.
What Makes a Fabric Perfect for Sewing a Dress?
Before purchasing fabric for your dress, you’ll need an understanding of what properties to look for in a good dressmaking fabric. It’s also important to consider your design, where the garment will be worn, and what weather you plan to wear your dress in. All of these considerations have an impact on what type of fabric will be your best choice.
Characteristics of a Good Dressmaking Fabric
There are a few basic characteristics you’ll want to make sure that any fabric you choose has. It’s important that the fabric is comfortable to wear, so choose one that is soft or silky against the skin and that has a good drape. You don’t want to be wearing an itchy, stiff dress all day!
You may also want to consider the breathability of the fabric, especially if it’s a summer dress or a casual, everyday dress that will get a lot of wear.
Fabric Weights for Sewing Dresses
The weight of the fabric is another important consideration when buying dressmaking fabrics. How heavy the fabric is will impact how it falls and drapes, as well as what season or weather the resulting garment will be best worn in. Generally, choose a heavier fabric for a winter dress and a lighter fabric for flowy summer dress.
Going into a physical fabric store is the easiest way to ensure that the fabric you choose is the right weight for your project, however there are many more options when you buy fabrics online. That’s why most online fabric stores list the weights of their fabrics – so you know what you’re getting before you purchase.
Typically, the fabric store will list the weight of the fabric in grams per square meter (gsm or g/m2) or ounces per square yard (oz or oz/yd2). A higher gsm or oz measurement indicates a heavier fabric.
Here is a guide to understanding fabric weights for sewing dresses:
gsm
oz
weight
136-237
4-7
light
237-305
7-9
medium
Choosing the Right Fabric for Your Dress
There are so many different styles of dresses you could make – and the fabric you choose needs to fit your specific design and vision for the project.
Do you want an airy, flowy dress for summer? A structured, business-formal dress? Maybe a heavy, textured dress to wear with leggings in the winter?
Ask yourself how you want the dress to drape, how the fabric should feel, and where you plan on wearing the dress. Answering those questions is important in narrowing down your search to the right types of fabrics.
Top 10 Fabrics for Sewing Dresses
With a solid understanding of what makes a great fabric for sewing dresses – and how to choose one that fits your dress design – let’s take a look at our top 10 favorite fabrics for dressmaking!
We have a huge selection of gorgeous European fabrics perfect for making beautiful dresses. We also focus on stocking sustainable fabrics, many of which have various certifications to ensure their quality and sustainability.
If you’re looking to make a casual, everyday dress that’s soft and comfortable to wear – cotton jersey is a great choice. Jersey is a lightweight, soft, stretchy knit fabric that is often used to make t-shirts and other casual knitwear. When made from a breathable and comfy natural fiber such as cotton, jersey is great for everyday wear. It’s the perfect choice for t-shirt dresses and other casual knit dresses.
We have a great selection of jersey knit fabrics to choose from, including this certified organic cotton jersey that is available in a wide range of colors.
Tencel, which is a brand of lyocell by the sustainability-focused company Lenzing, is a type of rayon fabric created from ethically sourced eucalyptus wood. Tencel lyocell is a soft, silky fabric that is very durable and comfortable to wear. Tencel twill is woven with a twill weave – which is a long-lasting weave with diagonal lines across the surface of the fabric.
A lightweight Tencel twill is a great choice for a silky, drapey dress or flowy shirtdress. We offer a 100% Tencel twill in several different colors that is the perfect weight for a light dress.
Poplin is a versatile, plain-weave fabric, usually made from cotton, that is often used in button-up shirts and dresses. It’s also great for other lightweight dresses with details that need a crisp fabric that presses well – like pleats, collars, or full gathers. It’s a fabric that can be used for dresses that will get year-round wear and has a light sheen that adds a subtle, beautiful touch.
Our lightweight organic cotton poplin is available in a huge selection of colors – it’s a truly versatile fabric that would be perfect for a range of dress styles.
Searching for the right fabric for a casual, homey-feeling, summer dress? Linen is a wonderful choice! It’s a comfortable, lightweight, breathable, and sustainable fabric that is made from the woody stems of flax plants. Linen is the perfect choice for warm climates where breathability and minimizing sweat is key. Plus, this fabric gets softer and more comfortable with every wash.
We offer a huge selection of linen fabrics, including this lightweight premium European linen with a cozy, lived-in look.
If you live somewhere that gets chilly weather, a cozy sweater dress can be a game changer for your wardrobe. A brushed stretch cotton fleece would be great for sewing a super cozy dress to get you through those cold winter months. Pair your sweater dress with leggings for a snuggly outfit perfect for lounging around home or staying warm while running errands.
We have a wonderfully cozy brushed cotton fleece available in several different colors so you can make the sweater dress you’ve been looking for!
Cupro and viscose make for a wonderful pairing when blended together to make fabric. The resulting fabric is beautifully silky and soft, with a luxurious look and feel. A midweight cupro/viscose blend twill is a great choice for slightly more structured dresses that still need to maintain a fluid drape.
Our cupro/viscose twill is available in a huge selection of colors – this fabric is the perfect option for making a silky, soft, structured dress.
If you’ve got plans for a high-end, formal dress or a luxurious party dress – satin is a classic choice. Satin is made with a specific weave pattern called the satin weave. The way it is woven gives it a luxe, silky appearance and a gorgeous drape. The beautiful sheen to a satin fabric will help your dress to stand out from the crowd.
We have a selection of Tencel/cotton blend satin fabrics that would be perfect for an elegant evening gown or a sophisticated party dress.
Looking for a great fabric for a classic fall dress? A light to mid weight corduroy fabric is a wonderful choice for a structured fall or winter dress. This fabric pairs perfectly with leggings and boots for a cozy look.
We have a lightweight organic cotton corduroy in a great selection of fall colors. This fabric has the perfect amount of stretch to make a comfortable and casual cool-weather dress.
Another great option for a cozy fall or winter dress is brushed wool. Brushed wool has a soft and fluffy texture that helps to trap warm air and keep you toasty in cold weather. Choose a mid to heavy weight fabric for the perfect structured winter dress.
This medium weight wool/poly blend is a super cozy option for a fall or winter dress. Plus, it’s made from recycled wool – making it an even more sustainable choice than traditional wool.
Our lightweight organic cotton piqué fabric would make wonderful luxury t-shirt dresses and other casual dresses that need a high-quality look and feel.
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Home » Blog » 20 Types Of Materials Used In Clothes And Their Characteristics
November 10, 2023
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Today, materials used in clothes do not have only one type, but it has many different types depending on the needs and preferences of customers. How to distinguish each material of the clothes that we are using? What are the origins and uses of these materials? Let’s find out with Dugarco the information below.
Contents
1. Why care about clothing materials?
Today’s clothes are made of many different clothing materials . Each style will use different materials to create its own style for its outfit. Different fabrics will have different uses over time. For example, wool is used in winter and summer, and linen or cotton is often used. In addition, choosing the right material will also help us keep up with current fashion trends. Good and new material will make you feel more comfortable, beautiful and fashionable.What materials are clothes made of and what materials are popularly used today? Are they durable and good when we put them on?
Materials used in clothes
2. The types of material to make clothes
What best modal fabric for making clothes made from? Most clothing is made from a variety of fossil fuel-based crude oil-based materials and chemicals. Nowadays, there are 9 types of materials commonly used by many people.
There are many types of materials used for the production of clothing
Synthetic materials: Fabrics used in industry and clothing often use synthetic materials – mainly polyester. It is predicted that in the coming years, the synthetic market will increase and account for about 70% of manufacturing use in all materials used to make clothes.
Fabrics used in industry and clothing often use synthetic materials – mainly polyester
Cotton is a material with the longest history in all types of fabric, currently, cotton for clothing production accounts for about 24% of the world’s total yarn, the trend is decreasing because it is replaced by other materials synthesize better and faster.
Cellulosic fibers (or viscose fibers) is made from natural materials, after being ground into powder and manufactured under strict, modern processes, creating cellulose fabrics. Currently, Visco accounts for 7% of total yarn production in the world. It is expected to continue to grow and is estimated to reach 8.5% in 2025.
Cellulosic fibers (or viscose fibers) is made from natural materials
Silk: is the oldest and most popular fabric, this type is often produced by the domesticated silkworm Bombyx Mori.
Wool: is a traditional fiber, often popular in cold climates, tropical climates often rarely use organic wool as a material for clothing.
Leather: this is also a very important fabric for making clothes or shoes, accessories
Bast yarn: used to make linen. It is used to make clothes suitable for hot weather.
Test fabric: this is a very special fabric made from materials such as mushrooms, pineapple, …
Notions and hardware: made from wood, metal, and plastic to create items such as zip locks, and clasps,…
3. Distinguish the types of materials used in clothes
So how is the fabric made? Fabric is made by wrapping silk threads together. Clothing fibers are also divided into several different categories: the fibers used (natural and synthetic) and the production processes (woven and knitted).
3.1 Natural and synthetic fibers
What is the difference between these two fabrics? Natural fibers clothes are made from plants or animals, for example, silk comes from silkworms, and flowers come from plants. In contrast, synthetic fibers are made from man-made materials.
Natural and synthetic fibers
3.2 Woven and knitted
Woven is made from two pieces of yarn interwoven lengthwise and horizontally of the loom. It is softer than knitted fabric. Weaving fabrics include 3 types: plain weave, satin weave, and twill weave, for example, chiffon, crepe, silk, and satin,…
Woven and knitted
Knitted fabric is hand-made from a needle and thread that is woven together and knitted over and over to form a knitted fabric. It also has the effect of stretching and not losing shape. Knitted fabrics come in two types: warp-knitted and weft-knitted, for example, wool or mesh.
4. Synthetic materials
Since when did synthetic fibers exist? Synthetic fibers were first produced and distributed in 1910. Because of their favorable properties, synthetic fibers replaced silk. Synthetic fabrics are more durable and comfortable. In addition, it also helps us save costs.
4.1 Nylon/Polyamide
Nylon was the first fabric created after World War II. This type is known for its high flexibility and excellent resilience. Besides, Nylon has good strength and wear resistance, resilience, and elasticity. Raw materials used in the garment industry is a fabric commonly used to make clothes.
Nylon materials
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4.2 Polyester
Polyester is a material used in clothes derived from petroleum and is widely used in the fashion industry. Polyester has many special properties such as: being resistant to wrinkles and abrasion, not affected by chemicals, being very durable, and being light. Polyester is used to sew clothes, shoes, bedding, furniture, and bags.
Polyester fabric
4.3 Acrylic
Acrylic is a material used in clothes produced in the form of microfibers, which are cut into short metal threads like wool. If you are allergic to wool, use Acrylic wool. Acrylic is very light, soft, and warm. It is often used to make sweaters and coats to keep you warm in winter.
4.4 Elastane
The material used in clothes is extremely stretchy to help keep the garment’s shape, making it perfect for body-contouring suits. However, Elastane fabric has a high potential for contamination, and its quality degrades over time. It is suitable for sewing swimwear or other styling clothes for women.
Elastane fabric
4.5 Fleece
Fleece is a fabric made from a type of polyester – polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or other synthetic fibers. Fleece is a natural fiber made from sheep’s wool. The strength of this material is that it is very suitable for making winter clothes. In addition, it also has good elasticity and resilience, against harmful external agents. Warm clothes or blankets are often made from this material.
4.6 PVC
PVC is a product that is used by many people. Materials used in making garments use is to withstand cold weather, so people often use it to sew winter clothes such as coats. However, PVC is also very dangerous because it is completely dependent on fossil fuels and uses a lot of energy to react with chemicals. In my opinion, we should not use a lot of clothes made from this material.
PVC fabric
5. Materials used in clothes from plants
The material used in clothes made from plants is very good for us because it does not have mixed chemicals or bad things. Usually garment manufacturing in Vietnam will use the following clothing materials:
5.1 Cotton
Cotton is a very common natural fiber and is often used a lot for jeans or t-shirts. It is an extremely hydrophilic material and requires a huge amount of water for plants to grow. It’s super soft, comfortable and dry. But if you wash it and use it for a long time, it will shrink. When planted, the tree has a great need for pesticides, it will lose quality if recycled.
Cotton fabric
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5.2 Bamboo
Bamboo is a tree chosen by many people because of its environmental friendliness. In contrast to cotton, bamboo is easy to grow, requires little water, and does not require the use of pesticides. When planting, we just need to make sure the tree is grown sustainably and avoids harmful chemicals. Bamboo fabric is a good choice for everyone because of its environmental friendliness and health protection for everyone.
Bamboo fabric
5.3 Linen
Linen is made from the flax plant, which is a fairly hard fabric and very easily decomposed. The flax plant grows in cold climates and it also doesn’t need to use a lot of water and pesticides. Linen can withstand high temperatures, is extremely breathable, durable and cooler than cotton. Linen fabric for clothing is the most commonly used commodity on the market because of its coolness and safety.
Linen fabric
5.4 Hemp
Hemp is obtained from the Sativa cannabis plant and it is also a very eco-friendly fiber. The plant is also pesticide-free and it also helps prevent soil erosion. This fabric has a lot of advantages such as UV protection, breathability, very soft and it creates clothes that keep warm in winter or cool in summer.
5.5 Denim
Denim is derived from cotton known to be the driest crop in the world. This crop requires very little water but takes up a lot of pesticides, which can be toxic to the environment. It is not recommended that people buy things made from denim.
5.6 Viscose/Rayon
Viscose/rayon are both derived from ‘cellulose’ or wood pulp from regenerated trees. Although this is a plant-based material, it has a big problem. Rayon is very popular, second only to polyester and cotton, which is also one of the causes of deforestation because a lot of wood pulp is used for production. However, you do not need to worry as logging is allowed and under control.
5.7 Modal
Modal is also known as semi-synthetic Rayon yarn. Modal is very breathable and soft, absorbing more water than cotton. It does not fade easily in washing and is often used to make activewear and underwear. As long as you buy at branded places and ensure safety for consumers, you don’t need to worry about being counterfeited.
Modal fabric
5.8 Tencel lyocell
Tencel lyocell is a cellulose fiber made by dissolving wood pulp. Suitable for making active clothes. You can use it in place of cotton or silk. This fabric is very soft and breathable. It may order more than other fabrics but its quality will be better.
6. Materials of animal origin
What are the materials used to make clothes? There are also materials of animal origin. This material comes to some animals such as crocodile skin, and silkworms,… what materials are used for clothes? Let’s go to the next part.
6.1 Cashmere
Cashmere is yarn made from goats in Asia (cashmere goat and pashmina goat). Cashmere is a natural fiber with a delightfully soft feel and excellent insulation. It is also the rarest fiber in the world. Cashmere has a soft material and is usually quite expensive but not very durable.
Cashmere fabric
6.2 Silk
Silk is created from the cocoons of silkworms. Mulberry silk is the most common type of silk. Silk is very soft, comfortable, and flexible, it is also very durable and strong. This material used in clothes is very expensive but extremely good, sustainable silk is often used to make evening gowns, and accessories,…
6.3 Leather
Leather made from animal skins is a marketed staple. Leathers vary according to different types of animals, in which cowhide is the predominant type of leather. Its fabric is very durable, does not wrinkle and comes in a variety of designs.
Leather
6.4 Wool
Wool is made from sheep’s wool. Materials used in clothes helps us keep our bodies warm, dust-proof, and breathable. It will also shrink with prolonged use and may itch. So keep it very carefully and often.
6.5 Fur
Fur is made from fur of animals and other materials. The material is different depending on the animal. However, if we want to have feathers to make clothes, we must hunt or raise them for fur. Animals like sheep can be raised, but animals like leopards and crocodiles are forced to hunt. For that reason, fur is a rather expensive material, but it is also extremely durable and good.
Fur fabric
6.6 Angora
Angora is a fiber derived from the Angora rabbit breed with an extremely soft, warm coat. In addition to rabbit fur, it also adds other materials to make it smoother. But getting it from rabbits made them painful, so the fiber was discontinued.
7. Materials used in the manufacture of clothing
Raw materials used in the garment industry such as cotton, rubber, oil. They are transformed before being used in the manufacturing process. Therefore it is also known as TRM. We have some of the raw materials as:
Yarns
Cloth
Dye
Fiber
Raw materials used in clothes
Materials used in clothes have many types materials as well as different origins and uses for each type. Based on that, you can distinguish whether this fabric is suitable for you or not. This can save you time and money if you buy the wrong clothes. If you already know which type to buy, go to Dugarco Corporation to choose the right clothes for you.
CONTACT INFORMATION:
Address: 59 Duc Giang street, Duc Giang ward, Long Bien district, Ha Noi, Viet Nam
Phone: 024 3655 7930
Q: What are the advantages and disadvantages of natural materials?
A: Natural materials are often more breathable and comfortable to wear than synthetic materials. They are also more biodegradable, meaning they break down more easily in the environment. However, natural materials can be more expensive and less durable than synthetic materials.
Q: What are the advantages and disadvantages of synthetic materials?
A: Synthetic materials are often less expensive and more durable than natural materials. They are also wrinkle-resistant and easy to care for. However, synthetic materials can be less breathable and comfortable to wear than natural materials. They are also less biodegradable, meaning they can take longer to break down in the environment.
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– Established in 1990, Duc Giang Corporation (DUGARCO) is one of the leading enterprises of Vietnam’s textile industry and a prestigious manufacturer and supplier of garments for many famous customers in the world and domestic.
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77 | write the name of raw materials used in dressmaking | https://www.moodfabrics.com/blog/the-ultimate-list-of-sewing-supplies/ | 1. Design Supplies
Every project should have a design stage; a time when you can find inspiration and sketch ideas. Sure, you’ll find a sketchpad and some fashion sites helpful, but the internet isn’t the only place you have to turn to for ideas.
The Mood Guide to Fabric and Fashion : If you ever wanted some in-depth insight into the history of Mood and how it all began, this book is a must. However, it won’t stop there. The Mood Guide will also give you the tools to learn all about the different types of fabrics, fibers, prints, and patterns, identifying specific characteristics of each. So you’ll already be on your way to becoming a pro when you show up for class this semester.
9 Heads – A Guide to Drawing Fashion : This book, essential for any student studying fashion, is what Mood uses in all of their illustration classes. In addition to covering techniques for drawing fashion figures, 9 Heads is also a comprehensive guide to drawing all kinds of modern fashion garments, silhouettes, and constructional/design details. This edition even includes a new chapter on Composition and Fashion Shorthand (a guide to composing groups of garments for professional standard portfolios) and a complete set of tutorials on how best to utilize Photoshop for fashion illustrations. 9 Heads leave no future designer with anything less than all of the basic tools in formatting fashion illustrations on a professional level.
Fashionary : Do you love designing clothes, but have a hard time putting your ideas on paper? If so, a Fashionary might just be the perfect fit for you. These pads are the perfect blend of fashion resources, templates, and sketchpads, making them the tool for brainstorming, fast sketching, and quick referencing for students, designers, and home sewers alike.
Sketchpads : If templates just distract you, basic sketchbooks and pads are always a great option. Mood has several for pencils, pens, or markers. Before a single stitch is sewn, these pads capture the essence of a garment’s design, ensuring clarity of concept and a roadmap for execution.
Pens, Pencils, and Markers : Not every writing instrument is the same. If you’re finalizing your sketches with pens and markers as you should be, there are a slew of tools that can help you make sure your idea on the page is exactly what you’re designing in your head. Prismacolor’s marker set is terrific, as is their marker blender , and Fashionary’s color collection (made exclusively for Mood) contains a full and effective range of contemporary fashion colors for extensive design applications!
2. Draping Supplies
If you like to make your own patterns, draping is almost always a necessary extra step, which means a few more supplies. In the end, though, your designs will flourish for it.
Dress Form: Dress forms are one of the most helpful tools a fashion designer can have. Not only can you fit semi-finished garments on it, but you can also drape muslin or other fabric to create your own brand-new garment or pattern.
Muslin : Muslin is typically made of inexpensive cotton and is best used for draping and mock-ups. If you have a pattern that you’re unsure of, make a test version with muslin first! Mood even sells 5-yard bundles of their premium 45″ muslin at 2/3 its typical price !
Pins : You can never have too many pins! Be sure to have a few of each kind so you always have the right pin on hand for the fabric you’re using.
Draping Tape : Draping tape, much like painter’s tape, is often thin and flexible, making it ideal for mapping out seams and curves on a dress form or muslin.
Pattern Paper : Draw out your own patterns or save yourself some money by tracing ready-made patterns in different sizes – either way, pattern paper can be incredibly helpful! Plus, it typically has a built-in 1″ grid system for easy measurements.
Fabric Clips : Fabric clips are handy tools used to hold layers of fabric together without the need for pins. They’re especially good for materials like quilting or leather where you don’t want holes. Essentially, they keep things in place, making sewing and cutting a whole lot smoother.
Safety Pins : Safety pins serve as versatile tools in the world of fashion and garment creation. When draping, safety pins are used to temporarily secure the fabric on a dress form or mannequin, allowing designers to manipulate, adjust, and visualize how the material will lay on the body before committing to permanent stitches.
3. Measuring Supplies
Measuring tools have evolved fantastically from a basic straight ruler. These awesome gadgets can make sure every garment you make is tailored to perfection.
Yard Stick : The yardstick provides precise measurements to ensure accuracy and consistency in garment construction. Its rigid structure and marked increments allow for straightforward and efficient length assessments, from measuring fabric cuts to determining hem lengths. By using a yardstick, sewists can achieve a professional finish, ensuring that each piece aligns perfectly and fits as intended.
French Curve : This easy-to-use gauge is terrific for measuring and drawing curved lines like armholes and necklines. It ensures those curves on your patterns are nothing short of perfection, giving your garments that oh-so-professional finish we all crave.
T-Square : In sewing, a T-square is a handy tool for ensuring straight lines and precise measurements. It’s especially useful when drafting patterns or marking fabric to get those perfect cuts. You’ll definitely want one of these if you do a lot of quilting or geometric work.
Hem Gauge : This curved gauge makes pressing new hems incredibly simple – just wrap your hem around the curve and iron! It can also be used for pockets, pattern alterations, and belts or waistbands.
Hip Curve : The hip curve ruler is an essential sewing tool, allowing designers to achieve those smooth, natural curves around the hip and waist areas, ensuring a flattering fit every time If you’re looking to create long, graceful curves in your designs, this 2-foot ruler needs to be in your supply stash.
L-Square : This is a straight edge and T-square all in one, terrific for right angles and borders! The L-square with its right-angle design, ensures that seams align perfectly and patterns are impeccably scaled, solidifying its spot in every seamstress’s arsenal.
Measuring Tape : We all have at least 3 of these right?? Tape measures are terrific for taking measurements on non-flat surfaces, which is a necessity when you need to measure your model.
Sliding Gauge : If you don’t want to spend the money on all of these right away, you can try them out with a nifty little sliding gauge. This pocket-sized gadget features a buttonhole spacer and sizer, a seam allowance gauge, a circle compass, a hem gauge, and a T-square – all in miniature!
4. Marking Supplies
Tracing Wheel : A tracing wheel is a great marking option for soft fabrics. It leaves a small dotted indent that disappears after pressing. For leather or vinyl, it can also be used to evenly space and mark where to hand stitch.
Tailor’s Chalk : This chalk is best if you need a nice, solid line. However, be sure to remove markings before pressing your garment, as the heat could set the color slightly.
Marking Pencil : Marking pencils are much like a tailor’s chalk, but they tend to be a bit lighter. They come in three shades, so they can work with most fabric colors, and there are even water-soluble options that can be removed with a damp cloth!
Awl : An awl is a tool used to punch holes in leather, vinyl, plastic, and fleece, to hold and ease fabric under a needle while sewing, to start holes for small wood screws, and to mark dart holes in both fabric and preliminary patterns. Essentially, it can be used for a lot of things – such as marking stitches on leather by hand instead of using a tracing wheel, or fully puncturing the markings initially made by a tracing wheel.
Tracing Paper : Once you have all your markings and measurements, you may want to recreate them on pattern paper or muslin, or even your final fabric. Tracing paper can be a great assistant when it comes to this step.
5. Cutting Supplies
Buttonhole Cutter : Similar to a chisel, you can insert the tip of this buttonhole cutter in the center of the buttonhole and rock it back and forth until you cut through to the other side. Be sure to place a piece of cardboard or other protective material behind the fabric when cutting.
Seam Ripper : Many beginner kits and machines come with a seam ripper, but if you’re unfamiliar with them, they can be used to open seams, cut and remove stitches, and cut buttonholes open.
Edge Trimmer : These applique scissors are designed to make applique work and rug making a breeze as the paddle-shaped blade pushes away the bottom layer of fabric for flawless, controlled cuts close to the stitching.
Cutting Mat : These mats are self-healing, meaning they won’t be easily destroyed by knife or rotary cutter marks. A cutting mat ensures precision while protecting your workspace. Crafted specifically for sewists, it not only prolongs the life of your rotary blades but also ensures your fabric cuts are clean and accurate, a must-have for any sewist.
Thread Snipper : Thread snippers are designed to trim thread, floss, yarn or other light materials with accuracy and comfort. Fine-point tips offer access and control when trimming stringing materials in tight places while the precision-ground stainless steel blades make clean cuts. Spring-action handle with finger loop makes handling both easy and comfortable!
Rotary Cutter : Rotary cutters are especially terrific for long, straight lines – like those you’d be cutting if you’re a quilter. With its razor-sharp circular blade, it glides smoothly across fabrics, ensuring clean cuts even for the trickiest curves and corners.
Pinking Shears : Pinking shears are special scissors used in sewing to prevent fabric fraying. Their zigzag cut minimizes unraveling and offers decorative edges. They’re ideal for notches and crafting techniques.
All Purpose Scissors : All-purpose scissors are designed to handle a variety of tasks from cutting fabrics to trimming threads. Their versatile nature ensures clean and smooth cuts, making them essential for both novice and expert sewers. With a balanced weight and sharp edges, all-purpose scissors promise precision, elevating the quality and ease of sewing projects.
Fabric Shears : Fabric shears are specialized scissors designed exclusively for cutting fabric, ensuring clean and precise cuts without fraying. Their unique build and sharp blades allow for a smoother glide through various textiles, preserving the fabric’s integrity. Utilizing fabric shears in sewing projects not only enhances accuracy but also prolongs the life of the material by preventing damage.
6. Sewing Supplies
Sewing Machine: A sewing machine is a versatile tool used in textile crafting, automating the process of stitching fabric. It features a moving needle, thread mechanism, and feed mechanism to advance fabric. It’s adjustable for various fabrics and stitches, from straight to zigzag. Some offer embroidery and quilting functions, streamlining sewing for enthusiasts and professionals.
Thread : Elastic, invisible, fusible, heavy-duty — ever wonder about all the different types of thread? I recently outlined all my favorites right over here ! Choosing the right thread not only ensures longevity for your stitches, but it can also elevate the finish, making your piece look professional and polished.
Machine Needles : Machine needles are essential components in sewing, designed to seamlessly pierce through fabrics, allowing the thread to form stitches. The type and size of the needle selected can greatly influence the quality of the stitches, making it crucial to choose the right one based on the fabric and sewing project at hand.
Hand Needles : Whether you’re weaving delicate embroidery, securing a stray thread, or creating a seamless invisible hem, the humble hand needle is a sewist’s intimate companion in ensuring every project is stitched to perfection.
Needle Threader : Maybe this one isn’t a necessity, but I am in love with needle threaders. They can be used with both hand and machine needles, and they completely eliminate the frustration of fighting with the eye of a needle and fraying thread.
Thimble : These come in a few different sizes, to protect your finger while hand sewing. Plus, if you find the metal ones uncomfortable, there are also leather ones !
Bobbins : These, of course, typically come with your machine, but it’s always a good idea to have a few extras. Some will always get lost, and others are just great to have so you don’t always need to waste thread by juggling the same two. Just be sure you choose the ones that fit your machine!
Tweezers : Ever tried wrangling a rebellious thread or setting a delicate embellishment without tweezers? Trust me, in the sewing realm, these little gems are the unsung heroes, ensuring every detail is just so. Every stitcher’s toolkit deserves a pair!
7. Crafting Supplies
Seam Creaser : This is a must-have for any sewist. The narrow end helpfully turns points on shirt collars, lapels, pockets, and more, while the rounded end creases seams open (or shut!) for a tailored look every time.
Loop Turner : A necessity when making narrow spaghetti straps, button loops, or frog closures. Latch-hook end catches fabric to pull it through bias tubing!
Fabric Glue: Sometimes, you just have to use glue. When adhering to fabric though, be sure to use glue meant specifically for fabric. Others can stain or eat through certain fibers, and others simply won’t do the job as well.
Hem Tape : Intimidated by hemming? Hem tape can take that fear away! There are several different kinds, although most are iron-on. Some are permanent, while others wash away and act more like temporary iron-on pins. This can also be used for appliques!
So what sewing tools are your favorites? Did we leave any out in our ultimate list? Once you have your ultimate sewing kit put together, be sure to download our new monthly sewing planner to keep your projects just as organized!
Ebony Lopez September 2, 2016 at 11:36 am
Great guide; precise, organized, and handy. Keep up the good work Mood Fabrics!
Melody Lema September 11, 2016 at 8:33 pm
My favorite tool is my “bird” or third hand. It has been in my family for 4 generations. But the single tool that I use the most is my thread clippers/seam rippers. It is a two tools in one. I got mine at Nancy Notions, but Amazon has it now also. I have two of them, one at the sewing machine, and one at the serger. It fits my hand perfectly, and I actually keep in my hand as I sew. I use it to clip threads and rip seams of course, but it does so much more. I can use it to clip to the curves, or to pull out the corners of collars. etc. I love it.
Kim July 14, 2017 at 10:24 am
My favorite essential notion is a magnetic pin cushion. hands down the best investment i’ve made in my studio! It’s my gift of choice-theirs!-for volunteers who assist in my productions, or for sewing friends.
Meredith November 30, 2017 at 10:42 pm
You left off the iron! I would never try to sew with out one.
Love your graphics a sew cute!
Diane Cody September 23, 2019 at 6:37 pm
I thank you for the information something’s that I need to add to my sewing room.
Maaike August 22, 2023 at 12:28 am
I missed a few things. Spacer for buttonholes so they are even spaced Iron Chalkpen, comes with different colours and is more precise than a tailerschalkblock Zipper help, it’s like a third hand when putting on the zipperpull
James Walter February 6, 2024 at 5:19 am
I really appreciate how you’ve broken down sewing supplies into different categories, making it easier for beginners to understand what’s essential and what’s optional. The detailed descriptions and recommendations for each tool are incredibly helpful. I love how you’ve not only listed the supplies but also provided insights into how they’re used and why they’re important, making this a truly valuable resource for anyone interested in sewing.
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77 | write the name of raw materials used in dressmaking | https://poshgarments.com/the-main-raw-materials-for-making-clothes/ | Posh Garments February 22, 2022 In Clothing
The Main Raw Materials For Making Clothes
Clothes are now created from a diverse range of materials. Plants and animals are still used to make traditional textiles like cotton, linen, and leather. However, most garments are constructed of substances and chemical compounds obtained from crude oil derived from fossil fuels.
Bangladesh’s largest foreign currency earner, the garment sector, is suffering from coronavirus-related supply chain disruption, with raw material costs skyrocketing.
According to a report by the Bangladesh Trade and Tariff Commission (BTTC), Bangladesh imports 60 percent of its woven fabrics from China. According to the survey, China supplies 15-20% of raw resources and 80-85 percent of coloring chemicals and accessories to the knitwear industry. Every year, China provides around 40% of the raw materials for clothing items and the packaging production business.
Three essential causes have increased Bangladesh’s textile industry’s growth. The country is rich in resources, opportunities, and government policies that are helpful. A huge number of laborers may be found in Bangladesh. Natural gas and energy are also inexpensive. Bangladesh has an edge in creating labor-intensive items because of its large population.
Polyester fabrics, fabrics derived by man-made fibers, Polyviscose fabrics, viscose thread fabrics, and other textiles make up the majority of its exports. Knitted or woven shirt, tops, pants, skirts, shorts, sweaters, and sportswear clothing make up the majority of apparel exports. A vast number of people are employed in the handloom sector, which also manufactures fabrics for the local market. Despite being one of Bangladesh’s fastest-growing and largest industries, it confronts some difficulties.
Table of Contents
The Main Raw Materials In The Garment Industry Of Bangladesh
Cotton, Muslin, Tant, Rajshahi silk, Jamdani, and khadi are the most common raw materials used in the textile and garment industries.
Cotton
Bangladesh comes as the second largest user of cotton in Asia. Apart from importing, cultivation of cotton began in 20 to 22 districts of Bangladesh. This only covered 0.55 percent of the total land space of 81 lakh hectares, which was allowed to be cultivated.
Cotton is the backbone of Bangladesh’s RMG industry, with our nation being among the top four users of this miraculous fiber in the world. China, India, and Pakistan are the other three, with the latter two having major home textile markets. Cotton is the primary raw material used in Bangladesh’s garment export sector.
However, Bangladesh still imports cotton because imported cotton is usually cheaper, since bought in bulk, and sometimes they have variations.
Muslin
This fabric of Dhaka was very well known since 18th The basic material of making muslin was cotton fabric, however other forms may include silk and viscose as well.
Early muslin was woven by hand with unusually fine handspun yarn. For most of the 17th and early 18th centuries, it was transported from Bengal into Europe.
Tant
This fabric gained its popularity due to the sari made by the fabric. Tant sari is a traditional Bengali sari that originated in the Bengal region of India’s eastern region and is worn by Bengali ladies. Tant saris are weaved from cotton strands and are known for their transparency and lightness. It is thought to be the most comfortable sari for the Indian subcontinent’s hot and humid climate.
Tant sari weaving is a well-known and centuries-old Bengali skill. The artisans weave the cotton into thread, which is then woven into a tant sari. This is done with the help of two shuttles. Weavers employed handlooms in the past, but power looms have now mainly overtaken them in the production of these saris.
Rajshahi Silk
Rajshahi silk refers to silk products made in the Bangladeshi city of Rajshahi. It is well-known for being a high-quality fabric for garments, particularly saris.
Silk processing in the region dates back to the 13th century, according to records. Bengal silk or Ganges silk were the names given to it at the time.
Saris manufactured of Rajshahi silk are extremely popular throughout Bangladesh. Rajshahi silk is indeed marketed to designers as fabric, and it comes in a variety of colors and patterns.
Jamdani
This is a fine muslin textile with various patterns, manufactured for generations in Bangladesh’s South Rupshi area, on the banks of the Shitalakhwa river. The fabric is typically woven using a mix of gold and cotton threads.
Jamdani was formerly known as Dhakai, after Dhaka, one of the Bengal region’s numerous ancient textile weaving centers.
Jamdani is perhaps the most pricey loom product since it demands the greatest time and effort. It patterns are generally geometric, botanical, and floral designs that are supposed to have been passed down through the generations. Only aristocratic and royal families could afford such luxuries because of the extremely meticulous methodology required.
Khadi
This fabric has a prolonged history in Bangladesh. Marco Polo, who lived in the 12th century A.D., characterized Khadi from the Region of Bengal as even finer than a spider’s web. The Bengal Khadi Muslin was also a favorite of the Romans, who used to import large quantities of the cloth.
Khadi or khaddar is a cotton-based hand-spun and hand-woven fabric from India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The cloth is usually made of cotton, but it may also contain silk or wool, which are all spun back into yarn on a charkha spinning wheel. It’s a versatile fabric that keeps you cool in the summer and toasty in the winter. Khaddar is occasionally starched to offer a firmer feel in attempt to optimise its appearance. In the fashion world, it is widely accepted.
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78 | who is the leader of the ontario pc party | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Ontario | 10 languages
Canadian provincial political party
Parti progressiste-conservateur de l'Ontario
1854; 171 years ago (1854)(as Conservative Party of Canada West)
Preceded by
The Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario (PC; French : Parti progressiste-conservateur de l'Ontario), often shortened to the Ontario PC Party (or simply the PCs), colloquially known as the Tories, is a centre to centre-right political party in Ontario , Canada .
During its uninterrupted governance from 1943 to 1985, the Ontario PC Party adhered to the ideology of Red Toryism , favouring government intervention in the economy, increased spending on infrastructure, education and health care and being progressive on social issues such as equal pay for women, anti-discrimination laws, voting rights for First Nations people and French-language services . In the 1990s, the party underwent a shift to Blue Toryism after the election of Mike Harris as leader, who was premier from 1995 to 2002 and favoured a " Common Sense Revolution " platform of cutting taxes and government spending while balancing the budget through small government . The PCs lost power in 2003 ; however, they came back to win a majority government in 2018 under Doug Ford . They were reelected in 2022 and 2025 .
The first Conservative Party in Upper Canada was made up of United Empire Loyalists and supporters of the wealthy Family Compact that ruled the colony. Once responsible government was granted in response to the 1837 Rebellions , the Tories emerged as moderate reformers who opposed the radical policies of the Reformers and then the Clear Grits .
The modern Conservative Party originated in the Liberal-Conservative coalition founded by Sir John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier in 1854. It is a variant of this coalition that formed the first government in Ontario with John Sandfield Macdonald as premier .
Until becoming the Progressive Conservatives in 1942, the party was officially known as the "Liberal-Conservative Association of Ontario", reflecting its liberal-conservative origins, but became widely known as the Conservative Party.
John Sandfield Macdonald was actually a Liberal and sat concurrently as a Liberal Party of Canada member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons of Canada but he was an ally of John A. Macdonald (though not a relative). His government was initially a true coalition of Liberals and Conservatives under his leadership but soon the more radical Reformers bolted to the opposition and Sandfield Macdonald was left leading what was essentially a conservative coalition that included some Liberals under the Liberal-Conservative banner. After losing power in 1871, this conservative coalition began to dissolve. What was originally a party that included Catholics and Protestants became an almost exclusively English and Protestant party, more and more dependent on the Protestant Orange Order for support, and even for its leadership. The party became opposed to funding for separate (Catholic) schools , opposed to language rights for French-Canadians , and distrustful of immigrants. Paradoxically, an element of the party gained a reputation for being pro- labour as a result of links between the Orange Order and the labour movement.
Pre-war dynasty
Post-war dynasty
Late in the 1930s and early in the 1940s, the Conservatives re-organized and developed new policies. Rather than continue to oppose government spending and intervention, a policy which hurt the party politically in the time of the Great Depression, the Conservatives changed their policies to support government action where it would lead to economic growth.
The party changed its name to the "Progressive Conservative" party after its federal counterpart changed its name to the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada in December 1942 on the insistence of its new leader, John Bracken , whose roots were in the populist Progressive Party .
The Progressive Conservatives took advantage of Liberal infighting to win a minority government in the 1943 provincial election , reducing the Liberals to third-party status. Drew called another election in 1945 , only two years into his mandate, to get a majority government. The PCs played up Cold War tensions to win a landslide majority, though it emerged several years later that the PC government had set up a secret department of the Ontario Provincial Police to spy on the opposition and the media. [2] The PCs would dominate Ontario politics for the next four decades.
Under Drew and his successor, Leslie Frost , the PCs were a strong champion of rural issues but also invested heavily in the development of civil works throughout the province, including the construction of the 400 series of highways, beginning with the 401 across Toronto. On social issues, Frost's Progressive Conservative government passed anti-discrimination laws such as the Fair Employment Practices Act of 1951, the Fair Accommodation Practices Act of 1954 and the Ontario Anti-Discrimination Commission Act of 1958, advocated equal wages for women with the Act to Ensure Fair Remuneration for Female Employees, and granted First Nations people the right to vote in 1955. Frost improved health care access to Ontarians through the passing of the Hospital Services Commission of Ontario Act of 1956 and the launching of the Ontario Hospital Insurance Plan program in 1959. [3] [4] [5] In 1961, John Robarts became the 17th premier of Ontario. He was one of the most popular premiers in years. Under Robarts's leadership, the party epitomized power, continuing Drew and Frost's policies on health care, education, infrastructure and social issues, introducing the Ontario Human Rights Code in 1962. He was an advocate of individual freedoms and promoted the rights of the provinces against what he saw as the centralizing initiatives of the federal government, while also promoting national unity against Quebec separatism. He hosted the 1967 "Confederation of Tomorrow" conference in Toronto in an unsuccessful attempt to achieve an agreement for a new Constitution of Canada.
Robarts opposed Canadian Medicare when it was proposed, but later endorsed it fully, and the party implemented the public health care system that continues to this day. He led the party towards a civil libertarian movement. As a strong believer in the promotion of both official languages, he opened the door to French education in Ontario schools.
Big Blue Machine
In 1971, Bill Davis became party leader and the 18th premier. Anti-Catholicism became an issue again in the 1971 election , when the Tories campaigned strenuously against a Liberal proposal to extend funding for Catholic separate schools until Grade 13 . Davis reversed himself in 1985, and enacted the funding extension as one of his last acts before leaving office.
Davis governed until 1985 with a team of advisers known as the "Big Blue Machine" because of their reputed political and strategic skills. Their stamp on the party was so strong that many refer to the Tories' long rule over Ontario as the "Big Blue Machine era".
During its 43 years of domination, the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario was seen as a centrist party, with the Liberals being to its right and the New Democratic Party to its left. However, its base of support remained with socially conservative voters in rural Southern Ontario. Davis largely reconciled these differences and emerged one of the most popular politicians in Ontario's history. Other conservatives in the federal PC Party accused him of damaging the conservative image in Canada by moving to the left on some issues. Davis continued the rapid expansion of community colleges, universities, and highways across Ontario.
1980s to 1995: in Opposition
Party logo in 1985
Party logo in 1987
Party logo in 1990
Davis retired in 1985. At a leadership convention , he was succeeded by Industry and Trade Minister Frank Miller . A Blue Tory , Miller was considerably more conservative than Davis, and shifted the Progressive Conservatives to the right. Soon after taking office, he called an election in which the PCs were reduced to a minority government, and actually finished behind the Liberals in the popular vote for the first time in 42 years.
Soon afterward, the Ontario New Democratic Party (NDP) of Bob Rae reached an agreement with David Peterson 's Liberals in which the NDP would support a Liberal minority government. Miller was defeated in a no-confidence motion on June 18. Peterson was asked to form a government later in the day, ending the longest period of one-party rule in Canadian provincial history. Miller was replaced as leader by Larry Grossman at a second leadership convention .
When the Liberal-NDP Accord expired, an election was held in 1987 in which the Tories were reduced to third place in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario . They only won 16 seats, their worst showing in over half a century. Grossman was personally defeated in his downtown Toronto riding and resigned immediately. Andy Brandt was the party's interim leader until a leadership election was held in 1990 in which Mike Harris defeated Dianne Cunningham .
Three months after the election of Harris, and only three years into the, typically, four-year term of the Liberal government, David Peterson called a provincial election, in which the PCs failed to improve their standing, but which resulted in the defeat of the Liberals by Rae's NDP.
Mike Harris and the "Common Sense Revolution"
Ontario's 22nd Premier Mike Harris
In the 1995 election , Harris catapulted his party from third place to an election victory, running on a small government platform called the " Common Sense Revolution ". The platform promised tax cuts (including 30% cuts to provincial personal income tax), and adopted wedge issues including deficit reduction , welfare cuts, the introduction of workfare , and the repeal of an employment equity law Harris characterized as "the quota law."
Public opinion on the Harris government was polarized. The government was criticized on issues such as health care, the environment, education, and social policies. Strikes and protests including a 1997 teacher's strike beleaguered its first term. But it won a second majority in the 1999 general election , and held generally stable support until Harris's departure as party leader in 2002.
A slide in PC support began in early 2000 according to Ipsos-Reid , when the Tories fell behind the Liberals in the public opinion polls for the first time since the 1999 election, with 36% support of those polled, compared to 42% for the Liberals and 17% for the NDP. Later in 2000, Liberal support rose to about half of those polled, while PC support remained in the low 30s. This pattern held through to the 2002 leadership campaign, when PC support rose to 37%, while the Liberals retained the support of about half of those polled.
Ernie Eves: distancing the party from Harris and 2003 defeat
With the resignation of Mike Harris in 2002, the PCs held a leadership election . Ernie Eves , who had been Harris's minister of finance, and who had the backing of almost all PC members of provincial parliament (MPPs), won the campaign, defeating his successor as minister of finance, Jim Flaherty .
Eves was a Red Tory , unlike Harris. He'd tried to blunt some of the edges of the more radical elements of Harris's platform while in Cabinet. His distancing from the Common Sense Revolution continued after he became premier. He killed plans to sell off Hydro One and re-imposed retail price controls on electricity, capping the price at 4.3 cents per kilowatt-hour, and vowing to keep it capped until at least 2006.
During the summer after Eves's election as leader, the PCs closed the gap in popular support considerably, placing only two percentage points behind the Liberals in two summer public opinion polls. By the autumn of 2002, however, Eves's "honeymoon" with the voters was over, and the party fell back in the polls, hovering in the mid-to-high 30s, while the Liberals scored in the mid-to-high 40s.
Despite his attempt to recast the Tory government as a moderate one, Eves was unable to reverse the slide in the polls the Tories had suffered in the last years of Harris's tenure.
Eves asked Flaherty's campaign chairman, Jaime Watt, to co-manage the PC election campaign, along with the rest of the "Whiz Kids" team that had previously worked for Harris. Only Tom Long , the central organizer in Harris's campaigns, refused to work for Eves.
The "Whiz Kids" reputation for competence was marred by publicity stunts such as handing down his government's second budget at the headquarters of Magna International instead of in the provincial legislature. Voter backlash against this break with parliamentary tradition forced the delay of a planned spring election in 2003.
In May 2003, Eves released the party's platform, "The Road Ahead". The document promoted an aggressive hard-right agenda, and was closer in spirit to Harris and Flaherty's agenda than to Eves's own. In releasing this document, Eves reversed his earlier positions on banning teacher's strikes, jailing the homeless, private school tax credits and same-sex marriage . The platform also called for mortgage interest deductibility.
The PC election campaign was riddled with mistakes and miscues, and Eves appeared uncomfortable trying to sell a platform he had opposed only a year earlier. In contrast, the Liberals had spent the last four years positioning themselves as the government in waiting, and ran on the simple platform of "Choose Change". PC television ads which attacked Liberal leader Dalton McGuinty as "still not up to the job" were received poorly by the voting public, and allowed the Liberal campaign to portray the Tories as needlessly confrontational.
A critical point in the campaign was when a member of the Eves team jokingly referred to McGuinty as an " evil reptilian kitten-eater from another planet ", a comment that made the Tories appear desperate to vilify their opponents. In the final days leading up to the vote, Eves was further criticized for saying that McGuinty just says "whatever comes into his pointy little head". On election day, the Tories were routed, falling to 24 seats.
Opposition under John Tory (2004 to 2009)
John Tory, leader (2004–2009)
Ontario PC logo, 2006–2010
In early 2004, Eves announced his intention to step down as leader. A leadership convention to replace him was called for the fall.
Jim Flaherty was the first to enter the race, campaigning on the same right wing platform as in 2002. He was soon opposed by John Tory , a former executive with Rogers Cable and a Toronto mayoral candidate in 2003 (a position he would ultimately win in 2014 ), sometimes viewed as a Red Tory due to his association to former premier Bill Davis. MPP Frank Klees , the third candidate in the race, was a supporter of the Common Sense Revolution and campaigned for a parallel private health care system.
The 2004 leadership election was held on September 18, 2004, electing John Tory as the party's new leader. Tory, who had first worked as an aide to Premier Bill Davis, was elected to the Ontario legislature in a by-election in March, 2005, in the seat that Eves held. [6]
In polling prior to the 2007 general election , the PCs' support rose after the first Liberal budget in 2004. The party was virtually tied with the Liberals, as Tory has experimented with several different orientations. During his first year as leader, Tory attempted to rise above partisan politics, openly contemptuous of partisan moves and pledging to improve decorum in the legislature. In his second year as leader, Tory adopted a more traditional approach to the issues, sharply opposing the Liberal plans on taxes, spending, deficits and cuts. Heading into the election year, Tory put most of his emphasis on criticizing the government's handling of a standoff with Mohawk aboriginals in Caledonia in order to portray the government as weak. He also emphasized traditional right-wing issues like taxes, crime and government spending.
During the 2006 PC Policy Convention, Tory introduced his plan for shaping up the PCs' platform for the 2007 election campaign. His ideas were stated in what have been called "The White Papers". [7]
The party experienced a drop in popularity, however, after Tory pledged to provide government funding for faith-based schools . The proposal, which proved to be unpopular with voters, [8] contributed largely to the party's loss. The Liberals won a second majority government , and the PCs made negligible gains in the legislature (one more seat, but a 3 per cent drop in the popular vote). Tory, who had left his Dufferin–Peel–Wellington–Grey seat to run in Don Valley West , would lose to Liberal incumbent Kathleen Wynne .
2008 party convention and the leadership review question
As a result of the election loss, the party decided to hold a leadership review vote at its 2008 General Party Meeting in London. [9] The Ontario PC Party's constitution requires that the party hold a leadership review vote at the first party convention after an election defeat. [9]
From the election day until the 2008 General Meeting, party members were divided into two "camps": those who supported John Tory's position as party leader and those who opposed his leadership. Several campaigns to oust John Tory as leader of the party, most notably by a party activist group led by former party president Rueben Devlin called Grassroots PC. [10] [11] John Tory had the public support of the PC legislative caucus, and most notably, support from former premiers and predecessors Ernie Eves and Bill Davis . [12]
The lead-up to the review vote was marked by high emotions on both sides of the debate and allegations of rule breaking. Such allegations were risen when caucus members sent letters on party letterhead seeking support for Tory. The letters signed by Tory MPPs Bob Runciman and Toby Barrett were a clear violation of the rules of the party, as the party in general is supposed to be neutral on the leadership review question. [13] Tory responded by stating that he and his supporters will reimburse the party for the letters that the caucus members had sent in support of Tory's position as leaders. As a result, the party's president, Blair McCreadie, had stated that the matter is closed. [13] A supporter of Tory's, PC Youth President Andrew Brander, launched a series of last-minute challenges of delegates on the grounds that they are representing ridings where they neither live nor work. [14]
Tory received 66.9% support, lower than internal tracking which showed him more comfortably in the 70 per cent range - appeared to come as a shock to Tory. [12] [15] The percentage of support received by Tory was nearly identical to Joe Clark's 1983 support when he was federal PC leader, which resulted in Clark resigning as leader, and is often seen as the benchmark for Canadian party leaders to get to stay on as leader. [16]
Three hours after the leadership review vote, John Tory announced to the delegates at the Ontario PC's general meeting that he would stay on as leader of the Party. [17] Tory came under heavy criticism from several party members following this delay, with his opponents signalling that they would continue to call for an end to what they called his 'weak' leadership. [18] Other party members, such as former Mike Harris's chief of staff Guy Giorno and interim leader of the opposition Bob Runciman, supported John Tory, saying that his opponents should accept the results and move on. [17] [18]
Opposition under Tim Hudak (2009 to 2014)
Ontario PC logo 2010–2016
Tim Hudak , Leader 2009–2014
John Tory announced his pending resignation as leader on March 6, 2009; the day following his defeat in a by-election for Haliburton—Kawartha Lakes—Brock . On June 27, 2009, party members elected Tim Hudak as the party's new leader. Christine Elliott , Frank Klees , and Randy Hillier were the unsuccessful candidates.
Hudak led the PCs through two elections. In the 2011 provincial election , the McGuinty Liberal government was reduced to a minority . Hudak's Tories were widely expected to win the 2014 provincial election but the Liberals, now led by Kathleen Wynne , were returned with a majority government largely due to Hudak's campaign pledge to cut 100,000 public service jobs by attrition rather than by layoffs. Hudak resigned in the aftermath. On July 2, 2014, Jim Wilson was chosen by the Progressive Conservative caucus to be its interim leader until the 2015 leadership election . [19]
Opposition under Patrick Brown (2015 to 2018)
On May 9, 2015, the membership elected Patrick Brown , a federal Conservative MP from Barrie, as the leader of the party. Christine Elliott was the unsuccessful candidate with Vic Fedeli , Lisa MacLeod , and Monte McNaughton withdrawing prior to the vote.
Since he did not hold a seat in the Legislature, the party requested that MPP Garfield Dunlop resign his seat in Simcoe North so that Brown could run. Brown was elected as MPP for Simcoe North in a by-election held September 3, 2015. [20]
Party logo (2016–2018)
At the party's 2016 Annual General Meeting (the first since the leadership election) Brown announced that the PCs would take on a more inclusive and compassionate tone, shifting to the political centre by reach out to groups that do not typically support the party including trade unions , and pursue "sensible" carbon pricing . [21] He also unveiled a new logo to represent the commitment to "inclusion, renewal, openness and change". [22] Brown stated his intention to change the party by moving away from past campaigns where one particular issue often cost them support, such as Tim Hudak 's proposed public sector job cuts in the 2014 election or John Tory 's proposal to extend public funding to all faith-based schools in 2007 . [21]
At the PC's weekend policy convention on November 25, 2017, their "People's Guarantee" platform was released. Brown's platform was described as centrist on many issues, and included proposals such as opting-in to the federal carbon tax "backstop" (while criticizing the Liberal's cap-and-trade system) and providing child care subsidies. Brown's platform also included more traditional PC platform items relating to cutting taxes and user fees, such as a 12 percent reduction in hydro bills, cutting "middle-class taxes by 22 per cent", and a commitment to balancing the provincial budget. [23] Brown also attempted to distance himself from socially conservative policies, declaring himself pro-choice, and refusing to discuss abortion and gay marriage issues at the policy convention, stating that he believed the "vast majority" of the party was on board with socially progressive policies. [24]
Led by the Campaign Life Coalition , [25] a socially conservative anti-abortion organization that had supported Brown's leadership bid and disapproved of his move to the centre [26] [27] a breakaway party called "Ontario Alliance" was formed to represent disaffected social conservatives. [28] Similarly, the Trillium Party of Ontario aimed to represent conservative libertarians who have been left out. [29] [30] In particular, Brown expelled Carleton—Mississippi Mills MPP and former Ontario Land Association president Jack MacLaren out of the party after he made negative disparaging comments about Francophone language rights. MacLaren subsequently crossed the floor to become the Trillium Party's first member in the Ontario Legislature. [31] As well, some conservatives in Northern Ontario who have felt unrepresented by the Tories and alienated by the party leadership have joined the Northern Ontario Party. [32]
On January 24, 2018, Brown was accused by two women of engaging in sexual misconduct. Brown denied the allegations and initially refused to step down. After pressure from within the party caucus, including calls for his resignation by deputy PC leaders Sylvia Jones and Steve Clark , [33] he resigned as leader in the early hours of January 25, with some aspects of the allegations later proving to be false or unconfirmed. [34] [35] [36] [37] [38]
Transition under Vic Fedeli (January to March 2018)
With Brown's resignation occurring less than five months before the next provincial election , the party executive met on January 25, 2018, to determine whether to have the next Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario leadership election before the provincial election, and if so how it will proceed, or whether to have the interim leader lead the party into the election. [39] Vic Fedeli , Nipissing MPP and former mayor of North Bay , was chosen as interim leader by caucus on January 26, 2018. [40] The Party held a leadership convention on March 10, 2018 .
Fedeli's first major task as interim leader was to investigate the allegations of questionable spending on lawsuits and unsubstantiated favours to allies during Brown's tenure. [41] Party president Rick Dykstra resigned on January 28, 2018. [42] He indicated that it was time for "someone else to lead us through the hard work". Shortly afterwards, Maclean's magazine revealed allegations of sexual assault against Dykstra, stemming from a 2014 incident when Dykstra was a federal MP. [43] [44] Several other key party and campaign staffers were dismissed or their positions eliminated due to a "reorganization" in the days after Brown's resignation. [45]
Government under Doug Ford (March 2018 to present)
On March 10, 2018, former Toronto city councillor Doug Ford , the brother of the late former mayor of Toronto Rob Ford and son of the late former MPP Doug Ford Sr. , was elected as leader of the PC Party, narrowly defeating runner-up Christine Elliott on the third ballot with 50.6% of allocated points, although Elliot had more votes. Due to not having a seat in the legislature, Ford chose to have Vic Fedeli remain as leader of the opposition prior to the 2018 election.
On June 7, 2018, Ford led the PCs to a majority government. The Tories won 76 of 124 seats and 40.5% of the vote.
In the 2022 Ontario general election , Ford led the PCs to another victory winning with an increased majority. [46]
Ideology and principles
Economic regulation
Supporting sex-education, but allowing parents to opt-out of it [52] [59]
Hiring teachers based on merit and qualifications, rather than seniority [52] [61]
Allowing privately run healthcare clinics to provide publicly funded healthcare procedures [66] [54] [67]
Government spending
Opposing the implementation of a universal basic income and "no strings attached" welfare payments [69] [53]
De-politicizing the approval process for housing construction [72]
Support the use of hydro electricity and nuclear electricity [52] [61] [73]
Party leaders
Photo
Leader
4
Premier of Ontario 1905–1914, Leader of the Opposition 1896–1905
6
Premier of Ontario 1923–1930, Leader of the Opposition 1919–1923
8
Premier of Ontario 1930–1934, Leader of the Opposition 1934–1938.
9
1936–1938
Concurrently served as a federal Conservative MP. Henry continued as Leader of the Opposition as Rowe did not have a seat in the legislature. Remained a federal MP until 1963. Served as Lieutenant Governor of Ontario 1963–1968.
10
Premier of Ontario 1943–1948. Leader of the Opposition 1939–1943. Resigned as Premier to become leader of the federal Progressive Conservative Party and federal Leader of the Opposition (1948–1956). Served as High Commissioner to the United Kingdom (1957–1964)
11
Premier of Ontario. Also Minister of Agriculture (1930–1934, 1943–1953)
12
13
14
15
18
19
Premier of Ontario 2002–2003, Leader of the Opposition 2003–2004
20
Leader of the Opposition 2005–2007, later Mayor of Toronto (2014–2023)
21
22
Leader of the Opposition. Later Mayor of Brampton, Ontario (2018–present)
25
Party presidents
1943–1960
Lawyer by profession, McKenzie was the long-time president of the Ontario Progressive Conservative Association and chairman of the party's organizational committee, and full-time party organizer (1942-1960), until his death, and was considered the architect of the party's rise to power and its 6 general election and 20 by-election victories during his tenure. [85] [86]
2
1960–1968
Lawyer based in Exeter, Ontario. Later appointed chairman of the Ontario Police Commission [87] Bell succeeded McKenzie as party president while Hugh Latimer was appointed to the position of chairman, which had responsibilities of being a full-time party organizer, and was replaced in that role by former MPP Ernie Jackson when John Robarts became party leader. [86]
3
MPP 1963–1967, lawyer, executive director of the NHLPA 1967-1991 [86] [88]
4
1986-1989
Executive assistant in the PMO 1984–1986, election co-chair and party advisor. Ran for Canadian Alliance leadership in 2000.
7
Ontario MPP and provincial cabinet minister 1995–2003; federal MP (2006–2019) and cabinet minister 2006-2015
9
10
11
12
14
15
federal MP 2006–2015, resigned following allegations of sexual misconduct.
16
17
18
^ Won most seats in 1985 election, but lost power after Liberals signed a pact with the NDP to form the government.
^ Canada needs another Leslie Frost, not another Caroline Mulroney; Michael Spratt, Canadian Lawyer, June 24, 2019
^ Leslie Miscampbell Frost - Premier of Ontario, 1949-61; Ontario Heritage Trust
"Ontario PC" . ontariopc.com. Archived from the original on 2007-09-05. Retrieved 2007-09-13.
"Ontario PC" . ontariopc.com. Archived from the original on 2007-10-08. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
"Controversy dogs Ontario PC leadership review" . The Globe and Mail. February 23, 2008. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. Retrieved December 1, 2015.
"Ontario's Tory hopes party will forgive and forget" . The Globe and Mail. February 22, 2008. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. Retrieved December 1, 2015.
"Tory to remain as PC leader" . thestar.com. 24 February 2008. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
Ferguson, Rob (March 5, 2016). "Ontario's PC Party unveils a new logo" . Toronto Star. Archived from the original on March 8, 2016. Retrieved March 7, 2016.
Nov 27, Tasha Kheiriddin Published on; 2017 4:44pm (2017-11-27). "Patrick Brown plays it safe" . iPolitics. Archived from the original on 2020-08-13. Retrieved 2020-05-14.
Rizza, Alanna (January 28, 2018). "Ontario PC party president Rick Dykstra resigns" . Toronto Star. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved January 28, 2018.
The Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario (PC), who are also referred to as the Tories, are a centre-right party
"Ontario PC Party" . Northumberland News. Northumberland News. Archived from the original on September 24, 2021. Retrieved May 27, 2020.
The Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, often shortened to Ontario PC Party or simply PC, is a centre-right political party in
Simpson, Jeffrey (June 8, 2018). "How Ontario became Ford Nation" . The Globe and Mail. The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved May 28, 2020.
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The results of the February 27, 2025 election are unofficial until they are certified by the Chief Electoral Officer. For election results, visit Elections Ontario (external link) .
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79 | don't let perfect be the enemy of good enough | https://effectiviology.com/good-enough-is-good-enough-letting-go-of-perfectionism-to-get-things-done/ | Good Enough is Good Enough: Let Go of Perfectionism to Get Things Done
The principle of good enough suggests that you should identify the point past which putting more resources into something won’t improve it in a meaningful manner, so you should finish with it and move on.
Essentially, this means that you should embrace the idea that good enough is good enough, instead of wasting valuable resources—such as time, money, and effort—by pouring them into a place where they won’t make a meaningful difference.
For example, if you’re revising a paper that you wrote, there will be a point where it’s already good enough that going over it again won’t make a meaningful difference in its quality, so you’ll simply be wasting your time by doing so, time which you can instead spend on more valuable activities.
The principle of good enough can be useful in a variety of situations, particularly when it comes to boosting your personal productivity, so it’s worthwhile to understand it. As such, in the following article you will learn more about this principle, and see how you can implement it as effectively as possible.
Examples of ‘good enough’
Some examples of situations where the concept of good enough can guide people’s work are the following:
For someone looking to start exercising, figuring out an initial exercise plan that’s good enough for their purposes, at least initially, can help make sure that they’ll actually start exercising, rather than procrastinate by trying to develop the perfect workout program from the beginning.
For someone writing a book, figuring out when the work is good enough that they can start asking for feedback from others can help them avoid a situation where they keep revising it endlessly without ever putting the work out there.
For someone writing new software, figuring out when it’s good enough to move forward during the initial stages can help them make good progress, instead of wasting a lot of time and effort doing premature optimization of code that is likely to be significantly changed later.
For someone looking to test a new product, making sure that the product is good enough, rather than perfect, can help avoid investing a lot of time and money into a product that ends up not having a good market fit. (Note: such a product is often referred to as a an MVP—minimum viable product).
However, note that in all of these cases, it’s important to make sure that the level defined as ‘good enough’ is actually good enough for your purposes.
For example, if your exercise plan isn’t actually as good as it needs to be, it might be so ineffective that you end quitting from demotivation, or it might be so dangerous that you end up injured.
Similarly, if you send a book out for feedback before you’ve actually revised it to a level where it’s good enough, people might not be willing to finish it, or won’t be able to give you helpful advice. Likewise, if you launch a product that’s not actually good enough, it might fail because of this, and therefore cause you to lose resources and miss out on a good opportunity, simply because it was missing some crucial features that you should have included.
Overall, these examples highlight the value of the good enough principle, while at the same time demonstrating the importance of making sure that when you implement it, you should do so with proper care, by making sure that the level that you designate as ‘good enough’ is actually good enough.
Implementing the principle of ‘good enough’
Implementing the principle of good enough does not mean that you should necessarily strive to do low-quality work. Rather, it means that you should clearly identify what good enough means in your particular circumstances, based on the outcomes of your work and what you’re hoping to achieve. This will vary in different scenarios, and in some cases your standard for good enough might end up being quite high.
For example, when preparing an academic paper for publication, the end result will generally have to be of high quality in order for it to get accepted in a prestigious journal. Since your first draft usually won’t be good enough for this, you will likely have to revise the paper several times in order to get it to the necessary level.
This is where the concept of good enough comes into play. While revising the paper is certainly necessary, eventually you’re going to hit the point of diminishing returns, where going over the paper no longer leads to any significant improvements in quality. This might occur on your 3rd, 5th, or even 10th draft, but in the end, you will reach a point where additional revisions result in only minor, inconsequential changes, that do not substantially increase the quality of the paper.
In this situation, the key to using the principle of good enough is to identify at what point you will no longer benefit from additional work on the paper, and to then submit it to your target journal once you get to that point.
If you know that you generally struggle with letting go once you reach the ‘good enough’ point, you can decide to set hard deadlines in advance, before you start your work, based on your prior experience. For example, in the case of writing a research paper, as described above, this can include things such as:
Deciding how much time you’re willing to dedicate to writing the paper, in terms of total hours.
Deciding on a date by which you have to submit the paper.
Deciding how many drafts you’ll go over before you settle on a final version.
Deciding that after the second draft is done, you’ll send it to a colleague for external feedback, and then reassess the situation based on that feedback.
Most importantly, you should remember that there is always a cost to doing extra work, whether it’s in terms of time, money, effort, or some other resource. When this cost isn’t worth it, that’s the point where you should stop working, and move on to the next thing that you need to do.
Overall, the key to implementing the principle of good enough is to identify what your good enough point is, and then stop once you get there. The standard for what good enough means for you can be as low or as high as necessary; the important thing is to set this standard using a proper reasoning process.
Note: one thing that can help you implement this principle in practice is reminding yourself, where appropriate, that ‘done’ can be far better than ‘perfect’.
The 80/20 rule and your ‘good enough’ point
The 80/20 rule can be a helpful concept to keep in mind when it comes to determining what good enough means for you in any particular situation. Specifically, this rule states that roughly 20% of the work that you do will be responsible for 80% of the outcomes, which means that the more work you put into something past a certain point, the lower the return you will get on your investment of time and effort.
When implementing the good enough principle, you can take this rule into account, and decide at what point your efficiency, in terms of cost/benefit ratio, becomes low enough that additional work doesn’t lead to enough benefits in order to be worth it. This doesn’t have to be exactly based on an 80/20 distribution; for example, in your case it might be that 30% of the work will give you 90% of the benefits, and so you choose to set your good enough point there.
Note that this is a slightly different approach than looking only at the outcome that you hope to achieve when determining what your good enough point is, since this also actively takes into account the resources that you have to utilize.
This can be advantageous, since it can help you assess the situation from a new perspective when determining what your good enough point is. At the same time, however, it’s important to not allow such considerations to lower your good enough point to an unacceptable level, simply because this highlights the work that you will have to do in order to get there.
To avoid this pitfall, make sure to always ask yourself whether your good enough point is actually good enough given what you hope to achieve, and avoid allowing almost good enough to become good enough for you.
The ‘good enough’ principle and Parkinson’s law
Parkinson’s law is the adage that “work expands so as to fill the time which is available for its completion”, which signifies that the more time we dedicate in advance to a certain task, the longer it will take to complete it, even if it could have been completed in a shorter period of time.
Implementing the principle of good enough can help you avoid this issue in some cases. Specifically, by deciding on a clear good enough point from the start, you can decide how much time you truly need to dedicate to a task, which will help you set realistic time constraints for yourself from the start. Furthermore, by identifying a clear good enough point, and stopping as soon as you get to it, you will be able to save time when you end up finishing a project early, even if you didn’t plan to do so originally.
Dealing with perfectionism
— Voltaire
Perfectionism is a personality trait that is characterized primarily by striving for flawlessness.
This trait can manifest in a relatively positive way , when it pushes people to set high standards and work hard. However, it can also manifest in a relatively negative way , when it causes people to pursue unattainable goals or to waste time focusing on unimportant details, while often also being overly critical. This negative form of perfectionism is both inherently problematic, and furthermore is also associated with various mental health issues, such as stress, anxiety, and depression.
In addition, in many cases, a general problem with perfectionism is that it can serve as an excuse that we give ourselves in order to procrastinate and delay the moment when we have to take action and risk failure. For example, if we’re afraid to make our work public because we worry that it will be accepted badly, we might keep developing our work indefinitely, under the false guise of trying to perfect it.
Note: there are some criticisms of the concept of positive perfectionism, such as that “attempts to define and conceptualize positive perfectionism may have blurred the distinction between perfectionism and conscientiousness”. However, this distinction isn’t important from a practical perspective, particularly when it comes to implementing the principle of good enough, which focuses on avoiding the issues with negative perfectionism.
Letting go of perfectionism and accepting ‘good enough’
When it comes to implementing the principle of good enough, perfectionism can be both a reason why you would want to implement this principle, as well as an obstacle that you have to overcome in order to do so successfully.
Essentially, if you’re prone to perfectionism, implementing the principle of good enough can help you avoid many of the common pitfalls associated with this trait, such as the tendency to wait too long before making your work public. At the same time, however, being a perfectionist can also make it harder for you to implement this principle, because it contradicts your desire to make sure that things are as perfect as possible.
When it comes to successfully implementing this principle despite your perfectionism, there are various techniques you can use, such as:
Clearly identifying what your goals should be in practice, and showing yourself that your work doesn’t have to be perfect for you to achieve them.
Asking yourself what you’re afraid of with regard to finishing your work at the ‘good enough’ point, and then thinking through your fears to see if they’re unfounded.
Considering how you could spend your resources, such as time and effort, if you would stop wasting them on projects that passed the ‘good enough’ point.
Note: a related concept when it comes to decision-making is the concept of satisficing, which involves trying to make decisions that are good enough given the circumstances; this is is contrasted with maximizing, which involves trying to make the best possible decision in every situation, no matter the cost.
Summary and conclusions
The principle of good enough suggests that you should identify the point past which putting more resources into something won’t improve it in a meaningful manner, so you should finish with it and move on.
For example, if you’re revising a paper that you wrote, there will be a point where it’s already good enough that going over it again won’t make a meaningful difference in its quality, so you’ll simply be wasting your time by doing so, time which you can instead spend on more valuable activities.
Implementing the principle of good enough does not mean that you should necessarily strive to do low-quality work; rather, it means that you should clearly identify what good enough means in your particular circumstances, based on the outcomes of your work and what you’re hoping to achieve,
If you know that you generally struggle with letting go once you reach the ‘good enough’ point, you can decide to set hard deadlines in advance, before you start working.
Other techniques that can help you implement this principle, particularly if you’re a perfectionist, include clearly identifying what your goals should be in practice and asking yourself what you’re afraid of with regard to finishing your work at the ‘good enough’ point.
Other articles you may find interesting:
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79 | don't let perfect be the enemy of good enough | https://hbr.org/2019/04/how-to-manage-your-perfectionism | by Rebecca Knight
April 29, 2019
John Kuczala/Getty Images
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Perfectionism is a double-edged sword . On one hand, it can motivate you to perform at a high level and deliver top-quality work. On the other hand, it can cause you unnecessary anxiety and slow you down. How can you harness the positives of your perfectionism while mitigating the negatives? What measures or practices can you use to keep your perfectionism in check? Should you enlist the help of others?
RK
Rebecca Knight is a journalist who writes about all things related to the changing nature of careers and the workplace. Her essays and reported stories have been featured in The Boston Globe, Business Insider, The New York Times, BBC, and The Christian Science Monitor. She was shortlisted as a Reuters Institute Fellow at Oxford University in 2023. Earlier in her career, she spent a decade as an editor and reporter at the Financial Times in New York, London, and Boston.
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79 | don't let perfect be the enemy of good enough | https://www.safetynotes.net/embracing-the-good-enough-mindset-a-vital-tool-for-hse-toolbox-talks/ | Home » Embracing the Good Enough Mindset: A Vital Tool for HSE Toolbox Talks
Embracing the Good Enough Mindset: A Vital Tool for HSE Toolbox Talks
Today, we are going to discuss a crucial concept that plays a significant role in maintaining a safe working environment – the Good Enough Mindset. Embracing this mindset is essential for ensuring the health, safety, and environmental protection of ourselves and our colleagues. Let’s dive into why the Good Enough Mindset is a vital tool for our HSE Toolbox Talks.
Table of Contents
The Importance of Good Enough Mindset in HSE
The Good Enough Mindset is not about cutting corners or compromising quality. Instead, it focuses on finding the optimal balance between perfection and efficiency. In the realm of Health, Safety, and Environment (HSE), this mindset is particularly relevant as it encourages us to prioritize safety without getting bogged down by unrealistic expectations.
By adopting the Good Enough Mindset, we acknowledge that perfection is not always attainable, especially in high-risk environments. Instead, we aim to achieve a level of quality that is sufficient to ensure safety and compliance with regulations. This approach allows us to make informed decisions quickly and effectively, reducing the likelihood of accidents and injuries.
Key Aspects of Good Enough Mindset
When it comes to HSE, the Good Enough Mindset encompasses several key aspects:
Setting realistic goals and expectations
Prioritizing safety over perfection
Continuous improvement through feedback and learning
By understanding and implementing these aspects, we can create a culture of safety that permeates all aspects of our work.
Benefits of Embracing Good Enough Mindset
Embracing the Good Enough Mindset offers several benefits in the context of HSE:
Increased efficiency in decision-making
Improved adaptability to changing circumstances
Enhanced focus on practical solutions rather than theoretical ideals
By focusing on what is necessary and achievable, we can better protect ourselves and our colleagues from potential hazards in the workplace.
Practical Application of Good Enough Mindset
Now, let’s explore how we can apply the Good Enough Mindset in our daily operations:
Assess risks and prioritize safety measures accordingly
Communicate openly and honestly about potential hazards
Seek feedback and input from colleagues to improve safety protocols
Continuously review and update procedures based on lessons learned
By incorporating these practices into our work routines, we can create a safer and more productive environment for everyone.
Real-Life Examples
Let’s consider a hypothetical scenario where the Good Enough Mindset can make a difference:
Imagine a situation where a team is under pressure to meet a tight deadline. Instead of rushing through safety protocols to save time, they take a moment to reassess their approach and prioritize safety over speed. By embracing the Good Enough Mindset, they prevent a potential accident and ensure that everyone returns home safely at the end of the day.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Good Enough Mindset is a vital tool for our HSE Toolbox Talks. By understanding its principles and applying them in our daily operations, we can create a safer and more efficient work environment for all. Remember, it’s not about being perfect – it’s about being safe. Thank you for your attention, and let’s continue to prioritize safety in everything we do.
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79 | don't let perfect be the enemy of good enough | https://www.anxietycanada.com/articles/how-to-overcome-perfectionism/ | We are a passionate team devoted to providing accessible, science-based anxiety relief to help you live the life you want. Find out who we are and meet our team!
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What is perfectionism and how do I overcome it?
Most people would consider having high standards a good thing. Striving for excellence can show that you have a good work ethic and strength of character. High standards can also push you to reach your peak level of performance. For example, athletes often train long and hard to reach excellence in their sports.
Perfectionism, on the other hand, involves a tendency to set standards that are so high they either cannot be met or are only met with great difficulty. Perfectionists tend to believe that anything short of perfection is horrible, and that even minor imperfections will lead to catastrophe. For example, most people believe it is important to try to do one’s best and not make mistakes but also believe that making mistakes from time to time is inevitable and does not mean they have failed something entirely. However, adults with perfectionism tend to believe that they should never make mistakes and that making a mistake means they are a failure or a horrible person for disappointing others.
Thinking like this makes it very scary for them to make mistakes. Trying to be perfect is also likely to make them feel stressed and maybe even disappointed with themselves much of time because they are not able to meet their own standards easily or at all. Over time, they may even start to believe that they are not as capable as others.
Therefore, it is worthwhile considering loosening those standards a bit to ease the stress and anxiety from trying so hard to be perfect.
Here are the Steps to Help You Overcome Perfectionism
Step 1: Learning to recognize perfectionism
This is an important first step, as it helps you to figure out whether you have a problem with perfectionism. Remember, there is nothing wrong with having high standards, but when these standards are too high, they can really get in the way of your work/school, relationships and enjoyment of life.
If you have trouble figuring out whether you have a problem with perfectionism, you might find answering the following questions helpful:
Do I have trouble meeting my own standards?
Do I often feel frustrated, depressed, anxious, or angry while trying to meet my standards?
Have I been told that my standards are too high?
Do my standards get in my own way? For example, do they make it difficult for me to meet deadlines, finish a task, trust others, or do anything spontaneously?
If you answered “Yes” to any of these questions you may have a problem with perfectionism.
Perfectionism affects how one thinks, behaves, and feels. If you have difficulties with perfectionism, the following examples may be familiar to you:
Examples of perfectionistic feelings:
Perfectionism can make you feel depressed, frustrated, anxious, and even angry, especially if you constantly criticize yourself for not doing a good enough job after spending a lot of time and effort on a task
Examples of perfectionistic thinking:
Black-and-white thinking (e.g. “Anything less than perfection is a failure”, “If I need help from others, then I am weak”)
Catastrophic thinking (e.g. “If I make a mistake in front of my coworkers, I won’t be able to survive the humiliation”; “I can’t handle having someone being upset with me.”)
Probability overestimation (e.g. “Although I spent all night preparing for a presentation, I know I won’t do well” ; “My boss will think I am lazy if I take a couple of sick days.”)
Should statements (e.g. “I should never make mistakes” ; “I should never come across as nervous or anxious” ; “I should always be able to predict problems before they occur.”)
Examples of perfectionistic behaviour:
Chronic procrastination, difficulty completing tasks, or giving up easily
Overly cautious and thorough in tasks (e.g. spending 3 hours on 1 task that takes others 20 minutes to complete)Exce
ssive checking (e.g. spending 30 minutes looking over a brief email to your boss for possible spelling mistakes)
Constantly trying to improve things by re-doing them (e.g. rewriting a work document several times to make it “perfect”)
Agonizing over small details (e.g. what movie to rent)
Making elaborate “to do” lists (e.g. when to get up, brush teeth, shower, etc.)
Avoiding trying new things and risking making mistakes
TIP: You might want to write down the realistic statements on cue cards and carry them with you. This can help you when you have a hard time thinking realistically.
Step 2: Tools to overcome perfectionism
Tool #1: Changing perfectionistic thinking
a) Realistic thinking
Because adults with perfectionism are often very critical of themselves, one of the most effective ways to overcome perfectionism is to replace self-critical or perfectionistic thoughts with more realistic and helpful statements.
It is a good idea to practise these helpful statements regularly. Even if you do not believe them right away, enough repetition will turn positive realistic thoughts into a habit, and help crowd out the negative self-talk.
Some examples of positive realistic statements
“Nobody is perfect!”
“All I can do is my best!”
“Making a mistake does not mean I’m stupid or a failure. It only means that I am like everyone else – human. Everyone makes mistakes!”
“It’s okay not to be pleasant all the time. Everyone has a bad day sometime.”
“It’s okay if some people don’t like me. No one is liked by everyone!”
b) Perspective taking
Adults with perfectionism also tend to have a hard time seeing things from another person’s point of view. That is, they tend not to think about how others might see a situation. For example, you may believe that you are lazy because you are only able to exercise 1 hour instead of 2 hours every day. Learning to view situations as other people might see them can help you to change some of these unhelpful beliefs.
Going back to the “I’m lazy” example, you can challenge this thought by asking yourself the following questions:
How might someone else (e.g. a close friend) view this situation? Most people probably would not think they are lazy if they do not exercise 2 hours everyday. Kelly, my best friend, only has time to work out for 1 hour, 2 to 3 times a week, and feels pretty good about it.
Are there other ways to look at this? Maybe not being able to work out 2 hours every day is understandable given my busy schedule. Not being able to meet this standard does not mean I am lazy. Most people cannot do it.
What might I tell a close friend who was having similar thoughts? It is okay to only workout for 1 hour a day or less. Working out regularly, say 2 to 3 times a week, is good.
c) Looking at the big picture
Adults with perfectionism tend to get bogged down in details and spend a lot of time worrying about ”the little things” (e.g. what font to use in an email). One helpful strategy to worry less about details is to ask yourself the following questions:
Does it really matter?
If the worst does happen, can I survive it?
Will this still matter tomorrow? How about next week? Next year?
d) Compromising
This is a particularly helpful tool for dealing with black-and-white thinking. Compromising involves setting more realistic standards or being more flexible with your very high standards.
For example, if you believe that making a mistake during a presentation means that you are stupid, try asking yourself, “What level of imperfection am I willing to tolerate?” From there, you can try to come up with more reasonable standards that you are willing to accept. Because it is quite anxiety provoking when you first start trying to re-set/lower your standards, you can do so gradually, in steps. For example, the first step to more reasonable standards in this example might involve spending 3 hours instead of 5 preparing for a presentation, allowing yourself to make a mistake during 1 out of 5 presentations, or being okay with having fewer than 5 people praise your performance. Once you are comfortable with lowering your standards a bit, lower them some more. For example the next step might involve spending 1 hour preparing for the presentation, allowing yourself to make a mistake during 1 out 2 presentations, or being okay with not knowing what others think of your performance.
Tool #2: Changing perfectionistic behaviours
Having a problem with perfectionism is a lot like having a “phobia” of making mistakes or being imperfect – you are terrified of making mistakes. Facing fears in a gradual and consistent manner is the most effective way to overcome phobias, and is called “exposure”. For example, the best way to overcome a dog phobia is to gradually spend time with dogs, to learn that they are not as scary and dangerous as you initially thought.
Similarly, overcoming your “phobia” of making mistakes or being imperfect involves doing just that–gradually and purposely making mistakes and coming across as imperfect. This technique also involves gradually putting yourself into situations that you usually avoid out of a fear that things won’t work out perfectly.
Here are some examples to help you brainstorm items for exposure practice:
Show up for an appointment 15 minutes late
Leave a visible area in the house a little messy
Tell people when you are tired (or other feelings that you consider a weakness)
Wear a piece of clothing that has a visible stain on it
Purposely allow several uncomfortable silences to occur during lunch with a co-worker
Purposely be a few cents short for bus fare
Lose your train of thought during a presentation
Send a letter or e-mail that includes a few mistakes
Talk at a meeting without first rehearsing what you are going to say in your head
Try a new restaurant without first researching how good it is
Another helpful hint: Stop yourself from engaging in excessive behaviours designed to prevent imperfection. For example, if you tend to repeatedly check written documents for mistakes, stop yourself from checking more than once. Or, spend 30 minutes instead of 2 hours to prepare for a 15 minute presentation.
Repeated and frequent practice! You will need to practise the technique you choose several times before you start to feel more comfortable with making mistakes. Don’t be discouraged if your anxiety doesn’t lessen right away, this is normal and expected. Keep trying and repeating the exposure as frequently as you can.
More about setting realistic standards:
Are you scared of lowering your standards because you worry that you will let too many of your standards go and you might make mistakes all the time? Here are some helpful tips to address your worry:
Tip 1: Remember, lowering your standards DOES NOT mean having no standards. The goal is to set realistic standards, not to make you become careless in life and perform poorly all the time. Realistic standards can actually help you to do your best without costing you things that may be important to you, such as family life, physical and mental health, and leisure time.Do you feel ambivalent about lowering your standards? If you are not sure whether you should lower certain standards, it is a good idea to make a list of pros and cons for lowering those standards. What are the costs to holding onto your standards? Keeping the costs in mind can help you to take the brave steps towards changing.
Tip 2: It is okay to ask for help. Sometimes, it is difficult to know how to lower an unrealistic standard to a more reasonable level. It is a good idea to ask a supportive person who does not have problems with perfectionism to help you with setting new, realistic standards.
Tool #3: Overcoming procrastination
Many adults with perfectionism often cope with their fear of making mistakes by procrastinating. When you set “perfect” standards for yourself, sometimes it might feel easier to procrastinate carrying out a task rather than spending hours trying to do it. For example, you might find that your house is usually messy even though you have very high standards of cleanliness and organization. Or, you might put off writing a report for work because you are afraid that you won’t be able to complete the task “perfectly”, or you might be overwhelmed by how much work you have to put into it and don’t know where to start. However, procrastination is only a temporary solution, and it tends to make your anxiety worse over time. Here are some ways to help you to overcome procrastination:
Creating realistic schedules. Break down larger tasks into manageable steps. On a chart or calendar, write down the goal or deadline, and work towards it, setting small goals for yourself along the way. Don’t forget to reward yourself for reaching each goal. It is also helpful to decide in advance how much time you will spend on a task. Remember, the goal is to complete the task, not to make it perfect!
Setting priorities. Perfectionists sometimes have trouble deciding on where they should devote their energy and effort. Prioritize your tasks by deciding which are the most important to accomplish, and which are less important. It is O.K. not to give 100% on every task.
Step 3: Reward yourself
Because it is hard work to face your fears and change old ways of doing things, make sure to always take the time to reward yourself for all the work you are doing. It is very motivating to give yourself a treat once in a while. A reward might include going out for a nice meal, taking a walk, going out with friends, or just taking some time to relax or pamper yourself.
Some helpful resources for more information on overcoming perfectionism:
When Perfect Isn’t Good Enough: Strategies for Coping with Perfectionism by M. M. Antony & R. P. Swinson (New Harbinger Publications)
Never Good Enough: How to Use Perfectionism to Your Advantage without Letting It Ruin Your Life by M.R. Basco (Simon & Schuster)
Perfectionism: What’s Bad about Being Too Good? By M. Adderholdt-Elliott, M. Elliott, & J. Goldberg (Monarch Books)
Related Resources by Anxiety Canada
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79 | don't let perfect be the enemy of good enough | https://hbr.org/2016/01/what-having-a-growth-mindset-actually-means | Print
Scholars are deeply gratified when their ideas catch on. And they are even more gratified when their ideas make a difference — improving motivation, innovation, or productivity, for example. But popularity has a price: People sometimes distort ideas and therefore fail to reap their benefits. This has started to happen with my research on “growth” versus “fixed” mindsets among individuals and within organizations.
CD
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