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who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Union forces surrender at Fort Sumter | After a 33-hour bombardment by Confederate cannons, Union forces surrender Fort Sumter in South Carolina’s Charleston Harbor. The first engagement of the war ended in Rebel victory.
The surrender concluded a standoff that began with South Carolina’s secession from the Union on December 20, 1860. When President Abraham Lincoln sent word to Charleston in early April that he planned to send food to the beleaguered garrison, the Confederates took action. They opened fire on Sumter in the predawn of April 12. Over the next day, nearly 4,000 rounds were hurled toward the black silhouette of Fort Sumter.
Inside Sumter was its commander, Major Robert Anderson, nine officers, 68 enlisted men, 8 musicians, and 43 construction workers who were still putting the finishing touches on the fort. Union Captain Abner Doubleday , the man often inaccurately credited with inventing the game of baseball, returned fire nearly two hours after the barrage began. By the morning of April 13, the garrison in Sumter was in dire straits. The soldiers had sustained only minor injuries, but they could not hold out much longer. The fort was badly damaged, and the Confederates' shots were becoming more precise. Around noon, the flagstaff was shot away. Louis Wigfall, a former U.S. senator from Texas, rowed out without permission to see if the garrison was trying to surrender. Anderson decided that further resistance was futile, and he ran a white flag up a makeshift flagpole.
The first engagement of the war was over, and the only casualty had been a Confederate horse. The Union force was allowed to leave for the north; before leaving, the soldiers fired a 100-gun salute. During the salute, one soldier was killed and another mortally wounded by a prematurely exploding cartridge. The Civil War had officially begun.
The Civil War and Its Legacy | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fort-sumter-surrenders | 0 |
who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Telegram Announcing the Surrender of Fort Sumter (1861) | The first engagement of the Civil War took place at Fort Sumter on April 12 and 13, 1861. After 34 hours of fighting, the Union surrendered the fort to the Confederates.
When Abraham Lincoln took office, the nation was breaking apart. South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had already seceded. In his inaugural address on March 4, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln asserted that secession was unconstitutional, that the Union of the states was perpetual, and states could not leave it at will.
As the first states seceded, they seized most forts, arsenals, and federal property inside their borders. On April 10, 1861, Brigadier General Pierre G.T. Beauregard, in command of the provisional Confederate forces at Charleston, South Carolina, demanded the surrender of the U.S. garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Garrison commander Major Robert Anderson refused.
On April 12, the Confederate batteries opened fire on the fort, which was unable to reply effectively. At 2:30 p.m., April 13, Major Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter, evacuating the garrison on the following day. The battle had started at 4:30 a.m. and ended 34 hours later.
Major Anderson notified Secretary of War Simon Cameron of the outcome of the battle by telegram five days after he surrendered to Confederate Brigadier General Pierre G.T. Beauregard, as seen in this document.
The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the opening engagement of the American Civil War. From 1863 to 1865, the Confederates at Fort Sumter withstood a 22-month siege by Union forces. During this time, most of the fort was reduced to brick rubble. | https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/telegram-announcing-the-surrender-of-fort-sumter | 0 |
who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Battle of Fort Sumter - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the 1861 battle that began the American Civil War. For the 1863 battle, see Second Battle of Fort Sumter .
The Battle of Fort Sumter (April 12–13, 1861) was the bombardment of Fort Sumter near Charleston, South Carolina by the South Carolina militia. It ended with the surrender by the United States Army , beginning the American Civil War .
Following the declaration of secession by South Carolina on December 20, 1860, its authorities demanded that the U.S. Army abandon its facilities in Charleston Harbor . On December 26, Major Robert Anderson of the U.S. Army surreptitiously moved his small command from the vulnerable Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island to Fort Sumter, a substantial fortress built on an island controlling the entrance of Charleston Harbor. An attempt by U.S. President James Buchanan to reinforce and resupply Anderson using the unarmed merchant ship Star of the West failed when it was fired upon by shore batteries on January 9, 1861. The ship was hit three times, which caused no major damage but nonetheless kept the supplies from reaching Anderson. South Carolina authorities then seized all Federal property in the Charleston area except for Fort Sumter.
During the early months of 1861, the situation around Fort Sumter increasingly began to resemble a siege. In March, Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard , the first general officer of the newly formed Confederate States Army , was placed in command of Confederate forces in Charleston. Beauregard energetically directed the strengthening of batteries around Charleston harbor aimed at Fort Sumter. Conditions in the fort deteriorated due to shortages of men, food, and supplies as the Union soldiers rushed to complete the installation of additional guns.
The resupply of Fort Sumter became the first crisis of the administration of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln , inaugurated March 4, 1861, following his victory in the election of November 6, 1860 . He notified the Governor of South Carolina , Francis W. Pickens , that he was sending supply ships, which resulted in an ultimatum from the Confederate government for the immediate evacuation of Fort Sumter, which Major Anderson refused. Beginning at 4:30 a.m. on April 12, the Confederates bombarded the fort from artillery batteries surrounding the harbor. Although the Union garrison returned fire, they were significantly outgunned and, after 34 hours, Major Anderson agreed to evacuate. There were no deaths on either side as a direct result of this engagement, although a gun explosion during the surrender ceremonies on April 14 caused the death of two U.S. Army soldiers. The event often regarded as the "First Bloodshed of the Civil War" was the Baltimore riot of 1861 , one week later.
Following the battle, there was widespread support from both North and South for further military action. Lincoln's immediate call for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion resulted in an additional four Southern states also declaring their secession and joining the Confederacy. The battle is usually recognized as the first of the American Civil War.
On December 20, 1860, shortly after Abraham Lincoln 's victory in the presidential election of 1860 , South Carolina adopted an ordinance declaring its secession from the United States of America , and by February 1861 six more Southern states had adopted similar ordinances of secession. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery , Alabama . A February peace conference met in Washington, D.C. , but failed to resolve the crisis. The remaining eight slave states declined pleas to join the Confederacy. [6] [7]
The seceding states seized Federal properties within their boundaries, including buildings, arsenals, and fortifications. President James Buchanan protested but took no action. Buchanan was concerned that an overt action could cause the remaining slave states to leave the Union, and while he thought that there was no constitutional authority for a state to secede, he could find no constitutional authority for him to act to prevent it. [8] [9]
Several forts had been constructed in Charleston's harbor, including Fort Sumter and Fort Moultrie , which were not among the sites seized initially. Fort Moultrie on Sullivan Island was the oldest—it was the site of fortifications since 1776—and was the headquarters of the U.S. Army garrison. However, it had been designed as a gun platform for defending the harbor, and its defenses against land-based attacks were feeble; during the crisis, the Charleston newspapers commented that sand dunes had piled up against the walls in such a way that the wall could easily be scaled. When the garrison began clearing away the dunes, the papers objected. [10] [11] [12]
Major Robert Anderson of the 1st U.S. Artillery regiment had been appointed to command the Charleston garrison that fall because of rising tensions. A native of Kentucky, he was a protégé of Winfield Scott , the general in chief of the Army, and was thought more capable of handling a crisis than the garrison's previous commander, Col. John L. Gardner , who was nearing retirement. Anderson had served an earlier tour of duty at Fort Moultrie and his father had been a defender of the fort (then called Fort Sullivan) during the American Revolutionary War . Throughout the fall, South Carolina authorities considered both secession and the expropriation of federal property in the harbor to be inevitable. As tensions mounted, the environment around the fort increasingly resembled a siege , to the point that the South Carolina authorities placed picket ships to observe the movements of the troops and threatened to attack when forty rifles were transferred to one of the harbor forts from the U.S. arsenal in the city. [2] [13] [14] [12]
In contrast to Moultrie, Fort Sumter dominated the entrance to Charleston Harbor and, though unfinished, was designed to be one of the strongest fortresses in the world. In the fall of 1860 work on the fort was nearly completed, but the fortress was thus far garrisoned by a single soldier, who functioned as a lighthouse keeper, and a small party of civilian construction workers. Under the cover of darkness on December 26, six days after South Carolina declared its secession, Anderson abandoned the indefensible Fort Moultrie, ordering its guns spiked and its gun carriages burned, and surreptitiously relocated his command by small boats to Sumter. [15] [16]
South Carolina authorities considered Anderson's move to be a breach of faith. Governor Francis W. Pickens believed that President Buchanan had made implicit promises to him to keep Sumter unoccupied and suffered political embarrassment as a result of his trust in those promises. Buchanan, a former U.S. Secretary of State and diplomat, had used carefully crafted ambiguous language to Pickens, promising that he would not "immediately" occupy it. [17] From Major Anderson's standpoint, he was merely moving his existing garrison troops from one of the locations under his command to another. He had received instructions from the War Department on December 11, written by Major General Don Carlos Buell , Assistant Adjutant General of the Army, approved by Secretary of War John B. Floyd : [17] [18]
[Y]ou are to hold possession of the forts in this harbor, and if attacked you are to defend yourself to the last extremity. The smallness of your force will not permit you, perhaps, to occupy more than one of the three forts, but an attack on or attempt to take possession of any one of them will be regarded as an act of hostility, and you may then put your command into either of them which you may deem most proper to increase its power of resistance. You are also authorized to take similar steps whenever you have tangible evidence of a design to proceed to a hostile act. [19]
Governor Pickens, therefore, ordered that all remaining Federal positions except Fort Sumter were to be seized. State troops quickly occupied Fort Moultrie (capturing 56 guns), Fort Johnson on James Island , and the battery on Morris Island . On December 27, an assault force of 150 men seized the Union-occupied Castle Pinckney fortification, in the harbor close to downtown Charleston, capturing 24 guns and mortars without bloodshed. On December 30, the Federal arsenal in Charleston was captured, resulting in the acquisition of more than 22,000 weapons by the militia. The Confederates promptly made repairs at Fort Moultrie and dozens of new batteries and defense positions were constructed throughout the Charleston harbor area, including an unusual floating battery , and armed with weapons captured from the arsenal. [N 1]
President Buchanan was surprised and dismayed at Anderson's move to Sumter, unaware of the authorization Anderson had received. Nevertheless, he refused Pickens's demand to evacuate Charleston harbor. Since the garrison's supplies were limited, Buchanan authorized a relief expedition of supplies, small arms, and 200 soldiers. The original intent was to send the Navy sloop-of-war USS Brooklyn , but it was discovered that Confederates had sunk some derelict ships to block the shipping channel into Charleston and there was concern that Brooklyn had too deep a draft to negotiate the obstacles. Instead, it seemed prudent to send an unarmed civilian merchant ship, Star of the West , which might be perceived as less provocative to the Confederates. As Star of the West approached the harbor entrance on January 9, 1861, it was fired upon by a battery on Morris Island, which was staffed by cadets from The Citadel , among them William Stewart Simkins , who were the only trained artillerymen in the service of South Carolina at the time. Batteries from Fort Moultrie joined in and Star of the West was forced to withdraw. Major Anderson prepared his guns at Sumter when he heard the Confederate fire, but the secrecy of the operation had kept him unaware that a relief expedition was in progress and he chose not to start a general engagement. [23] [24] [25] [2]
In a letter delivered January 31, 1861, Governor Pickens demanded of President Buchanan that he surrender Fort Sumter because, "I regard that possession is not consistent with the dignity or safety of the State of South Carolina." [26]
Conditions at the fort were difficult during the winter of 1860–1861. Rations were short and fuel for heat was limited. The garrison scrambled to complete the defenses as best they could. Fort Sumter was designed to mount 135 guns, operated by 650 officers and men, but construction had met with numerous delays for decades and budget cuts had left it only about 90 percent finished in early 1861. Anderson's garrison consisted of just 85 men, primarily made up of two small artillery companies : Company E, 1st U.S. Artillery , commanded by Capt. Abner Doubleday , and Company H, commanded by Capt. Truman Seymour . There were six other officers present: Surgeon Samuel W. Crawford , First Lt. Theodore Talbot of Company H, First Lt. Jefferson C. Davis of the 1st U.S. Artillery, and Second Lt. Norman J. Hall of Company H. Capt. John G. Foster and First Lt. George W. Snyder of the Corps of Engineers were responsible for the construction of the Charleston forts, but they reported to their headquarters in Washington, not directly to Anderson. The remaining personnel were 68 noncommissioned officers and privates, eight musicians, and 43 noncombatant workmen. [2]
By April the Union troops had positioned 60 guns, but they had insufficient men to operate them all. The fort consisted of three levels of enclosed gun positions, or casemates . The second level of casemates was unoccupied. The majority of the guns were on the first level of casemates, on the upper level (the parapet or barbette positions), and on the center parade field. Unfortunately for the defenders, the original mission of the fort—harbor defense—meant that it was designed so that the guns were primarily aimed at the Atlantic, with little capability of protecting from artillery fire from the surrounding land or from infantry conducting an amphibious assault. [27] [28] [29]
In March, Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard took command of South Carolina forces in Charleston; on March 1, President Jefferson Davis had appointed him the first general officer in the armed forces of the new Confederacy, [30] specifically to take command of the siege. Beauregard made repeated demands that the Union force either surrender or withdraw and took steps to ensure that no supplies from the city were available to the defenders, whose food was running low. He also increased drills amongst the South Carolina militia, training them to operate the guns they manned. Major Anderson had been Beauregard's artillery instructor at West Point ; the two had been especially close, and Beauregard had become Anderson's assistant after graduation. Both sides spent March drilling and improving their fortifications to the best of their abilities. [31]
Beauregard, a trained military engineer, built up overwhelming strength to challenge Fort Sumter. Fort Moultrie had three 8-inch Columbiads , two 8-inch howitzers , five 32-pound smoothbores , and four 24-pounders. Outside of Moultrie were five 10-inch mortars , two 32-pounders, two 24-pounders, and a 9-inch Dahlgren smoothbore. The floating battery next to Fort Moultrie had two 42-pounders and two 32-pounders on a raft protected by iron shielding. Fort Johnson on James Island had one 24-pounder and four 10-inch mortars. At Cummings Point on Morris Island , the Confederates had emplaced seven 10-inch mortars, two 42-pounders, an English Blakely rifled cannon, and three 8-inch Columbiads, the latter in the so-called Iron Battery, protected by a wooden shield faced with iron bars. About 6,000 men were available to man the artillery and to assault the fort, if necessary, including the local militia, young boys and older men. [32]
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as president. He was almost immediately confronted with the surprise information that Major Anderson was reporting that only six weeks of rations remained at Fort Sumter. A crisis similar to the one at Fort Sumter had emerged at Pensacola, Florida , where Confederates threatened another U.S. fortification— Fort Pickens . Lincoln and his new cabinet struggled with the decisions of whether to reinforce the forts, and how. They were also concerned about whether to take actions that might start open hostilities and which side would be perceived as the aggressor as a result. Similar discussions and concerns were occurring in the Confederacy. [33] [34]
After the formation of the Confederate States of America in early February, there was some debate among the secessionists whether the capture of the fort was rightly a matter for South Carolina or for the newly declared national government in Montgomery, Alabama . South Carolina Governor Pickens was among the states' rights advocates who thought that all property in Charleston harbor had reverted to South Carolina upon that state's secession as an independent commonwealth. This debate ran alongside another discussion about how aggressively the installations—including Forts Sumter and Pickens—should be obtained. President Davis, like his counterpart in Washington, preferred that his side not be seen as the aggressor. Both sides believed that the first side to use force would lose precious political support in the border states, whose allegiance was undetermined; before Lincoln's inauguration on March 4, five states had voted against secession, including Virginia , and Lincoln openly offered to evacuate Fort Sumter if it would guarantee Virginia's loyalty. When asked about that offer, Abraham Lincoln commented, "A state for a fort is no bad business." [35]
The South sent delegations to Washington, D.C., and offered to pay for the Federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with the Confederate agents because he did not consider the Confederacy a legitimate nation and making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. However, Secretary of State William H. Seward , who wished to give up Sumter for political reasons—as a gesture of good will—engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. [36]
On April 4, as the supply situation on Sumter became critical, President Lincoln ordered a relief expedition, to be commanded by a former naval captain (and future Assistant Secretary of the Navy) Gustavus V. Fox , who had proposed a plan for nighttime landings of smaller vessels than the Star of the West . Fox's orders were to land at Sumter with supplies only, and if he was opposed by the Confederates, to respond with the U.S. Navy vessels following and to then land both supplies and men. This time, Maj. Anderson was informed of the impending expedition, although the arrival date was not revealed to him. On April 6, Lincoln notified Governor Pickens that "an attempt will be made to supply Fort Sumter with provisions only, and that if such attempt be not resisted, no effort to throw in men, arms, or ammunition will be made without further notice, [except] in case of an attack on the fort." [37] [38] [39] [40] [2]
Lincoln's notification had been made to the governor of South Carolina, not the new Confederate government, which Lincoln did not recognize. Pickens consulted with Beauregard, the local Confederate commander. Soon President Davis ordered Beauregard to repeat the demand for Sumter's surrender, and if it did not, to reduce the fort before the relief expedition arrived. The Confederate cabinet, meeting in Montgomery, endorsed Davis's order on April 9. Only Secretary of State Robert Toombs opposed this decision: he reportedly told Jefferson Davis the attack "will lose us every friend at the North. You will only strike a hornet's nest. ... Legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us to death. It is unnecessary. It puts us in the wrong. It is fatal." [41]
Beauregard dispatched aides—Col. James Chesnut , Col. James A. Chisholm, and Capt. Stephen D. Lee —to Fort Sumter on April 11 to issue the ultimatum. Anderson refused, although he reportedly commented, "I shall await the first shot, and if you do not batter us to pieces, we shall be starved out in a few days." The aides returned to Charleston and reported this comment to Beauregard. At 1 a.m. on April 12, the aides brought Anderson a message from Beauregard: "If you will state the time which you will evacuate Fort Sumter, and agree in the meantime that you will not use your guns against us unless ours shall be employed against Fort Sumter, we will abstain from opening fire upon you." After consulting with his senior officers, Maj. Anderson replied that he would evacuate Sumter by noon, April 15, unless he received new orders from his government or additional supplies. Col. Chesnut considered this reply to be too conditional and wrote a reply, which he handed to Anderson at 3:20 a.m.: "Sir: by authority of Brigadier General Beauregard, commanding the Provisional Forces of the Confederate States, we have the honor to notify you that he will open fire of his batteries on Fort Sumter in one hour from this time." Anderson escorted the officers back to their boat, shook hands with each one, and said "If we never meet in this world again, God grant that we may meet in the next." [42] [43] [44] [45]
At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, 1861, Lt. Henry S. Farley, acting upon the command of Capt. George S. James, [46] [47] fired a single 10-inch mortar round from Fort Johnson. (James had offered the first shot to Roger Pryor , a noted Virginia secessionist, who declined, saying, "I could not fire the first gun of the war.") The shell exploded over Fort Sumter as a signal to open the general bombardment from 43 guns and mortars at Fort Moultrie, Fort Johnson, the floating battery, and Cummings Point. Under orders from Beauregard, the guns fired in a counterclockwise sequence around the harbor, with 2 minutes between each shot; Beauregard wanted to conserve ammunition, which he calculated would last for only 48 hours. Edmund Ruffin , another noted Virginia secessionist, had traveled to Charleston to be present at the beginning of the war, and fired one of the first shots at Sumter after the signal round, a 64-pound shell from the Iron Battery at Cummings Point. The shelling of Fort Sumter from the batteries ringing the harbor awakened Charleston's residents (including diarist Mary Chesnut ), who rushed out into the predawn darkness to watch the shells arc over the water and burst inside the fort. [48] [N 2]
Major Anderson held his fire, awaiting daylight. His troops reported for a call at 6 a.m. and then had breakfast. At 7 a.m., Capt. Abner Doubleday fired a shot at the Ironclad Battery at Cummings Point. He missed. Given the available manpower, Anderson could not take advantage of all of his 60 guns. He deliberately avoided using guns that were situated in the fort where casualties were most likely. The fort's best cannons were mounted on the uppermost of its three tiers—the barbette tier—where his troops were most exposed to incoming fire from overhead. The fort had been designed to withstand a naval assault, and naval warships of the time did not mount guns capable of elevating to shoot over the walls of the fort. However, the land-based cannons manned by the Confederates were capable of high-arcing ballistic trajectories and could therefore fire at parts of the fort that would have been out of naval guns' reach. Fort Sumter's garrison could only safely fire the 21 working guns on the lowest level, which themselves, because of the limited elevation allowed by their embrasures , were largely incapable of delivering fire with trajectories high enough to seriously threaten Fort Moultrie. Moreover, although the Federals had moved as many of their supplies to Fort Sumter as they could manage, the fort was quite low on ammunition and was nearly out at the end of the 34-hour bombardment. A more immediate problem was the scarcity of cloth gunpowder cartridges or bags; only 700 were available at the beginning of the battle and workmen sewed frantically to create more, in some cases using socks from Anderson's personal wardrobe. Because of the shortages, Anderson reduced his firing to only six guns: two aimed at Cummings Point, two at Fort Moultrie, and two at the Sullivan's Island batteries. [50] [51]
Ships from Fox's relief expedition began to arrive on April 12. Although Fox himself arrived at 3 a.m. on his steamer Baltic , most of the rest of his fleet was delayed until 6 p.m., and one of the two warships, USS Powhatan , never did arrive. Unbeknownst to Fox, it had been ordered to the relief of Fort Pickens in Florida. As landing craft were sent toward the fort with supplies, the artillery fire deterred them and they pulled back. Fox decided to wait until after dark and for the arrival of his warships. The next day, heavy seas made it difficult to load the small boats with men and supplies and Fox was left with the hope that Anderson and his men could hold out until dark on April 13. [52]
Although Sumter was a masonry fort, there were wooden buildings inside for barracks and officer quarters. The Confederates targeted these with heated shot (cannonballs heated red hot in a furnace), starting fires that could prove more dangerous to the men than explosive artillery shells. At 7 p.m. on April 12, a rain shower extinguished the flames and, at the same time, the Union gunners stopped firing for the night. They slept fitfully, concerned about a potential infantry assault against the fort. During the darkness, the Confederates reduced their fire to four shots each hour. The following morning, the full bombardment resumed and the Confederates continued firing hot shot against the wooden buildings. By noon most of the wooden buildings in the fort and the main gate were on fire. The flames moved toward the main ammunition magazine, where 300 barrels of gunpowder were stored. The Union soldiers frantically tried to move the barrels to safety, but two-thirds were left when Anderson judged it was too dangerous and ordered the magazine doors closed. He ordered the remaining barrels thrown into the sea, but the tide kept floating them back together into groups, some of which were ignited by incoming artillery rounds. He also ordered his crews to redouble their efforts at firing, but the Confederates did the same, firing the hot shots almost exclusively. Many of the Confederate soldiers admired the courage and determination of the Yankees. When the fort had to pause its firing, the Confederates often cheered and applauded after the firing resumed and they shouted epithets at some of the nearby Union ships for failing to come to the fort's aid. [53] [54]
The fort's central flagpole was knocked down at 1 p.m. on April 13, raising doubts among the Confederates about whether the fort was ready to surrender. Col. Louis Wigfall , a former U.S. senator, had been observing the battle and decided that this indicated the fort had had enough punishment. He commandeered a small boat and proceeded from Morris Island, waving a white handkerchief from his sword, dodging incoming rounds from Sullivan's Island. Meeting with Major Anderson, he said, "You have defended your flag nobly, Sir. You have done all that it is possible to do, and General Beauregard wants to stop this fight. On what terms, Major Anderson, will you evacuate this fort?" Anderson was encouraged that Wigfall had said "evacuate," not "surrender." He was low on ammunition, fires were burning out of control, and his men were hungry and exhausted. Satisfied that they had defended their post with honor, enduring over 3,000 Confederate rounds without losing a man, Anderson agreed to a truce at 2:00 p.m. [55] [56]
Fort Sumter raised Wigfall's white handkerchief on its flagpole as Wigfall departed in his small boat back to Morris Island, where he was hailed as a hero. The handkerchief was spotted in Charleston and a delegation of officers representing Beauregard—Stephen D. Lee, Porcher Miles , a former mayor of Charleston, and Roger Pryor—sailed to Sumter, unaware of Wigfall's visit. Anderson was outraged when these officers disavowed Wigfall's authority, telling him that the former senator had not spoken with Beauregard for two days, and he threatened to resume firing. Meanwhile, General Beauregard himself had finally seen the handkerchief and sent a second set of officers, offering essentially the same terms that Wigfall had presented, so the agreement was reinstated. [55] [57] [58]
The Union garrison formally surrendered the fort to Confederate personnel at 2:30 p.m., April 13. No one from either side was killed during the bombardment. During the 100-gun salute to the U.S. flag—Anderson's one condition for withdrawal—a pile of cartridges blew up from a spark, mortally wounding privates Daniel Hough and Edward Galloway , and seriously wounding the other four members of the gun crew; these were the first military fatalities of the war. The salute was stopped at fifty shots. Hough was buried in the Fort Sumter parade ground within two hours after the explosion. Galloway and Private George Fielding were sent to the hospital in Charleston, where Galloway died a few days later; Fielding was released after six weeks. [59] [60] The other wounded men and the remaining Union troops were placed aboard a Confederate steamer, the Isabel , where they spent the night and were transported the next morning to Fox's relief ship Baltic , resting outside the harbor bar. [61]
Steamship Baltic, oft Sandy Hook
Thursday, April 18
Hon. S. Cameron, Sec'y. of War, Washington, D. C.
Sir—Having defended Fort Sumter for thirty-four hours, until the quarters were entirely burned, the main gates destroyed by fire, the gorge wall seriously injured, the magazine surrounded by flames, and its door closed from the effects of the heat, four barrels and three cartridges of powder only being available, and no provision but pork remaining, I accepted terms of evacuation, offered by Gen. Beauregard, being the same offered by him on the 11th inst., prior to the commencement of hostilities, and marched out of the fort Sunday afternoon, the 14th inst., with colors flying and drums beating, bringing away company and private property, and saluting my flag with fifty guns.
ROBERT ANDERSON
Major First Artillery. [62]
Anderson carried the Fort Sumter Flag with him north, where it became a widely known symbol of the battle and rallying point for supporters of the Union. [63] This inspired Frederic Edwin Church to paint Our Banner in the Sky , described as a "symbolic landscape embodying the stars and stripes." A chromolithograph was then created and sold to benefit the families of Union soldiers. [64]
[Top] A photographic view of the Hot shot Furnace at right shoulder angle and a 10-in. columbard cannon pointing to Charleston; [65] [Bottom] Exterior view of Gorge and Sally Port Ft Sumter April 1861 after its surrender
Views of Ft Sumter; [Bottom] View of right angle
Right angle gorge of Ft Sumter—Sally port at right
View of the Gorge and Sally Port
View of western part of Gorge
[Top] View of gorge and Sally port; [Bottom] Left gorge Angle
View of Left gorge angle Sally Port would be at far left
View of Left flank
Panormanic View of Left shoulder Angle at left with a 2nd Hot Shot furnace and Left face at right; Ft Sumter 1861; flying the Confederate Flag
At Left North west castmates [left angle]; at right can be seen the start of the right angle
The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the first military action of the American Civil War. Following the surrender, Northerners rallied behind Lincoln's call for all states to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. [66] Some Northern states filled their quotas quickly. There were so many volunteers in Ohio that within 16 days they could have met the full call for 75,000 men by themselves. [67] Other governors from border states were undiplomatic in their responses. For example, Gov. Claiborne Jackson wrote, "Not one man will the state of Missouri furnish to carry on any such unholy crusade", and Gov. Beriah Magoffin wrote, "Kentucky will furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern states." [68] The governors of other states still in the Union were equally unsupportive. The call for 75,000 troops triggered four additional slave states to declare their secession from the Union and join the Confederacy. [69] The ensuing war lasted four years, effectively ending in April 1865 with the surrender of General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia at New Appomattox Court House . [70]
Charleston Harbor was completely in Confederate hands for almost the entire four-year duration of the war, leaving a hole in the Union naval blockade . Union forces conducted major operations in 1862 and 1863 to capture Charleston, first overland on James Island (the Battle of Secessionville , June 1862), then by naval assault against Fort Sumter (the First Battle of Charleston Harbor , April 1863), then by seizing the Confederate artillery positions on Morris Island (beginning with the Second Battle of Fort Wagner , July 1863, and followed by a siege until September). After pounding Sumter to rubble with artillery fire, a final amphibious operation attempted to occupy it (the Second Battle of Fort Sumter , September 1863), but was repulsed and no further attempts were made. The Confederates evacuated Fort Sumter and Charleston in February 1865 as Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman outflanked the city in the Carolinas Campaign . On April 14, 1865, four years to the day after lowering the Fort Sumter Flag in surrender, Robert Anderson (by then a major general , although ill and in retired status) returned to the ruined fort to raise the flag he had lowered in 1861. [71]
Two of the cannons used at Fort Sumter were later presented to Louisiana State University by General William Tecumseh Sherman , who was president of the university before the war began. [72]
The U.S. Post Office Department released the Fort Sumter Centennial issue as the first in the series of five stamps marking the Civil War Centennial on April 12, 1961, at the Charleston post office. [73] The stamp was designed by Charles R. Chickering . It illustrates a seacoast gun from Fort Sumter aimed by an officer in a typical uniform of the time. The background features palmetto leaves akin to bursting shells. The state tree of South Carolina, the palmettos suggest the geopolitical area opening Civil War hostilities. [74] This stamp was produced by an engraving and printed by the rotary process in panes of fifty stamps each. The Postal Department authorized an initial printing of 120 million stamps. [74] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter#:~:text=The%20Battle%20of%20Fort%20Sumter%20%28April%2012%E2%80%9313%2C%201861%29,United%20States%20Army%2C%20beginning%20the%20American%20Civil%20War. | 0 |
who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Fort Sumter | The attack on Fort Sumter marked the official beginning of the American Civil War—a war that lasted four years, cost the lives of more than 620,000 Americans, and freed 3.9 million enslaved people from bondage.
Confederate victory. With supplies nearly exhausted and his troops outnumbered, Union major Robert Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter to Brig. Gen. P.G.T Beauregard’s Confederate forces. Major Anderson and his men were allowed to strike their colors, fire a 100-gun salute, and board a ship bound for New York, where they were greeted as heroes. Both the North and South immediately called for volunteers to mobilize for war.
By 1861, the country had already experienced decades of short-lived but ultimately failed compromises concerning the expansion of slavery in the United States and its territories. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president of the United States in 1860—a man who declared “I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free”—threatened the culture and economy of southern slave states and served as a catalyst for secession. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the United States, and by February 2, 1861, six more states followed suit. Southern delegates met on February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, AL., and established the Confederate States of America, with Mississippi senator Jefferson Davis elected as its provisional president. Confederate militia forces began seizing United States forts and property throughout the south. With a lame-duck president in office, and a controversial president-elect poised to succeed him, the crisis approached a boiling point and exploded at Fort Sumter. | https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/fort-sumter | 0 |
who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Battle of Fort Sumter | Location, Significance, & Map | Battle of Fort Sumter , (April 12–14, 1861), the opening engagement of the American Civil War , at the entrance to the harbour of Charleston , South Carolina . Although Fort Sumter held no strategic value to the North—it was unfinished and its guns faced the sea rather than Confederate shore batteries—it held enormous value as a symbol of the Union.
The United States Army began building Fort Sumter on an artificial island at the entrance to Charleston Harbor in 1829. The fort was named for Thomas Sumter , a general who had won key victories against the British in the Carolinas during the American Revolution . The fort was still under construction during the last months of Pres. James Buchanan ’s term, when a succession of events occurred that brought the contending regions of the United States to the verge of armed conflict. Soon after the election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860, the state of South Carolina called a convention that passed an ordinance of secession (December 20, 1860), and Gov. Francis Pickens sent commissioners to Washington, D.C. , to claim possession of the forts in Charleston Harbor and all other U.S. property in his state.
American Civil War Events
On December 26, 1860, Maj. Robert Anderson , commanding officer of the Federal garrison at Charleston, secretly transferred his two weak companies from Fort Moultrie—which was located on a peninsula on the east side of the harbour and was untenable against a land attack—to Fort Sumter in the mouth of the harbour. Pickens seized the arsenal and other forts around the harbour and began throwing up batteries against Sumter. Meanwhile, his commissioners in Washington requested the recall of the Federal troops from Charleston. Buchanan refused this request. In a message to Congress on December 3, Buchanan had already denied the right of secession, but he asserted that the Constitution gave him no right to attempt coercion. He hoped for compromise, and a committee of Congress considered various proposals for adjustment. A peace conference, called by Virginia , also met in Washington and suggested amendments to the Constitution that would satisfy Southern grievances. Lincoln and the leaders of the Republican Party refused to accept the adjustments that the Southerners demanded. In the meantime, Buchanan sent an unarmed commercial steamer, Star of the West , with supplies and reinforcements to Sumter, but it turned back when it was fired upon in the harbour on January 9, 1861.
Between January 9 and February 1 six other states ( Mississippi , Florida , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , and Texas ) followed South Carolina’s example. Without attempting negotiation, their governors seized all the forts and arsenals in their respective states except Fort Pickens in the harbour of Pensacola , Florida. Delegates from the seceding states met at Montgomery , Alabama, organized the Confederate States of America , and set up a provisional government with Jefferson Davis as president. Davis’s inauguration took place on February 18. The Confederate government then assumed control of the negotiations about Sumter. Neither Buchanan nor Davis was eager to precipitate a crisis. Buchanan’s fervent desire apparently was to leave the solution of the whole problem to his successor; Davis was chiefly concerned with getting his own administration in working order. He sent Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard , an engineer officer of distinction, to Charleston to complete the defenses of the harbour. The day after Beauregard reached Charleston, Lincoln was inaugurated in Washington, D.C. (March 4).
A difficult problem confronted the new president. Seven slave states had seceded, but eight still remained in the Union. Any attempt at coercion would throw all these states, except Delaware (which practically counted as a Northern state), into the arms of the Confederacy . At this stage neither side wanted war. This was certainly true of the North, where a strong feeling was growing in favour of “letting the erring sisters depart in peace.” The South had assumed a defensive role, that of a newborn country asking only to be left alone. Lincoln’s inaugural speech was really addressed to the slave states still in the Union. To the Confederate states it sounded like a declaration of war, but they sought to avoid the responsibility of striking the first blow.
The South hoped to force Lincoln’s hand over Sumter. Anderson’s position there was daily growing more difficult. He would have gladly evacuated the fort to avert a civil war , but his duty as a soldier compelled him to sit with folded hands while the enemy was completing its preparations. His provisions would be exhausted by mid-April. The Confederate batteries had made such progress that he doubted whether it was still possible to relieve the fort unless possession of the whole harbour were secured, and for that purpose he estimated that 20,000 men would be required. The whole U.S. Army numbered only about 17,000 men, most of whom were scattered in small posts on the Western frontier, whence they could not be hastily withdrawn.
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Only on March 5 did Lincoln learn that Anderson might be starved into surrender. Gen. Winfield Scott , the president’s chief military adviser, urged evacuation on military grounds. However, Lincoln had pledged himself “to hold, occupy and possess the property and places belonging to the Government.” It would be fatal to the prestige of his administration to start by going back on his word, and evacuation might seem a virtual recognition of the Confederacy. Against the advice of a majority of his cabinet, he determined to send a relief expedition, carrying only food supplies, to Sumter. If the Federal flag should be fired upon, that would constitute a casus belli , and the responsibility for beginning the war would rest on the Confederates.
Although he did not inform Anderson, Lincoln gave Pickens precise information regarding his intention. He must have foreseen the actual event. Through war, the Union could be restored, and the North, which was not agreed on policy, could be united. Pickens promptly informed the Montgomery government, and Davis ordered Beauregard to reduce Sumter. Upon Anderson’s refusal to evacuate, the batteries opened fire at 4:30 am on April 12. The next afternoon Anderson agreed to surrender and evacuated the fort at noon on April 14. When the U.S. troops marched out of the fort, they waved the U.S. flag and carried out a gun salute. On the 50th round of the 100-gun salute, an explosion occurred, causing the only death of the engagement. Pvt. Daniel Hough of the 1st U.S. Artillery regiment was the first of as many as 850,000 Americans who would perish before the cessation of hostilities.
The Confederate leaders’ ready acceptance of Lincoln’s challenge may have been due to a fear that without a collision the ardour of the Southern people, many of whom had opposed secession, might abate. Neither Lincoln nor Davis could have foreseen the dimensions the war would assume. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Fort-Sumter | 0 |
who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Telegram Announcing the Surrender of Fort Sumter (1861) | The first engagement of the Civil War took place at Fort Sumter on April 12 and 13, 1861. After 34 hours of fighting, the Union surrendered the fort to the Confederates.
When Abraham Lincoln took office, the nation was breaking apart. South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had already seceded. In his inaugural address on March 4, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln asserted that secession was unconstitutional, that the Union of the states was perpetual, and states could not leave it at will.
As the first states seceded, they seized most forts, arsenals, and federal property inside their borders. On April 10, 1861, Brigadier General Pierre G.T. Beauregard, in command of the provisional Confederate forces at Charleston, South Carolina, demanded the surrender of the U.S. garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Garrison commander Major Robert Anderson refused.
On April 12, the Confederate batteries opened fire on the fort, which was unable to reply effectively. At 2:30 p.m., April 13, Major Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter, evacuating the garrison on the following day. The battle had started at 4:30 a.m. and ended 34 hours later.
Major Anderson notified Secretary of War Simon Cameron of the outcome of the battle by telegram five days after he surrendered to Confederate Brigadier General Pierre G.T. Beauregard, as seen in this document.
The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the opening engagement of the American Civil War. From 1863 to 1865, the Confederates at Fort Sumter withstood a 22-month siege by Union forces. During this time, most of the fort was reduced to brick rubble. | https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/telegram-announcing-the-surrender-of-fort-sumter | 0 |
who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Fort Sumter | The attack on Fort Sumter marked the official beginning of the American Civil War—a war that lasted four years, cost the lives of more than 620,000 Americans, and freed 3.9 million enslaved people from bondage.
Confederate victory. With supplies nearly exhausted and his troops outnumbered, Union major Robert Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter to Brig. Gen. P.G.T Beauregard’s Confederate forces. Major Anderson and his men were allowed to strike their colors, fire a 100-gun salute, and board a ship bound for New York, where they were greeted as heroes. Both the North and South immediately called for volunteers to mobilize for war.
By 1861, the country had already experienced decades of short-lived but ultimately failed compromises concerning the expansion of slavery in the United States and its territories. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president of the United States in 1860—a man who declared “I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free”—threatened the culture and economy of southern slave states and served as a catalyst for secession. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the United States, and by February 2, 1861, six more states followed suit. Southern delegates met on February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, AL., and established the Confederate States of America, with Mississippi senator Jefferson Davis elected as its provisional president. Confederate militia forces began seizing United States forts and property throughout the south. With a lame-duck president in office, and a controversial president-elect poised to succeed him, the crisis approached a boiling point and exploded at Fort Sumter. | https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/fort-sumter | 0 |
who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Fort Sumter | The attack on Fort Sumter marked the official beginning of the American Civil War—a war that lasted four years, cost the lives of more than 620,000 Americans, and freed 3.9 million enslaved people from bondage.
Confederate victory. With supplies nearly exhausted and his troops outnumbered, Union major Robert Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter to Brig. Gen. P.G.T Beauregard’s Confederate forces. Major Anderson and his men were allowed to strike their colors, fire a 100-gun salute, and board a ship bound for New York, where they were greeted as heroes. Both the North and South immediately called for volunteers to mobilize for war.
By 1861, the country had already experienced decades of short-lived but ultimately failed compromises concerning the expansion of slavery in the United States and its territories. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president of the United States in 1860—a man who declared “I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free”—threatened the culture and economy of southern slave states and served as a catalyst for secession. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the United States, and by February 2, 1861, six more states followed suit. Southern delegates met on February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, AL., and established the Confederate States of America, with Mississippi senator Jefferson Davis elected as its provisional president. Confederate militia forces began seizing United States forts and property throughout the south. With a lame-duck president in office, and a controversial president-elect poised to succeed him, the crisis approached a boiling point and exploded at Fort Sumter. | https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/fort-sumter | 0 |
who surrendered in the battle of fort sumter | Fort Sumter | The attack on Fort Sumter marked the official beginning of the American Civil War—a war that lasted four years, cost the lives of more than 620,000 Americans, and freed 3.9 million enslaved people from bondage.
Confederate victory. With supplies nearly exhausted and his troops outnumbered, Union major Robert Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter to Brig. Gen. P.G.T Beauregard’s Confederate forces. Major Anderson and his men were allowed to strike their colors, fire a 100-gun salute, and board a ship bound for New York, where they were greeted as heroes. Both the North and South immediately called for volunteers to mobilize for war.
By 1861, the country had already experienced decades of short-lived but ultimately failed compromises concerning the expansion of slavery in the United States and its territories. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president of the United States in 1860—a man who declared “I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free”—threatened the culture and economy of southern slave states and served as a catalyst for secession. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the United States, and by February 2, 1861, six more states followed suit. Southern delegates met on February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, AL., and established the Confederate States of America, with Mississippi senator Jefferson Davis elected as its provisional president. Confederate militia forces began seizing United States forts and property throughout the south. With a lame-duck president in office, and a controversial president-elect poised to succeed him, the crisis approached a boiling point and exploded at Fort Sumter. | https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/fort-sumter | 0 |
where did knock on wood superstition come from | Where Did the Phrase “Knock on Wood” Come From? | Michael Haegele/Getty Images
Our editors and experts handpick every product we feature. We may earn a commission from your purchases.
Ever scrambled around looking for wood to ensure your luck? We certainly have, because this popular superstition is used frequently. Common superstitions are used daily, but we often overlook the origin and focus on what we should and shouldn’t do to bring good fortune and avoid any possible mishaps.
How did knocking on wood become the go-to action for warding off bad luck and bringing in the good? The origin of phrases can be confusing and exciting. Learn about the knock on wood meaning, and when you’re done, continue the adventure by learning about what “close, but no cigar” really means —we’d love to tell you here but we don’t want to spill the beans and let the cat out of the bag .
“Knock on wood” comes from at least the 19th century, according to sources, but the true origin remains unknown and heavily discussed. Many believe it originated with pagan groups and cultures around the world, such as the Celts, who worshipped and mythologized the trees. These groups believed the trees were home to their various gods and with the touch of wood, a spirit could bring protection. It may also have served as a way to show gratitude that would bring good fortune.
Another theory comes from British folklorist Steve Roud and his book The Lore of the Playground . Roud believes the superstition traces back to Britain with “Tiggy Touchwood”: a game of tag where children who touched a piece of wood were immune and given a form of protection from other players.
It’s safe to say that while the origin story behind the “knock on wood” phenomenon remains unknown, there are many theories that date back thousands of years! Make sure you also read up on why we say “ piqued my interest .”
While pagan groups have dissipated and we all play our own versions of tag, we can still find ourselves looking around for a piece of wood to bring us some good luck. Why do we continuously perform this act? Some habits are just hard to break! If you start a habit at a young age, it can be hard and/or uncomfortable to change your behavior as an adult, even though we are now able to logically understand it, especially when this habit has become second nature.
Not only do we get used to these repeating behaviors, our minds find it easier to knock on wood rather than avoid doing it since it’s an easy task to complete! Another reason why we continue knocking on wood is that we associate it with a moment where it seemed as though it worked. Talked to someone about a job, knocked on wood, and then got the job? That’s a memory that is associated with the act which makes us continue this pattern.
By the looks of it, knocking on wood isn’t going to end anytime soon. With a long history, memories, and repeated behavior, it looks like nature is lending a helping hand to bring in positive energy and fortune, one knock at a time.
Sources:
- History.com : “Why do people knock on wood for luck?’
- Ted-Ed Blog : “Why do we knock on wood?” | https://www.rd.com/article/knock-on-wood-meaning/ | 1 |
where did knock on wood superstition come from | Where Did the Phrase “Knock on Wood” Come From? | Michael Haegele/Getty Images
Our editors and experts handpick every product we feature. We may earn a commission from your purchases.
Ever scrambled around looking for wood to ensure your luck? We certainly have, because this popular superstition is used frequently. Common superstitions are used daily, but we often overlook the origin and focus on what we should and shouldn’t do to bring good fortune and avoid any possible mishaps.
How did knocking on wood become the go-to action for warding off bad luck and bringing in the good? The origin of phrases can be confusing and exciting. Learn about the knock on wood meaning, and when you’re done, continue the adventure by learning about what “close, but no cigar” really means —we’d love to tell you here but we don’t want to spill the beans and let the cat out of the bag .
“Knock on wood” comes from at least the 19th century, according to sources, but the true origin remains unknown and heavily discussed. Many believe it originated with pagan groups and cultures around the world, such as the Celts, who worshipped and mythologized the trees. These groups believed the trees were home to their various gods and with the touch of wood, a spirit could bring protection. It may also have served as a way to show gratitude that would bring good fortune.
Another theory comes from British folklorist Steve Roud and his book The Lore of the Playground . Roud believes the superstition traces back to Britain with “Tiggy Touchwood”: a game of tag where children who touched a piece of wood were immune and given a form of protection from other players.
It’s safe to say that while the origin story behind the “knock on wood” phenomenon remains unknown, there are many theories that date back thousands of years! Make sure you also read up on why we say “ piqued my interest .”
While pagan groups have dissipated and we all play our own versions of tag, we can still find ourselves looking around for a piece of wood to bring us some good luck. Why do we continuously perform this act? Some habits are just hard to break! If you start a habit at a young age, it can be hard and/or uncomfortable to change your behavior as an adult, even though we are now able to logically understand it, especially when this habit has become second nature.
Not only do we get used to these repeating behaviors, our minds find it easier to knock on wood rather than avoid doing it since it’s an easy task to complete! Another reason why we continue knocking on wood is that we associate it with a moment where it seemed as though it worked. Talked to someone about a job, knocked on wood, and then got the job? That’s a memory that is associated with the act which makes us continue this pattern.
By the looks of it, knocking on wood isn’t going to end anytime soon. With a long history, memories, and repeated behavior, it looks like nature is lending a helping hand to bring in positive energy and fortune, one knock at a time.
Sources:
- History.com : “Why do people knock on wood for luck?’
- Ted-Ed Blog : “Why do we knock on wood?” | https://www.rd.com/article/knock-on-wood-meaning/ | 1 |
where did knock on wood superstition come from | Why do people knock on wood for luck? | In many cultures, it’s a common superstition for people to knock their knuckles on a piece of wood to bring themselves good fortune or ward off bad luck. Yet while the phrase “knock on wood”—or “touch wood” in Britain—has been part of the vernacular since at the least the 19th century, there seems to be little agreement on how it originated. One common explanation traces the phenomenon to ancient pagan cultures such as the Celts, who believed that spirits and gods resided in trees. Knocking on tree trunks may have served to rouse the spirits and call on their protection, but it could have also been a way of showing gratitude for a stroke of good luck. Yet another theory is that people knocked on wood to chase away evil spirits or prevent them from listening in when they boasted about their luck, thereby preventing a reversal of fortune. Christians, meanwhile, have often linked the practice to the wood of the cross from Christ’s crucifixion.
Other researchers consider knocking on wood a more recent phenomenon. In his book “The Lore of the Playground,” British folklorist Steve Roud traces the practice to a 19th century children’s game called “Tiggy Touchwood,” a type of tag in which players were immune from being caught whenever they touched a piece of wood such as a door or a tree. “Given that the game was concerned with ‘protection,’ and was well known to adults as well as children, it is almost certainly the origin of our modern superstitious practice of saying, ‘Touch wood,’” he argues. “The claim that the latter goes back to when we believed in tree spirits is complete nonsense.”
While the origins of “knock on wood” may never be known for certain, the superstition remains popular around the globe and has even given rise to several local variations. Turkish people often pull on one earlobe and knock on wood twice to ward off a jinx. Italians, meanwhile, say the phrase “touch iron” when trying to avoid tempting fate. | https://www.history.com/news/why-do-people-knock-on-wood-for-luck | 1 |
where did knock on wood superstition come from | Knocking on wood - Wikipedia | For other uses, see Knock on Wood (disambiguation) .
Knocking on wood (also phrased touching wood ) is an apotropaic tradition of literally touching, tapping, or knocking on wood, or merely stating that one is doing or intending to do so, in order to avoid "tempting fate" after making a favorable prediction or boast, or a declaration concerning one's own death or another unfavorable situation.
A common explanation traces the phenomenon to ancient Celtic peoples , who believed it called on spirits or gods of the trees, [1] [2] while Christians tie the practice to the wood of the cross of crucifixion. [2] A more modern theory from folklore researcher Steve Roud suggests it derives from a form of tag called "Tiggy Touchwood" in which players are safe from being tagged if they are touching wood. [2] The British version of the phrase "touch wood" has been traced back as far as the 17th century. [3]
- In Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Montenegro and Serbia there is also the habit of knocking on wood when saying something positive or affirmative about someone or something and not wanting that to change. Frequently the movement of knocking on nearby wood is followed by da kucnem u drvo / да куцнем у дрво ("I will knock on wood"), or sometimes by da ne ureknem / да не урекнем ("I don't want to jinx it"). [4]
- In Brazil and Portugal , bater na madeira ("knock on wood") is something actually done physically, three knocks are required after giving an example of a bad thing eventually happening. No verbalization is required, just the three knocks on the closest piece or object of wood. In the absence of wood, someone can say bate na madeira , to prevent the bad thing to happen. People do not actually believe knocking three times on a piece of wood will really protect them, but it is a social habit and it is polite to do so to demonstrate that one doesn't want that bad thing one is talking about to actually happen. [ citation needed ] [5]
- In Bulgaria the superstition of "knock on wood" ( чукам на дърво chukam na dǎrvo ) is reserved for protection against the evil, and is not typically used for attracting good luck. Usually people engage in the practice in reaction to bad news, actual or merely imagined. In most cases the nearest wooden object is used (in some areas, however, tables are exempt); if there are no such objects within immediate reach, a common tongue-in-cheek practice is to knock on one's head. Knocking on wood is often followed by lightly pulling one's earlobe with the same hand. Common phrases to accompany the ritual are " God guard us" ( Бог да ни пази Bog da ni pazi ) and "may the Devil not hear" ( да не чуе Дяволът da ne chue Djavolǎt ).
- In Denmark the saying is 7, 9, 13 / syv, ni, tretten (usually accompanied by knocking under a table), as these numbers have traditionally been associated with magic.
- In Egypt , إمسك الخشب emsek el-khashab ("hold the wood") is said when mentioning either good luck one has had in the past or hopes one has for the future. When referring to past good luck the expression is usually used in hopes of the good thing continuing to occur via its spoken acknowledgment, as well as preventing envy . (Citation)
- In old English folklore, "knocking on wood" also referred to when people spoke of secrets – they went into the isolated woods to talk privately and "knocked" on the trees when they were talking to hide their communication from evil spirits who would be unable to hear when they knocked. [ citation needed ] Another version holds that the act of knocking was to perk up the spirits to make them work in the requester's favor. [6] Yet another version holds that a sect of monks who wore large wooden crosses around their necks would tap or "knock" on them to ward away evil.
- In Medieval England knights being sent into battle would visit the wooden effigy of a knight in Southwark Cathedral and touch its nose for luck. The Knight's Tale in The Canterbury Tales begins in Southwark for this reason. The effigy can still be seen in the cathedral to this day.
- In modern day England the expression "touch wood" is more commonly heard than "knock on wood".
- In Georgia , a ხეზე დაკაკუნება kheze daḳaḳuneba ("knocking on wood") is performed when one mentions a bad possibility that could take place in future. Usually the person knocks three times. It is also done when one experiences a bad Omen .
- In Greece the saying χτύπα ξύλο chtýpa xýlo ("knock on wood") is said when hearing someone say something negative in order to prevent it from happening. See
- In Indonesia , Malaysia and Thailand , when someone is saying bad things, the one that hears it would knock on wood (or other suitable surface) and knock on their forehead while saying amit-amit or amit-amit jabang bayi (Indonesia), choi or tak cun tak cun (Malaysia).
- In Iran , when one says something good about something or somebody, he or she might knock on wood and say بزنم به تخته چشم نخوره bezan-am be taxteh, cheshm naxoreh ("[I] am knocking on wood to prevent he/she/it from being jinxed "). The evil eye and the concept of being jinxed are common phobias and superstitious beliefs in Iranian culture, and Iranians traditionally believe knocking on wood wards off evil spirits. (Citation)
- In Israel the saying בלי עין הרע b'lí 'áyin hará' ("without the evil eye") is said when someone mentions good things happening to himself or someone else, or even when mentioning a valuable things he owns. This expression is a superstition that is used in the hope that a good thing will continue to occur even after it is mentioned, and as a way to prevent envy ( hasad حسد ) also known as the Evil Eye , as they believe that Envy can harm other people.
- In Italy , tocca ferro ("touch iron") is used, especially after seeing an undertaker or something related to death. [ unreliable source? ] [7]
- In Latin America , it is also tradition to physically knock a wooden object. A variant requires that the object does not have feet ( tocar madera sin patas ), which rules out chairs, tables and beds. [8]
- In Lebanon and Syria the saying دقّ عالخشب duqq ‘al-khashab ("knock on [the] wood") is said when hearing someone say something negative in order to prevent it from happening. It is also largely observed when saying something positive or affirmative about someone or something and not wanting that to change.
- In North Macedonia , "knocking on wood" is a folk belief and people usually do that after someone says something bad to make sure nothing bad happens.
- In Norway the saying is bank i bordet ("knock on the table"), which usually was made of wood.
- In Poland , there is a habit of knocking on (unpainted) wood (which may be preceded by saying odpukać w niemalowane drewno ; stúk vneakráshennŷ drevisínə , or simply odpukać ; —— literally meaning "to knock on unpainted wood.") when saying something negative – to prevent it from happening – or, more rarely, something positive – in order not to "spoil it". In the Czech Republic , this is often accompanied for stronger effect by knocking on one's teeth, a piece of building stone, or metal, reasoning that these (as opposed to wood) survive even fire.
- In Romania , there is also a superstition that one can avoid bad things aforementioned by literally knocking on wood ( Romanian : a bate în lemn ). Wood tables are exempted. One of the possible reasons could be that there is a monastery practice to call people to pray by playing / knocking the simantron . [9]
- In Spain tocar madera and in France toucher du bois ("to touch wood") is something that you say when you want your luck or a good situation to continue, e.g. Ha ido bien toda la semana y, toco madera, seguirá bien el fin de semana ("It's been good all week and, touching wood, the weekend will stay good").
- In Sweden , a common expression is "pepper, pepper, touch wood" ( peppar, peppar, ta i trä ), referring to throwing pepper over one's shoulder and touching a wooden object.
- In Turkey , when someone hears about a bad experience someone else had, he/she may gently pull one earlobe, and knock on a wood twice, which means "God save me from that thing".
- In the United States in the eighteenth century, men used to knock on the wood stock of their muzzle-loading rifles to settle the black powder charge, ensuring the weapon would fire cleanly. [ citation needed ]
- In Vietnam a common expression is "trộm vía". It is said when a speaker wants the good/positive aforementioned thing will continue, especially when saying some good things about a newborn because they believe if they did not say the words, negative things would happen later.
- In Assam in Northeast India as well as in Russia , the expression "thu thu thu" -- the onomatopoeic phrase to represent the sound of spitting -- is used after making a favourable prediction or commenting on an ongoing favourable occurrence in order to deter misfortune befalling these favourable circumstances. Its use is similar to the use of the phrase "touchwood" in Western traditions.
- In Russia and Ukraine , " Постучать по дереву " ("To knock on wood") has the same meaning. [10] There is also an expression " Тфу тфу тфу " (" Tfu Tfu Tfu ") phrase to represent the sound of spitting similar with Assam in Northeast India . The difference, however, is that the person would have to "spit" with his head turned to the left shoulder which represents "spitting away" bad fortune because it is situated on the left (unstable) side of life" [11]
- In South Korea , when you take back what you said, you say, "Grab the wood and do 'tweetweetwee-The sound of spitting-'". This means that in connection with the saying, "Be careful with your words" if you don't want anything bad to happen.
- ^ Ray (2017-05-18). "Why do we knock on wood?" . TED-Ed Blog . Retrieved 2022-08-26 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knocking_on_wood | 1 |
where did knock on wood superstition come from | Why we knock on wood for luck | Rosemary V. Hathaway does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
We believe in the free flow of information
Ever said something like, “I’ve never gotten a speeding ticket” – and then quickly, for luck, rapped your knuckles on a wooden table or doorframe?
Americans accompany this action by saying, “Knock on wood.” In Great Britain, it’s “Touch wood.” They knock on wood in Turkey , too.
As a teacher of folklore – the study of “the expressive culture of everyday life,” as my favorite short definition puts it – I’m often asked why people knock on wood.
The common explanation for knocking on wood claims the ritual is a holdover from Europe’s pagan days, an appeal to tree-dwelling spirits to ward off bad luck or an expression of gratitude for good fortune .
According to Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable , “traditionally, certain trees, such as the oak, ash, hazel, hawthorn and willow, had a sacred significance and thus protective powers.”
Furthermore, the theory goes, Christian reformers in Europe may have deliberately transformed this heathenish belief into a more acceptable Christian one by introducing the idea that the “wood” in “knock on wood” referred to the wood of the cross of Jesus’ crucifixion.
However, no tangible evidence supports these origin stories.
The Oxford English Dictionary traces the phrase “touch wood” only back to the early 19th century, locating its origins in a British children’s tag game called Tiggy-touch-wood, in which children could make themselves “exempt…from capture [by] touching wood.”
Of course, much folklore is learned informally, by word of mouth or customary behavior. So it’s possible – even likely – that the phrase and the ritual predate its first appearance in print.
I’d wager few, if any, people today think – after saying something that might bring bad luck – “I’d better ask the tree spirits for help!”
Still they knock, to avoid negative consequences.
That puts knocking on wood in a category with other “conversion rituals” like throwing salt over one’s shoulder : actions people perform, almost automatically, to “undo” any bad luck just created.
The anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski has a theory about such actions, called the “ anxiety-ritual theory .” It states that the anxiety created by uncertainty leads people to turn to magic and ritual to gain a sense of control.
Knocking on wood may seem trivial, but it is one small way people quell their fears in a life full of anxieties. | https://theconversation.com/why-we-knock-on-wood-for-luck-129864 | 1 |
where did knock on wood superstition come from | Why do we knock on wood? | Chances are you’ve knocked on wood in the past month. But, really, why? Here’s one origin story:
Knocking on wood is thought to come from the folklore of the ancient Indo-Europeans, or possibly people who predated them, who believed that trees were home to various spirits.
Touching a tree would invoke the protection or blessing of the spirit within.
Somehow, this tradition has survived long after belief in these spirits had faded away.
To learn more about superstitions, watch this TED-Ed Lesson: Where do superstitions come from?
Art credit: TED-Ed/ @jefflebars | https://blog.ed.ted.com/2017/05/18/why-do-we-knock-on-wood/ | 1 |
where did knock on wood superstition come from | Knocking on wood - Wikipedia | For other uses, see Knock on Wood (disambiguation) .
Knocking on wood (also phrased touching wood ) is an apotropaic tradition of literally touching, tapping, or knocking on wood, or merely stating that one is doing or intending to do so, in order to avoid "tempting fate" after making a favorable prediction or boast, or a declaration concerning one's own death or another unfavorable situation.
A common explanation traces the phenomenon to ancient Celtic peoples , who believed it called on spirits or gods of the trees, [1] [2] while Christians tie the practice to the wood of the cross of crucifixion. [2] A more modern theory from folklore researcher Steve Roud suggests it derives from a form of tag called "Tiggy Touchwood" in which players are safe from being tagged if they are touching wood. [2] The British version of the phrase "touch wood" has been traced back as far as the 17th century. [3]
- In Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Montenegro and Serbia there is also the habit of knocking on wood when saying something positive or affirmative about someone or something and not wanting that to change. Frequently the movement of knocking on nearby wood is followed by da kucnem u drvo / да куцнем у дрво ("I will knock on wood"), or sometimes by da ne ureknem / да не урекнем ("I don't want to jinx it"). [4]
- In Brazil and Portugal , bater na madeira ("knock on wood") is something actually done physically, three knocks are required after giving an example of a bad thing eventually happening. No verbalization is required, just the three knocks on the closest piece or object of wood. In the absence of wood, someone can say bate na madeira , to prevent the bad thing to happen. People do not actually believe knocking three times on a piece of wood will really protect them, but it is a social habit and it is polite to do so to demonstrate that one doesn't want that bad thing one is talking about to actually happen. [ citation needed ] [5]
- In Bulgaria the superstition of "knock on wood" ( чукам на дърво chukam na dǎrvo ) is reserved for protection against the evil, and is not typically used for attracting good luck. Usually people engage in the practice in reaction to bad news, actual or merely imagined. In most cases the nearest wooden object is used (in some areas, however, tables are exempt); if there are no such objects within immediate reach, a common tongue-in-cheek practice is to knock on one's head. Knocking on wood is often followed by lightly pulling one's earlobe with the same hand. Common phrases to accompany the ritual are " God guard us" ( Бог да ни пази Bog da ni pazi ) and "may the Devil not hear" ( да не чуе Дяволът da ne chue Djavolǎt ).
- In Denmark the saying is 7, 9, 13 / syv, ni, tretten (usually accompanied by knocking under a table), as these numbers have traditionally been associated with magic.
- In Egypt , إمسك الخشب emsek el-khashab ("hold the wood") is said when mentioning either good luck one has had in the past or hopes one has for the future. When referring to past good luck the expression is usually used in hopes of the good thing continuing to occur via its spoken acknowledgment, as well as preventing envy . (Citation)
- In old English folklore, "knocking on wood" also referred to when people spoke of secrets – they went into the isolated woods to talk privately and "knocked" on the trees when they were talking to hide their communication from evil spirits who would be unable to hear when they knocked. [ citation needed ] Another version holds that the act of knocking was to perk up the spirits to make them work in the requester's favor. [6] Yet another version holds that a sect of monks who wore large wooden crosses around their necks would tap or "knock" on them to ward away evil.
- In Medieval England knights being sent into battle would visit the wooden effigy of a knight in Southwark Cathedral and touch its nose for luck. The Knight's Tale in The Canterbury Tales begins in Southwark for this reason. The effigy can still be seen in the cathedral to this day.
- In modern day England the expression "touch wood" is more commonly heard than "knock on wood".
- In Georgia , a ხეზე დაკაკუნება kheze daḳaḳuneba ("knocking on wood") is performed when one mentions a bad possibility that could take place in future. Usually the person knocks three times. It is also done when one experiences a bad Omen .
- In Greece the saying χτύπα ξύλο chtýpa xýlo ("knock on wood") is said when hearing someone say something negative in order to prevent it from happening. See
- In Indonesia , Malaysia and Thailand , when someone is saying bad things, the one that hears it would knock on wood (or other suitable surface) and knock on their forehead while saying amit-amit or amit-amit jabang bayi (Indonesia), choi or tak cun tak cun (Malaysia).
- In Iran , when one says something good about something or somebody, he or she might knock on wood and say بزنم به تخته چشم نخوره bezan-am be taxteh, cheshm naxoreh ("[I] am knocking on wood to prevent he/she/it from being jinxed "). The evil eye and the concept of being jinxed are common phobias and superstitious beliefs in Iranian culture, and Iranians traditionally believe knocking on wood wards off evil spirits. (Citation)
- In Israel the saying בלי עין הרע b'lí 'áyin hará' ("without the evil eye") is said when someone mentions good things happening to himself or someone else, or even when mentioning a valuable things he owns. This expression is a superstition that is used in the hope that a good thing will continue to occur even after it is mentioned, and as a way to prevent envy ( hasad حسد ) also known as the Evil Eye , as they believe that Envy can harm other people.
- In Italy , tocca ferro ("touch iron") is used, especially after seeing an undertaker or something related to death. [ unreliable source? ] [7]
- In Latin America , it is also tradition to physically knock a wooden object. A variant requires that the object does not have feet ( tocar madera sin patas ), which rules out chairs, tables and beds. [8]
- In Lebanon and Syria the saying دقّ عالخشب duqq ‘al-khashab ("knock on [the] wood") is said when hearing someone say something negative in order to prevent it from happening. It is also largely observed when saying something positive or affirmative about someone or something and not wanting that to change.
- In North Macedonia , "knocking on wood" is a folk belief and people usually do that after someone says something bad to make sure nothing bad happens.
- In Norway the saying is bank i bordet ("knock on the table"), which usually was made of wood.
- In Poland , there is a habit of knocking on (unpainted) wood (which may be preceded by saying odpukać w niemalowane drewno ; stúk vneakráshennŷ drevisínə , or simply odpukać ; —— literally meaning "to knock on unpainted wood.") when saying something negative – to prevent it from happening – or, more rarely, something positive – in order not to "spoil it". In the Czech Republic , this is often accompanied for stronger effect by knocking on one's teeth, a piece of building stone, or metal, reasoning that these (as opposed to wood) survive even fire.
- In Romania , there is also a superstition that one can avoid bad things aforementioned by literally knocking on wood ( Romanian : a bate în lemn ). Wood tables are exempted. One of the possible reasons could be that there is a monastery practice to call people to pray by playing / knocking the simantron . [9]
- In Spain tocar madera and in France toucher du bois ("to touch wood") is something that you say when you want your luck or a good situation to continue, e.g. Ha ido bien toda la semana y, toco madera, seguirá bien el fin de semana ("It's been good all week and, touching wood, the weekend will stay good").
- In Sweden , a common expression is "pepper, pepper, touch wood" ( peppar, peppar, ta i trä ), referring to throwing pepper over one's shoulder and touching a wooden object.
- In Turkey , when someone hears about a bad experience someone else had, he/she may gently pull one earlobe, and knock on a wood twice, which means "God save me from that thing".
- In the United States in the eighteenth century, men used to knock on the wood stock of their muzzle-loading rifles to settle the black powder charge, ensuring the weapon would fire cleanly. [ citation needed ]
- In Vietnam a common expression is "trộm vía". It is said when a speaker wants the good/positive aforementioned thing will continue, especially when saying some good things about a newborn because they believe if they did not say the words, negative things would happen later.
- In Assam in Northeast India as well as in Russia , the expression "thu thu thu" -- the onomatopoeic phrase to represent the sound of spitting -- is used after making a favourable prediction or commenting on an ongoing favourable occurrence in order to deter misfortune befalling these favourable circumstances. Its use is similar to the use of the phrase "touchwood" in Western traditions.
- In Russia and Ukraine , " Постучать по дереву " ("To knock on wood") has the same meaning. [10] There is also an expression " Тфу тфу тфу " (" Tfu Tfu Tfu ") phrase to represent the sound of spitting similar with Assam in Northeast India . The difference, however, is that the person would have to "spit" with his head turned to the left shoulder which represents "spitting away" bad fortune because it is situated on the left (unstable) side of life" [11]
- In South Korea , when you take back what you said, you say, "Grab the wood and do 'tweetweetwee-The sound of spitting-'". This means that in connection with the saying, "Be careful with your words" if you don't want anything bad to happen.
- ^ Ray (2017-05-18). "Why do we knock on wood?" . TED-Ed Blog . Retrieved 2022-08-26 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knocking_on_wood | 1 |
where did knock on wood superstition come from | Knock on wood: 7 common superstitions and the quirky explanations behind them | Have you ever paused in your tracks when a black cat crossed your path, or thrown salt over your shoulder after spilling it?
There's a long list of superstitions many of us follow, but why? It turns out there are explanations.
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In case it’s not enough that breaking a mirror may bring bad luck, that bad luck is said to then persist for seven whole years.
A long, long time ago (think ancient Egyptians, Romans and Greeks), mirrors were valuable, and (of course) possessed some mystical attributes, according to the Psychic Library.
In Roman times, it was believed that each person’s body would undergo physical regeneration every seven years. Because a mirror reflected the soul, when one was broken, it signified a break in the person’s health and well-being.
There is good news, though. It is said that if you bury the broken pieces of a mirror underground and under the moonlight, you can avoid the bad luck.
You may be surprised to know that black cats are actually thought to bring good luck in England, Ireland and ancient Egypt — so much so that the cats were well-protected from death and injury.
But that doesn’t answer the question of why we believe black cats bring bad luck.
Other parts of Europe, during the Middle Ages, thought of cats as companions of witches, or even witches in disguise. When a black cat would cross your path, it meant the devil was watching you. Apparently, the Pilgrims brought the notion to America, and the association between witches and black cats continues to this day.
This superstition is so legit that the term triskaidekaphobia was coined for those who have a fear of the number 13.
In short, History.com says Western cultures have long associated the number 12 with good and completeness — think 12 days of Christmas, 12 months, 12 zodiac signs, 12 tribes of Israel and 12 labors of Hercules, to name a few. It has often, in ancient world, been considered a perfect number. So its successor 13 has gotten a bad rap as a sign of bad luck.
To build on that, there are two events that play into the theory that 13 is an unlucky number. Each of those revolve around a 13th guest at ancient events: Judas (who betrayed Jesus) at the Last Supper, and Loki (a Norse god known for being mischievous) at a dinner party in which there was already a perfect balance of 12 gods in attendance.
As one of the more commonly-known superstitions, there seems to be various theories on where this one came from.
In medieval times, ladders were often associated with gallows, which is where people faced death by hanging. If someone walked under a ladder, it was believed that person would eventually face their death by hanging.
A different theory is that, because people were hung at the top of rungs of the ladder, their spirit would reside in the triangle the ladder created as it leaned against the gallows. By walking under it, some assumed a dead body could fall on them, causing injury or death.
And yet another theory suggests that the triangle created by leaning a ladder up against a wall signified the Holy Trinity -- the spirit of the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost. Because walking under it was considered a desecration of God, it would, in turn, invite the devil in, bringing bad luck.
This may have started more as bad form than bad luck.
Salt was quite the expensive commodity in ancient times, so wasting it was frowned upon. It’s believed the “bad luck” was brought about as a way to keep people from wasting it.
OK, but what about the whole throwing-it-over-your-left-shoulder business?
Some believe the devil hangs out over the left side of the body, waiting for an opportunity to pounce, so throwing salt over that shoulder puts it right in his face, stopping him from attacking.
For those familiar with the Bible, another origin of the superstition comes from the famous Last Supper painting, which shows Judas (remember, the guy who betrayed Jesus) having knocked over salt, spilling it all over the table.
Surely we’ve all knocked on wood to ward off bad luck from something we’ve said, right?
This one may date back to ancient pagan times, when people believed spirits lived in trees, and touching or knocking on the tree would protect them from bad luck. Psychic Library says knocking on the wood was also seen as a thank-you gesture to the gods for bringing blessings and good luck.
In Irish folklore, touching trees was a way of thanking leprechauns for good luck.
So apparently, this wasn’t something that came about for the sake of being polite.
Even though many cultures have believed for thousands of years that sneezes expelled evil spirits, it is said that in the sixth century A.D., a fatal plague was spreading through Italy. After severe chronic sneezing, death often quickly followed. Live Science says the pope urged the healthy to pray for the sick and ordered a light-hearted response, which eventually led to “God bless you” when someone sneezed.
There are dozens of other superstitions people follow, and many theories as to where they originated. Are some of them silly? Maybe. But chances are, they’ll be sticking around for years to come.
Graham Media Group 2021 | https://www.ksat.com/features/2020/10/27/knock-on-wood-7-common-superstitions-and-the-quirky-explanations-behind-them/ | 1 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Gus the Fireman | The Official Jerry Mathers Website | Published February 8, 2013 | By Jerry Mathers
What many people don’t know is that the character Gus (Burton Mustin) began his professional acting career at the age of 67 after director William Wyler cast him in the 1951 film Detective Story. And, did you know that he spent most of his early working years as an insurance salesman and he also had a degree in Engineering? Burt played Gus the Fireman on our show Leave it to Beaver and he was one of my favorite supporting characters.
Known in the entertainment business for his dependability and versatility, Burt was a well-known character actor and worked extensively in film and television from the 1950s to the 1970s.
In 1957, he made his first appearance as “Gus the Fireman” on Leave It to Beaver . He continued in the role until 1962 making a total of 15 appearances on our show. In 1960, he made his first guest appearance on The Andy Griffith Show as Jud Fletcher. Burt appeared in the role until 1966. He also portrayed “Old Uncle Joe” on two episodes of The Lucy Show in 1967. The following year, Mustin guest starred as “Grandpa Jenson” on Petticoat Junction in three episodes.
During the 1970s, Burt continued with guest roles on Love, American Style , Adam- 12 , and Emergency! . Known for his quick wit and song-and-dance abilities, Mustin was a frequent closing act on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson during the 1970s. From 1971 to 1976, he had a recurring role as “Justin Quigley” in five episodes of All in the Family
Burt was a very kind and gracious man and I enjoyed working with him very much. On January 28, 1977, he died in Glendale, California at the age of 94. | https://www.jerrymathers.com/tag/gus-the-fireman/ | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Gus the Fireman (Burton Mustin) Happy Birthday! | Published February 8, 2013 | By Jerry Mathers
What many people don’t know is that the character Gus (Burton Mustin) began his professional acting career at the age of 67 after director William Wyler cast him in the 1951 film Detective Story. And, did you know that he spent most of his early working years as an insurance salesman and he also had a degree in Engineering? Burt played Gus the Fireman on our show Leave it to Beaver and he was one of my favorite supporting characters.
Known in the entertainment business for his dependability and versatility, Burt was a well-known character actor and worked extensively in film and television from the 1950s to the 1970s.
In 1957, he made his first appearance as “Gus the Fireman” on Leave It to Beaver . He continued in the role until 1962 making a total of 15 appearances on our show. In 1960, he made his first guest appearance on The Andy Griffith Show as Jud Fletcher. Burt appeared in the role until 1966. He also portrayed “Old Uncle Joe” on two episodes of The Lucy Show in 1967. The following year, Mustin guest starred as “Grandpa Jenson” on Petticoat Junction in three episodes.
During the 1970s, Burt continued with guest roles on Love, American Style , Adam- 12 , and Emergency! . Known for his quick wit and song-and-dance abilities, Mustin was a frequent closing act on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson during the 1970s. From 1971 to 1976, he had a recurring role as “Justin Quigley” in five episodes of All in the Family
Burt was a very kind and gracious man and I enjoyed working with him very much. On January 28, 1977, he died in Glendale, California at the age of 94. | http://www.jerrymathers.com/gus-the-fireman-burt-mustin-happy-birthday/ | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Burt Mustin - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Burt Mustin
|Born|
Burton Hill Mustin
February 8, 1884
Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , U.S.
|Died|| January 28, 1977 (aged 92) |
Glendale, California , U.S.
|Resting place||Forest Lawn Memorial Park , Hollywood Hills , California|
|Other names||Bert Mustin|
|Alma mater||Pennsylvania Military College|
|Occupation||Actor|
|Years active||1921–1977|
|Spouse|
Frances Robina Woods
( m. 1915; died 1969)
Burton Hill Mustin (February 8, 1884 [1] [2] – January 28, 1977) was an American character actor . [3] Over the course of his career, he appeared in over 150 film and television productions. He also worked in radio and appeared in stage productions.
Mustin began his professional acting career at the age of 67 after director William Wyler cast him in the 1951 film noir Detective Story . Known for his dependability and versatility, Mustin went on to establish a career as a well-known character actor and worked extensively in film and television from the 1950s to the 1970s. [4] His last major role was as Arthur Lanson on the CBS sitcom Phyllis , appearing on the show into 1976, shortly before his death at almost 93 years old.
Mustin was born in Pittsburgh , to William I. and Sadie (Dorrington) Mustin. His father worked as a stockbroker . Mustin graduated from Pennsylvania Military College (renamed Widener University in 1972) with a degree in civil engineering , in 1903. He was first trombone in the band and also played goaltender for their ice hockey team in 1902. He was the last surviving member of his 1903 class. [5] He worked as an engineer but later decided to go into sales. In 1916, Mustin began working as an automobile salesman selling Oakland Sensible Sixes . He later began selling luxury Franklins . After the Franklin company went out of business, he sold Mercurys and Lincolns until civilian car production was halted during World War II . He then worked as a fiscal agent for the Better Business Bureau and the Chamber of Commerce. [6] [7]
Before he began a professional career in show business, Mustin did amateur acting and performing. In 1921, he became the first announcer for a variety show broadcast on Pittsburgh's then newly established KDKA radio station. He appeared in productions in the Pittsburgh Savoyards (a Gilbert and Sullivan troupe) and the Pittsburgh Opera . He was also a member of the Barbershop Harmony Society , making his first trip to California in 1925 to compete in a quartet competition being held in San Francisco. [4] [6] During this trip the group with their wives made a visit to Hollywood as tourists, but Mustin was not interested in a film career at that point because of his cozy life with his wife in Pittsburgh. They used their Lions Club contacts to secure lodging during the trip.
After retiring, Mustin moved to Tucson, Arizona . Director William Wyler saw him there in a stage production of Detective Story at the Sombrero Playhouse . [8] Wyler told Mustin to look him up if he decided to pursue a screen career. [8] Mustin did contact Wyler, who cast him in the 1951 film version of Detective Story . [8] Mustin's acting career then took off, and he began landing roles in films and television series. He later moved to Los Angeles . [1] [7]
Mustin made his television debut in 1951 with a role in the Western series The Adventures of Kit Carson . In 1953, he played a cotton farmer in A Lion in the Streets starring James Cagney. Almost from the start to the end of his career, Mustin specialized in playing older men, and with his tall scarecrow frame, bald head and beaked nose, he became one of the most familiar and busiest elderly character actors. Throughout the 1950s, he made guest appearances on Leave It to Beaver , The Abbott and Costello Show , The Loretta Young Show , Cavalcade of America , The Public Defender , Treasury Men in Action , The Lone Ranger , Fireside Theater , Tales of the Texas Rangers , Mackenzie's Raiders , Lux Video Theatre , Studio 57 , Dragnet , Our Miss Brooks , It's a Great Life , The Gale Storm Show , General Electric Theater , Peter Gunn , and The Texan , among many others. Mustin also starred in the TV series pilot episode of The Lone Wolf starring Louis Hayward in 1954.
In 1960, Mustin guest starred on The Twilight Zone in the episode " The Night of the Meek " alongside Art Carney . He also appeared in a second episode of the series Kick the Can in 1962. In 1964, he had an uncredited role in The Outer Limits episode " The Guests ".
In addition to guest-starring roles, Mustin also had recurring roles on several television shows during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1955, he played the role of "Foley" in The Great Gildersleeve . From 1957 to 1958, he appeared as Mr. Finley on Date with the Angels . In 1957, he made his first appearance as "Gus the Fireman" on Leave It to Beaver . Mustin would continue in the role until 1962, making a total of 15 appearances on the show. In 1960, he made his first guest appearance on The Andy Griffith Show as Judd Fletcher. He appeared in the role until 1966; however in Season 6, Episode 17 (Return of Barney Fife), he is referred to as "ole man Crowley". He also portrayed "Old Uncle Joe" on two episodes of The Lucy Show in 1967. The following year, Mustin guest starred as "Grandpa Jenson" in three episodes of Petticoat Junction .
Known for his quick wit and song-and-dance abilities, Mustin was a frequent guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson during the 1970s. [4] From 1971 to 1976, he appeared in five episodes of All in the Family (his first appearance as a night watchman, and an additional four appearances in a recurring role as "Justin Quigley").
In 1971, Mustin co-starred in the sketch comedy show The Funny Side . Hosted by Gene Kelly , the series featured an ensemble cast of five married couples that dealt with various issues through comedy sketches and song-and-dance routines. Mustin was cast opposite Queenie Smith as "the elderly couple". The series debuted on NBC in September 1971 and was canceled in January 1972. [9] Mustin and Smith reprised their roles as "the elderly couple" on a 1972 episode of Rowan & Martin's Laugh-in .
Mustin guest starred as Jethroe Collins, a relative of a Jesse James victim, in the "Bobby's Hero" episode of The Brady Bunch during the 1972–73 season.
The next year, Mustin costarred in the television film version of Miracle on 34th Street , starring Sebastian Cabot , and had an uncredited role in the Disney television film Now You See Him, Now You Don't . Mustin's last continuing role was on the television series Phyllis , in which he played the suitor, and later husband, of Sally "Mother" Dexter , a role he played until shortly before his death. [10]
In addition to his extensive work in television, Mustin also appeared in numerous films. He made his film debut at the age of 67 in Detective Story , in 1951. He followed this with roles in Talk About a Stranger (1952), The Sellout (1952), The Silver Whip (1953), Half a Hero (1953), She Couldn't Say No (1954), The Desperate Hours (1955), Man with the Gun (1955), Storm Center (1956), and The Sheepman (1958).
In the 1960s and 1970s, Mustin appeared in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1960), Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man (1962), Twilight of Honor (1963), What a Way to Go! (1964), The Misadventures of Merlin Jones (1964), Sex and the Single Girl (1964), The Cincinnati Kid (1965), Cat Ballou (1965) (uncredited as a former gunfighter "Old ... Old ... ?" ), The Ghost and Mr. Chicken (1965), The Adventures of Bullwhip Griffin (1967), Speedway (uncredited) (1968), The Shakiest Gun in the West (1968), The Great Bank Robbery (1969), Hail, Hero! (1969), and Skin Game (1971). In 1974, Mustin portrayed "Uncle Jeff" in the musical film Mame , starring Lucille Ball and Bea Arthur . He also had a small role in Herbie Rides Again , also released in 1974. The next year, he appeared as "Regent Appleby" in The Strongest Man in the World . His final film role came in 1976 in the Western film Baker's Hawk , starring Clint Walker and Burl Ives .
In 2000 TVLand created a series of commercials celebrating the often-seen but little-known-by-name character actors who regularly appeared in their shows, with Mustin being featured in one.
Mustin was one of the 110 original founders of the Pittsburgh chapter of the Lions Club which was established in 1921. He served as one of the presidents and remained active in the club for the remainder of his life. [1]
Mustin married Frances Robina Woods in 1915. The couple remained together for 54 years, until her death in 1969. They had no children. [1]
On January 28, 1977, Mustin died at Glendale Memorial Hospital in Glendale, California , at the age of 92. [11] Funeral services were held at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Hollywood Hills, California . [12]
|Year||Title||Role||Notes|
|1951||The Last Outpost||Marshal||Uncredited|
|1951||Detective Story||Willie||Uncredited|
|1952||Talk About a Stranger||Mr. Nicely the Jewler||Uncredited|
|1952||The Sellout||Elk M. Ludens|
|1952||Just Across the Street||Ed Simmons|
|1952||The Lusty Men||Jeremiah Watrus|
|1952||She Couldn't Say No||Amos||Uncredited|
|1953||The Silver Whip||Uncle Ben Nunan||Uncredited|
|1953||One Girl's Confession||Gardener|
|1953||Half a Hero||Granddad Radwell||Uncredited|
|1953||Vicki||Hotel Bellboy||Uncredited|
|1953||The Moonlighter||Turnkey||Uncredited|
|1953||A Lion Is in the Streets||Swift||Uncredited|
|1954||Executive Suite||Sam Teal||Uncredited|
|1954||Gypsy Colt||Charlie||Uncredited|
|1954||Witness to Murder||Building Night Watchman at End||Uncredited|
|1954||Silver Lode||Spectator at Oration||Uncredited|
|1954||Cattle Queen of Montana||Dan|
|1954||Day of Triumph||Man in the City||Uncredited|
|1955||Prince of Players||Miner||Uncredited|
|1955||The Desperate Hours||Carl||Uncredited|
|1955||The Return of Jack Slade||Gunsmith||Uncredited|
|1955||Man with the Gun||Hotel Desk Clerk||Uncredited|
|1956||Great Day in the Morning||Doctor||Uncredited|
|1956||Storm Center||Carl||Uncredited|
|1956||Edge of Hell||Mr. Morrison|
|1956||These Wilder Years||Old Man||Uncredited|
|1957||Raintree County||Old gent with "Flash"||Uncredited|
|1958||The Sheepman||Man on Stairs||Uncredited|
|1958||Rally Round the Flag, Boys!||Milton Evans, Town Meeting Chairman||Uncredited|
|1959||The FBI Story||Uncle Fudd Schneider||Uncredited|
|1960||Home from the Hill||Gas station attendant||Uncredited|
|1961||The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn||Old Farmer with Shotgun||Uncredited|
|1961||Snow White and the Three Stooges||Farmer||Uncredited|
|1962||All Fall Down||Second Tramp||Uncredited|
|1962||Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man||Old Soldier||Uncredited|
|1963||Son of Flubber||Bailiff||Uncredited|
|1963||The Thrill of It All||The Fraleigh butler|
|1963||Twilight of Honor||Court Clerk||Uncredited|
|1964||The Misadventures of Merlin Jones||Bailiff||Uncredited|
|1964||What a Way to Go!||Crawleyville Lawyer||Uncredited|
|1964||The Killers||Elderly Man|
|1964||Sex and the Single Girl||Harvey||Uncredited|
|1965||Cat Ballou||Accuser|
|1965||The Cincinnati Kid||Old Man in Pool Hall||Uncredited|
|1966||The Ghost and Mr. Chicken||Mr. Deligondo||Uncredited|
|1967||The Adventures of Bullwhip Griffin||Townsman||Uncredited|
|1967||The Reluctant Astronaut||Ned||Uncredited|
|1968||Speedway||Janitor at Coffee Shop||Uncredited|
|1968||The Shakiest Gun in the West||Old Artimus||Uncredited|
|1969||The Witchmaker||Boatman|
|1969||The Great Bank Robbery||Glazier||Uncredited|
|1969||Hail, Hero!||Old Man #2|
|1969||A Time for Dying||Ed|
|1970||Tiger by the Tail||Tom Dugger|
|1971||Skin Game||Liveryman in Fair Shake||Uncredited|
|1972||Now You See Him, Now You Don't||Mr. Reed||Uncredited|
|1974||Herbie Rides Again||Rich Man in Mansion|
|1974||Mame||Uncle Jeff|
|1975||The Strongest Man in the World||Regent Appleby|
|1975||Train Ride to Hollywood||George|
|1976||Baker's Hawk||General||(final film role)|
|Year||Title||Role||Notes|
|1951||The Adventures of Kit Carson||Dave Lowery||Episode: "Fury at Red Gulch"|
|1953||The Stu Erwin Show||Uncle Lucious Erwin||Episode: "In the Shade of the Old Family Tree"|
|1954||Father Knows Best||Old Eddie Gilbert||Episode: "Grandpa Jim's Rejuvenation"|
|1955||The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin||Jameson Penrose||Episode: "The Legacy of Sean O'Hara"|
|1956||Science Fiction Theatre||Mr. Stevenson||Episode: "Brain Unlimited"|
|1957||State Trooper||John Daka||Episode: "Room Service for 321"|
|1957–1958||Date with the Angels||Mr. Finley||5 episodes|
|1957–1962||Leave It to Beaver||Gus the Fireman||15 episodes|
|1958||Maverick||Henry||Episode: "The Day They Hanged Bret Maverick"|
|1958||The Restless Gun||Man Playing Checkers||Episode: "A Pressing Engagement"|
|1959||Cimarron City||Episode 1, Season 1|
|1959||Peter Gunn||Cab driver||Episode: "The Rifle"|
|1959||Tombstone Territory||Lucky Jack Oliver||Episode: "The Black Diamond"|
|1960||General Electric Theater||Burt||Episode: " Adam's Apples "|
|1960||The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis||Jethro R. Wiggins J.P.||Episode: "Here Comes the Groom"|
|1960||The Dennis O'Keefe Show||Grandpa Clayhipple||Episode: "June Thursday"|
|1960||Mr. Lucky||Uncle Billy||Episode: "The Leadville Kid Gang"|
|1960||The Twilight Zone||Bert||Episode: " Night of the Meek "|
|1961||Thriller||The Redcap||Episode: "A Third for Pinochle"|
|1961||My Three Sons||Max||1 episode|
|1961||Peter Gunn||Old Man||Episode: "Down the Drain"|
|1961–1962||Ichabod and Me||Olaf||4 episodes|
|1961–1966||Bonanza||Various characters||4 episodes|
|1961–1966||The Andy Griffith Show||Jud Fletcher||14 episodes|
|1962||Shannon||Mr. Munday||Episode: "The Medal"|
|1962||The Twilight Zone||Old Man in Rest Home||Episode: " Kick the Can "|
|1963||The Alfred Hitchcock Hour|| Mr. Bell |
Jury foreman (uncredited)
| Episode: "Nothing Ever Happens in Linvale"; |
Episode: "The Star Juror"
|1963||The Dick Van Dyke Show||Mr. Donald Lucas Parker||Episode: " Very Old Shoes, Very Old Rice"|
|1963–1964||The New Phil Silvers Show||Magruder||Episodes: "Who Do Voodoo? Harry Do!" and "Moonlight and Dozes"|
|1964||The Fugitive||Charley||Episode: "Nicest Fella You'd Ever Want to Meet"|
|1965||Hank||Pete||Episode: "Candidate"|
|1965||Get Smart||Agent 8||Episode: "Dear Diary"|
|1966||Batman||Old MacDonald||Episode 48: "The Yegg Foes in Gotham"|
|1966||Bewitched||Various characters||3 episodes|
|1967||Dragnet||Fred Gregory||Episode : "The Bank Examiner Swindle"|
|1967||Monkees||Kimba||Episode : "Monkees Marooned"|
|1967||The Girl from U.N.C.L.E.||Jan Streich||Episode: "The Moulin Ruse Affair"|
|1968||Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.||Mr. Ferguson||Episode: "Gomer Goes Home"|
|1968||Gunsmoke||Uncle Finney||Episode: "Uncle Finney"|
|1968||Dragnet||Charles Augustus William Smith||Episode: "The Senior Citizen"|
|1969||The Good Guys||Kiley||Episode: "A Chimp Named Sam"|
|1969||Dragnet||Calvin Lampe||Episode: "Homicide: DR 22"|
|1970||The Ghost & Mrs. Muir||Mr. Homer||Episode: "Pardon My Ghost"|
|1970–1974||Adam-12||Various characters||5 episodes|
|1971||The Mary Tyler Moore Show||The Old Man||Episode: "Second Story Story"|
|1971||The New Andy Griffith Show||Mr. Ormstead||Episode: "Glen Campbell Visits"|
|1971||All in the Family||Harry Feeney||Episode: "Archie Is Worried About His Job"|
|1971||Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In||Himself + various characters||Season 5, Episode 13|
|1973||Here's Lucy||Mr. Robertson||Episode: "Lucy and Joan Rivers Do Jury Duty"|
|1973||The Brady Bunch||Jethroe Collins||Episode: "Bobby's Hero"|
|1973||Sanford and Son||Mr. Malloy||Episode: "Home Sweet Home for the Aged"|
|1973–1976||All in the Family||Justin Quigley||4 episodes|
|1974||Rhoda||Sleeping Man||Episode: "The Honeymoon"|
|1974–1976||The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson||Himself||13 episodes|
|1975||Emergency!||Various characters||2 episodes|
|1975||Switch||Old man||Episode: "The Deadly Missiles Caper"|
|1976||The Moneychangers||Jack Henderson||Miniseries|
|1976–1977||Phyllis||Arthur Lanson||4 episodes| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Mustin | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Burt Mustin: This 'Andy Griffith Show' Character Actor Began His Career in His 60s | By Courtney Fox |
Advertisement
Sometimes good character actors are just as memorable as the most prominent leading stars. That was certainly the case for Burt Mustin, who is recognizable for appearing in some of the most beloved sitcoms of all time. Whether you remember him from his days as Gus the Fireman on Leave It to Beaver or Jud Fletcher on The Andy Griffith Show , chances are you know Burt Mustin's face. One of the most interesting things about him though isn't his lengthy resume of TV shows he appeared on over the years. It's the fact that he didn't even appear in front of the camera until he was 67 years old.
Burton Hill Mustin grew up in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, later receiving his degree in civil engineering from Pennsylvania Military College's class of 1903. Over the years, he worked as a car salesman and eventually became an agent for the Better Business Bureau. By the time he eventually retired in Tucson, Arizona with his wife Frances, he had occasionally dabbled in acting and singing as a hobby. But that was about it. He was in for a real surprise when director William Wyler was in the audience for his stage production of Detective Story. Wyler told Mustin to consider a professional acting career and even cast him in his film version of Detective Story starring Kirk Douglas and Eleanor Parker. Mustin explained his fascinating life story in a particularly charming interview on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson .
Just like that, Mustin's life was starting over in his late 60s and he moved to Los Angeles to pursue more acting work in Hollywood. He appeared as the "old man" on pretty much every classic TV series you could think of -- My Three Sons , The Mary Tyler Moore Show , Dragnet , Bonanza , The Twilight Zone , The Red Skelton Hour , Alfred Hitchcock Hour , Love American Style , Bewitched , and more. He had small roles on All In The Family , The Lone Ranger , Petticoat Junction , The Monkees , The Lucy Show , Sanford and Son , Gunsmoke , The Beverly Hillbillies , The Brady Bunch , The Dick Van Dyke Show , The Jack Benny Program , and Get Smart . His IMDB just goes on and on and on.
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He appeared in 14 episodes of Andy Griffith , even crossing over into Gomer Pyle U.S.M.C. , and Mayberry R.F.D . At the very end of his career, Mustin appeared in a few episodes of Phyllis as Arthur Lanson, the love interest of Mother Dexter. Just a few months later in 1977, Mustin passed away in Glendale, California at the age of 92. Quite a way to end such a legendary career! While you may not have realized his name, you definitely know Burt Mustin's face and should fondly remember him as one of the most iconic character actors of his time. | https://www.wideopencountry.com/burt-mustin/ | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Burt Mustin: This 'Andy Griffith Show' Character Actor Began His Career in His 60s | By Courtney Fox |
Advertisement
Sometimes good character actors are just as memorable as the most prominent leading stars. That was certainly the case for Burt Mustin, who is recognizable for appearing in some of the most beloved sitcoms of all time. Whether you remember him from his days as Gus the Fireman on Leave It to Beaver or Jud Fletcher on The Andy Griffith Show , chances are you know Burt Mustin's face. One of the most interesting things about him though isn't his lengthy resume of TV shows he appeared on over the years. It's the fact that he didn't even appear in front of the camera until he was 67 years old.
Burton Hill Mustin grew up in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, later receiving his degree in civil engineering from Pennsylvania Military College's class of 1903. Over the years, he worked as a car salesman and eventually became an agent for the Better Business Bureau. By the time he eventually retired in Tucson, Arizona with his wife Frances, he had occasionally dabbled in acting and singing as a hobby. But that was about it. He was in for a real surprise when director William Wyler was in the audience for his stage production of Detective Story. Wyler told Mustin to consider a professional acting career and even cast him in his film version of Detective Story starring Kirk Douglas and Eleanor Parker. Mustin explained his fascinating life story in a particularly charming interview on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson .
Just like that, Mustin's life was starting over in his late 60s and he moved to Los Angeles to pursue more acting work in Hollywood. He appeared as the "old man" on pretty much every classic TV series you could think of -- My Three Sons , The Mary Tyler Moore Show , Dragnet , Bonanza , The Twilight Zone , The Red Skelton Hour , Alfred Hitchcock Hour , Love American Style , Bewitched , and more. He had small roles on All In The Family , The Lone Ranger , Petticoat Junction , The Monkees , The Lucy Show , Sanford and Son , Gunsmoke , The Beverly Hillbillies , The Brady Bunch , The Dick Van Dyke Show , The Jack Benny Program , and Get Smart . His IMDB just goes on and on and on.
Advertisement
He appeared in 14 episodes of Andy Griffith , even crossing over into Gomer Pyle U.S.M.C. , and Mayberry R.F.D . At the very end of his career, Mustin appeared in a few episodes of Phyllis as Arthur Lanson, the love interest of Mother Dexter. Just a few months later in 1977, Mustin passed away in Glendale, California at the age of 92. Quite a way to end such a legendary career! While you may not have realized his name, you definitely know Burt Mustin's face and should fondly remember him as one of the most iconic character actors of his time. | https://www.wideopencountry.com/burt-mustin/ | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Leave It to Beaver (TV Series 1957–1963) - IMDb | Burt Mustin: Gus the Fireman, Gus Showing all 7 items Jump to: Photos (7) | https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0050032/characters/nm0615993 | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Burt Mustin - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Burt Mustin
|Born|
Burton Hill Mustin
February 8, 1884
Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , U.S.
|Died|| January 28, 1977 (aged 92) |
Glendale, California , U.S.
|Resting place||Forest Lawn Memorial Park , Hollywood Hills , California|
|Other names||Bert Mustin|
|Alma mater||Pennsylvania Military College|
|Occupation||Actor|
|Years active||1921–1977|
|Spouse|
Frances Robina Woods
( m. 1915; died 1969)
Burton Hill Mustin (February 8, 1884 [1] [2] – January 28, 1977) was an American character actor . [3] Over the course of his career, he appeared in over 150 film and television productions. He also worked in radio and appeared in stage productions.
Mustin began his professional acting career at the age of 67 after director William Wyler cast him in the 1951 film noir Detective Story . Known for his dependability and versatility, Mustin went on to establish a career as a well-known character actor and worked extensively in film and television from the 1950s to the 1970s. [4] His last major role was as Arthur Lanson on the CBS sitcom Phyllis , appearing on the show into 1976, shortly before his death at almost 93 years old.
Mustin was born in Pittsburgh , to William I. and Sadie (Dorrington) Mustin. His father worked as a stockbroker . Mustin graduated from Pennsylvania Military College (renamed Widener University in 1972) with a degree in civil engineering , in 1903. He was first trombone in the band and also played goaltender for their ice hockey team in 1902. He was the last surviving member of his 1903 class. [5] He worked as an engineer but later decided to go into sales. In 1916, Mustin began working as an automobile salesman selling Oakland Sensible Sixes . He later began selling luxury Franklins . After the Franklin company went out of business, he sold Mercurys and Lincolns until civilian car production was halted during World War II . He then worked as a fiscal agent for the Better Business Bureau and the Chamber of Commerce. [6] [7]
Before he began a professional career in show business, Mustin did amateur acting and performing. In 1921, he became the first announcer for a variety show broadcast on Pittsburgh's then newly established KDKA radio station. He appeared in productions in the Pittsburgh Savoyards (a Gilbert and Sullivan troupe) and the Pittsburgh Opera . He was also a member of the Barbershop Harmony Society , making his first trip to California in 1925 to compete in a quartet competition being held in San Francisco. [4] [6] During this trip the group with their wives made a visit to Hollywood as tourists, but Mustin was not interested in a film career at that point because of his cozy life with his wife in Pittsburgh. They used their Lions Club contacts to secure lodging during the trip.
After retiring, Mustin moved to Tucson, Arizona . Director William Wyler saw him there in a stage production of Detective Story at the Sombrero Playhouse . [8] Wyler told Mustin to look him up if he decided to pursue a screen career. [8] Mustin did contact Wyler, who cast him in the 1951 film version of Detective Story . [8] Mustin's acting career then took off, and he began landing roles in films and television series. He later moved to Los Angeles . [1] [7]
Mustin made his television debut in 1951 with a role in the Western series The Adventures of Kit Carson . In 1953, he played a cotton farmer in A Lion in the Streets starring James Cagney. Almost from the start to the end of his career, Mustin specialized in playing older men, and with his tall scarecrow frame, bald head and beaked nose, he became one of the most familiar and busiest elderly character actors. Throughout the 1950s, he made guest appearances on Leave It to Beaver , The Abbott and Costello Show , The Loretta Young Show , Cavalcade of America , The Public Defender , Treasury Men in Action , The Lone Ranger , Fireside Theater , Tales of the Texas Rangers , Mackenzie's Raiders , Lux Video Theatre , Studio 57 , Dragnet , Our Miss Brooks , It's a Great Life , The Gale Storm Show , General Electric Theater , Peter Gunn , and The Texan , among many others. Mustin also starred in the TV series pilot episode of The Lone Wolf starring Louis Hayward in 1954.
In 1960, Mustin guest starred on The Twilight Zone in the episode " The Night of the Meek " alongside Art Carney . He also appeared in a second episode of the series Kick the Can in 1962. In 1964, he had an uncredited role in The Outer Limits episode " The Guests ".
In addition to guest-starring roles, Mustin also had recurring roles on several television shows during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1955, he played the role of "Foley" in The Great Gildersleeve . From 1957 to 1958, he appeared as Mr. Finley on Date with the Angels . In 1957, he made his first appearance as "Gus the Fireman" on Leave It to Beaver . Mustin would continue in the role until 1962, making a total of 15 appearances on the show. In 1960, he made his first guest appearance on The Andy Griffith Show as Judd Fletcher. He appeared in the role until 1966; however in Season 6, Episode 17 (Return of Barney Fife), he is referred to as "ole man Crowley". He also portrayed "Old Uncle Joe" on two episodes of The Lucy Show in 1967. The following year, Mustin guest starred as "Grandpa Jenson" in three episodes of Petticoat Junction .
Known for his quick wit and song-and-dance abilities, Mustin was a frequent guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson during the 1970s. [4] From 1971 to 1976, he appeared in five episodes of All in the Family (his first appearance as a night watchman, and an additional four appearances in a recurring role as "Justin Quigley").
In 1971, Mustin co-starred in the sketch comedy show The Funny Side . Hosted by Gene Kelly , the series featured an ensemble cast of five married couples that dealt with various issues through comedy sketches and song-and-dance routines. Mustin was cast opposite Queenie Smith as "the elderly couple". The series debuted on NBC in September 1971 and was canceled in January 1972. [9] Mustin and Smith reprised their roles as "the elderly couple" on a 1972 episode of Rowan & Martin's Laugh-in .
Mustin guest starred as Jethroe Collins, a relative of a Jesse James victim, in the "Bobby's Hero" episode of The Brady Bunch during the 1972–73 season.
The next year, Mustin costarred in the television film version of Miracle on 34th Street , starring Sebastian Cabot , and had an uncredited role in the Disney television film Now You See Him, Now You Don't . Mustin's last continuing role was on the television series Phyllis , in which he played the suitor, and later husband, of Sally "Mother" Dexter , a role he played until shortly before his death. [10]
In addition to his extensive work in television, Mustin also appeared in numerous films. He made his film debut at the age of 67 in Detective Story , in 1951. He followed this with roles in Talk About a Stranger (1952), The Sellout (1952), The Silver Whip (1953), Half a Hero (1953), She Couldn't Say No (1954), The Desperate Hours (1955), Man with the Gun (1955), Storm Center (1956), and The Sheepman (1958).
In the 1960s and 1970s, Mustin appeared in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1960), Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man (1962), Twilight of Honor (1963), What a Way to Go! (1964), The Misadventures of Merlin Jones (1964), Sex and the Single Girl (1964), The Cincinnati Kid (1965), Cat Ballou (1965) (uncredited as a former gunfighter "Old ... Old ... ?" ), The Ghost and Mr. Chicken (1965), The Adventures of Bullwhip Griffin (1967), Speedway (uncredited) (1968), The Shakiest Gun in the West (1968), The Great Bank Robbery (1969), Hail, Hero! (1969), and Skin Game (1971). In 1974, Mustin portrayed "Uncle Jeff" in the musical film Mame , starring Lucille Ball and Bea Arthur . He also had a small role in Herbie Rides Again , also released in 1974. The next year, he appeared as "Regent Appleby" in The Strongest Man in the World . His final film role came in 1976 in the Western film Baker's Hawk , starring Clint Walker and Burl Ives .
In 2000 TVLand created a series of commercials celebrating the often-seen but little-known-by-name character actors who regularly appeared in their shows, with Mustin being featured in one.
Mustin was one of the 110 original founders of the Pittsburgh chapter of the Lions Club which was established in 1921. He served as one of the presidents and remained active in the club for the remainder of his life. [1]
Mustin married Frances Robina Woods in 1915. The couple remained together for 54 years, until her death in 1969. They had no children. [1]
On January 28, 1977, Mustin died at Glendale Memorial Hospital in Glendale, California , at the age of 92. [11] Funeral services were held at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Hollywood Hills, California . [12]
|Year||Title||Role||Notes|
|1951||The Last Outpost||Marshal||Uncredited|
|1951||Detective Story||Willie||Uncredited|
|1952||Talk About a Stranger||Mr. Nicely the Jewler||Uncredited|
|1952||The Sellout||Elk M. Ludens|
|1952||Just Across the Street||Ed Simmons|
|1952||The Lusty Men||Jeremiah Watrus|
|1952||She Couldn't Say No||Amos||Uncredited|
|1953||The Silver Whip||Uncle Ben Nunan||Uncredited|
|1953||One Girl's Confession||Gardener|
|1953||Half a Hero||Granddad Radwell||Uncredited|
|1953||Vicki||Hotel Bellboy||Uncredited|
|1953||The Moonlighter||Turnkey||Uncredited|
|1953||A Lion Is in the Streets||Swift||Uncredited|
|1954||Executive Suite||Sam Teal||Uncredited|
|1954||Gypsy Colt||Charlie||Uncredited|
|1954||Witness to Murder||Building Night Watchman at End||Uncredited|
|1954||Silver Lode||Spectator at Oration||Uncredited|
|1954||Cattle Queen of Montana||Dan|
|1954||Day of Triumph||Man in the City||Uncredited|
|1955||Prince of Players||Miner||Uncredited|
|1955||The Desperate Hours||Carl||Uncredited|
|1955||The Return of Jack Slade||Gunsmith||Uncredited|
|1955||Man with the Gun||Hotel Desk Clerk||Uncredited|
|1956||Great Day in the Morning||Doctor||Uncredited|
|1956||Storm Center||Carl||Uncredited|
|1956||Edge of Hell||Mr. Morrison|
|1956||These Wilder Years||Old Man||Uncredited|
|1957||Raintree County||Old gent with "Flash"||Uncredited|
|1958||The Sheepman||Man on Stairs||Uncredited|
|1958||Rally Round the Flag, Boys!||Milton Evans, Town Meeting Chairman||Uncredited|
|1959||The FBI Story||Uncle Fudd Schneider||Uncredited|
|1960||Home from the Hill||Gas station attendant||Uncredited|
|1961||The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn||Old Farmer with Shotgun||Uncredited|
|1961||Snow White and the Three Stooges||Farmer||Uncredited|
|1962||All Fall Down||Second Tramp||Uncredited|
|1962||Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man||Old Soldier||Uncredited|
|1963||Son of Flubber||Bailiff||Uncredited|
|1963||The Thrill of It All||The Fraleigh butler|
|1963||Twilight of Honor||Court Clerk||Uncredited|
|1964||The Misadventures of Merlin Jones||Bailiff||Uncredited|
|1964||What a Way to Go!||Crawleyville Lawyer||Uncredited|
|1964||The Killers||Elderly Man|
|1964||Sex and the Single Girl||Harvey||Uncredited|
|1965||Cat Ballou||Accuser|
|1965||The Cincinnati Kid||Old Man in Pool Hall||Uncredited|
|1966||The Ghost and Mr. Chicken||Mr. Deligondo||Uncredited|
|1967||The Adventures of Bullwhip Griffin||Townsman||Uncredited|
|1967||The Reluctant Astronaut||Ned||Uncredited|
|1968||Speedway||Janitor at Coffee Shop||Uncredited|
|1968||The Shakiest Gun in the West||Old Artimus||Uncredited|
|1969||The Witchmaker||Boatman|
|1969||The Great Bank Robbery||Glazier||Uncredited|
|1969||Hail, Hero!||Old Man #2|
|1969||A Time for Dying||Ed|
|1970||Tiger by the Tail||Tom Dugger|
|1971||Skin Game||Liveryman in Fair Shake||Uncredited|
|1972||Now You See Him, Now You Don't||Mr. Reed||Uncredited|
|1974||Herbie Rides Again||Rich Man in Mansion|
|1974||Mame||Uncle Jeff|
|1975||The Strongest Man in the World||Regent Appleby|
|1975||Train Ride to Hollywood||George|
|1976||Baker's Hawk||General||(final film role)|
|Year||Title||Role||Notes|
|1951||The Adventures of Kit Carson||Dave Lowery||Episode: "Fury at Red Gulch"|
|1953||The Stu Erwin Show||Uncle Lucious Erwin||Episode: "In the Shade of the Old Family Tree"|
|1954||Father Knows Best||Old Eddie Gilbert||Episode: "Grandpa Jim's Rejuvenation"|
|1955||The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin||Jameson Penrose||Episode: "The Legacy of Sean O'Hara"|
|1956||Science Fiction Theatre||Mr. Stevenson||Episode: "Brain Unlimited"|
|1957||State Trooper||John Daka||Episode: "Room Service for 321"|
|1957–1958||Date with the Angels||Mr. Finley||5 episodes|
|1957–1962||Leave It to Beaver||Gus the Fireman||15 episodes|
|1958||Maverick||Henry||Episode: "The Day They Hanged Bret Maverick"|
|1958||The Restless Gun||Man Playing Checkers||Episode: "A Pressing Engagement"|
|1959||Cimarron City||Episode 1, Season 1|
|1959||Peter Gunn||Cab driver||Episode: "The Rifle"|
|1959||Tombstone Territory||Lucky Jack Oliver||Episode: "The Black Diamond"|
|1960||General Electric Theater||Burt||Episode: " Adam's Apples "|
|1960||The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis||Jethro R. Wiggins J.P.||Episode: "Here Comes the Groom"|
|1960||The Dennis O'Keefe Show||Grandpa Clayhipple||Episode: "June Thursday"|
|1960||Mr. Lucky||Uncle Billy||Episode: "The Leadville Kid Gang"|
|1960||The Twilight Zone||Bert||Episode: " Night of the Meek "|
|1961||Thriller||The Redcap||Episode: "A Third for Pinochle"|
|1961||My Three Sons||Max||1 episode|
|1961||Peter Gunn||Old Man||Episode: "Down the Drain"|
|1961–1962||Ichabod and Me||Olaf||4 episodes|
|1961–1966||Bonanza||Various characters||4 episodes|
|1961–1966||The Andy Griffith Show||Jud Fletcher||14 episodes|
|1962||Shannon||Mr. Munday||Episode: "The Medal"|
|1962||The Twilight Zone||Old Man in Rest Home||Episode: " Kick the Can "|
|1963||The Alfred Hitchcock Hour|| Mr. Bell |
Jury foreman (uncredited)
| Episode: "Nothing Ever Happens in Linvale"; |
Episode: "The Star Juror"
|1963||The Dick Van Dyke Show||Mr. Donald Lucas Parker||Episode: " Very Old Shoes, Very Old Rice"|
|1963–1964||The New Phil Silvers Show||Magruder||Episodes: "Who Do Voodoo? Harry Do!" and "Moonlight and Dozes"|
|1964||The Fugitive||Charley||Episode: "Nicest Fella You'd Ever Want to Meet"|
|1965||Hank||Pete||Episode: "Candidate"|
|1965||Get Smart||Agent 8||Episode: "Dear Diary"|
|1966||Batman||Old MacDonald||Episode 48: "The Yegg Foes in Gotham"|
|1966||Bewitched||Various characters||3 episodes|
|1967||Dragnet||Fred Gregory||Episode : "The Bank Examiner Swindle"|
|1967||Monkees||Kimba||Episode : "Monkees Marooned"|
|1967||The Girl from U.N.C.L.E.||Jan Streich||Episode: "The Moulin Ruse Affair"|
|1968||Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.||Mr. Ferguson||Episode: "Gomer Goes Home"|
|1968||Gunsmoke||Uncle Finney||Episode: "Uncle Finney"|
|1968||Dragnet||Charles Augustus William Smith||Episode: "The Senior Citizen"|
|1969||The Good Guys||Kiley||Episode: "A Chimp Named Sam"|
|1969||Dragnet||Calvin Lampe||Episode: "Homicide: DR 22"|
|1970||The Ghost & Mrs. Muir||Mr. Homer||Episode: "Pardon My Ghost"|
|1970–1974||Adam-12||Various characters||5 episodes|
|1971||The Mary Tyler Moore Show||The Old Man||Episode: "Second Story Story"|
|1971||The New Andy Griffith Show||Mr. Ormstead||Episode: "Glen Campbell Visits"|
|1971||All in the Family||Harry Feeney||Episode: "Archie Is Worried About His Job"|
|1971||Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In||Himself + various characters||Season 5, Episode 13|
|1973||Here's Lucy||Mr. Robertson||Episode: "Lucy and Joan Rivers Do Jury Duty"|
|1973||The Brady Bunch||Jethroe Collins||Episode: "Bobby's Hero"|
|1973||Sanford and Son||Mr. Malloy||Episode: "Home Sweet Home for the Aged"|
|1973–1976||All in the Family||Justin Quigley||4 episodes|
|1974||Rhoda||Sleeping Man||Episode: "The Honeymoon"|
|1974–1976||The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson||Himself||13 episodes|
|1975||Emergency!||Various characters||2 episodes|
|1975||Switch||Old man||Episode: "The Deadly Missiles Caper"|
|1976||The Moneychangers||Jack Henderson||Miniseries|
|1976–1977||Phyllis||Arthur Lanson||4 episodes| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Mustin | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Burt Mustin: This 'Andy Griffith Show' Character Actor Began His Career in His 60s | By Courtney Fox |
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Sometimes good character actors are just as memorable as the most prominent leading stars. That was certainly the case for Burt Mustin, who is recognizable for appearing in some of the most beloved sitcoms of all time. Whether you remember him from his days as Gus the Fireman on Leave It to Beaver or Jud Fletcher on The Andy Griffith Show , chances are you know Burt Mustin's face. One of the most interesting things about him though isn't his lengthy resume of TV shows he appeared on over the years. It's the fact that he didn't even appear in front of the camera until he was 67 years old.
Burton Hill Mustin grew up in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, later receiving his degree in civil engineering from Pennsylvania Military College's class of 1903. Over the years, he worked as a car salesman and eventually became an agent for the Better Business Bureau. By the time he eventually retired in Tucson, Arizona with his wife Frances, he had occasionally dabbled in acting and singing as a hobby. But that was about it. He was in for a real surprise when director William Wyler was in the audience for his stage production of Detective Story. Wyler told Mustin to consider a professional acting career and even cast him in his film version of Detective Story starring Kirk Douglas and Eleanor Parker. Mustin explained his fascinating life story in a particularly charming interview on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson .
Just like that, Mustin's life was starting over in his late 60s and he moved to Los Angeles to pursue more acting work in Hollywood. He appeared as the "old man" on pretty much every classic TV series you could think of -- My Three Sons , The Mary Tyler Moore Show , Dragnet , Bonanza , The Twilight Zone , The Red Skelton Hour , Alfred Hitchcock Hour , Love American Style , Bewitched , and more. He had small roles on All In The Family , The Lone Ranger , Petticoat Junction , The Monkees , The Lucy Show , Sanford and Son , Gunsmoke , The Beverly Hillbillies , The Brady Bunch , The Dick Van Dyke Show , The Jack Benny Program , and Get Smart . His IMDB just goes on and on and on.
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He appeared in 14 episodes of Andy Griffith , even crossing over into Gomer Pyle U.S.M.C. , and Mayberry R.F.D . At the very end of his career, Mustin appeared in a few episodes of Phyllis as Arthur Lanson, the love interest of Mother Dexter. Just a few months later in 1977, Mustin passed away in Glendale, California at the age of 92. Quite a way to end such a legendary career! While you may not have realized his name, you definitely know Burt Mustin's face and should fondly remember him as one of the most iconic character actors of his time. | https://www.wideopencountry.com/burt-mustin/ | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | At the age of 84, Mayberry regular Burt Mustin made his singing debut with Elvis and a mop | May 6, 2021, 3:13PM By MeTV Staff
Speedway / M-G-M
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In 1968, Burt Mustin flew to his hometown of Chester, Pennsylvania, for his 65th college reunion. He had a lot to brag about. He technically "retired" and moved away from the Pittsburgh area two decades earlier, but that is when his career truly took off. After being discovered in Arizona, Mustin became an in-demand character actor. He would land recurring roles on two beloved sitcoms, as Gus the fireman on Leave It to Beaver and Jud on The Andy Griffith Show . And these were just two of his roles. Before he hopped on the plane in California, he had just completed work on his 283rd television show.
If only the Pennsylvania Military College Class of 1903 could see him now. Unfortunately, Mustin was the only surviving member of his graduating class.
He was sad to discover he was the only living '03 grad, but he took it in stride. "I've made many friends with other graduates, and it's good to see them," he told the local paper, The Delaware County Daily Times .
Movies and television kept Mustin spry. "I'll never get rich," he admitted to The Pittsburgh Post Gazette upon his reunion, "but every bit of it is a bonus."
Even at his old age, Mustin continued to surprise the people in Hollywood. Even Elvis Presley.
Mustin had recently wrapped on Speedway , a 1968 Elvis flick with Nancy Sinatra. Late in the film, Elvis and Sinatra have a lover's spat in a coffee shop at closing time. Naturally, the lovebirds make up, as Elvis coos a song to his gal. Mustin is the old-timer manning the counter and cleaning up the café.
But the scene needed something else — a funny beat at the end. Someone suggested having Mustin sing. To a mop.
Nobody at the studio had any notion that Mustin could sing. Little did they know, Mustin had spent decades singing in barbershop quartets back when he was a car salesman in Pittsburgh.
"They were so happy they had found an oldtimer who could sing," Mustin told the Daily Times .
Mustin joked to Elvis that he could leave the set for the mop serenade.
"Not on your life," Elvis told Mustin. "I want to see what my competition is going to be."
Mustin easily cruised through his eight bars, nailed singing in the same key as the King. Mustin had been a baritone in barbershop competition for years. Easy peasy.
Even at the age of 84, the actor had plenty of life and work left in him. That same year he appeared in a wonderful episode of Dragnet , playing a deceptively able cat burglar in "The Senior Citizen," and turned up in one of the funniest (yes, funniest) episodes of Gunsmoke , as the title role in "Uncle Finney."
In the Seventies, he stole scenes on All in the Family , and even, at least, got a starring role on a sitcom of his own, The Funny Side . Who says life ends at "retirement"? | https://www.metv.com/stories/at-the-age-of-84-burt-mustin-made-his-singing-debut-with-elvis-and-a-mop | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Burt Mustin: This 'Andy Griffith Show' Character Actor Began His Career in His 60s | By Courtney Fox |
Advertisement
Sometimes good character actors are just as memorable as the most prominent leading stars. That was certainly the case for Burt Mustin, who is recognizable for appearing in some of the most beloved sitcoms of all time. Whether you remember him from his days as Gus the Fireman on Leave It to Beaver or Jud Fletcher on The Andy Griffith Show , chances are you know Burt Mustin's face. One of the most interesting things about him though isn't his lengthy resume of TV shows he appeared on over the years. It's the fact that he didn't even appear in front of the camera until he was 67 years old.
Burton Hill Mustin grew up in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, later receiving his degree in civil engineering from Pennsylvania Military College's class of 1903. Over the years, he worked as a car salesman and eventually became an agent for the Better Business Bureau. By the time he eventually retired in Tucson, Arizona with his wife Frances, he had occasionally dabbled in acting and singing as a hobby. But that was about it. He was in for a real surprise when director William Wyler was in the audience for his stage production of Detective Story. Wyler told Mustin to consider a professional acting career and even cast him in his film version of Detective Story starring Kirk Douglas and Eleanor Parker. Mustin explained his fascinating life story in a particularly charming interview on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson .
Just like that, Mustin's life was starting over in his late 60s and he moved to Los Angeles to pursue more acting work in Hollywood. He appeared as the "old man" on pretty much every classic TV series you could think of -- My Three Sons , The Mary Tyler Moore Show , Dragnet , Bonanza , The Twilight Zone , The Red Skelton Hour , Alfred Hitchcock Hour , Love American Style , Bewitched , and more. He had small roles on All In The Family , The Lone Ranger , Petticoat Junction , The Monkees , The Lucy Show , Sanford and Son , Gunsmoke , The Beverly Hillbillies , The Brady Bunch , The Dick Van Dyke Show , The Jack Benny Program , and Get Smart . His IMDB just goes on and on and on.
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He appeared in 14 episodes of Andy Griffith , even crossing over into Gomer Pyle U.S.M.C. , and Mayberry R.F.D . At the very end of his career, Mustin appeared in a few episodes of Phyllis as Arthur Lanson, the love interest of Mother Dexter. Just a few months later in 1977, Mustin passed away in Glendale, California at the age of 92. Quite a way to end such a legendary career! While you may not have realized his name, you definitely know Burt Mustin's face and should fondly remember him as one of the most iconic character actors of his time. | https://www.wideopencountry.com/burt-mustin/ | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Burt Mustin - Rotten Tomatoes | Lowest Rated: 10% Raintree County (1957)
Birthday: Feb 8, 1884
Birthplace: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
Prolific character actor Burt Mustin didn't make his screen debut until he was 67 years old. A longtime salesman, Mustin got a taste for the performing arts when he began hosting a radio variety show in his hometown of Pittsburgh in 1921. From there, he tried his hand at theater and became a member of the Pittsburgh Savoyards, a theater troupe known for their Gilbert and Sullivan productions. Though Mustin wasn't much of a singer, he was unquestionably an asset to the group, as his character roles garnered rave reviews. Mustin moved to California in the 1950s and soon made his way into film and television. He quickly became a fixture in both, appearing in nearly 170 productions over the next 25 years. Despite a long list of one-off roles and quirky recurring characters, Mustin is best remembered as Gus the Fireman on the long-running family comedy "Leave It to Beaver." The beloved and diligent character actor made his final onscreen appearance in 1976 in the family-friendly Western "Baker's Hawk." After a career that crossed the United States, took him to stage and screen, and introduced him to countless stars, Burt Mustin died in 1977. He was 92 years old. | https://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/burt_mustin | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | The Amazing Burt Mustin from Leave It To Beaver and The Andy Griffith Show | Leave it to beaver, The andy griffith show, Andy griffith | Video by
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I remember Burt Mustin best as Gus the Fireman on Leave It To Beaver and as Jud Fletcher on The Andy Griffith Show. Here's the story of how this car salesma...
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Actor. Born Jacob Aaron Gellman in New York City, New York, his father worked in the fur industry, and his mother owned a restaurant. Discovered working in a pharmacy by comedian Milton Berle, he began performing in amateur theater, where he started doing imitations and impersonations. His first appearance in motion... | https://www.pinterest.com/pin/the-amazing-burt-mustin-from-leave-it-to-beaver-and-the-andy-griffith-show-youtube--778630223057578223/ | 2 |
who played gus the fireman on leave it to beaver | Burt Mustin: This 'Andy Griffith Show' Character Actor Began His Career in His 60s | By Courtney Fox |
Advertisement
Sometimes good character actors are just as memorable as the most prominent leading stars. That was certainly the case for Burt Mustin, who is recognizable for appearing in some of the most beloved sitcoms of all time. Whether you remember him from his days as Gus the Fireman on Leave It to Beaver or Jud Fletcher on The Andy Griffith Show , chances are you know Burt Mustin's face. One of the most interesting things about him though isn't his lengthy resume of TV shows he appeared on over the years. It's the fact that he didn't even appear in front of the camera until he was 67 years old.
Burton Hill Mustin grew up in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, later receiving his degree in civil engineering from Pennsylvania Military College's class of 1903. Over the years, he worked as a car salesman and eventually became an agent for the Better Business Bureau. By the time he eventually retired in Tucson, Arizona with his wife Frances, he had occasionally dabbled in acting and singing as a hobby. But that was about it. He was in for a real surprise when director William Wyler was in the audience for his stage production of Detective Story. Wyler told Mustin to consider a professional acting career and even cast him in his film version of Detective Story starring Kirk Douglas and Eleanor Parker. Mustin explained his fascinating life story in a particularly charming interview on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson .
Just like that, Mustin's life was starting over in his late 60s and he moved to Los Angeles to pursue more acting work in Hollywood. He appeared as the "old man" on pretty much every classic TV series you could think of -- My Three Sons , The Mary Tyler Moore Show , Dragnet , Bonanza , The Twilight Zone , The Red Skelton Hour , Alfred Hitchcock Hour , Love American Style , Bewitched , and more. He had small roles on All In The Family , The Lone Ranger , Petticoat Junction , The Monkees , The Lucy Show , Sanford and Son , Gunsmoke , The Beverly Hillbillies , The Brady Bunch , The Dick Van Dyke Show , The Jack Benny Program , and Get Smart . His IMDB just goes on and on and on.
Advertisement
He appeared in 14 episodes of Andy Griffith , even crossing over into Gomer Pyle U.S.M.C. , and Mayberry R.F.D . At the very end of his career, Mustin appeared in a few episodes of Phyllis as Arthur Lanson, the love interest of Mother Dexter. Just a few months later in 1977, Mustin passed away in Glendale, California at the age of 92. Quite a way to end such a legendary career! While you may not have realized his name, you definitely know Burt Mustin's face and should fondly remember him as one of the most iconic character actors of his time. | https://www.wideopencountry.com/burt-mustin/ | 2 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | Prohibition in the United States | For the prohibition of slavery, see Abolitionism in the United States .
3:17
In the United States from 1920 to 1933, a nationwide constitutional law prohibited the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages . [1] The alcohol industry was curtailed by a succession of state legislatures, and finally ended nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , ratified on January 16, 1919. Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment , which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933.
Led by pietistic Protestants , prohibitionists first attempted to end the trade in alcoholic drinks during the 19th century. They aimed to heal what they saw as an ill society beset by alcohol-related problems such as alcoholism , family violence , and saloon -based political corruption . Many communities introduced alcohol bans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and enforcement of these new prohibition laws became a topic of debate. Prohibition supporters, called "drys", presented it as a battle for public morals and health. The movement was taken up by progressives in the Prohibition , Democratic and Republican parties, and gained a national grassroots base through the Woman's Christian Temperance Union . After 1900, it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League . Opposition from the beer industry mobilized "wet" supporters from the wealthy Roman Catholic and German Lutheran communities, but the influence of these groups receded from 1917 following the entry of the U.S. into the First World War against Germany.
The Eighteenth amendment passed in 1919 "with a 68 percent supermajority in the House of Representatives and 76 percent support in the Senate" and was ratified by 46 out of 48 states. [2] Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act , set down the rules for enforcing the federal ban and defined the types of alcoholic beverages that were prohibited. Not all alcohol was banned; for example, religious use of wine was permitted. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, but local laws were stricter in many areas, some states banning possession outright.
Following the ban, criminal gangs gained control of the beer and liquor supply in many cities. By the late 1920s, a new opposition to Prohibition emerged nationwide. Critics attacked the policy as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing "rural" Protestant religious values on "urban" America. [3] The Twenty-first Amendment ended Prohibition, though it continued in some states. To date, this is the only time in American history in which a constitutional amendment was passed for the purpose of repealing another.
Some research indicates that alcohol consumption declined substantially due to Prohibition. [4] [5] Rates of liver cirrhosis , alcoholic psychosis , and infant mortality also declined. [4] [6] [7] Other research indicates that Prohibition did not reduce alcohol consumption in the long term. [8] [9] [10] Prohibition's effect on rates of crime and violence is disputed. [10] [11] [12] Prohibition lost supporters every year it was in action, and lowered government tax revenues at a critical time before and during the Great Depression . [13]
On November 18, 1918, prior to ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, the U.S. Congress passed the temporary Wartime Prohibition Act, which banned the sale of alcoholic beverages having an alcohol content of greater than 1.28%. [14] This act, which had been intended to save grain for the war effort, was passed after the armistice ending World War I was signed on November 11, 1918. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30, 1919, with July 1 becoming known as the "Thirsty First". [15] [16]
The U.S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18, 1917. Upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16, 1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, on January 17, 1920. [17] [18]
On October 28, 1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act , the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilson 's veto . The act established the legal definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. [19] Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the federal government lacked resources to enforce it.
Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, cirrhosis death rates, admissions to state mental hospitals for alcoholic psychosis, arrests for public drunkenness, and rates of absenteeism. [6] [20] [21] While many state that Prohibition stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized and widespread criminal activity , [22] Kenneth D. Rose and Georges-Franck Pinard maintain that there was no increase in crime during the Prohibition era and that such claims are "rooted in the impressionistic rather than the factual." [23] [24] By 1925, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs in New York City alone. [25] Wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. [26]
On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act , legalizing beer with an alcohol content of 3.2% (by weight) and wine of a similarly low alcohol content. Subsequently on December 5, ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment. However, United States federal law still prohibits the manufacture of distilled spirits without meeting numerous licensing requirements that make it impractical to produce spirits for personal beverage use. [27]
Consumption of alcoholic beverages has been a contentious topic in America since the colonial period . On March 26, 1636 the legislature of New Somersetshire met at what is now Saco, Maine and adopted a law limiting the sale of "strong liquor or wyne," although carving out exceptions for "lodger[s]" and allowing serving to "laborers on working days for one hower at dinner." [28] In May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts made the sale of strong liquor "whether known by the name of rum, whisky, wine, brandy, etc." to the Native Americans illegal. [29] [ dubious – discuss ]
In general, informal social controls in the home and community helped maintain the expectation that the abuse of alcohol was unacceptable: "Drunkenness was condemned and punished, but only as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itself was not looked upon as culpable, any more than food deserved blame for the sin of gluttony . Excess was a personal indiscretion." [30] When informal controls failed, there were legal options.
Shortly after the United States obtained independence, the Whiskey Rebellion took place in western Pennsylvania in protest of government-imposed taxes on whiskey . Although the taxes were primarily levied to help pay down the newly formed national debt , it also received support from some social reformers, who hoped a " sin tax " would raise public awareness about the harmful effects of alcohol. [31] The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson 's Democratic-Republican Party , which opposed the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton , came to power in 1800. [32]
Benjamin Rush , one of the foremost physicians of the late 18th century, believed in moderation rather than prohibition. In his treatise, "The Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind" (1784), Rush argued that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to physical and psychological health, labeling drunkenness as a disease. [33] Apparently influenced by Rush's widely discussed belief, about 200 farmers in a Connecticut community formed a temperance association in 1789. Similar associations were formed in Virginia in 1800 and New York in 1808. [34] Within a decade, other temperance groups had formed in eight states, some of them being statewide organizations. The words of Rush and other early temperance reformers served to dichotomize the use of alcohol for men and women. While men enjoyed drinking and often considered it vital to their health, women who began to embrace the ideology of "true motherhood" refrained from the consumption of alcohol. Middle-class women, who were considered the moral authorities of their households, consequently rejected the drinking of alcohol, which they believed to be a threat to the home. [34] In 1830, on average, Americans consumed 1.7 bottles of hard liquor per week, three times the amount consumed in 2010. [22]
The American Temperance Society (ATS), formed in 1826, helped initiate the first temperance movement and served as a foundation for many later groups. By 1835 the ATS had reached 1.5 million members, with women constituting 35% to 60% of its chapters. [35]
The Prohibition movement, also known as the dry crusade, continued in the 1840s, spearheaded by pietistic religious denominations, especially the Methodists . The late 19th century saw the temperance movement broaden its focus from abstinence to include all behavior and institutions related to alcohol consumption. Preachers such as Reverend Mark A. Matthews linked liquor-dispensing saloons with political corruption. [36]
Some successes for the movement were achieved in the 1850s, including the Maine law , adopted in 1851, which banned the manufacture and sale of liquor. Before its repeal in 1856, 12 states followed the example set by Maine in total prohibition. [37] The temperance movement lost strength and was marginalized during the American Civil War (1861–1865). Following the war, social moralists turned to other issues, such as Mormon polygamy and the temperance movement . [38] [39] [40]
The dry crusade was revived by the national Prohibition Party , founded in 1869, and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1874. The WCTU advocated the prohibition of alcohol as a method for preventing, through education, abuse from alcoholic husbands. [41] WCTU members believed that if their organization could reach children with its message, it could create a dry sentiment leading to prohibition. Frances Willard , the second president of the WCTU, held that the aims of the organization were to create a "union of women from all denominations, for the purpose of educating the young, forming a better public sentiment, reforming the drinking classes, transforming by the power of Divine grace those who are enslaved by alcohol, and removing the dram-shop from our streets by law". [42] While still denied universal voting privileges, women in the WCTU followed Frances Willard's "Do Everything" doctrine and used temperance as a method of entering into politics and furthering other progressive issues such as prison reform and labor laws . [43]
In 1881 Kansas became the first state to outlaw alcoholic beverages in its Constitution . [44] Arrested over 30 times and fined and jailed on multiple occasions, prohibition activist Carrie Nation attempted to enforce the state's ban on alcohol consumption. [45] She walked into saloons, scolding customers, and used her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor. Nation recruited ladies into the Carrie Nation Prohibition Group, which she also led. While Nation's vigilante techniques were rare, other activists enforced the dry cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloonkeepers to stop selling alcohol. [46] Other dry states , especially those in the South , enacted prohibition legislation, as did individual counties within a state.
Court cases also debated the subject of prohibition. While some cases ruled in opposition, the general tendency was toward support. In Mugler v. Kansas (1887), Justice Harlan commented: "We cannot shut out of view the fact, within the knowledge of all, that the public health, the public morals, and the public safety, may be endangered by the general use of intoxicating drinks; nor the fact established by statistics accessible to every one, that the idleness, disorder, pauperism and crime existing in the country, are, in some degree...traceable to this evil." [47] In support of prohibition, Crowley v. Christensen (1890), remarked: "The statistics of every state show a greater amount of crime and misery attributable to the use of ardent spirits obtained at these retail liquor saloons than to any other source." [47]
The proliferation of neighborhood saloons in the post-Civil War era became a phenomenon of an increasingly industrialized, urban workforce. Workingmen's bars were popular social gathering places from the workplace and home life. The brewing industry was actively involved in establishing saloons as a lucrative consumer base in their business chain. Saloons were more often than not linked to a specific brewery, where the saloonkeeper's operation was financed by a brewer and contractually obligated to sell the brewer's product to the exclusion of competing brands. A saloon's business model often included the offer of a free lunch , where the bill of fare commonly consisted of heavily salted food meant to induce thirst and the purchase of drink. [48] During the Progressive Era (1890–1920), hostility toward saloons and their political influence became widespread, with the Anti-Saloon League superseding the Prohibition Party and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union as the most influential advocate of prohibition, after these latter two groups expanded their efforts to support other social reform issues, such as women's suffrage , onto their prohibition platform. [49]
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Prohibition was an important force in state and local politics from the 1840s through the 1930s. Numerous historical studies demonstrated that the political forces involved were ethnoreligious. [50] Prohibition was supported by the dries, primarily pietistic Protestant denominations that included Methodists , Northern Baptists , Southern Baptists , New School Presbyterians , Disciples of Christ , Congregationalists , Quakers , and Scandinavian Lutherans , but also included the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America and, to a certain extent, the Latter-day Saints . These religious groups identified saloons as politically corrupt and drinking as a personal sin. Other active organizations included the Women's Church Federation, the Women's Temperance Crusade, and the Department of Scientific Temperance Instruction. They were opposed by the wets, primarily liturgical Protestants ( Episcopalians and German Lutherans) and Roman Catholics , who denounced the idea that the government should define morality. [51] Even in the wet stronghold of New York City there was an active prohibition movement, led by Norwegian church groups and African-American labor activists who believed that prohibition would benefit workers, especially African Americans. Tea merchants and soda fountain manufacturers generally supported prohibition, believing a ban on alcohol would increase sales of their products. [52] A particularly effective operator on the political front was Wayne Wheeler of the Anti-Saloon League , [53] who made Prohibition a wedge issue and succeeded in getting many pro-prohibition candidates elected. Coming from Ohio, his deep resentment for alcohol started at a young age. He was injured on a farm by a worker who had been drunk. This event transformed Wheeler. Starting low in the ranks, he quickly moved up due to his deep-rooted hatred of alcohol. He later realized to further the movement he would need more public approval, and fast. This was the start of his policy called 'wheelerism' where he used the media to make it seem like the general public was "in on" on a specific issue. Wheeler became known as the "dry boss" because of his influence and power. [54]
Prohibition represented a conflict between urban and rural values emerging in the United States. Given the mass influx of migrants to the urban centers of the United States, many individuals within the prohibition movement associated the crime and morally corrupt behavior of American cities with their large, immigrant populations. Saloons frequented by immigrants in these cities were often frequented by politicians who wanted to obtain the immigrants' votes in exchange for favors such as job offers, legal assistance, and food baskets. Thus, saloons were seen as a breeding ground for political corruption . [55]
Most economists during the early 20th century were in favor of the enactment of the Eighteenth Amendment (Prohibition). [56] Simon Patten , one of the leading advocates for prohibition, predicted that prohibition would eventually happen in the United States for competitive and evolutionary reasons. Yale economics professor Irving Fisher , who was a dry, wrote extensively about prohibition, including a paper that made an economic case for prohibition. [57] Fisher is credited with supplying the criteria against which future prohibitions, such as against marijuana , could be measured, in terms of crime, health, and productivity. For example, " Blue Monday " referred to the hangover workers experienced after a weekend of binge drinking , resulting in Mondays being a wasted productive day. [58] But new research has discredited Fisher's research, which was based on uncontrolled experiments; regardless, his $6 billion figure for the annual gains of Prohibition to the United States continues to be cited. [59]
In a backlash to the emerging reality of a changing American demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to the doctrine of nativism , in which they endorsed the notion that the success of America was a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. This belief fostered distrust of immigrant communities that fostered saloons and incorporated drinking in their popular culture. [60]
Two other amendments to the Constitution were championed by dry crusaders to help their cause. One was granted in the Sixteenth Amendment (1913), which replaced alcohol taxes that funded the federal government with a federal income tax. [61] The other was women's suffrage, which was granted after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920; since women tended to support prohibition, temperance organizations tended to support women's suffrage. [61]
In the presidential election of 1916 , the Democratic incumbent, Woodrow Wilson , and the Republican candidate, Charles Evans Hughes , ignored the prohibition issue, as did both parties' political platforms. Democrats and Republicans had strong wet and dry factions, and the election was expected to be close, with neither candidate wanting to alienate any part of his political base.
When the 65th Congress convened in March 1917, the dries outnumbered the wets by 140 to 64 in the Democratic Party and 138 to 62 among Republicans. [62] With America's declaration of war against Germany in April, German Americans , a major force against prohibition, were sidelined and their protests subsequently ignored. In addition, a new justification for prohibition arose: prohibiting the production of alcoholic beverages would allow more resources—especially grain that would otherwise be used to make alcohol—to be devoted to the war effort. While wartime prohibition was a spark for the movement, [63] World War I ended before nationwide Prohibition was enacted.
A resolution calling for a Constitutional amendment to accomplish nationwide Prohibition was introduced in Congress and passed by both houses in December 1917. By January 16, 1919, the Amendment had been ratified by 36 of the 48 states, making it law. Eventually, only two states— Connecticut and Rhode Island —opted out of ratifying it. [64] [65] On October 28, 1919, Congress passed enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act , to enforce the Eighteenth Amendment when it went into effect in 1920.
Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, when the Volstead Act went into effect. [67] A total of 1,520 Federal Prohibition agents (police) were tasked with enforcement.
Supporters of the Amendment soon became confident that it would not be repealed. One of its creators, Senator Morris Sheppard , joked that "there is as much chance of repealing the Eighteenth Amendment as there is for a humming-bird to fly to the planet Mars with the Washington Monument tied to its tail." [68]
At the same time, songs emerged decrying the act. After Edward, Prince of Wales , returned to the United Kingdom following his tour of Canada in 1919, he recounted to his father, King George V , a ditty he had heard at a border town:
Four and twenty Yankees, feeling very dry,
Went across the border to get a drink of rye.
When the rye was opened, the Yanks began to sing,
"God bless America, but God save the King!" [69]
Prohibition became highly controversial among medical professionals because alcohol was widely prescribed by the era's physicians for therapeutic purposes. Congress held hearings on the medicinal value of beer in 1921. Subsequently, physicians across the country lobbied for the repeal of Prohibition as it applied to medicinal liquors. [70] From 1921 to 1930, doctors earned about $40 million for whiskey prescriptions. [71]
While the manufacture, importation, sale, and transport of alcohol was illegal in the United States, Section 29 of the Volstead Act allowed wine and cider to be made from fruit at home, but not beer. Up to 200 gallons of wine and cider per year could be made, and some vineyards grew grapes for home use. The Act did not prohibit the consumption of alcohol. Many people stockpiled wines and liquors for their personal use in the latter part of 1919 before sales of alcoholic beverages became illegal in January 1920.
Since alcohol was legal in neighboring countries, distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or smuggled into the United States illegally. The Detroit River , which forms part of the U.S. border with Canada, was notoriously difficult to control, especially rum-running in Windsor , Canada. When the U.S. government complained to the British that American law was being undermined by officials in Nassau , Bahamas , the head of the British Colonial Office refused to intervene. [72] Winston Churchill believed that Prohibition was "an affront to the whole history of mankind". [73]
Three federal agencies were assigned the task of enforcing the Volstead Act: the U.S. Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement, [74] [75] the U.S. Treasury 's IRS Bureau of Prohibition, [76] [77] and the U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Prohibition. [78] [79]
As early as 1925, journalist H. L. Mencken believed that Prohibition was not working. [80] Historian David Oshinsky , summarizing the work of Daniel Okrent , wrote that "Prohibition worked best when directed at its primary target: the working-class poor." [81] Historian Lizabeth Cohen writes: "A rich family could have a cellar-full of liquor and get by, it seemed, but if a poor family had one bottle of home-brew, there would be trouble." [82] Working-class people were inflamed by the fact that their employers could dip into a private cache while they, the employees, could not. [83] Within a week after Prohibition went into effect, small portable stills were on sale throughout the country. [84]
Before the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect in January 1920, many of the upper classes stockpiled alcohol for legal home consumption after Prohibition began. They bought the inventories of liquor retailers and wholesalers, emptying out their warehouses, saloons, and club storerooms. President Woodrow Wilson moved his own supply of alcoholic beverages to his Washington residence after his term of office ended. His successor, Warren G. Harding , relocated his own large supply into the White House. [85] [86]
After the Eighteenth Amendment became law, bootlegging became widespread. In the first six months of 1920, the federal government opened 7,291 cases for Volstead Act violations. [87] In the first complete fiscal year of 1921, the number of cases violating the Volstead Act jumped to 29,114 violations and would rise dramatically over the next thirteen years. [88]
Grape juice was not restricted by Prohibition, even though if it was allowed to sit for sixty days it would ferment and turn to wine with a twelve percent alcohol content. Many people took advantage of this as grape juice output quadrupled during the Prohibition era. [89] Vine-Glo was sold for this purpose and included a specific warning telling people how to make wine from it.
To prevent bootleggers from using industrial ethyl alcohol to produce illegal beverages, the federal government ordered the denaturation of industrial alcohols , meaning they must include additives to make them unpalatable or poisonous. In response, bootleggers hired chemists who successfully removed the additives from the alcohol to make it drinkable. As a response, the Treasury Department required manufacturers to add more deadly poisons, including the particularly deadly combination known as methyl alcohol : 4 parts methanol, 2.25 parts pyridine base, and 0.5 parts benzene per 100 parts ethyl alcohol. [90] New York City medical examiners prominently opposed these policies because of the danger to human life. As many as 10,000 people died from drinking denatured alcohol before Prohibition ended. [91] New York City medical examiner Charles Norris believed the government took responsibility for murder when they knew the poison was not deterring consumption and they continued to poison industrial alcohol (which would be used in drinking alcohol) anyway. Norris remarked: "The government knows it is not stopping drinking by putting poison in alcohol ... [Y]et it continues its poisoning processes, heedless of the fact that people determined to drink are daily absorbing that poison. Knowing this to be true, the United States government must be charged with the moral responsibility for the deaths that poisoned liquor causes, although it cannot be held legally responsible." [91]
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Another lethal substance that was often substituted for alcohol was Sterno , a fuel commonly known as "canned heat." Forcing the substance through a makeshift filter, such as a handkerchief, created a rough liquor substitute; however, the result was poisonous, though not often lethal. [92]
Making alcohol at home was common among some families with wet sympathies during Prohibition. Stores sold grape concentrate with warning labels that listed the steps that should be avoided to prevent the juice from fermenting into wine. Some drugstores sold "medical wine" with around a 22% alcohol content. In order to justify the sale, the wine was given a medicinal taste. [92] Home-distilled hard liquor was called bathtub gin in northern cities, and moonshine in rural areas of Virginia , Kentucky , North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , West Virginia and Tennessee . Homebrewing good hard liquor was easier than brewing good beer. [92] Since selling privately distilled alcohol was illegal and bypassed government taxation, law enforcement officers relentlessly pursued manufacturers. [93] In response, bootleggers modified their cars and trucks by enhancing the engines and suspensions to make faster vehicles that, they assumed, would improve their chances of outrunning and escaping agents of the Bureau of Prohibition , commonly called "revenue agents" or "revenuers". These cars became known as "moonshine runners" or " 'shine runners". [94] Shops with wet sympathies were also known to participate in the underground liquor market, by loading their stocks with ingredients for liquors, including bénédictine , vermouth , scotch mash, and even ethyl alcohol ; anyone could purchase these ingredients legally. [95]
In October 1930, just two weeks before the congressional midterm elections, bootlegger George Cassiday —"the man in the green hat"—came forward and told members of Congress how he had bootlegged for ten years. One of the few bootleggers ever to tell his story, Cassiday wrote five front-page articles for The Washington Post , in which he estimated that 80% of congressmen and senators drank. The Democrats in the North were mostly wets, and in the 1932 election , they made major gains. The wets argued that Prohibition was not stopping crime, and was actually causing the creation of large-scale, well-funded, and well-armed criminal syndicates. As Prohibition became increasingly unpopular, especially in urban areas, its repeal was eagerly anticipated. [96] Wets had the organization and the initiative. They pushed the argument that states and localities needed the tax money. President Herbert Hoover proposed a new constitutional amendment that was vague on particulars and satisfied neither side. Franklin Roosevelt's Democratic platform promised repeal of the 18th Amendment. [97] [98]
When Prohibition was repealed in 1933, many bootleggers and suppliers with wet sympathies simply moved into the legitimate liquor business. Some crime syndicates moved their efforts into expanding their protection rackets to cover legal liquor sales and other business areas. [99]
Doctors were able to prescribe medicinal alcohol for their patients. After just six months of prohibition, over 15,000 doctors and 57,000 pharmacists received licenses to prescribe or sell medicinal alcohol. According to Gastro Obscura ,
Physicians wrote an estimated 11 million prescriptions a year throughout the 1920s, and Prohibition Commissioner John F. Kramer even cited one doctor who wrote 475 prescriptions for whiskey in one day. It wasn’t tough for people to write—and fill—counterfeit subscriptions at pharmacies, either. Naturally, bootleggers bought prescription forms from crooked doctors and mounted widespread scams. In 1931, 400 pharmacists and 1,000 doctors were caught in a scam where doctors sold signed prescription forms to bootleggers. Just 12 doctors and 13 pharmacists were indicted, and the ones charged faced a one-time $50 fine. Selling alcohol through drugstores became so much of a lucrative open secret that it is name-checked in works such as The Great Gatsby. Historians speculate that Charles R. Walgreen , of Walgreen’s fame, expanded from 20 stores to a staggering 525 during the 1920s thanks to medicinal alcohol sales."— Paula Mejia, "The Lucrative Business of Prescribing Booze During Prohibition"; Gastro Obscura, 2017. [100]
Once Prohibition came into effect, the majority of U.S. citizens obeyed it. [20]
Some states like Maryland and New York refused Prohibition. [101] Enforcement of the law under the Eighteenth Amendment lacked a centralized authority. Clergymen were sometimes called upon to form vigilante groups to assist in the enforcement of Prohibition. [102] Furthermore, American geography contributed to the difficulties in enforcing Prohibition. The varied terrain of valleys, mountains, lakes, and swamps, as well as the extensive seaways, ports, and borders which the United States shared with Canada and Mexico made it exceedingly difficult for Prohibition agents to stop bootleggers given their lack of resources. Ultimately it was recognized with its repeal that the means by which the law was to be enforced were not pragmatic, and in many cases, the legislature did not match the general public opinion. [103]
In Cicero , Illinois, (a suburb of Chicago) the prevalence of ethnic communities who had wet sympathies allowed prominent gang leader Al Capone to operate despite the presence of police. [104]
The Ku Klux Klan talked a great deal about denouncing bootleggers and threatened private vigilante action against known offenders. Despite its large membership in the mid-1920s, it was poorly organized and seldom had an impact. Indeed, the KKK after 1925 helped disparage any enforcement of Prohibition. [105]
Prohibition was a major blow to the alcoholic beverage industry and its repeal was a step toward the amelioration of one sector of the economy. An example of this is the case of St. Louis , one of the most important alcohol producers before prohibition started, which was ready to resume its position in the industry as soon as possible. Its major brewery had "50,000 barrels" of beer ready for distribution from March 22, 1933, and was the first alcohol producer to resupply the market; others soon followed. After repeal, stores obtained liquor licenses and restocked for business. After beer production resumed, thousands of workers found jobs in the industry again. [106]
Prohibition created a black market that competed with the formal economy, which came under pressure when the Great Depression struck in 1929. State governments urgently needed the tax revenue alcohol sales had generated. Franklin Roosevelt was elected in 1932 based in part on his promise to end prohibition, which influenced his support for ratifying the Twenty-first Amendment to repeal Prohibition. [107]
Naval Captain William H. Stayton was a prominent figure in the anti-prohibition fight, founding the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment in 1918. The AAPA was the largest of the nearly forty organizations that fought to end Prohibition. [108] Economic urgency played a large part in accelerating the advocacy for repeal. [109] The number of conservatives who pushed for prohibition in the beginning decreased. Many farmers who fought for prohibition now fought for repeal because of the negative effects it had on the agriculture business. [110] Prior to the 1920 implementation of the Volstead Act, approximately 14% of federal, state, and local tax revenues were derived from alcohol commerce. When the Great Depression hit and tax revenues plunged, the governments needed this revenue stream. [111] Millions could be made by taxing beer. There was controversy on whether the repeal should be a state or nationwide decision. [110] On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed an amendment to the Volstead Act, known as the Cullen–Harrison Act , allowing the manufacture and sale of 3.2% beer (3.2% alcohol by weight, approximately 4% alcohol by volume) and light wines. The Volstead Act previously defined an intoxicating beverage as one with greater than 0.5% alcohol. [19] Upon signing the Cullen–Harrison Act, Roosevelt remarked: "I think this would be a good time for a beer." [112] According to a 2017 study in the journal Public Choice , representatives from traditional beer-producing states, as well as Democratic politicians, were most in favor of the bill, but politicians from many Southern states were most strongly opposed to the legislation. [113]
The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed on December 5, 1933, with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . Despite the efforts of Heber J. Grant , president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , the 21 Utah members of the constitutional convention voted unanimously on that day to ratify the Twenty-first Amendment, making Utah the 36th state to do so, and putting the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment over the top in needed voting. [114] [115]
In the late 1930s, after its repeal, two fifths of Americans wished to reinstate national Prohibition. [116]
The Twenty-first Amendment does not prevent states from restricting or banning alcohol; instead, it prohibits the "transportation or importation" of alcohol "into any State, Territory, or Possession of the United States" "in violation of the laws thereof", thus allowing state and local control of alcohol. [117] There are still numerous dry counties and municipalities in the United States that restrict or prohibit liquor sales. [118]
Additionally, many tribal governments prohibit alcohol on Indian reservations . Federal law also prohibits alcohol on Indian reservations, [119] although this law is currently only enforced when there is a concomitant violation of local tribal liquor laws. [120]
After its repeal, some former supporters openly admitted failure. For example, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. , explained his view in a 1932 letter: [121]
When Prohibition was introduced, I hoped that it would be widely supported by public opinion and the day would soon come when the evil effects of alcohol would be recognized. I have slowly and reluctantly come to believe that this has not been the result. Instead, drinking has generally increased; the speakeasy has replaced the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has appeared; many of our best citizens have openly ignored Prohibition; respect for the law has been greatly lessened, and crime has increased to a level never seen before.
It is not clear whether Prohibition reduced per-capita consumption of alcohol. Some historians claim that alcohol consumption in the United States did not exceed pre-Prohibition levels until the 1960s; [122] others claim that alcohol consumption reached the pre-Prohibition levels several years after its enactment, and has continued to rise. [123] Cirrhosis of the liver, a symptom of alcoholism, declined nearly two-thirds during Prohibition. [124] [125] In the decades after Prohibition, any stigma that had been associated with alcohol consumption was erased; according to a Gallup Poll survey conducted almost every year since 1939, two-thirds of American adults age 18 and older drink alcohol. [126]
Shortly after World War II , a national opinion survey found that "About one-third of the people of the United States favor national prohibition." Upon repeal of national prohibition, 18 states continued prohibition at the state level. The last state, Mississippi, finally ended it in 1966. Almost two-thirds of all states adopted some form of local option which enabled residents in political subdivisions to vote for or against local prohibition. Therefore, despite the repeal of prohibition at the national level, 38% of the nation's population lived in areas with state or local prohibition. [127] : 221
In 2014, a CNN nationwide poll found that 18% of Americans "believed that drinking should be illegal". [128]
Prohibition in the early to mid-20th century was mostly fueled by the Protestant denominations in the Southern United States , a region dominated by socially conservative evangelical Protestantism with a very high Christian church attendance. [129] Generally, Evangelical Protestant denominations encouraged prohibition, while the Mainline Protestant denominations disapproved of its introduction. However, there were exceptions to this, such as the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (German Confessional Lutherans), which is typically considered to be in scope of evangelical Protestantism. [130] Pietistic churches in the United States (especially Baptist churches, Methodists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and others in the evangelical tradition) sought to end drinking and the saloon culture during the Third Party System . Liturgical ("high") churches ( Roman Catholic , Episcopal , German Lutheran and others in the mainline tradition) opposed prohibition laws because they did not want the government to reduce the definition of morality to a narrow standard or to criminalize the common liturgical practice of using wine. [131]
Revivalism during the Second Great Awakening and the Third Great Awakening in the mid-to-late 19th century set the stage for the bond between pietistic Protestantism and prohibition in the United States: "The greater prevalence of revival religion within a population, the greater support for the Prohibition parties within that population." [132] Historian Nancy Koester argued that Prohibition was a "victory for progressives and social gospel activists battling poverty". [133] Prohibition also united progressives and revivalists. [134]
The temperance movement had popularized the belief that alcohol was the major cause of most personal and social problems and prohibition was seen as the solution to the nation's poverty, crime, violence, and other ills. [135] Upon ratification of the amendment, the evangelist Billy Sunday said that "The slums will soon be only a memory. We will turn our prisons into factories and our jails into storehouses and corncribs." Since alcohol was to be banned and since it was seen as the cause of most, if not all, crimes, some communities sold their jails . [136]
According to a 2010 review of the academic research on Prohibition, "On balance, Prohibition probably reduced per capita alcohol use and alcohol-related harm, but these benefits eroded over time as an organized black market developed and public support for [national prohibition] declined." [10] One study reviewing city-level drunkenness arrests concluded that prohibition had an immediate effect, but no long-term effect. [8] And, yet another study examining "mortality, mental health and crime statistics" found that alcohol consumption fell, at first, to approximately 30 percent of its pre-Prohibition level; but, over the next several years, increased to about 60–70 percent of its pre-prohibition level. [9] The Eighteenth Amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale and transportation of intoxicating beverages, however, it did not outlaw the possession or consumption of alcohol in the United States, which would allow legal loopholes for consumers possessing alcohol. [137]
Research indicates that rates of cirrhosis of the liver declined significantly during Prohibition and increased after Prohibition's repeal. [4] [6] According to the historian Jack S. Blocker, Jr., "death rates from cirrhosis and alcoholism, alcoholic psychosis hospital admissions, and drunkenness arrests all declined steeply during the latter years of the 1910s, when both the cultural and the legal climate were increasingly inhospitable to drink, and in the early years after National Prohibition went into effect." [20] Studies examining the rates of cirrhosis deaths as a proxy for alcohol consumption estimated a decrease in consumption of 10–20%. [138] [139] [140] National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism studies show clear epidemiological evidence that "overall cirrhosis mortality rates declined precipitously with the introduction of Prohibition," despite widespread flouting of the law. [141]
It is difficult to draw conclusions about Prohibition's impact on crime at the national level, as there were no uniform national statistics gathered about crime prior to 1930. [10] It has been argued that organized crime received a major boost from Prohibition. For example, one study found that organized crime in Chicago tripled during Prohibition. [142] Mafia groups and other criminal organizations and gangs had mostly limited their activities to prostitution , gambling , and theft until 1920, when organized "rum-running" or bootlegging emerged in response to Prohibition. [ citation needed ] A profitable, often violent, black market for alcohol flourished. [143] Prohibition provided a financial basis for organized crime to flourish. [144] In one study of more than 30 major U.S. cities during the Prohibition years of 1920 and 1921, the number of crimes increased by 24%. Additionally, theft and burglaries increased by 9%, homicides by 13%, assaults and battery rose by 13%, drug addiction by 45%, and police department costs rose by 11.4%. This was largely the result of "black-market violence" and the diversion of law enforcement resources elsewhere. Despite the Prohibition movement's hope that outlawing alcohol would reduce crime, the reality was that the Volstead Act led to higher crime rates than were experienced prior to Prohibition and the establishment of a black market dominated by criminal organizations. [145]
A 2016 NBER paper showed that South Carolina counties that enacted and enforced prohibition had homicide rates increase by about 30 to 60 percent relative to counties that did not enforce prohibition. [11] A 2009 study found an increase in homicides in Chicago during Prohibition. [12] However, some scholars have attributed the crime during the Prohibition era to increased urbanization , rather than to the criminalization of alcohol use. [146] In some cities, such as New York City , crime rates decreased during the Prohibition era. [24] Crime rates overall declined from the period of 1849 to 1951, making crime during the Prohibition period less likely to be attributed to the criminalization of alcohol alone. [24] [ why? ]
Mark H. Moore states that contrary to popular opinion, "violent crime did not increase dramatically during Prohibition" and that organized crime "existed before and after" Prohibition. [4] The historian Kenneth D. Rose corroborates historian John Burnham's assertion that during the 1920s "there is no firm evidence of this supposed upsurge in lawlessness" as "no statistics from this period dealing with crime are of any value whatsoever". [23] California State University, Chico historian Kenneth D. Rose writes: [23]
Opponents of prohibition were fond of claiming that the Great Experiment had created a gangster element that had unleashed a "crime wave" on a hapless America. The WONPR's Mrs. Coffin Van Rensselaer, for instance, insisted in 1932 that "the alarming crime wave, which had been piling up to unprecedented height" was a legacy of prohibition. But prohibition can hardly be held responsible for inventing crime, and while supplying illegal liquor proved to be lucrative, it was only an additional source of income to the more traditional criminal activities of gambling, loan sharking, racketeering, and prostitution. The notion of the prohibition-induced crime wave, despite its popularity during the 1920s, cannot be substantiated with any accuracy, because of the inadequacy of records kept by local police departments.
Along with other economic effects, the enactment and enforcement of Prohibition caused an increase in resource costs. During the 1920s the annual budget of the Bureau of Prohibition went from $4.4 million to $13.4 million. Additionally, the U.S. Coast Guard spent an average of $13 million annually on enforcement of prohibition laws. [147] These numbers do not take into account the costs to local and state governments.
According to Harvard University historian Lisa McGirr, Prohibition led to an expansion in the powers of the federal state, as well as helped shape the penal state. [148] According to academic Colin Agur, Prohibition specifically increased the usage of telephone wiretapping by federal agents for evidence collection. [149]
According to Harvard University historian Lisa McGirr, Prohibition had a disproportionately adverse impact on African-Americans, immigrants and poor Whites, as law enforcement used alcohol prohibition against these communities. [148]
A 2021 study in the Journal of Economic History found that counties that adopted Prohibition early subsequently had greater population growth and an increase in farm real estate values. [150]
According to Washington State University , Prohibition had a negative impact on the American economy. Prohibition caused the loss of at least $226 million per annum in tax revenues on liquors alone; supporters of the prohibition expected an increase in the sales of non-alcoholic beverages to replace the money made from alcohol sales, but this did not happen. Furthermore, "Prohibition caused the shutdown of over 200 distilleries, a thousand breweries, and over 170,000 liquor stores". Finally, it is worth noting that "the amount of money used to enforce prohibition started at $6.3 million in 1921 and rose to $13.4 million in 1930, almost double the original amount". [151] A 2015 study estimated that the repeal of Prohibition had a net social benefit of "$432 million per annum in 1934–1937, about 0.33% of gross domestic product. Total benefits of $3.25 billion consist primarily of increased consumer and producer surplus, tax revenues, and reduced criminal violence costs." [152]
When 3.2 percent alcohol beer was legalized in 1933, it created 81,000 jobs within a three-month span. [153]
During the Prohibition era, rates of absenteeism decreased from 10% to 3%. [154] In Michigan, the Ford Motor Company documented "a decrease in absenteeism from 2,620 in April 1918 to 1,628 in May 1918." [21]
As saloons died out, public drinking lost much of its macho connotation, resulting in increased social acceptance of women drinking in the semi-public environment of the speakeasies . This new norm established women as a notable new target demographic for alcohol marketeers, who sought to expand their clientele. [116] Women thus found their way into the bootlegging business, with some discovering that they could make a living by selling alcohol with a minimal likelihood of suspicion by law enforcement. [155] Before prohibition, women who drank publicly in saloons or taverns, especially outside of urban centers like Chicago or New York, were seen as immoral or were likely to be prostitutes. [156]
Heavy drinkers and alcoholics were among the most affected groups during Prohibition. Those who were determined to find liquor could still do so, but those who saw their drinking habits as destructive typically had difficulty in finding the help they sought. Self-help societies had withered away along with the alcohol industry. In 1935 a new self-help group called Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded. [116]
Prohibition also had an effect on the music industry in the United States , specifically with jazz . Speakeasies became very popular, and the Great Depression's migratory effects led to the dispersal of jazz music, from New Orleans going north through Chicago and to New York. This led to the development of different styles in different cities. Due to its popularity in speakeasies and the emergence of advanced recording technology, jazz's popularity skyrocketed. It was also at the forefront of the minimal integration efforts going on at the time, as it united mostly black musicians with mostly white audiences. [157]
Making moonshine was an industry in the American South before and after Prohibition. In the 1950s muscle cars became popular and various roads became known as "Thunder Road" for their use by moonshiners. A popular song was created and the legendary drivers, cars, and routes were depicted on film in Thunder Road . [158] [159] [160] [161]
As a result of Prohibition, the advancements of industrialization within the alcoholic beverage industry were essentially reversed. Large-scale alcohol producers were shut down, for the most part, and some individual citizens took it upon themselves to produce alcohol illegally, essentially reversing the efficiency of mass-producing and retailing alcoholic beverages. Closing the country's manufacturing plants and taverns also resulted in an economic downturn for the industry. While the Eighteenth Amendment did not have this effect on the industry due to its failure to define an "intoxicating" beverage, the Volstead Act 's definition of 0.5% or more alcohol by volume shut down the brewers, who expected to continue to produce beer of moderate strength. [116]
In 1930 the Prohibition Commissioner estimated that in 1919, the year before the Volstead Act became law, the average drinking American spent $17 per year on alcoholic beverages. By 1930, because enforcement diminished the supply, spending had increased to $35 per year (there was no inflation in this period). The result was an illegal alcohol beverage industry that made an average of $3 billion per year in illegal untaxed income. [162]
The Volstead Act specifically allowed individual farmers to make certain wines "on the legal fiction that it was a non-intoxicating fruit-juice for home consumption", [163] and many did so. Enterprising grape farmers produced liquid and semi-solid grape concentrates, often called "wine bricks" or "wine blocks". [164] This demand led California grape growers to increase their land under cultivation by about 700% during the first five years of Prohibition. The grape concentrate was sold with a "warning": "After dissolving the brick in a gallon of water, do not place the liquid in a jug away in the cupboard for twenty days, because then it will turn into wine". [30]
The Volstead Act allowed the sale of sacramental wine to priests and ministers and allowed rabbis to approve sales of kosher wine to individuals for Sabbath and holiday use at home. Among Jews , four rabbinical groups were approved, which led to some competition for membership, since the supervision of sacramental licenses could be used to secure donations to support a religious institution. There were known abuses in this system, with impostors or unauthorized agents using loopholes to purchase wine. [61] [165]
Prohibition had a notable effect on the alcohol brewing industry in the United States. Wine historians note that Prohibition destroyed what was a fledgling wine industry in the United States. Productive, wine-quality grapevines were replaced by lower-quality vines that grew thicker-skinned grapes, which could be more easily transported. Much of the institutional knowledge was also lost as winemakers either emigrated to other wine-producing countries or left the business altogether. [166] Distilled spirits became more popular during Prohibition. [92] Because their alcohol content was higher than that of fermented wine and beer, spirits were often diluted with non-alcoholic drinks. [92]
- ^ Driving Tennessee's "White Lightnin' Trail" – is it the Real Thunder Road? Archived January 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine ; Jack Neely retraces the infamous bootlegger's route as it becomes an official state tourist attraction by Jack Neely MetroPulse June 30, 2010
- ^ Appalachian Journal: The end of Thunder Road Archived February 10, 2014, at the Wayback Machine ; Man known for whiskey cars, moonshine and rare auto parts is selling out by Fred Brown Knoxville News Sentinel February 13, 2007
- ^ E. E. Free (May 1930). "Where America Gets Its Booze: An Interview With Dr. James M. Doran" . Popular Science Monthly . 116 (5): 147. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 7, 2013 .
- ^ "Prohibition: Wine Bricks" . Time . August 17, 1931. Archived from the original on December 14, 2006 . Retrieved May 26, 2013 .
- ^ Kelsey Burnham (April 18, 2010). "Prohibition in Wine Country" . Napa Valley Register . Archived from the original on April 20, 2010 . Retrieved April 18, 2010 .
- ^ Hannah Sprecher. ""Let Them Drink and Forget Our Poverty": Orthodox Rabbis React to Prohibition" (PDF) . American Jewish Archives. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 24, 2021 . Retrieved September 4, 2013 .
- ^ Karen MacNeil . The Wine Bible . pp. 630–631.
- Blocker, Jack S., ed. (2003). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia . ABC-CLIO. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-57607-833-4 . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved October 17, 2015 .
- Burns, Ken ; Novick, Lynn (October 2011). Prohibition . PBS. ISBN 978-1-60883-430-3 . OCLC 738476083 . Archived from the original on December 25, 2020 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 .
- Haygood, Atticus G. Close the Saloons: A Plea for Prohibition . 8th ed. Macon, GA: J.W. Burke, 1880.
- Hopkins, Richard J. "The Prohibition and Crime". The North American Review . Volume: 222. Number: 828. September 1925. 40–44.
- Behr, Edward (1996). Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America . New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1-55970-356-3 .
- Blumenthal, Karen (2011). Bootleg: Murder, Moonshine, and the Lawless Years of Prohibition . New York: Roaring Brook Press. ISBN 1-59643-449-X .
- Burns, Eric (2003). The Spirits of America: A Social History of Alcohol . Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 1-59213-214-6 .
- Clark, Norman H. (1976). Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05584-1 .
- Dunn, John M. Prohibition . Detroit: Lucent Books, 2010. [ ISBN missing ]
- Folsom, Burton W. "Tinkerers, Tipplers, and Traitors: Ethnicity and Democratic Reform in Nebraska During the Progressive Era." Pacific Historical Review (1981) 50#1 pp: 53–75 in JSTOR Archived August 18, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
- Kahn, Gordon, and Al Hirschfeld. (1932, rev. 2003). The Speakeasies of 1932 . New York: Glenn Young Books. ISBN 1-55783-518-7 .
- Karson, Larry, American Smuggling and British white-collar crime: A historical perspective (PDF) , British Society of Criminology, archived (PDF) from the original on December 10, 2022 , retrieved August 7, 2022 .
- Karson, Lawrence. American Smuggling as White Collar Crime. (New York: Routledge, 2014).
- Kavieff, Paul B. (2001). "The Violent Years: Prohibition and the Detroit Mobs". Fort Lee: Barricade Books Inc. ISBN 1-56980-210-6 .
- Kobler, John (1973). Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition . New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-11209-X .
- Kuhl, Jackson (2008). "Prohibition of Alcohol" . In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Archived copy . The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage ; Cato Institute . pp. 400–401. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4 . Archived from the original on January 9, 2023 . Retrieved April 1, 2022 .
- Lawson, Ellen NicKenzie (2013). Smugglers, Bootleggers, and Scofflaws: Prohibition and New York City . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-4816-9 .
- Lerner, Michael A. (2007). Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-02432-X .
- McGirr, Lisa (2015). The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-06695-9 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | Prohibition in the United States | For the prohibition of slavery, see Abolitionism in the United States .
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In the United States from 1920 to 1933, a nationwide constitutional law prohibited the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages . [1] The alcohol industry was curtailed by a succession of state legislatures, and finally ended nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , ratified on January 16, 1919. Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment , which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933.
Led by pietistic Protestants , prohibitionists first attempted to end the trade in alcoholic drinks during the 19th century. They aimed to heal what they saw as an ill society beset by alcohol-related problems such as alcoholism , family violence , and saloon -based political corruption . Many communities introduced alcohol bans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and enforcement of these new prohibition laws became a topic of debate. Prohibition supporters, called "drys", presented it as a battle for public morals and health. The movement was taken up by progressives in the Prohibition , Democratic and Republican parties, and gained a national grassroots base through the Woman's Christian Temperance Union . After 1900, it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League . Opposition from the beer industry mobilized "wet" supporters from the wealthy Roman Catholic and German Lutheran communities, but the influence of these groups receded from 1917 following the entry of the U.S. into the First World War against Germany.
The Eighteenth amendment passed in 1919 "with a 68 percent supermajority in the House of Representatives and 76 percent support in the Senate" and was ratified by 46 out of 48 states. [2] Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act , set down the rules for enforcing the federal ban and defined the types of alcoholic beverages that were prohibited. Not all alcohol was banned; for example, religious use of wine was permitted. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, but local laws were stricter in many areas, some states banning possession outright.
Following the ban, criminal gangs gained control of the beer and liquor supply in many cities. By the late 1920s, a new opposition to Prohibition emerged nationwide. Critics attacked the policy as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing "rural" Protestant religious values on "urban" America. [3] The Twenty-first Amendment ended Prohibition, though it continued in some states. To date, this is the only time in American history in which a constitutional amendment was passed for the purpose of repealing another.
Some research indicates that alcohol consumption declined substantially due to Prohibition. [4] [5] Rates of liver cirrhosis , alcoholic psychosis , and infant mortality also declined. [4] [6] [7] Other research indicates that Prohibition did not reduce alcohol consumption in the long term. [8] [9] [10] Prohibition's effect on rates of crime and violence is disputed. [10] [11] [12] Prohibition lost supporters every year it was in action, and lowered government tax revenues at a critical time before and during the Great Depression . [13]
On November 18, 1918, prior to ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, the U.S. Congress passed the temporary Wartime Prohibition Act, which banned the sale of alcoholic beverages having an alcohol content of greater than 1.28%. [14] This act, which had been intended to save grain for the war effort, was passed after the armistice ending World War I was signed on November 11, 1918. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30, 1919, with July 1 becoming known as the "Thirsty First". [15] [16]
The U.S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18, 1917. Upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16, 1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, on January 17, 1920. [17] [18]
On October 28, 1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act , the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilson 's veto . The act established the legal definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. [19] Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the federal government lacked resources to enforce it.
Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, cirrhosis death rates, admissions to state mental hospitals for alcoholic psychosis, arrests for public drunkenness, and rates of absenteeism. [6] [20] [21] While many state that Prohibition stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized and widespread criminal activity , [22] Kenneth D. Rose and Georges-Franck Pinard maintain that there was no increase in crime during the Prohibition era and that such claims are "rooted in the impressionistic rather than the factual." [23] [24] By 1925, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs in New York City alone. [25] Wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. [26]
On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act , legalizing beer with an alcohol content of 3.2% (by weight) and wine of a similarly low alcohol content. Subsequently on December 5, ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment. However, United States federal law still prohibits the manufacture of distilled spirits without meeting numerous licensing requirements that make it impractical to produce spirits for personal beverage use. [27]
Consumption of alcoholic beverages has been a contentious topic in America since the colonial period . On March 26, 1636 the legislature of New Somersetshire met at what is now Saco, Maine and adopted a law limiting the sale of "strong liquor or wyne," although carving out exceptions for "lodger[s]" and allowing serving to "laborers on working days for one hower at dinner." [28] In May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts made the sale of strong liquor "whether known by the name of rum, whisky, wine, brandy, etc." to the Native Americans illegal. [29] [ dubious – discuss ]
In general, informal social controls in the home and community helped maintain the expectation that the abuse of alcohol was unacceptable: "Drunkenness was condemned and punished, but only as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itself was not looked upon as culpable, any more than food deserved blame for the sin of gluttony . Excess was a personal indiscretion." [30] When informal controls failed, there were legal options.
Shortly after the United States obtained independence, the Whiskey Rebellion took place in western Pennsylvania in protest of government-imposed taxes on whiskey . Although the taxes were primarily levied to help pay down the newly formed national debt , it also received support from some social reformers, who hoped a " sin tax " would raise public awareness about the harmful effects of alcohol. [31] The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson 's Democratic-Republican Party , which opposed the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton , came to power in 1800. [32]
Benjamin Rush , one of the foremost physicians of the late 18th century, believed in moderation rather than prohibition. In his treatise, "The Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind" (1784), Rush argued that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to physical and psychological health, labeling drunkenness as a disease. [33] Apparently influenced by Rush's widely discussed belief, about 200 farmers in a Connecticut community formed a temperance association in 1789. Similar associations were formed in Virginia in 1800 and New York in 1808. [34] Within a decade, other temperance groups had formed in eight states, some of them being statewide organizations. The words of Rush and other early temperance reformers served to dichotomize the use of alcohol for men and women. While men enjoyed drinking and often considered it vital to their health, women who began to embrace the ideology of "true motherhood" refrained from the consumption of alcohol. Middle-class women, who were considered the moral authorities of their households, consequently rejected the drinking of alcohol, which they believed to be a threat to the home. [34] In 1830, on average, Americans consumed 1.7 bottles of hard liquor per week, three times the amount consumed in 2010. [22]
The American Temperance Society (ATS), formed in 1826, helped initiate the first temperance movement and served as a foundation for many later groups. By 1835 the ATS had reached 1.5 million members, with women constituting 35% to 60% of its chapters. [35]
The Prohibition movement, also known as the dry crusade, continued in the 1840s, spearheaded by pietistic religious denominations, especially the Methodists . The late 19th century saw the temperance movement broaden its focus from abstinence to include all behavior and institutions related to alcohol consumption. Preachers such as Reverend Mark A. Matthews linked liquor-dispensing saloons with political corruption. [36]
Some successes for the movement were achieved in the 1850s, including the Maine law , adopted in 1851, which banned the manufacture and sale of liquor. Before its repeal in 1856, 12 states followed the example set by Maine in total prohibition. [37] The temperance movement lost strength and was marginalized during the American Civil War (1861–1865). Following the war, social moralists turned to other issues, such as Mormon polygamy and the temperance movement . [38] [39] [40]
The dry crusade was revived by the national Prohibition Party , founded in 1869, and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1874. The WCTU advocated the prohibition of alcohol as a method for preventing, through education, abuse from alcoholic husbands. [41] WCTU members believed that if their organization could reach children with its message, it could create a dry sentiment leading to prohibition. Frances Willard , the second president of the WCTU, held that the aims of the organization were to create a "union of women from all denominations, for the purpose of educating the young, forming a better public sentiment, reforming the drinking classes, transforming by the power of Divine grace those who are enslaved by alcohol, and removing the dram-shop from our streets by law". [42] While still denied universal voting privileges, women in the WCTU followed Frances Willard's "Do Everything" doctrine and used temperance as a method of entering into politics and furthering other progressive issues such as prison reform and labor laws . [43]
In 1881 Kansas became the first state to outlaw alcoholic beverages in its Constitution . [44] Arrested over 30 times and fined and jailed on multiple occasions, prohibition activist Carrie Nation attempted to enforce the state's ban on alcohol consumption. [45] She walked into saloons, scolding customers, and used her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor. Nation recruited ladies into the Carrie Nation Prohibition Group, which she also led. While Nation's vigilante techniques were rare, other activists enforced the dry cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloonkeepers to stop selling alcohol. [46] Other dry states , especially those in the South , enacted prohibition legislation, as did individual counties within a state.
Court cases also debated the subject of prohibition. While some cases ruled in opposition, the general tendency was toward support. In Mugler v. Kansas (1887), Justice Harlan commented: "We cannot shut out of view the fact, within the knowledge of all, that the public health, the public morals, and the public safety, may be endangered by the general use of intoxicating drinks; nor the fact established by statistics accessible to every one, that the idleness, disorder, pauperism and crime existing in the country, are, in some degree...traceable to this evil." [47] In support of prohibition, Crowley v. Christensen (1890), remarked: "The statistics of every state show a greater amount of crime and misery attributable to the use of ardent spirits obtained at these retail liquor saloons than to any other source." [47]
The proliferation of neighborhood saloons in the post-Civil War era became a phenomenon of an increasingly industrialized, urban workforce. Workingmen's bars were popular social gathering places from the workplace and home life. The brewing industry was actively involved in establishing saloons as a lucrative consumer base in their business chain. Saloons were more often than not linked to a specific brewery, where the saloonkeeper's operation was financed by a brewer and contractually obligated to sell the brewer's product to the exclusion of competing brands. A saloon's business model often included the offer of a free lunch , where the bill of fare commonly consisted of heavily salted food meant to induce thirst and the purchase of drink. [48] During the Progressive Era (1890–1920), hostility toward saloons and their political influence became widespread, with the Anti-Saloon League superseding the Prohibition Party and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union as the most influential advocate of prohibition, after these latter two groups expanded their efforts to support other social reform issues, such as women's suffrage , onto their prohibition platform. [49]
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Prohibition was an important force in state and local politics from the 1840s through the 1930s. Numerous historical studies demonstrated that the political forces involved were ethnoreligious. [50] Prohibition was supported by the dries, primarily pietistic Protestant denominations that included Methodists , Northern Baptists , Southern Baptists , New School Presbyterians , Disciples of Christ , Congregationalists , Quakers , and Scandinavian Lutherans , but also included the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America and, to a certain extent, the Latter-day Saints . These religious groups identified saloons as politically corrupt and drinking as a personal sin. Other active organizations included the Women's Church Federation, the Women's Temperance Crusade, and the Department of Scientific Temperance Instruction. They were opposed by the wets, primarily liturgical Protestants ( Episcopalians and German Lutherans) and Roman Catholics , who denounced the idea that the government should define morality. [51] Even in the wet stronghold of New York City there was an active prohibition movement, led by Norwegian church groups and African-American labor activists who believed that prohibition would benefit workers, especially African Americans. Tea merchants and soda fountain manufacturers generally supported prohibition, believing a ban on alcohol would increase sales of their products. [52] A particularly effective operator on the political front was Wayne Wheeler of the Anti-Saloon League , [53] who made Prohibition a wedge issue and succeeded in getting many pro-prohibition candidates elected. Coming from Ohio, his deep resentment for alcohol started at a young age. He was injured on a farm by a worker who had been drunk. This event transformed Wheeler. Starting low in the ranks, he quickly moved up due to his deep-rooted hatred of alcohol. He later realized to further the movement he would need more public approval, and fast. This was the start of his policy called 'wheelerism' where he used the media to make it seem like the general public was "in on" on a specific issue. Wheeler became known as the "dry boss" because of his influence and power. [54]
Prohibition represented a conflict between urban and rural values emerging in the United States. Given the mass influx of migrants to the urban centers of the United States, many individuals within the prohibition movement associated the crime and morally corrupt behavior of American cities with their large, immigrant populations. Saloons frequented by immigrants in these cities were often frequented by politicians who wanted to obtain the immigrants' votes in exchange for favors such as job offers, legal assistance, and food baskets. Thus, saloons were seen as a breeding ground for political corruption . [55]
Most economists during the early 20th century were in favor of the enactment of the Eighteenth Amendment (Prohibition). [56] Simon Patten , one of the leading advocates for prohibition, predicted that prohibition would eventually happen in the United States for competitive and evolutionary reasons. Yale economics professor Irving Fisher , who was a dry, wrote extensively about prohibition, including a paper that made an economic case for prohibition. [57] Fisher is credited with supplying the criteria against which future prohibitions, such as against marijuana , could be measured, in terms of crime, health, and productivity. For example, " Blue Monday " referred to the hangover workers experienced after a weekend of binge drinking , resulting in Mondays being a wasted productive day. [58] But new research has discredited Fisher's research, which was based on uncontrolled experiments; regardless, his $6 billion figure for the annual gains of Prohibition to the United States continues to be cited. [59]
In a backlash to the emerging reality of a changing American demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to the doctrine of nativism , in which they endorsed the notion that the success of America was a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. This belief fostered distrust of immigrant communities that fostered saloons and incorporated drinking in their popular culture. [60]
Two other amendments to the Constitution were championed by dry crusaders to help their cause. One was granted in the Sixteenth Amendment (1913), which replaced alcohol taxes that funded the federal government with a federal income tax. [61] The other was women's suffrage, which was granted after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920; since women tended to support prohibition, temperance organizations tended to support women's suffrage. [61]
In the presidential election of 1916 , the Democratic incumbent, Woodrow Wilson , and the Republican candidate, Charles Evans Hughes , ignored the prohibition issue, as did both parties' political platforms. Democrats and Republicans had strong wet and dry factions, and the election was expected to be close, with neither candidate wanting to alienate any part of his political base.
When the 65th Congress convened in March 1917, the dries outnumbered the wets by 140 to 64 in the Democratic Party and 138 to 62 among Republicans. [62] With America's declaration of war against Germany in April, German Americans , a major force against prohibition, were sidelined and their protests subsequently ignored. In addition, a new justification for prohibition arose: prohibiting the production of alcoholic beverages would allow more resources—especially grain that would otherwise be used to make alcohol—to be devoted to the war effort. While wartime prohibition was a spark for the movement, [63] World War I ended before nationwide Prohibition was enacted.
A resolution calling for a Constitutional amendment to accomplish nationwide Prohibition was introduced in Congress and passed by both houses in December 1917. By January 16, 1919, the Amendment had been ratified by 36 of the 48 states, making it law. Eventually, only two states— Connecticut and Rhode Island —opted out of ratifying it. [64] [65] On October 28, 1919, Congress passed enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act , to enforce the Eighteenth Amendment when it went into effect in 1920.
Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, when the Volstead Act went into effect. [67] A total of 1,520 Federal Prohibition agents (police) were tasked with enforcement.
Supporters of the Amendment soon became confident that it would not be repealed. One of its creators, Senator Morris Sheppard , joked that "there is as much chance of repealing the Eighteenth Amendment as there is for a humming-bird to fly to the planet Mars with the Washington Monument tied to its tail." [68]
At the same time, songs emerged decrying the act. After Edward, Prince of Wales , returned to the United Kingdom following his tour of Canada in 1919, he recounted to his father, King George V , a ditty he had heard at a border town:
Four and twenty Yankees, feeling very dry,
Went across the border to get a drink of rye.
When the rye was opened, the Yanks began to sing,
"God bless America, but God save the King!" [69]
Prohibition became highly controversial among medical professionals because alcohol was widely prescribed by the era's physicians for therapeutic purposes. Congress held hearings on the medicinal value of beer in 1921. Subsequently, physicians across the country lobbied for the repeal of Prohibition as it applied to medicinal liquors. [70] From 1921 to 1930, doctors earned about $40 million for whiskey prescriptions. [71]
While the manufacture, importation, sale, and transport of alcohol was illegal in the United States, Section 29 of the Volstead Act allowed wine and cider to be made from fruit at home, but not beer. Up to 200 gallons of wine and cider per year could be made, and some vineyards grew grapes for home use. The Act did not prohibit the consumption of alcohol. Many people stockpiled wines and liquors for their personal use in the latter part of 1919 before sales of alcoholic beverages became illegal in January 1920.
Since alcohol was legal in neighboring countries, distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or smuggled into the United States illegally. The Detroit River , which forms part of the U.S. border with Canada, was notoriously difficult to control, especially rum-running in Windsor , Canada. When the U.S. government complained to the British that American law was being undermined by officials in Nassau , Bahamas , the head of the British Colonial Office refused to intervene. [72] Winston Churchill believed that Prohibition was "an affront to the whole history of mankind". [73]
Three federal agencies were assigned the task of enforcing the Volstead Act: the U.S. Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement, [74] [75] the U.S. Treasury 's IRS Bureau of Prohibition, [76] [77] and the U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Prohibition. [78] [79]
As early as 1925, journalist H. L. Mencken believed that Prohibition was not working. [80] Historian David Oshinsky , summarizing the work of Daniel Okrent , wrote that "Prohibition worked best when directed at its primary target: the working-class poor." [81] Historian Lizabeth Cohen writes: "A rich family could have a cellar-full of liquor and get by, it seemed, but if a poor family had one bottle of home-brew, there would be trouble." [82] Working-class people were inflamed by the fact that their employers could dip into a private cache while they, the employees, could not. [83] Within a week after Prohibition went into effect, small portable stills were on sale throughout the country. [84]
Before the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect in January 1920, many of the upper classes stockpiled alcohol for legal home consumption after Prohibition began. They bought the inventories of liquor retailers and wholesalers, emptying out their warehouses, saloons, and club storerooms. President Woodrow Wilson moved his own supply of alcoholic beverages to his Washington residence after his term of office ended. His successor, Warren G. Harding , relocated his own large supply into the White House. [85] [86]
After the Eighteenth Amendment became law, bootlegging became widespread. In the first six months of 1920, the federal government opened 7,291 cases for Volstead Act violations. [87] In the first complete fiscal year of 1921, the number of cases violating the Volstead Act jumped to 29,114 violations and would rise dramatically over the next thirteen years. [88]
Grape juice was not restricted by Prohibition, even though if it was allowed to sit for sixty days it would ferment and turn to wine with a twelve percent alcohol content. Many people took advantage of this as grape juice output quadrupled during the Prohibition era. [89] Vine-Glo was sold for this purpose and included a specific warning telling people how to make wine from it.
To prevent bootleggers from using industrial ethyl alcohol to produce illegal beverages, the federal government ordered the denaturation of industrial alcohols , meaning they must include additives to make them unpalatable or poisonous. In response, bootleggers hired chemists who successfully removed the additives from the alcohol to make it drinkable. As a response, the Treasury Department required manufacturers to add more deadly poisons, including the particularly deadly combination known as methyl alcohol : 4 parts methanol, 2.25 parts pyridine base, and 0.5 parts benzene per 100 parts ethyl alcohol. [90] New York City medical examiners prominently opposed these policies because of the danger to human life. As many as 10,000 people died from drinking denatured alcohol before Prohibition ended. [91] New York City medical examiner Charles Norris believed the government took responsibility for murder when they knew the poison was not deterring consumption and they continued to poison industrial alcohol (which would be used in drinking alcohol) anyway. Norris remarked: "The government knows it is not stopping drinking by putting poison in alcohol ... [Y]et it continues its poisoning processes, heedless of the fact that people determined to drink are daily absorbing that poison. Knowing this to be true, the United States government must be charged with the moral responsibility for the deaths that poisoned liquor causes, although it cannot be held legally responsible." [91]
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Another lethal substance that was often substituted for alcohol was Sterno , a fuel commonly known as "canned heat." Forcing the substance through a makeshift filter, such as a handkerchief, created a rough liquor substitute; however, the result was poisonous, though not often lethal. [92]
Making alcohol at home was common among some families with wet sympathies during Prohibition. Stores sold grape concentrate with warning labels that listed the steps that should be avoided to prevent the juice from fermenting into wine. Some drugstores sold "medical wine" with around a 22% alcohol content. In order to justify the sale, the wine was given a medicinal taste. [92] Home-distilled hard liquor was called bathtub gin in northern cities, and moonshine in rural areas of Virginia , Kentucky , North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , West Virginia and Tennessee . Homebrewing good hard liquor was easier than brewing good beer. [92] Since selling privately distilled alcohol was illegal and bypassed government taxation, law enforcement officers relentlessly pursued manufacturers. [93] In response, bootleggers modified their cars and trucks by enhancing the engines and suspensions to make faster vehicles that, they assumed, would improve their chances of outrunning and escaping agents of the Bureau of Prohibition , commonly called "revenue agents" or "revenuers". These cars became known as "moonshine runners" or " 'shine runners". [94] Shops with wet sympathies were also known to participate in the underground liquor market, by loading their stocks with ingredients for liquors, including bénédictine , vermouth , scotch mash, and even ethyl alcohol ; anyone could purchase these ingredients legally. [95]
In October 1930, just two weeks before the congressional midterm elections, bootlegger George Cassiday —"the man in the green hat"—came forward and told members of Congress how he had bootlegged for ten years. One of the few bootleggers ever to tell his story, Cassiday wrote five front-page articles for The Washington Post , in which he estimated that 80% of congressmen and senators drank. The Democrats in the North were mostly wets, and in the 1932 election , they made major gains. The wets argued that Prohibition was not stopping crime, and was actually causing the creation of large-scale, well-funded, and well-armed criminal syndicates. As Prohibition became increasingly unpopular, especially in urban areas, its repeal was eagerly anticipated. [96] Wets had the organization and the initiative. They pushed the argument that states and localities needed the tax money. President Herbert Hoover proposed a new constitutional amendment that was vague on particulars and satisfied neither side. Franklin Roosevelt's Democratic platform promised repeal of the 18th Amendment. [97] [98]
When Prohibition was repealed in 1933, many bootleggers and suppliers with wet sympathies simply moved into the legitimate liquor business. Some crime syndicates moved their efforts into expanding their protection rackets to cover legal liquor sales and other business areas. [99]
Doctors were able to prescribe medicinal alcohol for their patients. After just six months of prohibition, over 15,000 doctors and 57,000 pharmacists received licenses to prescribe or sell medicinal alcohol. According to Gastro Obscura ,
Physicians wrote an estimated 11 million prescriptions a year throughout the 1920s, and Prohibition Commissioner John F. Kramer even cited one doctor who wrote 475 prescriptions for whiskey in one day. It wasn’t tough for people to write—and fill—counterfeit subscriptions at pharmacies, either. Naturally, bootleggers bought prescription forms from crooked doctors and mounted widespread scams. In 1931, 400 pharmacists and 1,000 doctors were caught in a scam where doctors sold signed prescription forms to bootleggers. Just 12 doctors and 13 pharmacists were indicted, and the ones charged faced a one-time $50 fine. Selling alcohol through drugstores became so much of a lucrative open secret that it is name-checked in works such as The Great Gatsby. Historians speculate that Charles R. Walgreen , of Walgreen’s fame, expanded from 20 stores to a staggering 525 during the 1920s thanks to medicinal alcohol sales."— Paula Mejia, "The Lucrative Business of Prescribing Booze During Prohibition"; Gastro Obscura, 2017. [100]
Once Prohibition came into effect, the majority of U.S. citizens obeyed it. [20]
Some states like Maryland and New York refused Prohibition. [101] Enforcement of the law under the Eighteenth Amendment lacked a centralized authority. Clergymen were sometimes called upon to form vigilante groups to assist in the enforcement of Prohibition. [102] Furthermore, American geography contributed to the difficulties in enforcing Prohibition. The varied terrain of valleys, mountains, lakes, and swamps, as well as the extensive seaways, ports, and borders which the United States shared with Canada and Mexico made it exceedingly difficult for Prohibition agents to stop bootleggers given their lack of resources. Ultimately it was recognized with its repeal that the means by which the law was to be enforced were not pragmatic, and in many cases, the legislature did not match the general public opinion. [103]
In Cicero , Illinois, (a suburb of Chicago) the prevalence of ethnic communities who had wet sympathies allowed prominent gang leader Al Capone to operate despite the presence of police. [104]
The Ku Klux Klan talked a great deal about denouncing bootleggers and threatened private vigilante action against known offenders. Despite its large membership in the mid-1920s, it was poorly organized and seldom had an impact. Indeed, the KKK after 1925 helped disparage any enforcement of Prohibition. [105]
Prohibition was a major blow to the alcoholic beverage industry and its repeal was a step toward the amelioration of one sector of the economy. An example of this is the case of St. Louis , one of the most important alcohol producers before prohibition started, which was ready to resume its position in the industry as soon as possible. Its major brewery had "50,000 barrels" of beer ready for distribution from March 22, 1933, and was the first alcohol producer to resupply the market; others soon followed. After repeal, stores obtained liquor licenses and restocked for business. After beer production resumed, thousands of workers found jobs in the industry again. [106]
Prohibition created a black market that competed with the formal economy, which came under pressure when the Great Depression struck in 1929. State governments urgently needed the tax revenue alcohol sales had generated. Franklin Roosevelt was elected in 1932 based in part on his promise to end prohibition, which influenced his support for ratifying the Twenty-first Amendment to repeal Prohibition. [107]
Naval Captain William H. Stayton was a prominent figure in the anti-prohibition fight, founding the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment in 1918. The AAPA was the largest of the nearly forty organizations that fought to end Prohibition. [108] Economic urgency played a large part in accelerating the advocacy for repeal. [109] The number of conservatives who pushed for prohibition in the beginning decreased. Many farmers who fought for prohibition now fought for repeal because of the negative effects it had on the agriculture business. [110] Prior to the 1920 implementation of the Volstead Act, approximately 14% of federal, state, and local tax revenues were derived from alcohol commerce. When the Great Depression hit and tax revenues plunged, the governments needed this revenue stream. [111] Millions could be made by taxing beer. There was controversy on whether the repeal should be a state or nationwide decision. [110] On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed an amendment to the Volstead Act, known as the Cullen–Harrison Act , allowing the manufacture and sale of 3.2% beer (3.2% alcohol by weight, approximately 4% alcohol by volume) and light wines. The Volstead Act previously defined an intoxicating beverage as one with greater than 0.5% alcohol. [19] Upon signing the Cullen–Harrison Act, Roosevelt remarked: "I think this would be a good time for a beer." [112] According to a 2017 study in the journal Public Choice , representatives from traditional beer-producing states, as well as Democratic politicians, were most in favor of the bill, but politicians from many Southern states were most strongly opposed to the legislation. [113]
The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed on December 5, 1933, with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . Despite the efforts of Heber J. Grant , president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , the 21 Utah members of the constitutional convention voted unanimously on that day to ratify the Twenty-first Amendment, making Utah the 36th state to do so, and putting the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment over the top in needed voting. [114] [115]
In the late 1930s, after its repeal, two fifths of Americans wished to reinstate national Prohibition. [116]
The Twenty-first Amendment does not prevent states from restricting or banning alcohol; instead, it prohibits the "transportation or importation" of alcohol "into any State, Territory, or Possession of the United States" "in violation of the laws thereof", thus allowing state and local control of alcohol. [117] There are still numerous dry counties and municipalities in the United States that restrict or prohibit liquor sales. [118]
Additionally, many tribal governments prohibit alcohol on Indian reservations . Federal law also prohibits alcohol on Indian reservations, [119] although this law is currently only enforced when there is a concomitant violation of local tribal liquor laws. [120]
After its repeal, some former supporters openly admitted failure. For example, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. , explained his view in a 1932 letter: [121]
When Prohibition was introduced, I hoped that it would be widely supported by public opinion and the day would soon come when the evil effects of alcohol would be recognized. I have slowly and reluctantly come to believe that this has not been the result. Instead, drinking has generally increased; the speakeasy has replaced the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has appeared; many of our best citizens have openly ignored Prohibition; respect for the law has been greatly lessened, and crime has increased to a level never seen before.
It is not clear whether Prohibition reduced per-capita consumption of alcohol. Some historians claim that alcohol consumption in the United States did not exceed pre-Prohibition levels until the 1960s; [122] others claim that alcohol consumption reached the pre-Prohibition levels several years after its enactment, and has continued to rise. [123] Cirrhosis of the liver, a symptom of alcoholism, declined nearly two-thirds during Prohibition. [124] [125] In the decades after Prohibition, any stigma that had been associated with alcohol consumption was erased; according to a Gallup Poll survey conducted almost every year since 1939, two-thirds of American adults age 18 and older drink alcohol. [126]
Shortly after World War II , a national opinion survey found that "About one-third of the people of the United States favor national prohibition." Upon repeal of national prohibition, 18 states continued prohibition at the state level. The last state, Mississippi, finally ended it in 1966. Almost two-thirds of all states adopted some form of local option which enabled residents in political subdivisions to vote for or against local prohibition. Therefore, despite the repeal of prohibition at the national level, 38% of the nation's population lived in areas with state or local prohibition. [127] : 221
In 2014, a CNN nationwide poll found that 18% of Americans "believed that drinking should be illegal". [128]
Prohibition in the early to mid-20th century was mostly fueled by the Protestant denominations in the Southern United States , a region dominated by socially conservative evangelical Protestantism with a very high Christian church attendance. [129] Generally, Evangelical Protestant denominations encouraged prohibition, while the Mainline Protestant denominations disapproved of its introduction. However, there were exceptions to this, such as the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (German Confessional Lutherans), which is typically considered to be in scope of evangelical Protestantism. [130] Pietistic churches in the United States (especially Baptist churches, Methodists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and others in the evangelical tradition) sought to end drinking and the saloon culture during the Third Party System . Liturgical ("high") churches ( Roman Catholic , Episcopal , German Lutheran and others in the mainline tradition) opposed prohibition laws because they did not want the government to reduce the definition of morality to a narrow standard or to criminalize the common liturgical practice of using wine. [131]
Revivalism during the Second Great Awakening and the Third Great Awakening in the mid-to-late 19th century set the stage for the bond between pietistic Protestantism and prohibition in the United States: "The greater prevalence of revival religion within a population, the greater support for the Prohibition parties within that population." [132] Historian Nancy Koester argued that Prohibition was a "victory for progressives and social gospel activists battling poverty". [133] Prohibition also united progressives and revivalists. [134]
The temperance movement had popularized the belief that alcohol was the major cause of most personal and social problems and prohibition was seen as the solution to the nation's poverty, crime, violence, and other ills. [135] Upon ratification of the amendment, the evangelist Billy Sunday said that "The slums will soon be only a memory. We will turn our prisons into factories and our jails into storehouses and corncribs." Since alcohol was to be banned and since it was seen as the cause of most, if not all, crimes, some communities sold their jails . [136]
According to a 2010 review of the academic research on Prohibition, "On balance, Prohibition probably reduced per capita alcohol use and alcohol-related harm, but these benefits eroded over time as an organized black market developed and public support for [national prohibition] declined." [10] One study reviewing city-level drunkenness arrests concluded that prohibition had an immediate effect, but no long-term effect. [8] And, yet another study examining "mortality, mental health and crime statistics" found that alcohol consumption fell, at first, to approximately 30 percent of its pre-Prohibition level; but, over the next several years, increased to about 60–70 percent of its pre-prohibition level. [9] The Eighteenth Amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale and transportation of intoxicating beverages, however, it did not outlaw the possession or consumption of alcohol in the United States, which would allow legal loopholes for consumers possessing alcohol. [137]
Research indicates that rates of cirrhosis of the liver declined significantly during Prohibition and increased after Prohibition's repeal. [4] [6] According to the historian Jack S. Blocker, Jr., "death rates from cirrhosis and alcoholism, alcoholic psychosis hospital admissions, and drunkenness arrests all declined steeply during the latter years of the 1910s, when both the cultural and the legal climate were increasingly inhospitable to drink, and in the early years after National Prohibition went into effect." [20] Studies examining the rates of cirrhosis deaths as a proxy for alcohol consumption estimated a decrease in consumption of 10–20%. [138] [139] [140] National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism studies show clear epidemiological evidence that "overall cirrhosis mortality rates declined precipitously with the introduction of Prohibition," despite widespread flouting of the law. [141]
It is difficult to draw conclusions about Prohibition's impact on crime at the national level, as there were no uniform national statistics gathered about crime prior to 1930. [10] It has been argued that organized crime received a major boost from Prohibition. For example, one study found that organized crime in Chicago tripled during Prohibition. [142] Mafia groups and other criminal organizations and gangs had mostly limited their activities to prostitution , gambling , and theft until 1920, when organized "rum-running" or bootlegging emerged in response to Prohibition. [ citation needed ] A profitable, often violent, black market for alcohol flourished. [143] Prohibition provided a financial basis for organized crime to flourish. [144] In one study of more than 30 major U.S. cities during the Prohibition years of 1920 and 1921, the number of crimes increased by 24%. Additionally, theft and burglaries increased by 9%, homicides by 13%, assaults and battery rose by 13%, drug addiction by 45%, and police department costs rose by 11.4%. This was largely the result of "black-market violence" and the diversion of law enforcement resources elsewhere. Despite the Prohibition movement's hope that outlawing alcohol would reduce crime, the reality was that the Volstead Act led to higher crime rates than were experienced prior to Prohibition and the establishment of a black market dominated by criminal organizations. [145]
A 2016 NBER paper showed that South Carolina counties that enacted and enforced prohibition had homicide rates increase by about 30 to 60 percent relative to counties that did not enforce prohibition. [11] A 2009 study found an increase in homicides in Chicago during Prohibition. [12] However, some scholars have attributed the crime during the Prohibition era to increased urbanization , rather than to the criminalization of alcohol use. [146] In some cities, such as New York City , crime rates decreased during the Prohibition era. [24] Crime rates overall declined from the period of 1849 to 1951, making crime during the Prohibition period less likely to be attributed to the criminalization of alcohol alone. [24] [ why? ]
Mark H. Moore states that contrary to popular opinion, "violent crime did not increase dramatically during Prohibition" and that organized crime "existed before and after" Prohibition. [4] The historian Kenneth D. Rose corroborates historian John Burnham's assertion that during the 1920s "there is no firm evidence of this supposed upsurge in lawlessness" as "no statistics from this period dealing with crime are of any value whatsoever". [23] California State University, Chico historian Kenneth D. Rose writes: [23]
Opponents of prohibition were fond of claiming that the Great Experiment had created a gangster element that had unleashed a "crime wave" on a hapless America. The WONPR's Mrs. Coffin Van Rensselaer, for instance, insisted in 1932 that "the alarming crime wave, which had been piling up to unprecedented height" was a legacy of prohibition. But prohibition can hardly be held responsible for inventing crime, and while supplying illegal liquor proved to be lucrative, it was only an additional source of income to the more traditional criminal activities of gambling, loan sharking, racketeering, and prostitution. The notion of the prohibition-induced crime wave, despite its popularity during the 1920s, cannot be substantiated with any accuracy, because of the inadequacy of records kept by local police departments.
Along with other economic effects, the enactment and enforcement of Prohibition caused an increase in resource costs. During the 1920s the annual budget of the Bureau of Prohibition went from $4.4 million to $13.4 million. Additionally, the U.S. Coast Guard spent an average of $13 million annually on enforcement of prohibition laws. [147] These numbers do not take into account the costs to local and state governments.
According to Harvard University historian Lisa McGirr, Prohibition led to an expansion in the powers of the federal state, as well as helped shape the penal state. [148] According to academic Colin Agur, Prohibition specifically increased the usage of telephone wiretapping by federal agents for evidence collection. [149]
According to Harvard University historian Lisa McGirr, Prohibition had a disproportionately adverse impact on African-Americans, immigrants and poor Whites, as law enforcement used alcohol prohibition against these communities. [148]
A 2021 study in the Journal of Economic History found that counties that adopted Prohibition early subsequently had greater population growth and an increase in farm real estate values. [150]
According to Washington State University , Prohibition had a negative impact on the American economy. Prohibition caused the loss of at least $226 million per annum in tax revenues on liquors alone; supporters of the prohibition expected an increase in the sales of non-alcoholic beverages to replace the money made from alcohol sales, but this did not happen. Furthermore, "Prohibition caused the shutdown of over 200 distilleries, a thousand breweries, and over 170,000 liquor stores". Finally, it is worth noting that "the amount of money used to enforce prohibition started at $6.3 million in 1921 and rose to $13.4 million in 1930, almost double the original amount". [151] A 2015 study estimated that the repeal of Prohibition had a net social benefit of "$432 million per annum in 1934–1937, about 0.33% of gross domestic product. Total benefits of $3.25 billion consist primarily of increased consumer and producer surplus, tax revenues, and reduced criminal violence costs." [152]
When 3.2 percent alcohol beer was legalized in 1933, it created 81,000 jobs within a three-month span. [153]
During the Prohibition era, rates of absenteeism decreased from 10% to 3%. [154] In Michigan, the Ford Motor Company documented "a decrease in absenteeism from 2,620 in April 1918 to 1,628 in May 1918." [21]
As saloons died out, public drinking lost much of its macho connotation, resulting in increased social acceptance of women drinking in the semi-public environment of the speakeasies . This new norm established women as a notable new target demographic for alcohol marketeers, who sought to expand their clientele. [116] Women thus found their way into the bootlegging business, with some discovering that they could make a living by selling alcohol with a minimal likelihood of suspicion by law enforcement. [155] Before prohibition, women who drank publicly in saloons or taverns, especially outside of urban centers like Chicago or New York, were seen as immoral or were likely to be prostitutes. [156]
Heavy drinkers and alcoholics were among the most affected groups during Prohibition. Those who were determined to find liquor could still do so, but those who saw their drinking habits as destructive typically had difficulty in finding the help they sought. Self-help societies had withered away along with the alcohol industry. In 1935 a new self-help group called Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded. [116]
Prohibition also had an effect on the music industry in the United States , specifically with jazz . Speakeasies became very popular, and the Great Depression's migratory effects led to the dispersal of jazz music, from New Orleans going north through Chicago and to New York. This led to the development of different styles in different cities. Due to its popularity in speakeasies and the emergence of advanced recording technology, jazz's popularity skyrocketed. It was also at the forefront of the minimal integration efforts going on at the time, as it united mostly black musicians with mostly white audiences. [157]
Making moonshine was an industry in the American South before and after Prohibition. In the 1950s muscle cars became popular and various roads became known as "Thunder Road" for their use by moonshiners. A popular song was created and the legendary drivers, cars, and routes were depicted on film in Thunder Road . [158] [159] [160] [161]
As a result of Prohibition, the advancements of industrialization within the alcoholic beverage industry were essentially reversed. Large-scale alcohol producers were shut down, for the most part, and some individual citizens took it upon themselves to produce alcohol illegally, essentially reversing the efficiency of mass-producing and retailing alcoholic beverages. Closing the country's manufacturing plants and taverns also resulted in an economic downturn for the industry. While the Eighteenth Amendment did not have this effect on the industry due to its failure to define an "intoxicating" beverage, the Volstead Act 's definition of 0.5% or more alcohol by volume shut down the brewers, who expected to continue to produce beer of moderate strength. [116]
In 1930 the Prohibition Commissioner estimated that in 1919, the year before the Volstead Act became law, the average drinking American spent $17 per year on alcoholic beverages. By 1930, because enforcement diminished the supply, spending had increased to $35 per year (there was no inflation in this period). The result was an illegal alcohol beverage industry that made an average of $3 billion per year in illegal untaxed income. [162]
The Volstead Act specifically allowed individual farmers to make certain wines "on the legal fiction that it was a non-intoxicating fruit-juice for home consumption", [163] and many did so. Enterprising grape farmers produced liquid and semi-solid grape concentrates, often called "wine bricks" or "wine blocks". [164] This demand led California grape growers to increase their land under cultivation by about 700% during the first five years of Prohibition. The grape concentrate was sold with a "warning": "After dissolving the brick in a gallon of water, do not place the liquid in a jug away in the cupboard for twenty days, because then it will turn into wine". [30]
The Volstead Act allowed the sale of sacramental wine to priests and ministers and allowed rabbis to approve sales of kosher wine to individuals for Sabbath and holiday use at home. Among Jews , four rabbinical groups were approved, which led to some competition for membership, since the supervision of sacramental licenses could be used to secure donations to support a religious institution. There were known abuses in this system, with impostors or unauthorized agents using loopholes to purchase wine. [61] [165]
Prohibition had a notable effect on the alcohol brewing industry in the United States. Wine historians note that Prohibition destroyed what was a fledgling wine industry in the United States. Productive, wine-quality grapevines were replaced by lower-quality vines that grew thicker-skinned grapes, which could be more easily transported. Much of the institutional knowledge was also lost as winemakers either emigrated to other wine-producing countries or left the business altogether. [166] Distilled spirits became more popular during Prohibition. [92] Because their alcohol content was higher than that of fermented wine and beer, spirits were often diluted with non-alcoholic drinks. [92]
- ^ Driving Tennessee's "White Lightnin' Trail" – is it the Real Thunder Road? Archived January 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine ; Jack Neely retraces the infamous bootlegger's route as it becomes an official state tourist attraction by Jack Neely MetroPulse June 30, 2010
- ^ Appalachian Journal: The end of Thunder Road Archived February 10, 2014, at the Wayback Machine ; Man known for whiskey cars, moonshine and rare auto parts is selling out by Fred Brown Knoxville News Sentinel February 13, 2007
- ^ E. E. Free (May 1930). "Where America Gets Its Booze: An Interview With Dr. James M. Doran" . Popular Science Monthly . 116 (5): 147. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 7, 2013 .
- ^ "Prohibition: Wine Bricks" . Time . August 17, 1931. Archived from the original on December 14, 2006 . Retrieved May 26, 2013 .
- ^ Kelsey Burnham (April 18, 2010). "Prohibition in Wine Country" . Napa Valley Register . Archived from the original on April 20, 2010 . Retrieved April 18, 2010 .
- ^ Hannah Sprecher. ""Let Them Drink and Forget Our Poverty": Orthodox Rabbis React to Prohibition" (PDF) . American Jewish Archives. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 24, 2021 . Retrieved September 4, 2013 .
- ^ Karen MacNeil . The Wine Bible . pp. 630–631.
- Blocker, Jack S., ed. (2003). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia . ABC-CLIO. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-57607-833-4 . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved October 17, 2015 .
- Burns, Ken ; Novick, Lynn (October 2011). Prohibition . PBS. ISBN 978-1-60883-430-3 . OCLC 738476083 . Archived from the original on December 25, 2020 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 .
- Haygood, Atticus G. Close the Saloons: A Plea for Prohibition . 8th ed. Macon, GA: J.W. Burke, 1880.
- Hopkins, Richard J. "The Prohibition and Crime". The North American Review . Volume: 222. Number: 828. September 1925. 40–44.
- Behr, Edward (1996). Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America . New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1-55970-356-3 .
- Blumenthal, Karen (2011). Bootleg: Murder, Moonshine, and the Lawless Years of Prohibition . New York: Roaring Brook Press. ISBN 1-59643-449-X .
- Burns, Eric (2003). The Spirits of America: A Social History of Alcohol . Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 1-59213-214-6 .
- Clark, Norman H. (1976). Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05584-1 .
- Dunn, John M. Prohibition . Detroit: Lucent Books, 2010. [ ISBN missing ]
- Folsom, Burton W. "Tinkerers, Tipplers, and Traitors: Ethnicity and Democratic Reform in Nebraska During the Progressive Era." Pacific Historical Review (1981) 50#1 pp: 53–75 in JSTOR Archived August 18, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
- Kahn, Gordon, and Al Hirschfeld. (1932, rev. 2003). The Speakeasies of 1932 . New York: Glenn Young Books. ISBN 1-55783-518-7 .
- Karson, Larry, American Smuggling and British white-collar crime: A historical perspective (PDF) , British Society of Criminology, archived (PDF) from the original on December 10, 2022 , retrieved August 7, 2022 .
- Karson, Lawrence. American Smuggling as White Collar Crime. (New York: Routledge, 2014).
- Kavieff, Paul B. (2001). "The Violent Years: Prohibition and the Detroit Mobs". Fort Lee: Barricade Books Inc. ISBN 1-56980-210-6 .
- Kobler, John (1973). Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition . New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-11209-X .
- Kuhl, Jackson (2008). "Prohibition of Alcohol" . In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Archived copy . The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage ; Cato Institute . pp. 400–401. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4 . Archived from the original on January 9, 2023 . Retrieved April 1, 2022 .
- Lawson, Ellen NicKenzie (2013). Smugglers, Bootleggers, and Scofflaws: Prohibition and New York City . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-4816-9 .
- Lerner, Michael A. (2007). Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-02432-X .
- McGirr, Lisa (2015). The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-06695-9 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | Prohibition | Definition, History, Eighteenth Amendment, & Repeal | What led to Prohibition?
How long did Prohibition last?
What were the effects of Prohibition?
How did people get around Prohibition?
How was Prohibition enforced?
Prohibition , legal prevention of the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the United States from 1920 to 1933 under the terms of the Eighteenth Amendment . Although the temperance movement , which was widely supported, had succeeded in bringing about this legislation, millions of Americans were willing to drink liquor ( distilled spirits ) illegally, which gave rise to bootlegging (the illegal production and sale of liquor) and speakeasies (illegal, secretive drinking establishments), both of which were capitalized upon by organized crime . As a result, the Prohibition era also is remembered as a period of gangsterism , characterized by competition and violent turf battles between criminal gangs.
In the United States an early wave of movements for state and local prohibition arose from the intensive religious revivalism of the 1820s and ’30s, which stimulated movements toward perfectionism in human beings, including temperance and abolitionism . Although an abstinence pledge had been introduced by churches as early as 1800, the earliest temperance organizations seem to have been those founded at Saratoga , New York , in 1808 and in Massachusetts in 1813. The movement spread rapidly under the influence of the churches; by 1833 there were 6,000 local societies in several U.S. states. The precedent for seeking temperance through law was set by a Massachusetts law, passed in 1838 and repealed two years later, which prohibited sales of spirits in less than 15-gallon (55-litre) quantities. The first state prohibition law was passed in Maine in 1846 and ushered in a wave of such state legislation before the American Civil War .
Conceived by Wayne Wheeler, the leader of the Anti-Saloon League , the Eighteenth Amendment passed in both chambers of the U.S. Congress in December 1917 and was ratified by the requisite three-fourths of the states in January 1919. Its language called for Congress to pass enforcement legislation, and that was championed by Andrew Volstead, chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, who engineered passage of the National Prohibition Act (better known as the Volstead Act ) over the veto of Pres. Woodrow Wilson .
Neither the Volstead Act nor the Eighteenth Amendment was enforced with great success. Indeed, entire illegal economies (bootlegging, speakeasies, and distilling operations) flourished. The earliest bootleggers began smuggling foreign-made commercial liquor into the United States from across the Canadian and Mexican borders and along the seacoasts from ships under foreign registry. Their favourite sources of supply were the Bahamas , Cuba , and the French islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon , off the southern coast of Newfoundland . A favourite rendezvous of the rum-running ships was a point opposite Atlantic City , New Jersey , just outside the three-mile (five-km) limit beyond which the U.S. government lacked jurisdiction. The bootleggers anchored in that area and discharged their loads into high-powered craft that were built to outrace U.S. Coast Guard cutters.
That type of smuggling became riskier and more expensive when the U.S. Coast Guard began halting and searching ships at greater distances from the coast and using fast motor launches of its own. Bootleggers had other major sources of supply, however. Among those were millions of bottles of “medicinal” whiskey that were sold across drugstore counters on real or forged prescriptions. In addition, various American industries were permitted to use denatured alcohol, which had been mixed with noxious chemicals to render it unfit for drinking. Millions of gallons of that were illegally diverted, “washed” of noxious chemicals, mixed with tap water and perhaps a dash of real liquor for flavour, and sold to speakeasies or individual customers. Finally, bootleggers took to bottling their own concoctions of spurious liquor, and by the late 1920s stills making liquor from corn had become major suppliers.
Bootlegging helped lead to the establishment of American organized crime , which persisted long after the repeal of Prohibition. The distribution of liquor was necessarily more complex than other types of criminal activity, and organized gangs eventually arose that could control an entire local chain of bootlegging operations, from concealed distilleries and breweries through storage and transport channels to speakeasies , restaurants, nightclubs, and other retail outlets. Those gangs tried to secure and enlarge territories in which they had a monopoly of distribution. Gradually, the gangs in different cities began to cooperate with each other, and they extended their methods of organizing beyond bootlegging to the narcotics traffic, gambling rackets, prostitution , labour racketeering , loan-sharking, and extortion . The American Mafia crime syndicate arose out of the coordinated activities of Italian bootleggers and other gangsters in New York City in the late 1920s and early ’30s.
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Johnny Torrio rose to become a rackets boss in Brooklyn , New York , and then relocated to Chicago , where in the early 1920s he expanded the crime empire founded by James (“Big Jim”) Colosimo into big-time bootlegging. Torrio turned over his rackets in 1925 to Al Capone , who became the Prohibition era’s most famous gangster, though other crime czars such as Dion O’Bannion (Capone’s rival in Chicago), Joe Masseria , Meyer Lansky , Lucky Luciano , and Bugsy Siegel were also legendarily infamous. Capone’s wealth in 1927 was estimated at close to $100 million.
In 1929—the year of the stock market crash , which seemingly increased the country’s desire for illegal liquor— Eliot Ness was hired as a special agent of the U.S. Department of Justice to head the Prohibition bureau in Chicago, with the express purpose of investigating and harassing Capone. Because the men whom Ness hired to help him were extremely dedicated and unbribable, they were nicknamed the Untouchables . The public learned of them when big raids on breweries, speakeasies, and other places of outlawry attracted newspaper headlines. The Untouchables’ infiltration of the underworld secured evidence that helped send Capone to prison for income-tax evasion in 1932.
Also in 1932 Warner Brothers released Howard Hawks ’s film Scarface: The Shame of Nation , which was based loosely on Capone’s rise as a crime boss. The previous year the studio had started a craze for gangster films with Mervyn LeRoy ’s Little Caesar (1931) and William Wellman ’s The Public Enemy (1931). The cultural influence of the era proved lasting, with gangster films remaining popular and Ness’s exploits giving rise to the television series The Untouchables (1959–63).
Prohibition had been an important issue during the U.S. presidential election of 1928 , but Herbert Hoover ’s win over Al Smith ensured that what Hoover called an “experiment, noble in motive” would continue. As the Great Depression continued to grind on, however, and it became increasingly clear that the Volstead Act was unenforceable, Prohibition faded as a political issue. In March 1933, shortly after taking office, Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Cullen-Harrison Act , which amended the Volstead Act and permitted the manufacturing and sale of low-alcohol beer and wines (up to 3.2 percent alcohol by volume). Nine months later, on December 5, 1933, Prohibition was repealed at the federal level with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment (which allowed prohibition to be maintained at the state and local levels, however). | https://www.britannica.com/event/Prohibition-United-States-history-1920-1933 | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | 21st amendment is ratified; Prohibition ends | The 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, repealing the 18th Amendment and bringing an end to the era of national prohibition of alcohol in America. At 5:32 p.m. EST, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the requisite three-fourths majority of states’ approval. Pennsylvania and Ohio had ratified it earlier in the day.
The movement for the prohibition of alcohol began in the early 19th century, when Americans concerned about the adverse effects of drinking began forming temperance societies. By the late 19th century, these groups had become a powerful political force, campaigning on the state level and calling for national liquor abstinence. Several states outlawed the manufacture or sale of alcohol within their own borders. In December 1917, the 18th Amendment, prohibiting the “manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes,” was passed by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. On January 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment was ratified by the states. Prohibition went into effect the next year, on January 17, 1920.
In the meantime, Congress passed the Volstead Act on October 28, 1919, over President Woodrow Wilson’s veto. The Volstead Act provided for the enforcement of Prohibition , including the creation of a special Prohibition unit of the Treasury Department. In its first six months, the unit destroyed thousands of illicit stills run by bootleggers. However, federal agents and police did little more than slow the flow of booze, and organized crime flourished in America. Large-scale bootleggers like Al Capone of Chicago built criminal empires out of illegal distribution efforts, and federal and state governments lost billions in tax revenue. In most urban areas, the individual consumption of alcohol was largely tolerated and drinkers gathered at “speakeasies,” the Prohibition-era term for saloons.
Prohibition, failing fully to enforce sobriety and costing billions, rapidly lost popular support in the early 1930s. In 1933, the 21st Amendment to the Constitution was passed and ratified, ending national Prohibition. After the repeal of the 18th Amendment, some states continued Prohibition by maintaining statewide temperance laws. Mississippi , the last dry state in the Union, ended Prohibition in 1966. | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/prohibition-ends | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | 21st amendment is ratified; Prohibition ends | The 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, repealing the 18th Amendment and bringing an end to the era of national prohibition of alcohol in America. At 5:32 p.m. EST, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the requisite three-fourths majority of states’ approval. Pennsylvania and Ohio had ratified it earlier in the day.
The movement for the prohibition of alcohol began in the early 19th century, when Americans concerned about the adverse effects of drinking began forming temperance societies. By the late 19th century, these groups had become a powerful political force, campaigning on the state level and calling for national liquor abstinence. Several states outlawed the manufacture or sale of alcohol within their own borders. In December 1917, the 18th Amendment, prohibiting the “manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes,” was passed by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. On January 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment was ratified by the states. Prohibition went into effect the next year, on January 17, 1920.
In the meantime, Congress passed the Volstead Act on October 28, 1919, over President Woodrow Wilson’s veto. The Volstead Act provided for the enforcement of Prohibition , including the creation of a special Prohibition unit of the Treasury Department. In its first six months, the unit destroyed thousands of illicit stills run by bootleggers. However, federal agents and police did little more than slow the flow of booze, and organized crime flourished in America. Large-scale bootleggers like Al Capone of Chicago built criminal empires out of illegal distribution efforts, and federal and state governments lost billions in tax revenue. In most urban areas, the individual consumption of alcohol was largely tolerated and drinkers gathered at “speakeasies,” the Prohibition-era term for saloons.
Prohibition, failing fully to enforce sobriety and costing billions, rapidly lost popular support in the early 1930s. In 1933, the 21st Amendment to the Constitution was passed and ratified, ending national Prohibition. After the repeal of the 18th Amendment, some states continued Prohibition by maintaining statewide temperance laws. Mississippi , the last dry state in the Union, ended Prohibition in 1966. | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/prohibition-ends | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | Prohibition | Definition, History, Eighteenth Amendment, & Repeal | What led to Prohibition?
How long did Prohibition last?
What were the effects of Prohibition?
How did people get around Prohibition?
How was Prohibition enforced?
Prohibition , legal prevention of the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the United States from 1920 to 1933 under the terms of the Eighteenth Amendment . Although the temperance movement , which was widely supported, had succeeded in bringing about this legislation, millions of Americans were willing to drink liquor ( distilled spirits ) illegally, which gave rise to bootlegging (the illegal production and sale of liquor) and speakeasies (illegal, secretive drinking establishments), both of which were capitalized upon by organized crime . As a result, the Prohibition era also is remembered as a period of gangsterism , characterized by competition and violent turf battles between criminal gangs.
In the United States an early wave of movements for state and local prohibition arose from the intensive religious revivalism of the 1820s and ’30s, which stimulated movements toward perfectionism in human beings, including temperance and abolitionism . Although an abstinence pledge had been introduced by churches as early as 1800, the earliest temperance organizations seem to have been those founded at Saratoga , New York , in 1808 and in Massachusetts in 1813. The movement spread rapidly under the influence of the churches; by 1833 there were 6,000 local societies in several U.S. states. The precedent for seeking temperance through law was set by a Massachusetts law, passed in 1838 and repealed two years later, which prohibited sales of spirits in less than 15-gallon (55-litre) quantities. The first state prohibition law was passed in Maine in 1846 and ushered in a wave of such state legislation before the American Civil War .
Conceived by Wayne Wheeler, the leader of the Anti-Saloon League , the Eighteenth Amendment passed in both chambers of the U.S. Congress in December 1917 and was ratified by the requisite three-fourths of the states in January 1919. Its language called for Congress to pass enforcement legislation, and that was championed by Andrew Volstead, chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, who engineered passage of the National Prohibition Act (better known as the Volstead Act ) over the veto of Pres. Woodrow Wilson .
Neither the Volstead Act nor the Eighteenth Amendment was enforced with great success. Indeed, entire illegal economies (bootlegging, speakeasies, and distilling operations) flourished. The earliest bootleggers began smuggling foreign-made commercial liquor into the United States from across the Canadian and Mexican borders and along the seacoasts from ships under foreign registry. Their favourite sources of supply were the Bahamas , Cuba , and the French islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon , off the southern coast of Newfoundland . A favourite rendezvous of the rum-running ships was a point opposite Atlantic City , New Jersey , just outside the three-mile (five-km) limit beyond which the U.S. government lacked jurisdiction. The bootleggers anchored in that area and discharged their loads into high-powered craft that were built to outrace U.S. Coast Guard cutters.
That type of smuggling became riskier and more expensive when the U.S. Coast Guard began halting and searching ships at greater distances from the coast and using fast motor launches of its own. Bootleggers had other major sources of supply, however. Among those were millions of bottles of “medicinal” whiskey that were sold across drugstore counters on real or forged prescriptions. In addition, various American industries were permitted to use denatured alcohol, which had been mixed with noxious chemicals to render it unfit for drinking. Millions of gallons of that were illegally diverted, “washed” of noxious chemicals, mixed with tap water and perhaps a dash of real liquor for flavour, and sold to speakeasies or individual customers. Finally, bootleggers took to bottling their own concoctions of spurious liquor, and by the late 1920s stills making liquor from corn had become major suppliers.
Bootlegging helped lead to the establishment of American organized crime , which persisted long after the repeal of Prohibition. The distribution of liquor was necessarily more complex than other types of criminal activity, and organized gangs eventually arose that could control an entire local chain of bootlegging operations, from concealed distilleries and breweries through storage and transport channels to speakeasies , restaurants, nightclubs, and other retail outlets. Those gangs tried to secure and enlarge territories in which they had a monopoly of distribution. Gradually, the gangs in different cities began to cooperate with each other, and they extended their methods of organizing beyond bootlegging to the narcotics traffic, gambling rackets, prostitution , labour racketeering , loan-sharking, and extortion . The American Mafia crime syndicate arose out of the coordinated activities of Italian bootleggers and other gangsters in New York City in the late 1920s and early ’30s.
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Johnny Torrio rose to become a rackets boss in Brooklyn , New York , and then relocated to Chicago , where in the early 1920s he expanded the crime empire founded by James (“Big Jim”) Colosimo into big-time bootlegging. Torrio turned over his rackets in 1925 to Al Capone , who became the Prohibition era’s most famous gangster, though other crime czars such as Dion O’Bannion (Capone’s rival in Chicago), Joe Masseria , Meyer Lansky , Lucky Luciano , and Bugsy Siegel were also legendarily infamous. Capone’s wealth in 1927 was estimated at close to $100 million.
In 1929—the year of the stock market crash , which seemingly increased the country’s desire for illegal liquor— Eliot Ness was hired as a special agent of the U.S. Department of Justice to head the Prohibition bureau in Chicago, with the express purpose of investigating and harassing Capone. Because the men whom Ness hired to help him were extremely dedicated and unbribable, they were nicknamed the Untouchables . The public learned of them when big raids on breweries, speakeasies, and other places of outlawry attracted newspaper headlines. The Untouchables’ infiltration of the underworld secured evidence that helped send Capone to prison for income-tax evasion in 1932.
Also in 1932 Warner Brothers released Howard Hawks ’s film Scarface: The Shame of Nation , which was based loosely on Capone’s rise as a crime boss. The previous year the studio had started a craze for gangster films with Mervyn LeRoy ’s Little Caesar (1931) and William Wellman ’s The Public Enemy (1931). The cultural influence of the era proved lasting, with gangster films remaining popular and Ness’s exploits giving rise to the television series The Untouchables (1959–63).
Prohibition had been an important issue during the U.S. presidential election of 1928 , but Herbert Hoover ’s win over Al Smith ensured that what Hoover called an “experiment, noble in motive” would continue. As the Great Depression continued to grind on, however, and it became increasingly clear that the Volstead Act was unenforceable, Prohibition faded as a political issue. In March 1933, shortly after taking office, Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Cullen-Harrison Act , which amended the Volstead Act and permitted the manufacturing and sale of low-alcohol beer and wines (up to 3.2 percent alcohol by volume). Nine months later, on December 5, 1933, Prohibition was repealed at the federal level with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment (which allowed prohibition to be maintained at the state and local levels, however). | https://www.britannica.com/event/Prohibition-United-States-history-1920-1933 | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | 21st amendment is ratified; Prohibition ends | The 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, repealing the 18th Amendment and bringing an end to the era of national prohibition of alcohol in America. At 5:32 p.m. EST, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the requisite three-fourths majority of states’ approval. Pennsylvania and Ohio had ratified it earlier in the day.
The movement for the prohibition of alcohol began in the early 19th century, when Americans concerned about the adverse effects of drinking began forming temperance societies. By the late 19th century, these groups had become a powerful political force, campaigning on the state level and calling for national liquor abstinence. Several states outlawed the manufacture or sale of alcohol within their own borders. In December 1917, the 18th Amendment, prohibiting the “manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes,” was passed by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. On January 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment was ratified by the states. Prohibition went into effect the next year, on January 17, 1920.
In the meantime, Congress passed the Volstead Act on October 28, 1919, over President Woodrow Wilson’s veto. The Volstead Act provided for the enforcement of Prohibition , including the creation of a special Prohibition unit of the Treasury Department. In its first six months, the unit destroyed thousands of illicit stills run by bootleggers. However, federal agents and police did little more than slow the flow of booze, and organized crime flourished in America. Large-scale bootleggers like Al Capone of Chicago built criminal empires out of illegal distribution efforts, and federal and state governments lost billions in tax revenue. In most urban areas, the individual consumption of alcohol was largely tolerated and drinkers gathered at “speakeasies,” the Prohibition-era term for saloons.
Prohibition, failing fully to enforce sobriety and costing billions, rapidly lost popular support in the early 1930s. In 1933, the 21st Amendment to the Constitution was passed and ratified, ending national Prohibition. After the repeal of the 18th Amendment, some states continued Prohibition by maintaining statewide temperance laws. Mississippi , the last dry state in the Union, ended Prohibition in 1966. | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/prohibition-ends | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | 21st amendment is ratified; Prohibition ends | The 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified, repealing the 18th Amendment and bringing an end to the era of national prohibition of alcohol in America. At 5:32 p.m. EST, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the requisite three-fourths majority of states’ approval. Pennsylvania and Ohio had ratified it earlier in the day.
The movement for the prohibition of alcohol began in the early 19th century, when Americans concerned about the adverse effects of drinking began forming temperance societies. By the late 19th century, these groups had become a powerful political force, campaigning on the state level and calling for national liquor abstinence. Several states outlawed the manufacture or sale of alcohol within their own borders. In December 1917, the 18th Amendment, prohibiting the “manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes,” was passed by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. On January 16, 1919, the 18th Amendment was ratified by the states. Prohibition went into effect the next year, on January 17, 1920.
In the meantime, Congress passed the Volstead Act on October 28, 1919, over President Woodrow Wilson’s veto. The Volstead Act provided for the enforcement of Prohibition , including the creation of a special Prohibition unit of the Treasury Department. In its first six months, the unit destroyed thousands of illicit stills run by bootleggers. However, federal agents and police did little more than slow the flow of booze, and organized crime flourished in America. Large-scale bootleggers like Al Capone of Chicago built criminal empires out of illegal distribution efforts, and federal and state governments lost billions in tax revenue. In most urban areas, the individual consumption of alcohol was largely tolerated and drinkers gathered at “speakeasies,” the Prohibition-era term for saloons.
Prohibition, failing fully to enforce sobriety and costing billions, rapidly lost popular support in the early 1930s. In 1933, the 21st Amendment to the Constitution was passed and ratified, ending national Prohibition. After the repeal of the 18th Amendment, some states continued Prohibition by maintaining statewide temperance laws. Mississippi , the last dry state in the Union, ended Prohibition in 1966. | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/prohibition-ends | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | Prohibition on alcohol (United States) | Prohibition In the United States (1920-1933) was the era during which the United States Constitution outlawed the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages. The term also includes the prohibition of alcohol by state action at different times, and the social-political movement to secure prohibition. Selling, manufacturing, or transporting (including importing and exporting) alcohol were prohibited by the Eighteenth Amendment; however, drinking and possession of alcohol were never made illegal.
Many social problems have been attributed to the Prohibition era. A profitable, often violent, black market for alcohol flourished. Racketeering flourished when powerful gangs corrupted law enforcement agencies. Stronger liquor surged in popularity because its potency made it more profitable to smuggle. The cost of enforcing prohibition was high, and the lack of tax revenues on alcohol (some $500 million annually nationwide) affected government coffers. When repeal of prohibition occurred in 1933, following passage of the Twenty-first Amendment, organized crime lost nearly all of its black market alcohol profits in most states (states still had the right to enforce their own laws concerning alcohol consumption), because of competition with low-priced alcohol sales at legal liquor stores. This possibly led organized crime to further expansions into more illicit and socially harmful criminal activities, such as narcotics.
In colonial America, informal social controls in the home and community helped maintain the expectation that the abuse of alcohol was unacceptable. There was a clear consensus that while alcohol was a gift from God , its abuse was caused by the Devil . "Drunkenness was condemned and punished, but only as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itself was not looked upon as culpable, any more than food deserved blame for the sin of gluttony. Excess was a personal indiscretion." When informal controls failed, there were always legal ones.
While infractions did occur, the general sobriety of the colonists suggests the effectiveness of their system of informal and formal controls in a population that averaged about three and a half gallons of absolute alcohol per year per person. That rate was dramatically higher than the present rate of consumption.
Explanation were sought by medical men. One suggestion had come from one of the foremost physicians of the late eighteenth century, Dr. Benjamin Rush . In 1784, he argued that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to physical and psychological health (he believed in moderation rather than prohibition). Apparently influenced by Rush's widely discussed belief, about 200 farmers in a Connecticut community formed a temperance association in 1789. Similar associations were formed in Virginia in 1800 and New York in 1808. Within the next decade, other temperance organizations were formed in eight states, some being statewide organizations.
The prohibition, or "dry," movement began in the 1840s, spearheaded by pietistic religious denominations, especially the Methodists .
Between 1830 and 1840, most temperance organizations began to argue that the only way to prevent drunkenness was to eliminate the consumption of alcohol. The Temperance Society became the Abstinence Society. While it began by advocating the temperate or moderate use of alcohol, the movement now insisted that no one should be permitted to drink any alcohol in any quantity. It did so with religious fervor and increasing stridency.
The prohibition of alcohol by law became a major issue in every political campaign from the national and state level down to those for school board members. In promoting what many prohibitionists saw as their religious duty, they perfected the techniques of pressure politics. Women in the movement even used their children to march, sing, and otherwise exert pressure at polling places. Dressed in white and clutching tiny American flags, the children would await their instruction to appeal to "wets" as they approached the voting booth.
Some successes were registered in the 1850s, including Maine 's total ban on the manufacture and sale of liquor, adopted in 1851. However, the movement soon lost strength. It revived in the 1880s, with the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the Prohibition Party.
The Civil War (1861-1865) had interrupted the temperance movement while Americans were preoccupied with that struggle. Then, after the war, the Women's Christian Temperance Union was founded. The organization did not promote either moderation or temperance, but rather prohibition. One of its methods to achieve that goal was education. It was believed that if it could "get to the children," it could create a dry sentiment leading to prohibition.
In 1881, Kansas became the first state to outlaw alcoholic beverages in its Constitution, with Carry Nation gaining notoriety for enforcing the provision herself by walking into saloons, scolding customers, and using her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor. Other activists enforced the cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloon keepers to stop selling alcohol. Many other states, especially in the South, also enacted prohibition, along with many individual counties. Hostility to saloons and their political influence was characteristic of the Progressive Era. Supported by the anti-German mood of World War I , the Anti-Saloon League, working with both major parties, pushed the Constitutional amendment through Congress and the states, taking effect in 1920.
Nationwide prohibition was accomplished by means of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (ratified January 29, 1919) and the Volstead Act (passed October 28, 1919). Prohibition began on January 16, 1920, when the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect. Federal Prohibition agents (police) were given the task of enforcing the law. The principal actors in the enactment of Prohibition were members of the Republican Party, the Democratic Party, and the Prohibition Party. It was truly a cooperative effort with "progressives" making up a substantial portion of both major political parties. The main force were pietistic Protestants, who comprised majorities in the Republican party in the North, and the Democratic party in the South. Catholics and Germans were the main opponents; however, World War I swayed public opinion away from Germans and their protests were largely ignored.
The 65th Congress met in 1917 and the Democratic dries outnumbered the wets by 140 to 64 while Republicans dries outnumbered the wets 138 to 62. The 1916 election saw both Democratic incumbent Woodrow Wilson and Republican candidate Charles Evans Hughes ignore the Prohibition issue, as was the case with both party's political platforms. Both Democrats and Republicans had strong wet and dry factions and the election was expected to be close, with neither candidate wanting to alienate any part of their political base.
Prohibition also referred to that part of the Temperance movement which wanted to make alcohol illegal. These groups brought about much change even prior to national prohibition. By 1905, three American states had already outlawed alcohol; by 1912, this was up to nine states; and, by 1916, legal prohibition was already in effect in 26 of the 48 states.
Although it was highly controversial, Prohibition was widely supported by diverse groups. Progressives believed that it would improve society and the Ku Klux Klan strongly supported its strict enforcement as generally did women, Southerners, those living in rural areas, and African-Americans.
While the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcohol was illegal in the U.S., it was not illegal in surrounding countries. Distilleries and breweries in Canada , Mexico , and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or illegally imported to the United States.
Chicago became known as a haven for disobeying Prohibition during the time known as the Roaring Twenties. Many of Chicago's most notorious gangsters, including Al Capone and his enemy Bugs Moran, made millions of dollars through illegal alcohol sales.
The Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed nationwide prohibition, explicitly gives states the right to restrict or ban the purchase or sale of alcohol; this has led to a patchwork of laws, in which alcohol may be legally sold in some but not all towns or counties within a particular state. After the repeal of the national constitutional amendment, some states continued to enforce prohibition laws. Mississippi , which had made alcohol illegal in 1907, was the last state to repeal prohibition, in 1966. There are numerous "dry" counties or towns where no liquor is sold; even though liquor can be brought in for private consumption. It was never illegal to drink liquor in the United States.
On March 23, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed into law an amendment to the Volstead Act known as the Cullen-Harrison bill allowing the manufacture and sale of "3.2 beer" (3.2 percent alcohol by weight) and light wines. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed later in 1933 with ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment on December 5.
Prohibition had a notable effect on the brewing industry in the United States. When Prohibition ended, only half the breweries that had previously existed reopened. Wine historians also note that Prohibition destroyed what was a fledgling wine industry in the United States. Productive wine-quality grape vines were replaced by lower quality vines growing thicker skinned grapes that could be more easily transported. Much of the institutional knowledge was also lost as wine makers either emigrated to other wine producing countries or left the business altogether.
Despite the efforts of Heber J. Grant and the LDS Church , a Utah convention helped ratify the 21st Amendment While Utah can be considered the deciding 36th state to ratify the 21st Amendment and make it law, the day Utah passed the Amendment both Pennsylvania and Ohio passed it as well. All 38 states that decided to hold conventions passed the Amendment, while only 36 states were needed (three fourths of the 48 that existed). So, even if Utah hadn't passed it, it would have become law.
The first beer legally sold in the United States after Prohibition was Utica Club of the F.X. Matt's Brewery in Utica, New York.
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Acker, Caroline Jean, and Sarah W. Tracy. Altering American consciousness: the history of alcohol and drug use in the United States, 1800-2000 . Amherst, Mass: University of Massachusetts Press 2004. ISBN 9781558494251
- Beyer, Mark. Temperance and Prohibition: the movement to pass anti-liquor laws in America. The progressive movement, 1900-1920—efforts to reform America's new industrial society . New York, NY: Rosen Pub. Group 2006. ISBN 9781404201958
- Kyvig, David E. Law, alcohol, and order: perspectives on national prohibition . Contributions in American history, no. 110. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press 1985. ISBN 9780313247552
- Lender, Mark Edward. Dictionary of American temperance biography: from temperance reform to alcohol research, the 1600s to the 1980s . Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press 1984. ISBN 9780313223358
- Lerner, Michael A. Dry Manhattan: prohibition in New York City . Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. 2007. ISBN 9780674024328
- Rumbarger, John J. Profits, power, and prohibition: alcohol reform and the industrializing of America, 1800-1930 . SUNY series in new social studies on alcohol and drugs. Albany: State University of New York Press 1989. ISBN 9780887067839
All links retrieved November 30, 2022. | https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Prohibition_on_alcohol_(United_States) | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | Research Guides: This Month in Business History: Prohibition Begins | The U.S. has always had an uneasy relationship with alcohol and attempts to curb alcohol started long before the 18th Amendment. In 1826 the first of the temperance societies, American Temperance Society (ATS), formed. While it had some success, it wasn’t until the proliferation of saloons after the Civil War that the temperance movement gained more traction. In 1873 the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was founded and the temperance movement got its most forceful voice. The histories of the temperance movement and the women’s movement were often linked, which explains why the WCTU originally proposed the ban of alcohol as a method for preventing abuse from alcoholic husbands. The WCTU spent many years building the movement though education and local and state laws, and in 1881 had a big success – Kansas included a ban on alcohol in their state constitution. It is at this time that Carrie Nation came to prominence by attacking saloons with a hatchet. However, saloons still maintained their popularity though that popularity was on the decline during the Progressive Era (1890–1920) when the hostility toward saloons became widespread. The push for prohibition gained momentum, often with women and Protestant congregations leading the way.
World War I came and with it, a temporary prohibition on alcohol production. There was also a pronounced anti-German sentiment pushed by the Anti-Saloon League and since many brewers were German and often the loudest opponents of prohibition, this temporary situation dealt a serious blow to the anti-Prohibition forces. The support for a ban on alcohol grew. On December 18, 1917 a constitutional amendment to prohibit alcohol was proposed in the Senate, and in October 1919 Congress passed the Volstead Act (National Prohibition Act), which was the enabling legislation that set down the rules for enforcing the ban on alcohol and defined the types of alcoholic beverages to be prohibited. The 18th Amendment was ratified on January 16, 1919 and the country went dry at midnight on January 17, 1920.
Prior to Prohibition various types of alcohol were produced all over the country. The chart above, which originally ran in my A Chart is Worth a Thousand Words post , shows how widespread production of alcohol was in the U.S., as well as the variety that was produced. (You can see vestiges of the way things were – California was and is, the biggest wine area in the U.S. and Kentucky and Tennessee are where to go for bourbon and whiskey.) Of course alcohol didn’t entirely go away with Prohibition. The wealthy, including many politicians, bought out the inventories of the retailers and wholesalers, and of course there were the bootleggers who also helped keep the supply flowing.
Eventually Prohibition – and the violence surrounding it – wore out its welcome. By 1930 the anti-Prohibition forces had strengthened their hand in Congress and the need for tax revenues at the federal level during the Depression hastened Prohibition’s demise. President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Cullen–Harrison Act, an amendment to the Volstead Act, on March 22, 1933, allowing for the production of some beer and wine and on December 5, 1933 the 21st Amendment, which repealed the 18th Amendment, was ratified. Since many places still retained enough knowledge and people that worked in the industry prior to Prohibition, they were able to pick up production relatively easily in 1934, although that was not the case everywhere. New federal rules and regulations were a big barrier to re-entry as were the still simmering anti-alcohol sentiments evidenced in various restrictions that were in place in many communities. The years after Prohibition saw production become less geographically diverse than it had been prior to prohibition. | https://guides.loc.gov/this-month-in-business-history/january/prohibition | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | Prohibition in the United States | For the prohibition of slavery, see Abolitionism in the United States .
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In the United States from 1920 to 1933, a nationwide constitutional law prohibited the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages . [1] The alcohol industry was curtailed by a succession of state legislatures, and finally ended nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , ratified on January 16, 1919. Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment , which repealed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 5, 1933.
Led by pietistic Protestants , prohibitionists first attempted to end the trade in alcoholic drinks during the 19th century. They aimed to heal what they saw as an ill society beset by alcohol-related problems such as alcoholism , family violence , and saloon -based political corruption . Many communities introduced alcohol bans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and enforcement of these new prohibition laws became a topic of debate. Prohibition supporters, called "drys", presented it as a battle for public morals and health. The movement was taken up by progressives in the Prohibition , Democratic and Republican parties, and gained a national grassroots base through the Woman's Christian Temperance Union . After 1900, it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League . Opposition from the beer industry mobilized "wet" supporters from the wealthy Roman Catholic and German Lutheran communities, but the influence of these groups receded from 1917 following the entry of the U.S. into the First World War against Germany.
The Eighteenth amendment passed in 1919 "with a 68 percent supermajority in the House of Representatives and 76 percent support in the Senate" and was ratified by 46 out of 48 states. [2] Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act , set down the rules for enforcing the federal ban and defined the types of alcoholic beverages that were prohibited. Not all alcohol was banned; for example, religious use of wine was permitted. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, but local laws were stricter in many areas, some states banning possession outright.
Following the ban, criminal gangs gained control of the beer and liquor supply in many cities. By the late 1920s, a new opposition to Prohibition emerged nationwide. Critics attacked the policy as causing crime, lowering local revenues, and imposing "rural" Protestant religious values on "urban" America. [3] The Twenty-first Amendment ended Prohibition, though it continued in some states. To date, this is the only time in American history in which a constitutional amendment was passed for the purpose of repealing another.
Some research indicates that alcohol consumption declined substantially due to Prohibition. [4] [5] Rates of liver cirrhosis , alcoholic psychosis , and infant mortality also declined. [4] [6] [7] Other research indicates that Prohibition did not reduce alcohol consumption in the long term. [8] [9] [10] Prohibition's effect on rates of crime and violence is disputed. [10] [11] [12] Prohibition lost supporters every year it was in action, and lowered government tax revenues at a critical time before and during the Great Depression . [13]
On November 18, 1918, prior to ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, the U.S. Congress passed the temporary Wartime Prohibition Act, which banned the sale of alcoholic beverages having an alcohol content of greater than 1.28%. [14] This act, which had been intended to save grain for the war effort, was passed after the armistice ending World War I was signed on November 11, 1918. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30, 1919, with July 1 becoming known as the "Thirsty First". [15] [16]
The U.S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18, 1917. Upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16, 1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, on January 17, 1920. [17] [18]
On October 28, 1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act , the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilson 's veto . The act established the legal definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. [19] Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the federal government lacked resources to enforce it.
Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, cirrhosis death rates, admissions to state mental hospitals for alcoholic psychosis, arrests for public drunkenness, and rates of absenteeism. [6] [20] [21] While many state that Prohibition stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized and widespread criminal activity , [22] Kenneth D. Rose and Georges-Franck Pinard maintain that there was no increase in crime during the Prohibition era and that such claims are "rooted in the impressionistic rather than the factual." [23] [24] By 1925, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs in New York City alone. [25] Wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. [26]
On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act , legalizing beer with an alcohol content of 3.2% (by weight) and wine of a similarly low alcohol content. Subsequently on December 5, ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment. However, United States federal law still prohibits the manufacture of distilled spirits without meeting numerous licensing requirements that make it impractical to produce spirits for personal beverage use. [27]
Consumption of alcoholic beverages has been a contentious topic in America since the colonial period . On March 26, 1636 the legislature of New Somersetshire met at what is now Saco, Maine and adopted a law limiting the sale of "strong liquor or wyne," although carving out exceptions for "lodger[s]" and allowing serving to "laborers on working days for one hower at dinner." [28] In May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts made the sale of strong liquor "whether known by the name of rum, whisky, wine, brandy, etc." to the Native Americans illegal. [29] [ dubious – discuss ]
In general, informal social controls in the home and community helped maintain the expectation that the abuse of alcohol was unacceptable: "Drunkenness was condemned and punished, but only as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itself was not looked upon as culpable, any more than food deserved blame for the sin of gluttony . Excess was a personal indiscretion." [30] When informal controls failed, there were legal options.
Shortly after the United States obtained independence, the Whiskey Rebellion took place in western Pennsylvania in protest of government-imposed taxes on whiskey . Although the taxes were primarily levied to help pay down the newly formed national debt , it also received support from some social reformers, who hoped a " sin tax " would raise public awareness about the harmful effects of alcohol. [31] The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson 's Democratic-Republican Party , which opposed the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton , came to power in 1800. [32]
Benjamin Rush , one of the foremost physicians of the late 18th century, believed in moderation rather than prohibition. In his treatise, "The Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind" (1784), Rush argued that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to physical and psychological health, labeling drunkenness as a disease. [33] Apparently influenced by Rush's widely discussed belief, about 200 farmers in a Connecticut community formed a temperance association in 1789. Similar associations were formed in Virginia in 1800 and New York in 1808. [34] Within a decade, other temperance groups had formed in eight states, some of them being statewide organizations. The words of Rush and other early temperance reformers served to dichotomize the use of alcohol for men and women. While men enjoyed drinking and often considered it vital to their health, women who began to embrace the ideology of "true motherhood" refrained from the consumption of alcohol. Middle-class women, who were considered the moral authorities of their households, consequently rejected the drinking of alcohol, which they believed to be a threat to the home. [34] In 1830, on average, Americans consumed 1.7 bottles of hard liquor per week, three times the amount consumed in 2010. [22]
The American Temperance Society (ATS), formed in 1826, helped initiate the first temperance movement and served as a foundation for many later groups. By 1835 the ATS had reached 1.5 million members, with women constituting 35% to 60% of its chapters. [35]
The Prohibition movement, also known as the dry crusade, continued in the 1840s, spearheaded by pietistic religious denominations, especially the Methodists . The late 19th century saw the temperance movement broaden its focus from abstinence to include all behavior and institutions related to alcohol consumption. Preachers such as Reverend Mark A. Matthews linked liquor-dispensing saloons with political corruption. [36]
Some successes for the movement were achieved in the 1850s, including the Maine law , adopted in 1851, which banned the manufacture and sale of liquor. Before its repeal in 1856, 12 states followed the example set by Maine in total prohibition. [37] The temperance movement lost strength and was marginalized during the American Civil War (1861–1865). Following the war, social moralists turned to other issues, such as Mormon polygamy and the temperance movement . [38] [39] [40]
The dry crusade was revived by the national Prohibition Party , founded in 1869, and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1874. The WCTU advocated the prohibition of alcohol as a method for preventing, through education, abuse from alcoholic husbands. [41] WCTU members believed that if their organization could reach children with its message, it could create a dry sentiment leading to prohibition. Frances Willard , the second president of the WCTU, held that the aims of the organization were to create a "union of women from all denominations, for the purpose of educating the young, forming a better public sentiment, reforming the drinking classes, transforming by the power of Divine grace those who are enslaved by alcohol, and removing the dram-shop from our streets by law". [42] While still denied universal voting privileges, women in the WCTU followed Frances Willard's "Do Everything" doctrine and used temperance as a method of entering into politics and furthering other progressive issues such as prison reform and labor laws . [43]
In 1881 Kansas became the first state to outlaw alcoholic beverages in its Constitution . [44] Arrested over 30 times and fined and jailed on multiple occasions, prohibition activist Carrie Nation attempted to enforce the state's ban on alcohol consumption. [45] She walked into saloons, scolding customers, and used her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor. Nation recruited ladies into the Carrie Nation Prohibition Group, which she also led. While Nation's vigilante techniques were rare, other activists enforced the dry cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloonkeepers to stop selling alcohol. [46] Other dry states , especially those in the South , enacted prohibition legislation, as did individual counties within a state.
Court cases also debated the subject of prohibition. While some cases ruled in opposition, the general tendency was toward support. In Mugler v. Kansas (1887), Justice Harlan commented: "We cannot shut out of view the fact, within the knowledge of all, that the public health, the public morals, and the public safety, may be endangered by the general use of intoxicating drinks; nor the fact established by statistics accessible to every one, that the idleness, disorder, pauperism and crime existing in the country, are, in some degree...traceable to this evil." [47] In support of prohibition, Crowley v. Christensen (1890), remarked: "The statistics of every state show a greater amount of crime and misery attributable to the use of ardent spirits obtained at these retail liquor saloons than to any other source." [47]
The proliferation of neighborhood saloons in the post-Civil War era became a phenomenon of an increasingly industrialized, urban workforce. Workingmen's bars were popular social gathering places from the workplace and home life. The brewing industry was actively involved in establishing saloons as a lucrative consumer base in their business chain. Saloons were more often than not linked to a specific brewery, where the saloonkeeper's operation was financed by a brewer and contractually obligated to sell the brewer's product to the exclusion of competing brands. A saloon's business model often included the offer of a free lunch , where the bill of fare commonly consisted of heavily salted food meant to induce thirst and the purchase of drink. [48] During the Progressive Era (1890–1920), hostility toward saloons and their political influence became widespread, with the Anti-Saloon League superseding the Prohibition Party and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union as the most influential advocate of prohibition, after these latter two groups expanded their efforts to support other social reform issues, such as women's suffrage , onto their prohibition platform. [49]
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Prohibition was an important force in state and local politics from the 1840s through the 1930s. Numerous historical studies demonstrated that the political forces involved were ethnoreligious. [50] Prohibition was supported by the dries, primarily pietistic Protestant denominations that included Methodists , Northern Baptists , Southern Baptists , New School Presbyterians , Disciples of Christ , Congregationalists , Quakers , and Scandinavian Lutherans , but also included the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America and, to a certain extent, the Latter-day Saints . These religious groups identified saloons as politically corrupt and drinking as a personal sin. Other active organizations included the Women's Church Federation, the Women's Temperance Crusade, and the Department of Scientific Temperance Instruction. They were opposed by the wets, primarily liturgical Protestants ( Episcopalians and German Lutherans) and Roman Catholics , who denounced the idea that the government should define morality. [51] Even in the wet stronghold of New York City there was an active prohibition movement, led by Norwegian church groups and African-American labor activists who believed that prohibition would benefit workers, especially African Americans. Tea merchants and soda fountain manufacturers generally supported prohibition, believing a ban on alcohol would increase sales of their products. [52] A particularly effective operator on the political front was Wayne Wheeler of the Anti-Saloon League , [53] who made Prohibition a wedge issue and succeeded in getting many pro-prohibition candidates elected. Coming from Ohio, his deep resentment for alcohol started at a young age. He was injured on a farm by a worker who had been drunk. This event transformed Wheeler. Starting low in the ranks, he quickly moved up due to his deep-rooted hatred of alcohol. He later realized to further the movement he would need more public approval, and fast. This was the start of his policy called 'wheelerism' where he used the media to make it seem like the general public was "in on" on a specific issue. Wheeler became known as the "dry boss" because of his influence and power. [54]
Prohibition represented a conflict between urban and rural values emerging in the United States. Given the mass influx of migrants to the urban centers of the United States, many individuals within the prohibition movement associated the crime and morally corrupt behavior of American cities with their large, immigrant populations. Saloons frequented by immigrants in these cities were often frequented by politicians who wanted to obtain the immigrants' votes in exchange for favors such as job offers, legal assistance, and food baskets. Thus, saloons were seen as a breeding ground for political corruption . [55]
Most economists during the early 20th century were in favor of the enactment of the Eighteenth Amendment (Prohibition). [56] Simon Patten , one of the leading advocates for prohibition, predicted that prohibition would eventually happen in the United States for competitive and evolutionary reasons. Yale economics professor Irving Fisher , who was a dry, wrote extensively about prohibition, including a paper that made an economic case for prohibition. [57] Fisher is credited with supplying the criteria against which future prohibitions, such as against marijuana , could be measured, in terms of crime, health, and productivity. For example, " Blue Monday " referred to the hangover workers experienced after a weekend of binge drinking , resulting in Mondays being a wasted productive day. [58] But new research has discredited Fisher's research, which was based on uncontrolled experiments; regardless, his $6 billion figure for the annual gains of Prohibition to the United States continues to be cited. [59]
In a backlash to the emerging reality of a changing American demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to the doctrine of nativism , in which they endorsed the notion that the success of America was a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. This belief fostered distrust of immigrant communities that fostered saloons and incorporated drinking in their popular culture. [60]
Two other amendments to the Constitution were championed by dry crusaders to help their cause. One was granted in the Sixteenth Amendment (1913), which replaced alcohol taxes that funded the federal government with a federal income tax. [61] The other was women's suffrage, which was granted after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920; since women tended to support prohibition, temperance organizations tended to support women's suffrage. [61]
In the presidential election of 1916 , the Democratic incumbent, Woodrow Wilson , and the Republican candidate, Charles Evans Hughes , ignored the prohibition issue, as did both parties' political platforms. Democrats and Republicans had strong wet and dry factions, and the election was expected to be close, with neither candidate wanting to alienate any part of his political base.
When the 65th Congress convened in March 1917, the dries outnumbered the wets by 140 to 64 in the Democratic Party and 138 to 62 among Republicans. [62] With America's declaration of war against Germany in April, German Americans , a major force against prohibition, were sidelined and their protests subsequently ignored. In addition, a new justification for prohibition arose: prohibiting the production of alcoholic beverages would allow more resources—especially grain that would otherwise be used to make alcohol—to be devoted to the war effort. While wartime prohibition was a spark for the movement, [63] World War I ended before nationwide Prohibition was enacted.
A resolution calling for a Constitutional amendment to accomplish nationwide Prohibition was introduced in Congress and passed by both houses in December 1917. By January 16, 1919, the Amendment had been ratified by 36 of the 48 states, making it law. Eventually, only two states— Connecticut and Rhode Island —opted out of ratifying it. [64] [65] On October 28, 1919, Congress passed enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act , to enforce the Eighteenth Amendment when it went into effect in 1920.
Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, when the Volstead Act went into effect. [67] A total of 1,520 Federal Prohibition agents (police) were tasked with enforcement.
Supporters of the Amendment soon became confident that it would not be repealed. One of its creators, Senator Morris Sheppard , joked that "there is as much chance of repealing the Eighteenth Amendment as there is for a humming-bird to fly to the planet Mars with the Washington Monument tied to its tail." [68]
At the same time, songs emerged decrying the act. After Edward, Prince of Wales , returned to the United Kingdom following his tour of Canada in 1919, he recounted to his father, King George V , a ditty he had heard at a border town:
Four and twenty Yankees, feeling very dry,
Went across the border to get a drink of rye.
When the rye was opened, the Yanks began to sing,
"God bless America, but God save the King!" [69]
Prohibition became highly controversial among medical professionals because alcohol was widely prescribed by the era's physicians for therapeutic purposes. Congress held hearings on the medicinal value of beer in 1921. Subsequently, physicians across the country lobbied for the repeal of Prohibition as it applied to medicinal liquors. [70] From 1921 to 1930, doctors earned about $40 million for whiskey prescriptions. [71]
While the manufacture, importation, sale, and transport of alcohol was illegal in the United States, Section 29 of the Volstead Act allowed wine and cider to be made from fruit at home, but not beer. Up to 200 gallons of wine and cider per year could be made, and some vineyards grew grapes for home use. The Act did not prohibit the consumption of alcohol. Many people stockpiled wines and liquors for their personal use in the latter part of 1919 before sales of alcoholic beverages became illegal in January 1920.
Since alcohol was legal in neighboring countries, distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or smuggled into the United States illegally. The Detroit River , which forms part of the U.S. border with Canada, was notoriously difficult to control, especially rum-running in Windsor , Canada. When the U.S. government complained to the British that American law was being undermined by officials in Nassau , Bahamas , the head of the British Colonial Office refused to intervene. [72] Winston Churchill believed that Prohibition was "an affront to the whole history of mankind". [73]
Three federal agencies were assigned the task of enforcing the Volstead Act: the U.S. Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement, [74] [75] the U.S. Treasury 's IRS Bureau of Prohibition, [76] [77] and the U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Prohibition. [78] [79]
As early as 1925, journalist H. L. Mencken believed that Prohibition was not working. [80] Historian David Oshinsky , summarizing the work of Daniel Okrent , wrote that "Prohibition worked best when directed at its primary target: the working-class poor." [81] Historian Lizabeth Cohen writes: "A rich family could have a cellar-full of liquor and get by, it seemed, but if a poor family had one bottle of home-brew, there would be trouble." [82] Working-class people were inflamed by the fact that their employers could dip into a private cache while they, the employees, could not. [83] Within a week after Prohibition went into effect, small portable stills were on sale throughout the country. [84]
Before the Eighteenth Amendment went into effect in January 1920, many of the upper classes stockpiled alcohol for legal home consumption after Prohibition began. They bought the inventories of liquor retailers and wholesalers, emptying out their warehouses, saloons, and club storerooms. President Woodrow Wilson moved his own supply of alcoholic beverages to his Washington residence after his term of office ended. His successor, Warren G. Harding , relocated his own large supply into the White House. [85] [86]
After the Eighteenth Amendment became law, bootlegging became widespread. In the first six months of 1920, the federal government opened 7,291 cases for Volstead Act violations. [87] In the first complete fiscal year of 1921, the number of cases violating the Volstead Act jumped to 29,114 violations and would rise dramatically over the next thirteen years. [88]
Grape juice was not restricted by Prohibition, even though if it was allowed to sit for sixty days it would ferment and turn to wine with a twelve percent alcohol content. Many people took advantage of this as grape juice output quadrupled during the Prohibition era. [89] Vine-Glo was sold for this purpose and included a specific warning telling people how to make wine from it.
To prevent bootleggers from using industrial ethyl alcohol to produce illegal beverages, the federal government ordered the denaturation of industrial alcohols , meaning they must include additives to make them unpalatable or poisonous. In response, bootleggers hired chemists who successfully removed the additives from the alcohol to make it drinkable. As a response, the Treasury Department required manufacturers to add more deadly poisons, including the particularly deadly combination known as methyl alcohol : 4 parts methanol, 2.25 parts pyridine base, and 0.5 parts benzene per 100 parts ethyl alcohol. [90] New York City medical examiners prominently opposed these policies because of the danger to human life. As many as 10,000 people died from drinking denatured alcohol before Prohibition ended. [91] New York City medical examiner Charles Norris believed the government took responsibility for murder when they knew the poison was not deterring consumption and they continued to poison industrial alcohol (which would be used in drinking alcohol) anyway. Norris remarked: "The government knows it is not stopping drinking by putting poison in alcohol ... [Y]et it continues its poisoning processes, heedless of the fact that people determined to drink are daily absorbing that poison. Knowing this to be true, the United States government must be charged with the moral responsibility for the deaths that poisoned liquor causes, although it cannot be held legally responsible." [91]
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Another lethal substance that was often substituted for alcohol was Sterno , a fuel commonly known as "canned heat." Forcing the substance through a makeshift filter, such as a handkerchief, created a rough liquor substitute; however, the result was poisonous, though not often lethal. [92]
Making alcohol at home was common among some families with wet sympathies during Prohibition. Stores sold grape concentrate with warning labels that listed the steps that should be avoided to prevent the juice from fermenting into wine. Some drugstores sold "medical wine" with around a 22% alcohol content. In order to justify the sale, the wine was given a medicinal taste. [92] Home-distilled hard liquor was called bathtub gin in northern cities, and moonshine in rural areas of Virginia , Kentucky , North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , West Virginia and Tennessee . Homebrewing good hard liquor was easier than brewing good beer. [92] Since selling privately distilled alcohol was illegal and bypassed government taxation, law enforcement officers relentlessly pursued manufacturers. [93] In response, bootleggers modified their cars and trucks by enhancing the engines and suspensions to make faster vehicles that, they assumed, would improve their chances of outrunning and escaping agents of the Bureau of Prohibition , commonly called "revenue agents" or "revenuers". These cars became known as "moonshine runners" or " 'shine runners". [94] Shops with wet sympathies were also known to participate in the underground liquor market, by loading their stocks with ingredients for liquors, including bénédictine , vermouth , scotch mash, and even ethyl alcohol ; anyone could purchase these ingredients legally. [95]
In October 1930, just two weeks before the congressional midterm elections, bootlegger George Cassiday —"the man in the green hat"—came forward and told members of Congress how he had bootlegged for ten years. One of the few bootleggers ever to tell his story, Cassiday wrote five front-page articles for The Washington Post , in which he estimated that 80% of congressmen and senators drank. The Democrats in the North were mostly wets, and in the 1932 election , they made major gains. The wets argued that Prohibition was not stopping crime, and was actually causing the creation of large-scale, well-funded, and well-armed criminal syndicates. As Prohibition became increasingly unpopular, especially in urban areas, its repeal was eagerly anticipated. [96] Wets had the organization and the initiative. They pushed the argument that states and localities needed the tax money. President Herbert Hoover proposed a new constitutional amendment that was vague on particulars and satisfied neither side. Franklin Roosevelt's Democratic platform promised repeal of the 18th Amendment. [97] [98]
When Prohibition was repealed in 1933, many bootleggers and suppliers with wet sympathies simply moved into the legitimate liquor business. Some crime syndicates moved their efforts into expanding their protection rackets to cover legal liquor sales and other business areas. [99]
Doctors were able to prescribe medicinal alcohol for their patients. After just six months of prohibition, over 15,000 doctors and 57,000 pharmacists received licenses to prescribe or sell medicinal alcohol. According to Gastro Obscura ,
Physicians wrote an estimated 11 million prescriptions a year throughout the 1920s, and Prohibition Commissioner John F. Kramer even cited one doctor who wrote 475 prescriptions for whiskey in one day. It wasn’t tough for people to write—and fill—counterfeit subscriptions at pharmacies, either. Naturally, bootleggers bought prescription forms from crooked doctors and mounted widespread scams. In 1931, 400 pharmacists and 1,000 doctors were caught in a scam where doctors sold signed prescription forms to bootleggers. Just 12 doctors and 13 pharmacists were indicted, and the ones charged faced a one-time $50 fine. Selling alcohol through drugstores became so much of a lucrative open secret that it is name-checked in works such as The Great Gatsby. Historians speculate that Charles R. Walgreen , of Walgreen’s fame, expanded from 20 stores to a staggering 525 during the 1920s thanks to medicinal alcohol sales."— Paula Mejia, "The Lucrative Business of Prescribing Booze During Prohibition"; Gastro Obscura, 2017. [100]
Once Prohibition came into effect, the majority of U.S. citizens obeyed it. [20]
Some states like Maryland and New York refused Prohibition. [101] Enforcement of the law under the Eighteenth Amendment lacked a centralized authority. Clergymen were sometimes called upon to form vigilante groups to assist in the enforcement of Prohibition. [102] Furthermore, American geography contributed to the difficulties in enforcing Prohibition. The varied terrain of valleys, mountains, lakes, and swamps, as well as the extensive seaways, ports, and borders which the United States shared with Canada and Mexico made it exceedingly difficult for Prohibition agents to stop bootleggers given their lack of resources. Ultimately it was recognized with its repeal that the means by which the law was to be enforced were not pragmatic, and in many cases, the legislature did not match the general public opinion. [103]
In Cicero , Illinois, (a suburb of Chicago) the prevalence of ethnic communities who had wet sympathies allowed prominent gang leader Al Capone to operate despite the presence of police. [104]
The Ku Klux Klan talked a great deal about denouncing bootleggers and threatened private vigilante action against known offenders. Despite its large membership in the mid-1920s, it was poorly organized and seldom had an impact. Indeed, the KKK after 1925 helped disparage any enforcement of Prohibition. [105]
Prohibition was a major blow to the alcoholic beverage industry and its repeal was a step toward the amelioration of one sector of the economy. An example of this is the case of St. Louis , one of the most important alcohol producers before prohibition started, which was ready to resume its position in the industry as soon as possible. Its major brewery had "50,000 barrels" of beer ready for distribution from March 22, 1933, and was the first alcohol producer to resupply the market; others soon followed. After repeal, stores obtained liquor licenses and restocked for business. After beer production resumed, thousands of workers found jobs in the industry again. [106]
Prohibition created a black market that competed with the formal economy, which came under pressure when the Great Depression struck in 1929. State governments urgently needed the tax revenue alcohol sales had generated. Franklin Roosevelt was elected in 1932 based in part on his promise to end prohibition, which influenced his support for ratifying the Twenty-first Amendment to repeal Prohibition. [107]
Naval Captain William H. Stayton was a prominent figure in the anti-prohibition fight, founding the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment in 1918. The AAPA was the largest of the nearly forty organizations that fought to end Prohibition. [108] Economic urgency played a large part in accelerating the advocacy for repeal. [109] The number of conservatives who pushed for prohibition in the beginning decreased. Many farmers who fought for prohibition now fought for repeal because of the negative effects it had on the agriculture business. [110] Prior to the 1920 implementation of the Volstead Act, approximately 14% of federal, state, and local tax revenues were derived from alcohol commerce. When the Great Depression hit and tax revenues plunged, the governments needed this revenue stream. [111] Millions could be made by taxing beer. There was controversy on whether the repeal should be a state or nationwide decision. [110] On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed an amendment to the Volstead Act, known as the Cullen–Harrison Act , allowing the manufacture and sale of 3.2% beer (3.2% alcohol by weight, approximately 4% alcohol by volume) and light wines. The Volstead Act previously defined an intoxicating beverage as one with greater than 0.5% alcohol. [19] Upon signing the Cullen–Harrison Act, Roosevelt remarked: "I think this would be a good time for a beer." [112] According to a 2017 study in the journal Public Choice , representatives from traditional beer-producing states, as well as Democratic politicians, were most in favor of the bill, but politicians from many Southern states were most strongly opposed to the legislation. [113]
The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed on December 5, 1933, with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . Despite the efforts of Heber J. Grant , president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , the 21 Utah members of the constitutional convention voted unanimously on that day to ratify the Twenty-first Amendment, making Utah the 36th state to do so, and putting the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment over the top in needed voting. [114] [115]
In the late 1930s, after its repeal, two fifths of Americans wished to reinstate national Prohibition. [116]
The Twenty-first Amendment does not prevent states from restricting or banning alcohol; instead, it prohibits the "transportation or importation" of alcohol "into any State, Territory, or Possession of the United States" "in violation of the laws thereof", thus allowing state and local control of alcohol. [117] There are still numerous dry counties and municipalities in the United States that restrict or prohibit liquor sales. [118]
Additionally, many tribal governments prohibit alcohol on Indian reservations . Federal law also prohibits alcohol on Indian reservations, [119] although this law is currently only enforced when there is a concomitant violation of local tribal liquor laws. [120]
After its repeal, some former supporters openly admitted failure. For example, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. , explained his view in a 1932 letter: [121]
When Prohibition was introduced, I hoped that it would be widely supported by public opinion and the day would soon come when the evil effects of alcohol would be recognized. I have slowly and reluctantly come to believe that this has not been the result. Instead, drinking has generally increased; the speakeasy has replaced the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has appeared; many of our best citizens have openly ignored Prohibition; respect for the law has been greatly lessened, and crime has increased to a level never seen before.
It is not clear whether Prohibition reduced per-capita consumption of alcohol. Some historians claim that alcohol consumption in the United States did not exceed pre-Prohibition levels until the 1960s; [122] others claim that alcohol consumption reached the pre-Prohibition levels several years after its enactment, and has continued to rise. [123] Cirrhosis of the liver, a symptom of alcoholism, declined nearly two-thirds during Prohibition. [124] [125] In the decades after Prohibition, any stigma that had been associated with alcohol consumption was erased; according to a Gallup Poll survey conducted almost every year since 1939, two-thirds of American adults age 18 and older drink alcohol. [126]
Shortly after World War II , a national opinion survey found that "About one-third of the people of the United States favor national prohibition." Upon repeal of national prohibition, 18 states continued prohibition at the state level. The last state, Mississippi, finally ended it in 1966. Almost two-thirds of all states adopted some form of local option which enabled residents in political subdivisions to vote for or against local prohibition. Therefore, despite the repeal of prohibition at the national level, 38% of the nation's population lived in areas with state or local prohibition. [127] : 221
In 2014, a CNN nationwide poll found that 18% of Americans "believed that drinking should be illegal". [128]
Prohibition in the early to mid-20th century was mostly fueled by the Protestant denominations in the Southern United States , a region dominated by socially conservative evangelical Protestantism with a very high Christian church attendance. [129] Generally, Evangelical Protestant denominations encouraged prohibition, while the Mainline Protestant denominations disapproved of its introduction. However, there were exceptions to this, such as the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (German Confessional Lutherans), which is typically considered to be in scope of evangelical Protestantism. [130] Pietistic churches in the United States (especially Baptist churches, Methodists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and others in the evangelical tradition) sought to end drinking and the saloon culture during the Third Party System . Liturgical ("high") churches ( Roman Catholic , Episcopal , German Lutheran and others in the mainline tradition) opposed prohibition laws because they did not want the government to reduce the definition of morality to a narrow standard or to criminalize the common liturgical practice of using wine. [131]
Revivalism during the Second Great Awakening and the Third Great Awakening in the mid-to-late 19th century set the stage for the bond between pietistic Protestantism and prohibition in the United States: "The greater prevalence of revival religion within a population, the greater support for the Prohibition parties within that population." [132] Historian Nancy Koester argued that Prohibition was a "victory for progressives and social gospel activists battling poverty". [133] Prohibition also united progressives and revivalists. [134]
The temperance movement had popularized the belief that alcohol was the major cause of most personal and social problems and prohibition was seen as the solution to the nation's poverty, crime, violence, and other ills. [135] Upon ratification of the amendment, the evangelist Billy Sunday said that "The slums will soon be only a memory. We will turn our prisons into factories and our jails into storehouses and corncribs." Since alcohol was to be banned and since it was seen as the cause of most, if not all, crimes, some communities sold their jails . [136]
According to a 2010 review of the academic research on Prohibition, "On balance, Prohibition probably reduced per capita alcohol use and alcohol-related harm, but these benefits eroded over time as an organized black market developed and public support for [national prohibition] declined." [10] One study reviewing city-level drunkenness arrests concluded that prohibition had an immediate effect, but no long-term effect. [8] And, yet another study examining "mortality, mental health and crime statistics" found that alcohol consumption fell, at first, to approximately 30 percent of its pre-Prohibition level; but, over the next several years, increased to about 60–70 percent of its pre-prohibition level. [9] The Eighteenth Amendment prohibited the manufacture, sale and transportation of intoxicating beverages, however, it did not outlaw the possession or consumption of alcohol in the United States, which would allow legal loopholes for consumers possessing alcohol. [137]
Research indicates that rates of cirrhosis of the liver declined significantly during Prohibition and increased after Prohibition's repeal. [4] [6] According to the historian Jack S. Blocker, Jr., "death rates from cirrhosis and alcoholism, alcoholic psychosis hospital admissions, and drunkenness arrests all declined steeply during the latter years of the 1910s, when both the cultural and the legal climate were increasingly inhospitable to drink, and in the early years after National Prohibition went into effect." [20] Studies examining the rates of cirrhosis deaths as a proxy for alcohol consumption estimated a decrease in consumption of 10–20%. [138] [139] [140] National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism studies show clear epidemiological evidence that "overall cirrhosis mortality rates declined precipitously with the introduction of Prohibition," despite widespread flouting of the law. [141]
It is difficult to draw conclusions about Prohibition's impact on crime at the national level, as there were no uniform national statistics gathered about crime prior to 1930. [10] It has been argued that organized crime received a major boost from Prohibition. For example, one study found that organized crime in Chicago tripled during Prohibition. [142] Mafia groups and other criminal organizations and gangs had mostly limited their activities to prostitution , gambling , and theft until 1920, when organized "rum-running" or bootlegging emerged in response to Prohibition. [ citation needed ] A profitable, often violent, black market for alcohol flourished. [143] Prohibition provided a financial basis for organized crime to flourish. [144] In one study of more than 30 major U.S. cities during the Prohibition years of 1920 and 1921, the number of crimes increased by 24%. Additionally, theft and burglaries increased by 9%, homicides by 13%, assaults and battery rose by 13%, drug addiction by 45%, and police department costs rose by 11.4%. This was largely the result of "black-market violence" and the diversion of law enforcement resources elsewhere. Despite the Prohibition movement's hope that outlawing alcohol would reduce crime, the reality was that the Volstead Act led to higher crime rates than were experienced prior to Prohibition and the establishment of a black market dominated by criminal organizations. [145]
A 2016 NBER paper showed that South Carolina counties that enacted and enforced prohibition had homicide rates increase by about 30 to 60 percent relative to counties that did not enforce prohibition. [11] A 2009 study found an increase in homicides in Chicago during Prohibition. [12] However, some scholars have attributed the crime during the Prohibition era to increased urbanization , rather than to the criminalization of alcohol use. [146] In some cities, such as New York City , crime rates decreased during the Prohibition era. [24] Crime rates overall declined from the period of 1849 to 1951, making crime during the Prohibition period less likely to be attributed to the criminalization of alcohol alone. [24] [ why? ]
Mark H. Moore states that contrary to popular opinion, "violent crime did not increase dramatically during Prohibition" and that organized crime "existed before and after" Prohibition. [4] The historian Kenneth D. Rose corroborates historian John Burnham's assertion that during the 1920s "there is no firm evidence of this supposed upsurge in lawlessness" as "no statistics from this period dealing with crime are of any value whatsoever". [23] California State University, Chico historian Kenneth D. Rose writes: [23]
Opponents of prohibition were fond of claiming that the Great Experiment had created a gangster element that had unleashed a "crime wave" on a hapless America. The WONPR's Mrs. Coffin Van Rensselaer, for instance, insisted in 1932 that "the alarming crime wave, which had been piling up to unprecedented height" was a legacy of prohibition. But prohibition can hardly be held responsible for inventing crime, and while supplying illegal liquor proved to be lucrative, it was only an additional source of income to the more traditional criminal activities of gambling, loan sharking, racketeering, and prostitution. The notion of the prohibition-induced crime wave, despite its popularity during the 1920s, cannot be substantiated with any accuracy, because of the inadequacy of records kept by local police departments.
Along with other economic effects, the enactment and enforcement of Prohibition caused an increase in resource costs. During the 1920s the annual budget of the Bureau of Prohibition went from $4.4 million to $13.4 million. Additionally, the U.S. Coast Guard spent an average of $13 million annually on enforcement of prohibition laws. [147] These numbers do not take into account the costs to local and state governments.
According to Harvard University historian Lisa McGirr, Prohibition led to an expansion in the powers of the federal state, as well as helped shape the penal state. [148] According to academic Colin Agur, Prohibition specifically increased the usage of telephone wiretapping by federal agents for evidence collection. [149]
According to Harvard University historian Lisa McGirr, Prohibition had a disproportionately adverse impact on African-Americans, immigrants and poor Whites, as law enforcement used alcohol prohibition against these communities. [148]
A 2021 study in the Journal of Economic History found that counties that adopted Prohibition early subsequently had greater population growth and an increase in farm real estate values. [150]
According to Washington State University , Prohibition had a negative impact on the American economy. Prohibition caused the loss of at least $226 million per annum in tax revenues on liquors alone; supporters of the prohibition expected an increase in the sales of non-alcoholic beverages to replace the money made from alcohol sales, but this did not happen. Furthermore, "Prohibition caused the shutdown of over 200 distilleries, a thousand breweries, and over 170,000 liquor stores". Finally, it is worth noting that "the amount of money used to enforce prohibition started at $6.3 million in 1921 and rose to $13.4 million in 1930, almost double the original amount". [151] A 2015 study estimated that the repeal of Prohibition had a net social benefit of "$432 million per annum in 1934–1937, about 0.33% of gross domestic product. Total benefits of $3.25 billion consist primarily of increased consumer and producer surplus, tax revenues, and reduced criminal violence costs." [152]
When 3.2 percent alcohol beer was legalized in 1933, it created 81,000 jobs within a three-month span. [153]
During the Prohibition era, rates of absenteeism decreased from 10% to 3%. [154] In Michigan, the Ford Motor Company documented "a decrease in absenteeism from 2,620 in April 1918 to 1,628 in May 1918." [21]
As saloons died out, public drinking lost much of its macho connotation, resulting in increased social acceptance of women drinking in the semi-public environment of the speakeasies . This new norm established women as a notable new target demographic for alcohol marketeers, who sought to expand their clientele. [116] Women thus found their way into the bootlegging business, with some discovering that they could make a living by selling alcohol with a minimal likelihood of suspicion by law enforcement. [155] Before prohibition, women who drank publicly in saloons or taverns, especially outside of urban centers like Chicago or New York, were seen as immoral or were likely to be prostitutes. [156]
Heavy drinkers and alcoholics were among the most affected groups during Prohibition. Those who were determined to find liquor could still do so, but those who saw their drinking habits as destructive typically had difficulty in finding the help they sought. Self-help societies had withered away along with the alcohol industry. In 1935 a new self-help group called Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded. [116]
Prohibition also had an effect on the music industry in the United States , specifically with jazz . Speakeasies became very popular, and the Great Depression's migratory effects led to the dispersal of jazz music, from New Orleans going north through Chicago and to New York. This led to the development of different styles in different cities. Due to its popularity in speakeasies and the emergence of advanced recording technology, jazz's popularity skyrocketed. It was also at the forefront of the minimal integration efforts going on at the time, as it united mostly black musicians with mostly white audiences. [157]
Making moonshine was an industry in the American South before and after Prohibition. In the 1950s muscle cars became popular and various roads became known as "Thunder Road" for their use by moonshiners. A popular song was created and the legendary drivers, cars, and routes were depicted on film in Thunder Road . [158] [159] [160] [161]
As a result of Prohibition, the advancements of industrialization within the alcoholic beverage industry were essentially reversed. Large-scale alcohol producers were shut down, for the most part, and some individual citizens took it upon themselves to produce alcohol illegally, essentially reversing the efficiency of mass-producing and retailing alcoholic beverages. Closing the country's manufacturing plants and taverns also resulted in an economic downturn for the industry. While the Eighteenth Amendment did not have this effect on the industry due to its failure to define an "intoxicating" beverage, the Volstead Act 's definition of 0.5% or more alcohol by volume shut down the brewers, who expected to continue to produce beer of moderate strength. [116]
In 1930 the Prohibition Commissioner estimated that in 1919, the year before the Volstead Act became law, the average drinking American spent $17 per year on alcoholic beverages. By 1930, because enforcement diminished the supply, spending had increased to $35 per year (there was no inflation in this period). The result was an illegal alcohol beverage industry that made an average of $3 billion per year in illegal untaxed income. [162]
The Volstead Act specifically allowed individual farmers to make certain wines "on the legal fiction that it was a non-intoxicating fruit-juice for home consumption", [163] and many did so. Enterprising grape farmers produced liquid and semi-solid grape concentrates, often called "wine bricks" or "wine blocks". [164] This demand led California grape growers to increase their land under cultivation by about 700% during the first five years of Prohibition. The grape concentrate was sold with a "warning": "After dissolving the brick in a gallon of water, do not place the liquid in a jug away in the cupboard for twenty days, because then it will turn into wine". [30]
The Volstead Act allowed the sale of sacramental wine to priests and ministers and allowed rabbis to approve sales of kosher wine to individuals for Sabbath and holiday use at home. Among Jews , four rabbinical groups were approved, which led to some competition for membership, since the supervision of sacramental licenses could be used to secure donations to support a religious institution. There were known abuses in this system, with impostors or unauthorized agents using loopholes to purchase wine. [61] [165]
Prohibition had a notable effect on the alcohol brewing industry in the United States. Wine historians note that Prohibition destroyed what was a fledgling wine industry in the United States. Productive, wine-quality grapevines were replaced by lower-quality vines that grew thicker-skinned grapes, which could be more easily transported. Much of the institutional knowledge was also lost as winemakers either emigrated to other wine-producing countries or left the business altogether. [166] Distilled spirits became more popular during Prohibition. [92] Because their alcohol content was higher than that of fermented wine and beer, spirits were often diluted with non-alcoholic drinks. [92]
- ^ Driving Tennessee's "White Lightnin' Trail" – is it the Real Thunder Road? Archived January 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine ; Jack Neely retraces the infamous bootlegger's route as it becomes an official state tourist attraction by Jack Neely MetroPulse June 30, 2010
- ^ Appalachian Journal: The end of Thunder Road Archived February 10, 2014, at the Wayback Machine ; Man known for whiskey cars, moonshine and rare auto parts is selling out by Fred Brown Knoxville News Sentinel February 13, 2007
- ^ E. E. Free (May 1930). "Where America Gets Its Booze: An Interview With Dr. James M. Doran" . Popular Science Monthly . 116 (5): 147. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 7, 2013 .
- ^ "Prohibition: Wine Bricks" . Time . August 17, 1931. Archived from the original on December 14, 2006 . Retrieved May 26, 2013 .
- ^ Kelsey Burnham (April 18, 2010). "Prohibition in Wine Country" . Napa Valley Register . Archived from the original on April 20, 2010 . Retrieved April 18, 2010 .
- ^ Hannah Sprecher. ""Let Them Drink and Forget Our Poverty": Orthodox Rabbis React to Prohibition" (PDF) . American Jewish Archives. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 24, 2021 . Retrieved September 4, 2013 .
- ^ Karen MacNeil . The Wine Bible . pp. 630–631.
- Blocker, Jack S., ed. (2003). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia . ABC-CLIO. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-57607-833-4 . Archived from the original on January 20, 2023 . Retrieved October 17, 2015 .
- Burns, Ken ; Novick, Lynn (October 2011). Prohibition . PBS. ISBN 978-1-60883-430-3 . OCLC 738476083 . Archived from the original on December 25, 2020 . Retrieved September 8, 2017 .
- Haygood, Atticus G. Close the Saloons: A Plea for Prohibition . 8th ed. Macon, GA: J.W. Burke, 1880.
- Hopkins, Richard J. "The Prohibition and Crime". The North American Review . Volume: 222. Number: 828. September 1925. 40–44.
- Behr, Edward (1996). Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America . New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1-55970-356-3 .
- Blumenthal, Karen (2011). Bootleg: Murder, Moonshine, and the Lawless Years of Prohibition . New York: Roaring Brook Press. ISBN 1-59643-449-X .
- Burns, Eric (2003). The Spirits of America: A Social History of Alcohol . Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 1-59213-214-6 .
- Clark, Norman H. (1976). Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05584-1 .
- Dunn, John M. Prohibition . Detroit: Lucent Books, 2010. [ ISBN missing ]
- Folsom, Burton W. "Tinkerers, Tipplers, and Traitors: Ethnicity and Democratic Reform in Nebraska During the Progressive Era." Pacific Historical Review (1981) 50#1 pp: 53–75 in JSTOR Archived August 18, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
- Kahn, Gordon, and Al Hirschfeld. (1932, rev. 2003). The Speakeasies of 1932 . New York: Glenn Young Books. ISBN 1-55783-518-7 .
- Karson, Larry, American Smuggling and British white-collar crime: A historical perspective (PDF) , British Society of Criminology, archived (PDF) from the original on December 10, 2022 , retrieved August 7, 2022 .
- Karson, Lawrence. American Smuggling as White Collar Crime. (New York: Routledge, 2014).
- Kavieff, Paul B. (2001). "The Violent Years: Prohibition and the Detroit Mobs". Fort Lee: Barricade Books Inc. ISBN 1-56980-210-6 .
- Kobler, John (1973). Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition . New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-11209-X .
- Kuhl, Jackson (2008). "Prohibition of Alcohol" . In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Archived copy . The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage ; Cato Institute . pp. 400–401. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4 . Archived from the original on January 9, 2023 . Retrieved April 1, 2022 .
- Lawson, Ellen NicKenzie (2013). Smugglers, Bootleggers, and Scofflaws: Prohibition and New York City . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-4816-9 .
- Lerner, Michael A. (2007). Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-02432-X .
- McGirr, Lisa (2015). The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State . New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-06695-9 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States | 3 |
when did alcohol become legal in the united states | Prohibition | Definition, History, Eighteenth Amendment, & Repeal | What led to Prohibition?
How long did Prohibition last?
What were the effects of Prohibition?
How did people get around Prohibition?
How was Prohibition enforced?
Prohibition , legal prevention of the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the United States from 1920 to 1933 under the terms of the Eighteenth Amendment . Although the temperance movement , which was widely supported, had succeeded in bringing about this legislation, millions of Americans were willing to drink liquor ( distilled spirits ) illegally, which gave rise to bootlegging (the illegal production and sale of liquor) and speakeasies (illegal, secretive drinking establishments), both of which were capitalized upon by organized crime . As a result, the Prohibition era also is remembered as a period of gangsterism , characterized by competition and violent turf battles between criminal gangs.
In the United States an early wave of movements for state and local prohibition arose from the intensive religious revivalism of the 1820s and ’30s, which stimulated movements toward perfectionism in human beings, including temperance and abolitionism . Although an abstinence pledge had been introduced by churches as early as 1800, the earliest temperance organizations seem to have been those founded at Saratoga , New York , in 1808 and in Massachusetts in 1813. The movement spread rapidly under the influence of the churches; by 1833 there were 6,000 local societies in several U.S. states. The precedent for seeking temperance through law was set by a Massachusetts law, passed in 1838 and repealed two years later, which prohibited sales of spirits in less than 15-gallon (55-litre) quantities. The first state prohibition law was passed in Maine in 1846 and ushered in a wave of such state legislation before the American Civil War .
Conceived by Wayne Wheeler, the leader of the Anti-Saloon League , the Eighteenth Amendment passed in both chambers of the U.S. Congress in December 1917 and was ratified by the requisite three-fourths of the states in January 1919. Its language called for Congress to pass enforcement legislation, and that was championed by Andrew Volstead, chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, who engineered passage of the National Prohibition Act (better known as the Volstead Act ) over the veto of Pres. Woodrow Wilson .
Neither the Volstead Act nor the Eighteenth Amendment was enforced with great success. Indeed, entire illegal economies (bootlegging, speakeasies, and distilling operations) flourished. The earliest bootleggers began smuggling foreign-made commercial liquor into the United States from across the Canadian and Mexican borders and along the seacoasts from ships under foreign registry. Their favourite sources of supply were the Bahamas , Cuba , and the French islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon , off the southern coast of Newfoundland . A favourite rendezvous of the rum-running ships was a point opposite Atlantic City , New Jersey , just outside the three-mile (five-km) limit beyond which the U.S. government lacked jurisdiction. The bootleggers anchored in that area and discharged their loads into high-powered craft that were built to outrace U.S. Coast Guard cutters.
That type of smuggling became riskier and more expensive when the U.S. Coast Guard began halting and searching ships at greater distances from the coast and using fast motor launches of its own. Bootleggers had other major sources of supply, however. Among those were millions of bottles of “medicinal” whiskey that were sold across drugstore counters on real or forged prescriptions. In addition, various American industries were permitted to use denatured alcohol, which had been mixed with noxious chemicals to render it unfit for drinking. Millions of gallons of that were illegally diverted, “washed” of noxious chemicals, mixed with tap water and perhaps a dash of real liquor for flavour, and sold to speakeasies or individual customers. Finally, bootleggers took to bottling their own concoctions of spurious liquor, and by the late 1920s stills making liquor from corn had become major suppliers.
Bootlegging helped lead to the establishment of American organized crime , which persisted long after the repeal of Prohibition. The distribution of liquor was necessarily more complex than other types of criminal activity, and organized gangs eventually arose that could control an entire local chain of bootlegging operations, from concealed distilleries and breweries through storage and transport channels to speakeasies , restaurants, nightclubs, and other retail outlets. Those gangs tried to secure and enlarge territories in which they had a monopoly of distribution. Gradually, the gangs in different cities began to cooperate with each other, and they extended their methods of organizing beyond bootlegging to the narcotics traffic, gambling rackets, prostitution , labour racketeering , loan-sharking, and extortion . The American Mafia crime syndicate arose out of the coordinated activities of Italian bootleggers and other gangsters in New York City in the late 1920s and early ’30s.
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Johnny Torrio rose to become a rackets boss in Brooklyn , New York , and then relocated to Chicago , where in the early 1920s he expanded the crime empire founded by James (“Big Jim”) Colosimo into big-time bootlegging. Torrio turned over his rackets in 1925 to Al Capone , who became the Prohibition era’s most famous gangster, though other crime czars such as Dion O’Bannion (Capone’s rival in Chicago), Joe Masseria , Meyer Lansky , Lucky Luciano , and Bugsy Siegel were also legendarily infamous. Capone’s wealth in 1927 was estimated at close to $100 million.
In 1929—the year of the stock market crash , which seemingly increased the country’s desire for illegal liquor— Eliot Ness was hired as a special agent of the U.S. Department of Justice to head the Prohibition bureau in Chicago, with the express purpose of investigating and harassing Capone. Because the men whom Ness hired to help him were extremely dedicated and unbribable, they were nicknamed the Untouchables . The public learned of them when big raids on breweries, speakeasies, and other places of outlawry attracted newspaper headlines. The Untouchables’ infiltration of the underworld secured evidence that helped send Capone to prison for income-tax evasion in 1932.
Also in 1932 Warner Brothers released Howard Hawks ’s film Scarface: The Shame of Nation , which was based loosely on Capone’s rise as a crime boss. The previous year the studio had started a craze for gangster films with Mervyn LeRoy ’s Little Caesar (1931) and William Wellman ’s The Public Enemy (1931). The cultural influence of the era proved lasting, with gangster films remaining popular and Ness’s exploits giving rise to the television series The Untouchables (1959–63).
Prohibition had been an important issue during the U.S. presidential election of 1928 , but Herbert Hoover ’s win over Al Smith ensured that what Hoover called an “experiment, noble in motive” would continue. As the Great Depression continued to grind on, however, and it became increasingly clear that the Volstead Act was unenforceable, Prohibition faded as a political issue. In March 1933, shortly after taking office, Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Cullen-Harrison Act , which amended the Volstead Act and permitted the manufacturing and sale of low-alcohol beer and wines (up to 3.2 percent alcohol by volume). Nine months later, on December 5, 1933, Prohibition was repealed at the federal level with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment (which allowed prohibition to be maintained at the state and local levels, however). | https://www.britannica.com/event/Prohibition-United-States-history-1920-1933 | 3 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | The nun and the actress behind 'Orange is the New Black' | by Jamie Manson
Follow on Twitter at @jamielmanson
June 10, 2015
After 40 years of starring on Broadway, Beth Fowler is beginning to experience one of the signature signs of stardom: being recognized in her local grocery store in New Jersey.
Only it isn’t any of her Tony-nominated roles that are getting her facial recognition, but her recurring part as a Roman Catholic nun in “Orange is the New Black,” the megahit series on Netflix that is set to release its third season on Friday.
The show is based on Piper Kerman’s 2011 memoir of the same title, which tells the story of her 15-month stay at a federal correctional facility in Danbury, Conn., after being tried for a drug-trafficking crime she had committed 10 years earlier.
Fowler plays Sr. Jane Ingalls , a nun locked up for cutting into the fence of a nuclear testing site, defacing its walls of the factory with blood, and chaining herself to a flagpole.
The nun behind the character
If the story sounds familiar, that’s because Ingalls is based on real-life Dominican Sr. Ardeth Platte. In 2002, Platte, along with Dominican Srs . Carol Gilbert and Jackie Hudson, cut through a chain-link fence at a Minuteman III missile silo in Colorado and used baby bottles filled with their own blood to draw signs of the cross on its walls.
The action landed the three Dominicans in prison. Platte was assigned to the Danbury facility as part of a 41-month sentence. In 2004, Kerman landed at Danbury, too. And, years later, Platte would land in Kerman’s memoir.
“Piper and I did yoga together as much as possible to keep our bodies and spirits going,” Platte said in a phone interview recently. “There is no question that what happened to her was a tragedy. She had restarted her life and then got hurled into this system of injury and destruction. But every story I’ve encountered in prison seems to be like that.”
Platte has spent the last 21 years living at Jonah House in Baltimore, which she calls “the longest living community of resistance against war and weapons.”
Since the simple life at Jonah House does not budget for a Netflix subscription, she says she has never watched the series.
“My friends who do watch say I’m not defined for who I am in the show,” she admits.
Anyone who meets Platte quickly realizes that it would be a challenge for any show to capture the scope of her peacemaking efforts over the course of her 60 years in religious life.
A member of the Dominican Sisters of Grand Rapids, Mich., Platte spent nearly 20 years in Catholic education. While working in the inner city in the 1960s , she “became aware of suffering, of the poorest at the hands of racism, classicism, sexism, and militarism.
“The disadvantaged people I worked with convinced me to run for city council, so I spent 12 years in political life,” she recalls. She protested the Vietnam War and capital punishment, and worked to rid the state of Michigan of nuclear weapons.
But of all the arenas in which she has learned about the plight of the poor, prison may have been the most powerful classroom.
“Our faith says that we stand in preferential option with the poorest,” says Platte. “Well, in jail you’re actually walking with them. Prison is a very powerless, punitive, and neglectful place, and it only causes people to be less than God wanted them to be.”
At age 79, Platte says that she has never kept track of the amount of time that she’s spent behind the walls of jails and prisons, but she estimates that it is a congregate of eight years.
“When you’re on the inside and you listen to the stories of the people there, you really fall in love them very deeply,” she says.
Platte’s insight may best explain the success of the “Orange is the New Black” series. Widely praised for its multi-racial, multi-cultural, and intergenerational cast, the show’s writers offer social commentary on incarceration, violence, and sex, in addition to racial tension, while also managing to infuse the narrative with wit, sarcasm, romance and pathos.
But the show’s most compelling element may be the way it devotes each episode to exploring the backstory of an individual character.
These flashback sequences allow the audience to understand the challenges faced by a Russian immigrant who contends with the mob while trying to grow a small business; or the vulnerability of a lost, young black woman who comes under the control of a manipulative, drug dealing mother-figure; or the desperation of a Latin American woman under the control of an abusive husband.
“The scripts humanize every kind of person, whether they are in jail because they’re really nasty or because they were victims of circumstances in their communities or families,” says Fowler. “The stories let you in and show you that we’re all human, we’re all God’s children. I think what the show does is actually a very religious thing.”
United by the Dominican spirit
Though Platte and Fowler inhabit two very different worlds, one could say they are united by the Dominican spirit. Growing up in northern New Jersey, Fowler was taught by the Dominican Sisters of Caldwell at St. Mary’s High School in Rutherford. In her junior year, she was inspired to join the convent.
After graduation, she enrolled in Caldwell College for Women (now Caldwell University) with the hope of joining the Dominican Order.
“I had my interview with the mother general,” Fowler recalls. “They embraced me with open arms. I was a music major, so I was going to be the singing nun.”
But after serious discernment, Fowler says that she decided to pursue other interests.
Though the Caldwell Dominicans were sorry to see her go, they remained deeply supportive. “My sponsor reminded me that I had taken four years to really examine my calling deep in my soul,” Fowler remembers. “They were disappointed, but they never gave me grief.”
It was the kind of gentleness and compassion that Fowler has tried to bring to the role of Ingalls .
“So many young people stop and tell me how much they love my character,” Fowler says. “When I ask them why, they say, ‘Because you’re a badass nun!’ But I always want Sr. Ingalls to be liked and admired. I want to keep her humanized.”
This isn’t Fowler’s first turn in the role of a sister. She played a choir nun in both “Sister Act” films, and performed in the musical " Nunsense ." She even played a singing nun in a commercial for Kleenex.
Fowler isn’t sure why she is often cast as a woman religious, but she does note that the only acting teacher she ever had was a Dominican sister in high school. “She taught me timing, and how to project my voice and use my hands. She gave me confidence in myself,” she recalls.
Landing the role of Ingalls happened swiftly.
“I went to the audition and read three lines. A few weeks later they booked me,” Fowler remembers. “I don’t know how casting knew that they had the right actress, but there was something they wanted and they found it.”
Though she doesn’t do any research for her role on “Orange is the New Black,” she does use nuns from her past as a reference point for how Ingalls might respond to a situation. “I picture them in my mind. And then I go with it.”
Even though Fowler no longer attends church, she still considers herself a Catholic.
“I know this life,” she says. “It’s in my DNA.”
“Contact the Leadership Conference of Women Religious”
Though Platte only shows up occasionally in Kerman’s memoir, the writers of the Netflix series have spent increasing amounts of screen time developing Ingalls’ character.
“Originally they told me that I would be in the pilot and then a second episode,” Fowler recalls, “and the next thing I knew, I got eight episodes in the first season.”
Fowler says that the writers initially created Ingalls to be a friend of Sophie, the show’s transgender character played by Laverne Cox. It’s a decision that suggests that the writers are aware that, for decades, many women religious have been companions of lesbian, gay, and transgender people.
But as the series progressed into season two, Ingalls developed into a much rounder character. In a flashback to her early life as a young novice, we see her and several other sisters skip out of the convent for a day to protest the Vietnam War.
Later in the episode, she uses her years of advocacy to help women prisoners organize a hunger strike to protest the facility’s unconscionable conditions. While the younger prisoners become faint and flounder, Ingalls endures starvation to the point of hospitalization.
In a scene that would make most progressive Catholics cheer, Ingalls tells another inmate to “contact the Leadership Conference of Women Religious and the National Catholic Social Justice Lobby,” to bring media attention to their struggle.
Eventually, dozens of women religious show up at the prison grounds to demonstrate against the inhumane and treatment of inmates. In a nod to the endurance of women religious, the sisters’ protest persists for three episodes.
Fowler says that the strength of Ingalls is that the writers never allow the character to devolve into a caricature of the mean nun that torments school children. Like Platte and so many other women religious throughout the United States, Ingalls is doing radical work in quiet ways.
A nun and an actress walk into a restaurant
Earlier this year, Fowler found herself increasingly eager to meet the nun that had inspired the Ingalls character, so she wrote a letter to Platte.
“When I learned that Beth Fowler was educated by the Dominicans, I became interested in meeting the person who plays my role,” Platte remembers.
Before they met, Platte sent Fowler a copy of “Conviction,” Brenda Fox’s 2006 documentary about the Dominican Sisters’ action at the Minuteman III missile silo.
“I was in tears watching it,” Fowler says. “I just don’t understand how the sisters can deliberately subject themselves to incarceration, and the ugliness and deprivation that they endure in the name of God.”
Many scenes in “Orange is the New Black” take place in the prison cafeteria, a space in the studio that, Fowler says, can become hot and stale because the camera crew cannot run the airvconditioning.
“Sometimes it comes over me, and I start imagining that I’m really in jail. I think I would die there,” Fowler says.
When Platte and Sr. Carol Gilbert came to New York in late April to witness the United Nations’ Conference on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Fowler took it at as “a sign from God.”
“I happened to have the week free and my husband and I had planned to spend it in the city,” Fowler recalls. They took Platte and Gilbert to Sardi’s , a legendary New York restaurant known for having walls lined with caricatures of famous actors. They enjoyed a four-hour dinner at a table just below Fowler’s caricature.
“We shared such a camaraderie and a sense of spirit that evening,” Platte says.
For Fowler, the dinner only magnified her respect for the sacrifices that the sisters make in their quests for peace.
“It’s important for people to see that the sisters who are taking these actions are not crazy, fanatical people,” Fowler admits. “They are very smart and well informed, but there is a simplicity about them. They are gentle spirits.”
When fans start streaming season three of “Orange is the New Black” this Friday, they will again be treated to a further development of Ingalls’ storyline.
“They are using my character more and more to bring spirituality into the show itself and into the lives of the prisoners,” Fowler says.
Though meeting Platte may enhance her portrayal of Ingalls , Fowler insists that she will continue to stick to the page and follow her instincts.
“I bring to Sr. Ingalls what I know and what I am,” Fowler says. “I’m always the Catholic schoolgirl when I pick up that script.”
[Jamie L. Manson is NCR books editor. She received her Master of Divinity degree from Yale Divinity School, where she studied Catholic theology and sexual ethics. Her email address is [email protected] .]
Editor's note: We can send you an email alert every time Jamie Manson's column, "Grace on the Margins," is posted to NCRonline.org. Go to this page and follow directions: Email alert sign-up .
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who plays the nun on orange is the new black | The nun and the actress behind 'Orange is the New Black' | by Jamie Manson
Follow on Twitter at @jamielmanson
June 10, 2015
After 40 years of starring on Broadway, Beth Fowler is beginning to experience one of the signature signs of stardom: being recognized in her local grocery store in New Jersey.
Only it isn’t any of her Tony-nominated roles that are getting her facial recognition, but her recurring part as a Roman Catholic nun in “Orange is the New Black,” the megahit series on Netflix that is set to release its third season on Friday.
The show is based on Piper Kerman’s 2011 memoir of the same title, which tells the story of her 15-month stay at a federal correctional facility in Danbury, Connecticut, after being tried for a drug-trafficking crime she had committed 10 years earlier.
Fowler plays Sr. Jane Ingalls , a nun locked up for cutting into the fence of a nuclear testing site, defacing its walls of the factory with blood, and chaining herself to a flagpole.
The nun behind the character
If the story sounds familiar, that’s because Ingalls is based on real-life Dominican Sr. Ardeth Platte. In 2002, Platte, along with Dominican Srs . Carol Gilbert and Jackie Hudson, cut through a chain-link fence at a Minuteman III missile silo in Colorado and used baby bottles filled with their own blood to draw signs of the cross on its walls.
The action landed the three Dominicans in prison. Platte was assigned to the Danbury facility as part of a 41-month sentence. In 2004, Kerman landed at Danbury, too. And, years later, Platte would land in Kerman’s memoir.
“Piper and I did yoga together as much as possible to keep our bodies and spirits going,” Platte said in a phone interview recently. “There is no question that what happened to her was a tragedy. She had restarted her life and then got hurled into this system of injury and destruction. But every story I’ve encountered in prison seems to be like that.”
Platte has spent the last 21 years living at Jonah House in Baltimore, which she calls “the longest living community of resistance against war and weapons.”
Since the simple life at Jonah House does not budget for a Netflix’s subscription, she says she has never watched the series.
“My friends who do watch say I’m not defined for who I am in the show,” she admits.
Anyone who meets Platte quickly realizes that it would be a challenge for any show to capture the scope of her peacemaking efforts over the course of her 60 years in religious life.
A member of the Dominican Sisters of Grand Rapids, Michigan, Platte spent nearly 20 years in Catholic education. While working in the inner city in the 1960s , she “became aware of suffering, of the poorest at the hands of racism, classicism, sexism, and militarism.
“The disadvantaged people I worked with convinced me to run for city council, so I spent twelve years in political life,” she recalls. She protested the Vietnam War and capital punishment, and worked to rid the state of Michigan of nuclear weapons.
But of all the arenas in which she has learned about the plight of the poor, prison may have been the most powerful classroom.
“Our faith says that we stand in preferential option with the poorest,” says Platte. “Well, in jail you’re actually walking with them. Prison it is a very powerless, punitive, and neglectful place, and it only causes people to be less than God wanted them to be.”
At age 79, Platte says that she has never kept track of the amount of time that she’s spent behind the walls of jails and prisons, but she estimates that it is a congregate of eight years.
“When you’re on the inside and you listen to the stories of the people there, you really fall in love them very deeply,” she says.
Platte’s insight may best explain the success of the “Orange is the New Black” series. Widely praised for its multi-racial, multi-cultural, and intergenerational cast, the show’s writers offer social commentary on incarceration, violence, sex, in addition to racial tension, while also managing to infuse the narrative with wit, sarcasm, romance and pathos.
But the show’s most compelling element may be the way it devotes each episode to exploring the backstory of an individual character.
These flashback sequences allow the audience to understand the challenges faced by a Russian immigrant who contends with the mob while trying to grow a small business; or the vulnerability of a lost, young black woman who comes under the control of manipulative, drug dealing mother-figure; or a the desperation of a Latin-American woman under the control of an abusive husband.
“The scripts humanize every kind of person, whether they are in jail because they’re really nasty or because they were victims of circumstances in their communities or families,” says Fowler. “The stories let you in and show you that we’re all human, we’re all God’s children. I think what the show does is actually a very religious thing.”
United by the Dominican spirit
Though Platte and Fowler inhabit two very different worlds, one could say they are united by the Dominican spirit. Growing up in northern New Jersey, Fowler was taught by the Dominican Sisters of Caldwell at St. Mary’s High School in Rutherford. In her junior year, she was inspired to join the convent.
After graduation, she enrolled in Caldwell College for Women (now Caldwell University) with the hope of joining the Dominican Order.
“I had my interview with the mother general,” Fowler recalls. “They embraced me with open arms. I was a music major, so I was going to be the singing nun.”
But after serious discernment, Fowler says that she decided to pursue other interests.
Though the Caldwell Dominicans were sorry to see her go, they remained deeply supportive. “My sponsor reminded me that I had taken four years to really examine my calling deep in my soul,” Fowler remembers. “They were disappointed, but they never gave me grief.”
It was the kind of gentleness and compassion that Fowler has tried to bring to the role of Ingalls .
“So many young people stop and tell me how much they love my character,” Fowler says. “When I ask them why, they say, ‘Because you’re a badass nun!’ But I always want Sr. Ingalls to be liked and admired. I want to keep her humanized.”
This isn’t Fowler’s first turn in the role of a sister. She played a choir nun in both “Sister Act” films, and performed in the musical Nunsense . She even played a singing nun in a commercial for Kleenex.
Fowler isn’t sure why she is often cast as a woman religious, but she does note that the only acting teacher she ever had was a Dominican sister in high school. “She taught me timing, and how to project my voice and use my hands. She gave me confidence in myself,” she recalls.
Landing the role of Ingalls happened swiftly.
“I went to the audition and read three lines. A few weeks later they booked me,” Fowler remembers. “I don’t know how casting knew that they had the right actress, but there was something they wanted and they found it.”
Though she doesn’t do any research for her role on “Orange is the New Black,” she does use nuns from her past as a reference point for how Ingalls might respond to a situation. “I picture them in my mind. And then I go with it.”
Even though Fowler no longer attends church, she still considers herself a Catholic.
“I know this life,” she says. “It’s in my DNA,”
'Contact the Leadership Conference of Women Religious'
Though Platte only shows up occasionally in Kerman’s memoir, the writers of the Netflix series have spent increasing amounts of screen time developing Ingalls’ character.
“Originally they told me that I would be in the pilot and then a second episode,” Fowler recalls, “and the next thing I knew, I got eight episodes in the first season.”
Fowler says that the writers initially created Ingalls to be a friend of Sophie, the show’s transgender character played by Laverne Cox. It’s a decision that suggests that the writers are aware that, for decades, many women religious have been companions of lesbian, gay, and transgender people.
But as the series progressed into season two, Ingalls developed into a much rounder character. In a flashback to her early life as a young novice, we see her and several other sisters skip out of the convent for a day to protest the Vietnam War.
Later in the episode, she uses her years of advocacy to help women prisoners organize a hunger strike to protest the facility’s unconscionable conditions. While the younger prisoners become faint and flounder, Ingalls endures starvation to the point of hospitalization.
In a scene that would make most progressive Catholics cheer, Ingalls tells another inmate to “contact the Leadership Conference of Women Religious and the National Catholic Social Justice Lobby,” to bring media attention to their struggle.
Eventually, dozens of women religious show up at the prison grounds to demonstrate against the inhumane and treatment of inmates. In a nod to the endurance of women religious, the sisters’ protest persists for three episodes.
Fowler says that the strength of Ingalls is that the writers never allow the character to devolve into a caricature of the mean nun that torments school children. Like Platte and so many women religious throughout the United States, Ingalls is doing radical work in quiet ways.
A Nun and an actress walk into a restaurant
Earlier this year, Fowler found herself increasingly eager to meet the nun that had inspired the Ingalls character, so she wrote a letter to Platte.
“When I learned that Beth Fowler was educated by the Dominicans, I became interested in meeting the person who plays my role,” Platte remembers.
Before they met, Platte sent Fowler a copy of “Conviction,” Brenda Fox’s 2006 documentary about the Dominican Sisters’ action at the Minuteman III missile silo.
“I was in tears watching it,” Fowler says. “I just don’t understand how the sisters can deliberately subject themselves to incarceration, and the ugliness and deprivation that they endure in the name of God.”
Many scenes in “Orange is the New Black” take place in the prison cafeteria, a space in the studio that, Fowler says, can become hot and stale because the camera crew cannot run the air-conditioning.
“Sometimes it comes over me, and I start imagining that I’m really in jail. I think I would die there,” Fowler says.
When Platte and Sr. Carol Gilbert came to New York in late April to witness the United Nations’ Conference on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Fowler took it at as “a sign from God.”
“I happened to have the week free and my husband and I had planned to spend it in the city,” Fowler recalls. They took Platte and Gilbert to Sardi’s , a legendary New York restaurant known for having walls lined with caricatures of famous actors. They enjoyed a four-hour dinner at a table just below Fowler’s caricature.
“We shared such a camaraderie and a sense of spirit that evening,” Platte said.
For Fowler, the dinner only magnified her respect for the sacrifices that the sisters make in their quests for peace.
“It’s important for people to see that the sisters who are taking these actions are not crazy, fanatical people,” Fowler admits. “They are very smart and well informed, but there is a simplicity about them. They are gentle spirits.”
When fans start streaming season three of “Orange is the New Black” this Friday, they will again by treated to a further development of Ingalls’ storyline.
“They are using my character more and more to bring spirituality into the show itself and into the lives of the prisoners,” Fowler says.
Though meeting Platte may enhance her portrayal of Ingalls , Fowler insists that she will continue to stick to the page and follow her instincts.
“I bring to Sr. Ingalls what I know and what I am,” Fowler says. “I’m always the Catholic schoolgirl when I pick up that script.”
[Jamie L. Manson is NCR books editor. She received her Master of Divinity degree from Yale Divinity School, where she studied Catholic theology and sexual ethics. Her email address is [email protected] .]
Images
Beth Fowler (below, left) plays Sr. Jane Ingalls in a scene from season three of "Orange is the New Black." (photo courtesy of Netflix)
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Advertisement | https://www.globalsistersreport.org/column/ministry/nun-and-actress-behind-orange-new-black-26711 | 4 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | Jane Ingalls | Whilst on the surface she comes off as mature and rigid, Sister Ingalls is a very kind, well-spoken, and accepting individual. She has an upbeat personality and a sense of humor while in prison; however, Ingalls's flashbacks reveal a self-centered narcissist, who is always chasing the limelight, often abusing her position in a crusade of self-promotion.
Season Two presents a complex background for Ingalls, who is revealed to be severely flawed. The self-interested nature that is revealed in flashbacks grounds the former nun.
Sister Ingalls is still religious, often using scripture and religious ideology when giving advice to other inmates. However, her interpretations of faith and dedication are not always in harmony with strict church dogma. As such, she is quoted as considering herself more of the Pope's "homie" than his "bitch". Yet she does not reveal her excommunication to other prisoners.
She is also willing to compromise her religious beliefs when it is of benefit to her, such as pretending to be Jewish in order to receive Kosher meals.
She has a very open attitude, and tends to get along with people of all beliefs and backgrounds, as evidenced by her supportive friendship with fellow inmate Sophia Burset . Because of their religious differences, however, she is not well-liked by Pennsatucky , who became very religious after her incarceration.
Sister Ingalls has short, red hair and no obvious makeup, obeying Litchfield's regulations. She is seen more often with a religious medal than a cross, congruent with her Catholic faith.
For a list of episodes featuring Sister Ingalls' flashbacks, see here .
Sister Ingalls joined a convent as a young woman in the 1960s. Though dedicated to her service to the church, she is shown even then as having an open interpretation of her faith, going so far as to ask an older Sister when God would speak to her as she had never felt his presence before.
She was first introduced to the pacifist movement when overhearing two fellow young nuns speaking about a rally in Washington DC to protest the Vietnam War. The three attend the rally, but are chastised for leaving the convent without permission. Sister Ingalls claims she "fell in with the bad nuns" and it helped to shape her personal views.
Continuing her work, Sister Ingalls became a very prolific activist. At some point, she published a ghost-written book called Nun Shall Pass , that detailed her work and her views on faith and religion. It was at this point she lost support of the church and faced excommunication, since they felt this reflected narcissism rather than a principled stand they could back.
She was eventually arrested and incarcerated for handcuffing herself to a flagpole at a nuclear testing facility as a form of protest (" Take a Break From Your Values ").
Sister Ingalls is one of the inmates Piper meets on her first day at Litchfield. She is often seen associating with Red, Yoga Jones, Morello, and the other members of Red's " family " (" I Wasn't Ready ").
Sister Ingalls starts a friendship with Sophia Burset , who first comes to her for her estrogen, but later begins to confide in her during a wake of marital and parenting problems. (" Lesbian Request Denied ")
When Tricia dies, Jane and her friends are comforted by the prison and given gifts including a prison-made drink which Jane drinks from. (" Tall Men with Feelings ")
Brook Soso , another political protester, arrives at Litchfield. Sister Ingalls refers to her as a "dirty hippie" who does not understand true protesting (" Hugs Can Be Deceiving ").
Sister Ingalls hears Soso's theories on how Ferris Bueller was a figment of Cameron's imagination while standing next to her at the Valentine's Day party. Sister Ingalls gets so fed up with Soso's constant talking that she yells at Soso, surprising everyone.
Sister Ingalls is given a "shot" by CO Fischer for once again smuggling out cornbread in order to balance her blood sugar during the "Shot quota" program that Caputo initiated. Fischer is apologetic, but gives Sister Ingalls the shot anyway.
After being forced to take a shower, Soso decides to start up a hunger strike. Sister Ingalls is one of the inmates who join the endeavor (along with Leanne Taylor , Angie Rice , and Yoga Jones ). In the end, Soso and Ingalls are the ones left participating in the hunger strike.
Sister Ingalls goes on strike for so long that it begins to affect her health. She is sent to the medical wing and stays in a room with Red (who was put there after getting attacked by Vee ). Her strike attracts the attention of several nuns from around the area, who are in turn also on strike against Litchfield in support of Sister Ingalls. In order to send the nuns away and avoid more trouble, Caputo talks Sister Ingalls into eating. He then walks her up the road to tell the nuns herself that the fast is over and they can go home. About halfway to the gate, Miss Rosa drives past them during her prison escape (" We Have Manners. We're Polite. ").
Sister Ingalls returns from the medical wing around the same time as Red. The pair briefly bunks in the transfer cells (along with Anita DeMarco and Alex Vause ) before going back to their permanent dorms (" Mother's Day ").
She is the only non-Jewish inmate to pass the rabbi 's "Jewish test" in order to continue to be allowed Kosher meals, due to her knowledge of the Old Testament, saying "The Abrahamic religions are pretty much all the same, 'till you get to Jesus." (" Where My Dreidel At ").
When Caputo calls all the inmates to meet in the chapel to discuss the changes due to being bought by MCC, Sister Ingalls demands to know where Sophia Burset is, but is ignored. She and Gloria Mendoza are concerned with getting Sophia out of the SHU , especially after Nicky Nichols tells them Sophia has been sent to medical for self harm. Crystal Burset tells them she can't win a lawsuit against MCC without a photo proving that Sophia is in the SHU, so Sister Ingalls and Gloria devise a plan in which Ingalls hits Gloria, sending her to the SHU. While there, she figures out a way to pass notes on a string to Sophia, which raises her spirits. Ingalls eventually tries internally smuggling a cell phone but is discovered when she sneezes before taking a shower. Caputo uses the phone to take a picture of Sophia in the cell and gives it to Danny Pearson . He and Crystal Burset approach the director and show him the photo, which leads to Sophia's release back into minimum. Sister Ingalls, however, is still in the SHU as of the end of the season.
Sophia hears that Sister Ingalls was released on compassionate release because she caught pneumonia while in the SHU.
- Sophia Burset (best friend) - Sophia asks Sister Ingalls for her estrogen but is declined. Sophia and Sister then become close despite being seen as opposites they become on of the closest friendships.
- Galina 'Red' Reznikov (friend) - Red offers Sister Ingalls a yogurt showing their close friendship.
- Yoga Jones (best friend) - Yoga and Sister Ingalls are often seen together and escape during the walk-out.
- Gloria Mendoza (friend) - Both Gloria and Sister Ingalls show severe interest in Sophia's state in MAX, Gloria allowed Jane to punch her in the jaw to get moved down to MAX with her.
- Anita DeMarco (friend) - Anita and Sister Ingalls are shown to be friendly toward each other.
- Piper Chapman (friend) - Sister Ingalls is shown to be supportive of Piper when she arrives at Litchfield.
- Nicky Nichols (friend) - Nicky are shown to be friends through Red.
- Chaplain Royce (friend) - During the pageant, Chaplain Royce and Sister Ingalls decide on the roles.
- Brook Soso (disliked) - Despite being fairly well-behaved, Sister Ingalls attempts to be be accepting of Brook but finds her too annoying and flips out at her.
- Sister Ingalls chained herself to a flagpole at a nuclear test site, but the real Sister Ingalls — pacifist nun Sister Ardeth Platte — actually cut a chain link fence around a Colorado missile silo with two other nuns and proceeded to paint the sign of the cross on the Minuteman III silo in her own blood, using a baby bottle as a paintbrush. | https://orange-is-the-new-black.fandom.com/wiki/Jane_Ingalls | 4 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | Jane Ingalls | Whilst on the surface she comes off as mature and rigid, Sister Ingalls is a very kind, well-spoken, and accepting individual. She has an upbeat personality and a sense of humor while in prison; however, Ingalls's flashbacks reveal a self-centered narcissist, who is always chasing the limelight, often abusing her position in a crusade of self-promotion.
Season Two presents a complex background for Ingalls, who is revealed to be severely flawed. The self-interested nature that is revealed in flashbacks grounds the former nun.
Sister Ingalls is still religious, often using scripture and religious ideology when giving advice to other inmates. However, her interpretations of faith and dedication are not always in harmony with strict church dogma. As such, she is quoted as considering herself more of the Pope's "homie" than his "bitch". Yet she does not reveal her excommunication to other prisoners.
She is also willing to compromise her religious beliefs when it is of benefit to her, such as pretending to be Jewish in order to receive Kosher meals.
She has a very open attitude, and tends to get along with people of all beliefs and backgrounds, as evidenced by her supportive friendship with fellow inmate Sophia Burset . Because of their religious differences, however, she is not well-liked by Pennsatucky , who became very religious after her incarceration.
Sister Ingalls has short, red hair and no obvious makeup, obeying Litchfield's regulations. She is seen more often with a religious medal than a cross, congruent with her Catholic faith.
For a list of episodes featuring Sister Ingalls' flashbacks, see here .
Sister Ingalls joined a convent as a young woman in the 1960s. Though dedicated to her service to the church, she is shown even then as having an open interpretation of her faith, going so far as to ask an older Sister when God would speak to her as she had never felt his presence before.
She was first introduced to the pacifist movement when overhearing two fellow young nuns speaking about a rally in Washington DC to protest the Vietnam War. The three attend the rally, but are chastised for leaving the convent without permission. Sister Ingalls claims she "fell in with the bad nuns" and it helped to shape her personal views.
Continuing her work, Sister Ingalls became a very prolific activist. At some point, she published a ghost-written book called Nun Shall Pass , that detailed her work and her views on faith and religion. It was at this point she lost support of the church and faced excommunication, since they felt this reflected narcissism rather than a principled stand they could back.
She was eventually arrested and incarcerated for handcuffing herself to a flagpole at a nuclear testing facility as a form of protest (" Take a Break From Your Values ").
Sister Ingalls is one of the inmates Piper meets on her first day at Litchfield. She is often seen associating with Red, Yoga Jones, Morello, and the other members of Red's " family " (" I Wasn't Ready ").
Sister Ingalls starts a friendship with Sophia Burset , who first comes to her for her estrogen, but later begins to confide in her during a wake of marital and parenting problems. (" Lesbian Request Denied ")
When Tricia dies, Jane and her friends are comforted by the prison and given gifts including a prison-made drink which Jane drinks from. (" Tall Men with Feelings ")
Brook Soso , another political protester, arrives at Litchfield. Sister Ingalls refers to her as a "dirty hippie" who does not understand true protesting (" Hugs Can Be Deceiving ").
Sister Ingalls hears Soso's theories on how Ferris Bueller was a figment of Cameron's imagination while standing next to her at the Valentine's Day party. Sister Ingalls gets so fed up with Soso's constant talking that she yells at Soso, surprising everyone.
Sister Ingalls is given a "shot" by CO Fischer for once again smuggling out cornbread in order to balance her blood sugar during the "Shot quota" program that Caputo initiated. Fischer is apologetic, but gives Sister Ingalls the shot anyway.
After being forced to take a shower, Soso decides to start up a hunger strike. Sister Ingalls is one of the inmates who join the endeavor (along with Leanne Taylor , Angie Rice , and Yoga Jones ). In the end, Soso and Ingalls are the ones left participating in the hunger strike.
Sister Ingalls goes on strike for so long that it begins to affect her health. She is sent to the medical wing and stays in a room with Red (who was put there after getting attacked by Vee ). Her strike attracts the attention of several nuns from around the area, who are in turn also on strike against Litchfield in support of Sister Ingalls. In order to send the nuns away and avoid more trouble, Caputo talks Sister Ingalls into eating. He then walks her up the road to tell the nuns herself that the fast is over and they can go home. About halfway to the gate, Miss Rosa drives past them during her prison escape (" We Have Manners. We're Polite. ").
Sister Ingalls returns from the medical wing around the same time as Red. The pair briefly bunks in the transfer cells (along with Anita DeMarco and Alex Vause ) before going back to their permanent dorms (" Mother's Day ").
She is the only non-Jewish inmate to pass the rabbi 's "Jewish test" in order to continue to be allowed Kosher meals, due to her knowledge of the Old Testament, saying "The Abrahamic religions are pretty much all the same, 'till you get to Jesus." (" Where My Dreidel At ").
When Caputo calls all the inmates to meet in the chapel to discuss the changes due to being bought by MCC, Sister Ingalls demands to know where Sophia Burset is, but is ignored. She and Gloria Mendoza are concerned with getting Sophia out of the SHU , especially after Nicky Nichols tells them Sophia has been sent to medical for self harm. Crystal Burset tells them she can't win a lawsuit against MCC without a photo proving that Sophia is in the SHU, so Sister Ingalls and Gloria devise a plan in which Ingalls hits Gloria, sending her to the SHU. While there, she figures out a way to pass notes on a string to Sophia, which raises her spirits. Ingalls eventually tries internally smuggling a cell phone but is discovered when she sneezes before taking a shower. Caputo uses the phone to take a picture of Sophia in the cell and gives it to Danny Pearson . He and Crystal Burset approach the director and show him the photo, which leads to Sophia's release back into minimum. Sister Ingalls, however, is still in the SHU as of the end of the season.
Sophia hears that Sister Ingalls was released on compassionate release because she caught pneumonia while in the SHU.
- Sophia Burset (best friend) - Sophia asks Sister Ingalls for her estrogen but is declined. Sophia and Sister then become close despite being seen as opposites they become on of the closest friendships.
- Galina 'Red' Reznikov (friend) - Red offers Sister Ingalls a yogurt showing their close friendship.
- Yoga Jones (best friend) - Yoga and Sister Ingalls are often seen together and escape during the walk-out.
- Gloria Mendoza (friend) - Both Gloria and Sister Ingalls show severe interest in Sophia's state in MAX, Gloria allowed Jane to punch her in the jaw to get moved down to MAX with her.
- Anita DeMarco (friend) - Anita and Sister Ingalls are shown to be friendly toward each other.
- Piper Chapman (friend) - Sister Ingalls is shown to be supportive of Piper when she arrives at Litchfield.
- Nicky Nichols (friend) - Nicky are shown to be friends through Red.
- Chaplain Royce (friend) - During the pageant, Chaplain Royce and Sister Ingalls decide on the roles.
- Brook Soso (disliked) - Despite being fairly well-behaved, Sister Ingalls attempts to be be accepting of Brook but finds her too annoying and flips out at her.
- Sister Ingalls chained herself to a flagpole at a nuclear test site, but the real Sister Ingalls — pacifist nun Sister Ardeth Platte — actually cut a chain link fence around a Colorado missile silo with two other nuns and proceeded to paint the sign of the cross on the Minuteman III silo in her own blood, using a baby bottle as a paintbrush. | https://orange-is-the-new-black.fandom.com/wiki/Jane_Ingalls | 4 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | Jane Ingalls | Whilst on the surface she comes off as mature and rigid, Sister Ingalls is a very kind, well-spoken, and accepting individual. She has an upbeat personality and a sense of humor while in prison; however, Ingalls's flashbacks reveal a self-centered narcissist, who is always chasing the limelight, often abusing her position in a crusade of self-promotion.
Season Two presents a complex background for Ingalls, who is revealed to be severely flawed. The self-interested nature that is revealed in flashbacks grounds the former nun.
Sister Ingalls is still religious, often using scripture and religious ideology when giving advice to other inmates. However, her interpretations of faith and dedication are not always in harmony with strict church dogma. As such, she is quoted as considering herself more of the Pope's "homie" than his "bitch". Yet she does not reveal her excommunication to other prisoners.
She is also willing to compromise her religious beliefs when it is of benefit to her, such as pretending to be Jewish in order to receive Kosher meals.
She has a very open attitude, and tends to get along with people of all beliefs and backgrounds, as evidenced by her supportive friendship with fellow inmate Sophia Burset . Because of their religious differences, however, she is not well-liked by Pennsatucky , who became very religious after her incarceration.
Sister Ingalls has short, red hair and no obvious makeup, obeying Litchfield's regulations. She is seen more often with a religious medal than a cross, congruent with her Catholic faith.
For a list of episodes featuring Sister Ingalls' flashbacks, see here .
Sister Ingalls joined a convent as a young woman in the 1960s. Though dedicated to her service to the church, she is shown even then as having an open interpretation of her faith, going so far as to ask an older Sister when God would speak to her as she had never felt his presence before.
She was first introduced to the pacifist movement when overhearing two fellow young nuns speaking about a rally in Washington DC to protest the Vietnam War. The three attend the rally, but are chastised for leaving the convent without permission. Sister Ingalls claims she "fell in with the bad nuns" and it helped to shape her personal views.
Continuing her work, Sister Ingalls became a very prolific activist. At some point, she published a ghost-written book called Nun Shall Pass , that detailed her work and her views on faith and religion. It was at this point she lost support of the church and faced excommunication, since they felt this reflected narcissism rather than a principled stand they could back.
She was eventually arrested and incarcerated for handcuffing herself to a flagpole at a nuclear testing facility as a form of protest (" Take a Break From Your Values ").
Sister Ingalls is one of the inmates Piper meets on her first day at Litchfield. She is often seen associating with Red, Yoga Jones, Morello, and the other members of Red's " family " (" I Wasn't Ready ").
Sister Ingalls starts a friendship with Sophia Burset , who first comes to her for her estrogen, but later begins to confide in her during a wake of marital and parenting problems. (" Lesbian Request Denied ")
When Tricia dies, Jane and her friends are comforted by the prison and given gifts including a prison-made drink which Jane drinks from. (" Tall Men with Feelings ")
Brook Soso , another political protester, arrives at Litchfield. Sister Ingalls refers to her as a "dirty hippie" who does not understand true protesting (" Hugs Can Be Deceiving ").
Sister Ingalls hears Soso's theories on how Ferris Bueller was a figment of Cameron's imagination while standing next to her at the Valentine's Day party. Sister Ingalls gets so fed up with Soso's constant talking that she yells at Soso, surprising everyone.
Sister Ingalls is given a "shot" by CO Fischer for once again smuggling out cornbread in order to balance her blood sugar during the "Shot quota" program that Caputo initiated. Fischer is apologetic, but gives Sister Ingalls the shot anyway.
After being forced to take a shower, Soso decides to start up a hunger strike. Sister Ingalls is one of the inmates who join the endeavor (along with Leanne Taylor , Angie Rice , and Yoga Jones ). In the end, Soso and Ingalls are the ones left participating in the hunger strike.
Sister Ingalls goes on strike for so long that it begins to affect her health. She is sent to the medical wing and stays in a room with Red (who was put there after getting attacked by Vee ). Her strike attracts the attention of several nuns from around the area, who are in turn also on strike against Litchfield in support of Sister Ingalls. In order to send the nuns away and avoid more trouble, Caputo talks Sister Ingalls into eating. He then walks her up the road to tell the nuns herself that the fast is over and they can go home. About halfway to the gate, Miss Rosa drives past them during her prison escape (" We Have Manners. We're Polite. ").
Sister Ingalls returns from the medical wing around the same time as Red. The pair briefly bunks in the transfer cells (along with Anita DeMarco and Alex Vause ) before going back to their permanent dorms (" Mother's Day ").
She is the only non-Jewish inmate to pass the rabbi 's "Jewish test" in order to continue to be allowed Kosher meals, due to her knowledge of the Old Testament, saying "The Abrahamic religions are pretty much all the same, 'till you get to Jesus." (" Where My Dreidel At ").
When Caputo calls all the inmates to meet in the chapel to discuss the changes due to being bought by MCC, Sister Ingalls demands to know where Sophia Burset is, but is ignored. She and Gloria Mendoza are concerned with getting Sophia out of the SHU , especially after Nicky Nichols tells them Sophia has been sent to medical for self harm. Crystal Burset tells them she can't win a lawsuit against MCC without a photo proving that Sophia is in the SHU, so Sister Ingalls and Gloria devise a plan in which Ingalls hits Gloria, sending her to the SHU. While there, she figures out a way to pass notes on a string to Sophia, which raises her spirits. Ingalls eventually tries internally smuggling a cell phone but is discovered when she sneezes before taking a shower. Caputo uses the phone to take a picture of Sophia in the cell and gives it to Danny Pearson . He and Crystal Burset approach the director and show him the photo, which leads to Sophia's release back into minimum. Sister Ingalls, however, is still in the SHU as of the end of the season.
Sophia hears that Sister Ingalls was released on compassionate release because she caught pneumonia while in the SHU.
- Sophia Burset (best friend) - Sophia asks Sister Ingalls for her estrogen but is declined. Sophia and Sister then become close despite being seen as opposites they become on of the closest friendships.
- Galina 'Red' Reznikov (friend) - Red offers Sister Ingalls a yogurt showing their close friendship.
- Yoga Jones (best friend) - Yoga and Sister Ingalls are often seen together and escape during the walk-out.
- Gloria Mendoza (friend) - Both Gloria and Sister Ingalls show severe interest in Sophia's state in MAX, Gloria allowed Jane to punch her in the jaw to get moved down to MAX with her.
- Anita DeMarco (friend) - Anita and Sister Ingalls are shown to be friendly toward each other.
- Piper Chapman (friend) - Sister Ingalls is shown to be supportive of Piper when she arrives at Litchfield.
- Nicky Nichols (friend) - Nicky are shown to be friends through Red.
- Chaplain Royce (friend) - During the pageant, Chaplain Royce and Sister Ingalls decide on the roles.
- Brook Soso (disliked) - Despite being fairly well-behaved, Sister Ingalls attempts to be be accepting of Brook but finds her too annoying and flips out at her.
- Sister Ingalls chained herself to a flagpole at a nuclear test site, but the real Sister Ingalls — pacifist nun Sister Ardeth Platte — actually cut a chain link fence around a Colorado missile silo with two other nuns and proceeded to paint the sign of the cross on the Minuteman III silo in her own blood, using a baby bottle as a paintbrush. | https://orange-is-the-new-black.fandom.com/wiki/Jane_Ingalls | 4 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | Orange Is the New Black | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Orange Is the New Black|
|Genre||Comedy-drama|
|Created by||Jenji Kohan|
|Based on|| Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women's Prison |
by Piper Kerman
|Starring|
|Theme music composer||Regina Spektor|
|Opening theme||" You've Got Time " by Regina Spektor|
|Composers|
|Country of origin||United States|
|Original language||English|
|No. of seasons||7|
|No. of episodes||91 ( list of episodes )|
|Production|
|Executive producers|
|Producer||Neri Kyle Tannenbaum|
|Production location||New York|
|Camera setup||Single-camera|
|Running time||51–93 minutes|
|Production companies|
|Budget||$4 million per episode|
|Release|
|Original network||Netflix|
|Picture format|
|Audio format||Dolby Digital Plus 5.1 with Descriptive Video Service track|
|Original release|| July 11, 2013 – |
July 26, 2019
Orange Is the New Black (sometimes abbreviated to OITNB ) is an American comedy-drama streaming television series created by Jenji Kohan for Netflix . [1] [2] The series is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women's Prison (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury , a minimum security federal prison . [3] Produced by Tilted Productions in association with Lionsgate Television , Orange Is the New Black premiered on Netflix on July 11, 2013. [4] Its seventh and final season was released on July 26, 2019. [5] [6]
As of 2016, Orange Is the New Black was Netflix's most-watched as well as its longest-running original series. [7] [8] It was widely acclaimed throughout its run and received many accolades. For its first season, the series garnered 12 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Comedy Series , Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , winning three. A new Emmy rule in 2015 forced the series to change categories from comedy to drama. [9] For its second season, it received four Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series , and Uzo Aduba won for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series . Orange Is the New Black is the first series to score Emmy nominations in both comedy and drama categories. [10] The series also received six Golden Globe Award nominations, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, a Producers Guild of America Award , an American Film Institute award, and a Peabody Award .
This section needs expansion with: Main storyline(s) of seasons 1–4. You can help by . ( August 2018 )
The series begins revolving around Piper Chapman ( Taylor Schilling ), a 33-year-old woman living in New York City who is sentenced to 15 months in Litchfield Penitentiary, a minimum-security women's federal prison in Upstate New York . Chapman was convicted of transporting a suitcase full of drug money for her girlfriend Alex Vause ( Laura Prepon ), an international drug smuggler . The offense had occurred 10 years before the start of the series and in that time, Chapman had moved on to a quiet, law-abiding life among New York's upper middle class . Her sudden and unexpected indictment disrupts her relationships with her fiancé, family, and friends. In prison, Chapman is reunited with Vause (who named Chapman in her trial, resulting in Chapman's arrest), and they re-examine their relationship. Simultaneously, Chapman, along with the other inmates, attempt to grapple with prison's numerous, inherent struggles. Episodes often feature flashbacks of significant events from various inmates' and prison guards' pasts. These flashbacks typically depict how an inmate came to be in prison or develop a character's backstory. The prison is initially operated by the "Federal Department of Corrections" (a fictional version of the Federal Bureau of Prisons ) and was in a later season acquired by the Management & Correction Corporation (MCC), a private prison company.
The fifth season shows the prisoners revolting against the guards, wardens, and the system after MCC's failed handling of an inmate's death at the hands of a guard in the fourth season. The inmate death had followed a peaceful protest and subsequent instigation of an inmate fight by another guard. Fueled by the conditions the inmates are forced to tolerate, as well as grudges against the prison guards, a three-day riot ensues. During the riot, some inmates attempt to negotiate better living conditions and seek justice for the death of the inmate, while others pursue their own interests and entertainment, and a few seek no involvement. At the emergence of the riot, the guard who incited the fight in the prior season is critically wounded by an inmate who took the gun the guard illegally brought into the prison. At the end of the season, SWAT raids the prison to end the riot and remove all inmates from the facility. During this raid, a correctional officer is fatally wounded by a corrupt "strike team", which then conspires to blame the guard's death on a number of inmates who hid in an underground bunker, found by one inmate, and had taken the guard hostage. All inmates are transported to other prisons.
The consequences of the riot are shown in the sixth season. A number of the inmates, including Chapman and Vause, are transported to Litchfield Maximum Security. Most of these inmates are interrogated, and several of them charged and sentenced for their involvement in the riot. In max, new inmates are introduced, alliances are made, and a gang-like war emerges between two prison blocks, spearheaded by a longstanding feud between two sisters and a grudge harbored by them toward a former maximum-security inmate who returned as a consequence of the riot (she had been moved to the minimum-security prison). Inmates who arrived from the minimum-security prison are either caught up or willingly participate in the war between prison blocks. The season portrays further corruption and guard brutality.
The seventh season provides an ending to various inmates' stories. Chapman and Vause continue their on/off again relationship. The season shows how some prisoners are able to move beyond their time in prison while others are captured by the system and through their own flaws and/or systemic problems in the structure of US society and its justice system are unable to progress. In addition to the established setting of Litchfield Max, a significant portion of the season takes place in a newly created ICE detention center for detained presumed undocumented immigrants, showing their struggles and lack of access to outside help in large part because of complete or extreme disregard of the law.
In each season, the series shows how various forms of corruption, funding cuts by the corporate owner to increase profits by millions, privatization of prison , overcrowding, guard brutality, and racial discrimination (among other issues) affect the prisoners' safety, health, and well-being. One of the show's key conflicts involves the minimum-security prison's Director of Human Activities ( aka the warden, under privatization nomenclature), Joe Caputo, whose efforts and aims as a warden constantly conflict with the corporate interests of MCC, which acquires Litchfield Penitentiary as it risks closure. This theme is continued when a new forward-thinking and caring warden is hired at Litchfield Maximum Security and unlike Caputo, actually institutes educational programs and positive changes. She is fired for these actions and her attitude toward the corporate corruption, although her short-lived changes have profound results.
- Laura Prepon as Alex Vause , inmate (seasons 1, 3–7; recurring season 2)
- Michael Harney as Sam Healy, correctional officer (seasons 1–4; guest season 6 and 7) [a]
- Michelle Hurst as Miss Claudette Pelage, inmate (season 1)
- Kate Mulgrew as Galina "Red" Reznikov, inmate
- Jason Biggs as Larry Bloom, Piper's fiancé (seasons 1–2; guest season 5; recurring season 7)
- Uzo Aduba as Suzanne "Crazy Eyes" Warren , inmate (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1)
- Danielle Brooks as Tasha "Taystee" Jefferson, inmate (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1)
- Natasha Lyonne as Nicky Nichols , inmate (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1)
- Taryn Manning as Tiffany "Pennsatucky" Doggett , inmate (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1)
- Selenis Leyva as Gloria Mendoza, inmate (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2)
- Adrienne C. Moore as Cindy "Black Cindy" Hayes, inmate (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2)
- Dascha Polanco as Dayanara "Daya" Diaz, inmate (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2)
- Nick Sandow as Joe Caputo, Captain of the Guard, later warden (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2)
- Yael Stone as Lorna Morello , inmate (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2)
- Samira Wiley as Poussey Washington , inmate (seasons 3–4; recurring seasons 1–2; guest seasons 5, 7)
- Jackie Cruz as Marisol "Flaca" Gonzales, inmate (seasons 4–7; recurring seasons 1–3)
- Lea DeLaria as Carrie "Big Boo" Black, inmate (seasons 4–5; recurring seasons 1–3; guest seasons 6–7)
- Elizabeth Rodriguez as Aleida Diaz, former inmate (seasons 4–7; recurring seasons 1–3)
- Jessica Pimentel as Maria Ruiz, inmate (seasons 5–7; recurring seasons 1–4)
- Laura Gómez as Blanca Flores, inmate (seasons 6–7; recurring seasons 1–5)
- Matt Peters as Joel Luschek, correctional officer (seasons 6–7; recurring seasons 1–5)
- Dale Soules as Frieda Berlin, inmate (seasons 6–7; recurring seasons 2–5)
- Alysia Reiner as Natalie "Fig" Figueroa, warden (season 7; recurring 1–3, 5–6; guest season 4)
- Laverne Cox as Sophia Burset (seasons 1–6, guest season 7)
- Diane Guerrero as Maritza Ramos (seasons 1–5, 7)
- Annie Golden as Norma Romano (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Vicky Jeudy as Janae Watson (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Julie Lake as Angie Rice (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Emma Myles as Leanne Taylor (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Abigail Savage as Gina Murphy (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Constance Shulman as Yoga Jones (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Lori Tan Chinn as Mei Chang (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Tamara Torres as Emily "Weeping Woman" Germann (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Lin Tucci as Anita DeMarco (seasons 1–5, guest season 7)
- Beth Fowler as Sister Jane Ingalls (seasons 1–4)
- Barbara Rosenblat as Rosa "Miss Rosa" Cisneros (seasons 1–2; guest season 3)
- Madeline Brewer as Tricia Miller (season 1)
- Kimiko Glenn as Brook Soso (seasons 2–5, guest season 7)
- Lori Petty as Lolly Whitehill (seasons 3–4, 6–7; guest season 2)
- Lorraine Toussaint as Yvonne "Vee" Parker (season 2)
- Blair Brown as Judy King (seasons 3–5, guest season 7)
- Emily Althaus as Maureen Kukudio (seasons 3–5)
- Ruby Rose as Stella Carlin (season 3; guest season 4)
- Daniella De Jesus as Irene "Zirconia" Cabrera (seasons 4–7)
- Shannon Esper as Alana Dwight (seasons 4–7)
- Rosal Colon as Carmen "Ouija" Aziza (seasons 4–5; guest season 6)
- Francesca Curran as Helen "Skinhead Helen" Van Maele (seasons 4–5; guest season 6)
- Kelly Karbacz as Kasey Sankey (seasons 4–5, guest season 7)
- Amanda Stephen as Alison Abdullah (seasons 4–5, guest season 7)
- Asia Kate Dillon as Brandy Epps (seasons 4–5)
- Miriam Morales as Ramona "Pidge" Contreras (seasons 4–5)
- Jolene Purdy as Stephanie Hapakuka (seasons 4–5)
- Shirley Roeca as Juanita Vasquez (seasons 6–7, guest season 5)
- Rebecca Knox as Tina Swope (seasons 6–7)
- Sipiwe Moyo as Adeola Chinede (seasons 6–7)
- Besanya Santiago as Raquel "Creech" Munoz (seasons 6–7)
- Finnerty Steeves as Beth Hoefler (seasons 6–7)
- Christina Toth as Annalisa Damiva (seasons 6–7)
- Amanda Fuller as Madison "Badison" Murphy (seasons 6–7)
- Vicci Martinez as Dominga "Daddy" Duarte (seasons 6, guest season 7)
- Mackenzie Phillips as Barbara "Barb" Denning (season 6)
- Henny Russell as Carol Denning (season 6)
- Ismenia Mendes as Tali Grapes (season 7)
- Catherine Curtin as Wanda Bell (seasons 1–5, 7)
- Joel Marsh Garland as Scott O'Neill (seasons 1–5, 7)
- Brendan Burke as Wade Donaldson (seasons 1–4)
- Pablo Schreiber as George "Pornstache" Mendez (seasons 1–3; guest seasons 5, 7)
- Lolita Foster as Eliqua Maxwell (seasons 1–3)
- Germar Terrell Gardner as Charles Ford (seasons 1–3)
- Matt McGorry as John Bennett (seasons 1–3)
- Lauren Lapkus as Susan Fischer (seasons 1–2; guest season 7)
- Kaipo Schwab as Igme Dimaguiba (season 1; guest seasons 2–4)
- James McMenamin as Charlie "Donuts" Coates (seasons 3–6)
- Alan Aisenberg as Baxter "Gerber" Bayley (seasons 3–5)
- Jimmy Gary Jr. as Felix Rikerson (seasons 3–5)
- Mike Birbiglia as Danny Pearson (seasons 3–4)
- Marsha Stephanie Blake as Berdie Rogers (season 3)
- Beth Dover as Linda Ferguson (seasons 4–7; guest season 3)
- Nick Dillenburg as Ryder Blake (seasons 4–7)
- Mike Houston as Lee Dixon (seasons 4–7)
- Emily Tarver as Bambi "Artesian" McCullough (seasons 4–7)
- Brad William Henke as Desi Piscatella (seasons 4–5; guest season 6)
- Evan Arthur Hall as B. Stratman (seasons 4–5)
- John Palladino as Josh (seasons 4–5)
- Michael Torpey as Thomas "Humps" Humphrey (seasons 4–5)
- Hunter Emery as Rick Hopper (seasons 5–7)
- Shawna Hamic as Virginia "Ginger" Copeland (seasons 6–7)
- Susan Heyward as Tamika Ward (seasons 6–7)
- Josh Segarra as Danilo Stefanovic (seasons 6–7)
- Greg Vrotsos as Greg Hellman (seasons 6–7)
- Nicholas Webber as J. Alvarez (seasons 6–7)
- Branden Wellington as Jarod Young (seasons 6–7)
- Adam Lindo as Carlos "Clitvack" Litvack (season 7)
- Michael Chernus as Cal Chapman (seasons 1–4, 7; guest season 6)
- Tanya Wright as Crystal Burset (seasons 1–4; guest season 6)
- Berto Colon as Cesar Velazquez (seasons 1–3, 7; guest season 5)
- Deborah Rush as Carol Chapman (seasons 1–3; guest seasons 5, 7)
- Tracee Chimo as Neri Feldman (seasons 1–3, 7)
- Maria Dizzia as Polly Harper (seasons 1–2; guest season 7)
- Ian Paola as Yadriel (seasons 2–5; guest season 7)
- John Magaro as Vince Muccio (seasons 3–5, 7)
- Mary Steenburgen as Delia Mendez-Powell (season 3; guest season 5)
- Miguel Izaguirre as Dario "Diablo" Zúñiga (seasons 6–7; guest seasons 1, 4–5)
- Michael J. Burg as Detective Mark Bellamy (season 6)
- Bill Hoag as Bill Chapman (season 7; guest seasons 1–3)
- Karina Arroyave as Karla Córdova (season 7)
- Melinna Bobadilla as Santos Chaj (season 7)
- Marie-Lou Nahhas as Shani Abboud (season 7)
- Alicia Witt as Zelda (season 7)
- Alysia Joy Powell as Wyndolyn Capers (season 7)
Show creator Jenji Kohan read Piper Kerman 's memoir after a friend sent it to her. She then set up a meeting with Kerman to pitch her on a TV adaptation, which she notes she "screwed up" as she spent most of the time asking Kerman about her experiences she described in the book rather than selling her on the show. This appealed to Kerman as it let her know that she was a fan and she signed off on the adaptation. [11] Kohan would later go on to describe the main character, Piper Chapman , as a "trojan horse" for the series, allowing it to focus on characters whose demographics would not normally be represented on TV. [12] Its budget was estimated to cost $4 million per episode. [13]
In July 2011, it was revealed that Netflix was in negotiations with Lionsgate for a 13-episode TV adaptation of Kerman's memoirs with Kohan as creator. [14] In November 2011, negotiations were finalized and the series had been greenlit . [15] Kohan had initially wanted to cast Katie Holmes in the role of Piper Chapman, and met with the actress to discuss it, but Holmes had other commitments. [16] Casting announcements began in August 2012 with Taylor Schilling , the first to be cast, as Piper Chapman, [17] followed by Jason Biggs as Piper's fiancé Larry Bloom. [18]
Laura Prepon and Yael Stone were next to join the series, as Alex Vause and Lorna Morello , respectively. [2] Abigail Savage , who plays Gina, and Alysia Reiner , who plays Fig, had auditioned for role of Alex Vause. [11] [19] Prepon initially auditioned for Piper Chapman, [20] however Kohan felt she would not worry about her [in prison], noting a "toughness and a presence to her that wasn't right for the character." Kohan instead gave her the role of Alex. [11] Stone had originally auditioned for the role of Nicky Nichols , but she was not considered "tough enough" for the character; [21] she was asked to audition for Lorna Morello instead. [22] Likability was important for Morello, whom casting director Jen Euston deemed "a very helpful, nice, sweet Italian girl." [22] Natasha Lyonne was to audition for Alex, but was asked to read for the character Nicky Nichols; "[Kohan knew] she could do Nicky with her eyes closed. She was perfect," said Euston. [22] Laverne Cox , a black transgender woman, was cast as Sophia Burset, a transgender character. The Advocate touted Orange Is the New Black as possibly the first women-in-prison narrative to cast a transgender woman for this type of role. [23] Uzo Aduba read for the part of Janae Watson but was offered the character Suzanne "Crazy Eyes" Warren . [22] [24] Taryn Manning was offered the role of Tiffany "Pennsatucky" Doggett. [22] This American Life host Ira Glass was offered a role as a public radio host , but he declined. The role instead went to Robert Stanton , who plays the fictional host Maury Kind. [25]
Orange is the New Black is set in a fictional minimum-security prison in Litchfield, New York , which is a real town in the southern tier of New York, but it does not have a federal penitentiary. [26] The series began filming in the former Rockland Children's Psychiatric Center in Rockland County, New York , on March 7, 2013. [27] The building, part of the what was then the Rockland State Hospital campus, was completed in 1970 and closed by 2010. The title sequence features close-up shots of female non-actors who were formerly prisoners, including Kerman herself; she is the one who blinks. [28]
On June 27, 2013, prior to the series' premiere, Netflix renewed the show for a second season consisting of 13 episodes. [29] For the second season, Uzo Aduba, Taryn Manning, Danielle Brooks, and Natasha Lyonne were promoted to series regulars. [30] Laura Prepon did not return as a series regular for a second season because of scheduling conflicts, but returned for season 3 as a regular. [31] On May 5, 2014, the series was renewed for a third season, as revealed by actress Laura Prepon. [32] For the third season, several actors were promoted to series regulars, including Selenis Leyva, Adrienne C. Moore, Dascha Polanco, Nick Sandow, Yael Stone, and Samira Wiley. [33] Both Jason Biggs and Pablo Schreiber were confirmed as not returning for the third season, but Schreiber appeared in the 10th episode of the third season. [34] [35] [36] The series was renewed for a fourth season on April 15, 2015, prior to its third-season release. [37] [38] For the fourth season, Jackie Cruz and Lea DeLaria were promoted to series regulars; with Elizabeth Rodriguez also being promoted by the season's sixth episode. [39] On February 5, 2016, the series was renewed for a fifth, sixth and seventh season. [7] In season six, Dale Soules , Laura Gómez , and Matt Peters were promoted to series regulars. [40] On October 17, 2018, Netflix announced that the seventh season would be the series' last and would be released on July 26, 2019. [5] [6]
In 2018, Lionsgate Television were discussing "a potential sequel" to the series. [41]
|Season||Rotten Tomatoes||Metacritic|
|1||95% (57 reviews)||79 (32 reviews)|
|2||96% (53 reviews)||89 (31 reviews)|
|3||95% (64 reviews)||83 (24 reviews)|
|4||94% (52 reviews)||86 (19 reviews)|
|5||71% (49 reviews)||67 (20 reviews)|
|6||85% (39 reviews)||69 (14 reviews)|
|7||98% (44 reviews)||81 (12 reviews)|
Orange Is the New Black was widely acclaimed throughout its run. It has been particularly praised for humanizing prisoners [42] [43] and for its depiction of race, sexuality, gender and body types. [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50]
The first season received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Metacritic gave it a weighted average score of 79/100 based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating favorable reviews. [51] On Rotten Tomatoes , season one has a 95% approval rating based on 57 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. The site's critical consensus is " Orange Is the New Black is a sharp mix of black humor and dramatic heft, with interesting characters and an intriguing flashback structure." [52]
Hank Stuever, television critic for The Washington Post , gave Orange Is the New Black a perfect score. In his review of the series, he stated: "In Jenji Kohan's magnificent and thoroughly engrossing new series, Orange Is the New Black , prison is still the pits. But it is also filled with the entire range of human emotion and stories, all of which are brought vividly to life in a world where a stick of gum could ignite either a romance or a death threat." [53] Maureen Ryan, of The Huffington Post , wrote: " Orange is one of the best new programs of the year, and the six episodes I've seen have left me hungry to see more." [54]
The second season received critical acclaim. Rotten Tomatoes gave a rating of 96%, with an average rating of 9.2/10 based on 53 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "With a talented ensemble cast bringing life to a fresh round of serial drama, Orange Is the New Black's sophomore season lives up to its predecessor's standard for female-led television excellence." [55] Metacritic gave the second season a score of 89/100 based on 31 critics, indicating "universal acclaim." [56] David Wiegland of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the season a positive review, calling the first six episodes "not only as great as the first season, but arguably better." [57] James Poniewozik , writing for Time , noted how the show "had expanded its ensemble so far beyond Piper", also stating that "Larry [and] every element of Piper’s life and family outside the prison needs to go", because of the show "not [being] interested in giving them the same depth of characterization it gives to the rest of its prisoners and even its prison guards". [58]
The third season also received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 83/100 based on 24 reviews. [59] On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 95% rating with an average score of 8.1/10 based on 64 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "Thanks to its blend of potent comedy and rich character work, Orange is the New Black remains a bittersweet pleasure in its third season." [60] Richard Lawson from Vanity Fair gave the season a positive review, stating that the season "may find the walls closing in on many characters, but the show feels as boundless and free as it ever has". [61] Spencer Kornhaber from The Atlantic stated that Piper Chapman's scenes "once felt obligatory by mere dint of the fact that they powered the show’s plot, but now they mainly allow Taylor Schilling to demonstrate her comedic chops". [62] Anne Cohen from The Forward said the season used "traditionally anti-Semitic tropes ", [63] while Nathan Abrams from Haaretz described a "remarkably upbeat and positive representation of Judaism ". [64]
The fourth season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 86/100 based on 19 reviews. [65] On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 94% rating with an average score of 8.6/10 based on 52 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: " Orange is the New Black is back and better than ever, with a powerful fourth season full of compelling performances by the ensemble cast." [66] James Poniewozik of The New York Times reviewed the fourth season as "Do you measure the quality of a TV season as a beginning-to-end average or by how well it ends? By the first yardstick, Season 4 is ambitious but uneven; by the latter, it's the series' best." [67] Karol Collymore from Bitch magazine praised the show's past seasons for its representation of women of color , while criticizing the fourth season due to the "visceral racist acts" and racial slurs that occur "constantly, in every episode", stating that "it felt exhausting". [68] The Hindustan Times praised the season for how it dealt with the topic of rape, while negatively describing the new characters as "mere one-dimensional fillers". [69] IGN gave the season a positive review, describing it as "dramatic and insightful". [70]
The fifth season received "generally favorable reviews". [71] On Metacritic, it has a score of 67/100 based on 20 reviews. [71] On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 71% rating with an average score of 7.3/10 based on 49 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: " Orange Is the New Black ' s fifth season offers up more of the sharp writing and dizzying tonal juggling acts that fans expect – albeit somewhat less successfully." [72] Chris Orstendorf from The Daily Dot gave the season a positive review, although negatively describing "the decision to tell the entire story of season 5 in the span of three days". [73] Emily James from Vox rated the season 3.5/5, praising the "stronger focus" compared to "the scattered nature of seasons three and four", and criticizing the season for having "[often] desperately cut to something that’s supposed to be funny, and it will only be so in theory". [74] Rafael Gonzaga from Omelete rated the season four out of five star , calling the fourth season better although still praising the fifth. [75]
The sixth season received positive reviews from critics, with many critics noting its improvement over the previous season. On Metacritic, it has a score of 69/100 based on 14 reviews. [76] On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an 85% rating with an average score of 7.3/10 based on 39 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: "Brutality and humor continue to mesh effectively in a season of Orange Is the New Black that stands as a marked improvement from its predecessor, even if some arcs are more inspired than others." [77] PinkNews praised the season's "unlikely pairings of existing characters who have barely had so much as a scene together previously". [78]
The seventh season has a score of 81/100 on Metacritic based on 12 reviews. [79] On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 98% rating with an average score of 7.8/10 based on 44 reviews. The site's consensus reads: "Carried by its exceptional ensemble, Orange Is the New Black ' s final season gets straight to the point, tackling hard-hitting issues with the same dramatic depth and gallows humor that made the show so ground-breaking to begin with". [80]
In 2019, Orange Is the New Black was ranked 58th on The Guardian ' s list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century. [81]
Orange Is the New Black has received many accolades since its debut. The series has garnered 16 Emmy Award nominations and four wins. For its first season, it received 12 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Comedy Series , Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series , winning three. [82] Taylor Schilling received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress in a Television Series – Drama . [83] In 2013, the American Film Institute selected the series as one of the Top 10 Television Programs of the Year. [84]
A new Emmy rule in 2015, classifying half-hour shows as comedies and hour-long shows as dramas, forced the series to change categories from comedy to drama for its second season. [85] That year, the series received four Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series , and Aduba won her second Emmy Award, for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series . [82] Orange Is the New Black became the first series to receive Emmy nominations in both comedy and drama categories. [10] For its second season, the series also received three Golden Globe Award nominations: Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy , Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy for Schilling, and Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film for Aduba. At the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards , the series won Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Aduba won Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series . [86]
For its third season, Orange Is the New Black won Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series (Aduba). [87] It received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy. [83] The series has also received, among other accolades, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, [88] five Satellite Awards , [89] [90] four Critics' Choice Television Awards , [91] [92] a GLAAD Media Award , [93] an American Cinema Editors Award , [94] a Producers Guild of America Award , [95] and a Peabody Award . [96]
Netflix is famously tight-fisted when it comes to offering up viewership data about its original series. But execs with the streaming giant have repeatedly confirmed that OITNB is its most-watched original series. That has been backed up by the efforts of outside measurement companies to track viewing in the Netflix eco-system.
The series began airing on broadcast television in New Zealand , on TV2 , on August 19, 2013. [97] It premiered in Australia on October 9, 2013, on Showcase . [98] The second season began on Showcase on July 16, 2014, [99] and the third season premiered on June 11, 2015. [100] The first season began airing on broadcast television in the UK on Sony Channel from April 19, 2017. [101] It has been shown in Ireland on TG4 since January 15, 2018. [102]
In April 2017, it was reported that a cybercriminal had stolen the first ten episodes of season 5, in a security breach of a post-production company. Netflix failed to respond to ransom demands, and the cybercriminal leaked the episodes online. Netflix confirmed the security breach and an ongoing investigation by federal law enforcement. [103] [104] Multichannel News reported that demand for the series significantly increased over the seven-day period following the leak of the episodes. It was also said that the leak would likely cause a decrease in demand for the fifth season when Netflix released it in June 2017. [105]
Orange Is the New Black generated more viewers and hours viewed in its first week than the other top Netflix original series House of Cards and Arrested Development . [106] [107] In October 2013, Netflix stated that the show is a "tremendous success" for the streaming platform. "It will end the year as our most watched original series ever and, as with each of our other previously launched originals, enjoys an audience comparable with successful shows on cable and broadcast TV." [108] [109] As reported in February 2016, Orange Is the New Black remained Netflix's most-watched original series. [7] [8] [110] In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Orange Is the New Black is one of the shows most watched in urban areas , and despite its "minority-rich ensemble cast", the series "appeals more to a white audience". [111] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_Is_the_New_Black | 4 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | Beth Fowler - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Elizabeth Fowler
|Born|
Jersey City, New Jersey , U.S.
|Occupation(s)||Actress, singer|
|Years active||1970–present|
|Spouse||Jack Witham|
Beth Fowler is an American actress and singer, best known for her performances on Broadway and for her role as Sister Ingalls , on Orange Is the New Black . She is a two-time Tony Award nominee. [1]
Born in Jersey City, New Jersey , [2] Fowler attended Caldwell University in New Jersey and was a music teacher for several years, as well as performing in community theater. [3] [4] Fowler attended Catholic schools and planned to enter a convent before becoming a music teacher.
She had a fondness for Broadway theatre when she decided to audition for Gantry in 1970. She was signed for the chorus and as understudy for the lead, but the show closed on opening night. [5] She had better luck with her next outing, Stephen Sondheim 's A Little Night Music . Additional Broadway credits include 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue ; Peter Pan ; Baby ; Take Me Along ; Teddy & Alice ; the 1989 revival of Sweeney Todd , in which she portrayed Mrs. Lovett ; Beauty and the Beast , in which she originated the role of Mrs. Potts; Bells Are Ringing ; and The Boy from Oz , where she portrayed Peter Allen 's mother Marion. [6]
Fowler has been nominated for two Tony Awards : as Best Featured Actress in a Musical for The Boy From Oz and as Best Actress in a Musical for Sweeney Todd , which garnered her a Drama Desk Award nomination as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beth_Fowler | 4 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | Beth Fowler - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Elizabeth Fowler
|Born|
Jersey City, New Jersey , U.S.
|Occupation(s)||Actress, singer|
|Years active||1970–present|
|Spouse||Jack Witham|
Beth Fowler is an American actress and singer, best known for her performances on Broadway and for her role as Sister Ingalls , on Orange Is the New Black . She is a two-time Tony Award nominee. [1]
Born in Jersey City, New Jersey , [2] Fowler attended Caldwell University in New Jersey and was a music teacher for several years, as well as performing in community theater. [3] [4] Fowler attended Catholic schools and planned to enter a convent before becoming a music teacher.
She had a fondness for Broadway theatre when she decided to audition for Gantry in 1970. She was signed for the chorus and as understudy for the lead, but the show closed on opening night. [5] She had better luck with her next outing, Stephen Sondheim 's A Little Night Music . Additional Broadway credits include 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue ; Peter Pan ; Baby ; Take Me Along ; Teddy & Alice ; the 1989 revival of Sweeney Todd , in which she portrayed Mrs. Lovett ; Beauty and the Beast , in which she originated the role of Mrs. Potts; Bells Are Ringing ; and The Boy from Oz , where she portrayed Peter Allen 's mother Marion. [6]
Fowler has been nominated for two Tony Awards : as Best Featured Actress in a Musical for The Boy From Oz and as Best Actress in a Musical for Sweeney Todd , which garnered her a Drama Desk Award nomination as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beth_Fowler | 4 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | The nun and the actress behind 'Orange is the New Black' | by Jamie Manson
Follow on Twitter at @jamielmanson
June 10, 2015
After 40 years of starring on Broadway, Beth Fowler is beginning to experience one of the signature signs of stardom: being recognized in her local grocery store in New Jersey.
Only it isn’t any of her Tony-nominated roles that are getting her facial recognition, but her recurring part as a Roman Catholic nun in “Orange is the New Black,” the megahit series on Netflix that is set to release its third season on Friday.
The show is based on Piper Kerman’s 2011 memoir of the same title, which tells the story of her 15-month stay at a federal correctional facility in Danbury, Conn., after being tried for a drug-trafficking crime she had committed 10 years earlier.
Fowler plays Sr. Jane Ingalls , a nun locked up for cutting into the fence of a nuclear testing site, defacing its walls of the factory with blood, and chaining herself to a flagpole.
The nun behind the character
If the story sounds familiar, that’s because Ingalls is based on real-life Dominican Sr. Ardeth Platte. In 2002, Platte, along with Dominican Srs . Carol Gilbert and Jackie Hudson, cut through a chain-link fence at a Minuteman III missile silo in Colorado and used baby bottles filled with their own blood to draw signs of the cross on its walls.
The action landed the three Dominicans in prison. Platte was assigned to the Danbury facility as part of a 41-month sentence. In 2004, Kerman landed at Danbury, too. And, years later, Platte would land in Kerman’s memoir.
“Piper and I did yoga together as much as possible to keep our bodies and spirits going,” Platte said in a phone interview recently. “There is no question that what happened to her was a tragedy. She had restarted her life and then got hurled into this system of injury and destruction. But every story I’ve encountered in prison seems to be like that.”
Platte has spent the last 21 years living at Jonah House in Baltimore, which she calls “the longest living community of resistance against war and weapons.”
Since the simple life at Jonah House does not budget for a Netflix subscription, she says she has never watched the series.
“My friends who do watch say I’m not defined for who I am in the show,” she admits.
Anyone who meets Platte quickly realizes that it would be a challenge for any show to capture the scope of her peacemaking efforts over the course of her 60 years in religious life.
A member of the Dominican Sisters of Grand Rapids, Mich., Platte spent nearly 20 years in Catholic education. While working in the inner city in the 1960s , she “became aware of suffering, of the poorest at the hands of racism, classicism, sexism, and militarism.
“The disadvantaged people I worked with convinced me to run for city council, so I spent 12 years in political life,” she recalls. She protested the Vietnam War and capital punishment, and worked to rid the state of Michigan of nuclear weapons.
But of all the arenas in which she has learned about the plight of the poor, prison may have been the most powerful classroom.
“Our faith says that we stand in preferential option with the poorest,” says Platte. “Well, in jail you’re actually walking with them. Prison is a very powerless, punitive, and neglectful place, and it only causes people to be less than God wanted them to be.”
At age 79, Platte says that she has never kept track of the amount of time that she’s spent behind the walls of jails and prisons, but she estimates that it is a congregate of eight years.
“When you’re on the inside and you listen to the stories of the people there, you really fall in love them very deeply,” she says.
Platte’s insight may best explain the success of the “Orange is the New Black” series. Widely praised for its multi-racial, multi-cultural, and intergenerational cast, the show’s writers offer social commentary on incarceration, violence, and sex, in addition to racial tension, while also managing to infuse the narrative with wit, sarcasm, romance and pathos.
But the show’s most compelling element may be the way it devotes each episode to exploring the backstory of an individual character.
These flashback sequences allow the audience to understand the challenges faced by a Russian immigrant who contends with the mob while trying to grow a small business; or the vulnerability of a lost, young black woman who comes under the control of a manipulative, drug dealing mother-figure; or the desperation of a Latin American woman under the control of an abusive husband.
“The scripts humanize every kind of person, whether they are in jail because they’re really nasty or because they were victims of circumstances in their communities or families,” says Fowler. “The stories let you in and show you that we’re all human, we’re all God’s children. I think what the show does is actually a very religious thing.”
United by the Dominican spirit
Though Platte and Fowler inhabit two very different worlds, one could say they are united by the Dominican spirit. Growing up in northern New Jersey, Fowler was taught by the Dominican Sisters of Caldwell at St. Mary’s High School in Rutherford. In her junior year, she was inspired to join the convent.
After graduation, she enrolled in Caldwell College for Women (now Caldwell University) with the hope of joining the Dominican Order.
“I had my interview with the mother general,” Fowler recalls. “They embraced me with open arms. I was a music major, so I was going to be the singing nun.”
But after serious discernment, Fowler says that she decided to pursue other interests.
Though the Caldwell Dominicans were sorry to see her go, they remained deeply supportive. “My sponsor reminded me that I had taken four years to really examine my calling deep in my soul,” Fowler remembers. “They were disappointed, but they never gave me grief.”
It was the kind of gentleness and compassion that Fowler has tried to bring to the role of Ingalls .
“So many young people stop and tell me how much they love my character,” Fowler says. “When I ask them why, they say, ‘Because you’re a badass nun!’ But I always want Sr. Ingalls to be liked and admired. I want to keep her humanized.”
This isn’t Fowler’s first turn in the role of a sister. She played a choir nun in both “Sister Act” films, and performed in the musical " Nunsense ." She even played a singing nun in a commercial for Kleenex.
Fowler isn’t sure why she is often cast as a woman religious, but she does note that the only acting teacher she ever had was a Dominican sister in high school. “She taught me timing, and how to project my voice and use my hands. She gave me confidence in myself,” she recalls.
Landing the role of Ingalls happened swiftly.
“I went to the audition and read three lines. A few weeks later they booked me,” Fowler remembers. “I don’t know how casting knew that they had the right actress, but there was something they wanted and they found it.”
Though she doesn’t do any research for her role on “Orange is the New Black,” she does use nuns from her past as a reference point for how Ingalls might respond to a situation. “I picture them in my mind. And then I go with it.”
Even though Fowler no longer attends church, she still considers herself a Catholic.
“I know this life,” she says. “It’s in my DNA.”
“Contact the Leadership Conference of Women Religious”
Though Platte only shows up occasionally in Kerman’s memoir, the writers of the Netflix series have spent increasing amounts of screen time developing Ingalls’ character.
“Originally they told me that I would be in the pilot and then a second episode,” Fowler recalls, “and the next thing I knew, I got eight episodes in the first season.”
Fowler says that the writers initially created Ingalls to be a friend of Sophie, the show’s transgender character played by Laverne Cox. It’s a decision that suggests that the writers are aware that, for decades, many women religious have been companions of lesbian, gay, and transgender people.
But as the series progressed into season two, Ingalls developed into a much rounder character. In a flashback to her early life as a young novice, we see her and several other sisters skip out of the convent for a day to protest the Vietnam War.
Later in the episode, she uses her years of advocacy to help women prisoners organize a hunger strike to protest the facility’s unconscionable conditions. While the younger prisoners become faint and flounder, Ingalls endures starvation to the point of hospitalization.
In a scene that would make most progressive Catholics cheer, Ingalls tells another inmate to “contact the Leadership Conference of Women Religious and the National Catholic Social Justice Lobby,” to bring media attention to their struggle.
Eventually, dozens of women religious show up at the prison grounds to demonstrate against the inhumane and treatment of inmates. In a nod to the endurance of women religious, the sisters’ protest persists for three episodes.
Fowler says that the strength of Ingalls is that the writers never allow the character to devolve into a caricature of the mean nun that torments school children. Like Platte and so many other women religious throughout the United States, Ingalls is doing radical work in quiet ways.
A nun and an actress walk into a restaurant
Earlier this year, Fowler found herself increasingly eager to meet the nun that had inspired the Ingalls character, so she wrote a letter to Platte.
“When I learned that Beth Fowler was educated by the Dominicans, I became interested in meeting the person who plays my role,” Platte remembers.
Before they met, Platte sent Fowler a copy of “Conviction,” Brenda Fox’s 2006 documentary about the Dominican Sisters’ action at the Minuteman III missile silo.
“I was in tears watching it,” Fowler says. “I just don’t understand how the sisters can deliberately subject themselves to incarceration, and the ugliness and deprivation that they endure in the name of God.”
Many scenes in “Orange is the New Black” take place in the prison cafeteria, a space in the studio that, Fowler says, can become hot and stale because the camera crew cannot run the airvconditioning.
“Sometimes it comes over me, and I start imagining that I’m really in jail. I think I would die there,” Fowler says.
When Platte and Sr. Carol Gilbert came to New York in late April to witness the United Nations’ Conference on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Fowler took it at as “a sign from God.”
“I happened to have the week free and my husband and I had planned to spend it in the city,” Fowler recalls. They took Platte and Gilbert to Sardi’s , a legendary New York restaurant known for having walls lined with caricatures of famous actors. They enjoyed a four-hour dinner at a table just below Fowler’s caricature.
“We shared such a camaraderie and a sense of spirit that evening,” Platte says.
For Fowler, the dinner only magnified her respect for the sacrifices that the sisters make in their quests for peace.
“It’s important for people to see that the sisters who are taking these actions are not crazy, fanatical people,” Fowler admits. “They are very smart and well informed, but there is a simplicity about them. They are gentle spirits.”
When fans start streaming season three of “Orange is the New Black” this Friday, they will again be treated to a further development of Ingalls’ storyline.
“They are using my character more and more to bring spirituality into the show itself and into the lives of the prisoners,” Fowler says.
Though meeting Platte may enhance her portrayal of Ingalls , Fowler insists that she will continue to stick to the page and follow her instincts.
“I bring to Sr. Ingalls what I know and what I am,” Fowler says. “I’m always the Catholic schoolgirl when I pick up that script.”
[Jamie L. Manson is NCR books editor. She received her Master of Divinity degree from Yale Divinity School, where she studied Catholic theology and sexual ethics. Her email address is [email protected] .]
Editor's note: We can send you an email alert every time Jamie Manson's column, "Grace on the Margins," is posted to NCRonline.org. Go to this page and follow directions: Email alert sign-up .
Advertisement | https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/grace-margins/nun-and-actress-behind-orange-new-black | 4 |
who plays the nun on orange is the new black | Beth Fowler - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Elizabeth Fowler
|Born|
Jersey City, New Jersey , U.S.
|Occupation(s)||Actress, singer|
|Years active||1970–present|
|Spouse||Jack Witham|
Beth Fowler is an American actress and singer, best known for her performances on Broadway and for her role as Sister Ingalls , on Orange Is the New Black . She is a two-time Tony Award nominee. [1]
Born in Jersey City, New Jersey , [2] Fowler attended Caldwell University in New Jersey and was a music teacher for several years, as well as performing in community theater. [3] [4] Fowler attended Catholic schools and planned to enter a convent before becoming a music teacher.
She had a fondness for Broadway theatre when she decided to audition for Gantry in 1970. She was signed for the chorus and as understudy for the lead, but the show closed on opening night. [5] She had better luck with her next outing, Stephen Sondheim 's A Little Night Music . Additional Broadway credits include 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue ; Peter Pan ; Baby ; Take Me Along ; Teddy & Alice ; the 1989 revival of Sweeney Todd , in which she portrayed Mrs. Lovett ; Beauty and the Beast , in which she originated the role of Mrs. Potts; Bells Are Ringing ; and The Boy from Oz , where she portrayed Peter Allen 's mother Marion. [6]
Fowler has been nominated for two Tony Awards : as Best Featured Actress in a Musical for The Boy From Oz and as Best Actress in a Musical for Sweeney Todd , which garnered her a Drama Desk Award nomination as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beth_Fowler | 4 |
what is the highest landform in north america | The United States and Canada: Landforms and Resources | A HUMAN PERSPECTIVE The beauty and abundance of the land was a source of wonder to early explorers of North America. One who traveled the Atlantic coast referred to the “amazing extent of uncultivated land, covered with forests , and intermixed with vast lakes and marshes.” A 17th–century French expedition described “a beautiful river, large, broad, and deep” (the Mississippi ). Still others found “an unbounded prairie ” (the Great Plains), “shining mountains” (the Rocky Mountains ), and “an infinite number of fish” (along the Pacific coast). To the continent’s first settlers, the land was “strong and it was beautiful all around,” according to an old Native American song.
The United States and Canada occupy the central and northern fourfifths of the continent of North America. Culturally, the region is known as Anglo America because both countries were colonies of Great Britain at one time and because most of the people speak English. (The southern one-fifth of the continent— Mexico —is part of Latin America.) The two countries are bound together not only by physical geograph y and cultural heritage, but also by strong economic and political ties.
The United States and Canada extend across North America from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the Pacific on the west, and from the Arctic Ocean on the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south (only the United States). In total area, each ranks among the largest countries of the world. Canada ranks second, behind Russia , and the United States is third. Together, they fill oneeighth of the land surface of the earth.
In addition to their huge landmass, the United States and Canada are rich in natural resources . They have fertile soils, ample supplies of water, vast forests, and large deposits of a variety of minerals. This geographic richness has for centuries attracted immigrants from around the world and has enabled both countries to develop into global economic powers.
All major types of landforms are found in the United States and Canada. If you look at the map on the opposite page, you will see that both countries share many of these landforms. The most prominent are eastern and western mountain chains and enormous interior plains.
A flat, coastal plain runs along the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. One section, called the Atlantic Coastal Plain, begins as narrow lowland in the northeastern United States and widens as it extends southward into Florida . This area features many excellent harbors. A broader section of the plain—the Gulf Coastal Plain—stretches along the Gulf of Mexico from Florida into Texas . The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf from this region.
Between these plains and the nearby Appalachian Highlands is a low plateau called the Piedmont. This area of rolling hills contains many fast-flowing rivers and streams.
West of the coastal plain are the Appalachian highlands. The gently sloping Appalachian Mountains are in this region. They are one of the two major mountain chains in the United States and Canada. Both chains run north to south. The Appalachian Mountains extend some 1,600 miles from Newfoundland in Canada to Alabama . There are several mountain ranges in the Appalachian system. Among them are the Green and the Catskill mountains in the north and the Blue Ridge and the Great Smoky mountains in the south. Because the Appalachians are very old—more than 400 million years old—they have been eroded by the elements.
Many peaks are only between 1,200 and 2,400 feet high. The Appalachian Trail, a scenic hiking path 2,160 miles long, spans almost the entire length of the chain.
A huge expanse of mainly level land covers the interior of North America. It was flattened by huge glaciers thousands of years ago. The terrain includes lowlands, rolling hills, thousands of lakes and rivers, and some of the world’s most fertile soils. The interior lowlands are divided into three subregions: the Interior Plains, the Great Plains, and the Canadian Shield . The Interior Plains spread out from the Appalachians to about 300 miles west of the Mississippi River. They gradually rise from a few hundred feet above sea level to about 2,000 feet. To the west are the Great Plains, a largely treeless area that continues the ascent to about 4,000 feet. The Canadian Shield lies farther north. This rocky, mainly flat area covers nearly 2 million square miles around Hudson Bay. It averages 1,500 feet above sea level but reaches over 5,000 feet in Labrador.
West of the plains are the massive, rugged Rocky Mountains, the other major mountain system of the United States and Canada. The Rockies are a series of ranges that extend about 3,000 miles from Alaska south to New Mexico . Because they are relatively young—about 80 million years old—the Rockies have not been eroded like the Appalachians. Many of their jagged, snow-covered peaks are more than 12,000 feet high. The Continental Divide is the line of highest points in the Rockies that marks the separation between rivers flowing eastward and westward.
Between the Rockies and the Pacific Ocean is an area of mixed landforms. A series of ranges, including the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range, run parallel to the Pacific coastline from California to Alaska. North America’s highest peak— Mt. McKinley (also called by its Native American name, Denali)—is in Alaska, towering 20,320 feet above sea level. Major earthquakes occur near the Pacific ranges. Between these ranges and the Rockies are steep cliffs, deep canyons , and lowland desert areas called basins .
Canada’s northernmost lands are islands riding the icy seas near the Arctic Circle . Three of the islands—Ellesmere, Victoria , and Baffin—are huge. In North America, only Greenland is larger. Two island chains created by volcanic activity are part of the westernmost United States. The rugged, treeless Aleutian Islands extend in an arc off the coast of Alaska. The lush, tropical Hawaiian Islands , though politically part of the United States, are not geographically part of North America. They lie in the central Pacific, about 2,400 miles to the southwest.
The landforms of the United States and Canada hold a rich variety and abundance of natural resources. Both countries are leading agricultural and industrial nations because of this wealth of resources.
The United States and Canada possess ample water resources . They are bounded by three oceans—Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic. The United States is also bounded by the Gulf of Mexico. As a result, both countries have important shipping and fishing industries.
Inland, large rivers and lakes serve as sources of transportation , hydroelectric power, irrigation , fresh water, and fisheries. Eight of the world’s 15 largest lakes are found in this region. Among these are the Great Lakes — Huron , Ontario , Michigan , Erie , and Superior . As you will see, these lakes and the St. Lawrence River form one of the world’s major shipping routes.
The continent’s longest and busiest river system is the Mississippi-Missouri-Ohio. The Mississippi River runs almost the north-south length of the United States, from Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi’s main tributaries, the Ohio and Missouri rivers, are major rivers in their own right. Canada’s longest river is the Mackenzie River , which is part of a river system that flows across the Northwest Territories to the Arctic Ocean .
One of the richest natural resources of the United States and Canada is the land itself. Both countries are large and contain some of the most fertile soils in the world. In fact, the land is so productive that North America is the world’s leading food exporter. Much of this agricultural land is found in the plains regions and in river valleys.
The United States and Canada also have huge forests. About one-half of Canada is covered by woodlands, as is one-third of the United States. Canada’s forests cover more land than those of the United States, but the United States has more kinds of trees because of its more varied climate . Both countries are major producers of lumber and forest products.
As you saw on the map on page 120, the United States and Canada have large quantities and varieties of minerals and fossil fuels. These resources gave both countries the means to industrialize rapidly.
Valuable deposits of iron ore, nickel, copper, gold, and uranium are found in the Canadian Shield. Scattered among the western mountains are gold, silver, copper, and uranium. Both countries also have substantial deposits of coal, natural gas, and oil, and well-developed networks for distributing these energy-producing fossil fuels. Important coal-producing areas are the Appalachian highlands and the northern Great Plains. Significant deposits of oil and natural gas are found in the Great Plains, Alaska, and along the Gulf of Mexico.
The United States is the world’s biggest consumer of energy resources. Its need for these fuels is so great that it is a major importer. In fact, most of Canada’s energy exports go to its neighbor to the south. In the next section, you will read how some landforms of the United States and Canada have affected climate and vegetation patterns. | https://geography.name/the-united-states-and-canada-landforms-and-resources/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | North America: Physical Geography | Encyclopedic entry. North America, the third-largest continent, extends from the tiny Aleutian Islands in the northwest to the Isthmus of Panama in the south.
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North America is one of three continents (along with South America and Oceania) that make up the "New World." The continents were new to 15th-century European explorers, but home to the indigenous people living there.
Map by the National Geographic Society
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North America, the third-largest continent , extends from the tiny Aleutian Islands in the northwest to the Isthmus of Panama in the south. The continent includes the enormous island of Greenland in the northeast and the small island countries and territories that dot the Caribbean Sea and western North Atlantic Ocean. In the far north, the continent stretches halfway around the world, from Greenland to the Aleutians. But at Panama’s narrowest part, the continent is just 50 kilometers (31 miles) across.
North America’s physical geography , environment and resources , and human geography can be considered separately.
North America can be divided into five physical regions : the mountainous west, the Great Plains , the Canadian Shield , the varied eastern region, and the Caribbean. Mexico and Central America’s western coast are connected to the mountainous west, while its lowlands and coastal plains extend into the eastern region.
Within these regions are all the major types of biomes in the world. A biome is a community of animals and plants spreading over an extensive area with a relatively uniform climate . Some diverse biomes represented in North America include desert , grassland , tundra , and coral reefs .
Western Region
Young mountains rise in the west. The most familiar of these mountains are probably the Rockies, North America’s largest chain. The Rockies stretch from the province of British Columbia, Canada, to the U.S. state of New Mexico.
The Rocky Mountains are part of a system of parallel mountain ranges known as the Cordilleras . A cordillera is a long series of mountain ranges. Although cordilleras exist all over the world, in North America, “the Cordilleras” indicate the massive mountain ranges in the western part of the continent. The Cordilleras extend from Canada all the way to the Isthmus of Panama.
The Sierra Madre mountain system is part of the Cordilleras. The Sierra Madre stretch from the southwestern United States to Honduras. The Sierra Madre include many high volcanoes (up to 5,636 meters, or 18,500 feet) that stretch across Mexico south of the cities of Guadalajara and Mexico City.
Volcanic mountain ranges in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama are also considered part of the Cordilleras. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently in this region. Volcanic activity can destroy towns and cities. It also contributes to the rich, fertile soils of the region.
Some of the Earth’s youngest mountains are in the Cascade Range of the U.S. states of Washington, Oregon, and California. Some peaks began to form only about a million years ago—a blink of an eye in Earth’s long history. The mountains include temperate rain forest —a biome unique to the area. The temperate rain forest receives an incredible amount of precipitation , between 254 to 508 centimeters (100 to 200 inches) annually. However, its cool winters and mild summers promote the growth of mosses, ferns, fungi, and lichens .
The temperate rain forest supports a wide variety of life. The Sitka spruce, western red cedar, and Douglas fir are trees native to North America’s temperate rain forest. Some of these trees grow to more than 90 meters (300 feet) tall and 3 meters (10 feet) in diameter. Black bears, Roosevelt elk, and marmots are indigenous animal species.
The three major desert regions of North America—the Sonoran, Mojave, and Chihuahuan—are all in the American southwest and northern Mexico. These large deserts are located in the rain shadows of nearby mountains. The mountains block precipitation and accelerate the movement of hot, dry wind over these regions. The Sonoran is in the rain shadow of the Coast Ranges, the Mojave is in the shadow of the Sierra Nevada, and the Chihuahuan is in the shadow of the Sierra Madre.
Notable desert plant species includes the saguaro cactus, Joshua tree, and mesquite. Animal species include the roadrunner, Gila monster, and rattlesnake.
In addition to mountains, deserts, and forests, the northern part of the western region of North America also has the richest deposits of oil and natural gas on the continent. Most of these deposits are located offshore , in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans.
Great Plains
The Great Plains lie in the middle of the continent. Deep, rich soil blankets large areas of the plains in Canada and the United States. Grain grown in this region, called the “Breadbasket of North America,” feeds a large part of the world. The Great Plains are also home to rich deposits of oil and natural gas.
Much of the fertile soil was formed from material deposited during the most recent glacial period . This ice age reached its peak about 18,000 years ago. As glaciers retreated, streams of melted ice dropped sediment on the land, building layers of productive soil.
The grassland or prairie regions of the Great Plains make up the largest biome in North America. Extreme weather prevents the growth of large plants but is perfectly suited to the native grasses that dominate the region.
Native grasses vary in size from 2 meters (7 feet) in tallgrass prairies to only 20 or 25 centimeters (8 or 10 inches) in shortgrass prairies. Native animal species include bison, prairie dogs, and grasshoppers.
Canadian Shield
The Canadian Shield is a raised but relatively flat plateau . It extends over eastern, central, and northwestern Canada. The Canadian Shield is characterized by a rocky landscape pocked by an astounding number of lakes .
The tundra, stretching along the northern borders of Alaska and Canada to the Hudson Bay area, is a biome common to the Canadian Shield. Tundra is where low temperatures and precipitation levels hinder tree growth. The tundra is characterized by permafrost —soil that is frozen for two or more years. This permafrost keeps moisture near the soil’s surface, promoting vegetation growth even in the extreme, Arctic conditions of the tundra.
During the summer, this top layer of soil thaws less than 10 centimeters (only a few inches) down, forming numerous shallow lakes, ponds, and bogs . Lichens, mosses, algae, and succulents take advantage of these shallow waters. In turn, they provide food for the caribou and musk ox that are typical of this area.
Eastern Region
This varied region includes the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic coastal plain.
North America’s older mountain ranges, including the Appalachians, rise near the east coast of the United States and Canada. These areas have been mined for rich deposits of coal and other minerals for hundreds of years.
The Atlantic coastal plain extends from river , marsh , and wetland regions east of the mountains toward the sandy beaches of the Atlantic coast. Wetland areas are a biome of the eastern region and consist of areas of land whose soil is saturated with permanent or seasonal moisture. The Florida Everglades is the largest wetland system in the United States, covering more than 11,137 square kilometers (4,300 square miles) of southern Florida.
The Everglades is a biologically diverse region and contains several bordering ecosystems . Sawgrass marshes are the most iconic plant community of the Everglades and thrive on the slow-moving water of the wetlands. Alligators nest in the sawgrass, while wading birds such as egrets, herons, spoonbills, and ibises make their breeding grounds in other wetland tree species, such as cypress and mangrove.
Caribbean Region
The Caribbean Region includes more than 7,000 islands, islets, reefs, and cays . The region’s islands and smaller islets are varied in their topography ; some have relatively flat and sandy terrain while others are rugged, mountainous, and volcanic.
The coral reefs and cays of the Caribbean Sea are among the most spectacular biomes in North America. A reef is a ridge of jagged rock, coral, or sand just above or below the surface of the sea. Some coral reefs surround islands, such as the Bahamas, Antigua, and Barbados. Others are found off the Florida Keys, a chain of cays—small islands situated on a coral reef platform—near the southern coast of the U.S. state of Florida.
Coral reefs are made of millions of tiny animals—corals—that form a hard shell around their bodies. This hard surface provides a rich community for algae and plants such as seagrass. Brightly colored tropical fish, as well as sharks, sea turtles, sea stars, and sea horses, are animals native to the Caribbean’s coral reefs.
Natural Wonders
North America’s varied landscape features many natural wonders. It has deep canyons, such as Copper Canyon in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. Denali, the continent’s highest peak, stands at 6,194 meters (20,320 feet) within Denali National Park and Preserve in the U.S. state of Alaska. Yellowstone National Park, in the U.S. states of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, has some of the world’s most active geysers . Canada’s Bay of Fundy has the greatest tidal range in the world. The Great Lakes form the planet’s largest area of freshwater . The Mississippi River, at 3,730 kilometers (2,320 miles) long, is one of the longest river systems in the world and drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states.
Fast Fact
Population Density
The continent contains 57 people per square kilometer (22 people per square mile).
Fast Fact
Highest Elevation
Denali, Alaska, United States (6,190 meters/20,310 feet)
Fast Fact
Most Renewable Electricity Produced
Belize (96.7%; hydropower, biomass)
Fast Fact
Largest Urban Area
23.7 million people live in the metropolitan area of the New York City, New York, United States.
Fast Fact
Largest Watershed
The Mississippi River has an area of three million square kilometers (1.15 million square miles). | https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/north-america-physical-geography/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | Landforms of North America, Mountain Ranges of North America, United States Landforms, Map of the Rocky Mountains | Alaska Range:
Mountains of south-central Alaska that extend from the Alaska Peninsula to the border of the Yukon Territory, Canada. The highest point in North America,
Mt. McKinley , 20,320 ft. (6,194 m) is located here.
Appalachian Mountains:
The Appalachians, about 1,500 miles in length, extend from central Alabama in the U.S. up through the New England states and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Quebec.
Significant Appalachian ranges include:
- The Cumberland Mts. in Tennessee
- The Blue Ridge Mts. in Virginia
- The Alleghenies in Pennsylvania
- The Catskills Mts. in New York
- The Green Mts. in Vermont
- The White Mts. of New Hampshire
The highest point is Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 ft (2,037 m)
Brooks Range:
Mountains of northern Alaska. Highest point: Mt. Isto, 9,060 ft. (2,760 m)
Canadian Shield: This plateau region of eastern and northern Canada and the Great Lakes area of North America mainly includes rough and rocky surfaces, and large areas of coniferous (evergreen) forests. In addition, the northern regions along the Arctic Circle are comprised of rocky frozen tundra. The highest elevation is estimated at 1,640 ft (500 meters). Cascades: A mountain range stretching from northeastern California across Oregon and Washington. Major peaks included Mt. Hood , Mt. Ranier , and Mt. St. Helens . Coast Range: Mountains running along the Pacific Ocean coastlines of California, Oregon, Washington. They also extend along the western border of British Columbia, Canada, and the southern edge of Alaska, all the way to Kenai Peninsula and Kodiak Island . Coastal Plain: This area of the southern and southeastern U.S extends to the continental shelf and is generally characterized by level (flat) land with assorted mixed forests. The coastal areas include bayous, deltas, marshes, mud flats and swamps. Continental Divide: In North America the Western Continental Divide is an imaginary line that sits atop a continuous ridge of mountain summits that divide the continent into two main drainage areas. Find here the Details and map .
Great Plains: The Great Plains of North America slope east from the Rockies and extend to the edge of the Canadian Shield and the western edges of the Appalachians. The land is generally smooth with large treeless areas and shallow river valleys. Minor hills and mountains are found in the Ozark Plateau of Missouri, and in the Boston Mountains and Ouachita Mountains of northwestern Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma. Sandhills and buttes cover parts of the north central U.S. in Nebraska. Rivers: Major rivers of North America Rocky Mountains: The Rocky Mountains, about 3,000 miles in length, extend from the U.S State of New Mexico up through the western United States and on into the northernmost reaches of Canada's British Columbia. Major mountain ranges include...
- Absaroka
- Bear River
- Beaverhead
- Big Belt
- Big Horn
- Bitterroots
- Canadian
- Tetons
- Unita
- Wallowa
- Wasatch
- Wind River
- Wyoming
- Zuni
The highest point in the Rockies is Mt. Elbert, located 10 miles southwest of Leadville, Colorado. It stands at 14,433 ft (4,399 meters).
Sierra Madres: Sierra Madres include two major ranges, and one smaller one. The Sierra Madre Occidental runs parallel to Mexico's Pacific Ocean coastline, with several peaks exceeding 10,000 ft. (3,034 meters) The Sierra Madre Oriental runs parallel to its Gulf of Mexico coastline, with a few mountains reaching 10,000 ft. (3,034 meters) The Sierra Madre del Sur range is located in the southern Mexican states of Guerrero and Oaxaca. Sierra Madres, and mountains of the Caribbean and Central America: The Sierra Madres also extend southeast into many of the Central America countries, with most being rainforest-covered volcanos . Additional mountain ranges in Central America and the Caribbean include :
- Cordillera Central (Dominican Republic)
- Cordillera de Talamanca (Costa Rica)
- Cordillera Isabelia (Honduras/Nicaragua)
- Maya Mountains (Belize)
- Sierra de Bahoruco (Haiti)
- Serrania de Tabasara (Panama)
- Sierra Maestra (Cuba)
Sierra Nevada:
This mountain range of eastern California is about 400 miles in length. The highest point is
Mt. Whitney at 14,494 ft. (4,418 meters). | https://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/nalnd.htm#:~:text=Mountains%20of%20south-central%20Alaska%20that%20extend%20from%20the,McKinley%2C%2020%2C320%20ft.%20%286%2C194%20m%29%20is%20located%20here. | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | Denali | Denali (Mount McKinley) is the highest mountain in North America, but controversy surrounds both its height and name.
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With a peak at 6,190 meters (20,310 feet), Alaska's Denali has the highest elevation in North America.
Photograph by Aaron Huey, courtesy of the National Geographic image collection
Denali, also called Mount McKinley, is the tallest mountain in North America, located in south-central Alaska. With a peak that reaches 6,190 meters (20,310 feet) above sea level, Denali is the third-highest of the Seven Summits (the tallest peaks on all seven continents).
Denali is about 210 kilometers (130 miles) north-northwest of Anchorage. Sixty million years ago, tectonic uplift pushed Earth's crust upward, forming Denali and the other Alaska Range mountains. Denali is the centerpiece of the Denali National Park and Preserve, which spans 2.4 million hectares (6 million acres) of land.
“Denali” comes from Koyukon, a traditional Native Alaskan language, and means “the tall one.” This name had been used for many generations and was used by early non-Native researchers and naturalists. But in 1896, William A. Dickey, a prospector, began calling Denali “Mount McKinley,” in honor of William McKinley, a presidential candidate at the time. After McKinley became president and was later assassinated, Congress formally recognized the name in 1917, despite McKinley’s tenuous ties to Alaska (he had never visited). But Native Alaskans, as well as locals of varied backgrounds, continued to call the mountain Denali. In 1975, a movement began to rename the mountain Denali, but it was blocked by politicians in Ohio, McKinley’s home state. Finally, President Barack Obama and Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell took action in 2015 to change the name back to Denali, which is now its official name.
In 2015, Denali was measured using state-of-the-art equipment by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), who determined the definitive and now widely accepted height of the mountain: 6,190 meters (20,310 feet). However, a report released in 2013 gave its elevation as 6,168 meters (20,237 feet). Both measurements were different from the long-standing figure of 6,194 meters (20,320 feet) that had been circulated since the 1950s, when the mountain was first measured.
Denali is considered an extremely difficult climb due to the severe weather and steep vertical climbs. In 1906, physician and explorer Frederick Cook was famously reported to have reached the summit, a claim that was later found false. Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, and their team of climbers were the first on record to actually reach the summit in 1913. Since then, several hundred people attempt to climb Denali each year.
mountain
noun | https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/denali/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | Denali | Denali (Mount McKinley) is the highest mountain in North America, but controversy surrounds both its height and name.
5 - 8
Image
With a peak at 6,190 meters (20,310 feet), Alaska's Denali has the highest elevation in North America.
Photograph by Aaron Huey, courtesy of the National Geographic image collection
Denali, also called Mount McKinley, is the tallest mountain in North America, located in south-central Alaska. With a peak that reaches 6,190 meters (20,310 feet) above sea level, Denali is the third-highest of the Seven Summits (the tallest peaks on all seven continents).
Denali is about 210 kilometers (130 miles) north-northwest of Anchorage. Sixty million years ago, tectonic uplift pushed Earth's crust upward, forming Denali and the other Alaska Range mountains. Denali is the centerpiece of the Denali National Park and Preserve, which spans 2.4 million hectares (6 million acres) of land.
“Denali” comes from Koyukon, a traditional Native Alaskan language, and means “the tall one.” This name had been used for many generations and was used by early non-Native researchers and naturalists. But in 1896, William A. Dickey, a prospector, began calling Denali “Mount McKinley,” in honor of William McKinley, a presidential candidate at the time. After McKinley became president and was later assassinated, Congress formally recognized the name in 1917, despite McKinley’s tenuous ties to Alaska (he had never visited). But Native Alaskans, as well as locals of varied backgrounds, continued to call the mountain Denali. In 1975, a movement began to rename the mountain Denali, but it was blocked by politicians in Ohio, McKinley’s home state. Finally, President Barack Obama and Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell took action in 2015 to change the name back to Denali, which is now its official name.
In 2015, Denali was measured using state-of-the-art equipment by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), who determined the definitive and now widely accepted height of the mountain: 6,190 meters (20,310 feet). However, a report released in 2013 gave its elevation as 6,168 meters (20,237 feet). Both measurements were different from the long-standing figure of 6,194 meters (20,320 feet) that had been circulated since the 1950s, when the mountain was first measured.
Denali is considered an extremely difficult climb due to the severe weather and steep vertical climbs. In 1906, physician and explorer Frederick Cook was famously reported to have reached the summit, a claim that was later found false. Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, and their team of climbers were the first on record to actually reach the summit in 1913. Since then, several hundred people attempt to climb Denali each year.
mountain
noun | https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/denali/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | North America: Physical Geography | Encyclopedic entry. North America, the third-largest continent, extends from the tiny Aleutian Islands in the northwest to the Isthmus of Panama in the south.
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North America is one of three continents (along with South America and Oceania) that make up the "New World." The continents were new to 15th-century European explorers, but home to the indigenous people living there.
Map by the National Geographic Society
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North America, the third-largest continent , extends from the tiny Aleutian Islands in the northwest to the Isthmus of Panama in the south. The continent includes the enormous island of Greenland in the northeast and the small island countries and territories that dot the Caribbean Sea and western North Atlantic Ocean. In the far north, the continent stretches halfway around the world, from Greenland to the Aleutians. But at Panama’s narrowest part, the continent is just 50 kilometers (31 miles) across.
North America’s physical geography , environment and resources , and human geography can be considered separately.
North America can be divided into five physical regions : the mountainous west, the Great Plains , the Canadian Shield , the varied eastern region, and the Caribbean. Mexico and Central America’s western coast are connected to the mountainous west, while its lowlands and coastal plains extend into the eastern region.
Within these regions are all the major types of biomes in the world. A biome is a community of animals and plants spreading over an extensive area with a relatively uniform climate . Some diverse biomes represented in North America include desert , grassland , tundra , and coral reefs .
Western Region
Young mountains rise in the west. The most familiar of these mountains are probably the Rockies, North America’s largest chain. The Rockies stretch from the province of British Columbia, Canada, to the U.S. state of New Mexico.
The Rocky Mountains are part of a system of parallel mountain ranges known as the Cordilleras . A cordillera is a long series of mountain ranges. Although cordilleras exist all over the world, in North America, “the Cordilleras” indicate the massive mountain ranges in the western part of the continent. The Cordilleras extend from Canada all the way to the Isthmus of Panama.
The Sierra Madre mountain system is part of the Cordilleras. The Sierra Madre stretch from the southwestern United States to Honduras. The Sierra Madre include many high volcanoes (up to 5,636 meters, or 18,500 feet) that stretch across Mexico south of the cities of Guadalajara and Mexico City.
Volcanic mountain ranges in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama are also considered part of the Cordilleras. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently in this region. Volcanic activity can destroy towns and cities. It also contributes to the rich, fertile soils of the region.
Some of the Earth’s youngest mountains are in the Cascade Range of the U.S. states of Washington, Oregon, and California. Some peaks began to form only about a million years ago—a blink of an eye in Earth’s long history. The mountains include temperate rain forest —a biome unique to the area. The temperate rain forest receives an incredible amount of precipitation , between 254 to 508 centimeters (100 to 200 inches) annually. However, its cool winters and mild summers promote the growth of mosses, ferns, fungi, and lichens .
The temperate rain forest supports a wide variety of life. The Sitka spruce, western red cedar, and Douglas fir are trees native to North America’s temperate rain forest. Some of these trees grow to more than 90 meters (300 feet) tall and 3 meters (10 feet) in diameter. Black bears, Roosevelt elk, and marmots are indigenous animal species.
The three major desert regions of North America—the Sonoran, Mojave, and Chihuahuan—are all in the American southwest and northern Mexico. These large deserts are located in the rain shadows of nearby mountains. The mountains block precipitation and accelerate the movement of hot, dry wind over these regions. The Sonoran is in the rain shadow of the Coast Ranges, the Mojave is in the shadow of the Sierra Nevada, and the Chihuahuan is in the shadow of the Sierra Madre.
Notable desert plant species includes the saguaro cactus, Joshua tree, and mesquite. Animal species include the roadrunner, Gila monster, and rattlesnake.
In addition to mountains, deserts, and forests, the northern part of the western region of North America also has the richest deposits of oil and natural gas on the continent. Most of these deposits are located offshore , in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans.
Great Plains
The Great Plains lie in the middle of the continent. Deep, rich soil blankets large areas of the plains in Canada and the United States. Grain grown in this region, called the “Breadbasket of North America,” feeds a large part of the world. The Great Plains are also home to rich deposits of oil and natural gas.
Much of the fertile soil was formed from material deposited during the most recent glacial period . This ice age reached its peak about 18,000 years ago. As glaciers retreated, streams of melted ice dropped sediment on the land, building layers of productive soil.
The grassland or prairie regions of the Great Plains make up the largest biome in North America. Extreme weather prevents the growth of large plants but is perfectly suited to the native grasses that dominate the region.
Native grasses vary in size from 2 meters (7 feet) in tallgrass prairies to only 20 or 25 centimeters (8 or 10 inches) in shortgrass prairies. Native animal species include bison, prairie dogs, and grasshoppers.
Canadian Shield
The Canadian Shield is a raised but relatively flat plateau . It extends over eastern, central, and northwestern Canada. The Canadian Shield is characterized by a rocky landscape pocked by an astounding number of lakes .
The tundra, stretching along the northern borders of Alaska and Canada to the Hudson Bay area, is a biome common to the Canadian Shield. Tundra is where low temperatures and precipitation levels hinder tree growth. The tundra is characterized by permafrost —soil that is frozen for two or more years. This permafrost keeps moisture near the soil’s surface, promoting vegetation growth even in the extreme, Arctic conditions of the tundra.
During the summer, this top layer of soil thaws less than 10 centimeters (only a few inches) down, forming numerous shallow lakes, ponds, and bogs . Lichens, mosses, algae, and succulents take advantage of these shallow waters. In turn, they provide food for the caribou and musk ox that are typical of this area.
Eastern Region
This varied region includes the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic coastal plain.
North America’s older mountain ranges, including the Appalachians, rise near the east coast of the United States and Canada. These areas have been mined for rich deposits of coal and other minerals for hundreds of years.
The Atlantic coastal plain extends from river , marsh , and wetland regions east of the mountains toward the sandy beaches of the Atlantic coast. Wetland areas are a biome of the eastern region and consist of areas of land whose soil is saturated with permanent or seasonal moisture. The Florida Everglades is the largest wetland system in the United States, covering more than 11,137 square kilometers (4,300 square miles) of southern Florida.
The Everglades is a biologically diverse region and contains several bordering ecosystems . Sawgrass marshes are the most iconic plant community of the Everglades and thrive on the slow-moving water of the wetlands. Alligators nest in the sawgrass, while wading birds such as egrets, herons, spoonbills, and ibises make their breeding grounds in other wetland tree species, such as cypress and mangrove.
Caribbean Region
The Caribbean Region includes more than 7,000 islands, islets, reefs, and cays . The region’s islands and smaller islets are varied in their topography ; some have relatively flat and sandy terrain while others are rugged, mountainous, and volcanic.
The coral reefs and cays of the Caribbean Sea are among the most spectacular biomes in North America. A reef is a ridge of jagged rock, coral, or sand just above or below the surface of the sea. Some coral reefs surround islands, such as the Bahamas, Antigua, and Barbados. Others are found off the Florida Keys, a chain of cays—small islands situated on a coral reef platform—near the southern coast of the U.S. state of Florida.
Coral reefs are made of millions of tiny animals—corals—that form a hard shell around their bodies. This hard surface provides a rich community for algae and plants such as seagrass. Brightly colored tropical fish, as well as sharks, sea turtles, sea stars, and sea horses, are animals native to the Caribbean’s coral reefs.
Natural Wonders
North America’s varied landscape features many natural wonders. It has deep canyons, such as Copper Canyon in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. Denali, the continent’s highest peak, stands at 6,194 meters (20,320 feet) within Denali National Park and Preserve in the U.S. state of Alaska. Yellowstone National Park, in the U.S. states of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, has some of the world’s most active geysers . Canada’s Bay of Fundy has the greatest tidal range in the world. The Great Lakes form the planet’s largest area of freshwater . The Mississippi River, at 3,730 kilometers (2,320 miles) long, is one of the longest river systems in the world and drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states.
Fast Fact
Population Density
The continent contains 57 people per square kilometer (22 people per square mile).
Fast Fact
Highest Elevation
Denali, Alaska, United States (6,190 meters/20,310 feet)
Fast Fact
Most Renewable Electricity Produced
Belize (96.7%; hydropower, biomass)
Fast Fact
Largest Urban Area
23.7 million people live in the metropolitan area of the New York City, New York, United States.
Fast Fact
Largest Watershed
The Mississippi River has an area of three million square kilometers (1.15 million square miles). | https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/north-america-physical-geography/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | Denali | Denali (Mount McKinley) is the highest mountain in North America, but controversy surrounds both its height and name.
5 - 8
Image
With a peak at 6,190 meters (20,310 feet), Alaska's Denali has the highest elevation in North America.
Photograph by Aaron Huey, courtesy of the National Geographic image collection
Denali, also called Mount McKinley, is the tallest mountain in North America, located in south-central Alaska. With a peak that reaches 6,190 meters (20,310 feet) above sea level, Denali is the third-highest of the Seven Summits (the tallest peaks on all seven continents).
Denali is about 210 kilometers (130 miles) north-northwest of Anchorage. Sixty million years ago, tectonic uplift pushed Earth's crust upward, forming Denali and the other Alaska Range mountains. Denali is the centerpiece of the Denali National Park and Preserve, which spans 2.4 million hectares (6 million acres) of land.
“Denali” comes from Koyukon, a traditional Native Alaskan language, and means “the tall one.” This name had been used for many generations and was used by early non-Native researchers and naturalists. But in 1896, William A. Dickey, a prospector, began calling Denali “Mount McKinley,” in honor of William McKinley, a presidential candidate at the time. After McKinley became president and was later assassinated, Congress formally recognized the name in 1917, despite McKinley’s tenuous ties to Alaska (he had never visited). But Native Alaskans, as well as locals of varied backgrounds, continued to call the mountain Denali. In 1975, a movement began to rename the mountain Denali, but it was blocked by politicians in Ohio, McKinley’s home state. Finally, President Barack Obama and Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell took action in 2015 to change the name back to Denali, which is now its official name.
In 2015, Denali was measured using state-of-the-art equipment by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), who determined the definitive and now widely accepted height of the mountain: 6,190 meters (20,310 feet). However, a report released in 2013 gave its elevation as 6,168 meters (20,237 feet). Both measurements were different from the long-standing figure of 6,194 meters (20,320 feet) that had been circulated since the 1950s, when the mountain was first measured.
Denali is considered an extremely difficult climb due to the severe weather and steep vertical climbs. In 1906, physician and explorer Frederick Cook was famously reported to have reached the summit, a claim that was later found false. Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, and their team of climbers were the first on record to actually reach the summit in 1913. Since then, several hundred people attempt to climb Denali each year.
mountain
noun | https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/denali/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | The Highest 11 Mountains in the United States | The United States is home to a diverse range of majestic landscapes, including some of the highest and most awe-inspiring mountains in North America.
When it comes to mountains , no other state contains as many of the highest peaks as Alaska. Due to their remote setting in the Last Frontier, some of these mountains are rarely visited but maintain their daunting status as iconic features of Alaska’s geography.
Of the top 11 highest mountains in the United States, 10 are located in Alaska and the last, Mount Whitney, is part of the Sierra Nevada range in California.
Read on for more information about the highest 11 mountains in the United States. Related: Highest Point in Every U.S. State
Rising 20,310 feet (6,190 meters) , Denali is the United States’ highest mountain. Denali is also the highest mountain in North America and is the third highest mountain of the Seven Summits (a hiking term for the tallest mountain on each continent) after Mount Everest and Aconcagua.
Located in the Alaska Range, Denali and the mountains around it were formed from dramatic tectonic activity that continues to increase the mountain’s elevation little by little every year.
Detail was formed by the convergence of the Pacific and North American tectonic plates , causing the uplift of the Earth’s crust in the region.
Denali has one of the largest base-to-peak rises on Earth , with a vertical gain of around 18,000 feet (5,500 meters) from its base, which is greater than that of Mount Everest .
Denali is the Koyukon Athabaskan word meaning ‘the tall one,’ and the mountain holds great significance for indigenous Alaskans who have resided around it since time immemorial.
The mountain is the centerpiece of Denali National Park and Preserve, a protected area spanning over 6 million acres of wilderness, providing habitats for various wildlife species, including grizzly bears, wolves , caribou, and Dall sheep .
Additionally, Denali National Park and Preserve is one of the most visited locations in Alaska, bringing tourists in from around the world during the summer months. Many of the park’s wildlife animals can be seen from the park’s singular road.
Mount Saint Elias straddles the Alaska/Canadian border in the Saint Elias Mountain Range in northern southeast Alaska. At 18,009 feet (5,489 meters), it is the second highest mountain in the United States and in Canada behind Mount Logan.
Mount Saint Elias forms part of the Saint Elias Mountains, a subrange of the Pacific Coast Ranges, which extend from southeastern Alaska through the Yukon and into northern British Columbia.
Mount Saint Elias, on the US side is part of the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, the largest National Park in the United States . Nine of the 16 highest peaks in the United States are found in this National Park.
This mountain range is located near Glacier Bay, which has a high density of glaciers and icefields as well as tectonic and volcanic activity that has helped make this mountain range popular for modern and past exploration.
Mount Saint Elias is called Yasʼéitʼaa Shaa or Shaa Tlein by the indigenous Yakutat Tlingit people who have lived in the area for thousands of years.
Mount Saint Elias saw its first recorded summit in 1897 by an Italian expedition. The Italian team was led by Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi, along with guides and climbers from the United States, on July 31, 1897.
On a clear day, Mount Foraker can be seen in tandem with Denali in the Alaska Range.
Mount Foraker is the third highest peak in the United States with an elevation of 17,400 feet (5304 meters).
Mount Foraker is situated in the central Alaska Range within Denali National Park and Preserve, approximately 14 miles (23 km) southwest of Denali, the highest peak in North America.
Mount Foraker is also located on a fork of the Kahiltna Glacier, the longest glacier in the Alaska Range, across from Denali and Mount Hunter.
The indigenous Dena’ina names for Mount Foraker are Sultana , meaning ‘the woman,’ or Menlale , meaning ‘Denali’s wife’ due to its close proximity to Denali.
The first recorded successful summiting of the north and south peaks occurred in 1934 by Charles Houston, T. Graham Brown, and Chychele Waterston.
Mount Bona is a dormant stratovolcano located in the Saint Elias Mountains. Mount Bona is situated in the eastern Alaska Range within Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, which is the largest national park in the United States.
At 16,550 feet (5,040 meters), Mount Bona is the highest volcano in the United States as well as the fourth highest mountain in the US. Mount Bona is also the fifth-highest independent peak in the United States.
Mount Bona is surrounded by extensive icefields, including the Russell Glacier to the north and the University Range icefield to the west. Covered by glaciers and ice fields, the Klutlan Glacier flows into the Yukon Territory of Canada and is an important contributor to the Russell Glacier complex.
Mount Bona is located near several other high peaks in the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, including Mount Blackburn, Mount Sanford, and Mount Wrangell. This makes the area a popular destination for mountaineers seeking to climb multiple high peaks within the same region.
The first successful ascent of Mount Bona was achieved by Allen Carpe, Terris Moore, and Andrew Taylor on June 8, 1930.
Mount Blackburn is an old, eroded shield volcano that tops out at 16,390 feet (4996 meters). Located in Wrangell-St. Elias National Park, it is the second highest volcano in the United States as well as the fifth highest mountain in the country.
Mount Blackburn is surrounded by numerous glaciers, including the Kennicott Glacier to the west and the Nabesna Glacier to the north.
Mount Blackburn is the main source of ice that flows into the Kennicott Glacier, which is a draw for visitors seeking out the mining ghost town of Kennecott and the jumping off point of McCarthy. The mountain also contributes ice to the Nabesna Glacier and the Kuskulana Glacier.
The first successful ascent of Mount Blackburn was achieved by Bruce Gilbert, Dick Wahlstrom, Hans Gmoser, Adolf Bitterlich, and Leon Blumer on May 30, 1958.
Mount Sanford is another dormant shield volcano in the Wrangell Mountains. At 16,237 feet 4,949 meters) high, Mount Sanford is the third highest volcano in the United States.
Mount Sanford is situated in the Wrangell Volcanic Field in eastern Alaska within Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve.
The ice that comes from the mountain contributes to the aptly named Sanford Glacier.
The volcano hasn’t been active since before the historical record began in the 1700s; however, vapor, rock and ice fall from near the summit often look like smoke or ash rising from the summit.
The first successful ascent of Mount Sanford was achieved by Wilfred H. Babcock, H. Adams Carter, Elton Thayer, and Terris Moore on July 21, 1938. Mountaineers continue to make Mount Sanford a go-to mountain for expeditions.
Glacier Bay is one of the most popular tourist locations in Alaska, drawing millions of visitors each year to view the tidewater glaciers, wildlife, and remote beauty of this part of the world.
For thousands of years, indigenous Alaskans have lived at the foot of these mountains and glaciers. In the Tlingit language, Mount Fairweather is called Tsalxhaan or Tanaku , and the mountains between it and Mount Saint Elias are known as Tsalxhaan Yatx’i , or the Children of Tsalxhaan .
Mount Fairweather clocks in at 15,325 feet (4671 meters) and lies in Glacier Bay and the City and Borough of Yakutat in Alaska, and British Columbia in Canada.
The first successful ascent of Mount Fairweather was achieved by Allen Carpé, Terris Moore, and Andrew Taylor on June 8, 1931.
Mount Hubbard is located in the Saint Elias Range and straddles the border of Alaska and the Yukon.
Rising 14,951 feet (4557 meters), Mount Hubbard was named in 1890 after Gardiner Hubbard, the first president of the National Geographic Society who sponsored the Russell Expedition to its flanks.
Mount Hubbard has three summits; the other two named summits are Mount Alverstone and Mount Kennedy.
The first successful ascent of Mount Hubbard was achieved by Walter Wood, Bob Bates, and Bill Hackett on July 6, 1951.
Mount Bear is 14,831 feet (4520 meters) tall and is located in the Wrangell-Saint Elias Mountains in Alaska, just four rugged miles away from the Canadian border.
Mount Bear contributes ice to the Barnard Glacier and the Klutlan Glacier complexes. Mount Bear is a little-climbed peak often overlooked for mountaineering expeditions because of the nearby Mount Logan, Mount Bona, and Mount Lucania.
Mount Bear was first climbed in 1959 by a team of American and Canadian climbers led by Fred Beckey.
Mount Hunter is a 14,573 foot peak within Denali National Park. Located about eight miles away from Denali, Mount Hunter was named Begguya by the Dena’ina people. Begguya means ‘child of Denali.’
Mount Hunter has a North Summit, which is considered the main summit, and a South Summit known as Mount Stevens after a former Alaska state senator.
The first recorded ascent of Mount Hunter happened in 1954.
Mount Whitney is the tallest mountain in the United States that isn’t located in Alaska.
At 14,505 feet (4,421 meters), Mount Whitney is the tallest mountain in the continental United States and is a much sought after hike for day hikers as well as backpackers on the Pacific Crest Trail.
Mount Whitney is known as Too-man-i-goo-yah in the indigenous Paiute language. Located in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California, Mount Whitney is along the border of Sequoia National Park and the John Muir Trail.
The mountain was first climbed in 1873 by a team of American climbers led by Charles Begole, A. H. Johnson, and John Lucas.
Alaska Collection. Mount Hunter: Steep and Serious. Retrieved from https://www.alaskacollection.com/denali-national-park-interior/stories/mount-hunter-steep-and-serious/#
Alaska Volcano Observatory. Mount Sanford Description and Information. Retrieved from https://avo.alaska.edu/volcanoes/volcinfo.php?volcname=Sanford
Glaciers of Alaska. USGS. Retrieved from https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386k/pdf/05_1386K_stelias.p df
National Park Service. Mount Fairweather. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/glba/learn/historyculture/fairweather.htm
Roadtrippers. Mount Hubbard, Alaska. Retrieved from https://maps.roadtrippers.com/us/ak/nature/mount-hubbard-ak
Saint Elias Alpine Guides. Mt. Bear Expedition Itinerary. Retrieved from https://www.steliasguides.com/trips/mt-bear-expedition/itinerary/
Summit Post. Mount Foraker. Retrieved from https://www.summitpost.org/mount-foraker/150636
Summit Post. Mount Whitney. Retrieved from https://www.summitpost.org/mount-whitney/150227
Wikipedia. List of the Highest Major Summits of the United States. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_highest_major_summits_of_the_United_States
Wikipedia. Mount Saint Elias. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Saint_Elias
Zimmerman, Kim Ann. Denali: Facts About North America’s Tallest Mountain. 16 May 2017. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/40595-denali-mount-mckinley.html
This article was originally written on December 2, 2020 and has since been updated.
Share: | https://www.geographyrealm.com/the-highest-11-mountains-in-the-united-states/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | The Highest Mountains in North America including Stunning Photos of Each Peak - Discovery UK | The highest mountains in North America represent the peak of natural wonders found on the world's third largest continent. Read on to learn all about them including the tallest mountain in North America, with stunning photos of each one.
5 January 2023
At its widest, North America stretches halfway around the planet, encompassing 23 countries and every major biome known to exist. The largest of these are the prairies and grasslands of The Great Plains, which form its centre. However, the world’s third largest continent is far from flat. Indeed, its natural wonders include some of the world’s highest mountains and even its tallest one.
To the east are the world’s oldest peaks, the Appalachians. However, it is among the young ranges of the west, some only a million years in the making, where you can find the highest mountains in America. These ranges include The Rockies, the Cascades and the Sierra Madre system. They are a part of the American Cordilleras, a series of mountain ranges that stretch from the Isthmus of Panama right up to Canada.
So, what are the highest mountains in North America? And where is the highest point in North America? We’re about to find out, starting with the tallest mountain in North America.
Denali range and reflection (Photo: Drew Green via iStock)
Elevation : 20,310 feet | Range : Alaska Range, Alaska, USA
It’s common knowledge that, at 29,028 feet above sea level, the highest mountain in the world is Everest. By contrast, the highest mountain in North America summits at 20,310 feet. And yet, when measured from base to summit, North America’s highest peak is the tallest of them all. Known simply as Denali, it measures 18,000 feet tall from its base compared with Everest’s 12,000 feet. So, where is this quiet giant?
Denali is found in the US state of Alaska, the most geologically active region in the whole continent. It’s the highest peak in the Alaska Range, which is itself part of a chain of mountain ranges known as the North American Cordillera.
Perhaps unsurprisingly, conditions on the tallest mountain in North America are extreme and unforgiving. The temperatures have been known to reach -70 degrees centigrade, and winds of up to 150 miles per hour. Three quarters of it is covered in snow and ice, while at the base there are 45-mile long glaciers.
While Denali is both the mountain’s traditional and current name, it was known for a time as Mount McKinley.
Mount Logan In Yukon Territory (Photo: Cavan Images via iStock)
Height : 19,551 feet | Range : Saint Elias Mountains, Yukon Territory, Canada
We head to the neighbouring country for the second highest point in North America. Just 25 miles north of Alaska, in the southwest of the Yukon Territory, Mount Logan is part of the Saint Elias Mountains. Yet, being the continent’s second highest peak is not the only feather in Logan’s cap. With an elevation of 19,551 feet, it is Canada’s highest mountain and, thanks to ongoing tectonic movement, is still growing at a rate of 0.35 mm per year.
Logan is also thought to have the biggest base of any non-volcanic mountain, a massive 25 miles long with 12 peaks. It’s the source of the Hubbard and Logan glaciers, is covered in snow and ice and temperatures can drop to -45 degrees centigrade.
Pico de Orizaba, Mexico (Photo: robertcicchetti via iStock)
Height : 18,491 feet | Region : Cordillera Neovolcanica, Puebla/Veracruz, Mexico
Number three on the list of highest mountains in North America is also the continent’s highest volcanic summit and Mexico’s highest mountain. Pico de Orizaba is an inactive stratovolcano, meaning it’s a conical shape made up of many layers. It rises to 18,491 feet above sea level, earning it the poetic Nahuatl name of Citlaltépetl, meaning “star mountain”.
Another extraordinary feature of Pico de Orizaba is its glaciers. Only two other volcanoes in Mexico still support such ice masses and Pico de Orizaba is home to the country’s largest one, Gran Glaciar Norte.
Mount Logan and the Saint Elias Range (Photo: tibu via iStock)
Height : 18,008 feet | Region : Alaska/Yukon
Sharing a range with Mount Logan, Mount Saint Elias is fourth in line to be North America’s highest peak. Also known as Boundary Peak 186, it straddles Alaska and the Yukon.
Mount Saint Elias reaches its top height of 18,008 feet by way of an incredibly steep incline. This, combined with the rugged terrain and unpredictable weather means very few people attempt its summit. That said, it has been submitted. The first recorded ascent was by Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi in 1897.
Mount Saint Elias holds special significance for the indigenous Tlingit people, who call it both the “mountain behind Icy Bay” and “Big Mountain”. Mythology says that Mounts St Elias and Fairweather were once together, but argued and separated, with the peaks between them representing their children.
Popocatepetl, Mexico (Photo: Zaharov via iStock)
Height : 17,802 feet | Region : Cordillera Neovolcanica, Puebla/Morelos, Mexico
An active stratovolcano on the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt rounds out the top five highest mountains in North America. Split between the central Mexican states of Puebla and Morelos, Popocatépetl reaches an elevation of 17,802 feet. It’s Mexico’s second highest peak, located in Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park.
Wonder Lake with the Alaska Range, Denali National Park (Photo: mtnmichelle via iStock)
Thus, the highest point in North America is Denali, in Alaska. However, North America’s highest peak is just one of the many magnificent wonders which make up the highest mountains in America, with an incredible 18 mountains rising over 15,000 feet. | https://www.discoveryuk.com/travel-and-exploration/the-highest-mountains-in-north-america/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | McKinley Out, Denali In: Tallest Mountain in North America Renamed | For more than a century, the continent's tallest mountain was named after the 25th U.S. president. Now, it's officially being changed it to Denali.
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For more than a century, the tallest mountain on the continent was named after the 25th U.S. president, William McKinley.
Now, in honor of Alaska's indigenous Athabascan people, who had always called it "Denali," President Barack Obama is changing it back, the White House said in a release Sunday.
"This designation recognizes the sacred status of Denali to generations of Alaska Natives," the release said.
The change comes after a debate between lawmakers from Alaska and Ohio, McKinley's home state. In January, Republican Sen. Lisa Murkowski of Alaska introduced legislation that sought to officially call the mountain what Alaskans and indigenous people called it, she said — "Denali," or "the high one."
"Officially changing the name from Mount McKinley to Mount Denali will show the long-standing significance that the name Denali holds for Alaskans," she told NBC News earlier this year.
But Rep. Bob Gibbs, a Republican whose district is south of Cleveland, introduced his own bill eight days before Murkowski's in an effort to keep McKinley's name alive in Alaska. | https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/mckinley-out-denali-highest-peak-north-america-renamed-n418541 | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | The Highest 11 Mountains in the United States | The United States is home to a diverse range of majestic landscapes, including some of the highest and most awe-inspiring mountains in North America.
When it comes to mountains , no other state contains as many of the highest peaks as Alaska. Due to their remote setting in the Last Frontier, some of these mountains are rarely visited but maintain their daunting status as iconic features of Alaska’s geography.
Of the top 11 highest mountains in the United States, 10 are located in Alaska and the last, Mount Whitney, is part of the Sierra Nevada range in California.
Read on for more information about the highest 11 mountains in the United States. Related: Highest Point in Every U.S. State
Rising 20,310 feet (6,190 meters) , Denali is the United States’ highest mountain. Denali is also the highest mountain in North America and is the third highest mountain of the Seven Summits (a hiking term for the tallest mountain on each continent) after Mount Everest and Aconcagua.
Located in the Alaska Range, Denali and the mountains around it were formed from dramatic tectonic activity that continues to increase the mountain’s elevation little by little every year.
Detail was formed by the convergence of the Pacific and North American tectonic plates , causing the uplift of the Earth’s crust in the region.
Denali has one of the largest base-to-peak rises on Earth , with a vertical gain of around 18,000 feet (5,500 meters) from its base, which is greater than that of Mount Everest .
Denali is the Koyukon Athabaskan word meaning ‘the tall one,’ and the mountain holds great significance for indigenous Alaskans who have resided around it since time immemorial.
The mountain is the centerpiece of Denali National Park and Preserve, a protected area spanning over 6 million acres of wilderness, providing habitats for various wildlife species, including grizzly bears, wolves , caribou, and Dall sheep .
Additionally, Denali National Park and Preserve is one of the most visited locations in Alaska, bringing tourists in from around the world during the summer months. Many of the park’s wildlife animals can be seen from the park’s singular road.
Mount Saint Elias straddles the Alaska/Canadian border in the Saint Elias Mountain Range in northern southeast Alaska. At 18,009 feet (5,489 meters), it is the second highest mountain in the United States and in Canada behind Mount Logan.
Mount Saint Elias forms part of the Saint Elias Mountains, a subrange of the Pacific Coast Ranges, which extend from southeastern Alaska through the Yukon and into northern British Columbia.
Mount Saint Elias, on the US side is part of the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, the largest National Park in the United States . Nine of the 16 highest peaks in the United States are found in this National Park.
This mountain range is located near Glacier Bay, which has a high density of glaciers and icefields as well as tectonic and volcanic activity that has helped make this mountain range popular for modern and past exploration.
Mount Saint Elias is called Yasʼéitʼaa Shaa or Shaa Tlein by the indigenous Yakutat Tlingit people who have lived in the area for thousands of years.
Mount Saint Elias saw its first recorded summit in 1897 by an Italian expedition. The Italian team was led by Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi, along with guides and climbers from the United States, on July 31, 1897.
On a clear day, Mount Foraker can be seen in tandem with Denali in the Alaska Range.
Mount Foraker is the third highest peak in the United States with an elevation of 17,400 feet (5304 meters).
Mount Foraker is situated in the central Alaska Range within Denali National Park and Preserve, approximately 14 miles (23 km) southwest of Denali, the highest peak in North America.
Mount Foraker is also located on a fork of the Kahiltna Glacier, the longest glacier in the Alaska Range, across from Denali and Mount Hunter.
The indigenous Dena’ina names for Mount Foraker are Sultana , meaning ‘the woman,’ or Menlale , meaning ‘Denali’s wife’ due to its close proximity to Denali.
The first recorded successful summiting of the north and south peaks occurred in 1934 by Charles Houston, T. Graham Brown, and Chychele Waterston.
Mount Bona is a dormant stratovolcano located in the Saint Elias Mountains. Mount Bona is situated in the eastern Alaska Range within Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, which is the largest national park in the United States.
At 16,550 feet (5,040 meters), Mount Bona is the highest volcano in the United States as well as the fourth highest mountain in the US. Mount Bona is also the fifth-highest independent peak in the United States.
Mount Bona is surrounded by extensive icefields, including the Russell Glacier to the north and the University Range icefield to the west. Covered by glaciers and ice fields, the Klutlan Glacier flows into the Yukon Territory of Canada and is an important contributor to the Russell Glacier complex.
Mount Bona is located near several other high peaks in the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, including Mount Blackburn, Mount Sanford, and Mount Wrangell. This makes the area a popular destination for mountaineers seeking to climb multiple high peaks within the same region.
The first successful ascent of Mount Bona was achieved by Allen Carpe, Terris Moore, and Andrew Taylor on June 8, 1930.
Mount Blackburn is an old, eroded shield volcano that tops out at 16,390 feet (4996 meters). Located in Wrangell-St. Elias National Park, it is the second highest volcano in the United States as well as the fifth highest mountain in the country.
Mount Blackburn is surrounded by numerous glaciers, including the Kennicott Glacier to the west and the Nabesna Glacier to the north.
Mount Blackburn is the main source of ice that flows into the Kennicott Glacier, which is a draw for visitors seeking out the mining ghost town of Kennecott and the jumping off point of McCarthy. The mountain also contributes ice to the Nabesna Glacier and the Kuskulana Glacier.
The first successful ascent of Mount Blackburn was achieved by Bruce Gilbert, Dick Wahlstrom, Hans Gmoser, Adolf Bitterlich, and Leon Blumer on May 30, 1958.
Mount Sanford is another dormant shield volcano in the Wrangell Mountains. At 16,237 feet 4,949 meters) high, Mount Sanford is the third highest volcano in the United States.
Mount Sanford is situated in the Wrangell Volcanic Field in eastern Alaska within Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve.
The ice that comes from the mountain contributes to the aptly named Sanford Glacier.
The volcano hasn’t been active since before the historical record began in the 1700s; however, vapor, rock and ice fall from near the summit often look like smoke or ash rising from the summit.
The first successful ascent of Mount Sanford was achieved by Wilfred H. Babcock, H. Adams Carter, Elton Thayer, and Terris Moore on July 21, 1938. Mountaineers continue to make Mount Sanford a go-to mountain for expeditions.
Glacier Bay is one of the most popular tourist locations in Alaska, drawing millions of visitors each year to view the tidewater glaciers, wildlife, and remote beauty of this part of the world.
For thousands of years, indigenous Alaskans have lived at the foot of these mountains and glaciers. In the Tlingit language, Mount Fairweather is called Tsalxhaan or Tanaku , and the mountains between it and Mount Saint Elias are known as Tsalxhaan Yatx’i , or the Children of Tsalxhaan .
Mount Fairweather clocks in at 15,325 feet (4671 meters) and lies in Glacier Bay and the City and Borough of Yakutat in Alaska, and British Columbia in Canada.
The first successful ascent of Mount Fairweather was achieved by Allen Carpé, Terris Moore, and Andrew Taylor on June 8, 1931.
Mount Hubbard is located in the Saint Elias Range and straddles the border of Alaska and the Yukon.
Rising 14,951 feet (4557 meters), Mount Hubbard was named in 1890 after Gardiner Hubbard, the first president of the National Geographic Society who sponsored the Russell Expedition to its flanks.
Mount Hubbard has three summits; the other two named summits are Mount Alverstone and Mount Kennedy.
The first successful ascent of Mount Hubbard was achieved by Walter Wood, Bob Bates, and Bill Hackett on July 6, 1951.
Mount Bear is 14,831 feet (4520 meters) tall and is located in the Wrangell-Saint Elias Mountains in Alaska, just four rugged miles away from the Canadian border.
Mount Bear contributes ice to the Barnard Glacier and the Klutlan Glacier complexes. Mount Bear is a little-climbed peak often overlooked for mountaineering expeditions because of the nearby Mount Logan, Mount Bona, and Mount Lucania.
Mount Bear was first climbed in 1959 by a team of American and Canadian climbers led by Fred Beckey.
Mount Hunter is a 14,573 foot peak within Denali National Park. Located about eight miles away from Denali, Mount Hunter was named Begguya by the Dena’ina people. Begguya means ‘child of Denali.’
Mount Hunter has a North Summit, which is considered the main summit, and a South Summit known as Mount Stevens after a former Alaska state senator.
The first recorded ascent of Mount Hunter happened in 1954.
Mount Whitney is the tallest mountain in the United States that isn’t located in Alaska.
At 14,505 feet (4,421 meters), Mount Whitney is the tallest mountain in the continental United States and is a much sought after hike for day hikers as well as backpackers on the Pacific Crest Trail.
Mount Whitney is known as Too-man-i-goo-yah in the indigenous Paiute language. Located in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California, Mount Whitney is along the border of Sequoia National Park and the John Muir Trail.
The mountain was first climbed in 1873 by a team of American climbers led by Charles Begole, A. H. Johnson, and John Lucas.
Alaska Collection. Mount Hunter: Steep and Serious. Retrieved from https://www.alaskacollection.com/denali-national-park-interior/stories/mount-hunter-steep-and-serious/#
Alaska Volcano Observatory. Mount Sanford Description and Information. Retrieved from https://avo.alaska.edu/volcanoes/volcinfo.php?volcname=Sanford
Glaciers of Alaska. USGS. Retrieved from https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386k/pdf/05_1386K_stelias.p df
National Park Service. Mount Fairweather. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/glba/learn/historyculture/fairweather.htm
Roadtrippers. Mount Hubbard, Alaska. Retrieved from https://maps.roadtrippers.com/us/ak/nature/mount-hubbard-ak
Saint Elias Alpine Guides. Mt. Bear Expedition Itinerary. Retrieved from https://www.steliasguides.com/trips/mt-bear-expedition/itinerary/
Summit Post. Mount Foraker. Retrieved from https://www.summitpost.org/mount-foraker/150636
Summit Post. Mount Whitney. Retrieved from https://www.summitpost.org/mount-whitney/150227
Wikipedia. List of the Highest Major Summits of the United States. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_highest_major_summits_of_the_United_States
Wikipedia. Mount Saint Elias. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Saint_Elias
Zimmerman, Kim Ann. Denali: Facts About North America’s Tallest Mountain. 16 May 2017. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/40595-denali-mount-mckinley.html
This article was originally written on December 2, 2020 and has since been updated.
Share: | https://www.geographyrealm.com/the-highest-11-mountains-in-the-united-states/ | 5 |
what is the highest landform in north america | List of the highest major summits of North America | - ^ The summit of Denali is the highest point of the Alaska Range , the State of Alaska , the United States of America , and greater North America . Denali is the third most topographically prominent and third most topographically isolated summit on Earth after Mount Everest and Aconcagua .
- ^ The summit of Mount Logan is the highest point of the Saint Elias Mountains , Yukon , and all of Canada .
- ^ Mount Saint Elias is the second highest major summit of both Canada and the United States .
- ^ Popocatépetl is the southernmost 5000-meter (16,404-foot) summit of México and greater North America.
- ^ Mount Foraker is the westernmost 5000-meter (16,404-foot) summit of Alaska , the United States , and greater North America.
- ^ The summit of Mount Lucania is the highest point of the northern Saint Elias Mountains .
- ^ Mount Lucania is the northernmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ Iztaccíhuatl is the northernmost and westernmost 5000-meter (16,404-foot) summit of México .
- ^ The summit of Mount Bona is the highest point of the northwest Saint Elias Mountains . Some maps show an elevation of 16,421 feet (5,005 m), [7] and others indicate 16,550 ± 50 feet (5045 ± 15 meters). [8] Mount Bona may or may not be higher than Mount Steele , whose exact elevation is also uncertain.
- ^ Mount Steele is the northernmost and easternmost 5000-meter (16,404-foot) summit of Canada . Older maps show an elevation of 5,073 metres (16,644 ft), [9] but more recent maps indicate 5,020 ± 20 metres (about 16,470 ± 60 ft). [10] Mount Steele may or may not be higher than Mount Bona , whose exact elevation is also uncertain.
- ^ The summit of Mount Blackburn is the highest point of the Wrangell Mountains .
- ^ Mount Wood is the northernmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ Mount Vancouver is the easternmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ Nevado de Toluca is the westernmost summit of its elevation in México .
- ^ Mount Fairweather lies on the international border between Alaska and British Columbia . The peak is the highest point of the Canadian Province of British Columbia and the southernmost and easternmost summit of its elevation in both Canada and the United States .
- ^ Malinche (volcano) on the border of Puebla is the highest point of Estado Libre y Soberano de Tlaxcala .
- ^ La Malinche is the northernmost summit of its elevation in México .
- ^ The summit of Mount Whitney is the highest point of the Sierra Nevada , the State of California , and the contiguous United States .
- ^ Mount Whitney is the southernmost and easternmost summit of its elevation in United States .
- ^ The summit of Mount Elbert is the highest point of the U.S. State of Colorado , the Rocky Mountains of North America, and the entire Mississippi River drainage basin .
- ^ Mount Massive is the second highest major summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Massive includes an adjustment of +2.087 m (6.85 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Harvard is the highest point of the Collegiate Peaks .
- ^ Mount Harvard is the southernmost and easternmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Rainier is the highest point of the Cascade Range and the U.S. State of Washington . Mount Rainier is the most prominent summit in the contiguous United States and the fourth most prominent in North America .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Rainier includes an adjustment of +1.914 m (6.28 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Williamson includes an adjustment of +1.807 m (5.93 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Blanca Peak is the highest point of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and the entire Rio Grande drainage basin .
- ^ The elevation of Blanca Peak includes an adjustment of +1.755 m (5.76 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of La Plata Peak includes an adjustment of +1.983 m (6.51 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Uncompahgre Peak is the highest point of the San Juan Mountains and the entire Gulf of California drainage basin .
- ^ Uncompahgre Peak is the westernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Crestone Peak is the highest point of the Crestones .
- ^ The elevation of Crestone Peak includes an adjustment of +1.76 m (5.77 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Lincoln is the highest point of the Mosquito Range and the entire Missouri River drainage basin .
- ^ Mount Lincoln is the northernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Castle Peak is the highest point of the Elk Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Grays Peak is the highest point of the Front Range and the Continental Divide in North America.
- ^ Grays Peak is the northernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Antero is the highest point of the southern Sawatch Range .
- ^ The summit elevation of Mount Evans includes a vertical offset of +1.798 m (5.9 ft) from the station benchmark.
- ^ The summit of Longs Peak is the highest point of the northern Front Range .
- ^ Longs Peak is the northernmost 14,000-foot (4267-meter) summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Wilson is the highest point of the San Miguel Mountains .
- ^ Mount Wilson is the westernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Wilson includes an adjustment of +1.899 m (6.23 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of White Mountain Peak is the highest point of the White Mountains .
- ^ The summit of North Palisade is the highest point of the Palisades .
- ^ The elevation of North Palisade includes an adjustment of +1.867 m (6.13 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Shasta is the highest point of the southern Cascade Range .
- ^ The summit of Mount Sneffels is the highest point of the Sneffels Range .
- ^ The elevation of Capitol Peak includes an adjustment of +1.991 m (6.53 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Pikes Peak is the easternmost 14,000-foot (4267-meter) summit and ultra-prominent summit of the Rocky Mountains . Pikes Peak was the inspiration for the lyrics of America the Beautiful .
- ^ The summit of Windom Peak is the highest point of the Needle Mountains .
- ^ Mount Eolus may be higher than Windom Peak .
- ^ The elevation of Windom Peak includes an adjustment of +1.785 m (5.86 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Culebra Peak is the highest point of the Culebra Range .
- ^ Culebra Peak is the southernmost 14,000-foot (4267-meter) summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Culebra Peak includes an adjustment of +1.74 m (5.71 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of San Luis Peak is the highest point of the La Garita Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount of the Holy Cross is the highest point of the northern Sawatch Range .
- ^ The summit elevation of Mount of the Holy Cross includes a vertical offset of +0.61 m (2 ft) from the station benchmark.
- ^ Nevado de Colima is the northernmost and westernmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of México .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Humphreys includes an adjustment of +1.842 m (6.04 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Keith includes an adjustment of +1.795 m (5.89 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Mount Strickland is the northernmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ The summit of Mount Ouray is the highest point of the far southern Sawatch Range .
- ^ The elevation of Vermilion Peak includes an adjustment of +1.827 m (5.99 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Avalanche Peak is the northernmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ The summit of Volcán Tajumulco is the highest point of the Sierra de las Nubes , San Marcos , and all of Republic of Guatemala .
- ^ Volcán Tajumulco is the southernmost and easternmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of greater North America.
- ^ The elevation of Mount Darwin includes an adjustment of +1.886 m (6.19 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Hayes is the highest point of the Hayes Range .
- ^ Mount Hayes is the northernmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of Alaska , the United States , and greater North America.
- ^ Cofre de Perote is the easternmost summit of its elevation in México .
- ^ The summit of Gannett Peak is the highest point of the Wind River Range , the U.S. State of Wyoming , and the central Rocky Mountains .
- ^ Gannett Peak is the northernmost and westernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Kaweah is the highest point of the Great Western Divide .
- ^ Mount Kaweah is the southernmost summit of its elevation in United States .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Kaweah includes an adjustment of +1.652 m (5.42 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Grand Teton is the highest point of the Teton Range .
- ^ Grand Teton is the northernmost and westernmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Gabb includes an adjustment of +1.958 m (6.42 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Bald Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.922 m (6.31 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Oso includes an adjustment of +1.776 m (5.83 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Tom includes an adjustment of +1.379 m (4.52 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Bard Peak includes an adjustment of +1.707 m (5.6 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ West Spanish Peak is the easternmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of the Rocky Mountains and the United States .
- ^ The elevation of West Spanish Peak includes an adjustment of +1.468 m (4.82 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Powell is the highest point of the Gore Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Powell includes an adjustment of +1.771 m (5.81 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Hagues Peak is the highest point of the Mummy Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Dubois includes an adjustment of +1.879 m (6.16 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Tower Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.796 m (5.89 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Treasure Mountain includes an adjustment of +2.008 m (6.59 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Kings Peak is the highest point of the Uinta Mountains , the U.S. State of Utah , and the western Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Kings Peak includes an adjustment of +1.807 m (5.93 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of North Arapaho Peak is the highest point of the Indian Peaks .
- ^ The elevation of North Arapaho Peak includes an adjustment of +1.763 m (5.78 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Pinchot includes an adjustment of +1.81 m (5.94 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Parry Peak includes an adjustment of +1.763 m (5.78 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Bill Williams Peak is the highest point of the Williams Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Bill Williams Peak includes an adjustment of +2.044 m (6.71 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Sultan Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.649 m (5.41 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Herard includes an adjustment of +1.64 m (5.38 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Volcán Tacaná on the international border with Guatemala is the highest point of Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas .
- ^ The elevation of West Buffalo Peak includes an adjustment of +1.834 m (6.02 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Mount Craig is the northernmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of Canada .
- ^ The summit of Summit Peak is the highest point of the southern San Juan Mountains .
- ^ Dolores Peak may be higher than Middle Peak .
- ^ The elevation of Middle Peak includes an adjustment of +1.809 m (5.94 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Antora Peak includes an adjustment of +1.883 m (6.18 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Henry Mountain includes an adjustment of +2.037 m (6.68 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Hesperus Mountain is the highest point of the La Plata Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Hesperus Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.65 m (5.41 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Jacque Peak includes an adjustment of +1.866 m (6.12 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Bennett Peak includes an adjustment of +1.782 m (5.85 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Wind River Peak is the highest point of the southern Wind River Range .
- ^ The summit of Mount Waddington is the highest point of the Coast Mountains .
- ^ Mount Waddington is the southernmost and easternmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of Canada .
- ^ The summit of Mount Marcus Baker is the highest point of the Chugach Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Cloud Peak is the highest point of the Bighorn Mountains .
- ^ Cloud Peak is the northernmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Wheeler Peak is the highest point of the Taos Mountains and the U.S. State of New Mexico .
- ^ Wheeler Peak is the southernmost 4000-meter (13,123-foot) summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Francs Peak is the highest point of the Absaroka Range .
- ^ The summit of Twilight Peak is the highest point of the West Needle Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Twilight Peak includes an adjustment of +1.537 m (5.04 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Ritter is the highest point of the Ritter Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Ritter includes an adjustment of +1.786 m (5.86 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Red Slate Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.893 m (6.21 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Truchas Peak is the highest point of the Santa Fe Mountains .
- ^ Truchas Peak is the southernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Wheeler Peak is the highest point of the Snake Range .
- ^ The summit of West Elk Peak is the highest point of the West Elk Mountains .
- ^ Volcán Acatenango is the southernmost and easternmost summit of its elevation in Central America and greater North America.
- ^ The elevation of Mount Centennial includes an adjustment of +1.814 m (5.95 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Robson is the highest point of the Canadian Rockies .
- ^ Mount Robson is the easternmost summit of its elevation in Canada and the northernmost and westernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Clark Peak is the highest point of the Medicine Bow Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Richthofen is the highest point of the Never Summer Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Richthofen includes an adjustment of +1.658 m (5.44 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Cerro Ajusco is the highest point of Distrito Federal de México .
- ^ The summit of Lizard Head Peak is the highest point of the Cirque of the Towers .
- ^ The elevation of Lizard Head Peak includes an adjustment of +1.572 m (5.16 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Granite Peak is the highest point of the Beartooth Mountains and the U.S. State of Montana .
- ^ The elevation of Venado Peak includes an adjustment of +1.65 m (5.41 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Peale is the highest point of the La Sal Mountains and the Colorado Plateau .
- ^ East Spanish Peak is the easternmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit of the Rocky Mountains and the United States .
- ^ The elevation of East Spanish Peak includes an adjustment of +1.372 m (4.5 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Borah Peak is the highest point of the Lost River Range and the U.S. State of Idaho .
- ^ The summit of Mount Wood is the highest point of the Granite Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Wood includes an adjustment of +1.516 m (4.97 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Humphreys Peak is the highest point of the San Francisco Peaks and the U.S. State of Arizona .
- ^ The elevation of Humphreys Peak includes an adjustment of +1.345 m (4.41 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Santa Fe Baldy is the southernmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Gothic Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.936 m (6.35 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Alto Cuchumatanes is the northernmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit of Central America .
- ^ Volcán de Colima on the border of Jalisco is the highest point of Estado Libre y Soberano de Colima and the westernmost summit of its elevation in México .
- ^ The elevation of Needham Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.602 m (5.26 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Chirripó Grande is the highest point of the Republic of Costa Rica .
- ^ Chirripó Grande is the southernmost and easternmost summit of its elevation in Central America and greater North America.
- ^ The elevation of Atlantic Peak includes an adjustment of +1.521 m (4.99 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Specimen Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.614 m (5.3 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Baldy Mountain is the highest point of the Cimarron Range .
- ^ The summit of Knobby Crest is the highest point of the Kenosha Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Knobby Crest includes an adjustment of +1.595 m (5.23 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Bison Peak is the highest point of the Tarryall Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Matchless Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.941 m (6.37 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Flat Top Mountain is the highest point of the Flat Tops .
- ^ The summit of Greenhorn Mountain is the highest point of the Wet Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Elliott Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.709 m (5.61 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Mount Deborah is the northernmost summit of its elevation in Alaska , the United States , and greater North America.
- ^ The elevation of Twin Peaks includes an adjustment of +1.717 m (5.63 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Parkview Mountain is the highest point of the Rabbit Ears Range .
- ^ The elevation of Cornwall Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.715 m (5.63 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Trout Peak is the highest point of the central Absaroka Range .
- ^ North Twin Peak is the easternmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ Cerro San Rafael is the northernmost summit of its elevation in México .
- ^ The summit of Diamond Peak is the highest point of the Lemhi Range .
- ^ The summit of Mount Zirkel is the highest point of the Park Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Zirkel includes an adjustment of +1.632 m (5.35 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Delano Peak is the highest point of the Tushar Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Crested Butte includes an adjustment of +1.94 m (6.36 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Olancha Peak is the highest point of the southern Sierra Nevada .
- ^ The summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld is the highest point of the Island of Greenland , Kalaallit Nunaat , the Kingdom of Denmark , and the entire Arctic .
- ^ Gunnbjørn Fjeld is the easternmost summit of its elevation in greater North America.
- ^ The elevation of Park Cone includes an adjustment of +1.873 m (6.15 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Ibapah Peak is the highest point of the Deep Creek Range .
- ^ The elevation of Ibapah Peak includes an adjustment of +1.517 m (4.98 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Glover Peak includes an adjustment of +1.609 m (5.28 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Clemenceau is the highest point of the Clémenceau Icefield .
- ^ The summit of Medicine Bow Peak is the highest point of the Snowy Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Zwischen includes an adjustment of +1.481 m (4.86 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Sierra Blanca Peak is the highest point of the Sacramento Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Jefferson is the highest point of the Toquima Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Jefferson includes an adjustment of +1.666 m (5.47 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Hess Mountain is the northernmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit of Alaska and the United States .
- ^ The summit of Cerro Vista is the highest point of the southern Sangre de Cristo Range .
- ^ The summit of Mount Nebo is the highest point of the Wasatch Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Nebo includes an adjustment of +1.395 m (4.58 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Charleston Peak is the highest point of the Spring Mountains .
- ^ The summit of North Schell Peak is the highest point of the Schell Creek Range .
- ^ The summit of Mount Alberta is the highest point of the Winston Churchill Range .
- ^ The summit of Mount Forbes is the highest point of the entire Hudson Bay drainage basin .
- ^ Mount Forbes is the easternmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ Mount Assiniboine is the southernmost and easternmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ The elevation of Huntsman Ridge includes an adjustment of +1.711 m (5.61 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Castle Peak is the highest point of the White Cloud Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Arc Dome is the highest point of the Toiyabe Range .
- ^ The elevation of Arc Dome includes an adjustment of +1.665 m (5.46 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Timpanogos is the highest point of the central Wasatch Range .
- ^ The summit of Waugh Mountain is the highest point of the South Park Hills .
- ^ The elevation of Waugh Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.702 m (5.58 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Coal Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.625 m (5.33 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Goodsir is the highest point of the Ottertail Range .
- ^ The summit of Mount Patterson is the highest point of the Sweetwater Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Patterson includes an adjustment of +1.734 m (5.69 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Mount Russell is the westernmost summit of its elevation in Alaska and greater North America.
- ^ The summit of Monarch Mountain is the highest point of the Monarch Icefield .
- ^ The elevation of Black Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.631 m (5.35 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Cerro Teotepec is the highest point of Estado Libre y Soberano de Guerrero .
- ^ The summit of Mount Temple is the highest point of the Bow Range .
- ^ The elevation of Puma Peak includes an adjustment of +1.513 m (4.96 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Mestas includes an adjustment of +1.372 m (4.5 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Chicoma Mountain is the highest point of the Jemez Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Thirtynine Mile Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.584 m (5.2 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Sir Sandford is the highest point of the Columbia Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Sir Wilfrid Laurier is the highest point of the Cariboo Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Ellen is the highest point of the Henry Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Ellen includes an adjustment of +1.486 m (4.88 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Currant Mountain is the highest point of the White Pine Range .
- ^ The summit of San Gorgonio Mountain is the highest point of the San Bernardino Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of San Gorgonio Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.303 m (4.27 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Tomichi Dome includes an adjustment of +1.693 m (5.55 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Blair Mountain is the highest point of the White River Plateau .
- ^ The elevation of Blair Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.565 m (5.13 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Farnham is the highest point of the Purcell Mountains .
- ^ Mount Farnham is the southernmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ The elevation of Twin Sisters Peaks includes an adjustment of +1.388 m (4.55 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Wyoming Peak is the highest point of the Wyoming Range .
- ^ The elevation of Iron Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.436 m (4.71 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Torbert is the highest point of the Tordrillo Mountains .
- ^ Mount Torbert is the westernmost summit of its elevation in Alaska and greater North America.
- ^ The summit of Mount Baldy is the highest point of the White Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Volcán Barú is the highest point of the Republic of Panama .
- ^ Volcán Barú is the southernmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit of Central America and greater North America.
- ^ The summit of Ruby Dome is the highest point of the Ruby Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Ruby Dome includes an adjustment of +1.429 m (4.69 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Abajo Peak is the highest point of the Abajo Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Marcellina Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.658 m (5.44 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Crater Peak is the highest point of Grand Mesa .
- ^ The summit of Hilgard Peak is the highest point of the Madison Range .
- ^ The elevation of Hilgard Peak includes an adjustment of +1.49 m (4.89 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Cerro El Jabalín is the highest point of the Mexican Plateau .
- ^ The summit of Brian Head is the highest point of the Markagunt Plateau .
- ^ The elevation of Brian Head includes an adjustment of +1.556 m (5.1 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Hole in the Mountain Peak is the highest point of the eastern Humboldt Range .
- ^ The elevation of Hole in the Mountain Peak includes an adjustment of +1.457 m (4.78 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Taylor is the highest point of the northern San Mateo Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Castle Peak includes an adjustment of +1.575 m (5.17 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Troy Peak is the highest point of the Grant Range .
- ^ The summit of South Tent Mountain is the highest point of the Wasatch Plateau .
- ^ Mount Joffre is the easternmost summit of its elevation in Canada .
- ^ The summit of Mount Hood is the highest point of the Oregon Cascades and the U.S. State of Oregon .
- ^ The summit of Crazy Peak is the highest point of the Crazy Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Crazy Peak includes an adjustment of +1.421 m (4.66 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Hardscrabble Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.612 m (5.29 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Tweedy Mountain is the highest point of the Pioneer Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Tweedy Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.598 m (5.24 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Whitehorn Mountain is the northernmost and westernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Cochetopa Dome includes an adjustment of +1.804 m (5.92 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Waucoba Mountain is the highest point of the Inyo Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Glass Mountain is the highest point of the Glass Mountain Ridge .
- ^ Mont Forel is the southernmost and westernmost summit of its elevation in Greenland .
- ^ The elevation of Keynot Peak includes an adjustment of +1.347 m (4.42 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Telescope Peak is the highest point of the Panamint Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mammoth Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.766 m (5.79 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Deseret Peak is the highest point of the Stansbury Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Fryatt is the highest point of the Hooker Icefield .
- ^ The elevation of Laramie Mountains High Point includes an adjustment of +1.415 m (4.64 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Mount Harrison is the southernmost and easternmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit of Canada .
- ^ Cerro Gordo is the westernmost summit of its elevation in México .
- ^ Ejnar Mikkelsen Fjeld is the easternmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit of Greenland and greater North America.
- ^ The summit of Freel Peak is the highest point of the Carson Range .
- ^ The summit of Sand Mountain North is the highest point of the Elkhead Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Sand Mountain North includes an adjustment of +1.502 m (4.93 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Mount Chown is the northernmost and westernmost summit of its elevation in the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Black Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.537 m (5.04 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Cerro Mohinora is the highest point of Estado Libre y Soberano de Chihuahua .
- ^ Cerro Mohinora is the northernmost and westernmost summit of its elevation in México .
- ^ The elevation of Sleepy Cat Peak includes an adjustment of +1.471 m (4.83 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Matterhorn is the highest point of the Jarbidge Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Matterhorn includes an adjustment of +1.429 m (4.69 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of San Jacinto Peak is the highest point of the San Jacinto Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Queen Bess is the highest point of the Homathko Icefield .
- ^ The summit of West Goat Peak is the highest point of the Anaconda Range .
- ^ The elevation of West Goat Peak includes an adjustment of +1.52 m (4.99 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of South Baldy is the highest point of the Magdalena Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Baker is the highest point of the northern Cascade Range .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Baker includes an adjustment of +1.43 m (4.69 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Sir Donald is the highest point of the Sir Donald Range .
- ^ The summit of Thompson Peak is the highest point of the Sawtooth Range .
- ^ The summit of Mount Miller is the highest point of Barkley Ridge .
- ^ Mount Sir Alexander is the northernmost and westernmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit and ultra-prominent summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Monashee is the highest point of the Monashee Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Graham is the highest point of the Pinaleño Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Pilot Peak is the highest point of the Pilot Range .
- ^ The summit of Good Hope Mountain is the highest point of the Bugaboos .
- ^ The summit of Homer Youngs Peak is the highest point of the West Big Hole Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Homer Youngs Peak includes an adjustment of +1.483 m (4.87 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Flat Top Mountain is the highest point of the Oquirrh Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Flat Top Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.329 m (4.36 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The apex of the Greenland Ice Sheet is the northernmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit of Greenland and greater North America.
- ^ The summit of Hollowtop Mountain is the highest point of the Tobacco Root Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Hollowtop Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.486 m (4.88 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Sunset Peak is the highest point of the Snowcrest Range .
- ^ The elevation of Sunset Peak includes an adjustment of +1.553 m (5.1 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The elevation of Glacier Peak includes an adjustment of +1.492 m (4.9 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Mount Steller is the highest point of Waxell Ridge .
- ^ The elevation of Mount Jefferson includes an adjustment of +1.388 m (4.55 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ Mount Ida is the northernmost 3000-meter (9843-foot) summit and ultra-prominent summit of the Rocky Mountains .
- ^ The summit of Mount Cleveland is the highest point of the Lewis Range .
- ^ The summit of Razorback Mountain is the highest point of the Niut Range .
- ^ The summit of Monmouth Mountain is the highest point of the Lillooet Icefield .
- ^ The summit of Mount Kimball is the highest point of the Delta Range .
- ^ The summit of Cache Peak is the highest point of the Albion Range .
- ^ The elevation of Columbus Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.378 m (4.52 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Table Mountain is the highest point of the Highland Mountains .
- ^ The elevation of Table Mountain includes an adjustment of +1.467 m (4.81 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Redoubt Volcano is the highest point of the Chigmit Mountains .
- ^ Redoubt Volcano is the westernmost summit of its elevation in Alaska and greater North America.
- ^ The elevation of Mount Regan (Idaho) includes an adjustment of +1.587 m (5.21 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- ^ The summit of Pico Duarte is the highest point of the Dominican Republic , the Island of Hispaniola , and all islands of the Caribbean Sea .
- ^ The summit of Trapper Peak is the highest point of the central Bitterroot Range .
- ^ The elevation of Trapper Peak includes an adjustment of +1.367 m (4.48 ft) from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 .
- a b If the elevation or prominence of a summit is calculated as a range of values, the arithmetic mean is shown.
- ^ The topographic prominence of a summit is the topographic elevation difference between the summit and its highest or key col to a higher summit . The summit may be near its key col or quite far away. The key col for Denali in Alaska is the Isthmus of Rivas in Nicaragua , 7642 kilometers (4749 miles) away.
- ^ The topographic isolation of a summit is the great-circle distance to its nearest point of equal elevation.
- ^ 1:250,000 Sheet "Mc Carthy, Alaska", US Geological Survey, 1960
- ^ 1:63,360 Sheet "Mc Carthy (B-2), Alaska", US Geological Survey, 1959
- ^ 1:250,000 Sheet 115G & 115F, "Kluane Lake", Department of Mines and Technical Surveys (Canada), 1961
- ^ 1:50,000 Sheet 115F/1, "Mount Steele", Department of Energy, Mines and Resources (Canada), 1987
- ^ "WHITNEY" . Datasheet for NGS Station GT1811 . U.S. National Geodetic Survey . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_highest_major_summits_of_North_America | 5 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | The Walking Dead: Merle’s Death Was Last Minute Decision | During Season 3 of The Walking Dead , one of the most shocking episodes was the "This Sorrow Life" episode, where Michael Rooker 's character Merle Dixon was killed off. While appearing at the Walker Stalker Con this past weekend, Walking Dead executive producer and director Greg Nicotero revealed that Merle Dixon's death in Season 3 was a last minute decision. "The trick with Michael [Rooker] was that him dying was sort of a last minute thing. Like, it wasn't planned out at the beginning of the season. As we were going, it was like, 'God, we love this character, and he's so great.' And, then I was directing that episode, and they called and were like, 'Ok, so Merle's going to die.' And I went, 'Oh, my god, are you kidding me? Really? I killed Dale. Now, I have to kill Merle." Nicotero added, "And I was just like, 'Oh, Rooker is just going to just beat the crap out of me one day.' I was like, 'Hey, my door bell will ring, and it will be like in Repo Man, he'll beat the s*** out of me." In regards to the scene where Daryl discovered his brother Merle was a walker, Nicotero said, "It was an easy scene for me to direct because Norman's performance was so spot on that I got emails from people, 'You made cry, man. That was bulls***.' I just forwarded them on to Norman. It wasn't me. It was him." | https://comicbook.com/popculturenow/news/the-walking-dead-merles-death-was-last-minute-decision/ | 6 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | The Walking Dead: Michael Rooker Claims Merle Dixon Was Killed Off Because AMC Was 'Cheap' | It's been several years since Michael Rooker played Merle Dixon on The Walking Dead.
The character was killed off on The Walking Dead Season 3 Episode 15 , and the actor has opened up about his thoughts on being written out of the AMC hit.
Rooker has suggested that the exit was down to financial reasons, according to CBR .
While attending a panel at Wales Comic Con, Rooker got straight to the point about how he was feeling about the way his character was written out.
"I don’t prefer either. I made more money on Guardians [of the Galaxy]," Rooker said of his role as Yond," before turning his attention to The Walking Dead and AMC.
"Walking Dead, they were cheap. AMC was very cheap," he said, adding, "That’s probably why they killed me off, because they knew I was gonna get more money the next season."
It's not uncommon for characters to be written out of TV shows, and The Walking Dead has said goodbye to several beloved characters over the years.
However, it is uncommon for actors to call network executives "cheap." The Walking Dead is a global phenomenon that has been on the air for almost a decade, and has spawned spinoffs, movies, and other tie-ins.
If you watch The Walking Dead online , you know Rooker played the brother of Daryl Dixon (Norman Reedus). Merle was left on a roof to die during The Walking Dead Season 1 .
However, the character popped back up on The Walking Dead Season 3 , and the show revealed that he was working with the Governor (David Morrissey).
Daryl wanted his brother to help his group against the Governor, but it was always difficult to tell who he was truly working with.
The Governor ultimately murdered Merle, but Daryl was tasked with putting his brother down when he became a zombie.
AMC has yet to respond to the claims, but given that the actor has not been on the show for years, there's a good chance the network will not comment on it.
The Walking Dead is currently airing its 10th season on AMC, and has already been renewed for an 11th.
What are your thoughts on this news?
Would you like if Merle was on the show for longer, or do you think his storyline reached a natural conclusion?
Hit the comments below.
And we sure would appreciate a follow of our new Twitter account as we work to rebuild our audience! | https://www.tvfanatic.com/2020/01/the-walking-dead-michael-rooker-claims-merle-dixon-was-killed-of/ | 6 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | 'The Walking Dead': Michael Rooker on the death of Merle Dixon | The most shocking thing about Sunday's episode of The Walking Dead was not that Merle Dixon died, but that we actually felt kinda sorry for him when he did. Not only was Merle killed by the Governor in a last heroic act of redemption, but he then came back as a zombie and had to be killed again by his on-screen brother Daryl in a truly heartbreaking scene. However, the man who plays Merle, Michael Rooker, insists that was not the most powerful scene of his final episode. I spoke with Rooker, who talks about the scene with Norman Reedus that he is most proud of, his unique (and very Rooker-esque) reaction upon learning his character was going to die, and his thoughts on playing zombie Merle.
ENTERTAINMENT WEEKLY: Tell me how you first learned the news of Merle's demise. Did showrunner Glen Mazzara call you up and break it to you?
MICHAEL ROOKER: Yeah, it was a phone call. But we were in the middle of switching episodes so I ended up having about two weeks notice as opposed to a week notice. I've heard some people get less than that, so I considered myself quite fortunate.
EW: What was your reaction when you got the news?
ROOKER: You really want to know my real reaction?
EW: Give it to me.
ROOKER: My honest to God true reaction was THANK F—ING GOD I DON'T HAVE TO WEAR THAT STUPID F—ING ARM ANY MORE! THERE! PRINT THAT S—! Oh my God, I was so tired of wearing that thing. I was like, oh, God, not another season of wearing this thing. I'm going to go crazy!
EW: Did you like the way Merle got his own brand of twisted redemption before his untimely demise?
ROOKER: Indeed, I did. I was very happy. I had a lot to say about it and we had a big meeting with Glen and the writer of the episode [new showrunner Scott Gimple] and we sort of worked it out. And then, of course, whenever you think you've worked something out, you really haven't, so there's always these things that happen on set where you're like, "Well, no, we talked about it being this way!" So it was fun, exciting, exhilarating, and I had a great time. It was a lot of physical action. I did my own stunt. I rolled out of the car myself. I just wanted to make sure everything was done right. Like Merle, Michael Rooker is about if it's done right, it's me doing it. That's just the way it is. If you got a stuntman that can do it better than me, go do it. But if they can't do it better than me, I'm doing it myself — plain and simple.
EW: To be clear, Merle did not see this as a suicide mission, right? He wanted to take out the Governor and as many of his men as possible, but he wasn't hoping to die in the process.
ROOKER: My character understood quite clearly that this could all go south pretty quickly, but that did not stop him. This was a mission that was thought out and concocted in his head. He was going to use Michonne as the bait to go in and do damage to the Governor. Like the Governor was basically going to use Michonne as bait to take out whoever brought her in — very similar thinking in that regard. But everything else is completely different. The reason behind making that choice to do it was Merle's payback and Merle's spark of redemption, and also a way of trying to keep his brother alive and safe. The idea was to go in and take out as many of the Governor's men, and the Governor if possible, and make an exit. Of course, I made an exit, but it was not the exit that Merle had hoped. But that's just the way it is. Merle was willing to make that ultimate sacrifice for his brother.
EW: You just could not cut a break on this show when it came to your hands. First you had to chop one off, and now the Governor makes a meal of your other one. Tell me about that scene and the prosthetic fingers you had to wear for that.
ROOKER: The poor guy, David Morrissey, was so concerned with germs and dirt and cleaning everything and the fingers and all this kind of stuff, and within a take or two, he was like "Aw, s— just put it on. Let's do it." He didn't care anymore. Although the room where we did this was really, really, really dirty and filthy and I had them clean that three or four times. But we got through it and it ended up a great sequence.
EW: How'd you enjoy getting to see how the other side lives by playing zombie Merle?
ROOKER: Dude, all I can say is, I'm glad a dead zombie now, because I wouldn't want to do that everyday. Trust me. No, not a fun time.
EW: I played a zombie on the show so I know a little something about that transformation process. Did the zombie contact lenses suck as much for you as they did for me?
ROOKER: You know what? That didn't bother me at all, I thought the contact lenses would really bother me, but once they got 'em in I was okay. I really thought that would be the thing that broke the camel's back, but it ended up being okay for me.
EW: So then what didn't you like about being zombie Merle?
ROOKER: I just didn't like being zombie Merle! But they did a good job. It was an interesting process, took about two-and-a-half hours or so.
EW: Tell me about that last scene with Norman Reedus, which was one of the most emotional scenes ever on this show.
ROOKER: Well, that is a scene that is quite emotional, but I'll tell you about another scene that is even more emotional that everybody is missing because that last scene has all the candy and all the hoopla. But that first moment where Daryl is going through the prison and finds me — you go back and you watch that scene! That scene is a f—ing killer scene. That scene is better than the demise of Merle scene. Go and look at Norman's face, look at my face, and I dare you to say that is not a better scene. It is a much better scene, much better dialogue — well, there's no dialogue in the other one. Don't get me wrong: The end sequence is phenomenal and it is awesome. But it does not compare to the other one where they choose not to weep. Weeping and that kind of emotional stuff is okay, you know, but I'd rather see them fight not to do that. Go back and you will see both actors — myself and Norman — are kicking f—ing ass in that scene!
EW: What was it like saying goodbye to everyone in the cast after it was all done?
ROOKER: Actors are actors. They're all buddies. I've done so many movies and TV that you get to be friends with everyone. And the ones you don't get to be friends with, you simply don't work together with them again. But the ones on The Walking Dead where you become friends like that and the show lasts quite a long time — you get to know everybody's little nuances: what bugs them, what doesn't bug them. I think everyone is very respectful of everybody's space and they get along pretty well so far. I'll give them another season before they're ripping each other's heads off.
For more 'Walking Dead' news, follow Dalton on Twitter @DaltonRoss
More Walking Dead : | https://ew.com/article/2013/03/27/the-walking-dead-michael-rooker-merle-death/ | 6 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | When does Merle die in The Walking Dead? | Michael Rooker portrayed Merle Dixon in The Walking Dead series. This character is one of many created for the series that doesn’t have a comic book counterpart. He was the brother of Daryl Dixon (Norman Reedus), who still survives in the series.
Upon the first introduction of Merle Dixon, fans knew he was trouble. From the racial slurs to violent tendencies, it was obvious he would cause problems for the group. He is first seen on a rooftop in Atlanta, shooting off bullets for no apparent reason.
Despite his significant faults, he was deadly with a firearm, an expert tracker and hunter, and someone you wanted on your side in a fight.
In season one, Merle was left on a roof in Atlanta handcuffed to a pipe. The keys had been dropped, and with a walker horde coming down on them, the rest of the group had to make their escape. When his brother Daryl found out about this, he demanded they return to rescue him. When they arrived, they found out that he had cut his hand off with a hacksaw.
It was assumed that he would die from the wound, but Daryl told them, “Aint nobody who can kill Merle but Merle.”
This would prove true as he reappears in the season 3 episode “Walk With Me.” He is sporting a new knife-hand apparatus and is a soldier in the Governer’s army. This is when he reunites with Andrea, and they are both shocked to see the other alive.
He would eventually join the group at the prison to be with his brother. No one wants him there because he almost killed Michonne and other things he did while under the orders of the Governor, but for Daryl’s sake, they tolerate it.
In the season three episode, “This Sorrowful Life,” he redeems himself. He was supposed to give up Michonne to the Governor so he would leave the prison alone, a deal Rick arranged. But instead, he let Michonne go and went to the meeting point to kill the Governer. Instead, the Governer got the upper hand and killed Merle with a shot to the chest, sealing his fate of becoming a walker.
Daryl would be the one to find his brother’s reanimated corpse. When the walker version of Merle attacks, Daryl stabs him multiple times out of rage and tearfully breaks down at losing his last remaining family member.
Some interesting trivia regarding Merle:
- He is the first amputee of the series.
- He was the second main character to become a walker after Shane.
- Rooker lost 28 pounds to prepare for his season 3 return.
- The first episode the Dixon brothers were featured together in was “Made to Suffer.”
Check out these cool behind-the-scenes photos of Rooker’s transformation into Walker Merle.
Follow Undead Walking on Twitter and sign up for the once-daily Undead Walking newsletter to avoid missing out on all things in The Walking Dead universe. | https://undeadwalking.com/2022/03/30/merle-die-walking-dead/ | 6 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | When does Merle die in The Walking Dead? | Michael Rooker portrayed Merle Dixon in The Walking Dead series. This character is one of many created for the series that doesn’t have a comic book counterpart. He was the brother of Daryl Dixon (Norman Reedus), who still survives in the series.
Upon the first introduction of Merle Dixon, fans knew he was trouble. From the racial slurs to violent tendencies, it was obvious he would cause problems for the group. He is first seen on a rooftop in Atlanta, shooting off bullets for no apparent reason.
Despite his significant faults, he was deadly with a firearm, an expert tracker and hunter, and someone you wanted on your side in a fight.
In season one, Merle was left on a roof in Atlanta handcuffed to a pipe. The keys had been dropped, and with a walker horde coming down on them, the rest of the group had to make their escape. When his brother Daryl found out about this, he demanded they return to rescue him. When they arrived, they found out that he had cut his hand off with a hacksaw.
It was assumed that he would die from the wound, but Daryl told them, “Aint nobody who can kill Merle but Merle.”
This would prove true as he reappears in the season 3 episode “Walk With Me.” He is sporting a new knife-hand apparatus and is a soldier in the Governer’s army. This is when he reunites with Andrea, and they are both shocked to see the other alive.
He would eventually join the group at the prison to be with his brother. No one wants him there because he almost killed Michonne and other things he did while under the orders of the Governor, but for Daryl’s sake, they tolerate it.
In the season three episode, “This Sorrowful Life,” he redeems himself. He was supposed to give up Michonne to the Governor so he would leave the prison alone, a deal Rick arranged. But instead, he let Michonne go and went to the meeting point to kill the Governer. Instead, the Governer got the upper hand and killed Merle with a shot to the chest, sealing his fate of becoming a walker.
Daryl would be the one to find his brother’s reanimated corpse. When the walker version of Merle attacks, Daryl stabs him multiple times out of rage and tearfully breaks down at losing his last remaining family member.
Some interesting trivia regarding Merle:
- He is the first amputee of the series.
- He was the second main character to become a walker after Shane.
- Rooker lost 28 pounds to prepare for his season 3 return.
- The first episode the Dixon brothers were featured together in was “Made to Suffer.”
Check out these cool behind-the-scenes photos of Rooker’s transformation into Walker Merle.
Follow Undead Walking on Twitter and sign up for the once-daily Undead Walking newsletter to avoid missing out on all things in The Walking Dead universe. | https://undeadwalking.com/2022/03/30/merle-die-walking-dead/ | 6 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | Merle Dixon - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Merle Dixon|
|The Walking Dead character|
|First appearance||" Guts " (2010)|
|Last appearance||" This Sorrowful Life " (2013)|
|Created by||Frank Darabont|
|Portrayed by||Michael Rooker|
|Voiced by|| Michael Rooker |
( Survival Instinct )
|In-universe information|
|Occupation|
|Family|
Merle Dixon is a fictional character from the horror drama television series The Walking Dead , which airs on AMC in the United States. He was created by series developer Frank Darabont and was portrayed by Michael Rooker . The character was first introduced in the first season as a Southern redneck hunter who has a younger brother, Daryl . He is misogynistic and racist , [1] [2] which causes tensions between him and his group of survivors. Following an encounter with series protagonist Rick Grimes , Merle disappears and joins the community of Woodbury, Georgia , where he becomes the right-hand man of The Governor . He becomes caught in the conflict between the Governor and Rick, especially when nobody in Rick's group wants him in the group, except for Daryl.
The character's introduction garnered negative reviews from professional critics, but fan response was positive. When the character reappears in the third season , reviewers began to have more favorable views towards him. Merle is an original character in the television series and shares no counterpart in the comic books. He is also a main character in the 2013 video game The Walking Dead: Survival Instinct , which focuses on him and Daryl during the early days of the zombie apocalypse . [3] Rooker made guest appearances as Merle in the series' first and second seasons, before he was upgraded to a series regular for the third season, where he lost a significant amount of weight in preparation for the role. Rooker was among the cast members who were awarded the Satellite Award for Best Cast – Television Series in 2012.
Merle is the older brother of Daryl Dixon . Having no mother and a neglectful and abusive father, Merle raised Daryl when not incarcerated in juvenile detention. Though the length of time and military occupational specialty are not stated, Merle served in the United States Marine Corps , where at some point he mouthed off to a non-commissioned officer and subsequently punched five of his teeth out. According to Shane and Daryl , Merle was a drug dealer before the outbreak. He is also shown to have been a drug user (e.g., in " Guts " and " This Sorrowful Life ").
Merle first appears in the episode " Guts ", along with a group of survivors who had traveled into Atlanta to scavenge for supplies. While atop a department store roof, Merle begins firing a rifle at walkers on the street while the group demands that he stop. Merle insults T-Dog ( IronE Singleton ) with a racist slur, and subsequently beats T-Dog in a brief, intense fight. [4] After momentarily announcing himself leader of the group, Merle is blind-sided by Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ), who punches him and handcuffs him to a pipe before Merle can fight back. Merle is put under T-Dog's watch while the other survivors attempt to find a way out of the city. When the survivors do find a way out, T-Dog attempts to save Merle, but accidentally drops the handcuff keys into a vent; this forces him to abandon Merle on the roof. Before T-Dog flees, he chains the rooftop door shut to prevent walkers from getting Merle.
In the next episode " Tell It to the Frogs ", as walkers begin to invade the building and reach the chained rooftop door, Merle struggles until he notices a hacksaw by the spilled toolbox the others had left behind. He uses his belt to reach the hacksaw and ultimately cuts off his own hand to escape, as the hacksaw blade was too dull to cut through the handcuffs. Rick and the group return to the camp and explain to Daryl that they abandoned Merle. Daryl, T-Dog, Rick and Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) decide to return to Atlanta to retrieve him as well as a bag of weapons Rick dropped downtown. Returning to the department store roof, the four see that Merle has severed his own hand with a dull hacksaw. In the next episode " Vatos ", the four find evidence that Merle survived the self-mutilation by cauterizing the wound. They follow Merle's blood-trail through the department store but are unable to find him. Back outside, they discover their truck has been taken. Rick feels that the truck might have been stolen by Merle during his escape.
Merle remains missing throughout the second season. He only appears in the episode " Chupacabra ", wherein Merle taunts and mocks Daryl in a hallucination for giving up on searching for him and reminds Daryl that he is in a group that had left Merle for dead on the rooftop. Merle also berates Daryl for a perceived weakness that Merle blames on the time Daryl has spent with the group.
In the episode " Walk with Me ", Merle is found to be living in Woodbury , where he has earned the status of the Governor 's right-hand man. He has fashioned a knife attachment onto the stump where his hand used to be. He has been hoping to find his brother, Daryl, since his own separation from the group. While investigating an incident involving a crashed helicopter, Merle and a group of survivors from Woodbury encounter Michonne and fellow Atlanta survivor Andrea , and bring them back to Woodbury, along with the sole survivor of the helicopter crash. In the episode " Killer Within ", Andrea gives Merle directions to the last location where she had seen Daryl.
Merle is noticeably kept in line by the Governor, a sharp contrast to his nature in the Atlanta group. In the episode " Hounded ", Merle allows Michonne to leave Woodbury at the Governor's orders, but in the next episode, " Say the Word ", the Governor sends Merle to lead a posse to hunt down Michonne. He wounds her and she kills members of the posse, but when Michonne escapes into the red zone, Merle calls off the hunt, reporting to the Governor that he killed her. Later on, Merle runs into Glenn and Maggie from the Atlanta group. He asks them to take him to Daryl. They refuse, so he holds Maggie hostage and demands Glenn drive them to Woodbury. In the episode " When the Dead Come Knocking ", Merle unsuccessfully tortures Glenn to obtain the location of the group, including beating Glenn and leaving him locked in a room with a walker and tied to a chair. In the episode " Made to Suffer ", Rick's group infiltrates Woodbury and rescues Glenn and Maggie, Michonne attacks the Governor; furious at losing an eye and his reanimated daughter to a woman Merle reported as dead, he publicly accuses Merle of treason and reveals that he has captured Daryl. In the episode " The Suicide King ", the Governor orders Merle and Daryl to fight to the death, but they are saved by Rick and Maggie, who attack Woodbury. When Merle begins to insult the group, Rick knocks him out. Rick's group decides not to include Merle because of his attitude and his transgressions against Maggie and Glenn, but Daryl opts to leave the group to join Merle, refusing to leave his brother behind again.
Merle and Daryl spend time fending for themselves in the woods. In the episode " Home ", they come across a family being attacked by walkers and Merle half-heartedly assists in Daryl's efforts to rescue them. Merle then attempts to rob them, but Daryl points his crossbow at him and lets the family drive off before walking off on his own. Merle follows and they get into a physical confrontation, where the depth of their father's abuse is shown when Merle inadvertently exposes scars on Daryl's back. Merle realizes that his leaving home resulted in Daryl becoming the target of their father's abuse. It is also revealed that the brothers had originally planned to rob the Atlanta group. Daryl then leaves to go back to the prison, despite Merle's claims that the group will never accept him. The brothers arrive at the prison at the tail-end of an assault by the Governor and his men, who have crashed a truck through the prison gate and unleashed a horde of walkers onto the prison grounds. Merle and Daryl save Rick from attacking walkers.
In the episode " I Ain't a Judas ", Merle is promptly locked inside a prison cell, where he shares what he knows about Woodbury and the Governor with the group. He bonds with Hershel and apologizes to Michonne, claiming his attack on her was simply following the Governor's orders. Later, Merle, hearing Beth's singing, walks into the cell block where he and Rick share an antagonizing look from across the room. In the episode " Arrow on the Doorpost ", Merle unsuccessfully tries to get the prison group to attack the Governor after fighting Glenn. He later tries to get Michonne to join him with his mission.
In the penultimate season three episode " This Sorrowful Life ", Rick confides in Merle, Daryl, and Hershel that the Governor promises to leave the prison alone if they hand over Michonne. Rick plans to do as the Governor requests and asks Merle to help deliver Michonne to the meeting place at noon. Merle, knowing that Rick will not go through with it, traps and ties up Michonne. However, after he and Michonne talk about personal matters, he lets her go and returns her katana , telling her he has something to do alone. He starts drinking whiskey before using loud music to lure a group of walkers to the exchange site where the Governor is waiting to ambush whoever will show up. The music also distracts the Governor's henchmen while Merle secretly takes cover, intent on killing the Governor both for revenge and to prevent him from killing anyone else at the prison, mainly Daryl. After shooting several of the henchmen, Merle is caught and beaten by Martinez and two other men and then, injured and winded, fights one-on-one with the Governor. The Governor gets the upper hand and bites off two of Merle's fingers. A wounded Merle then yells that he will not beg for mercy before the Governor shoots him in the chest with a pistol. Later on, Daryl, who left the prison to track down Merle and Michonne after Rick noticed them missing, finds Michonne unhurt and continues on to the exchange site, where he sees a reanimated Merle eating Ben 's corpse. Daryl breaks down in tears and pushes his reanimated brother away more than once before stabbing him repeatedly in the head, killing him for good.
Actor Michael Rooker described his thoughts on the role: "Merle is a survivor of the Zombie Apocalypse. And you can tell when you first meet him that even before all the shit went down he was kind of an asshole. We don't play a lot of it up in our portrayal but he's the kind of person where you're not really sure if he should be in charge... if he would be a good leader or not, though he certainly thinks he is." [5] Merle was one of a number of characters introduced in the second episode of the series, " Guts ". [6] Kirkman was pleased with Rooker's performance, retorting that it was "'The Michael Rooker Show' for one solid episode." [6]
I actually got a chance to hang out with him and he's a totally awesome guy. He always plays bad guys and psychos and it's weird, because he's this really boisterous, friendly guy. But yeah, his character is very important to the life of the show. He's a completely original character that was never in the comic. He's kind of the first human that they come across where it's like, 'Hey, this guy's really dangerous.' Also Michael Rooker likes to ad-lib. He got us over our cursing limit a couple of times. I think it was a bit of a pain in the a—for the post production people. [6]
Eric Goldman of IGN disliked the introduction of Merle, calling him "ridiculous". [7] Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club commented that "Merle is a huge sore thumb in the middle of the episode: behaving like no one in his situation ever would, his character seems to exist for no other reason than to cause dramatically convenient trouble." [8] In his review of the next episode, " Tell It to the Frogs ", Pierce notes that even though "Merle is a racist asshole who might have gotten everyone killed, in a world where the only real distinction is between the living and the dead, leaving him to be torn apart leaves a bit of a bad taste in everyone's mouth." [9]
Rooker confirmed his appearance in the second-season episode " Chupacabra " at the 2011 Aliens to Zombies Convention at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in Hollywood, California . [10] "Nobody expected this level of Merle worship," he articulated. "He's such an out-there, crazy, anything goes kind of guy. There's an uncertainty about Merle—like he'll come back when you least expect it. He's the boogeyman, and viewers love that suspense. The number one question I'm asked is, 'When is your character coming back?' I can't say when, but I promise it'll be a wild ride." [10] Writer Robert Kirkman insisted that Rooker was a delight during production, and hoped that he would regularly appear on The Walking Dead . [11]
Rooker initially estimated that he lost 20 pounds preparing for his return in the third season , [12] and later tallied he had lost 28 pounds. [13] Zack Handlen, writing for The A.V. Club , commented that "Merle was a terrible character, all dumb hick stereotypes and bluster" but that in his return in the season's third episode " Walk with Me ", "while still unquestionably a son of a bitch, is easier to take, less overtly awful, and more imposing". [14] HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall commented that the Woodbury scenes in the next episode " Killer Within " "continue to demonstrate the pull a man like the Governor would have over Merle", [15] but Zack Handlen's review of the episode for The A.V. Club noted that Merle's interactions with the Governor introduce some tension between them. [16] In his review of the episode " Hounded ", Handlen notes that Merle's motivations "seem to shift a bit to justify whatever the story needs him to do. But that's probably intentional; for all the Governor's calm planning, Merle is a hothead, an asshole who thinks he's a leader, and so he's going to keep making impulse decisions until one of those decisions gets him killed." [17] Erik Kain, for Forbes magazine, described the Governor's betrayal of Merle in the mid-season finale " Made to Suffer " as a surprise he didn't see coming, [18] while Zack Handlen's review of the episode called the betrayal "almost too perfectly designed [...] It's not completely unbelievable; it's just not as believable, or intense, as it should have been." [19] In his review of the third season's mid-season premiere episode " The Suicide King ", Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "I think The Walking Dead has sort of bungled the reintroduction of Merle Dixon. It was always a stretch that Merle would just happen to find the Grimes Gang again, considering the sheer lonely expanse in the new zombie-infested world." [20] Zack Handlen called the episode's opening "a decent sequence" which put the cliffhanger's high stakes aside, partly because Merle and Daryl made it out alive. [21]
Eric Goldman at IGN specifically praised the performance of Michael Rooker in " This Sorrowful Life ", the final appearance of Merle. [22] Zack Handlen called the episode's last scene "a good one, and it leads to the terrific final confrontation between Daryl and zombie Merle that makes up for a lot". [23] Handlen commented: "I'm not sure I buy or even understand Merle's change of heart, given how inconsistent the character has been. In his conversations with Michonne, we're being sold the idea that he's deeply conflicted about all the murdering he's done, and that he's had something like a change of heart since joining the prison group. Which doesn't really fit into anything, although at least now Merle's gradual integration with the main ensemble makes a little more sense; he wasn't supposed to be a monster, just a messed up asshole who eventually had enough regrets to try and do the right thing. There's no background for this, and no real depth to Merle apart from Michael Rooker's performance (and Rooker is almost single-handedly responsible for any consistency the character ever had)." [23] He also felt that with Merle letting Michonne go, "it's nice to have a character actually behave better than you were expecting them to for once. And everything else with Merle from then on is great, from the scene with him drinking whiskey and using rock music to attract a herd of walkers, to his ambush of the Woodbury group that was waiting to ambush Rick, to the fight with the Governor. And, of course, the last bit, with Daryl finally finding his brother after it's too late to save him. While the show so often struggles with finding emotion or resonance in its conversations [...] there are still wordless exchanges like this, with Daryl sobbing as he stabs Merle again and again and again. There's no real complexity to what's happening, and no mystery, but it's powerful regardless, inspiring fear and pity for both characters, and ending the hour on a high note." [23] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merle_Dixon | 6 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | This Sorrowful Life - Wikipedia | Episode 15
" This Sorrowful Life " is the fifteenth and penultimate episode of the third season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead , which first aired on AMC in the United States on March 24, 2013.
In the episode, Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ), unaware of The Governor ( David Morrissey )'s plan to ambush the prison and kill whoever delivers Michonne ( Danai Gurira ), ponders whether or not he should hand over Michonne to The Governor. Meanwhile, Merle Dixon ( Michael Rooker ) takes matters into his own hand(s) in an attempt to protect his brother.
This episode featured the death of Merle, who is killed when trying to redeem himself. Critics praised the performance of Michael Rooker in the episode and Norman Reedus ' performance at the end, upon confronting a zombified Merle.
The episode was watched by 10.69 million viewers, down slightly from the previous episode ; [1] and critics reacted positively to the episode.
Rick privately tells Hershel and Daryl about The Governor's offer and his intentions to hand over Michonne , after which he will tell the rest of the group. Hershel refuses to be a part of it, while Daryl reluctantly supports Rick. Rick seeks Daryl's brother Merle to help as well, but he does not think Rick has the spine to do it. Merle later confides in Daryl that he considers Rick's decision hypocritical, since the group had become angry when he had turned Maggie and Glenn over to the Governor.
While Rick searches for wire to tie up Michonne, he has another vision of his dead wife Lori , which causes him to reconsider his decision. However, Merle has decided to take the task himself, and he subdues and binds Michonne and sets off in secret to Woodbury. When Daryl finds them missing, he follows along on foot.
Merle hot-wires a car and they start to drive toward the arranged meeting spot, with Merle pointing out to Michonne that she is an outsider to the rest of Rick's group like he is. Michonne gets Merle to confess that he had never killed anyone before joining the Governor, and tells him they should return to the prison. Merle has a change of heart, stops the car, and lets Michonne go free. He continues on to the arranged meeting point, while Michonne passes Daryl and informs him where Merle is going.
Near the meeting point, Merle uses the car's alarm and radio to slowly parade a line of walkers behind the car. He rigs the car to roll forward to the meeting site while he sneaks out. The Governor's men, including Martinez , have been waiting to ambush Rick's arrival, and are distracted by the empty car and the walkers. Merle sneaks behind them and kills several, but soon is assaulted by the Governor. The Governor bites off two of his fingers, but Merle refuses to beg for mercy. The Governor shoots and kills him.
At the prison, Glenn receives Hershel's permission to marry Maggie, and then proposes to her, using a wedding ring taken from one of the walkers at the prison fence. Rick arrives and tells the group of the offer to turn over Michonne but that he couldn't go through with it. He admits he made the decision on his own, and shouldn't have, not wanting to be a Governor. He asks the group to decide if they want to stay at the prison or leave, and leaves to go stand watch as they make their decision. There, he watches as Michonne returns to the prison.
At the meeting spot, Daryl arrives and clears out a few remaining walkers before coming across a reanimated Merle. Daryl cries at his loss, and as the walker approaches him, Daryl slams it to the ground and stabs Merle in the face several times.
The episode was directed by Greg Nicotero and written by Scott M. Gimple [2] and shares its name with the sixth volume of the comics . [3]
This episode marks the last appearance of Michael Rooker ( Merle ), who was killed off in the episode, when he is shot in the chest by The Governor ( David Morrissey ) and was stabbed in the head multiple times by Daryl ( Norman Reedus ) after reanimating. On the decision to kill Merle, Robert Kirkman explained:
It's important to note that running out of story isn't a reason to kill a character. Having more story to mine isn't a reason to keep a character alive; it's what story comes out of it and how does the story change with death. Daryl Dixon has become a very important character in the show and his character had changed and evolved in very interesting ways over the course of the first three seasons. Having Merle back was always planned to be somewhat temporary thing. We wanted to see how Merle's return would affect that character and seeing Daryl revert to past behavior -- to bad behavior -- was something we really wanted to explore. But in the end, Daryl had moved past that character and we wanted to get back to him not having that brother altering his behavior moving forward or influencing him in any way. Merle's death was really about activating Daryl in an interesting way that will pay off in season four. [4]
- "Fast and Loose" - Motörhead : This song was used at the time Merle listens to music while drinking Whiskey inside his car.
- "Turn it up" - Ted Nugent ː This song was used at the time Merle used to attract walkers.
The episode was critically acclaimed, with many critics and fans calling it one of Season 3's best episodes. Zack Handlen, writing for The A.V. Club , rated the episode B on an A to F scale. [5] Eric Goldman at IGN gave the episode 9 out of 10, specifically praising the performances of actors Danai Gurira, Michael Rooker, Steven Yeun, and Norman Reedus. [6]
The original broadcast, on March 24, 2013, was watched by an estimated 10.99 million viewers, an increase in viewership from the previous episode. [1] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Sorrowful_Life | 6 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | 'The Walking Dead': Michael Rooker on the death of Merle Dixon | The most shocking thing about Sunday's episode of The Walking Dead was not that Merle Dixon died, but that we actually felt kinda sorry for him when he did. Not only was Merle killed by the Governor in a last heroic act of redemption, but he then came back as a zombie and had to be killed again by his on-screen brother Daryl in a truly heartbreaking scene. However, the man who plays Merle, Michael Rooker, insists that was not the most powerful scene of his final episode. I spoke with Rooker, who talks about the scene with Norman Reedus that he is most proud of, his unique (and very Rooker-esque) reaction upon learning his character was going to die, and his thoughts on playing zombie Merle.
ENTERTAINMENT WEEKLY: Tell me how you first learned the news of Merle's demise. Did showrunner Glen Mazzara call you up and break it to you?
MICHAEL ROOKER: Yeah, it was a phone call. But we were in the middle of switching episodes so I ended up having about two weeks notice as opposed to a week notice. I've heard some people get less than that, so I considered myself quite fortunate.
EW: What was your reaction when you got the news?
ROOKER: You really want to know my real reaction?
EW: Give it to me.
ROOKER: My honest to God true reaction was THANK F—ING GOD I DON'T HAVE TO WEAR THAT STUPID F—ING ARM ANY MORE! THERE! PRINT THAT S—! Oh my God, I was so tired of wearing that thing. I was like, oh, God, not another season of wearing this thing. I'm going to go crazy!
EW: Did you like the way Merle got his own brand of twisted redemption before his untimely demise?
ROOKER: Indeed, I did. I was very happy. I had a lot to say about it and we had a big meeting with Glen and the writer of the episode [new showrunner Scott Gimple] and we sort of worked it out. And then, of course, whenever you think you've worked something out, you really haven't, so there's always these things that happen on set where you're like, "Well, no, we talked about it being this way!" So it was fun, exciting, exhilarating, and I had a great time. It was a lot of physical action. I did my own stunt. I rolled out of the car myself. I just wanted to make sure everything was done right. Like Merle, Michael Rooker is about if it's done right, it's me doing it. That's just the way it is. If you got a stuntman that can do it better than me, go do it. But if they can't do it better than me, I'm doing it myself — plain and simple.
EW: To be clear, Merle did not see this as a suicide mission, right? He wanted to take out the Governor and as many of his men as possible, but he wasn't hoping to die in the process.
ROOKER: My character understood quite clearly that this could all go south pretty quickly, but that did not stop him. This was a mission that was thought out and concocted in his head. He was going to use Michonne as the bait to go in and do damage to the Governor. Like the Governor was basically going to use Michonne as bait to take out whoever brought her in — very similar thinking in that regard. But everything else is completely different. The reason behind making that choice to do it was Merle's payback and Merle's spark of redemption, and also a way of trying to keep his brother alive and safe. The idea was to go in and take out as many of the Governor's men, and the Governor if possible, and make an exit. Of course, I made an exit, but it was not the exit that Merle had hoped. But that's just the way it is. Merle was willing to make that ultimate sacrifice for his brother.
EW: You just could not cut a break on this show when it came to your hands. First you had to chop one off, and now the Governor makes a meal of your other one. Tell me about that scene and the prosthetic fingers you had to wear for that.
ROOKER: The poor guy, David Morrissey, was so concerned with germs and dirt and cleaning everything and the fingers and all this kind of stuff, and within a take or two, he was like "Aw, s— just put it on. Let's do it." He didn't care anymore. Although the room where we did this was really, really, really dirty and filthy and I had them clean that three or four times. But we got through it and it ended up a great sequence.
EW: How'd you enjoy getting to see how the other side lives by playing zombie Merle?
ROOKER: Dude, all I can say is, I'm glad a dead zombie now, because I wouldn't want to do that everyday. Trust me. No, not a fun time.
EW: I played a zombie on the show so I know a little something about that transformation process. Did the zombie contact lenses suck as much for you as they did for me?
ROOKER: You know what? That didn't bother me at all, I thought the contact lenses would really bother me, but once they got 'em in I was okay. I really thought that would be the thing that broke the camel's back, but it ended up being okay for me.
EW: So then what didn't you like about being zombie Merle?
ROOKER: I just didn't like being zombie Merle! But they did a good job. It was an interesting process, took about two-and-a-half hours or so.
EW: Tell me about that last scene with Norman Reedus, which was one of the most emotional scenes ever on this show.
ROOKER: Well, that is a scene that is quite emotional, but I'll tell you about another scene that is even more emotional that everybody is missing because that last scene has all the candy and all the hoopla. But that first moment where Daryl is going through the prison and finds me — you go back and you watch that scene! That scene is a f—ing killer scene. That scene is better than the demise of Merle scene. Go and look at Norman's face, look at my face, and I dare you to say that is not a better scene. It is a much better scene, much better dialogue — well, there's no dialogue in the other one. Don't get me wrong: The end sequence is phenomenal and it is awesome. But it does not compare to the other one where they choose not to weep. Weeping and that kind of emotional stuff is okay, you know, but I'd rather see them fight not to do that. Go back and you will see both actors — myself and Norman — are kicking f—ing ass in that scene!
EW: What was it like saying goodbye to everyone in the cast after it was all done?
ROOKER: Actors are actors. They're all buddies. I've done so many movies and TV that you get to be friends with everyone. And the ones you don't get to be friends with, you simply don't work together with them again. But the ones on The Walking Dead where you become friends like that and the show lasts quite a long time — you get to know everybody's little nuances: what bugs them, what doesn't bug them. I think everyone is very respectful of everybody's space and they get along pretty well so far. I'll give them another season before they're ripping each other's heads off.
For more 'Walking Dead' news, follow Dalton on Twitter @DaltonRoss
More Walking Dead : | https://ew.com/article/2013/03/27/the-walking-dead-michael-rooker-merle-death/ | 6 |
when did merle die in the walking dead | Merle Dixon (TV Series) | You need to grow up. Things are different now. Your people look at me like I'm the devil. Grabbing up those love birds like that, huh? Now y'all wanna do the same damn thing I did, snatch someone up and deliver them to the Governor. Just like me. People do what they gotta do or they die .
Merle Dixon is a main character and a former antagonist , as well as a survivor of the outbreak in AMC 's The Walking Dead . During the initial outbreak, he and his younger brother, Daryl , joined a group of survivors outside of Atlanta, Georgia .
After being abandoned on a rooftop in Atlanta, Merle is found by a man known as The Governor and taken to Woodbury , where he becomes one of his top soldiers. Merle eventually reunites with his brother and rejoins Rick's group . He served as the primary antagonist of the episode " Guts " and the secondary antagonist for the first half of Season 3 .
A seemingly stereotypical Southern redneck, Merle is boorish, surly, abrasive, combustible, violent, racist, misogynistic, volatile, extremely ill-tempered and quick to express his beliefs. However, Merle is also extremely humorous in nature and is a thrill seeker, who gets joy by mentally and emotionally toying with others. Much like his younger brother, Merle is an expert tracker and hunter. He is deadly with firearms, and in the third season, his hand-blade attachment proves to be one of his deadliest weapons. He is an experienced bruiser, showcased in the first season when he dominated T-Dog in a fist-fight, and at the same time was able to fend off Rick Grimes , Morales , and Glenn Rhee simultaneously. He also showed his fighting abilities when he took down Martinez in the brutal battle-royal event in Woodbury , and was able to fend off Michonne 's sword attacks with his hand-blade.
After being left behind in Atlanta, Merle was found by the Governor and eventually became his right-hand man and a key member of the Woodbury Army. During this time he devolved into a ruthless killer who followed the Governor's lead without question, all the while striving to find his brother and take vengeance on Rick and T-Dog, who left him for dead on the roof in Atlanta . Though the Governor and Merle were allies, it seemed that Merle feared him to an extent and no doubt had issues with his authority looming over him at all times. While he was staying in Woodbury, Merle read many books, including the Bible, and even memorized verses of the Bible, showing that he is intelligent, and also possibly religious. When he later comes across Glenn and Maggie Greene and kidnaps and takes them back to Woodbury as prisoners, his crueler side is shown as he brutally interrogates Glenn and almost kills him for information on the location of his brother and their camp. However, Merle was still not completely incapable of empathy, as he offered his condolences to Andrea over the death of her sister, Amy .
After the prison group came to the rescue of Glenn and Maggie, Merle was then branded as a traitor and a terrorist by the Governor for lying about killing Michonne which cost the Governor his eye and zombified daughter, and became an enemy of Woodbury. Merle escaped Woodbury alongside Daryl with aid from Rick and Maggie. It became apparent that between the Governor and Daryl, Merle was always loyal to his brother and knowingly discarded any chance of becoming a part of Woodbury again when he saw a chance to reunite himself with Daryl.
After joining the prison group, his personality began to slightly change, appearing to lose some of his violent and racist tendencies. Merle realized that he had to coexist with the prison group and that not doing so would damage his relationship with Daryl. This causes Merle to examine his past mistakes and reevaluate himself. He is even shown to be searching for some forgiveness from those of the group who he had once wronged such as Michonne. He later attempts to fulfill the potential deal made by the Governor and Rick, which was an exchange of Michonne for peace between the two groups. However, he has a change of heart and releases her, instead opting to take on the group of Woodbury soldiers who had been planning an ambush. This would be his biggest and final act of redemption, as after taking down eight Woodbury soldiers, he is killed by the Governor, reanimates and is finally put down by his own brother.
To the end of his life, Merle was a flawed man with issues that he kept himself from facing, but was never truly evil. He loved his brother and it drove him to keep fighting in a world filled with despair. His final act of courage gave his brother and the rest of the prison group a fighting chance and, perhaps for the first and only time in his life, Merle truly found his place among others.
Merle grew up in the mountains of Northern Georgia alongside his younger brother Daryl, under the roof of their neglectful redneck parents, their father, an abusive alcoholic alongside their chain-smoker mother. Because of the lack of love and guidance he was given, Merle chose to act out against society, which led him to frequently be incarcerated in juvenile institutions. He became frequently absent from Daryl's life, thus making Daryl resentful of his absence and as a role model in his childhood.
At a young age, the brothers lost their mother in a house fire which had been caused by a cigarette while she was asleep or presumably drunk. Over the course of several years, they were mentally and physically abused by their father, which eventually caused Merle to abandon the family and join the military, claiming he would've killed their father otherwise. Unknown to Merle, Daryl was left to suffer from the abuse which resulted in severe scars located on his back.
During his time in the army, Merle punched a sergeant, which got him dishonorably discharged. He was then court-martialed and sent to prison for sixteen months. Following their father's death, Merle reconnected with Daryl, who followed his brother's lead, and they entered into a drifter lifestyle, where the pair utilized their survival instincts. He would also become involved in the contraband of crystal meth .
At one point, the pair resided in Merle's drug supplier's house where the trio watched TV and by noon had become intoxicated, a discussion turned violent where the dealer punched his older brother, where Daryl retaliated by savagely beating the man. However, the dealer then threatened to shoot Daryl, a large argument ensued, which ended with the dealer punching Daryl in the gut, causing him to vomit. Merle and the dealer laughed the incident off. However, Merle would always care for his brother and look after his only support.
During the onset of the outbreak, Merle and Daryl traveled towards a supposedly safe-zone in Atlanta . Sometime after the city was napalmed by the military, they met up with Shane 's group and they formed a campsite outside the outskirts of Atlanta, along with other survivors. During their stay at the camp, the brothers spent a considerable amount of time hunting animals for the group.
On the department store's rooftop, Merle fires at walkers in the street with a scoped rifle. The group arrives and T-Dog chastises him for wasting bullets and attracting more walkers. Merle scoffs at him by saying he'd never take orders from a "n*gger," which sets off a fight between the two. Merle beats T-Dog and presses a handgun to his forehead, before spitting on his chest and proposing a change in leadership. The group is forced to vote in favor of Merle being their new leader. Suddenly, Rick hits Merle with the butt of the rifle and handcuffs him to a pipe. "Things are different now. There's us and the dead. We survive this by pulling together, not apart." Rick tells Merle as he holds a gun to his head. He then finds a stash of cocaine in Merle's shirt pocket and tosses it over the roof, much to Merle's chagrin.
Merle is then put under the watch of T-Dog while he is still unsuccessfully trying to radio the others. Merle tries to convince him to get the hacksaw in the bag of tools to set him free. He scoffs at Merle's offer. " I guess you want me to get that rifle over there, too, so you can shoot that cop when he comes back up." After the group comes up with a plan to escape the city, T-Dog is left in charge of Merle's handcuff keys.
Later, the group grabs their bags to leave the store in a rush, ignoring Merle's pleas to set him free. T-Dog reluctantly turns back and runs with the key in hand to set him free. However, he accidentally slips on the rain-soaked roof and drops the handcuff key down a drain while also dropping the tool bag, making the hacksaw and other tools spill out. " I'm sorry," T-Dog gasps, while Merle accuses him of dropping the key on purpose. He runs back to the stairwell and starts going down, but goes back up and chains the door shut so that the walkers can't get to him.
Merle is left behind, screaming and filled with anguish, as the survivors escape Atlanta without him.
Left alone, he begins the stages of accepting his fate (praying, bargaining, etc.), until he begins to fight again, this time with the pipe he is cuffed to. As he hallucinates that walkers have invaded the building and are reaching the chained door to the rooftop, Merle struggles harder until he notices the spilled tools that the others had left behind. He uses his belt to reach a hacksaw and succeeds in cutting off his right hand to escape.
Later on, Daryl, Rick, Glenn and T-Dog return to the rooftop where Merle was left behind and chained to and are shocked to find out he has escaped and his severed hand remaining. Daryl screams in anguish.
Merle reappears in an injured Daryl's hallucinations, in which he taunts Daryl for giving up, telling him to be tougher. He also tells Daryl to stand up to Rick, even suggesting that Daryl shoot him, and mentioning that Rick handcuffed him and left him to die on the roof of the department store. As a result of this vision, Daryl is able to pull himself up from the gorge he'd fallen into.
At some point after amputating his hand and escaping the rooftop in Atlanta, Merle was eventually discovered by a man known as the Governor while on a scouting mission. Merle revealed that he was on the verge of death from blood loss and starvation and that he was even contemplating suicide. The Governor took Merle back to Woodbury where his wounds were treated and he gradually recovered from his injuries and retrained himself to use weapons. Gradually, Merle became one of the Governor's most trusted lieutenants and assisted him in attacking other survivor camps and settlements.
Merle is with the Governor and his men as they scout the helicopter wreckage. Though not seen on-screen until later, he is presumably scouting the area for walkers or other survivors. He eventually comes upon Andrea and Michonne who are hiding in the woods, holding them at gunpoint. When Andrea turns around, he is surprised to see her alive. He then quickly dispatches a walker that had sneaked up on him with a knife. It is revealed that Merle's severed hand is covered by a self-made metal covering, with a bayonet attached to it. Andrea, who was already sick at the moment, passes out.
As night falls, Merle is in the truck with the Governor, Andrea and Michonne as they travel back to Woodbury. Andrea lifts her blindfold briefly and sees Merle right next to her. Merle motions her to keep quiet. While Dr. Stevens is tending to Andrea and Michonne, Merle enters, telling Dr. Stevens to leave so he can start a proper conversation with her, one they haven't had since the last time they saw each other. He tells her that before being found by the Governor, he was bleeding out and starving to death, and was hoping to commit suicide so that he could "take a nice, long nap" and wait for his brother on the other side. He remembers what Rick did to him and still despises him for it. Andrea catches him up, telling him that Daryl has earned his place in the group. She explains that the group left Atlanta and went to a farm, but the farm was overrun and this was the last time she saw everybody before being split up from the rest; they've lost many people along the way, including Amy . In a rare show of compassion, Merle expresses his condolence for Amy's death.
The Governor enters the room, after whispering something to Merle, who promptly exits. As he later takes the pair out to show them Woodbury, Merle demonstrates his role by climbing a fortified barricade and taking a rifle. He shows that he can still shoot a machine gun despite losing his hand, taking out three walkers in three shots.
The next day, Merle is found in a makeshift lab, working with Milton Mamet , a researcher. As the Governor enters, the two are caught having a disagreement about something; The Governor stops them, comparing their small outburst to a school fight. When the Governor asks about Andrea, Merle reveals that he used to be part of her group in Atlanta. The Governor tells him to interrogate her more, and dismisses him. Meanwhile, while Milton is showing his latest findings, he insists to the Governor that Merle isn't the right man for the job, and that it should be him.
Later on in the day, the Governor drives to a national guard outpost that was revealed by Lieutenant Welles the only survivor from the helicopter crash. He pretends to be innocent by proposing for them to move to his settlement while Merle and the others discreetly surround the area. The Governor quickly pulls a gun out and shoots Corporal Brady , the first man that approached him. This was a signal for Merle and other Woodbury guards, who were hiding in the woods nearby, to open fire at them, quickly dispatching all of the soldiers as they were caught off-guard. After successfully killing all of them, Merle and the rest take their equipment, and return to Woodbury. Merle is present when the Governor makes a speech to the townsfolk saying that the soldiers were already dead when they got there. He later talks privately with Merle and Milton.
After receiving a map from Andrea to show Merle where the Greene Family Farm was, Merle decided to make an effort to go and find Daryl and his location, but after asking Andrea if he was still alive, Andrea didn't know and mentioned that the attack on Hershel's farm was eight months ago.
He then decided to converse about himself and Andrea on why they didn't hook up as a couple, but after having the discussion, Merle then goes to talk to the Governor and tells him that he has made up his mind to go search for his brother in which the Governor rejects his request and tells him that he is needed in Woodbury. The Governor then tells Merle that if he got more solid evidence of Daryl's whereabouts, then The Governor would go and find Daryl along with Merle.
Merle is one of many participating in a day of celebration put on by the Governor. He appears with The Governor and Milton as they retrieve more drinks from the Governor's apartment. Although Milton suggests that they postpone the night's party, Merle rejects the offer. The Governor agrees with Merle. After Michonne kills the captive walkers locked behind Milton's lab, Merle escorts her back to the Governor, giving her sword back to him, and leaves. After Michonne storms out, Merle asks the Governor what happened. He says that Michonne has quite a personality, but she is no problem.
Later, Merle drives out to the wind generator located outside Woodbury with Milton and a few others. Discovering they have caught a bunch of walkers in a netted trap, Merle kills one walker while Milton holds her down. He wrestles the other walker down and begins pulling out its teeth. During the afternoon, Merle stops Andrea and Michonne as they were trying to leave through the gate. He informs them that they will need an escort. When he whispers something to Martinez , and Andrea tries to interject, he orders her to back up. Eventually, Merle decides to open the gate for them, but Andrea refuses to leave and Michonne exits Woodbury by herself.
That night, Merle is one of two brawlers participating in a twisted wrestling match, surrounded by chained walkers. All of Woodbury cheers him on as he beats up his opponent, Martinez. What the people don't know is that the fight between Merle and Martinez is choreographed, and that none of the walkers in the arena have teeth.
The Governor orders Merle to hunt down and kill Michonne, as she is considered dangerous. Merle, Crowley , Tim , and Gargulio go off in the woods, following her trail and searching for her. They locate her and Merle begins to taunt her in order to receive a reaction. Afterwards, Michonne sneaks them from behind, she uses her katana to decapitate Crowley and stab Tim in the stomach before Merle begins shooting at her. He accidentally shoots and kills Tim as Michonne runs off. Merle chases her down and shoots her in the thigh before losing her trail again. Merle regroups with his other companion, Gargulio, who is in shock at the deaths of Crowley and Tim. Merle tells Gargulio to rise to the occasion, "There's some serious shit going down, son." He then stabs Tim's brain to prevent him from reanimating, and forces Gargulio to do the same with Crowley's head. Merle rushes to leave the area, as the shots fired would attract walkers. Michonne sneaks up on them once again and attempts to attack Merle, but all three become disoriented in the fight. Walkers arrive, causing Merle to ignore Michonne for a moment. A walker attacks him and Gargulio stabs it in the head, saving Merle, as Michonne escapes amid the commotion. Merle kills the last walker. He assesses that Michonne is as good as dead, since she escaped right into the "Red-Zone", and he plans to lie to the Governor about the events that had taken place, but Gargulio objects. Gargulio refuses to lie to the Governor, he remembers what Merle said earlier about how serious the situation was, Merle at first agrees, but then he shoots Gargulio in the head while he is distracted by a bird call.
Sometime after, Merle follows Michonne into the "Red-Zone" and, much to his surprise, he stumble upon Glenn and Maggie while they were on a food and supply run. Merle questions Glenn about Daryl, Glenn says that Daryl is still alive, but refuses to take Merle along because of his knife prosthetic. Merle tries to be friendly at first, but then he shoots at them and holds Maggie hostage. He then orders Glenn to get in the car and drive them to Woodbury, but, without their knowledge, Michonne was watching everything from behind a car. Later on, Merle interrupts the Governor and Andrea as they are having sex. The Governor walks out of his apartment to talk to Merle, who lies to him saying that he killed Michonne, but she managed to kill all the other guys. The Governor is saddened for the loss of his men, Merle then tells him that he's captured Glenn and his "pretty little girlfriend". They decide not to reveal this to Andrea, and Merle leaves, stating that he's going to find out where they were holed up.
Merle brutally interrogates Glenn to find out the location of the Atlanta survivors' current camp. Despite the beating, Glenn still does not reveal anything, saying that Rick will eventually find and save them. Merle reinforces that nobody's going to find them. Glenn tries to scare Merle by mentioning several strong survivors still being in the group, but he commits the mistake of mentioning Andrea, so Merle instantly knew that he was lying. Merle eventually becomes frustrated and leaves a walker in the room with Glenn, hoping that it would kill him. However, Glenn ends up killing the walker in a matter of minutes with a piece of the broken chair he was duct-taped to. Eventually, Merle, Martinez and the Governor talk about the situation, Merle says that he wasn't able to get any information from Glenn, but he's going to interrogate Maggie next. The Governor says no and tells him that he is going to talk to her himself. After a while, the Governor gets tired of games, he, along with Merle and Martinez, takes Maggie to the shack where Glenn is and threatens to kill one in front of the other. Maggie eventually reveals that the Atlanta group is camped in a prison inside the "Red-Zone".
Later on, at the Governor's apartment, the Governor says that now that they know that Daryl is still alive, this may count when the time comes to Merle to choose a side, he questions where Merle's loyalty lies, and Merle assures him that his loyalty is no longer to the Atlanta group or his brother, but to Woodbury and the Governor.
Merle converses with the Governor, who is interested in ambushing the prison and enlisting Daryl as an, "inside man". Merle requests that nothing happen to Daryl, and the Governor complies. He then orders Merle to take Glenn and Maggie to the "screamer pits" and execute them. Merle and Warren are going to collect the two when they are ambushed by Glenn and Maggie, and Warren is killed when Maggie stabs him in the throat. Shots are accidentally fired during the confusion, attracting the attention of the entire town. Maggie holds Merle at gunpoint but is stopped when Martinez arrives. Glenn and Maggie are restrained and ready to be executed, but Merle and the other Woodbury men are ambushed by the Survivors, who throw several flash grenades inside the shack and successfully rescue Glenn and Maggie. When the Governor and the others are in Milton's lab talking about what is happening, Merle arrives saying that they were attacked and that Warren is dead. The Governor immediately orders every guard to check every corner of Woodbury in search of the "terrorists". Shortly after, smoke dominates the streets of Woodbury and another shootout ensues. Merle participates in the shootout between the Woodbury soldiers and the Survivors, though the smoke affects their vision, so they are not able to recognize each other.
After the shootout where the Survivors manages to escape, Merle visits the Governor at the infirmary after he was stabbed in the eye. Merle asks what happened, but the Governor only tells Merle that he was attacked and doesn't say who it was (Michonne, who Merle told that was dead, attacked the Governor). The Woodbury citizens are all called into the arena, where the Governor makes a speech about the attack to calm down his people. He then accuses Merle of participating in the attack and betraying them all. Merle is shocked when the Woodbury soldiers bring in a restrained Daryl, who was captured during the shootout. The Governor asks the residents what should be done with the terrorists. The Dixon brothers are finally reunited after nearly a year apart as the crowd cheers for their deaths.
In the arena, the Governor orders Merle and Daryl to fight to the death, with the winner walking away free. Merle says that he will do whatever he can to prove his loyalty to Woodbury before punching and kicking Daryl. On the ground, Merle orders Daryl to follow his lead, proving he has no intentions on killing him. Rick and Maggie attack the Woodbury citizens by shooting the lamps and throwing in a smoke grenade, Merle knocks down Shumpert and escapes with Daryl, Rick and Maggie. After reuniting with the others far away from Woodbury, Glenn and Michonne are not happy to see Merle and attempt to attack him. After Daryl tells Merle to shut up multiple times, Merle begins insulting the group, but Rick pistol whips him in the back of the head, knocking him unconscious. Daryl later decides to depart with Merle, refusing to abandon him again.
Merle is in the woods with Daryl, and it appears the two haven't had much luck with scavenging food. Daryl hears the cries of a baby at the bridge over Yellow Jacket Creek , where Merle jokingly suggests that the noise is just two raccoons mating. They notice a Mexican family being surrounded by walkers, and Merle reluctantly assists Daryl in saving the family. After the walkers have been killed, Merle holds the family at gunpoint and attempts to retrieve their supplies, until Daryl holds his crossbow at Merle and orders him to allow the family to depart. Back in the woods, Merle and Daryl argue over the events that had just transpired, Merle is jealous that Daryl changed so much after spending almost a year with Rick and mentions their original plans to rob the Atlanta group back at the original camp. Daryl says that Merle was the one who left him, as he always did in the past. Merle gets frustrated and rips Daryl's shirt, revealing scars on the younger brother's back from childhood abuse. Merle is horrified and insists that he was unaware of his father's abuse of Daryl, it is revealed that Merle was abused too and that's why he left.. Daryl decides to depart back to the prison, and Merle tearfully informs Daryl that he can't accompany him because he attempted to kill Michonne and brutally attacked Glenn. Daryl accuses Merle of once again leaving him and departs. However, both Merle and Daryl come back to the prison in time to save Rick from being killed by three walkers, who had him pinned against the chain-link fence.
Merle is locked inside the common room of the prison as the group discusses what to do about the Governor's recent attack. Merle informs the group that the Governor probably has scouts on the outside to trap them in, and that they had a window of opportunity to retaliate last night, but didn't. Merle appears to be right when Rick notices movement near the trees from afar when he looks out with his binoculars. While fastening his bayonet back to his metal covering, Hershel visits him in the cell, where they bond over their amputations saving their lives and a Bible verse. Merle also informs Hershel of the Governor's planned pecking order if he attacks again, with Merle being the first death and Rick being the last because the Governor wants Rick to watch all his family and friends die around him.
Later on, Merle apologizes to Michonne for trying to kill her, saying that he was simply following orders and that he has done a lot of things he regretted, before and after. When Andrea shows up at the prison, a now armed Merle assists Rick into scouting her in. He, along with the rest of the group, listens to Andrea's plan of making peace with the Governor and Woodbury, Merle chuckles when she says that there is room for all of them at Woodbury. After Andrea leaves, by the evening, Merle, in the door of the common room, listens to Beth singing. Rick privately tells Daryl that if Merle causes any trouble, he is to blame.
Whilst Rick, Daryl, and Hershel have departed to rendezvous with the Governor so they can talk, Merle is with the rest of the survivors back at the prison where it looks like they are gearing up for war and lookout. Also, whilst Rick and the Governor are discussing their need to fulfill the protection of their people, Merle is mentioned by the Governor, whom he blames for the capture and torture of Glenn and Maggie, but it doesn't convince Rick.
Back at the Prison, Merle suggests to Glenn in front of the rest of the group that they have to kill the Governor before he kills them, which puts a scared look in Glenn's eyes; he is worried that Merle is actually scared of someone for once. But as the de facto leader whilst Rick, Daryl and Hershel are gone, he decides that it's a bad idea and that keeping Merle at the prison and fighting is the best chance they've got, which puts a disappointed yet worried look on Merle's face, showing his desperation to kill the Governor.
Later, Merle packs guns into a duffel bag, in which he tells the group he is going to assassinate the Governor. Glenn becomes infuriated due to Merle not heeding his warning about putting Rick, Daryl and Hershel into a cross fire which could potentially kill them. Merle tries to leave but Glenn blocks the door, wanting Merle to stay put within the Prison. This infuriates Merle and his temper begins to ignite, so after a few warnings and Glenn repetitively saying for him to stay, a fight ensues. Merle grabs Glenn and pushes him away, but before he can open the door, Glenn tackles him and they fall down a small set of stairs. Merle is strangling Glenn until Maggie begins to choke him and Michonne holds his bayonet arm. Beth, with an annoyed look on her face, shoots the ceiling, which stops the confusion. Merle is left angrily telling Maggie and Michonne to let him go, which they do. After this, he meets Michonne alone, telling her that she is attractive and seductive, and they can end this by assassinating the Governor. She denies the offer, saying that, "killing him will result in more people getting killed, I ain't getting involved in that."
When Rick arrives back with the others, Merle asks if Rick was all alone with the Governor, he answers that he was. Merle walks by Glenn saying that they should've done it when they got the chance. He listens as Rick explains to the group that they are going to a war against The Governor and Woodbury.
Merle is at Cell Block B, ripping apart mattresses and looking for drugs. Rick approaches him and reveals that the Governor promised to leave the group alone as long as they give him Michonne. He wants Merle to do the dirty work, "You're cold as ice, Officer Friendly," Merle says before giving instructions of which kind of wire they will need to use to keep Michonne captive. He also doubts that the Governor will leave them alone, and mocks Rick for asking him to do this since he is ashamed of giving up Michonne's life like this, knowing that the Governor will slowly torture her. Merle then watches the group from outside and laughs at Rick's reaction next to Michonne, which draws Carol's attention. She questions if Merle is with the group or not, and he says that he is with the group because of his brother. She tells him to pick a side, he is with the group, or he is not. Merle reminds Carol that she used to be a scared and innocent woman back at the Atlanta camp.
Merle goes to the generator room to gather supplies to capture Michonne, when Daryl arrives and Merle says that he was only searching for crystal meth. Daryl asks him if he is going to do "it," and Merle says that he is, since nobody else has courage to do it. He also questions what happened to Daryl, because he isn't the same since he became friends with Rick, and laughs at him for always taking Rick's orders. Daryl says that he just wants his brother back. "Get outta here," Merle replies. Daryl walks off as Merle puts the supplies in a bag. He then takes Michonne to "the tombs" with an excuse that Rick told them to search for the breach Tyreese and his group used to get in, while she is distracted killing walkers, Merle knocks her unconscious and drags her into a room where he binds her wrists and covers her head with a bag. Later, Merle and a captive Michonne are walking down a road on their way to the meeting, he explains the deal Rick made with the Governor and how he didn't want to take any risks. Michonne tries to irritate Merle, but he ignores her and uses her katana to kill a walker that was approaching, he says that she could have escaped while he was doing this, but she says that she wouldn't leave without her sword, and they both strangely laugh. Further on, Merle stops to check if there is a car available to them, he tells Michonne not to take it personal because this is the only way he will be able to save his brother at the prison. Michonne notes that Merle has a conscience after all, but Merle disagrees, saying "I've killed 16 men since all this went down."
They come upon an abandoned motel , Merle tethers Michonne to a post while he hotwires a car. He accidentally triggers the alarm, attracting all the nearby walkers. Michonne is forced to fight the walkers with no weapons while Merle turns off the car alarm, he then frees Michonne from the post, they get in the car and drive off. In the car, she tells him how the group would welcome him with open arms, but instead he chooses to be an outsider. He also calls her an outsider, but she adds: "once the Governor's done with me, at least I won't have to live with myself." She wonders why Merle wants to deal with the Governor since he was the one who turned Merle into a killer, and Merle says that there is no way back from this path but Michonne says that they can go back to the prison. Merle stops the car, cuts the wire that were tied to her wrists and opens the door for her, he tells her to go back and gives her sword, "I got something I gotta do," he says, and drives off alone.
Merle is then outside a bar playing loud music inside the car while drinking alcohol. Walkers surround his car and he smiles. He slowly drives to the meeting, prompting the walkers to follow him along the way, when he arrives at the farm store, he bails out of the car allowing it to crash into the meeting area, still playing loud music, and the walkers who were following the car continue after it into the area. This forces the Woodbury soldiers waiting for Rick's arrival to defend themselves from the herd. Merle finds a hiding spot and grabs his assault rifle and starts shooting the Woodbury soldiers one by one. Due to the loud music and shots being fired against the walkers, the soldiers don't notice that it is an ambush. Merle finally spots the Governor helping his men to kill the walkers, Merle has dead aim at the Governor, but Ben unintentionally walks in the way and gets shot instead, saving the Governor's life. Immediately after the missed shot, a walker in the farm store almost bit Merle, attacking from the side but he managed to kill the walker after a struggle. The struggle revealed his location and the Woodbury soldiers attack and kick him to the ground. The Governor orders them to back off, saying that he is going to take care of Merle himself. The Governor drags Merle back into the farm store where he was hiding and starts beating him. An already severely weakened Merle fights back, but to no avail. The Governor chokes him and bites off two of Merle's fingers, before breaking his bayonet arm and finally stunning Merle. "I ain't gonna beg. I ain't beggin' you." says Merle weakly. The Governor pulls out his gun and shoots Merle in the chest, killing and dooming him to become a walker.
After the Governor and the Woodbury faction left, abandoning many of their dead, Merle reanimated and started feeding on Ben's corpse. Daryl, on a mission to rescue Merle, arrives and sees his brother as a walker. Daryl is immediately heartbroken and shocked. As Merle tries to attack him, Daryl pushes his undead brother back three times before finally dropping Merle to the ground and stabbing him in the face multiple times. Daryl then falls to the ground sobbing next to his dead brother.
Instead of handing Michonne to the Governor, Merle chooses to ambush and attempt to kill the Governor himself. During the ambush, Merle is attacked by a walker and because of this he is captured by the Woodbury soldiers and is severally beaten.
The Governor then grabs him and takes him back inside the building that Merle was shooting from. The Governor beats him, bites off two of his fingers on his left hand and breaks his right arm, before fatally shooting him in the heart.
Later, Daryl comes across a zombified Merle and begins to cry uncontrollably. A zombified Merle approaches Daryl, who pushes him back three times before stabbing him in the shoulder, knocking him to the ground and then stabbing him seven times in the face, putting him down.
This list shows the victims Merle has killed:
- Wilson (Alongside his fellow survivors)
- Welles (Alive, Possibly, Direct or Caused)
- Tim (Alive, Accidental; Before Reanimation)
- Crowley (Caused, Before Reanimation)
- Merle is the first major recurring secondary antagonist in the TV Series , with the second being Simon , the third being Beta , and the fourth being Leah Shaw .
- Additionally, he is the only main character who served as a secondary antagonist for half a season.
- Merle is also the first character on the show to have an antagonistic role for over a season and join the Survivors, the second being Eugene.
- Merle is the only major recurring secondary antagonist confirmed to have a living relative (his brother Daryl Dixon ).
- Merle is the first major recurring secondary antagonist to be killed by a major recurring primary antagonist, the second being Simon.
- Merle is the only major recurring secondary antagonist to renounce his antagonistic ways.
- Additionally, he is the only main character who served as a secondary antagonist for half a season.
- Merle's words in " Tell It to the Frogs ", when he is screaming, are almost identical to his last words to the Governor ; in the sense that both times he would not beg for his life against greater odds.
- Also, Merle's final line "I ain't gonna beg, I ain't begging you!" was not directed towards the Governor but rather God as revealed by Michael Rooker .
- Merle is the first human antagonist encountered in the TV Series following the outbreak.
- Daryl Dixon 's motorcycle was previously owned by Merle, but Merle is never seen riding it.
- The codename "Stoney" was used for Merle by the writing staff as seen on the call sheet for " This Sorrowful Life ".
- According to Shane Walsh , Merle was a drug dealer before the apocalypse.
- In Merle's bag of drugs, Blue Sky Meth can be seen, a specific nod to another AMC television series, Breaking Bad .
- The scene where Merle starts shooting off his gun on the roof top in Season 1 caused a little bit of real-life chaos; some people did not know they were filming and thought that the actor, Michael Rooker, was a sniper and called the police. A real SWAT team actually showed up. Fortunately, no one was arrested and filming continued as usual.
- Norman Reedus , Daryl's actor originally auditioned for the role of Merle. He was turned down but the creators liked his acting so much that they decided to write in the character of Daryl specifically for him.
- Merle is one of the many amputees in the series, having been forced to amputate his own right hand, and later having two of his fingers bitten off by the Governor.
- Merle has a number of ethnic slurs that he uses against people of different minorities to show his racism.
- Merle also has a tendency to call others with the names he makes up himself:
- Daryl Dixon : Baby Brother , Little Brother , and Darlina (in Daryl's Hallucinations)
- Andrea Harrison : Blondie , Sugar Tits , Rug-Muncher , and Whore
- Morales : Taco Bender
- T-Dog : Spear-Chucker and Mr. Yo
- Martinez : Brownie
- Gargulio : Neil
- Maggie Greene : The Farmer's Daughter , Honey , Bo-Peep , and Love-Birds (alongside Glenn)
- Rick Grimes : The Sheriff and Sheriff Rick
- Glenn Rhee : Chinese Kid and Love-Birds (alongside Maggie)
- Hershel Greene : The Farmer
- Merle also has a tendency to call others with the names he makes up himself:
- Michael Rooker lost 28 pounds in order to prepare for Merle's return in Season 3 . [1]
- In the TV Series , Merle is the first character to have a substitute appendage on an amputated limb.
- He is also the first main character in the TV Series to have an amputation, the second being Hershel Greene , the third being The Governor , the fourth being Bob Stookey , the fifth being Gareth , the sixth being Tyreese Williams , the seventh being Jessie Anderson , the eighth being Carl Grimes and the ninth being Aaron .
- Out of all these characters however, Merle is the only one to actually amputate his own limb himself and without the assistance of another; in this case he used a hacksaw to amputate his right hand to escape from a rooftop in Atlanta after being left behind by the Survivors .
- Merle is the first original main character in the TV Series to die, the second being Beth Greene , the third being Sasha Williams and the fourth being Simon . Coincidentally, Merle and Beth were both very close to Daryl and their deaths made a huge impact on him. Also, they both appeared in the second episode of a season (the Season 1 episode " Guts " for Merle, and the Season 2 episode " Bloodletting " for Beth), and they both indirectly caused their own deaths and were shot dead by their arch-enemies (The Governor for Merle, and Dawn Lerner for Beth).
- " Made to Suffer " is the first episode where Merle and Daryl are physically seen together.
- Prior to his final shootout, he stated that he had killed 16 people since the apocalypse began.
- Although Merle was usually unafraid of anyone that he was shown interacting with in the TV series, the Governor was the first and only character in the TV Series whom Merle was afraid of.
- As said by Greg Nicotero during his, and Laurie Holden 's Q&A Panel at Walker Stalker Con Chicago 2014, Merle's death was not planned during the initial writing for the third season, his death came up on the last minutes before the shooting for "This Sorrowful Life" begun. Merle was supposed to be a recurring character in Season 4 .
- Merle's outfit is available for purchase on the Xbox Live Avatar Marketplace for 240 Microsoft Points.
- Merle is one of three characters in the series to appear in a program outside of The Walking Dead ; the others are Carol Peletier and his brother Daryl.
- Melissa McBride and Michael Rooker went into a 2013 episode of Conan O'Brien's talk show Conan , as Carol and Merle, in which the pair disrupts O'Brien's live studio audience under the guise of "hiding from walkers". Norman Reedus went into a 2015 episode of Saturday Night Live as Daryl, and shot Pete Davidson in the chest with a crossbow bolt during "Weekend update".
- In Season 1, Daryl is quoted as saying "Nobody can kill Merle but Merle". This would prove true as Merle's death is caused by him going on a suicide mission to kill the Governor.
- In an interview with Michael Rooker on comicbook.com, he was asked how Merle would react to Negan and what he has done to Daryl and the group as of Season 7 . Michael responded by saying "I don't know if Merle would actually enjoy seeing his friends being abused." On Talking Dead Michael was asked if Merle would have sided with Negan, to which he replied "If Negan had something for Merle; Merle would have gone with Negan, yeah. But he wouldn't have completely stayed with Negan especially if his brother is in the prison there. That would have turned it really quickly."
- Merle is the second main character to become a walker, the first being Shane Walsh , the third being Hershel Greene , the fourth being Deanna Monroe , the fifth being Spencer Monroe , the sixth being Sasha Williams , the seventh being Simon , the eight being Enid , the ninth being Tara Chambler , the tenth being Siddiq , the eleventh being Alpha , the twelfth being Alden , and the thirteenth being Lance Hornsby .
- Merle is the third main character to be killed by another main character, the first being Dale Horvath , the second being Shane Walsh , the fourth being Hershel Greene , the fifth being Gareth , the sixth being Abraham Ford , the seventh being Glenn Rhee , the eighth being Spencer Monroe , the ninth being Simon , the tenth being Gregory , the eleventh being Enid , the twelfth being Tara Chambler , the thirteenth being Alpha , the fourteenth being Leah Shaw , and the fifteenth being Lance Hornsby .
- According to Daryl Dixon , Merle occasionally got "the clap", which is slang for gonorrhea. This is the reasoning behind Merle having the antibiotics in his stash in " Bloodletting ".
- Merle is the second main character to receive an amputation, with the first being Hershel Greene , the third being Bob Stookey , the fourth being Tyreese Williams , the fifth being Aaron , and the sixth being Lydia .
- Merle is the only character to self-administer an amputation.
- Merle appears in the archival footage shown at the beginning of " A New Deal " as Judith narrates past events of the show to the audience before the episode's story begins.
|Language||Dubber||Other Characters Voiced|
|Czech||Tomáš Karger|| Montanio |
Craven
|French||Patrick Floersheim||N/A|
|German||Hans-Jürgen Wolf||N/A|
|Hungarian||Zágoni Zsolt||N/A|
|Italian||Roberto Draghetti||N/A|
|Japanese||Koji Fujiyoshi||N/A|
|Portuguese||Armando Tiraboschi||Morgan Jones (1)|
|Spanish (Latin America)|| René Sagastume (1-2) |
Gustavo Bonfigli (3)
| René Sagastume : |
Jim (3)
Big Tiny
Tyreese Williams
Mexican Man
Simon
|Spanish (Spain)||Vicente Gil||N/A| | https://walkingdead.fandom.com/wiki/Merle_Dixon_(TV_Series) | 6 |
when did hong kong became part of china | Hong Kong Returned to China | At midnight on July 1, 1997, Hong Kong reverts back to Chinese rule in a ceremony attended by British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Prince Charles of Wales, Chinese President Jiang Zemin and U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright . A few thousand Hong Kongers protested the turnover, which was otherwise celebratory and peaceful.
In 1839, Britain invaded China to crush opposition to its interference in the country’s economic, social, and political affairs. One of Britain’s first acts of the war was to occupy Hong Kong, a sparsely inhabited island off the coast of southeast China. In 1841, China ceded the island to the British with the signing of the Convention of Chuenpi, and in 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was signed, formally ending the First Opium War.
Britain’s new colony flourished as an East-West trading center and as the commercial gateway and distribution center for southern China. In 1898, Britain was granted an additional 99 years of rule over Hong Kong under the Second Convention of Peking. In September 1984, after years of negotiations, the British and the Chinese signed a formal agreement approving the 1997 turnover of the island in exchange for a Chinese pledge to preserve Hong Kong’s capitalist system. On July 1, 1997, Hong Kong was peaceably handed over to China in a ceremony attended by numerous Chinese, British, and international dignitaries. The chief executive under the new Hong Kong government, Tung Chee Hwa, formulated a policy based on the concept of “one country, two systems,” thus preserving Hong Kong’s role as a principal capitalist center in Asia.
In 2019, massive pro-democracy protests broke out in Hong Kong over growing oppression from mainland China. Scores of people in academia, media, as well as pro-democracy activists have been arrested amid crackdowns. | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hong-kong-returned-to-china | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | Hong Kong Returned to China | At midnight on July 1, 1997, Hong Kong reverts back to Chinese rule in a ceremony attended by British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Prince Charles of Wales, Chinese President Jiang Zemin and U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright . A few thousand Hong Kongers protested the turnover, which was otherwise celebratory and peaceful.
In 1839, Britain invaded China to crush opposition to its interference in the country’s economic, social, and political affairs. One of Britain’s first acts of the war was to occupy Hong Kong, a sparsely inhabited island off the coast of southeast China. In 1841, China ceded the island to the British with the signing of the Convention of Chuenpi, and in 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was signed, formally ending the First Opium War.
Britain’s new colony flourished as an East-West trading center and as the commercial gateway and distribution center for southern China. In 1898, Britain was granted an additional 99 years of rule over Hong Kong under the Second Convention of Peking. In September 1984, after years of negotiations, the British and the Chinese signed a formal agreement approving the 1997 turnover of the island in exchange for a Chinese pledge to preserve Hong Kong’s capitalist system. On July 1, 1997, Hong Kong was peaceably handed over to China in a ceremony attended by numerous Chinese, British, and international dignitaries. The chief executive under the new Hong Kong government, Tung Chee Hwa, formulated a policy based on the concept of “one country, two systems,” thus preserving Hong Kong’s role as a principal capitalist center in Asia.
In 2019, massive pro-democracy protests broke out in Hong Kong over growing oppression from mainland China. Scores of people in academia, media, as well as pro-democracy activists have been arrested amid crackdowns. | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hong-kong-returned-to-china | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | Hong Kong - Wikipedia | Hong Kong ( US : / ˈ h ɒ ŋ k ɒ ŋ / or UK : / h ɒ ŋ ˈ k ɒ ŋ / ; Chinese : 香港 , Cantonese : [hœ́ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ] (
listen ) ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China ( abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR ), [d] is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delta in South China . With 7.5 million residents of various nationalities [e] in a 1,104-square-kilometre (426 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated places in the world. Hong Kong is also a major global financial centre and one of the most developed cities in the world .
Hong Kong was established as a colony of the British Empire after the Qing Empire ceded Hong Kong Island from Xin'an County at the end of the First Opium War in 1841 then again in 1842. The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 after the Second Opium War and was further extended when Britain obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898. British Hong Kong was occupied by Imperial Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II ; British administration resumed after the surrender of Japan . The whole territory was transferred to China in 1997. As one of China's two special administrative regions (the other being Macau ), Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of " one country, two systems ". [f]
Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages, [18] [19] the territory has become one of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports. As of 2021, it is the world's ninth-largest exporter and eight-largest importer. Hong Kong has a market economy characterised by a focus on services , low taxation and free trade ; its currency, the Hong Kong dollar , is the eighth most traded currency in the world. Hong Kong is home to the third-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in Asia, and the largest concentration of ultra high-net-worth individuals of any city in the world. Although the city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, severe income inequality exists among the population. Most notably, housing in Hong Kong has been well-documented to experience a chronic persistent shortage; the extremely compact house sizes and the extremely high housing density are the effects of Hong Kong's housing market being the most expensive housing in the world.
Hong Kong is a highly developed territory and has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.952, ranking fourth in the world . The city has the largest number of skyscrapers of any city in the world, and its residents have some of the highest life expectancies in the world. The dense space has led to a highly developed transportation network with public transport rates exceeding 90%. Hong Kong is ranked 4th in the Global Financial Centres Index .
The name of the territory, first romanised as "He-Ong-Kong" in 1780, [22] originally referred to a small inlet located between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. [23] Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the Cantonese (or Tanka Cantonese ) phrase hēung góng . The name translates as "fragrant harbour" or "incense harbour". [20] [21] [24] "Fragrant" may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odour from incense factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon . The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour was developed. [24] Sir John Davis (the second colonial governor) offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from "Hoong-keang" ("red torrent"), reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed. [25]
The simplified name Hong Kong was frequently used by 1810. [26] The name was also commonly written as the single word Hongkong until 1926, when the government officially adopted the two-word name. [27] Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name, including Hongkong Land , Hongkong Electric Company , Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC). [28] [29]
Earliest known human traces in what is now Hong Kong are dated by some to 35,000 and 39,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period. The claim is based on an archaeological investigation in Wong Tei Tung , Sai Kung in 2003. The archaeological works revealed knapped stone tools from deposits that were dated using optical luminescence dating . [30]
During the Middle Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago, the region had been widely occupied by humans. [31] Neolithic to Bronze Age Hong Kong settlers were semi-coastal people. Early inhabitants are believed to be Austronesians in the Middle Neolithic period and later the Yueh people. [31] As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha, Sai Kung, rice cultivation had been introduced since Late Neolithic period. [32] Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery, hard pottery, quartz and stone jewelry, as well as small bronze implements. [31]
The Qin dynasty incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE, after conquering the indigenous Baiyue . [33] The region was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom (a predecessor state of Vietnam) after the Qin collapse [34] and recaptured by China after the Han conquest . [35] During the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song court was briefly located in modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before its final defeat in the 1279 Battle of Yamen . [36] By the end of the Yuan dynasty , seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land. Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the Ming dynasty . [37]
The earliest European visitor was Portuguese explorer Jorge Álvares , who arrived in 1513. [38] [39] Portuguese merchants established a trading post called Tamão in Hong Kong waters and began regular trade with southern China. Although the traders were expelled after military clashes in the 1520s, [40] Portuguese-Chinese trade relations were re-established by 1549 . Portugal acquired a permanent lease for Macau in 1557. [41]
After the Qing conquest , maritime trade was banned under the Haijin policies. From 1661 to 1683, the population of most of the area forming present day Hong Kong was cleared under the Great Clearance , turning the region into a wasteland. [42] The Kangxi Emperor lifted the maritime trade prohibition, allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684. [43] Qing authorities established the Canton System in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly, restricting non-Russian ships to the port of Canton . [44] Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant, so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals. To reduce the trade imbalance, the British sold large amounts of Indian opium to China. Faced with a drug crisis, Qing officials pursued ever more aggressive actions to halt the opium trade. [45]
In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissioner Lin Zexu to eradicate the opium trade. The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade, [46] triggering a British military response and the First Opium War . The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in the Convention of Chuenpi . British forces began controlling Hong Kong shortly after the signing of the convention, from 26 January 1841. [47] However, both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement. [48] After more than a year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to the United Kingdom in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking . [49]
Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842, but piracy, disease, and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce. Conditions on the island improved during the Taiping Rebellion in the 1850s, when many Chinese refugees, including wealthy merchants, fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony. [18] Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into the Second Opium War . The Qing were again defeated and forced to give up Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island in the Convention of Peking . [50] By the end of this war, Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a major entrepôt . Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment, as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong's future. [51]
The colony was further expanded in 1898 when Britain obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories. [52] The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first institution of higher education. [53] Kai Tak Airport began operation in 1924, and the colony avoided a prolonged economic downturn after the 1925–26 Canton–Hong Kong strike . [54] [55] At the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared Hong Kong a neutral zone to safeguard its status as a free port. [56] The colonial government prepared for a possible attack, evacuating all British women and children in 1940. [57] The Imperial Japanese Army attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941 , the same morning as its attack on Pearl Harbor . [58] Hong Kong was occupied by Japan for almost four years before Britain resumed control on 30 August 1945. [59]
Its population rebounded quickly after the war, as skilled Chinese migrants fled from the Chinese Civil War and more refugees crossed the border when the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949. [60] Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies to industrialise during the 1950s. [61] With a rapidly increasing population, the colonial government attempted reforms to improve infrastructure and public services. The public-housing estate programme , Independent Commission Against Corruption , and Mass Transit Railway were all established during the post-war decades to provide safer housing, integrity in the civil service, and more reliable transportation. [62] [63]
Nevertheless, widespread public discontent resulted in multiple protests from the 1950s to 1980s, including pro- Republic of China and pro- Chinese Communist Party protests. In the 1967 Hong Kong riots , pro- PRC protestors clashed with the British colonial government. As many as 51 were killed and 802 were injured in the violence, including dozens killed by the Royal Hong Kong Police via beatings and shootings. [64]
Although the territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined because of rising labour and property costs, it transitioned to a service-based economy. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre and shipping hub. [65]
The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, and Governor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979. [66] Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration , in which the United Kingdom agreed to transfer the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the transfer. [67] The impending transfer triggered a wave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life. [68] Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996. [69] The Legislative Council became a fully elected legislature for the first time in 1995 and extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule. [70] Hong Kong was transferred to China on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule. [71]
Immediately after the transfer, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The Hong Kong government was forced to use substantial foreign exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the 1997 Asian financial crisis , [60] and the recovery from this was muted by an H5N1 avian-flu outbreak [72] and a housing surplus. [73] This was followed by the 2003 SARS epidemic , during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn. [74]
Political debates after the transfer of sovereignty have centred around the region's democratic development and the Chinese central government 's adherence to the "one country, two systems" principle. After reversal of the last colonial era Legislative Council democratic reforms following the handover, [75] the regional government unsuccessfully attempted to enact national security legislation pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law . [76] The central government decision to implement nominee pre-screening before allowing chief executive elections triggered a series of protests in 2014 which became known as the Umbrella Revolution. [77] Discrepancies in the electoral registry and disqualification of elected legislators after the 2016 Legislative Council elections [78] [79] [80] and enforcement of national law in the West Kowloon high-speed railway station raised further concerns about the region's autonomy. [81] In June 2019, mass protests erupted in response to a proposed extradition amendment bill permitting the extradition of fugitives to mainland China. The protests are the largest in Hong Kong's history, [82] with organisers claiming to have attracted more than three million Hong Kong residents.
The Hong Kong regional government and Chinese central government responded to the protests with a number of administrative measures to quell dissent. In June 2020, the Legislative Council passed the National Anthem Ordinance , which criminalised "insults to the national anthem of China". [83] The Chinese central government meanwhile enacted the Hong Kong national security law to help quell protests in the region. [84] Nine months later, in March 2021, the Chinese central government introduced amendments to Hong Kong's electoral system , which included the reduction of directly elected seats in the Legislative Council and the requirement that all candidates be vetted and approved by a Beijing-appointed Candidate Eligibility Review Committee . [85]
Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China , with executive, legislative, and judicial powers devolved from the national government . [86] The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the transfer of sovereignty, [67] resulting in an executive-led governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony. [87] Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution. [88] The regional government is composed of three branches:
- Executive: The Chief Executive is responsible for enforcing regional law, [87] can force reconsideration of legislation, [89] and appoints Executive Council members and principal officials . [90] Acting with the Executive Council, the Chief Executive-in-Council can propose new bills, issue subordinate legislation , and has authority to dissolve the legislature. [91] In states of emergency or public danger, the Chief Executive-in-Council is further empowered to enact any regulation necessary to restore public order. [92]
- Legislature: The unicameral Legislative Council enacts regional law, approves budgets, and has the power to impeach a sitting chief executive. [93]
- Judiciary : The Court of Final Appeal and lower courts interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law. [94] Judges are appointed by the chief executive on the advice of a recommendation commission. [95]
The chief executive is the head of government and serves for a maximum of two five-year terms. The State Council (led by the Premier of China ) appoints the chief executive after nomination by the Election Committee , which is composed of 1,200 business, community, and government leaders. [96] [97] [98]
The Legislative Council has 90 members, each serving a four-year term. Twenty are directly elected from geographical constituencies , thirty-five represent functional constituencies (FC), and forty are chosen by an election committee consisting of representatives appointed by the Chinese central government. [99] Thirty FC councillors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups, [100] and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting district council members and selected in region-wide double direct elections . [101] All popularly elected members are chosen by proportional representation . The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using first-past-the-post or instant-runoff voting. [100]
Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election . [102] These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the pro-Beijing camp (the current government), the pro-democracy camp , and localist groups . [103] The Chinese Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections. [104] Hong Kong is represented in the National People's Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college and 203 delegates in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government. [8]
Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region, and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction. [94] Its judicial system is based on common law , continuing the legal tradition established during British rule. [105] Local courts may refer to precedents set in English law and overseas jurisprudence. [106] However, mainland criminal procedure law applies to cases investigated by the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR . [107] Interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland's socialist civil law system. [108] Decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process. [109] Furthermore, in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong, the State Council may enforce national law in the region. [110]
The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its immigration and taxation policies. The Immigration Department issues passports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau, [111] and the region maintains a regulated border with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls, regardless of nationality. [112] Mainland Chinese citizens do not have right of abode in Hong Kong and are subject to immigration controls. [113] Public finances are handled separately from the national government; taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority. [114] [115]
The Hong Kong Garrison of the People's Liberation Army is responsible for the region's defence. [116] Although the Chairman of the Central Military Commission is supreme commander of the armed forces, [117] the regional government may request assistance from the garrison. [118] Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service, and current law has no provision for local enlistment, so its defence is composed entirely of non-Hongkongers. [119]
The central government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs handle diplomatic matters, but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations . [120] The territory actively participates in the World Trade Organization , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Olympic Committee , and many United Nations agencies. [121] [122] [123] The regional government maintains trade offices in Greater China and other nations. [124]
The imposition of the Hong Kong national security law by the central government in Beijing in June 2020 resulted in the suspension of bilateral extradition treaties by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Finland, and Ireland. [125] The United States ended its preferential economic and trade treatment of Hong Kong in July 2020 because it was no longer able to distinguish Hong Kong as a separate entity from the People's Republic of China. [125] [126]
Hong Kong is governed by a hybrid regime that is not fully representative of the population. Legislative Council members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to these narrow corporate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a pro-establishment majority in the legislature since the transfer of sovereignty. Similarly, the chief executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected. [129] Although universal suffrage for the chief executive and all Legislative Council elections are defined goals of Basic Law Articles 45 and 68, [130] the legislature is only partially directly elected, and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body. [129] The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions. [131] [132]
Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment. [133] [134] Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners. [135] [136] Foreign domestic helpers , predominantly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under regional law. Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and do not have the right of abode in the territory. [137] Sex trafficking in Hong Kong is an issue. Local and foreign women and girls are often forced into prostitution in brothels, homes, and businesses in the city. [138] [139] [140] [141]
The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law of Hong Kong for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty. [67] It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be integrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately. [142] [143] However, in response to large-scale protests in 2019 and 2020 , the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed the controversial Hong Kong national security law . [144] The law criminalises secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign elements and establishes the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR, an investigative office under Central People's Government authority immune from HKSAR jurisdiction. Some of the aforementioned acts were previously considered protected speech under Hong Kong law. [107] [145] The United Kingdom considers the law to be a serious violation of the Joint Declaration. [146] In October 2020, Hong Kong police arrested seven pro- democracy politicians over tussles with pro-Beijing politicians in the Legislative Council in May. They were charged with contempt and interfering with members of the council, while none of the pro-Beijing lawmakers were detained. [147] Annual commemorations of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre were also cancelled amidst fears of violating the national security law. [148] In March 2021, the Chinese central government unilaterally changed Hong Kong's electoral system and established the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee , which would be tasked with screening and evaluating political candidates for their "patriotism". [85]
Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary . It is surrounded by the South China Sea on all sides except the north, which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhen along the Sham Chun River . The territory's 1,110.18 km 2 (428.64 sq mi) [149] area (2754.97 km 2 [149] if the maritime area is included) consists of Hong Kong Island , the Kowloon Peninsula , the New Territories , Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, 1,073 km 2 (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km 2 (14 sq mi) is water. [150] The territory's highest point is Tai Mo Shan , 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level. [151] Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in new towns throughout the New Territories. [152] Much of this is built on reclaimed land ; 70 km 2 (27 sq mi) (6% of the total land or about 25% of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea. [153]
Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland. [154] [155] About 40% of the remaining land area is country parks and nature reserves. [156] The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species of vascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species. [157] [158]
Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cwa ), characteristic of southern China, despite being located south of the Tropic of Cancer . Summers are long, hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. The humid nature of Hong Kong exacerbates the warmth of summer. Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Winters are short, mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February. Frequent cold fronts bring strong, cooling winds from the north and occasionally result in chilly weather. Autumn is the sunniest season, whilst spring is generally cloudy. [159] When there is snowfall, which is extremely rare, it is usually at high elevations. Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year. [160] Historic temperature extremes at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893. [161] The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) at Wetland Park on 22 August 2017, [162] and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016 . [163]
Hong Kong has the world's largest number of skyscrapers , with 482 towers taller than 150 metres (490 ft), [167] and the third-largest number of high-rise buildings in the world. [168] The lack of available space restricted development to high-density residential tenements and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land. [169] Single-family detached homes are uncommon and generally only found in outlying areas. [170] The International Commerce Centre and Two International Finance Centre are the tallest buildings in Hong Kong and are among the tallest in the Asia-Pacific region. [171] Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the HSBC Main Building , the anemometer -topped triangular Central Plaza , the circular Hopewell Centre , and the sharp-edged Bank of China Tower . [172] [173]
Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings, freeing space for modern high-rises. [174] However, many examples of European and Lingnan architecture are still found throughout the territory. Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture. The 1846 Flagstaff House , the former residence of the commanding British military officer, is the oldest Western-style building in Hong Kong. [175] Some (including the Court of Final Appeal Building and the Hong Kong Observatory ) retain their original function, and others have been adapted and reused ; the Former Marine Police Headquarters was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex, [176] and Béthanie (built in 1875 as a sanatorium ) houses the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts . [177] The Tin Hau Temple , dedicated to the sea goddess Mazu (originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266), is the territory's oldest existing structure. [178] The Ping Shan Heritage Trail has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties, including the Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda (Hong Kong's only remaining pagoda). [179]
Tong lau , mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants. [180] Examples include Lui Seng Chun , the Blue House in Wan Chai , and the Shanghai Street shophouses in Mong Kok . Mass-produced public-housing estates , built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed in modernist style . [181]
The Census and Statistics Department estimated Hong Kong's population at 7,482,500 in mid-2019. The overwhelming majority (92%) is Han Chinese , [6] most of whom are Taishanese , Teochew , Hakka , and other Cantonese peoples . [183] [184] [185] The remaining 8% are non-ethnic Chinese minorities, primarily Filipinos , Indonesians , and South Asians . [6] [186] However, most Filipinos and Indonesians in Hong Kong are short-term workers. According to a 2016 thematic report by the Hong Kong government, after excluding foreign domestic helpers, the real number of non-Chinese ethnic minorities in the city was 263,593, or 3.6% of Hong Kong's population. [187] About half the population have some form of British nationality , a legacy of colonial rule; 3.4 million residents have British National (Overseas) status, and 260,000 British citizens live in the territory. [188] The vast majority also hold Chinese nationality , automatically granted to all ethnic Chinese residents at the transfer of sovereignty. [189] Headline population density exceeds 7,060 people/km 2 , and is the fourth-highest in the world. [190]
The predominant language is Cantonese , a variety of Chinese originating in Guangdong. It is spoken by 94.6% of the population, 88.9% as a first language and 5.7% as a second language. [3] Slightly over half the population (53.2%) speaks English , the other official language; [2] 4.3% are native speakers, and 48.9% speak English as a second language. [3] Code-switching , mixing English and Cantonese in informal conversation, is common among the bilingual population. [191] Post-handover governments have promoted Mandarin , which is currently about as prevalent as English; 48.6% of the population speak Mandarin, with 1.9% native speakers and 46.7% as a second language. [3] Traditional Chinese characters are used in writing, rather than the simplified characters used in the mainland . [192]
Among the religious population, the traditional " three teachings " of China, Buddhism , Confucianism , and Taoism , have the most adherents (20%), followed by Christianity (12%) and Islam (4%). [193] Followers of other religions, including Sikhism , Hinduism , and Judaism , generally originate from regions where their religion predominates. [193]
Life expectancy in Hong Kong was 82.38 years for males and 88.17 years for females in 2022, the highest in the world. [194] Cancer , pneumonia , heart disease , cerebrovascular disease , and accidents are the territory's five leading causes of death. [195] The universal public healthcare system is funded by general-tax revenue, and treatment is highly subsidised; on average, 95% of healthcare costs are covered by the government. [196]
The city has a severe amount of Income inequality, [197] which has risen since the transfer of sovereignty, as the region's ageing population has gradually added to the number of nonworking people. [198] Although median household income steadily increased during the decade to 2016, the wage gap remained high; [199] the 90th percentile of earners receive 41% of all income. [199] The city has the most billionaires per capita, with one billionaire per 109,657 people, [200] as well as the third-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, [201] the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in Asia, and the largest concentration of ultra high-net-worth individuals of any city in the world. [202] [203] Despite government efforts to reduce the growing disparity, [204] median income for the top 10% of earners is 44 times that of the bottom 10%. [205] [206]
One of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports, [207] Hong Kong has a market economy focused on services , characterised by low taxation , minimal government market intervention, and an established international financial market. [208] It is the world's 35th-largest economy , with a nominal GDP of approximately US$373 billion. [13] Hong Kong's economy ranked at the top of the Heritage Foundation 's economic freedom index between 1995 and 2021. [209] [210] However, Hong Kong was removed from the index by the Heritage Foundation in 2021, with the Foundation citing a "loss of political freedom and autonomy ... [making Hong Kong] almost indistinguishable in many respects from other major Chinese commercial centers like Shanghai and Beijing". [211] Hong Kong is highly developed, and ranks fourth on the UN Human Development Index . [150] The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh-largest in the world , with a market capitalisation of HK$30.4 trillion (US$3.87 trillion) as of December 2018. [212] Hong Kong is ranked as the 14th most innovative territory in the Global Innovation Index in 2022, [213] and 3rd in the Global Financial Centres Index . [214] The city is sometimes referred to as "Silicon Harbor", [215] a nickname derived from Silicon Valley in California . Hong Kong hosts several high tech and innovation companies, [216] including several multinational companies. [217] [218]
Hong Kong is the ninth- and eight-largest trading entity in exports and imports respectively (2021), [219] [220] trading more goods in value than its gross domestic product. [219] [220] Over half of its cargo throughput consists of transshipments (goods travelling through Hong Kong). Products from mainland China account for about 40% of that traffic. [221] The city's location allowed it to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure which includes the world's seventh-busiest container port [222] and the busiest airport for international cargo. [223] The territory's largest export markets are mainland China and the United States. [150] Hong Kong is a key part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road . [224] It has little arable land and few natural resources, importing most of its food and raw materials. More than 90% of Hong Kong's food is imported, including nearly all of its meat and rice. [225] Agricultural activity is 0.1% of GDP and consists of growing premium food and flower varieties. [226]
Although the territory had one of Asia's largest manufacturing economies during the latter half of the colonial era, Hong Kong's economy is now dominated by the service sector. The sector generates 92.7% of economic output, with the public sector accounting for about 10%. [227] Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product increased by a factor of 180, and per capita GDP increased by a factor of 87. [228] [229] The territory's GDP relative to mainland China's peaked at 27% in 1993; it fell to less than 3% in 2017, as the mainland developed and liberalised its economy. [230] Economic and infrastructure integration with China has increased significantly since the 1978 start of market liberalisation on the mainland. Since resumption of cross-boundary train service in 1979, many rail and road links have been improved and constructed, facilitating trade between regions. [231] [232] The Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement formalised a policy of free trade between the two areas, with each jurisdiction pledging to remove remaining obstacles to trade and cross-boundary investment. [233] A similar economic partnership with Macau details the liberalisation of trade between the special administrative regions. [234] Chinese companies have expanded their economic presence in the territory since the transfer of sovereignty. Mainland firms represent over half of the Hang Seng Index value, up from 5% in 1997. [235] [236]
As the mainland liberalised its economy, Hong Kong's shipping industry faced intense competition from other Chinese ports. Half of China's trade goods were routed through Hong Kong in 1997, dropping to about 13% by 2015. [237] The territory's minimal taxation, common law system, and civil service attract overseas corporations wishing to establish a presence in Asia. [237] The city has the second-highest number of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region. [238] Hong Kong is a gateway for foreign direct investment in China, giving investors open access to mainland Chinese markets through direct links with the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges . The territory was the first market outside mainland China for renminbi-denominated bonds , and is one of the largest hubs for offshore renminbi trading. [239] In November 2020, Hong Kong's Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau proposed a new law that will restrict cryptocurrency trading to professional investors only, leaving amateur traders (93% of Hong Kong's trading population) out of the market. [240] The Hong Kong dollar , the local currency, is the eighth most traded currency in the world. [241] Due to extremely compact house sizes and the extremely high housing density , the city has the most expensive housing market in the world. [242] [243] [244]
The government has had a passive role in the economy. Colonial governments had little industrial policy and implemented almost no trade controls . Under the doctrine of " positive non-interventionism ", post-war administrations deliberately avoided the direct allocation of resources; active intervention was considered detrimental to economic growth. [245] While the economy transitioned to a service basis during the 1980s, [245] late colonial governments introduced interventionist policies. Post-handover administrations continued and expanded these programmes, including export-credit guarantees, a compulsory pension scheme , a minimum wage, anti-discrimination laws , and a state mortgage backer. [246]
Tourism is a major part of the economy, accounting for 5% of GDP. [176] In 2016, 26.6 million visitors contributed HK$258 billion (US$32.9 billion) to the territory, making Hong Kong the 14th most popular destination for international tourists . It is the most popular Chinese city for tourists, receiving over 70% more visitors than its closest competitor (Macau). [247] The city is ranked as one of the most expensive cities for expatriates . [248] [249] However, since 2020, there has been a sharp decline in incoming visitors due to tight COVID-19 travel restrictions. Additionally, due to the closure of Russian airspace in 2022, multiple airlines decided to cease their operations in Hong Kong. [250] In an attempt to attract tourists back to Hong Kong, the Hong Kong government announced plans to give away 500,000 free airline tickets in 2023. [251]
Hong Kong has a highly developed, sophisticated transport network. Over 90% of daily trips are made on public transport, the highest percentage in the world. [252] The Octopus card , a contactless smart payment card, is widely accepted on railways, buses and ferries, and can be used for payment in most retail stores. [253]
The Peak Tram , Hong Kong's first public transport system, has provided funicular rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888. [254] The Central and Western District has an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements , including the Mid-Levels escalator (the world's longest outdoor covered escalator system). [255] Hong Kong Tramways covers a portion of Hong Kong Island. The Mass Transit Railway (MTR) is an extensive passenger rail network, connecting 93 metro stations throughout the territory. [256] With a daily ridership of almost five million, the system serves 41% of all public transit passengers in the city [257] and has an on-time rate of 99.9%. [258] Cross-boundary train service to Shenzhen is offered by the East Rail line , and longer-distance inter-city trains to Guangzhou , Shanghai , and Beijing are operated from Hung Hom station . [259] Connecting service to the national high-speed rail system is provided at West Kowloon railway station . [260]
Although public transport systems handle most passenger traffic, there are over 500,000 private vehicles registered in Hong Kong. [261] Automobiles drive on the left (unlike in mainland China), because of historical influence of the British Empire. [262] Vehicle traffic is extremely congested in urban areas, exacerbated by limited space to expand roads and an increasing number of vehicles. [263] More than 18,000 taxicabs , easily identifiable by their bright colour, are licensed to carry riders in the territory. [264] Bus services operate more than 700 routes across the territory, [257] with smaller public light buses (also known as minibuses) serving areas standard buses do not reach as frequently or directly. [265] Highways, organised with the Hong Kong Strategic Route and Exit Number System , connect all major areas of the territory. [266] The Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge provides a direct route to the western side of the Pearl River estuary. [232]
Hong Kong International Airport is the territory's primary airport. Over 100 airlines operate flights from the airport, including locally based Cathay Pacific ( flag carrier ), Hong Kong Airlines , low-cost airline HK Express and cargo airline Air Hong Kong . [267] It is the eighth-busiest airport by passenger traffic [268] pre-COVID and handles the most air-cargo traffic in the world . [269] Most private recreational aviation traffic flies through Shek Kong Airfield , under the supervision of the Hong Kong Aviation Club . [270]
The Star Ferry operates two lines across Victoria Harbour for its 53,000 daily passengers. [271] Ferries also serve outlying islands inaccessible by other means. Smaller kai-to boats serve the most remote coastal settlements. [272] Ferry travel to Macau and mainland China is also available. [273] Junks , once common in Hong Kong waters, are no longer widely available and are used privately and for tourism. [274] The large size of the port gives Hong Kong the classification of Large-Port Metropolis. [275]
Hong Kong generates most of its electricity locally. [276] The vast majority of this energy comes from fossil fuels, with 46% from coal and 47% from petroleum. [277] The rest is from other imports, including nuclear energy generated in mainland China. [278] Renewable sources account for a negligible amount of energy generated for the territory. [279] Small-scale wind-power sources have been developed, [276] and a small number of private homes and public buildings have installed solar panels. [280]
With few natural lakes and rivers, high population density, inaccessible groundwater sources, and extremely seasonal rainfall, the territory does not have a reliable source of freshwater. The Dongjiang River in Guangdong supplies 70% of the city's water, [281] and the remaining demand is filled by harvesting rainwater. [282] Toilets in most built-up areas of the territory flush with seawater, greatly reducing freshwater use. [281]
Broadband Internet access is widely available, with 92.6% of households connected. Connections over fibre-optic infrastructure are increasingly prevalent, [283] contributing to the high regional average connection speed of 21.9 Mbit/s (the world's fourth-fastest). [284] Mobile-phone use is ubiquitous; [285] there are more than 18 million mobile-phone accounts , [286] more than double the territory's population.
Hong Kong is characterised as a hybrid of East and West . Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law. [287] Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity. The territory diverged from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development. Mainstream culture is derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China. This was influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century. [288] [289] Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers tend to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits. [290] [291] Residents' sense of local identity has markedly increased post-handover: The majority of the population (52%) identifies as "Hongkongers", while 11% describe themselves as "Chinese". The remaining population purport mixed identities, 23% as "Hongkonger in China" and 12% as "Chinese in Hong Kong". [292]
Traditional Chinese family values, including family honour , filial piety , and a preference for sons , are prevalent. [293] Nuclear families are the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families are not unusual. [294] Spiritual concepts such as feng shui are observed; large-scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to feng shui is believed to determine the success of a business. [172] Bagua mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits, [295] and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4 ; [296] the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese. [297]
Food in Hong Kong is primarily based on Cantonese cuisine , despite the territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice is the staple food, and is usually served plain with other dishes. [298] Freshness of ingredients is emphasised. Poultry and seafood are commonly sold live at wet markets , and ingredients are used as quickly as possible. [299] There are five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, and siu yeh . [300] Dim sum , as part of yum cha (brunch), is a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes include congee , cha siu bao , siu yuk , egg tarts , and mango pudding . Local versions of Western food are served at cha chaan teng (Hong Kong-style cafes). Common cha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, and Hong Kong-style milk tea . [298]
Hong Kong developed into a filmmaking hub during the late 1940s as a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory, and these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade. [301] By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as The World of Suzie Wong . [302] When Bruce Lee 's The Way of the Dragon was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During the 1980s, films such as A Better Tomorrow , As Tears Go By , and Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain expanded global interest beyond martial arts films ; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular. [303] Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as Farewell My Concubine , To Live , and Chungking Express . The city's martial arts film roots are evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors. Jackie Chan , Donnie Yen , Jet Li , Chow Yun-fat , and Michelle Yeoh frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. Hong Kong films have also grown popular in oversea markets such as Japan, South Korea, and Southeast Asia, earning the city the moniker "Hollywood of the East". [304] At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually has declined to about 60 in 2017. [305]
Cantopop is a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-style shidaiqu , it is also influenced by Cantonese opera and Western pop. [306] Local media featured songs by artists such as Sam Hui , Anita Mui , Leslie Cheung , and Alan Tam ; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience. [307] The genre's popularity peaked in the 1990s, when the Four Heavenly Kings dominated Asian record charts. [308] Despite a general decline since late in the decade, [309] Cantopop remains dominant in Hong Kong; contemporary artists such as Eason Chan , Joey Yung , and Twins are popular in and beyond the territory. [310]
Western classical music has historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remains a large part of local musical education. [311] The publicly funded Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra , the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosts musicians and conductors from overseas. The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra , composed of classical Chinese instruments , is the leading Chinese ensemble and plays a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community. [312]
Hong Kong has never had a separate national anthem to the country that controlled it; its current official national anthem is therefore that of China, March of the Volunteers . The song Glory to Hong Kong has been used by protestors as an unofficial national anthem. [313] [314]
Despite its small area, the territory is home to a variety of sports and recreational facilities. The city has hosted numerous major sporting events, including the 2009 East Asian Games , the 2008 Summer Olympics equestrian events , and the 2007 Premier League Asia Trophy . [315] The territory regularly hosts the Hong Kong Sevens , Hong Kong Marathon , Hong Kong Tennis Classic and Lunar New Year Cup , and hosted the inaugural AFC Asian Cup and the 1995 Dynasty Cup . [316] [317]
Hong Kong represents itself separately from mainland China, with its own sports teams in international competitions. [315] The territory has participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and has earned nine medals . Lee Lai-shan won the territory's first Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics , [318] and Cheung Ka Long won the second one in Tokyo 2020 . [319] Hong Kong athletes have won 126 medals at the Paralympic Games and 17 at the Commonwealth Games . No longer part of the Commonwealth of Nations , the city's last appearance in the latter was in 1994 . [320]
Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annual Tuen Ng Festival . The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the Tourism Board 's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993. [321]
The Hong Kong Jockey Club , the territory's largest taxpayer, [322] has a monopoly on gambling and provides over 7% of government revenue. [323] Three forms of gambling are legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football. [322]
Education in Hong Kong is largely modelled after that of the United Kingdom , particularly the English system . [324] Children are required to attend school from age 6 until completion of secondary education, generally at age 18. [325] [326] At the end of secondary schooling, all students take a public examination and awarded the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education on successful completion. [327] Of residents aged 15 and older, 81% completed lower-secondary education, 66% graduated from an upper secondary school, 32% attended a non-degree tertiary program, and 24% earned a bachelor's degree or higher. [328] Mandatory education has contributed to an adult literacy rate of 95.7%. [329] The literacy rate is lower than that of other developed economies because of the influx of refugees from mainland China during the post-war colonial era; much of the elderly population were not formally educated because of war and poverty. [330] [331]
Comprehensive schools fall under three categories: public schools, which are government-run; subsidised schools, including government aid-and-grant schools; and private schools, often those run by religious organisations and that base admissions on academic merit. These schools are subject to the curriculum guidelines as provided by the Education Bureau. Private schools subsidised under the Direct Subsidy Scheme ; international schools fall outside of this system and may elect to use differing curricula and teach using other languages. [326]
At primary and secondary school levels, the government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction"; most schools use Cantonese as the medium of instruction , with written education in both Chinese and English. Other languages being used as medium of instruction in non-international school education include English and Putonghua (Standard Mandarin Chinese). Secondary schools emphasise "bi-literacy and tri-lingualism", which has encouraged the proliferation of spoken Mandarin language education. [332]
English is the official medium of instruction and assessments for most university programmes in Hong Kong, although use of Cantonese is predominant in informal discussions among local students and local professors. [ citation needed ]
Hong Kong has eleven universities. The University of Hong Kong (HKU) was founded as the city's first institute of higher education during the early colonial period in 1911. [333] The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) was established in 1963 to fill the need for a university that taught using Chinese as its primary language of instruction. [334] Along with the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) established in 1991, these universities are consistently ranked among the top 50 or top 100 universities worldwide. [335] [336] [337] The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU) [338] and City University of Hong Kong (CityU), both granted university status in 1994, are consistently ranked among the top 100 or top 200 universities worldwide. [335] [336] [337] The Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) was granted university status in 1994 [339] and is a liberal arts institution. Lingnan University , [340] Education University of Hong Kong , [341] Hong Kong Metropolitan University (formerly Open University of Hong Kong), [342] Hong Kong Shue Yan University [343] and Hang Seng University of Hong Kong all attained full university status in subsequent years.
Most of the newsapapers in Hong Kong are written in Chinese but there are also a few English-language newspapers. The major one is the South China Morning Post , with The Standard serving as a business-oriented alternative. A variety of Chinese-language newspapers are published daily; the most prominent are Ming Pao and Oriental Daily News . Local publications are often politically affiliated, with pro-Beijing or pro-democracy sympathies. The central government has a print-media presence in the territory through the state-owned Ta Kung Pao and Wen Wei Po . [344] Several international publications have regional operations in Hong Kong, including The Wall Street Journal , Financial Times , The New York Times International Edition , USA Today , Yomiuri Shimbun , and The Nikkei . [345]
Three free-to-air television broadcasters operate in the territory; TVB , HKTVE , and Hong Kong Open TV air eight digital channels. [346] TVB, Hong Kong's dominant television network, has an 80% viewer share. [347] Pay TV services operated by Cable TV Hong Kong and PCCW offer hundreds of additional channels and cater to a variety of audiences. [346] RTHK is the public broadcaster, providing seven radio channels and three television channels. [348] Ten non-domestic broadcasters air programming for the territory's foreign population. [346] Access to media and information over the Internet is not subject to mainland Chinese regulations, including the Great Firewall , yet local control applies. [349]
- ^ Except for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge Hong Kong Link Road , which drives on the right. [16]
- ^ Chinese : 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區 ; Cantonese Yale : Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui
- ^ Hong Kong permanent residents can be of any nationality. A person without Chinese nationality who has entered Hong Kong with a valid travel document, has ordinarily resided there for a continuous period not less than seven years, and is permanently domiciled in the territory would be legally recognised as a Hongkonger . [17]
- ^ However, decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process. Furthermore, the State Council may enforce national law in the region under specific circumstances.
- ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data in Hong Kong from 1991 to 2020.
- Zhihong, Shi (2006). "China's Overseas Trade Policy and Its Historical Results: 1522–1840" . In Latham, A.J.H. ; Kawakatsu, Heita (eds.). Intra-Asian Trade and the World Market . Routledge . pp. 4–23. ISBN 978-0-415-37207-7 .
- Amendment to the Basic Law Annex I ( Instrument A111 )
- Basic Law Chapter II
- Basic Law Chapter III
- Basic Law Chapter IV
- Basic Law Chapter V
- Basic Law Chapter VII
- Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Another v the President of the Legislative Council , HCAL 185/2016 , at para. 20
- Constitution of the People's Republic of China ( Instrument A1 )
- District Councils Ordinance ( Cap. 547 ) Schedule 3
- Emergency Regulations Ordinance ( Cap. 241 )
- Hong Kong Baptist University Ordinance ( Cap. 1126 )
- Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passports Ordinance ( Cap. 539 )
- Lingnan University Ordinance ( Cap. 1165 )
- Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration , FACV 14/1998 , at para. 63
- Official Languages Ordinance (Cap. 5) § 3 (1)
- Sino-British Joint Declaration ( Instrument A301 )
- Standing Committee Interpretation Concerning Implementation of Chinese Nationality Law in Hong Kong ( Instrument A204 )
- The Education University of Hong Kong Ordinance ( Cap. 444 )
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ordinance ( Cap. 1075 )
- The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance ( Cap. 1145 )
- Chen, Li (2011). "Universalism and Equal Sovereignty as Contested Myths of International Law in the Sino-Western Encounter". Journal of the History of International Law . 13 (1): 75–116. doi : 10.1163/157180511X552054 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | Hong Kong's handover: How the UK returned it to China | - Published
Every year, on 1 July, Hong Kong marks the day where it was returned from British to Chinese control.
This year, the city will celebrate the 25th anniversary of the British handover - at a time when it's coming under increased Chinese control.
But what is Hong Kong's connection to Britain, when was it returned to China, and most importantly, what does its future look like?
Here's what you need to know:
Britain first took over Hong Kong island in 1842, after defeating China in the First Opium War. After the Second Opium War, Beijing was forced to also cede Kowloon in 1860, the area on the mainland opposite the island.
In 1898, to enforce its control of the area, the UK leased additional land, known as the New Territories, promising to return them to China in 99 years.
Hong Kong developed rapidly under UK rule, becoming one of the world's major financial and business centres.
Then in 1982, London and Beijing began the difficult process of negotiating the territory's return to Chinese rule.
Hong Kong had developed a vastly different political and economic system from mainland China, which since 1949 had been under authoritarian one-party Communist rule.
China agreed to govern Hong Kong under the principle of "one country, two systems", where the city would enjoy "a high degree of autonomy, except in foreign and defence affairs" for the next 50 years.
Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region, and would retain certain freedoms, including:
- an independent judiciary
- multiple political parties
- freedom of assembly and speech
The territory has its own mini-constitution - the Basic Law - that enshrines these rights.
It states that "the ultimate aim" is to elect the territory's leader, the chief executive, "by universal suffrage" and "in accordance with democratic procedures".
The leader is the chief executive, elected by a 1,500-member election committee.
The parliament is the Legislative Council (LegCo). It is made up half of directly elected representatives and half by representatives chosen by professional or special interest groups.
In 2021, in a sign of China's increasing influence, Beijing passed a resolution that fundamentally altered LegCo.
Under the new "patriots" law, all LegCo candidates must be vetted by a separate screening committee - making it easier to bar anyone deemed as being critical of Beijing.
It also drastically shrank the proportion of lawmakers who can be directly voted in by the people - from 50% to 22%.
As of 2022, nearly all of the LegCo members are pro-Beijing.
The city's chief executive elections also saw John Lee - a staunch Beijing supporter and the only candidate in the running- appointed to the role.
Over the years, China has increasingly tightened its grip over Hong Kong.
The tipping point was 2019 when China proposed an extradition bill that could potentially allow HongKongers accused of of crimes to be tried in China.
Anger over the potential bill erupted into some of the largest protests Hong Kong had ever seen. Police forces responded to demonstrators with water cannons, rubber bullets and tear gas, exacerbating tensions between protesters and the government.
And on 1 July, protesters forced their way into parliament, tearing portraits down, smashing furniture, with one even raising the old British colonial flag.
In response, China passed the highly controversial National Security Law (NSL) in 2020 - it criminalised any act of secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign forces.
Beijing insists the law is necessary for bringing stability to the city, but critics argue its so loosely defined that it;s made it easier for Beijing to clamp down on protests and free speech.
Hundreds of protesters, activists and former opposition lawmakers have also been arrested since the introduction of the law.
Expressions of political dissent have also been notably muted since.
While 1 July has historically seen pro-democracy protests demanding universal suffrage and Hong Kong's autonomy, recent years have seen few public gatherings.
After 2047, mainland China is no longer obliged to grant Hong Kong the autonomy agreed on with Britain before the 1997 handover, leaving the city's fate unclear.
But one senior Beijing official said the governing principle of "one country, two systems" would not necessarily change come 2047.
"There is no need to change after 50 years," Shen Chunyao said at a legal conference in the weeks leading up to the 25th anniversary of the handover.
However, he suggested that "timely improvements" needed to be made, saying that otherwise "its potential cannot be achieved in the long run".
But others have taken a stronger stance.
"As an inalienable part of China, we cannot afford to be a country that undermines the security of China," said Regina Ip, one of Hong Kong's most well-known pro-Beijing lawmakers.
"If they don't think the current system is sustainable, the option will be to reintegrate Hong Kong, even before 2047." | https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-40426827 | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | Hong Kong’s Freedoms: What China Promised and How It’s Cracking Down | Beijing has tightened its grip on Hong Kong in recent years, dimming hopes that the financial center will ever become a full democracy.
Written By
Summary
- Before the British government handed over Hong Kong in 1997, China agreed to allow the region considerable political autonomy for fifty years under a framework known as “one country, two systems.”
- In recent years, Beijing has cracked down on Hong Kong’s freedoms, stoking mass protests in the city and drawing international criticism.
- Beijing imposed a national security law in 2020 that gave it broad new powers to punish critics and silence dissenters, which has fundamentally altered life for Hong Kongers.
China pledged to preserve much of what makes Hong Kong unique when the former British colony was handed over more than two decades ago. Beijing said it would give Hong Kong fifty years to keep its capitalist system and enjoy many freedoms not found in mainland Chinese cities.
But in recent years, Beijing has taken increasingly brazen steps to encroach on Hong Kong’s political system and crack down on dissent. In 2020, Beijing imposed a sweeping national security law on Hong Kong. Since then, authorities have arrested dozens of pro-democracy activists, lawmakers, and journalists; curbed voting rights; and limited freedoms of the press and speech. These moves have not only drawn international condemnation but have also raised questions about Hong Kong’s status as a global financial hub and dimmed hopes that the city will ever become a full-fledged democracy.
Related
Hong Kong is a special administrative region of the People’s Republic of China that has, until recently, largely been free to manage its own affairs based on “ one country, two systems ,” a national unification policy developed by Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s. The concept was intended to help integrate Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau with sovereign China while preserving their unique political and economic systems. After more than a century and a half of colonial rule, the British government returned Hong Kong in 1997. (Qing Dynasty leaders ceded Hong Kong Island to the British Crown in 1842 after China’s defeat in the First Opium War.) Portugal returned Macau in 1999, and Taiwan remains independent .
Daily News Brief
The Sino-British Joint Declaration of 1984 dictated the terms under which Hong Kong was returned to China. The declaration and Hong Kong’s Basic Law , the city’s constitutional document, enshrine the city’s “capitalist system and way of life” and grant it “a high degree of autonomy,” including executive, legislative, and independent judicial powers for fifty years (until 2047).
Chinese Communist Party officials do not preside over Hong Kong as they do over mainland provinces and municipalities, but Beijing still exerts considerable influence through loyalists who dominate the region’s political sphere. Beijing also maintains the authority to interpret Hong Kong’s Basic Law , a power that it had rarely used until recently. All changes to political processes are supposed to be approved by the Hong Kong government and China’s top legislative body, the National People’s Congress, or its Standing Committee.
Administrative and Autonomous Regions on China’s Periphery
Special administrative regions
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Kazakhstan
Mongolia
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Ningxia
Pakistan
CHINA
Tibet
Nepal
Bhutan
Bangladesh
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Taiwan
Guangxi
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Vietnam
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Hong Kong is allowed to forge external relations in certain areas—including trade, communications, tourism, and culture—but Beijing maintains control over the region’s diplomacy and defense. Under the Basic Law, Hong Kongers are supposed to be guaranteed freedoms of the press, expression, assembly, and religion, as well as protections under international law . But in practice, Beijing has curtailed some of these rights.
Although Hong Kong has certain freedoms, it has never been rated a full democracy [PDF] by international standards. China is a one-party state and is reluctant to allow Hong Kong to hold free and fair elections. Experts say that ambiguity in the Basic Law heightens this fundamental tension. The document states that the “ultimate aim” is to have Hong Kong’s leader elected by a popular vote, but it does not give a deadline for this to occur.
Since the handover, there have been no free votes by universal suffrage for the chief executive, who is the head of the Hong Kong government. The chief executive is instead chosen by an election committee composed of representatives from Hong Kong’s dominant professional sectors and business elite. Hong Kong residents were previously allowed to vote for members of the legislature, known as the Legislative Council, or LegCo, as well as for members of their local district councils, which handle day-to-day community concerns.
But more recently, Beijing has worked to curb Hong Kong residents’ already limited voting rights. It overhauled the electoral system in 2021 to make it easier for pro-Beijing candidates to be appointed as chief executive and as LegCo members. Beijing ruled that only “patriots” who “respect” the Chinese Communist Party can run in elections. Only one candidate was allowed to run in the 2022 chief executive election: John Lee , a hard-line former deputy chief of the city’s police force. For the LegCo, prior to 2021, half of the body’s seventy members were elected by direct voting, while the rest were chosen by groups representing different industries and professions. Now, just twenty members are directly elected and seventy are chosen. In response to these changes, pro-democracy groups boycotted the 2021 LegCo elections, and all ninety seats went to pro-Beijing individuals.
Unlike China, Hong Kong has numerous political parties. They have traditionally split between two factions: pan-democrats, who call for incremental democratic reforms, and pro-establishment groups, who are by and large pro-business supporters of Beijing. The latter have typically been more dominant in Hong Kong politics. (Historically, only a small minority of Hong Kongers have favored outright independence .) Since 2014, student protesters demanding a more democratic system have formed several political groups, including more radical, anti-Beijing parties such as Youngspiration, Hong Kong Indigenous, and Demosisto. But the power of these groups and pro-democracy parties have weakened significantly as Beijing has cracked down on political opposition, including via the national security law. Several parties have disbanded, and members have been forbidden from running in elections or jailed.
Beijing has been chipping away at Hong Kong’s freedoms since the handover, experts say. Over the years, its attempts to impose more control over the city have sparked mass protests , which have in turn led the Chinese government to crack down further.
“In the fifteen years after the handover, there was a series of official initiatives aimed at enhancing Beijing’s control in ways that would undermine both the autonomy and the rule of law,” Michael C. Davis writes in his book Making Hong Kong China .
For instance, in 2003, the Hong Kong government proposed national security legislation that would have prohibited treason, secession, sedition, and subversion against the Chinese government. In 2012, it tried to amend Hong Kong schools’ curricula to foster Chinese national identity, which many residents saw as Chinese propaganda. And in 2014, Beijing proposed a framework for universal suffrage, allowing Hong Kongers to vote for the city’s chief executive but only from a Beijing-approved short list of candidates. Protesters organized massive rallies, known as the Umbrella Movement , to call for true democracy.
In the years following the 2014 protests, Beijing and the Hong Kong government stepped up efforts to rein in dissent, including by prosecuting protest leaders, expelling several new legislators, and increasing media censorship.
In the summer of 2019, Hong Kong saw its largest protests ever . For months, people demonstrated against a Beijing-endorsed legislative proposal that would have allowed extraditions to mainland China. Many protesters believed Beijing had eroded Hong Kong’s freedoms to such an extent that they thought, “either we stop it now, or it’s just basically going to be hell,” says Victoria Tin-bor Hui, a political science professor at the University of Notre Dame. Reports of police brutality, including the excessive use of tear gas and rubber bullets, exacerbated tensions. Chief Executive Carrie Lam withdrew the bill in September, but the protests, which garnered international attention, continued until the outbreak of COVID-19 in early 2020.
Beijing took its most assertive action yet on June 30, 2020, when it bypassed the Hong Kong legislature and imposed a national security law [PDF] on the city. The legislation effectively criminalizes any dissent and adopts extremely broad definitions for crimes such as terrorism, subversion, secession, and collusion with foreign powers. It also allows Beijing to establish a security force in Hong Kong and influence the selection of judges who hear national security cases. Pro-democracy activists and lawmakers decried the move and expressed fears that it could be “ the end of Hong Kong .” Meanwhile, Chinese officials and pro-Beijing lawmakers said it was necessary to restore stability following the massive protests.
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Authorities have used the law to try to eliminate all forms of political opposition. They disqualified pro-democracy candidates from running in elections and removed elected lawmakers for publicly opposing China’s control over Hong Kong. Police have arrested at least 170 people under the law, many of them prominent pro-democracy activists , former lawmakers, and journalists. Thousands more people have been arrested for participating in the 2019 protests. Beijing and the Hong Kong government have also curbed media freedoms , with pro-democracy publications such as the Apple Daily newspaper closing after journalists were harassed and jailed. Moreover, groups that organized protests disbanded. The Hong Kong government’s efforts to transform the public education system by introducing so-called patriotic programs have also troubled many parents and students.
These moves have by and large ended mass public protests and silenced many Hong Kong residents who fought for democracy. Thousands of people, including prominent activists, have fled the city .
Several countries have condemned Beijing’s moves and taken retaliatory measures. Under President Donald Trump, the United States imposed sanctions on Chinese officials it alleged were undermining Hong Kong’s autonomy, restricted exports of defense equipment to Hong Kong, and revoked its special trade status. It also joined a handful of countries, including Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, that suspended their extradition treaties with Hong Kong because of the national security law. President Joe Biden has maintained the sanctions, voiced concerns about Beijing’s crackdown in conversations with Chinese leader Xi Jinping, and warned U.S. companies of the “ growing risks ” [PDF] of doing business in Hong Kong. In August 2021, the Biden administration deferred deportations of the several thousand Hong Kong residents in the United States.
The United Kingdom (UK), which also ended its extradition agreement with the region, said it would allow three million Hong Kong residents to settle in the country and apply for citizenship. Canada announced measures to make it easier for Hong Kong youth to study and work in the country, creating pathways for permanent residency. The European Union, which expressed “ grave concern ” about the national security law, limited exports of equipment that China could use for repression.
However, the opposition has not been unanimous. Fifty-three countries—most of which are participating in China’s Belt and Road Initiative —signed a statement read before the UN Human Rights Council in July 2020 supporting the national security law, while twenty-seven countries signed a statement criticizing it.
Hong Kong is still a global financial hub , but Beijing’s actions could jeopardize its standing. Relatively low taxes, a highly developed financial system, light regulation, and other capitalist features have made Hong Kong one of the world’s most attractive markets and set it apart from mainland financial hubs such as Shanghai and Shenzhen. Multinational firms and banks—many of which maintain regional headquarters in Hong Kong—have historically used the city as a gateway to do business in the mainland, owing in part to its proximity to the world’s second-largest economy and its legal system based on British common law.
However, executives of some companies with large footprints in Hong Kong have voiced concerns about the national security law, criticizing the broad powers given to mainland authorities. The Biden administration has cautioned that companies could violate the vague national security law without realizing it. “Beijing’s ideal scenario is to keep Hong Kong as a financial center without all the freedom. But it seems that you really cannot maintain Hong Kong’s international financial standing while stifling its freedom,” Hui says.
“It seems that you really cannot maintain Hong Kong’s international financial standing while stifling its freedom.”
Some firms have left the city or are boosting hiring in other Asian financial capitals, such as Singapore and Tokyo. The number of American companies with regional bases in Hong Kong fell to an eighteen-year low in 2021. Meanwhile, nearly half of European firms are considering fully or partially moving out of the city by 2023, according to a survey by the European Chamber of Commerce [PDF]. Social media companies, in particular, have expressed unease about a part of the law that requires them to surrender requested user data to the Hong Kong government. TikTok, an app owned by mainland-based company ByteDance, suspended operations in the city.
Also to blame for the exodus are Hong Kong’s COVID-19 restrictions, including a lengthy quarantine requirement and other strict measures imposed in an attempt to align with Beijing’s zero-COVID policy . Authorities banned flights from several countries, including the United States and the UK, as well as restricted gatherings. These moves have led economists to lower predictions for the city’s growth and warn of brain drain. “Hong Kong is facing an exodus of educated workers on a scale not seen since the early 1990s,” said a Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce report.
Other experts believe that Hong Kong can maintain its commercial status despite its democratic decline. In recent years, Beijing has moved to connect Hong Kong more to the mainland, creating the Greater Bay Area project, an ambitious plan to integrate Hong Kong and cities in neighboring Guangdong Province into a more cohesive economic region. Many firms and investors are betting that this increased connectivity will boost the amount of wealth flowing from the mainland into Hong Kong.
“This dramatic transformation will not be the end of Hong Kong as a global financial hub, as it has already begun to boost economic integration with mainland China. But it is surely the death of the democratic hopes of most of its 7.5 million people,” CFR’s Jerome A. Cohen writes.
On The President’s Inbox podcast, the University of Notre Dame’s Victoria Tin-bor Hui explains the national security law imposed on Hong Kong.
During this 2021 roundtable, CFR’s Jerome A. Cohen, Columbia University’s Andrew J. Nathan, and journalist Stephen Vines discuss Hong Kong’s future .
For Foreign Affairs , the Asia Group’s Kurt Tong examines Washington’s struggle to punish Beijing for the crackdown on Hong Kong.
The podcast Hong Kong Silenced tells the story of how life in Hong Kong was turned upside down in the year after the national security law was imposed.
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation goes inside the massive protests in 2019 . | https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/hong-kong-freedoms-democracy-protests-china-crackdown | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | History of Hong Kong - Past, present and future | Discover the history of Hong Kong , from a fishing village in the Chinese empire to a British colony to a major international financial centre and part of China once more.
Inhabited since the Stone Age, the region of Hong Kong was incorporated into Imperial China around the 2nd century BC, and its history reflected that of the mainland for the next two thousand years. Hong Kong's population originally relied on fishing, pearl farming and salt production for their income, but the coastal area eventually became an important free port involved in trade with the British Empire.
By the early 19th century, the British Empire was dependant on importation of tea from China, but could not keep up with the country's demands for silver in exchange and instead started illegally importing opium to China . Opium had long been used in Chinese medicine, but it began to be used as a recreational drug, leading to mass addiction, which the British Empire used to export more and more.
The Qing dynasty , who ruled China at the time, declared their opposition to the illegal trade, kicking off First Opium War in 1839. Britain occupied the island of Hong Kong in 1841, defeating China and concluding the war with the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 , in which part of Hong Kong was ceded to the United Kingdom.
Following the Second Opium War and the 1860 Convention of Beijing , further cessions were agreed: part of the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island, giving Britain complete control of Victoria Harbour. The signing of the second Convention of Beijing in 1898 increased the area of the colony significantly with the New Territories , part of the Kowloon peninsula and Lantau Island , which were leased to Britain for 99 years from 1 July 1898 to 30 June 1997.
Despite plague and typhoons, the population of colonial Hong Kong eventually grew. After the Chinese Revolution of 1911 and the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, Hong Kong became a political refuge for Chinese exiles from the mainland. In 1937, during China's war with Japan over Manchuria, it again became a place of asylum for hundreds of thousands of Chinese people displaced by the Japanese invasion.
The Second World War saw Hong Kong falling into the hands of the Japanese who transformed it into a military centre for their campaign in Asia. The British took back Hong Kong in 1945 after Japan's surrender, and the Chinese Civil War subsequently brought waves of rich and poor refugees from the mainland, providing both capital and cheap labour and building the foundation for Hong Kong later becoming one of the world's financial centres. However, in the 1950s during the Korean War the United States banned trade with communist China , hurting Hong Kong's businesses and slowing its economic progress. As part of the Cultural Revolution in 1967, violent riots protesting against colonial power paralysed the economy and the Hong Kong stock market collapsed in 1973.
Despite this, during the following decades there was a massive influx of immigrants from the mainland and from surrounding countries, particularly Vietnam. Increased labour meant rapid growth , and by the end of the 1980s, Hong Kong had become one of the wealthiest places in Asia .
As the end of British lease on the New Territories approached, China and Britain began talks on the future of Hong Kong. Their Joint Declaration, signed on 19 December 1984, pronounced Hong Kong a Special Administrative Region of China . The agreement, set out as the Basic Law of Hong Kong , promised that, under the " one country, two systems " policy, Hong Kong would retain its capitalist economy and existing legal system for the next 50 years until 2047, but China would take over foreign policy and defence.
Uncertainty about the future under Chinese rule lead to the mass emigration of tens of thousands of Hong Kong citizens at the end of the 1980s. This concern turned to fear when on 4 June 1989 the Chinese army killed pro-democracy demonstrators in Tiananmen Square in Beijing . Relations between the UK and China were further strained by disagreements over the financing of a new airport on Lantau Island, and by democratic reforms introduced by the last British governor of Hong Kong. Even so, on 1 July 1997, Hong Kong was transferred to China as a Special Administrative Region .
Since the handover, Hong Kong has become one of the world's leading tourist, industrial and financial centres , playing the role of a springboard for trade and investment from the mainland. However, civil unrest, dissatisfaction with the Chinese government and a desire for democracy have remained a central issue.
The most recent political demonstrations against a proposed extradition law have been ongoing since June 2019, and are considered to be the largest public protest in Hong Kong history . The current regime is set to end in 2047 , although there is much speculation as to what this will mean: Hong Kong could be fully reintegrated into China, or the territory could continue to be administered separately. | https://www.introducinghongkong.com/history | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | History of Hong Kong - Wikipedia | The region of Hong Kong has been inhabited since the Old Stone Age , later becoming part of the Chinese Empire with its loose incorporation into the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). Starting out as a farming fishing village and salt production site, it became an important free port and eventually a major international financial center . [1]
The Qing dynasty ceded Hong Kong to the British Empire in 1842 through the treaty of Nanjing , ending the First Opium War . Hong Kong then became a British crown colony . [2] Britain also won the Second Opium War , forcing the Qing Empire to cede Kowloon in 1860, while leasing the New Territories for 99 years from 1898. [3] [4]
Japan occupied Hong Kong from 1941 to 1945 during World War II . [5] By the end of the war in 1945, Hong Kong had been liberated by joint British and Chinese troops and returned to British rule. [6] Hong Kong greatly increased its population from refugees from Mainland China, particularly during the Korean War and the Great Leap Forward . In the 1950s, Hong Kong transformed from a territory of entrepôt trade to one of industry and manufacturing. [7] The Chinese economic reform prompted manufacturers to relocate to China, leading Hong Kong to develop its commercial and financial industry.
In 1984, the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration , which incited a wave of emigration from Hong Kong. [8] The Handover of Hong Kong on 1 July 1997, returned Hong Kong to Chinese rule, and it adopted the Hong Kong Basic Law . [9] [10]
In the 21st century, Hong Kong has continued to enjoy success as a financial centre. However, civil unrest, dissatisfaction with the government and Chinese influence, in general, has been a central issue. [11] The planned implementation of Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23 caused great controversy and a massive demonstration on 1 July 2003 , causing the bill to be shelved. [12] Citizens expressed displeasure at their electoral system, culminating in the 2014 Hong Kong protests . [13] In 2019, the proposed Hong Kong extradition bill was seen as another step taken by the Chinese Communist Party to undermine Hong Kong's Rule of Law, instigating a new wave of protests . [14] In 2020, the National People's Congress passed the Hong Kong national security law to restore stability in the territory. The new law was highly scrutinized by the pro-democracy faction and provoked further political pessimism among the city's populace. [15] [16]
Archaeological findings suggesting human activity in Hong Kong date back over 30,000 years. Stone tools from the Old Stone Age have been excavated in Sai Kung in Wong Tei Tung . [17] The stone tools found in Sai Kung were perhaps from a stone tool making ground from perhaps the Late Neolithic Period or Early Bronze Age . [18]
Evidence of an Upper Paleolithic settlement in Hong Kong was found at Wong Tei Tung in Sham Chung beside the Three Fathoms Cove in Sai Kung Peninsula . There were 6000 artefacts found in a slope in the area and jointly confirmed by the Hong Kong Archaeological Society and Centre for Lingnan Archaeology of Zhongshan University . [19]
The Neolithic Era began approximately 7,000 years ago in Hong Kong. The settlers in this area during that time were the Che people , who also settled on the coast of Southern China. Excavations were mostly found on the western shores of Hong Kong. This location was most likely chosen to avoid strong winds from the southeast and to collect food from the nearby shores. Settlement can be found in Cheung Chau , Lantau Island and Lamma Island .
The coming of the Warring States period brought an influx of Yuet people from the north into the area. They probably might have avoided the instabilities at the north and went south. Bronze fishing, combat, and ritual tools were excavated on Lantau Island and Lamma Island. Ma Wan was the earliest settlement with direct evidence in Hong Kong. The Yuet people competed and assimilated with the indigenous Che people. [20] Hong Kong's prehistoric period ended roughly around the duration of the Qin and Han dynasties, when the territory became part of Panyu County .
The territory that now comprises Hong Kong was loosely part of China during the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), and the area was part of the ancient kingdom of Nam Viet (203–111 BC). [21] During the Qin dynasty, the territory was governed by Panyu County until the time of the Jin dynasty . [22]
Archaeological evidence indicates that the population increased during the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220). In the 1950s, the tomb at Lei Cheng Uk from the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD) was excavated and archaeologists began to investigate the possibility that salt production flourished in Hong Kong around 2000 years ago, although conclusive evidence has not been found. Tai Po Hoi , the sea of Tai Po, was a major pearl hunting harbour in China from the Han dynasty through to the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), with activities peaking during the Southern Han (917–971).
During the Jin dynasty until the early Tang dynasty , Hong Kong was governed by Bao'an County . Under the Tang dynasty , the Guangdong region flourished as an international trading centre. The Tuen Mun region in what is now Hong Kong's New Territories served as a port, naval base, salt production centre and later as a base for the exploitation of pearls. Lantau Island was also a salt production centre, where riots by salt smugglers against the government broke out. From the middle of the Tang dynasty until the Ming dynasty, Hong Kong was governed by Dongguan County .
On 10 May 1278, Child Zhao Bing , the last Song Dynasty emperor, was enthroned at Mui Wo on Lantau Island; this event is commemorated by the Sung Wong Toi memorial in Kowloon. [23] [24] After his defeat at the Battle of Yamen on 19 March 1279, the child emperor committed suicide by drowning with his officials at Mount Ya (modern Yamen Town in Guangdong). [25]
During the Mongol period, Hong Kong saw its first population boom as Chinese refugees entered the area. Most of these refugees were Chinese Song dynasty loyalists fleeing the Mongol conquest of Song China . [25]
Despite the immigration and sparse development of agriculture, the area was hilly and relatively barren. People had to rely on salt, pearl and fishery trades to produce income. Some clans built walled villages to protect themselves from the threat of bandits, rival clans and wild animals. The Qing-dynasty Chinese pirate Cheung Po Tsai became a legend in Hong Kong.
In the mid-17th Century, after the Great Clearance policy which purged most of the region's population, under the Kangxi Emperor order, many Hakka people migrated from inland China to Xin'an County, which included modern Hong Kong.
During the Ming and Qing dynasty , Hong Kong remained under the governance of Xin'an County (renamed from Bao'an County), before it was colonised by the British . As a military outpost and trading port, Hong Kong's territory gained the attention of the world.
Before the British government colonised the New Territories and New Kowloon in 1898, Punti , Hakka , Tanka and Hoklo people had migrated to and stayed in Hong Kong for many years. They are the indigenous inhabitants of Hong Kong. The Punti and Hoklo lived in the New Territories while the Tanka and Hakka lived both in the New Territories and Hong Kong Island. British reports on Hong Kong described the Tanka and Hoklo living in Hong Kong "since time unknown". [26] [27] The Encyclopaedia Americana described Hoklo and Tanka as living in Hong Kong "since prehistoric times". [28] [29] [30]
When the Union Flag was raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841, the population of Hong Kong island was about 7,450, mostly Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners living in several coastal villages. [31] [32] In the 1850s large numbers of Chinese would emigrate from China to Hong Kong due to the Taiping Rebellion . Other events such as floods, typhoons and famine in mainland China would also play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place to escape the mayhem.
By the early 19th century, the British Empire trade was heavily dependent upon the importation of tea, silk, and porcelain from China. [33] [34] While the British exported to China luxury items like clocks, watches, there remained an overwhelming imbalance in trade. China developed a strong demand for silver, which was a difficult commodity for the British to come by in large quantities. The counterbalance of trade came with exports to China of opium grown in India. By the late 19th century China grew most of the opium it used. [35] A Chinese commissioner Lin Zexu voiced to Queen Victoria the Qing state's opposition to the opium trade. The First Opium War which ensued lasted from 1839 to 1842. Britain occupied the island of Hong Kong on 25 January 1841 and used it as a military staging point. China was defeated and was forced to cede Hong Kong in the Treaty of Nanking signed on 29 August 1842. The island became a Crown Colony of the British Empire. [36]
Christian missionaries founded many schools and churches in Hong Kong. St Stephen's Anglican Church located in West Point was founded by the Church Mission Society in 1865. Ying Wa Girls' School located in Mid-levels was founded by the London Missionary Society in 1900. The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese was founded by the London Missionary Society in 1887, and Sun Yat-sen was one of its first two graduates in 1892. The college was the forerunner of the School of Medicine of the University of Hong Kong , which was established in 1911.
Along with fellow students Yeung Hok-ling , Chan Siu-bak and Yau Lit , Sun Yat-sen started to promote the thought of overthrowing the Qing empire while he studied in the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. The four students were known by the Qing as the Four Bandits . Sun attended To Tsai Church (道濟會堂, founded by the London Missionary Society in 1888) while he studied in this college. Sun led the Chinese Revolution of 1911 , which changed China from an empire to a republic.
In April 1899, the residents of Kam Tin rebelled against the colonial government. They defended themselves in Kat Hing Wai , a walled village. After several unsuccessful attacks by the British troops, the iron gate was blasted open. The gate was then shipped to London for exhibition. Under the demand of the Tang clan in 1924, the gate was eventually returned in 1925 by the 16th governor, Sir Reginald Stubbs .
The first gas company opened in 1862. In 1890 came the first electric company . For local travel rickshaws gave way to buses , ferries , and trams . Imperial Airways set up a base in 1936. [37] Every industry went through major transformation and growth. Western-style education made advances through the efforts of Frederick Stewart . [38] This was a crucial step in separating Hong Kong from mainland China during the political turmoil associated with the falling Qing dynasty. The base of the future financial center was formed with the opening of The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank in 1865. [39]
The Third Pandemic of Bubonic Plague attacked Hong Kong in the 1894 Hong Kong plague . It provided the pretext for racial zoning with the creation of Peak Reservation Ordinance [40] and recognising the importance of the first hospital .
On the outbreak of World War I in 1914, fear of a possible attack on the colony led to an exodus of 60,000 Chinese. However, Hong Kong during World War I saw no direct military action, and Hong Kong's population continued to boom in the following decades from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925. Nonetheless, the crisis in mainland China in the 1920s and 1930s left Hong Kong vulnerable to a strategic invasion from Imperial Japan .
In 1937 Hong Kong was struck by a major typhoon .
In 1860, at the end of the Second Opium War, the UK gained a perpetual lease over the Kowloon Peninsula, which is the mainland Chinese area just across the strait from Hong Kong Island. This agreement was part of the Convention of Beijing that ended that conflict. [ citation needed ]
During the second half of the 19th century, the British became increasingly weary of the Chinese controlled islands surrounding their newly bought port. After the Second Opium War (1898, Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory ) the British negotiated a lease of the "New Territories" in which the British would receive newer outlying islands for 99 years. [42]
On 19 December 1984, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which Britain agreed to return not only the New Territories but also Kowloon and Hong Kong itself when the lease term expired. China promised to implement a "One Country, Two Systems" regime, under which for fifty years Hong Kong citizens could continue to practice capitalism and political freedoms forbidden on the mainland. [43]
On 1 July 1997 (25 years ago) , the lease ended, and the United Kingdom transferred control of Hong Kong and surrounding territories to the People's Republic of China. [ citation needed ]
Hong Kong was occupied by Japan from 23 December 1941 to 15 August 1945. The period, called '3 years and 8 months' halted the economy. The British, Canadians, Indians and the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Forces resisted the Japanese invasion commanded by Sakai Takashi which started on 8 December 1941, eight hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor . Japan achieved air superiority on the first day of battle and the defensive forces were outnumbered. The British and the Indians retreated from the Gin Drinker's Line and consequently from Kowloon under heavy aerial bombardment and artillery barrage. Fierce fighting continued on Hong Kong Island ; the only reservoir was lost. Canadian Winnipeg Grenadiers fought at the crucial Wong Nai Chong Gap , which was the passage between the north and the secluded southern parts of the island.
On 25 December 1941, referred to as Black Christmas by locals, British colonial officials headed by the Governor of Hong Kong , Mark Aitchison Young , surrendered in person at the Japanese headquarters on the third floor of the Peninsula Hotel . Isogai Rensuke became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong.
During the Japanese occupation, hyper-inflation and food rationing became the norm of daily lives. It became unlawful to own Hong Kong Dollars , which were replaced by the Japanese Military Yen , a currency without reserves issued by the Imperial Japanese Army administration. During the three and half years of occupation by the Japanese, an estimated 10,000 Hong Kong civilians were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated. [44] Philip Snow, a prominent historian of the period, said that the Japanese cut rations for civilians to conserve food for soldiers, usually to starvation levels and deported many to famine- and disease-ridden areas of the mainland . Most of the repatriated had come to Hong Kong just a few years earlier to flee the terror of the Second Sino-Japanese War in mainland China.
By the end of the war in 1945, Hong Kong had been liberated by joint British and Chinese troops. The population of Hong Kong had shrunk to 600,000; less than half of the pre-war population of 1.6 million due to scarcity of food and emigration. The communist revolution in China in 1949 led to another population boom in Hong Kong. Thousands of refugees emigrated from mainland China to Hong Kong, and made it an important entrepôt until the United Nations ordered a trade embargo on mainland China due to the Korean War . More refugees came during the Great Leap Forward .
After the Second World War, the trend of decolonization swept across the world. Still, Britain chose to keep Hong Kong for strategic reasons. In order to consolidate its rule, constitutional changes, the Young Plan , were proposed in response to the trend of decolonization so as to meet the needs of the people. The political and institutional system made only minimal changes due to the political instability in Mainland China at that time (aforementioned) which caused an influx of mainland residents to Hong Kong.
Skills and capital brought by refugees of Mainland China, especially from Shanghai, along with a vast pool of cheap labour helped revive the economy. At the same time, many foreign firms relocated their offices from Shanghai to Hong Kong. Enjoying unprecedented growth, Hong Kong transformed from a territory of entrepôt trade to one of industry and manufacturing. The early industrial centres, where many of the workers spent the majority of their days, turned out anything that could be produced with small space from buttons , artificial flowers , umbrellas , textile , enamelware , footwear to plastics .
Large squatter camps developed throughout the territory providing homes for the massive and growing number of immigrants. The camps, however, posed a fire and health hazard, leading to disasters like the Shek Kip Mei Fire . Governor Alexander Grantham responded with a "multi-storey buildings" plan as a standard. It was the beginning of the high rise buildings. Conditions in public housing were very basic with several families sharing communal cooking facilities. Other aspects of life changed as traditional Cantonese opera gave way to big screen cinemas . The tourism industry began to formalise. North Point was known as " Little Shanghai " (小上海), since in the minds of many, it had already become the replacement for the surrendered Shanghai in China. [45]
The manufacturing industry opened a new decade employing large sections of the population. The period is considered a turning point for Hong Kong's economy. The construction business was also revamped with new detailed guidelines for the first time since World War II. While Hong Kong started out with a low GDP , it used the textile industry as the foundation to boost the economy. China's cultural revolution put Hong Kong on a new political stage. Events like the 1967 riot filled the streets with home-made bombs and chaos. Bomb disposal experts from the police and the British military defused as many as 8,000 home-made bombs. One in every eight bombs was genuine. [46]
Family values and Chinese tradition were challenged as people spent more time in the factories than at home. Other features of the period included water shortages, long working hours coupled with extremely low wages. The Hong Kong Flu of 1968 infected 15% of the population. [47] Amidst all the struggle, "Made in Hong Kong" went from a label that marked cheap low-grade products to a label that marked high-quality products. [48] [ when? ]
The 1970s saw the extension of government subsidised education from six years to nine years and the setup of Hong Kong's country parks system .
The opening of the mainland Chinese market and rising salaries drove many manufacturers north. Hong Kong consolidated its position as a commercial and tourism centre in Asia. High life expectancy , literacy, per-capita income and other socio-economic measures attest to Hong Kong's achievements over the last four decades of the 20th century. Higher income also led to the introduction of the first high-rise, private housing estates with Taikoo Shing . From this time, people's homes became part of Hong Kong's skyline and scenery.
In 1974, Murray McLehose founded the ICAC , the Independent Commission Against Corruption, in order to combat corruption within the police force . The corruption was so widespread that a mass police petition took place resisting prosecutions. Despite early opposition to the ICAC by the police force, Hong Kong was successful in its anti-corruption efforts, eventually becoming one of the least corrupt societies in the world .
The early 1970s saw legislation requiring equal pay and benefits for equal work by men and women, including the right for married women to be permanent employees. [49] [50] [51]
In 1982, the British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher , hoped that the increasing openness of the PRC government and the economic reform in the mainland would allow the continuation of British rule. The resulting meeting led to the signing of Sino-British Joint Declaration and the proposal of the One country, two systems concept by Deng Xiaoping . But this time, Hong Kong was recognised as one of the wealthiest representatives of the far east. Political news dominated the media; while real estate took a major upswing, the financial world was rattled by panics, resulting in waves of changes in policy and Black Saturday . Warnings of the coming handover raised emigration levels to historic highs. Many left Hong Kong for the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Japan, and anywhere else in the world without any communist influence.
Hong Kong's Cinema enjoyed one paramount run that put it on the international map. Some of the biggest names included Jackie Chan and Chow Yun-fat . The music world also saw a new group of cantopop stars like Anita Mui and Leslie Cheung .
On 4 April 1990, the Hong Kong Basic Law was officially accepted as the mini-constitution of the Hong Kong SAR after the handover. The pro-Beijing bloc welcomed the Basic Law, calling it the most democratic legal system to ever exist in the PRC. The pro-democratic bloc criticised it as not democratic enough. In July 1992, Chris Patten was appointed as the last British Governor of Hong Kong . Patten had been Chairman of the Conservative Party in the UK until he lost his parliamentary seat in the general election earlier that year. Relations with the PRC government in Beijing became increasingly strained, as Patten introduced democratic reforms that increased the number of elected members in the Legislative Council . The PRC government viewed this as a breach of the Basic Law. On 1 July 1997, Hong Kong was handed over to Communist China by the United Kingdom. The old Legislative Council, elected under Chris Patten's reforms, was replaced by the Provisional Legislative Council elected by a selection committee whose members were appointed by the PRC government. Tung Chee Hwa assumed duty as the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong , elected in December by a selection committee with members appointed by the PRC government. He immediately reappointed the entire team of policy secretaries, guaranteeing significant continuity. [52]
|Unchanged after 1997 [ when? ]||Changed after 1997|
The new millennium signalled a series of events. A sizeable portion of the population that was previously against the handover found itself living with the adjustments. Article 23 became a controversy, and led to marches in different parts of Hong Kong with as many as 750,000 people out of a population of approximately 6,800,000 at the time. The government also dealt with the SARS outbreak in 2003. A further health crisis, the Bird Flu Pandemic (H5N1) gained momentum from the late 90s, and led to the disposal of millions of chickens and other poultry. The slaughter put Hong Kong at the centre of global attention. At the same time, the economy tried to adjust fiscally. Within a short time, the political climate heated up and the Chief Executive position was challenged culturally, politically and managerially.
Hong Kong's skylines have continued to evolve, with three new skyscrapers dominating, each in Kowloon , Tsuen Wan and Victoria, Hong Kong . The 415 metre (1,362-feet) tall 88 storey Two International Finance Centre , completed in 2003, previously Hong Kong's tallest building, has been eclipsed by the 484 metre (1,588-feet) tall, 118 storey International Commerce Centre in West Kowloon, which was topped-out in 2010 and remains the tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong. Also worth mentioning is the 320 metre (1,051-feet) tall Nina Tower located in Tsuen Wan . Eight additional skyscrapers over 250 meters (825 feet) have also been completed during this time. [55]
Occupy Central with Love and Peace (OCLP; 讓愛與和平佔領中環 or 和平佔中) was a single-purpose Hong Kong civil disobedience campaign convened by Reverend Chu Yiu-ming, Dr Benny Tai Yiu-ting, and Chan Kin-man on 27 March 2013. Its aim was to pressure the PRC Government into reforming the systems for election of the Hong Kong Chief Executive and Legislative Council so as to satisfy "international standards in relation to universal suffrage" as promised in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration and Article 45 of the 1997 Hong Kong Basic Law. Its manifesto called for occupation of the region's central business district if such reforms were not made. Upstaged by the Hong Kong Federation of Students (HKFS) and Scholarism in September 2014, its leaders joined in the Occupy Central protests .
The number of impoverished Hongkongers hit a record high in 2016 with one in five people living below the poverty line. [56] Along with housing issues was growing sentiment over the influence of the Chinese Communist Party and Chinese culture. The anti-Hong Kong Express Rail Link movement protested at the proposed Hong Kong section of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link ; the link was nevertheless completed in 2018. The Hong Kong 818 incident , inhibited by the visit of Li Keqiang , caused controversy regarding civil rights violations. The Moral and National Education controversy exemplified the conflict between communist and nationalist positions of China's government with democratic sentiments expressed by Hong Kong citizens.
The 2016 Legislative council election saw the localists emerging as a new political force behind the pro-Beijing and pan-democracy camps by winning six seats in Hong Kong's geographical constituencies . However, six candidates were barred from contesting by the Electoral Affairs Commission , due to their association with the Hong Kong independence movement. Another six localist members who were elected were disqualified in the Hong Kong Legislative Council oath-taking controversy . After the 5th Hong Kong Chief Executive Election , Carrie Lam became the first female Chief Executive of Hong Kong. However, her proposal of the Fugitive Offenders and Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters Legislation (Amendment) Bill 2019 has led to mass demonstrations against its implementation. The bill would make it legal for China to extradite criminals from Hong Kong, potentially including political prisoners . It is feared that the bill would cause the city to open itself up to the reach of mainland Chinese law and that people from Hong Kong could become subject to a different legal system.
On the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress established the Hong Kong National Security Law which came into effect on 1 July 2020. In November 2020 the National People's Congress authorised the dismissal of any Legco members who are perceived to ask for help from foreign countries and who "refuse to recognise China's sovereignty over Hong Kong". After multiple pro-Democracy members of Legco resigned, the Government of the United Kingdom stated that the PRC was not upholding the Sino-British treaty. [57]
On 27 January 2021, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping said that Hong Kong could only maintain its long-term stability and security by ensuring "patriots governing Hong Kong" when he heard a work report delivered by Carrie Lam. [58] On 1 March, HKMAO director Xia Baolong in the seminar of "patriots governing Hong Kong" stated that Hong Kong must establish a "democratic electoral system with Hong Kong characteristics." [59]
A " decision on improving the electoral system of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region " was passed by the National People's Congress (NPC) on 11 March 2021 to rewrite the election rules in Hong Kong to ensure a system of "patriots governing Hong Kong." [60] [61] By amending the Annex I and Annex II of the Basic Law of Hong Kong , the composition of the Legislative Council (LegCo) and the Election Committee (EC). All electoral candidate of Chief Executive, Legislative Council Member, and Election Committee Member requires prior approval from the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee .
On 23 June 2021, The pro- democracy tabloid Apple Daily announces that its final edition will be released on Thursday and that it will later cease activities after five top executives were arrested under the national security law and the tabloid's assets were frozen. Apple Daily founder, Jimmy Lai is already imprisoned and awaits trial, along with 46 others, on subversion charges. In the year 2021, it was announced that the library named "Ocean Sea Public Library," the largest library in Asia, would open in Hong Kong . [62] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | Hong Kong (August 1997) - Library of Congress Information Bulletin | From Fishing Village to Financial Center
By JUDY LU KESTELL and HAROLD MEINHEIT
Hong Kong is a unique melding of Eastern and Western influences, whose history has made it a meeting point for China and the outside world. In this environment, Hong Kong's Chinese population, more than 95 percent of the former colony's residents, has developed a distinctive culture.
As one of the world's great cities, Hong Kong has many faces. To scholars and journalists, it was long the best place to play "China-watcher." To the business and financial community, Hong Kong remains one of the best places in the world to make money. To artists, writers and filmmakers, the city's colorful history and dramatic beauty have provided inspiration and vivid settings for art, books and movies. To tourists, it is a shopper's paradise with great restaurants and magnificent harbor views.
Hong Kong consists of Hong Kong Island (ceded by China to Britain in 1842), the southern part of the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island (ceded in 1860) and the New Territories, which include the mainland area lying to the north and 235 offshore islands. The New Territories were leased from China for 99 years beginning in 1898.
At midnight on June 30, China took the territory back from Great Britain as a "Special Administrative Region" that, the Chinese government has promised, will retain its present economic and social system for the next 50 years.
How did this unique city emerge from a sparsely populated coastal area to become one of the world's most vibrant international centers of commerce? A Library exhibition, "Hong Kong: From Fishing Village to Financial Center," tries to answer this question by tracing Hong Kong's development from the mid-19th century to the present, through materials from the Library of Congress collections.
Archaeological evidence of human settlement in the area of modern-day Hong Kong goes back to the fourth millennium B.C., although the identity of these early inhabitants is uncertain. Since the southern expansion of the Qin (221-207 B.C.) and the Han (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) dynasties, there have been Chinese settlements in the Hong Kong region; however, the area was never heavily populated.
When the British started using the excellent harbor on the northern side of Hong Kong Island in the early 1840s, they found more than 3,000 inhabitants in villages and 2,000 fishermen living in their boats in the harbor. The British started referring to the small, hilly, rocky island sheltering the harbor as "Hong Kong," which comes from a local Cantonese dialect and means "fragrant harbor."
The British colony of Hong Kong was born from the clash between two great empires. The ostensible reason for the outbreak of war between China and Great Britain in 1839 was opium, which the British and other Western traders were importing illegally into China.
The roots of the conflict, however, went much deeper, growing out of two fundamentally different concepts of international relations and trade. In the face of Western pressures to open China to trade, the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) clung to the old tributary system and struggled to keep the West at bay. Resenting the Qing dynasty's disdain of foreigners, Britain and other Western traders demanded equal treatment and commercial access to the Chinese market.
Britain acquired Hong Kong Island under the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) in 1842 at the end of its first war with China. Friction between China and the West, however, increased in 1850 when a new emperor assumed the throne in Beijing, and it became clear the treaties were not being observed. Another war, fought between 1856 and 1860, resulted in Britain's obtaining the tip of the Kowloon Peninsula (on the mainland across the harbor from Hong Kong Island) and Stonecutters Island.
The commercial development of Hong Kong's fine natural harbor, which had attracted the British in the first place, began slowly, and Hong Kong lagged behind Shanghai as a port. With the discovery of gold in California in 1849, however, Hong Kong became a center for Chinese emigration from Guangdong Province to the United States, helping to build Hong Kong's economy, as many of the Chinese who went to California returned with their new-found riches.
By the last quarter of the 19th century, Hong Kong had developed as a British Crown Colony. The 1880s and 1890s were the heyday of colonialism in Asia, and colonial society in Hong Kong reflected the temper of the times. During this period, Hong Kong became an increasingly popular destination for western travelers in Asia. In 1879 Ulysses S. Grant visited Hong Kong during his two-year voyage around the world. Grant's official welcome united the former commander of the Union army with Col. John Mosby, the former Confederate guerrilla leader (who was representing the United States in Hong Kong), and Hong Kong Gov. Sir John Pope-Hennessy, in full imperial regalia. Hong Kong's elite society loved it.
One of the key developments of the 1890s was the construction of the Peak Tramway, an inclined-rail carrier that provided easy access to the top of Victoria Peak, the hill that dominates Hong Kong Island. Before the tram, the only way up was by sedan chair, carried by footmen. With easier access, "the Peak" became the most prestigious residential area of the colony, remaining so to this day. Hong Kong also gained in importance to the United States Navy when Adm. George Dewey used Mirs Bay, located on the eastern shores of the New Territories, as a staging area for his fleet during the Spanish-American War of 1898.
While British colonial society was flowering, important developments were taking place in the Chinese community. One of the most significant was the establishment of the Tung Wah Hospital in 1872. Beyond running a hospital for local Chinese, Tung Wah's Board of Governors soon started to play a broader leadership role in the Chinese community and functioned as an effective link to the British administration.
In 1887 the Hong Kong College of Medicine opened, and it provided an opportunity for the Chinese to obtain medical degrees. It also paved the way for another landmark event -- the opening of the University of Hong Kong in 1912. A second major university, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, opened in 1963.
The first half of the 20th century in Asia saw the birth of the Chinese revolution, growing anticolonial movements in the Southeast, and the rise of Japanese militarism, leading to the outbreak of World War II on the continent. Although not a major player, Hong Kong participated in the drama.
During the 1920s, increasing turmoil in China spread to Hong Kong in the form of a general strike in 1925 and a boycott of British goods that lasted until the fall of 1926. Hong Kong also provided a temporary base for Vietnamese revolutionaries such as Ho Chi Minh in early 1930.
By 1937, the Sino-Japanese War broke out and thousands of Chinese fled to Hong Kong, swelling the population to more than 1.6 million four years later. In December 1941, as it attacked Pearl Harbor, Japan attacked and occupied Hong Kong. Many citizens of the colony were imprisoned, and most had limited access to food and other resources. By the time the British returned at war's end in August 1945, the population had been reduced to approximately 600,000 residents.
During the 1950s, Hong Kong began its transformation to the modern economic success story of today. An influx of capital and entrepreneurial talent from Shanghai in the late 1940s and the Korean War trade embargo of China in 1950 spurred the colony's industrial development.
The 1950s also saw a worsening of Hong Kong's most serious social problem, a severe housing shortage caused by the influx of refugees fleeing the mainland. The development of public housing has been one of the Hong Kong government's major programs since that period, and today the squatter areas have largely disappeared.
With the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, much of the West was cut off from contact with the communist country. Diplomats, scholars and journalists based in Hong Kong used access to China's press, radio broadcasts, refugees and local contacts in the arcane art of "China-watching." For its part, China could maintain some contacts with the West through its unofficial representatives in Hong Kong at the New China (Xinhua) News Agency and the Bank of China.
Hong Kong was not isolated from Chinese domestic politics, however, especially during the Cultural Revolution of 1966-76. The Chinese government incited citizens of Hong Kong to protest British rule. The result was large-scale demonstrations against the colonial government, sometimes violent, during the spring and summer of 1967. The police handled the eruptions with firmness but restraint. Moreover, China did not force a confrontation with Britain and order was restored by that fall.
With President Richard Nixon's trip to China in 1972 and the establishment of full U.S. diplomatic relations with Beijing in 1979, Hong Kong's role as a "China-watching" post declined. However, its economic role grew dramatically as Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms began to take hold in the early 1980s.
As Hong Kong grew into an international financial center, its culture became a mixture of the East and the West. The local Chinese absorbed elements of Western art, fashion, food, music, entertainment, and consumer behavior, thus creating a colorful, modern culture unique in Asia.
Traditional Chinese arts have comfortably coexisted with Western-influenced ones. Writers in the local Chinese community have clung to the ancient history of China as a source of literary inspiration. Moreover, traditional Chinese opera, which portrays heroes and heroines from the ancient Chinese dynasties, continues to attract a large local Cantonese audience.
Although martial arts did not originate in Hong Kong, they became popular with large numbers of Chinese and were featured in novels and films. Hong Kong's vibrant film industry produces large numbers of movies that are popular there and in many overseas Chinese communities.
For much of the 20th century, Hong Kong has been "a borrowed place living on borrowed time." Worry about the future surfaced again in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when Hong Kong's business community started to express unease about the New Territories lease, set to expire in 1997.
Legally, commercial leases in the New Territories could not be extended beyond June 30, 1997. As the date approached, therefore, shorter and shorter leases would be necessary, providing less time for investors to realize profits. This would, many feared, begin to damage investor confidence in Hong Kong.
Under pressure from the business community, during Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's visit to Beijing in 1982, Britain raised the issue of extending the New Territories lease. China, however, had long taken the position that all the 19th century treaties and agreements on Hong Kong were "unequal" and as such were not binding. Extending the New Territories lease was not an option, and Britain's discussions with China became serious negotiations over the terms of Hong Kong's return to China. These negotiations concluded in 1984 with the signing of the Joint Declaration. Drafting of the Basic Law was completed in 1990, setting the stage for the formal transformation of Hong Kong into a Special Administrative Region of China on July 1, 1997.
Ms. Kestell is an area specialist in the Asian Division, and Mr. Meinheit is a consultant on the Hong Kong exhibit. | https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9708/hongkong.html | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | Hong Kong Returned to China | At midnight on July 1, 1997, Hong Kong reverts back to Chinese rule in a ceremony attended by British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Prince Charles of Wales, Chinese President Jiang Zemin and U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright . A few thousand Hong Kongers protested the turnover, which was otherwise celebratory and peaceful.
In 1839, Britain invaded China to crush opposition to its interference in the country’s economic, social, and political affairs. One of Britain’s first acts of the war was to occupy Hong Kong, a sparsely inhabited island off the coast of southeast China. In 1841, China ceded the island to the British with the signing of the Convention of Chuenpi, and in 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was signed, formally ending the First Opium War.
Britain’s new colony flourished as an East-West trading center and as the commercial gateway and distribution center for southern China. In 1898, Britain was granted an additional 99 years of rule over Hong Kong under the Second Convention of Peking. In September 1984, after years of negotiations, the British and the Chinese signed a formal agreement approving the 1997 turnover of the island in exchange for a Chinese pledge to preserve Hong Kong’s capitalist system. On July 1, 1997, Hong Kong was peaceably handed over to China in a ceremony attended by numerous Chinese, British, and international dignitaries. The chief executive under the new Hong Kong government, Tung Chee Hwa, formulated a policy based on the concept of “one country, two systems,” thus preserving Hong Kong’s role as a principal capitalist center in Asia.
In 2019, massive pro-democracy protests broke out in Hong Kong over growing oppression from mainland China. Scores of people in academia, media, as well as pro-democracy activists have been arrested amid crackdowns. | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hong-kong-returned-to-china | 7 |
when did hong kong became part of china | Hong Kong’s Freedoms: What China Promised and How It’s Cracking Down | Beijing has tightened its grip on Hong Kong in recent years, dimming hopes that the financial center will ever become a full democracy.
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Summary
- Before the British government handed over Hong Kong in 1997, China agreed to allow the region considerable political autonomy for fifty years under a framework known as “one country, two systems.”
- In recent years, Beijing has cracked down on Hong Kong’s freedoms, stoking mass protests in the city and drawing international criticism.
- Beijing imposed a national security law in 2020 that gave it broad new powers to punish critics and silence dissenters, which has fundamentally altered life for Hong Kongers.
China pledged to preserve much of what makes Hong Kong unique when the former British colony was handed over more than two decades ago. Beijing said it would give Hong Kong fifty years to keep its capitalist system and enjoy many freedoms not found in mainland Chinese cities.
But in recent years, Beijing has taken increasingly brazen steps to encroach on Hong Kong’s political system and crack down on dissent. In 2020, Beijing imposed a sweeping national security law on Hong Kong. Since then, authorities have arrested dozens of pro-democracy activists, lawmakers, and journalists; curbed voting rights; and limited freedoms of the press and speech. These moves have not only drawn international condemnation but have also raised questions about Hong Kong’s status as a global financial hub and dimmed hopes that the city will ever become a full-fledged democracy.
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Hong Kong is a special administrative region of the People’s Republic of China that has, until recently, largely been free to manage its own affairs based on “ one country, two systems ,” a national unification policy developed by Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s. The concept was intended to help integrate Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau with sovereign China while preserving their unique political and economic systems. After more than a century and a half of colonial rule, the British government returned Hong Kong in 1997. (Qing Dynasty leaders ceded Hong Kong Island to the British Crown in 1842 after China’s defeat in the First Opium War.) Portugal returned Macau in 1999, and Taiwan remains independent .
Daily News Brief
The Sino-British Joint Declaration of 1984 dictated the terms under which Hong Kong was returned to China. The declaration and Hong Kong’s Basic Law , the city’s constitutional document, enshrine the city’s “capitalist system and way of life” and grant it “a high degree of autonomy,” including executive, legislative, and independent judicial powers for fifty years (until 2047).
Chinese Communist Party officials do not preside over Hong Kong as they do over mainland provinces and municipalities, but Beijing still exerts considerable influence through loyalists who dominate the region’s political sphere. Beijing also maintains the authority to interpret Hong Kong’s Basic Law , a power that it had rarely used until recently. All changes to political processes are supposed to be approved by the Hong Kong government and China’s top legislative body, the National People’s Congress, or its Standing Committee.
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Hong Kong is allowed to forge external relations in certain areas—including trade, communications, tourism, and culture—but Beijing maintains control over the region’s diplomacy and defense. Under the Basic Law, Hong Kongers are supposed to be guaranteed freedoms of the press, expression, assembly, and religion, as well as protections under international law . But in practice, Beijing has curtailed some of these rights.
Although Hong Kong has certain freedoms, it has never been rated a full democracy [PDF] by international standards. China is a one-party state and is reluctant to allow Hong Kong to hold free and fair elections. Experts say that ambiguity in the Basic Law heightens this fundamental tension. The document states that the “ultimate aim” is to have Hong Kong’s leader elected by a popular vote, but it does not give a deadline for this to occur.
Since the handover, there have been no free votes by universal suffrage for the chief executive, who is the head of the Hong Kong government. The chief executive is instead chosen by an election committee composed of representatives from Hong Kong’s dominant professional sectors and business elite. Hong Kong residents were previously allowed to vote for members of the legislature, known as the Legislative Council, or LegCo, as well as for members of their local district councils, which handle day-to-day community concerns.
But more recently, Beijing has worked to curb Hong Kong residents’ already limited voting rights. It overhauled the electoral system in 2021 to make it easier for pro-Beijing candidates to be appointed as chief executive and as LegCo members. Beijing ruled that only “patriots” who “respect” the Chinese Communist Party can run in elections. Only one candidate was allowed to run in the 2022 chief executive election: John Lee , a hard-line former deputy chief of the city’s police force. For the LegCo, prior to 2021, half of the body’s seventy members were elected by direct voting, while the rest were chosen by groups representing different industries and professions. Now, just twenty members are directly elected and seventy are chosen. In response to these changes, pro-democracy groups boycotted the 2021 LegCo elections, and all ninety seats went to pro-Beijing individuals.
Unlike China, Hong Kong has numerous political parties. They have traditionally split between two factions: pan-democrats, who call for incremental democratic reforms, and pro-establishment groups, who are by and large pro-business supporters of Beijing. The latter have typically been more dominant in Hong Kong politics. (Historically, only a small minority of Hong Kongers have favored outright independence .) Since 2014, student protesters demanding a more democratic system have formed several political groups, including more radical, anti-Beijing parties such as Youngspiration, Hong Kong Indigenous, and Demosisto. But the power of these groups and pro-democracy parties have weakened significantly as Beijing has cracked down on political opposition, including via the national security law. Several parties have disbanded, and members have been forbidden from running in elections or jailed.
Beijing has been chipping away at Hong Kong’s freedoms since the handover, experts say. Over the years, its attempts to impose more control over the city have sparked mass protests , which have in turn led the Chinese government to crack down further.
“In the fifteen years after the handover, there was a series of official initiatives aimed at enhancing Beijing’s control in ways that would undermine both the autonomy and the rule of law,” Michael C. Davis writes in his book Making Hong Kong China .
For instance, in 2003, the Hong Kong government proposed national security legislation that would have prohibited treason, secession, sedition, and subversion against the Chinese government. In 2012, it tried to amend Hong Kong schools’ curricula to foster Chinese national identity, which many residents saw as Chinese propaganda. And in 2014, Beijing proposed a framework for universal suffrage, allowing Hong Kongers to vote for the city’s chief executive but only from a Beijing-approved short list of candidates. Protesters organized massive rallies, known as the Umbrella Movement , to call for true democracy.
In the years following the 2014 protests, Beijing and the Hong Kong government stepped up efforts to rein in dissent, including by prosecuting protest leaders, expelling several new legislators, and increasing media censorship.
In the summer of 2019, Hong Kong saw its largest protests ever . For months, people demonstrated against a Beijing-endorsed legislative proposal that would have allowed extraditions to mainland China. Many protesters believed Beijing had eroded Hong Kong’s freedoms to such an extent that they thought, “either we stop it now, or it’s just basically going to be hell,” says Victoria Tin-bor Hui, a political science professor at the University of Notre Dame. Reports of police brutality, including the excessive use of tear gas and rubber bullets, exacerbated tensions. Chief Executive Carrie Lam withdrew the bill in September, but the protests, which garnered international attention, continued until the outbreak of COVID-19 in early 2020.
Beijing took its most assertive action yet on June 30, 2020, when it bypassed the Hong Kong legislature and imposed a national security law [PDF] on the city. The legislation effectively criminalizes any dissent and adopts extremely broad definitions for crimes such as terrorism, subversion, secession, and collusion with foreign powers. It also allows Beijing to establish a security force in Hong Kong and influence the selection of judges who hear national security cases. Pro-democracy activists and lawmakers decried the move and expressed fears that it could be “ the end of Hong Kong .” Meanwhile, Chinese officials and pro-Beijing lawmakers said it was necessary to restore stability following the massive protests.
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Authorities have used the law to try to eliminate all forms of political opposition. They disqualified pro-democracy candidates from running in elections and removed elected lawmakers for publicly opposing China’s control over Hong Kong. Police have arrested at least 170 people under the law, many of them prominent pro-democracy activists , former lawmakers, and journalists. Thousands more people have been arrested for participating in the 2019 protests. Beijing and the Hong Kong government have also curbed media freedoms , with pro-democracy publications such as the Apple Daily newspaper closing after journalists were harassed and jailed. Moreover, groups that organized protests disbanded. The Hong Kong government’s efforts to transform the public education system by introducing so-called patriotic programs have also troubled many parents and students.
These moves have by and large ended mass public protests and silenced many Hong Kong residents who fought for democracy. Thousands of people, including prominent activists, have fled the city .
Several countries have condemned Beijing’s moves and taken retaliatory measures. Under President Donald Trump, the United States imposed sanctions on Chinese officials it alleged were undermining Hong Kong’s autonomy, restricted exports of defense equipment to Hong Kong, and revoked its special trade status. It also joined a handful of countries, including Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, that suspended their extradition treaties with Hong Kong because of the national security law. President Joe Biden has maintained the sanctions, voiced concerns about Beijing’s crackdown in conversations with Chinese leader Xi Jinping, and warned U.S. companies of the “ growing risks ” [PDF] of doing business in Hong Kong. In August 2021, the Biden administration deferred deportations of the several thousand Hong Kong residents in the United States.
The United Kingdom (UK), which also ended its extradition agreement with the region, said it would allow three million Hong Kong residents to settle in the country and apply for citizenship. Canada announced measures to make it easier for Hong Kong youth to study and work in the country, creating pathways for permanent residency. The European Union, which expressed “ grave concern ” about the national security law, limited exports of equipment that China could use for repression.
However, the opposition has not been unanimous. Fifty-three countries—most of which are participating in China’s Belt and Road Initiative —signed a statement read before the UN Human Rights Council in July 2020 supporting the national security law, while twenty-seven countries signed a statement criticizing it.
Hong Kong is still a global financial hub , but Beijing’s actions could jeopardize its standing. Relatively low taxes, a highly developed financial system, light regulation, and other capitalist features have made Hong Kong one of the world’s most attractive markets and set it apart from mainland financial hubs such as Shanghai and Shenzhen. Multinational firms and banks—many of which maintain regional headquarters in Hong Kong—have historically used the city as a gateway to do business in the mainland, owing in part to its proximity to the world’s second-largest economy and its legal system based on British common law.
However, executives of some companies with large footprints in Hong Kong have voiced concerns about the national security law, criticizing the broad powers given to mainland authorities. The Biden administration has cautioned that companies could violate the vague national security law without realizing it. “Beijing’s ideal scenario is to keep Hong Kong as a financial center without all the freedom. But it seems that you really cannot maintain Hong Kong’s international financial standing while stifling its freedom,” Hui says.
“It seems that you really cannot maintain Hong Kong’s international financial standing while stifling its freedom.”
Some firms have left the city or are boosting hiring in other Asian financial capitals, such as Singapore and Tokyo. The number of American companies with regional bases in Hong Kong fell to an eighteen-year low in 2021. Meanwhile, nearly half of European firms are considering fully or partially moving out of the city by 2023, according to a survey by the European Chamber of Commerce [PDF]. Social media companies, in particular, have expressed unease about a part of the law that requires them to surrender requested user data to the Hong Kong government. TikTok, an app owned by mainland-based company ByteDance, suspended operations in the city.
Also to blame for the exodus are Hong Kong’s COVID-19 restrictions, including a lengthy quarantine requirement and other strict measures imposed in an attempt to align with Beijing’s zero-COVID policy . Authorities banned flights from several countries, including the United States and the UK, as well as restricted gatherings. These moves have led economists to lower predictions for the city’s growth and warn of brain drain. “Hong Kong is facing an exodus of educated workers on a scale not seen since the early 1990s,” said a Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce report.
Other experts believe that Hong Kong can maintain its commercial status despite its democratic decline. In recent years, Beijing has moved to connect Hong Kong more to the mainland, creating the Greater Bay Area project, an ambitious plan to integrate Hong Kong and cities in neighboring Guangdong Province into a more cohesive economic region. Many firms and investors are betting that this increased connectivity will boost the amount of wealth flowing from the mainland into Hong Kong.
“This dramatic transformation will not be the end of Hong Kong as a global financial hub, as it has already begun to boost economic integration with mainland China. But it is surely the death of the democratic hopes of most of its 7.5 million people,” CFR’s Jerome A. Cohen writes.
On The President’s Inbox podcast, the University of Notre Dame’s Victoria Tin-bor Hui explains the national security law imposed on Hong Kong.
During this 2021 roundtable, CFR’s Jerome A. Cohen, Columbia University’s Andrew J. Nathan, and journalist Stephen Vines discuss Hong Kong’s future .
For Foreign Affairs , the Asia Group’s Kurt Tong examines Washington’s struggle to punish Beijing for the crackdown on Hong Kong.
The podcast Hong Kong Silenced tells the story of how life in Hong Kong was turned upside down in the year after the national security law was imposed.
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation goes inside the massive protests in 2019 . | https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/hong-kong-freedoms-democracy-protests-china-crackdown | 7 |
what type of ram is in the surface pro 4 | Can you upgrade RAM on Surface Pro 4? - SurfaceTip | BY Evan Forrest Last updated Apr 6, 2020
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No, you can’t! all Microsoft Pro 4 models come with dual-channel LPDDR3 soldered memory and there is no additional RAM slot for expansion. So make sure you purchase a Surface Pro 4 with the right amount of memory (4GB, 8GB or 16GB) for your current and future workload.
For more information, you might want to check out the Surface Pro 4 teardown video by iFixIt here:
Here are some related questions you might want to know:
Here are some related articles you might want to check out: | https://surfacetip.com/can-surface-pro-4-ram-be-upgraded/ | 8 |
what type of ram is in the surface pro 4 | Can you upgrade RAM on Surface Pro 4? - SurfaceTip | BY Evan Forrest Last updated Apr 6, 2020
0 seconds of 1 minute, 36 seconds Volume 0%
00:00
01:36
Answer
No, you can’t! all Microsoft Pro 4 models come with dual-channel LPDDR3 soldered memory and there is no additional RAM slot for expansion. So make sure you purchase a Surface Pro 4 with the right amount of memory (4GB, 8GB or 16GB) for your current and future workload.
For more information, you might want to check out the Surface Pro 4 teardown video by iFixIt here:
Here are some related questions you might want to know:
Here are some related articles you might want to check out: | https://surfacetip.com/can-surface-pro-4-ram-be-upgraded/ | 8 |
what type of ram is in the surface pro 4 | Surface Pro 4 - Wikipedia | The Surface Pro 4 is the fourth-generation Surface -series 2-in-1 detachable , designed, developed, marketed, and produced by Microsoft . The Surface Pro 4 was announced on October 6, 2015 [1] alongside the Surface Book . In the U.S. and Canada, the Surface Pro 4 was released on October 26, 2015.
The Surface Pro 4 is an update over its predecessor , featuring Skylake CPUs , more RAM and SSD options and a 12.3-inch display with a greater resolution. At the same time, the device is compatible with most of its predecessor's accessories.
The device's successor, the 2017 Surface Pro , was announced in May 2017, ahead of a release the following month.
The Surface Pro 4 was announced on October 6, 2015 alongside the Surface Book . Both devices were available for pre-order the following day and available for customers beginning on October 26, 2015.
The device initially exhibited failure to sleep properly, which drained the battery very quickly. [2] Microsoft subsequently developed a fix that was made available on February 17, 2016. [3]
The Surface Pro 4 is the same size as the Surface Pro 3, but has a thinner screen bezel which allows for a display of a slightly greater size of 12.3 inches (31 cm). The screen resolution is also greater than the Surface Pro 3's, at 2736x1824 at 267 PPI , with the same aspect ratio of 3:2 and 10-point multi-touch . The chassis is 0.03 inches (0.76 mm) thinner and 0.03 pounds (14 g) lighter than the Surface Pro 3.
The cooling system of the 2-in-1 has been redesigned and dubbed hybrid liquid cooling system . It includes heat pipes with a flowing liquid, which is meant to avoid the use of the internal fan when the device is used for less demanding tasks such as web browsing .
All Surface Pro 4 models feature 6th-generation Skylake Intel Core processors—m3, i5 or i7—which are more powerful and run cooler over its Intel Core Haswell predecessors found in the Surface Pro 3 and 2. The maximum clock rate of the most powerful CPU option (i7-6650U) is also greater at 2.2 GHz , with up to 3.4 GHz in the Turbo Boost mode. The m3-powered model is completely fanless .
RAM and SSD options available are 4GB, 8GB, 16GB and 128GB, 256GB, 512GB, 1 TB respectively; the top options are twice as capacious compared to top options of the Surface Pro 4's two recent predecessors.
The common traits, inherited from the previous-generation Surface Pro 3, are a continuous kickstand , magnesium casing with a silver-colored back side, 802.11a/b/g/n/ac Wi-Fi radio, Bluetooth 4.0 Low Energy, full-size USB 3.0 port, microSD card reader, headset jack, Mini DisplayPort , Cover Port, and a renamed SurfaceConnect , a port on the side to connect a wall charger, Docking Station or Surface Dock accessories.
|Surface Pro 4 Configuration Options [4]|
|Price Tier (USD)||CPU||Integrated GPU||RAM||Internal Storage|
|$899||Intel Core m3 -6Y30 (0.9 to 2.2 GHz)||HD 515||4 GB||128 GB|
|$999||Intel Core i5 -6300U (2.4 to 3.0 GHz)||HD 520|
|$1,299||8 GB||256 GB|
|$1,499||16 GB|
|$1,699||8 GB||512 GB|
|$1,899||16 GB|
|$1,599||Intel Core i7 -6650U (2.2 to 3.4 GHz)||Iris 540||8 GB||256 GB|
|$1,799||16 GB|
|$2,199||512 GB|
|$2,699||1 TB|
All Surface Pro 4 models come with a 64-bit version of Windows 10 Pro and a Microsoft Office 30-day trial. Windows 10 comes pre-installed with Mail, Calendar, People, Xbox (app), Photos, Movies and TV, Groove, and Microsoft Edge . With Windows 10, a "Tablet mode" is available when the Type Cover is detached from the device. In this mode, all windows are opened full-screen and the interface becomes more touch-centric.
The device also has a Windows Hello -compatible camera. It combines the use of a regular and infrared cameras to authenticate the user.
The Surface Pro 4 is backward compatible with all accessories of its predecessor. At the Windows 10 Devices Event on October 6, 2015, alongside new Surface 2-in-1s, new accessories were announced.
The Surface Dock is a redesigned docking accessory in a brick form factor. It is compatible with all past and future Surface models with a SurfaceConnect side port, previously used to connect a wall charger or Docking Station accessory: Surface Pro 3, 4 and Surface Book . The Surface Dock will have 2 Mini DisplayPorts , 1 Gigabit Ethernet , 4 USB 3.0 , and 1 audio out ports.
Although Surface Pro 4 is backward compatible with Type Cover accessory of Surface Pro 3, an attachable keyboard which doubles as a screen protector, the Surface Pro 4 Type Cover has been announced with and without a fingerprint ID sensor. The new Type Cover is thinner and lighter than its predecessor, has improved magnetic stability for lap use, a mechanical keyboard with improved key spacing, as well as a larger touchpad .
An updated version of Surface Pen is included with the Surface Pro 4, which has 1024 levels of pressure sensitivity and is heavier with a rubberized tip. [5] However, the new pen has only one button on the side rather than the previous pen's two. There is an eraser on the end that doubles as a button, which may perform different tasks, like opening the OneNote app or activating Cortana , [6] and can be customized using the Surface App. [7]
The Surface Pro 4 is known to have wide spread flicker issues with the display [8] named as Flickergate [9] after the independent website flickergate.com which was set up by the affected users after getting no fix from Microsoft. [10]
Microsoft's spokesperson acknowledged the issue stating:
"We are aware that some customers have experienced a screen flicker on Surface Pro 4 and are monitoring the situation closely. Customers impacted by this should contact Microsoft support." [11]
Microsoft has stated that bad batteries, pens and Type Covers may be repaired under warranty. [12]
The Type Cover also has connectivity issues that afflict many, often due to a Windows update. This seems to be a common issue across the Surface series, with a sudden death to the Type Cover. [13] [14] [15] [16]
The Surface Pro 4 received generally positive reviews from technology critics. Most praise a sharper and larger display compared to the one found in the predecessor , redesigned cooling system, improved technical specifications, and an improved Type Cover. The common disadvantages found by reviewers were that the Type Cover is still a separate purchase, the relatively modest performance of the Intel Core m3 chip, and modest battery life. [17] [18] [19] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_Pro_4 | 8 |
what type of ram is in the surface pro 4 | Amazon.com : Microsoft Surface Pro 4 (256 GB, 8 GB RAM, Intel Core i5) : Electronics | Available at a lower price from other sellers that may not offer free Prime shipping.
Intel Core i5, 8 GB RAM, 512 GB
Intel Core i5, 8 GB RAM, 256 GB
- Surface Pro 4 powers through everything you need to do, while being lighter than ever before
- The 12.3" PixelSense screen has extremely high contrast and low glare so you can work through the day without straining your eyes
- Go from tablet to laptop in a snap with the multi-position Kickstand and improved keyboard (Sold seperately)
- Wi-Fi: 802.11ac Wi-Fi wireless networking, IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n compatible, Bluetooth Wireless 4.1 technology
Some of these items ship sooner than the others.
- This item: Microsoft Surface Pro 4 (256 GB, 8 GB RAM, Intel Core i5)$619.99
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Amazon.com Return Policy : You may return any new computer purchased from Amazon.com that is "dead on arrival," arrives in damaged condition, or is still in unopened boxes, for a full refund within 30 days of purchase. Amazon.com reserves the right to test "dead on arrival" returns and impose a customer fee equal to 15 percent of the product sales price if the customer misrepresents the condition of the product. Any returned computer that is damaged through customer misuse, is missing parts, or is in unsellable condition due to customer tampering will result in the customer being charged a higher restocking fee based on the condition of the product. Amazon.com will not accept returns of any desktop or notebook computer more than 30 days after you receive the shipment. New, used, and refurbished products purchased from Marketplace vendors are subject to the returns policy of the individual vendor.
Product Warranty: For warranty information about this product, please click here [PDF ] Product Warranty: For warranty information about this product, please click here. [PDF ]
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Surface Pro 4 powers through everything you need to do, while being lighter than ever before. Go from ultraportable tablet to a complete laptop in a snap wherever you are.
Surface Pro 4 with 6th Gen Intel Core m3, i5, and i7 processors is not only more powerful – it is quieter, runs cooler, and is even more efficient than before.
The Windows you know plus lots of new features you'll love. No matter what you're doing, feel like an expert from the get-go.
Surface Pro 4 brings you advanced technology to streamline your life. No matter what you are doing, Surface Pro 4 comes with powerfully simple solutions for the things you do every day.
Choose the color that clicks.
Get to work with Office.
Transform your Surface into a complete work station.
Plug in. Connect. Project.
Reviewed in the United States on October 29, 2015
It seems like the big question right now is, "Do I get the Surface Pro 4 or the Surface Book?"
I'll explain why I chose the Surface Pro 4, but first, a quick about me. I am a college student majoring in EECS and I commute 4 hours a day by bus so having a light backpack is important to me.
The S.Book is almost two times heavier than the SP4. It packs much more computing power than the SP4, but as an EECS major, I don't need the extra power that the S.Book has. I don't plan to play any intensive games or render/animate things so the SP4 fits my needs better. The S.Book also has a $400 higher price tag ($270 if you get the Type Cover for the SP4) that I'm not willing to pay for unneeded performance. I haven't tried the S.Book's keyboard, but the SP4's keyboard feels great to type on and other reviewers have said both keyboards are amazing. Reading textbooks or other PDF's feels much more natural with the SP4's tablet form. The S.Book without the keyboard only has a battery life of 3 hours, and although it can be used with the keyboard 'wrapped' around the back, I think that it'll only be a hassle for me to deal with. I'd rather not deal with having to detach the S.Book every time I want to use it in tablet mode. If you plan to render/animate things you should probably consider going with the Surface Book. Otherwise, I highly recommend the Surface Pro 4 for doing everyday/light to medium tasks.
Now onto the actual Surface Pro 4 Review.
I love the SP4. In the past year, I've owned an iPad Air, MacBook Pro, and the Razer Blade 2015. The SP4 fits my needs the best by far.
The SP4 replaces both my textbooks and notebooks. For me, this is a big deal because I no longer have to carry around my notebooks, textbooks, and supplemental writing materials (highlighters, etc). The Surface Pen tips can be replaced with other pen tips to change the writing "feedback" feeling but the stock pen tip feels great. OneNote keeps all my notes organized and being able to access them from any device is incredibly convenient. Using the Surface Pen for writing on textbooks and PDF's is also very useful.
I've been getting ~7-9 hours of battery life on the SP4 which is more than enough to get me through a school day. The screen is not too small like the iPad, neither is it bulky like a laptop. The screen resolution is high and text/videos are crisp and easy to read/watch. The magnet on the left side of the SP4 is surprising strong and holds the Surface Pen well. The magnet on the right side is significantly weaker (maybe because all the I/O ports are on this side) but it can hold the pen well. The kickstand works perfectly and stays in the position I set it to. The SP4 Type Cover feels great and protects your screen when you aren't using it.
Gaming shouldn't be the main reason you buy the SP4, but it could run some games if you decide to do so. I did try running StarCraft II and Heroes of the Storm and the SP4 handled it pretty well. I wouldn't even bother trying to run more demanding games such as GTAV on the SP4. That being said, the gaming experience was rather unpleasant. You should consider the Surface Book if you plan to game on-the-go frequently.
Software-wise, I don't have much to comment on. It looks and performs exactly like Windows 10 should on a normal desktop or laptop. I've never used the Microsoft Store and don't intend to so I don't know much about the apps that are available on the SP4.
The only con I found with this device is the fact that it only has a single USB port. It's inconvenient when I'm using the SP4 with a mouse and I need to use my flash drive. I haven't had any overheating issues and I can't find any issues with the build quality.
In closing, I don't think anyone else offers the performance and quality that the Surface Pro 4 has in the same lightweight and thin chassis. It is incredibly versatile and it has replaced many heavy and cumbersome objects in my bag.
I'll update this review as I continue to use the SP4. Feel free to leave questions/comments and I will try my best to answer them.
I'll explain why I chose the Surface Pro 4, but first, a quick about me. I am a college student majoring in EECS and I commute 4 hours a day by bus so having a light backpack is important to me.
The S.Book is almost two times heavier than the SP4. It packs much more computing power than the SP4, but as an EECS major, I don't need the extra power that the S.Book has. I don't plan to play any intensive games or render/animate things so the SP4 fits my needs better. The S.Book also has a $400 higher price tag ($270 if you get the Type Cover for the SP4) that I'm not willing to pay for unneeded performance. I haven't tried the S.Book's keyboard, but the SP4's keyboard feels great to type on and other reviewers have said both keyboards are amazing. Reading textbooks or other PDF's feels much more natural with the SP4's tablet form. The S.Book without the keyboard only has a battery life of 3 hours, and although it can be used with the keyboard 'wrapped' around the back, I think that it'll only be a hassle for me to deal with. I'd rather not deal with having to detach the S.Book every time I want to use it in tablet mode. If you plan to render/animate things you should probably consider going with the Surface Book. Otherwise, I highly recommend the Surface Pro 4 for doing everyday/light to medium tasks.
Now onto the actual Surface Pro 4 Review.
I love the SP4. In the past year, I've owned an iPad Air, MacBook Pro, and the Razer Blade 2015. The SP4 fits my needs the best by far.
The SP4 replaces both my textbooks and notebooks. For me, this is a big deal because I no longer have to carry around my notebooks, textbooks, and supplemental writing materials (highlighters, etc). The Surface Pen tips can be replaced with other pen tips to change the writing "feedback" feeling but the stock pen tip feels great. OneNote keeps all my notes organized and being able to access them from any device is incredibly convenient. Using the Surface Pen for writing on textbooks and PDF's is also very useful.
I've been getting ~7-9 hours of battery life on the SP4 which is more than enough to get me through a school day. The screen is not too small like the iPad, neither is it bulky like a laptop. The screen resolution is high and text/videos are crisp and easy to read/watch. The magnet on the left side of the SP4 is surprising strong and holds the Surface Pen well. The magnet on the right side is significantly weaker (maybe because all the I/O ports are on this side) but it can hold the pen well. The kickstand works perfectly and stays in the position I set it to. The SP4 Type Cover feels great and protects your screen when you aren't using it.
Gaming shouldn't be the main reason you buy the SP4, but it could run some games if you decide to do so. I did try running StarCraft II and Heroes of the Storm and the SP4 handled it pretty well. I wouldn't even bother trying to run more demanding games such as GTAV on the SP4. That being said, the gaming experience was rather unpleasant. You should consider the Surface Book if you plan to game on-the-go frequently.
Software-wise, I don't have much to comment on. It looks and performs exactly like Windows 10 should on a normal desktop or laptop. I've never used the Microsoft Store and don't intend to so I don't know much about the apps that are available on the SP4.
The only con I found with this device is the fact that it only has a single USB port. It's inconvenient when I'm using the SP4 with a mouse and I need to use my flash drive. I haven't had any overheating issues and I can't find any issues with the build quality.
In closing, I don't think anyone else offers the performance and quality that the Surface Pro 4 has in the same lightweight and thin chassis. It is incredibly versatile and it has replaced many heavy and cumbersome objects in my bag.
I'll update this review as I continue to use the SP4. Feel free to leave questions/comments and I will try my best to answer them.
Reviewed in the United States on March 23, 2023
Definitely not the best, came with some scratches and damaged bits, I assume from the reviews it was probably a returned one, but it's been working pretty well since I got it, but I don't use it as a main computer so that might also be a factor. Didn't come with a keyboard or pen like I thought it would and that's also probably just due to me not reading the full description, but overall pretty good, not the best computer I've had and I definitely wouldn't run any huge games on here but I could see some kind of game running. I also haven't run into the issue of the battery bulging out even though I tend to make this thing run at it's full capacity sometimes.
Reviewed in the United States on December 3, 2016
This thing is absolutely awesome. I was against the idea of tablets for a long time, mainly due to the fact that they didn't really fill the requirements I have for a device that will cost this much. I would expect something in this kind of price range (or even in the $400-500 range of non-pro iPads) to be capable of doing real work, and running a full computer environment. After all, some cheap laptops can certainly do that. I'm OK with android on my phone because it's so much smaller, and 100% touch-controlled, so I think it benefits from a simplified software UI. On the other hand, I find iOS absolutely abhorrent, partly because it is utterly useless in the format of a laptop-replacement tablet, and also because the logic of the UI makes no sense to me. Enter the Surface Pro 4. It does everything the iPad can do, everything it CAN'T, and it does it with both the ease of an Android phone AND the capability of a full Windows 10 computer (because it is one).
It's light and surprisingly ergonomic to hold, while being incredibly capable. I got the i5 8GB RAM 256 GB SSD model, on which I can run Photoshop and edit RAW files in Lightroom with absolute ease. Even built a pretty detailed and complex model in Sketchup, which I use regularly for work. The screen is vibrant and sharp, showing accurate colours and sufficient contrast even at 50% brightness.
The battery life is as expected for a lightweight device like this. I usually get about 6 hours out of it because I mainly use it for streaming video, or editing photos, always with several tabs open and multiple windows. Higher impact stuff than I'm sure the average test scenario is based on. but considering it does everything (and I mean EVERYTHING) else a traditional computer can do, I'm OK with getting traditional-computer-battery-life. I'll whine about battery life a few iterations down the road, but only if the tech industry has bothered to substantively improve battery life in ANY device by then. Until then, this is status quo, perhaps a little better given how light this thing is.
The touch and pen input is excellent, and works really well even in full desktop mode (which I prefer to tablet mode). The pen is really nice to use - it's not quite like using a pencil... more grippy - like writing with a felt tip pen. This is really nice for sketching - I find I can draw just as easily as I can in the real world. I even find the on screen keyboard quite easy to type on, since it's so big. I also got the type cover (separately - it does not come as part of this package), because I figured I'd want a full laptop replacement out of this, now and then. There are times when the keyboard and trackpad are absolutely essential (Sketchup, for instance, or anything requiring really fine mouse input), but when I'm just watching Youtube or browsing the web, I'll often take the type cover off and use only touch. Makes it much more compact, which is nice for watching shows in bed.
As a side note: the type cover keyboard is amazing to type on and the glass trackpad is excellent. I would say both are as good or better than any other laptop, including the much lauded Macbooks. The trackpad is just the right size to be efficient (I find they're getting uselessly large on Macbooks), and the keys are really nice and snappy while being reasonably quiet. Really satisfying to use.
If you've made it this far without falling asleep, good for you! But I'm not going to list pros and cons. That would be reductive, and you can make your decision without me telling you what's good and what's bad. I will say: think carefully about which spec you want/need. I originally bought the i5 4GB RAM version, which was perfectly nice to use for internet stuff, but couldn't really handle serious photo editing. I mean, it could do it, but it was pretty laggy. When I buy a new device, I like it to work relatively seamlessly for the tasks I (reasonably) expect to use it for. So, I bumped up to the 8 GB model, which works perfectly. I even managed to play Rocket League in full res, with most of the graphics settings turned up pretty high. Got 40-50 fps. I would say, if you only want it for YouTube and browser based stuff (maybe consider a Chromebook?) then you should probably look at the cheapest, fanless core m3 model. If you want it to do a little more, or if you're just paranoid about having enough resources ALL THE TIME, skip the 4 GB RAM version (which I observed to idle around 60% RAM utilisation, with a bunch of tabs/browser windows open) and get the i5 8 GB one. Anything above this and you're getting into serious (perhaps 90% unnecessary) power. I would say if you need it to be a monster machine, skip the next step (i5 16GB) as well and go for an i7. Your wallet may not thank me for this advice, but I guarantee you will when you're using it and get to enjoy never feeling held back (which is kind of the point of a premium lap-tablet like this, isn't it?).
It's light and surprisingly ergonomic to hold, while being incredibly capable. I got the i5 8GB RAM 256 GB SSD model, on which I can run Photoshop and edit RAW files in Lightroom with absolute ease. Even built a pretty detailed and complex model in Sketchup, which I use regularly for work. The screen is vibrant and sharp, showing accurate colours and sufficient contrast even at 50% brightness.
The battery life is as expected for a lightweight device like this. I usually get about 6 hours out of it because I mainly use it for streaming video, or editing photos, always with several tabs open and multiple windows. Higher impact stuff than I'm sure the average test scenario is based on. but considering it does everything (and I mean EVERYTHING) else a traditional computer can do, I'm OK with getting traditional-computer-battery-life. I'll whine about battery life a few iterations down the road, but only if the tech industry has bothered to substantively improve battery life in ANY device by then. Until then, this is status quo, perhaps a little better given how light this thing is.
The touch and pen input is excellent, and works really well even in full desktop mode (which I prefer to tablet mode). The pen is really nice to use - it's not quite like using a pencil... more grippy - like writing with a felt tip pen. This is really nice for sketching - I find I can draw just as easily as I can in the real world. I even find the on screen keyboard quite easy to type on, since it's so big. I also got the type cover (separately - it does not come as part of this package), because I figured I'd want a full laptop replacement out of this, now and then. There are times when the keyboard and trackpad are absolutely essential (Sketchup, for instance, or anything requiring really fine mouse input), but when I'm just watching Youtube or browsing the web, I'll often take the type cover off and use only touch. Makes it much more compact, which is nice for watching shows in bed.
As a side note: the type cover keyboard is amazing to type on and the glass trackpad is excellent. I would say both are as good or better than any other laptop, including the much lauded Macbooks. The trackpad is just the right size to be efficient (I find they're getting uselessly large on Macbooks), and the keys are really nice and snappy while being reasonably quiet. Really satisfying to use.
If you've made it this far without falling asleep, good for you! But I'm not going to list pros and cons. That would be reductive, and you can make your decision without me telling you what's good and what's bad. I will say: think carefully about which spec you want/need. I originally bought the i5 4GB RAM version, which was perfectly nice to use for internet stuff, but couldn't really handle serious photo editing. I mean, it could do it, but it was pretty laggy. When I buy a new device, I like it to work relatively seamlessly for the tasks I (reasonably) expect to use it for. So, I bumped up to the 8 GB model, which works perfectly. I even managed to play Rocket League in full res, with most of the graphics settings turned up pretty high. Got 40-50 fps. I would say, if you only want it for YouTube and browser based stuff (maybe consider a Chromebook?) then you should probably look at the cheapest, fanless core m3 model. If you want it to do a little more, or if you're just paranoid about having enough resources ALL THE TIME, skip the 4 GB RAM version (which I observed to idle around 60% RAM utilisation, with a bunch of tabs/browser windows open) and get the i5 8 GB one. Anything above this and you're getting into serious (perhaps 90% unnecessary) power. I would say if you need it to be a monster machine, skip the next step (i5 16GB) as well and go for an i7. Your wallet may not thank me for this advice, but I guarantee you will when you're using it and get to enjoy never feeling held back (which is kind of the point of a premium lap-tablet like this, isn't it?). | https://www.amazon.com/Microsoft-Surface-Pro-Intel-Core/dp/B01606IDL0 | 8 |
what type of ram is in the surface pro 4 | Can you upgrade RAM on Surface Pro 4? - SurfaceTip | BY Evan Forrest Last updated Apr 6, 2020
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Answer
No, you can’t! all Microsoft Pro 4 models come with dual-channel LPDDR3 soldered memory and there is no additional RAM slot for expansion. So make sure you purchase a Surface Pro 4 with the right amount of memory (4GB, 8GB or 16GB) for your current and future workload.
For more information, you might want to check out the Surface Pro 4 teardown video by iFixIt here:
Here are some related questions you might want to know:
Here are some related articles you might want to check out: | https://surfacetip.com/can-surface-pro-4-ram-be-upgraded/ | 8 |
what type of ram is in the surface pro 4 | Surface Pro 4 - Wikipedia | The Surface Pro 4 is the fourth-generation Surface -series 2-in-1 detachable , designed, developed, marketed, and produced by Microsoft . The Surface Pro 4 was announced on October 6, 2015 [1] alongside the Surface Book . In the U.S. and Canada, the Surface Pro 4 was released on October 26, 2015.
The Surface Pro 4 is an update over its predecessor , featuring Skylake CPUs , more RAM and SSD options and a 12.3-inch display with a greater resolution. At the same time, the device is compatible with most of its predecessor's accessories.
The device's successor, the 2017 Surface Pro , was announced in May 2017, ahead of a release the following month.
The Surface Pro 4 was announced on October 6, 2015 alongside the Surface Book . Both devices were available for pre-order the following day and available for customers beginning on October 26, 2015.
The device initially exhibited failure to sleep properly, which drained the battery very quickly. [2] Microsoft subsequently developed a fix that was made available on February 17, 2016. [3]
The Surface Pro 4 is the same size as the Surface Pro 3, but has a thinner screen bezel which allows for a display of a slightly greater size of 12.3 inches (31 cm). The screen resolution is also greater than the Surface Pro 3's, at 2736x1824 at 267 PPI , with the same aspect ratio of 3:2 and 10-point multi-touch . The chassis is 0.03 inches (0.76 mm) thinner and 0.03 pounds (14 g) lighter than the Surface Pro 3.
The cooling system of the 2-in-1 has been redesigned and dubbed hybrid liquid cooling system . It includes heat pipes with a flowing liquid, which is meant to avoid the use of the internal fan when the device is used for less demanding tasks such as web browsing .
All Surface Pro 4 models feature 6th-generation Skylake Intel Core processors—m3, i5 or i7—which are more powerful and run cooler over its Intel Core Haswell predecessors found in the Surface Pro 3 and 2. The maximum clock rate of the most powerful CPU option (i7-6650U) is also greater at 2.2 GHz , with up to 3.4 GHz in the Turbo Boost mode. The m3-powered model is completely fanless .
RAM and SSD options available are 4GB, 8GB, 16GB and 128GB, 256GB, 512GB, 1 TB respectively; the top options are twice as capacious compared to top options of the Surface Pro 4's two recent predecessors.
The common traits, inherited from the previous-generation Surface Pro 3, are a continuous kickstand , magnesium casing with a silver-colored back side, 802.11a/b/g/n/ac Wi-Fi radio, Bluetooth 4.0 Low Energy, full-size USB 3.0 port, microSD card reader, headset jack, Mini DisplayPort , Cover Port, and a renamed SurfaceConnect , a port on the side to connect a wall charger, Docking Station or Surface Dock accessories.
|Surface Pro 4 Configuration Options [4]|
|Price Tier (USD)||CPU||Integrated GPU||RAM||Internal Storage|
|$899||Intel Core m3 -6Y30 (0.9 to 2.2 GHz)||HD 515||4 GB||128 GB|
|$999||Intel Core i5 -6300U (2.4 to 3.0 GHz)||HD 520|
|$1,299||8 GB||256 GB|
|$1,499||16 GB|
|$1,699||8 GB||512 GB|
|$1,899||16 GB|
|$1,599||Intel Core i7 -6650U (2.2 to 3.4 GHz)||Iris 540||8 GB||256 GB|
|$1,799||16 GB|
|$2,199||512 GB|
|$2,699||1 TB|
All Surface Pro 4 models come with a 64-bit version of Windows 10 Pro and a Microsoft Office 30-day trial. Windows 10 comes pre-installed with Mail, Calendar, People, Xbox (app), Photos, Movies and TV, Groove, and Microsoft Edge . With Windows 10, a "Tablet mode" is available when the Type Cover is detached from the device. In this mode, all windows are opened full-screen and the interface becomes more touch-centric.
The device also has a Windows Hello -compatible camera. It combines the use of a regular and infrared cameras to authenticate the user.
The Surface Pro 4 is backward compatible with all accessories of its predecessor. At the Windows 10 Devices Event on October 6, 2015, alongside new Surface 2-in-1s, new accessories were announced.
The Surface Dock is a redesigned docking accessory in a brick form factor. It is compatible with all past and future Surface models with a SurfaceConnect side port, previously used to connect a wall charger or Docking Station accessory: Surface Pro 3, 4 and Surface Book . The Surface Dock will have 2 Mini DisplayPorts , 1 Gigabit Ethernet , 4 USB 3.0 , and 1 audio out ports.
Although Surface Pro 4 is backward compatible with Type Cover accessory of Surface Pro 3, an attachable keyboard which doubles as a screen protector, the Surface Pro 4 Type Cover has been announced with and without a fingerprint ID sensor. The new Type Cover is thinner and lighter than its predecessor, has improved magnetic stability for lap use, a mechanical keyboard with improved key spacing, as well as a larger touchpad .
An updated version of Surface Pen is included with the Surface Pro 4, which has 1024 levels of pressure sensitivity and is heavier with a rubberized tip. [5] However, the new pen has only one button on the side rather than the previous pen's two. There is an eraser on the end that doubles as a button, which may perform different tasks, like opening the OneNote app or activating Cortana , [6] and can be customized using the Surface App. [7]
The Surface Pro 4 is known to have wide spread flicker issues with the display [8] named as Flickergate [9] after the independent website flickergate.com which was set up by the affected users after getting no fix from Microsoft. [10]
Microsoft's spokesperson acknowledged the issue stating:
"We are aware that some customers have experienced a screen flicker on Surface Pro 4 and are monitoring the situation closely. Customers impacted by this should contact Microsoft support." [11]
Microsoft has stated that bad batteries, pens and Type Covers may be repaired under warranty. [12]
The Type Cover also has connectivity issues that afflict many, often due to a Windows update. This seems to be a common issue across the Surface series, with a sudden death to the Type Cover. [13] [14] [15] [16]
The Surface Pro 4 received generally positive reviews from technology critics. Most praise a sharper and larger display compared to the one found in the predecessor , redesigned cooling system, improved technical specifications, and an improved Type Cover. The common disadvantages found by reviewers were that the Type Cover is still a separate purchase, the relatively modest performance of the Intel Core m3 chip, and modest battery life. [17] [18] [19] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_Pro_4 | 8 |
what type of ram is in the surface pro 4 | Amazon.com : Microsoft Surface Pro 4 (512 GB, 16 GB RAM, Intel Core i7e) : Electronics | - FREE ShippingOnly 6 left in stock - order soon.
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Surface Pro 4 powers through everything you need to do, while being lighter than ever before. Go from ultraportable tablet to a complete laptop in a snap wherever you are.
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The Windows you know plus lots of new features you'll love. No matter what you're doing, feel like an expert from the get-go.
Surface Pro 4 brings you advanced technology to streamline your life. No matter what you are doing, Surface Pro 4 comes with powerfully simple solutions for the things you do every day.
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Plug in. Connect. Project.
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Product Warranty: For warranty information about this product, please click here [PDF ]
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I migrated to a Surface when the version 2 shipped. I replaced my desktop, tablet and to a large extent my phone with the one Surface device. Since then I have upgraded to a 3 and now 4 and each has gotten better. Today I truly use one device for 95% of everything I do with the other 5% being phone calls and mobile GPS navigation. The ability to run true applications and "app" versions is outstanding even if app support is not on par (yet) with iOS and Android. The tradeoff of having fewer "apps" is having access to essentially any Windows application and the ability to run complete VMs for essentially 100% application compatibility. I haven't found one piece of software that won't run on my Surface. My kids (college and high school) use Surface 3 for school work and my father-on-law uses the Surface book to run full blown AutoCAD as he is an architect. At my desk I use the dock to make my Surface a desktop replacement (it has that power) and it is one connection away from becoming a tablet form factor with the power of a true PC in your hand.
The best parts of the Surface are the pen/stylus and new camera in the 4. I now can login using my face rather than a password or PIN. This is huge when using the Surface as a tablet in meetings as it is exceptionally fast to logon and keeps your device secure. The "ink" technology with the pen is amazing. I use OneNote religiously and have increase communication and collaboration with others by the ability to digitally markup documents, pictures and diagrams. It is all very natural. Is it perfect? No, but it is getting very close and updates are coming very quickly. Microsoft has done a great job of listening to the customer and quickly implementing upgrades/fixes through Office 365 support and Windows Update. Microsoft has also launched customer feedback sites that let you see what is important to the community and how the feature requests are being prioritized.
I also will put in a plug for Cortana. She is an overlooked feature that can change your PC experience. Cortana is Siri done well, plus she is smarter. She can not only do the standard Siri tasks of calling, setting appointments and so forth but you can launch applications, set contextual reminders and much more.
Durability is great. I travel a lot and my Surface goes with me. The case is very study magnesium and the screen is gorilla glass. My company (construction) uses these in the field and have never physically destroyed one. We, on the other hand, have killed many iPads.
As a long time Surface customer I can highly recommend these devices. I would offer the following purchase advice:
1. Buy as much processor (at least i5, i7 if possible) and RAM (at least 8GB) as possible as the devices are not upgradeable in that way. I would go for less storage and more CPU/RAM (see item 2)
2. Storage is secondary in my opinion. There is a microSD slot that will take at least 256GB cards. I use OneDrive that is cached locally on my SD card and have never run out of storage (and I have a lot of files).
Given the price difference this is not a “apples to apples” comparison to an iPad. But then again neither is performance or functionality. An iPad cannot replace a Macbook. A Surface really truly can replace your PC.
As a last note, I do not work for Microsoft. I am an IT professional with 25 years’ experience. I do admit to having a tendency to like Microsoft products, especially now that the Windows ecosystem is cross platform from my Surface to Xbox and everything in between. I do use an iPhone as I have yet to find a Windows Phone that I like on a carrier I prefer (more a carrier issue). I think that the new Windows 10 phones with the Continuum technology/dock will change that. I will whole heartedly stand behind my endorsement of the Surface platform. I have had outstanding feedback from my customers on their experiences as well.
The best parts of the Surface are the pen/stylus and new camera in the 4. I now can login using my face rather than a password or PIN. This is huge when using the Surface as a tablet in meetings as it is exceptionally fast to logon and keeps your device secure. The "ink" technology with the pen is amazing. I use OneNote religiously and have increase communication and collaboration with others by the ability to digitally markup documents, pictures and diagrams. It is all very natural. Is it perfect? No, but it is getting very close and updates are coming very quickly. Microsoft has done a great job of listening to the customer and quickly implementing upgrades/fixes through Office 365 support and Windows Update. Microsoft has also launched customer feedback sites that let you see what is important to the community and how the feature requests are being prioritized.
I also will put in a plug for Cortana. She is an overlooked feature that can change your PC experience. Cortana is Siri done well, plus she is smarter. She can not only do the standard Siri tasks of calling, setting appointments and so forth but you can launch applications, set contextual reminders and much more.
Durability is great. I travel a lot and my Surface goes with me. The case is very study magnesium and the screen is gorilla glass. My company (construction) uses these in the field and have never physically destroyed one. We, on the other hand, have killed many iPads.
As a long time Surface customer I can highly recommend these devices. I would offer the following purchase advice:
1. Buy as much processor (at least i5, i7 if possible) and RAM (at least 8GB) as possible as the devices are not upgradeable in that way. I would go for less storage and more CPU/RAM (see item 2)
2. Storage is secondary in my opinion. There is a microSD slot that will take at least 256GB cards. I use OneDrive that is cached locally on my SD card and have never run out of storage (and I have a lot of files).
Given the price difference this is not a “apples to apples” comparison to an iPad. But then again neither is performance or functionality. An iPad cannot replace a Macbook. A Surface really truly can replace your PC.
As a last note, I do not work for Microsoft. I am an IT professional with 25 years’ experience. I do admit to having a tendency to like Microsoft products, especially now that the Windows ecosystem is cross platform from my Surface to Xbox and everything in between. I do use an iPhone as I have yet to find a Windows Phone that I like on a carrier I prefer (more a carrier issue). I think that the new Windows 10 phones with the Continuum technology/dock will change that. I will whole heartedly stand behind my endorsement of the Surface platform. I have had outstanding feedback from my customers on their experiences as well.
This thing is awesome! Its light and versatile and powerful. Feels really comfortable in the lap or on the counter and the screen is beautiful. Its so weird having a full fledged Windows operating system in this form factor but its also so convenient. I haven't had a decent PC in a long time and I've been stuck using my wifes awful MacBook. For the life of me I cant understand why people think macs are better/easier to use. They are terribly restrictive and not user friendly at all but I find windows 10 and windows in general to just work and this is no exception. Its easy to find files, folders, programs and downloads etc. Now with touch screen and Windows start tile format it just works so well!
There are some major things I hear people complaining about consistently in the reviews and that is the battery life, keyboard touch pad and random restarts. First off I think the battery life is great. Just consider what this beast is doing. Its has an i7 processor 16GB of ram and is running windows 10 in a tablet form factor....not a laptop or desktop form factor but a TABLET. Its incredible that it doesn't die in 1 hour. I haven't even had it come close to dying. Ive been sitting here typing and surfing the net all night since I got home with the screen brightness turned up all the way and its at 72% that's 4 hours of normal use. I think that's very good. Much better than my wifes MacBook and that's a bulky full fledged laptop. The keyboard ( I got the finger print read one) is very impressive as it works flawlessly including the trac pad. I will say that don't use the finger print reader as much because surface pro itself scans your face as soon as you look at the screen and logs you in so you don't even have to touch the keyboard. Next I have never yet experienced a random restart or anything like that so I really cant or comment on that. Just make sure that when you get it you update the OS.
The pen works very well also. I am a big fan the Samsung Note series of phones so and used to using a stylus but this pen is much nicer than that. Its very smooth and consistent (not that the S pen is bad but this is just much more premium and smooth feeling). You can use it for writing in pretty much anything youd type and the hadwriting recognition works very well. The only thing it could use is like a quick post it note type of program aside from onenote which I'm sure you can get on the Microsoft app store. Maybe I just got lucky with this unit but it is flawless and worth every penny coming from a MacBook and dredful apple software/hardware this is a real pleasure! Long live Windows ard their great products for the common man who is more concerned with function and ease of use than trendy logos and silver wrapping. Id recommend the surface pro 4 to anybody!
There are some major things I hear people complaining about consistently in the reviews and that is the battery life, keyboard touch pad and random restarts. First off I think the battery life is great. Just consider what this beast is doing. Its has an i7 processor 16GB of ram and is running windows 10 in a tablet form factor....not a laptop or desktop form factor but a TABLET. Its incredible that it doesn't die in 1 hour. I haven't even had it come close to dying. Ive been sitting here typing and surfing the net all night since I got home with the screen brightness turned up all the way and its at 72% that's 4 hours of normal use. I think that's very good. Much better than my wifes MacBook and that's a bulky full fledged laptop. The keyboard ( I got the finger print read one) is very impressive as it works flawlessly including the trac pad. I will say that don't use the finger print reader as much because surface pro itself scans your face as soon as you look at the screen and logs you in so you don't even have to touch the keyboard. Next I have never yet experienced a random restart or anything like that so I really cant or comment on that. Just make sure that when you get it you update the OS.
The pen works very well also. I am a big fan the Samsung Note series of phones so and used to using a stylus but this pen is much nicer than that. Its very smooth and consistent (not that the S pen is bad but this is just much more premium and smooth feeling). You can use it for writing in pretty much anything youd type and the hadwriting recognition works very well. The only thing it could use is like a quick post it note type of program aside from onenote which I'm sure you can get on the Microsoft app store. Maybe I just got lucky with this unit but it is flawless and worth every penny coming from a MacBook and dredful apple software/hardware this is a real pleasure! Long live Windows ard their great products for the common man who is more concerned with function and ease of use than trendy logos and silver wrapping. Id recommend the surface pro 4 to anybody! | https://www.amazon.com/Microsoft-Surface-Pro-Intel-Core/dp/B01606NQ62 | 8 |
what type of ram is in the surface pro 4 | Microsoft Surface Pro 4 | - Processor : 2-core Intel Core m3-6Y30, 900 MHz, 4 MB Cache or 2-core Intel Core i5-6300U, 2.40 GHz, 3 MB Cache or 2-core Intel Core i7-6650U, 2.20 GHz, 4 MB Cache
- Memory : Up to 16 GB 1866 MHz LPDDR3 RAM (onboard)
- Storage : Up to 1 TB SSD
- Graphics : Intel HD graphics 515, 300 MHz (for i3 processor) or Intel HD graphics 520, 300 MHz (for i5 processor) or Intel Iris Graphics 540, 300 MHz (for i7 processor)
- Display : 12.3”, 2K (2736 x 1824)
|Release Date|
October 2015
|Brand|
Microsoft
|Model|
Surface Pro 4
|Operating System (OS)|
Windows 10 Pro
|Dimensions (W x D x H)|
292 x 201 x 8.45 mm
|Weight|
Intel Core i5 and i7 processor: 786 g, Intel Core m3 processor: 766 g
|Processor Name|
Intel Core m3-6Y30 / Intel Core i5-6300U / Intel Core i7-6650U
|Number of Cores|
2 / 2 / 2
|Cache|
4 MB / 3 MB / 4 MB
|Base Frequency|
900 MHz / 2.40 GHz / 2.20 GHz
|Maximum Frequency|
2.20 GHz / 3.00 GHz / 3.40 GHz
|Standard Memory Size|
16 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB
|Memory Type|
1866 MHz LPDDR3 RAM (onboard)
|Number of Slots|
1 (non-removable)
|Max Supported|
16 GB
|Drive Type|
SSD
|Max Size|
1 TB
|SD Card Options|
1 microSD card reader
|Graphics Card Name|
Intel HD graphics 515 / Intel HD graphics 520 / Intel Iris Graphics 540
|GPU Interface|
Integrated / Integrated / Integrated
|Dedicated VRAM|
None
|Base GPU Frequency|
300 MHz / 300 MHz / 300 MHz
|Boost GPU Frequency|
850 MHz / 1000 MHz / 1050 MHz
|Size (Inches)|
12.3”
|Resolution|
2K (2736 x 1824)
|Touchscreen?|
Yes
|Other Features|
PixelSense display, 267 PPI, Aspect ratio: 3:2, 10 point multi-touch
|USB Ports|
USB 3.0
|HDMI Ports|
None
|RJ-45 (Ethernet) Ports|
None
|Thunderbolt|
None
|Wired LAN (RJ-45)|
No
|Wireless LAN|
IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n/ac
|Bluetooth Version|
4.0
|Battery Type|
38.2 Wh Lithium-ion
|Battery Life|
Up to 9 hours (Advertised)
|Audio/Sound|
Front and Back microphones, Stereo speakers with Dolby Audio Premium
|Webcam|
5.0MP front-facing camera with 1080p HD video, 8.0MP rear-facing autofocus camera with 1080p Full HD video, Front-facing Windows Hello face authentication camera
|Optical Drive|
None | https://www.itechguides.com/product-specs/microsoft-surface-pro-4-specs/ | 8 |
who plays sam in lord of the rings | Sean Astin - Wikipedia | Astin was born in Santa Monica , California on February 25, 1971, as the son of actress Patty Duke (1946–2016) and Michael Tell (born 1950). [2] [3] [4] However, at the time, it was reported that entertainer Desi Arnaz Jr. was his biological father . During that time, Duke also had a personal relationship with Michael Tell, a writer, music promoter , and publisher of the newspaper The Las Vegas Israelite . When Duke became pregnant, she was unsure whether Arnaz or Tell was the father, so Tell offered to marry her as a way out of the scandal. The marriage lasted only 13 days in 1970 and ended before Astin was born. [5] [6] [7]
On August 5, 1972, Duke married actor John Astin , having been in a relationship with him for two years. When the wedding guests were invited to speak, 18-month-old Sean looked at John and cried, "Daddy!", to which the Episcopal priest performing the ceremony remarked, "Well, that about does it!" [8] Astin subsequently adopted Sean. In 1973, Duke gave birth to Astin's brother Mackenzie Astin , who also became an actor. Duke and John Astin divorced in 1985. [9] Duke married Mike Pearce in 1986, [5] and they adopted a son, Kevin, in 1989. [9]
When Astin was 14, Duke told him that Arnaz was his father, and the two developed a relationship. However, in his mid-20s, Astin met a relative of Michael Tell who suggested they were related. Sean set out to find the truth about his biological father, and underwent genetic tests which showed Tell was his biological father. [10] Astin has maintained close relationships with all three, and saying: "Desi Arnaz Jr. loves me, and I love him. We are so close ... Science tells me ... that he's not my biological father. Science tells me that Mike Tell is." Astin considers John his father, as John was the one who raised him. Astin is also close to his stepfather, Mike Pearce, saying, "I can call any of them on the phone any time I want to. John, Desi, Mike, or Papa Mike ... my four dads." [5]
Astin is of German and Irish ancestry through his mother and Austrian Jewish and Polish Jewish through his biological father. [11] [12] [13] He attended Catholic school and later became a Protestant . [14]
Astin attended the Crossroads High School for the Arts and undertook master classes at the Stella Adler Conservatory in Los Angeles . He graduated cum laude from UCLA with a B.A. in History and English (American literature and culture). An alumnus of Los Angeles Valley College , Astin served on the school's board of directors of the Patrons Association and the Arts Council . [15]
Astin's first acting role was in a 1981 television movie titled Please Don't Hit Me, Mom , [16] in which he played an 8-year-old child with an abusive mother (portrayed by his real-life mother Patty Duke ). He made his film debut at the age of 13 as Mikey in The Goonies (1985).
After The Goonies , Astin appeared in several more films, including the Disney made-for-TV movie, The B.R.A.T. Patrol , opposite Nia Long , Tim Thomerson , and Brian Keith ; Like Father Like Son (1987); White Water Summer with Kevin Bacon (1987), The War of the Roses (1989); the World War II film Memphis Belle (1990); Toy Soldiers (1991); Encino Man (1992); and the college football biopic Rudy (1993), about the life-changing struggles and rewards of the titular character, Daniel Ruettiger .
In 1994, Astin directed and co-produced (with his wife, Christine Astin) the short film Kangaroo Court , which received an Academy Award nomination for Best Live Action Short Film . Astin continued to appear in films throughout the 1990s, including the Showtime science fiction film Harrison Bergeron (1995), the Gulf War film Courage Under Fire (1996), and the Warren Beatty political satire Bulworth (1998).
In the early 2000s, Astin played Samwise Gamgee in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , consisting of The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002), and The Return of the King (2003). Many awards were bestowed upon the trilogy, particularly its final installment, which earned eleven Academy Awards , including Best Picture. Astin received seven award nominations for his own performance, and won five, including the Saturn Award , the Sierra Award, the Seattle Film Critics Award, and the Utah Film Critics Award (all for Best Supporting Actor), and the Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male or Female in an Effects Film. [17] [ better source needed ] The Return of the King cast as an ensemble received awards from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures , the Screen Actors Guild , the Broadcast Film Critics Association , and received a Gold Derby Award. [18] [ better source needed ]
Throughout the filming process, Astin became close friends with several cast members, and became particularly good friends with costar Elijah Wood . Astin's daughter, Alexandra, is in the closing scene of The Return of the King . She plays his onscreen daughter, Elanor Gamgee, who runs out to him as he returns from the Grey Havens.
While working on The Lord of the Rings , Astin persuaded a number of fellow cast and crew members, including director Peter Jackson , to assist him in making his second short film, The Long and Short of It . The film, which takes place on a street in Wellington , New Zealand, premiered at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival and can be found on the DVD for The Two Towers , along with a "making of" video.
In 2004, Astin released There and Back Again ( ISBN 0-312-33146-0 ), a memoir (co-written with Joe Layden) of his film career with emphasis on his experiences during production of The Lord of the Rings trilogy . The title is derived from the title of J. R. R. Tolkien 's novel The Hobbit , as well as the fictional book written by Bilbo Baggins in The Lord of the Rings .
Since The Lord of the Rings , Astin has continued to work in film and television. His film roles have included the Adam Sandler comedies 50 First Dates and Click . Astin played the role of Malibu High School principal Mike Matthews in the movie Smile . [19] [ better source needed ]
In television, Astin guest-starred as Lynn McGill throughout the fifth season of the Fox drama 24 . He also appeared in the made-for-TV films Hercules and The Colour of Magic and in episodes of Monk , Las Vegas , My Name is Earl (in which he parodied his 1993 film Rudy with co-stars Charles S. Dutton and Chelcie Ross ), and Law & Order , among other shows. He directed a 2003 episode of the TV series Angel , titled "Soulless" . He played the enigmatic Mr. Smith on the second season of the Showtime series Jeremiah . [20] [ better source needed ]
Astin's career has also expanded to include voice-over roles. He narrated the American version of the Animal Planet series Meerkat Manor , and voices the title character in Special Agent Oso which aired on Playhouse Disney from 2009 to 2011 and Disney Junior from 2011 to early 2014. [21] His other voice work includes Balto III: Wings of Change , in which he voiced Kodi, a teenage husky who is the son of the titular character, and the video game Kingdom Hearts , in the latter of which he provided the voice of Hercules , replacing actor Tate Donovan , who was unavailable but would return for Kingdom Hearts II . Astin voiced Raphael in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles animated series on Nickelodeon , which premiered on September 29, 2012, running for five seasons and 124 episodes, and ending on November 12, 2017.
In 2010, he joined the Stella Adler Los Angeles Theatre Collective acting company. [22] Also as of 2010, Astin and his wife, Christine, were making a movie based on Lois Lowry 's Newbery Medal -winning novel Number the Stars . [23] [24] They bought the film rights in 2008 and wrote a screenplay adaptation, with plans to direct and produce it themselves. [25]
In March 2012, Astin played a cosmetic surgeon named Takin Mastuhmik in a fake movie trailer entitled Boobathon which appeared on Funny or Die . [26] In March 2014, Astin played a soldier in Boys of Abu Ghraib , a military thriller inspired by the events that made worldwide news in 2004 . [27] [ better source needed ] In June of that year, he began playing the role of Jim Kent on the FX drama The Strain . [28]
In October 2015, Astin played Hank Erwin in Woodlawn , a story about how a high school football team overcame racism and hate, and found unity and success through following Jesus . [29]
In 2017, Astin played the role of Bob Newby in season two of the Netflix series Stranger Things . In 2019, Astin reprised the role of Newby in flashback scenes during the series' third season, played the role of Dr. Greg Pemberton on several episodes of The Big Bang Theory , and had a guest appearance on the fifth season of Supergirl . In 2019, he was in the Netflix dramedy No Good Nick in which he played Ed. Also in 2019, he appeared in the 6th season of Brooklyn Nine-Nine .
In May 2020, Astin joined Josh Gad 's YouTube series Reunited Apart , which reunites the casts of popular movies through video-conferencing, and promotes donations to non-profit charities. Others in the episode were fellow The Lord of the Rings castmates Sean Bean, Orlando Bloom, Billy Boyd, Ian McKellen, Dominic Monaghan, Viggo Mortensen, Miranda Otto, John Rhys-Davies, Andy Serkis, Liv Tyler, Karl Urban, and Elijah Wood, plus writer Philippa Boyens and director Peter Jackson. [30] [31]
Astin married Christine Harrell on July 11, 1992. They have three daughters: Alexandra (born in November 1996), Elizabeth (born in August 2002), and Isabella (born in July 2005), all having the middle name Louise. [32] His wife held the Miss Indiana Teen USA title in 1984. [33] Alexandra had a small cameo role in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King as Elanor Gamgee, Astin's character's daughter, and appears in Bad Kids of Crestview Academy as Ethel Balducci.
Astin has a tattoo on his ankle of the word "nine" written with the Tengwar script, commemorating his Lord of the Rings involvement and his character's membership in the "Fellowship of the Ring" . Seven of the eight other actors ( Elijah Wood , Sean Bean , Billy Boyd , Ian McKellen , Dominic Monaghan , Viggo Mortensen and Orlando Bloom ) all have the same tattoo. John Rhys-Davies ' stunt double, Brett Beattie, has the tattoo as well. [34]
In an August 2013 interview, Astin said he is a Lutheran Christian, having been "baptized in my wife's Lutheran church". [14]
In January 2015, Astin completed the Dopey Challenge at the Walt Disney World Resort which involves running a 5k, 10k, half-marathon and full marathon on four consecutive days. [35] [36]
On October 10, 2015, Astin competed in the 2015 Ironman World Championship in Kailua Kona, Hawaii . Wearing number 143, Astin finished the race in a time of 15:30:31. [37]
From 1995 to 2005, Astin served as a Civilian Aide to the Secretary of the Army (CASA) and afterwards served on the President's Council on Service and Civic Participation for two years during the George W. Bush administration. [38] [39]
Astin is a lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party. [ citation needed ]
During the 2004 United States presidential election , Astin backed Senator John Kerry and participated in Kerry's campaign rally in Portland, Oregon , as the opening speaker. [40]
In the 2008 presidential election , Astin lent his support to then-Senator Hillary Clinton for the first of her two Presidential campaigns and made multiple campaign appearances on her behalf, including joining Clinton's daughter Chelsea at some stops. [41]
Astin served as the campaign manager for Democrat Dan Adler, a businessman friend in the entertainment industry, in California's 36th congressional district special election of 2011 . [39]
In the 2016 presidential election , Astin campaigned for Hillary Clinton in midwestern states such as Iowa , Nebraska and Wisconsin . [42]
In a 2020 Twitter post, Astin voiced his support for Democratic nominee Joe Biden . [43] | https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Astin#:~:text=In%20the%20early%202000s%2C%20Astin%20played%20Samwise%20Gamgee,%282002%29%2C%20and%20The%20Return%20of%20the%20King%20%282003%29. | 9 |
who plays sam in lord of the rings | Sean Astin - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sean Astin
|Born|
Sean Patrick Duke
February 25, 1971
Santa Monica, California , U.S.
|Alma mater||University of California, Los Angeles ( BA )|
|Occupation|
Actor
|Years active||1980–present|
|Spouse|
Christine Harrell
( m. 1992 )
|Children||3|
|Parents|
|Relatives||Mackenzie Astin (brother)|
|Website|| seanastin |
Sean Patrick Astin ( né Duke ; born February 25, 1971) is an American actor. His acting roles include Samwise Gamgee in The Lord of the Rings trilogy (2001–2003), Mikey Walsh in The Goonies (1985), Billy Tepper in Toy Soldiers (1991), Daniel Ruettiger in Rudy (1993), Doug Whitmore in 50 First Dates (2004), Bill in Click (2006), Lynn McGill in the fifth season of 24 (2006), Oso in Special Agent Oso (2009–2012), Raphael in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012–2017), Bob Newby in the second and third seasons of Netflix 's Stranger Things (2017; 2019), [1] and Ed in No Good Nick (2019).
He is the son of actress Patty Duke and adopted by actor John Astin . He has received various recognitions including a Screen Actors Guild Award and two Young Artist Awards . Additionally, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film in 1994 for the short film Kangaroo Court .
Astin was born in Santa Monica , California on February 25, 1971, as the son of actress Patty Duke (1946–2016) and Michael Tell (born 1950). [2] [3] [4] However, at the time, it was reported that entertainer Desi Arnaz Jr. was his biological father . During that time, Duke also had a personal relationship with Michael Tell, a writer, music promoter , and publisher of the newspaper The Las Vegas Israelite . When Duke became pregnant, she was unsure whether Arnaz or Tell was the father, so Tell offered to marry her as a way out of the scandal. The marriage lasted only 13 days in 1970 and ended before Astin was born. [5] [6] [7]
On August 5, 1972, Duke married actor John Astin , having been in a relationship with him for two years. When the wedding guests were invited to speak, 18-month-old Sean looked at John and cried, "Daddy!", to which the Episcopal priest performing the ceremony remarked, "Well, that about does it!" [8] Astin subsequently adopted Sean. In 1973, Duke gave birth to Astin's brother Mackenzie Astin , who also became an actor. Duke and John Astin divorced in 1985. [9] Duke married Mike Pearce in 1986, [5] and they adopted a son, Kevin, in 1989. [9]
When Astin was 14, Duke told him that Arnaz was his father, and the two developed a relationship. However, in his mid-20s, Astin met a relative of Michael Tell who suggested they were related. Sean set out to find the truth about his biological father, and underwent genetic tests which showed Tell was his biological father. [10] Astin has maintained close relationships with all three, and saying: "Desi Arnaz Jr. loves me, and I love him. We are so close ... Science tells me ... that he's not my biological father. Science tells me that Mike Tell is." Astin considers John his father, as John was the one who raised him. Astin is also close to his stepfather, Mike Pearce, saying, "I can call any of them on the phone any time I want to. John, Desi, Mike, or Papa Mike ... my four dads." [5]
Astin is of German and Irish ancestry through his mother and Austrian Jewish and Polish Jewish through his biological father. [11] [12] [13] He attended Catholic school and later became a Protestant . [14]
Astin attended the Crossroads High School for the Arts and undertook master classes at the Stella Adler Conservatory in Los Angeles . He graduated cum laude from UCLA with a B.A. in History and English (American literature and culture). An alumnus of Los Angeles Valley College , Astin served on the school's board of directors of the Patrons Association and the Arts Council . [15]
Astin's first acting role was in a 1981 television movie titled Please Don't Hit Me, Mom , [16] in which he played an 8-year-old child with an abusive mother (portrayed by his real-life mother Patty Duke ). He made his film debut at the age of 13 as Mikey in The Goonies (1985).
After The Goonies , Astin appeared in several more films, including the Disney made-for-TV movie, The B.R.A.T. Patrol , opposite Nia Long , Tim Thomerson , and Brian Keith ; Like Father Like Son (1987); White Water Summer with Kevin Bacon (1987), The War of the Roses (1989); the World War II film Memphis Belle (1990); Toy Soldiers (1991); Encino Man (1992); and the college football biopic Rudy (1993), about the life-changing struggles and rewards of the titular character, Daniel Ruettiger .
In 1994, Astin directed and co-produced (with his wife, Christine Astin) the short film Kangaroo Court , which received an Academy Award nomination for Best Live Action Short Film . Astin continued to appear in films throughout the 1990s, including the Showtime science fiction film Harrison Bergeron (1995), the Gulf War film Courage Under Fire (1996), and the Warren Beatty political satire Bulworth (1998).
In the early 2000s, Astin played Samwise Gamgee in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , consisting of The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002), and The Return of the King (2003). Many awards were bestowed upon the trilogy, particularly its final installment, which earned eleven Academy Awards , including Best Picture. Astin received seven award nominations for his own performance, and won five, including the Saturn Award , the Sierra Award, the Seattle Film Critics Award, and the Utah Film Critics Award (all for Best Supporting Actor), and the Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male or Female in an Effects Film. [17] [ better source needed ] The Return of the King cast as an ensemble received awards from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures , the Screen Actors Guild , the Broadcast Film Critics Association , and received a Gold Derby Award. [18] [ better source needed ]
Throughout the filming process, Astin became close friends with several cast members, and became particularly good friends with costar Elijah Wood . Astin's daughter, Alexandra, is in the closing scene of The Return of the King . She plays his onscreen daughter, Elanor Gamgee, who runs out to him as he returns from the Grey Havens.
While working on The Lord of the Rings , Astin persuaded a number of fellow cast and crew members, including director Peter Jackson , to assist him in making his second short film, The Long and Short of It . The film, which takes place on a street in Wellington , New Zealand, premiered at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival and can be found on the DVD for The Two Towers , along with a "making of" video.
In 2004, Astin released There and Back Again ( ISBN 0-312-33146-0 ), a memoir (co-written with Joe Layden) of his film career with emphasis on his experiences during production of The Lord of the Rings trilogy . The title is derived from the title of J. R. R. Tolkien 's novel The Hobbit , as well as the fictional book written by Bilbo Baggins in The Lord of the Rings .
Since The Lord of the Rings , Astin has continued to work in film and television. His film roles have included the Adam Sandler comedies 50 First Dates and Click . Astin played the role of Malibu High School principal Mike Matthews in the movie Smile . [19] [ better source needed ]
In television, Astin guest-starred as Lynn McGill throughout the fifth season of the Fox drama 24 . He also appeared in the made-for-TV films Hercules and The Colour of Magic and in episodes of Monk , Las Vegas , My Name is Earl (in which he parodied his 1993 film Rudy with co-stars Charles S. Dutton and Chelcie Ross ), and Law & Order , among other shows. He directed a 2003 episode of the TV series Angel , titled "Soulless" . He played the enigmatic Mr. Smith on the second season of the Showtime series Jeremiah . [20] [ better source needed ]
Astin's career has also expanded to include voice-over roles. He narrated the American version of the Animal Planet series Meerkat Manor , and voices the title character in Special Agent Oso which aired on Playhouse Disney from 2009 to 2011 and Disney Junior from 2011 to early 2014. [21] His other voice work includes Balto III: Wings of Change , in which he voiced Kodi, a teenage husky who is the son of the titular character, and the video game Kingdom Hearts , in the latter of which he provided the voice of Hercules , replacing actor Tate Donovan , who was unavailable but would return for Kingdom Hearts II . Astin voiced Raphael in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles animated series on Nickelodeon , which premiered on September 29, 2012, running for five seasons and 124 episodes, and ending on November 12, 2017.
In 2010, he joined the Stella Adler Los Angeles Theatre Collective acting company. [22] Also as of 2010, Astin and his wife, Christine, were making a movie based on Lois Lowry 's Newbery Medal -winning novel Number the Stars . [23] [24] They bought the film rights in 2008 and wrote a screenplay adaptation, with plans to direct and produce it themselves. [25]
In March 2012, Astin played a cosmetic surgeon named Takin Mastuhmik in a fake movie trailer entitled Boobathon which appeared on Funny or Die . [26] In March 2014, Astin played a soldier in Boys of Abu Ghraib , a military thriller inspired by the events that made worldwide news in 2004 . [27] [ better source needed ] In June of that year, he began playing the role of Jim Kent on the FX drama The Strain . [28]
In October 2015, Astin played Hank Erwin in Woodlawn , a story about how a high school football team overcame racism and hate, and found unity and success through following Jesus . [29]
In 2017, Astin played the role of Bob Newby in season two of the Netflix series Stranger Things . In 2019, Astin reprised the role of Newby in flashback scenes during the series' third season, played the role of Dr. Greg Pemberton on several episodes of The Big Bang Theory , and had a guest appearance on the fifth season of Supergirl . In 2019, he was in the Netflix dramedy No Good Nick in which he played Ed. Also in 2019, he appeared in the 6th season of Brooklyn Nine-Nine .
In May 2020, Astin joined Josh Gad 's YouTube series Reunited Apart , which reunites the casts of popular movies through video-conferencing, and promotes donations to non-profit charities. Others in the episode were fellow The Lord of the Rings castmates Sean Bean, Orlando Bloom, Billy Boyd, Ian McKellen, Dominic Monaghan, Viggo Mortensen, Miranda Otto, John Rhys-Davies, Andy Serkis, Liv Tyler, Karl Urban, and Elijah Wood, plus writer Philippa Boyens and director Peter Jackson. [30] [31]
Astin married Christine Harrell on July 11, 1992. They have three daughters: Alexandra (born in November 1996), Elizabeth (born in August 2002), and Isabella (born in July 2005), all having the middle name Louise. [32] His wife held the Miss Indiana Teen USA title in 1984. [33] Alexandra had a small cameo role in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King as Elanor Gamgee, Astin's character's daughter, and appears in Bad Kids of Crestview Academy as Ethel Balducci.
Astin has a tattoo on his ankle of the word "nine" written with the Tengwar script, commemorating his Lord of the Rings involvement and his character's membership in the "Fellowship of the Ring" . Seven of the eight other actors ( Elijah Wood , Sean Bean , Billy Boyd , Ian McKellen , Dominic Monaghan , Viggo Mortensen and Orlando Bloom ) all have the same tattoo. John Rhys-Davies ' stunt double, Brett Beattie, has the tattoo as well. [34]
In an August 2013 interview, Astin said he is a Lutheran Christian, having been "baptized in my wife's Lutheran church". [14]
In January 2015, Astin completed the Dopey Challenge at the Walt Disney World Resort which involves running a 5k, 10k, half-marathon and full marathon on four consecutive days. [35] [36]
On October 10, 2015, Astin competed in the 2015 Ironman World Championship in Kailua Kona, Hawaii . Wearing number 143, Astin finished the race in a time of 15:30:31. [37]
From 1995 to 2005, Astin served as a Civilian Aide to the Secretary of the Army (CASA) and afterwards served on the President's Council on Service and Civic Participation for two years during the George W. Bush administration. [38] [39]
Astin is a lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party. [ citation needed ]
During the 2004 United States presidential election , Astin backed Senator John Kerry and participated in Kerry's campaign rally in Portland, Oregon , as the opening speaker. [40]
In the 2008 presidential election , Astin lent his support to then-Senator Hillary Clinton for the first of her two Presidential campaigns and made multiple campaign appearances on her behalf, including joining Clinton's daughter Chelsea at some stops. [41]
Astin served as the campaign manager for Democrat Dan Adler, a businessman friend in the entertainment industry, in California's 36th congressional district special election of 2011 . [39]
In the 2016 presidential election , Astin campaigned for Hillary Clinton in midwestern states such as Iowa , Nebraska and Wisconsin . [42]
In a 2020 Twitter post, Astin voiced his support for Democratic nominee Joe Biden . [43]
|Year||Title||Role||Notes||Ref.|
|1985||The Goonies||Mikey Walsh|
|1986||The B.R.A.T. Patrol||Leonard Kinsey||[44]|
|1987||Like Father Like Son||Clarence / Trigger|
|White Water Summer||Alan|
|1989||The War of the Roses||Josh Rose (age 17)|
|Staying Together||Duncan McDermott|
|1990||Memphis Belle||Sergeant Richard "Rascal" Moore|
|1991||Toy Soldiers||William Tepper|
|The Willies||Michael|
|1992||Where the Day Takes You||Greg|
|Encino Man||Dave Morgan|
|1993||Rudy||Daniel Ruettiger|
|1994||Teresa's Tattoo||Step Brother||Uncredited||[45]|
|Safe Passage||Izzy Singer|
|1995||The Low Life||Andrew|
|1996||Courage Under Fire||Patella|
|1998||Boy Meets Girl||Mike|
|Bulworth||Gary|
|1999||Deterrence||Ralph|
|Kimberly||Bob|
|2000||Dish Dogs||Morgan|
|The Last Producer||Bo Pomerantz|
|Icebreaker||Matt Foster|
|The Sky Is Falling||Mr. Schwartz|
|2001||The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring||Samwise Gamgee|
|2002||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Samwise Gamgee|
|2003||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Samwise Gamgee|
|2004||Balto III: Wings of Change||Kodi||Voice role|
|Elvis Has Left the Building||Aaron|
|50 First Dates||Doug Whitmore|
|2005||Smile||Mike Matthews|
|Bigger Than the Sky||Ken Zorbell|
|Slipstream||Stuart Conway||Direct-to-DVD|
|Marilyn Hotchkiss Ballroom Dancing & Charm School||Kip Kipling|
|Borderland||Randall|
|Thanks to Gravity||Coach Amal||Direct-to-DVD|
|2006||What Love Is||George||Direct-to- VOD|
|Asterix and the Vikings||Justforkix||English dub|
|Click||Bill|
|2007||The Final Season||Kent Stock|
|My Wife Is Retarded||Jeff||Short film|
|2008||Forever Strong||Marcus|
|Spirit of the Forest||Furi||Voice role|
|2009||Stay Cool||Big Girl||Direct-to-VOD|
|Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel||Meerkat Manor Narrator||Voice role|
|2011||Demoted||Mike||Direct-to-VOD|
|2012||Boobathon||Takin Mastuhmik||Trailer||[26]|
|Amazing Love: The Story of Hosea||Stuart||Direct-to-DVD|
|2013||The Freemason||Leon Weed||Direct-to-DVD|
|2014||Justice League: War||Shazam||Voice role|
|Boys of Abu Ghraib||Staff Sergeant Tanner||Direct-to-VOD|
|Cabin Fever: Patient Zero||Porter||Direct-to-DVD||[46] [47]|
|Moms' Night Out||Sean||[48] [49]|
|Video Games: The Movie||Narrator||Documentary|
|Ribbit||Ribbit||Voice role|
|The Hero of Color City||Horatio||Voice role|
|The Surface||Mitch||Direct-to-VOD|
|2015||Justice League: Throne of Atlantis||Shazam||Voice role|
|Do You Believe?||Dr. Farell|
|Woodlawn||Hank|
|Checkmate||Dyson|
|2016||The Do-Over||Ted-O|
|Range 15||Grigsby|
|Unleashed||Carl|
|2017||Bad Kids of Crestview Academy||Headmaster Nash|
|Dead Ant||Art|
|Espionage Tonight||Sam Jacobson|
|The Lears||Tom Cornwall|
|2018||Gloria Bell||Jeremy|
|2020||Adverse||Frankie|
|Lego DC: Shazam!: Magic and Monsters||Shazam||Voice role|
|2021||Hero Mode||Jimmy|
|Charming the Hearts of Men||George|
|2023||The AD-X2 Controversy||Himself||Documentary short|
|iMordecai||Marvin|
|TBA||Cash Out||TBA||Post-production||[50] [51]|
|Year||Title||Role||Notes||Ref.|
|1981||Please Don't Hit Me, Mom||Brian Reynolds|
|1982||The Rules of Marriage||Charlie Hagen|
|1985||The O'Briens||The Son|
|1986||The B.R.A.T. Patrol||Leonard Kinsey|
|1995||Harrison Bergeron||Harrison Bergeron||Movie|
|2003||Angel||N/A||Director (episode: " Soulless ")|
|2003–2004||Jeremiah||Mister Smith||Main role (season 2)|
|2004||Higglytown Heroes||Pix the Elf||Guest voice role (1 episode)||[52]|
|2005||Hercules||Linus||Main role|
|Into The West||Martin Jarrett||Miniseries|
|2005–2007||Meerkat Manor||Narrator||Seasons 1 – 3|
|2006||24||Lynn McGill||Main role ( Season 5 )|
|2007||Masters of Science Fiction||Charlie Kramer||Episode: "Watchbird"|
|Monk||Paul Buchanan||Episode: "Mr. Monk Is At Your Service"|
|My Name Is Earl||Salesman||Episode: "Get a Real Job"|
|2008||Terry Pratchett's The Colour of Magic||Twoflower||Movie|
|Law & Order||Pastor Hensley||Episode: "Angelgrove"|
|2009–2012||Special Agent Oso||Agent Oso||Main role (60 episodes)|
|2011||Love's Christmas Journey||Mayor Wayne||Movie|
|2012||NCIS||Tyler Elliot||Episode: " The Tell "|
|Adopting Terror||Tim||Movie|
|Dorothy and the Witches of Oz||Frack||Miniseries|
|Hollywood Treasure||Himself||Episode: " Riddler Rudy and the Ruby Slippers "|
|Franklin & Bash||Viper||Episode: "Viper"|
|Alphas||Mitchell||2 episodes|
|2012–2017||Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles||Raphael||Voice role|
|2013||Santa Switch||Eddie||Movie||[53]|
|2014||The Strain||Jim Kent||Main role|
|2015, 2017||Penn Zero: Part-Time Hero||Blaze||Voice role; 4 episodes||[54] [55]|
|2016||The Loud House||Loni||Voice role; Episode: "One of the Boys"||[56]|
|The Librarians||Kirby Goulding||Episode: " And the Tears of a Clown "|
|2016–2018||Justice League Action||Billy Batson / Shazam||Voice role|
|Bunnicula||Chester||Voice role|
|2017–2019||Stranger Things||Bob Newby||10 episodes|
|2018–2020||The Epic Tales of Captain Underpants||Narrator|
|2019||The Big Bang Theory||Dr. Pemberton||Episodes: "The Confirmation Polarization," "The Laureate Accumulation," & "The Plagiarism Schism"|
|No Good Nick||Ed||Main role|
|Brooklyn Nine-Nine||Sergeant Knox||Episode: "Ticking Clocks"|
|2019–2020||Supergirl||Pete Andrews|| Episode: "Blurred Lines" (Photograph) |
Episode: "The Missing Link"
|2021||Jungledyret Hugo||Hugo|
|Playing with Power: The Nintendo Story||Narrator|
|Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?||Himself||Voice role; Episode: "Returning of the Key Ring!"|
|2023||Perry Mason||Sunny Gryce||Season 2 (8 episodes)||[57]|
|2023||The Conners||Tyler||Episode: "What's So Funny About Peas, Love and Understanding?"||[58]|
|Year||Title||Role||Notes|
|2002||Kingdom Hearts||Hercules||English version|
|2003||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Samwise Gamgee|
|2004||Men of Valor||Pat 'Mouth' Hodges|
|2006||The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II: The Rise of the Witch-king||Samwise Gamgee|
|2010||The Lord of the Rings: Aragorn's Quest||Samwise Gamgee|
|2012||Lego The Lord of the Rings||Samwise Gamgee||Archive recordings|
|2013||Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles||Raphael|
|2015||Lego Dimensions||Samwise Gamgee|
|2016||Minecraft: Story Mode||Reginald|
|Year||Association||Category||Work||Result||Ref.|
|1985||Young Artist Awards||Best Starring Performance by a Young Actor – Motion Picture||The Goonies||Won|
|1989||Young Artist Awards||Best Young Actor Starring in a Motion Picture||Staying Together||Won|
|1991||Young Artist Awards||Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast in a Motion Picture||Toy Soldiers||Nominated|
|1994||Academy Awards||Best Live Action Short Film||Kangaroo Court||Nominated|
|2001||Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring||Nominated|
|2002||MTV Movie Awards||MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Team (shared with Elijah Wood and Gollum / Andy Serkis )||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Won|
|Visual Effects Society||Best Performance by an Actor in an Effects Film (shared with Elijah Wood and Andy Serkis )||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Won|
|Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Nominated|
|2003||Chicago Film Critics Association||Best Supporting Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Nominated|
|National Board of Review||Best Cast||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Saturn Awards||Best Supporting Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Visual Effects Society||Outstanding Male or Female Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association||Best Ensemble||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Nominated|
|2014||Utah Film Awards||Best Actor||The Freemason||Won||[59]|
|2017||Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series||Stranger Things||Nominated|
- ^ Otterson, Joe (June 7, 2018). "Sean Astin Talks 'Stranger Things': 'Bob Newby Was Tailor-Made for Me'" . Variety . Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved December 30, 2018 .
- ^ "Astin, Sean (Patrick)" . Encyclopedia.com . Archived from the original on March 7, 2016 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ "Personal Biography" . seanastin.com . Archived from the original on March 15, 2015 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ "Sean Astin profile" . IGN . Archived from the original on February 27, 2015 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Astin | 9 |
who plays sam in lord of the rings | Samwise Gamgee - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Samwise Gamgee|
|J. R. R. Tolkien character|
|First appearance||The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955)|
|In-universe information|
|Race||Hobbit|
|Affiliation||Company of the Ring|
|Spouse||Rose Cotton|
Samwise Gamgee ( / ˈ s æ m ˌ w aɪ z ˈ ɡ æ m ˌ dʒ iː / , usually called Sam ) is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien 's Middle-earth . A hobbit , Samwise is the chief supporting character of The Lord of the Rings , serving as the sidekick of the protagonist Frodo Baggins . Sam is a member of the Fellowship of the Ring , the group of nine charged with destroying the One Ring to prevent the Dark Lord Sauron from taking over the world.
Sam was Frodo's gardener. He was drawn into Frodo's adventure while eavesdropping on a private conversation Frodo was having with the wizard Gandalf . Sam was Frodo's steadfast companion and servant, portrayed as both physically strong for his size and emotionally strong, often supporting Frodo through difficult parts of the journey and at times carrying Frodo when he was too weak to go on. Sam served as Ring-bearer for a short time when Frodo was captured by orcs ; his emotional strength was again demonstrated when he willingly gave the Ring back to Frodo. Following the War of the Ring , Sam returned to the Shire and his role as gardener, helping to replant the trees which had been destroyed while he was away. He was elected Mayor of the Shire for seven consecutive terms.
The name Gamgee derives from a local name for cotton wool, from a surgical dressing invented by Sampson Gamgee ; hence Sam's girlfriend Rosie is from the Cotton family. Scholars have remarked the symbolism in Sam's story, which carries echoes of Christianity ; for instance, his carrying of Frodo is reminiscent of Simon of Cyrene 's carrying of Christ's cross. Tolkien considered Sam a hero of the story . Psychologists have seen Sam's quest as a psychological journey of love. Tolkien's biographers have noted the resemblance of Sam's relationship with Frodo to that of military servants to British Army officers in the First World War .
Samwise Gamgee was Frodo Baggins 's gardener, having inherited the position from his father, Hamfast "Gaffer" Gamgee, who was Bilbo Baggins 's gardener. As "punishment" for eavesdropping on Gandalf 's conversation with Frodo regarding the One Ring , Sam was made Frodo's first companion on his journey to Rivendell . [T 1] They were joined by Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took , Frodo's cousins, traveling together to Rivendell. At the Council of Elrond there, Sam joined the Fellowship of the Ring. [T 2] In the elvish land of Lothlórien , Galadriel gives Sam a small box of earth from her garden. [T 3]
When the Fellowship split up at the Falls of Rauros , Sam insisted on accompanying Frodo. [T 4] Sam protected and cared for Frodo, who was growing weaker under the Ring's influence, as they moved through the dangerous lands toward Mordor . Sam distrusted Gollum , who became their guide into Mordor. [T 5] [T 6] His suspicions were proven right when Gollum betrayed them to the giant spider Shelob . When Shelob stung Frodo, Sam drove her off. [T 7] When a band of orcs approached, Sam was forced to leave the apparently dead Frodo and take the Ring himself, and briefly became the Ring-bearer . He was momentarily tempted by its promise of power, but did not succumb to it. [T 8] Sam then rescued Frodo (who had only been paralysed) from the orcs who held him captive. Sam returned the ring to Frodo. [T 9] The two then journeyed through Mordor [T 10] and into Mount Doom , Sam carrying Frodo on his back for some of the way. Gollum attacked Frodo and reclaimed the Ring, only to destroy both it and himself by falling into one of the Cracks of Doom. [T 11]
So Sam planted saplings in all the places where specially beautiful or beloved trees had been destroyed, and he put a grain of the precious dust in the soil at the root of each. He went up and down the Shire in this labour; but if he paid special attention to Hobbiton and Bywater no one blamed him. ...
Spring surpassed his wildest hopes. His trees began to sprout and grow, as if time was in a hurry and wished to make one year do for twenty. In the Party Field a beautiful young sapling leaped up: it had silver bark and long leaves and burst into golden flowers in April. It was indeed a mallorn , and it was the wonder of the neighbourhood.
The hobbits returned home [T 12] horrified to find the Shire under the control of "Sharkey" ( Saruman ) and his ruffians who had wantonly felled trees and despoiled the villages; the hobbits defeated them at the Battle of Bywater . [T 13] Sam travelled the length and breadth of the Shire replanting trees, using the elf-queen Galadriel 's gift of earth from her garden, and one seed of the elvish mallorn tree, which he planted at Hobbiton. The saplings grew at an astonishing rate. [T 14]
Sam married Rosie Cotton and moved into Bag End with Frodo. The next year they had a daughter, Elanor, the first of their thirteen children. Frodo told Sam he and Bilbo would leave Middle-earth , along with Gandalf and most of the remaining High Elves, for the Undying Lands . Frodo gave Sam the estate of Bag End, and the Red Book of Westmarch for Sam to continue, hinting that Sam might also be allowed to travel into the West eventually. Sam returned to meet his family at Bag End, ending the story with the words "Well, I'm back." [T 14]
Tolkien took the name "Gamgee" from a colloquial word in Birmingham for cotton wool . This was in turn derived from Gamgee Tissue , a surgical dressing invented by a 19th-century Birmingham surgeon named Sampson Gamgee . Tolkien originally used it as a nickname for a man living in Lamorna Cove , England before adapting it into his stories:
There was a curious local character, an old man who used to go about swapping gossip and weather-wisdom and such like. To amuse my children I named him Gaffer Gamgee... The choice of Gamgee was primarily directed by alliteration; but I did not invent it. It was caught out of childhood memory, as a comic word or name. It was in fact the name when I was small (in Birmingham) for 'cotton-wool'. (Hence the association of the Gamgees with the Cottons.) I knew nothing of its origin." [T 16]
Tolkien claimed to be genuinely surprised when, in March 1956, he received a letter from one Sam Gamgee, who had heard that his name was in The Lord of the Rings but had not read the book. Tolkien replied on March 18:
Dear Mr. Gamgee,
It was very kind of you to write. You can imagine my astonishment when I saw your signature! I can only say, for your comfort, I hope, that the 'Sam Gamgee' of my story is a most heroic character, now widely beloved by many readers, even though his origins are rustic. So that perhaps you will not be displeased at the coincidence of the name of this imaginary character of supposedly many centuries ago being the same as yours." [T 17]
He sent Gamgee a signed copy of all three volumes of the book. However, the incident sparked a nagging worry in Tolkien's mind, as he recorded in his journal "For some time I lived in fear of receiving a letter signed 'S. Gollum'. That would have been more difficult to deal with." [T 18] He later traced the origin of the name Gamgee to the Norman French surname "de Gamaches". [T 19]
In the fiction, Tolkien states that the "true" or Westron form of Sam's name is Banazîr Galbasi . As with "Samwise", Banazîr comes from elements meaning "halfwise" or "simple". Galbasi comes from the name of the village Galabas . The name Galabas uses the elements galab- , meaning "game", and bas- , corresponding somewhat to "-wich" or "-wick". In his frame story role as "translator" of the Red Book of Westmarch , Tolkien devised a strict English translation, Samwís Gamwich , which develops into Samwise Gammidgy and eventually comes to Samwise Gamgee in modern English. [T 20] In the year 1427 of the Shire Reckoning , Sam was elected Mayor of the Shire for the first of seven consecutive seven-year terms. [T 21] His descendants took the surname Gardner in his honour. [T 22]
Tolkien intentionally avoided making Christianity explicit in his Middle-earth writings, [2] choosing instead to allow "the story and the symbolism" to convey his meaning . [T 23] Frodo finds the Ring a crushing weight, just as the cross was for Jesus. Sam Gamgee , Frodo's servant, who carries Frodo up to Mount Doom, parallels Simon of Cyrene , who helps Jesus by carrying his cross to Golgotha . [1] Sam gains prominence as he is willing to be unimportant in doing his duty, echoing the Christian emphasis on the humble. [3] The ordeal of crossing Mordor, too, reflects the Christian theme of redemptive suffering . [4]
Tolkien called Sam the "chief hero" of the saga, adding: "I think the simple 'rustic' love of Sam and his Rosie (nowhere elaborated) is absolutely essential to the study of his (the chief hero's) character, and to the theme of the relation of ordinary life (breathing, eating, working, begetting) and quests, sacrifice, causes, and the 'longing for Elves', and sheer beauty." [T 24] Tolkien admired heroism out of loyalty and love, but despised arrogance, pride and wilfulness. The courage and loyalty displayed by Samwise Gamgee on his journey with Frodo is the kind of spirit that Tolkien praised in his essays on the Old English poem " The Battle of Maldon ". [5] Likewise, Sam's rejection of the Ring is a rejection of power, but also a "desire for renown which the defeat over Sauron will bring". [6]
The Jungian clinical psychologist Robin Robertson describes Sam's quest as a psychological journey of love (for Frodo), where Frodo's quest is one of transcendence. [7] Robertson writes that "Sam's is the simplest yet the most touching of all paths: his simple loyalty and love for Frodo make him the single person who never wavers in his task throughout the book." [8] In his view, Sam always stays grounded in simple things like meals and the glory of a sunrise, while Sam ends as the happiest of the Fellowship, having seen the Elves, served as Frodo's companion on the quest, and back in the Shire that he loves, marries Rosie and is blessed with many children. [8]
The Jungian analyst Pia Skogemann views Sam as standing for one of the four cognitive functions , namely feeling, with the other three assigned to the other hobbits in the Fellowship: Frodo stands for thinking, Pippin for intuition, and Merry for sensation. [9]
During the journey to destroy the Ring, Sam's relationship with Frodo exemplifies that of a military servant or batman to his assigned officer in the British Army , in particular in the First World War in which Tolkien had served as an officer, with different batmen at different times. [T 25] His biographer John Garth stated: [10]
The relationship between Frodo and Sam closely reflects the hierarchy of an officer and his servant [in the First World War]. Officers had a university education and a middle-class background. Working-class men stayed at the rank of private or at best sergeant. A social gulf divides the literate, leisured Frodo from his former gardener, now responsible for wake-up calls, cooking and packing... Tolkien maps the gradual breakdown of restraint [through prolonged peril] until Sam can take Frodo in his arms and call him "Mr Frodo, my dear." [10]
Tolkien wrote in a private letter: "My Sam Gamgee is indeed a reflexion of the English soldier, of the privates and batmen I knew in the 1914 war , and recognised as so far superior to myself." [T 25] and elsewhere: "Sam was cocksure, and deep down a little conceited; but his conceit had been transformed by his devotion to Frodo. He did not think of himself as heroic or even brave, or in any way admirable – except in his service and loyalty to his master." [T 26]
In the 1971 Mind's Eye radio adaptation, Sam was voiced by Lou Bliss . [11] In Ralph Bakshi 's 1978 animated version of The Lord of the Rings , Sam was voiced by Michael Scholes. [12] In the 1980 animated version of The Return of the King , made for television, the character was voiced by Roddy McDowall . [13] In the 1981 BBC radio adaptation of The Lord of the Rings , Sam was played by Bill Nighy . [14] In the 1993 Finnish television miniseries Hobitit , Sam is portrayed by Pertti Sveholm. [15]
In the Peter Jackson movies The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002) and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003), Sam was played by Sean Astin . [16] The batman relationship and class differences between Sam and Frodo are somewhat subdued, though Sam still refers to Frodo as "Mr." (but not "Master"). [17] Entertainment Weekly called Sam Gamgee one of the "greatest sidekicks." [18] UGO Networks named Sam as one of their top heroes in entertainment. [19]
On stage, Sam was portrayed by Peter Howe in the Toronto stage production of The Lord of the Rings , which opened in 2006. [20] In the United States, Sam was portrayed by Blake Bowden in the Cincinnati productions of The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002), and The Return of the King (2003) for Clear Stage Cincinnati . [21] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samwise_Gamgee | 9 |
who plays sam in lord of the rings | Sean Astin - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sean Astin
|Born|
Sean Patrick Duke
February 25, 1971
Santa Monica, California , U.S.
|Alma mater||University of California, Los Angeles ( BA )|
|Occupation|
Actor
|Years active||1980–present|
|Spouse|
Christine Harrell
( m. 1992 )
|Children||3|
|Parents|
|Relatives||Mackenzie Astin (brother)|
|Website|| seanastin |
Sean Patrick Astin ( né Duke ; born February 25, 1971) is an American actor. His acting roles include Samwise Gamgee in The Lord of the Rings trilogy (2001–2003), Mikey Walsh in The Goonies (1985), Billy Tepper in Toy Soldiers (1991), Daniel Ruettiger in Rudy (1993), Doug Whitmore in 50 First Dates (2004), Bill in Click (2006), Lynn McGill in the fifth season of 24 (2006), Oso in Special Agent Oso (2009–2012), Raphael in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012–2017), Bob Newby in the second and third seasons of Netflix 's Stranger Things (2017; 2019), [1] and Ed in No Good Nick (2019).
He is the son of actress Patty Duke and adopted by actor John Astin . He has received various recognitions including a Screen Actors Guild Award and two Young Artist Awards . Additionally, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film in 1994 for the short film Kangaroo Court .
Astin was born in Santa Monica , California on February 25, 1971, as the son of actress Patty Duke (1946–2016) and Michael Tell (born 1950). [2] [3] [4] However, at the time, it was reported that entertainer Desi Arnaz Jr. was his biological father . During that time, Duke also had a personal relationship with Michael Tell, a writer, music promoter , and publisher of the newspaper The Las Vegas Israelite . When Duke became pregnant, she was unsure whether Arnaz or Tell was the father, so Tell offered to marry her as a way out of the scandal. The marriage lasted only 13 days in 1970 and ended before Astin was born. [5] [6] [7]
On August 5, 1972, Duke married actor John Astin , having been in a relationship with him for two years. When the wedding guests were invited to speak, 18-month-old Sean looked at John and cried, "Daddy!", to which the Episcopal priest performing the ceremony remarked, "Well, that about does it!" [8] Astin subsequently adopted Sean. In 1973, Duke gave birth to Astin's brother Mackenzie Astin , who also became an actor. Duke and John Astin divorced in 1985. [9] Duke married Mike Pearce in 1986, [5] and they adopted a son, Kevin, in 1989. [9]
When Astin was 14, Duke told him that Arnaz was his father, and the two developed a relationship. However, in his mid-20s, Astin met a relative of Michael Tell who suggested they were related. Sean set out to find the truth about his biological father, and underwent genetic tests which showed Tell was his biological father. [10] Astin has maintained close relationships with all three, and saying: "Desi Arnaz Jr. loves me, and I love him. We are so close ... Science tells me ... that he's not my biological father. Science tells me that Mike Tell is." Astin considers John his father, as John was the one who raised him. Astin is also close to his stepfather, Mike Pearce, saying, "I can call any of them on the phone any time I want to. John, Desi, Mike, or Papa Mike ... my four dads." [5]
Astin is of German and Irish ancestry through his mother and Austrian Jewish and Polish Jewish through his biological father. [11] [12] [13] He attended Catholic school and later became a Protestant . [14]
Astin attended the Crossroads High School for the Arts and undertook master classes at the Stella Adler Conservatory in Los Angeles . He graduated cum laude from UCLA with a B.A. in History and English (American literature and culture). An alumnus of Los Angeles Valley College , Astin served on the school's board of directors of the Patrons Association and the Arts Council . [15]
Astin's first acting role was in a 1981 television movie titled Please Don't Hit Me, Mom , [16] in which he played an 8-year-old child with an abusive mother (portrayed by his real-life mother Patty Duke ). He made his film debut at the age of 13 as Mikey in The Goonies (1985).
After The Goonies , Astin appeared in several more films, including the Disney made-for-TV movie, The B.R.A.T. Patrol , opposite Nia Long , Tim Thomerson , and Brian Keith ; Like Father Like Son (1987); White Water Summer with Kevin Bacon (1987), The War of the Roses (1989); the World War II film Memphis Belle (1990); Toy Soldiers (1991); Encino Man (1992); and the college football biopic Rudy (1993), about the life-changing struggles and rewards of the titular character, Daniel Ruettiger .
In 1994, Astin directed and co-produced (with his wife, Christine Astin) the short film Kangaroo Court , which received an Academy Award nomination for Best Live Action Short Film . Astin continued to appear in films throughout the 1990s, including the Showtime science fiction film Harrison Bergeron (1995), the Gulf War film Courage Under Fire (1996), and the Warren Beatty political satire Bulworth (1998).
In the early 2000s, Astin played Samwise Gamgee in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , consisting of The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002), and The Return of the King (2003). Many awards were bestowed upon the trilogy, particularly its final installment, which earned eleven Academy Awards , including Best Picture. Astin received seven award nominations for his own performance, and won five, including the Saturn Award , the Sierra Award, the Seattle Film Critics Award, and the Utah Film Critics Award (all for Best Supporting Actor), and the Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male or Female in an Effects Film. [17] [ better source needed ] The Return of the King cast as an ensemble received awards from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures , the Screen Actors Guild , the Broadcast Film Critics Association , and received a Gold Derby Award. [18] [ better source needed ]
Throughout the filming process, Astin became close friends with several cast members, and became particularly good friends with costar Elijah Wood . Astin's daughter, Alexandra, is in the closing scene of The Return of the King . She plays his onscreen daughter, Elanor Gamgee, who runs out to him as he returns from the Grey Havens.
While working on The Lord of the Rings , Astin persuaded a number of fellow cast and crew members, including director Peter Jackson , to assist him in making his second short film, The Long and Short of It . The film, which takes place on a street in Wellington , New Zealand, premiered at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival and can be found on the DVD for The Two Towers , along with a "making of" video.
In 2004, Astin released There and Back Again ( ISBN 0-312-33146-0 ), a memoir (co-written with Joe Layden) of his film career with emphasis on his experiences during production of The Lord of the Rings trilogy . The title is derived from the title of J. R. R. Tolkien 's novel The Hobbit , as well as the fictional book written by Bilbo Baggins in The Lord of the Rings .
Since The Lord of the Rings , Astin has continued to work in film and television. His film roles have included the Adam Sandler comedies 50 First Dates and Click . Astin played the role of Malibu High School principal Mike Matthews in the movie Smile . [19] [ better source needed ]
In television, Astin guest-starred as Lynn McGill throughout the fifth season of the Fox drama 24 . He also appeared in the made-for-TV films Hercules and The Colour of Magic and in episodes of Monk , Las Vegas , My Name is Earl (in which he parodied his 1993 film Rudy with co-stars Charles S. Dutton and Chelcie Ross ), and Law & Order , among other shows. He directed a 2003 episode of the TV series Angel , titled "Soulless" . He played the enigmatic Mr. Smith on the second season of the Showtime series Jeremiah . [20] [ better source needed ]
Astin's career has also expanded to include voice-over roles. He narrated the American version of the Animal Planet series Meerkat Manor , and voices the title character in Special Agent Oso which aired on Playhouse Disney from 2009 to 2011 and Disney Junior from 2011 to early 2014. [21] His other voice work includes Balto III: Wings of Change , in which he voiced Kodi, a teenage husky who is the son of the titular character, and the video game Kingdom Hearts , in the latter of which he provided the voice of Hercules , replacing actor Tate Donovan , who was unavailable but would return for Kingdom Hearts II . Astin voiced Raphael in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles animated series on Nickelodeon , which premiered on September 29, 2012, running for five seasons and 124 episodes, and ending on November 12, 2017.
In 2010, he joined the Stella Adler Los Angeles Theatre Collective acting company. [22] Also as of 2010, Astin and his wife, Christine, were making a movie based on Lois Lowry 's Newbery Medal -winning novel Number the Stars . [23] [24] They bought the film rights in 2008 and wrote a screenplay adaptation, with plans to direct and produce it themselves. [25]
In March 2012, Astin played a cosmetic surgeon named Takin Mastuhmik in a fake movie trailer entitled Boobathon which appeared on Funny or Die . [26] In March 2014, Astin played a soldier in Boys of Abu Ghraib , a military thriller inspired by the events that made worldwide news in 2004 . [27] [ better source needed ] In June of that year, he began playing the role of Jim Kent on the FX drama The Strain . [28]
In October 2015, Astin played Hank Erwin in Woodlawn , a story about how a high school football team overcame racism and hate, and found unity and success through following Jesus . [29]
In 2017, Astin played the role of Bob Newby in season two of the Netflix series Stranger Things . In 2019, Astin reprised the role of Newby in flashback scenes during the series' third season, played the role of Dr. Greg Pemberton on several episodes of The Big Bang Theory , and had a guest appearance on the fifth season of Supergirl . In 2019, he was in the Netflix dramedy No Good Nick in which he played Ed. Also in 2019, he appeared in the 6th season of Brooklyn Nine-Nine .
In May 2020, Astin joined Josh Gad 's YouTube series Reunited Apart , which reunites the casts of popular movies through video-conferencing, and promotes donations to non-profit charities. Others in the episode were fellow The Lord of the Rings castmates Sean Bean, Orlando Bloom, Billy Boyd, Ian McKellen, Dominic Monaghan, Viggo Mortensen, Miranda Otto, John Rhys-Davies, Andy Serkis, Liv Tyler, Karl Urban, and Elijah Wood, plus writer Philippa Boyens and director Peter Jackson. [30] [31]
Astin married Christine Harrell on July 11, 1992. They have three daughters: Alexandra (born in November 1996), Elizabeth (born in August 2002), and Isabella (born in July 2005), all having the middle name Louise. [32] His wife held the Miss Indiana Teen USA title in 1984. [33] Alexandra had a small cameo role in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King as Elanor Gamgee, Astin's character's daughter, and appears in Bad Kids of Crestview Academy as Ethel Balducci.
Astin has a tattoo on his ankle of the word "nine" written with the Tengwar script, commemorating his Lord of the Rings involvement and his character's membership in the "Fellowship of the Ring" . Seven of the eight other actors ( Elijah Wood , Sean Bean , Billy Boyd , Ian McKellen , Dominic Monaghan , Viggo Mortensen and Orlando Bloom ) all have the same tattoo. John Rhys-Davies ' stunt double, Brett Beattie, has the tattoo as well. [34]
In an August 2013 interview, Astin said he is a Lutheran Christian, having been "baptized in my wife's Lutheran church". [14]
In January 2015, Astin completed the Dopey Challenge at the Walt Disney World Resort which involves running a 5k, 10k, half-marathon and full marathon on four consecutive days. [35] [36]
On October 10, 2015, Astin competed in the 2015 Ironman World Championship in Kailua Kona, Hawaii . Wearing number 143, Astin finished the race in a time of 15:30:31. [37]
From 1995 to 2005, Astin served as a Civilian Aide to the Secretary of the Army (CASA) and afterwards served on the President's Council on Service and Civic Participation for two years during the George W. Bush administration. [38] [39]
Astin is a lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party. [ citation needed ]
During the 2004 United States presidential election , Astin backed Senator John Kerry and participated in Kerry's campaign rally in Portland, Oregon , as the opening speaker. [40]
In the 2008 presidential election , Astin lent his support to then-Senator Hillary Clinton for the first of her two Presidential campaigns and made multiple campaign appearances on her behalf, including joining Clinton's daughter Chelsea at some stops. [41]
Astin served as the campaign manager for Democrat Dan Adler, a businessman friend in the entertainment industry, in California's 36th congressional district special election of 2011 . [39]
In the 2016 presidential election , Astin campaigned for Hillary Clinton in midwestern states such as Iowa , Nebraska and Wisconsin . [42]
In a 2020 Twitter post, Astin voiced his support for Democratic nominee Joe Biden . [43]
|Year||Title||Role||Notes||Ref.|
|1985||The Goonies||Mikey Walsh|
|1986||The B.R.A.T. Patrol||Leonard Kinsey||[44]|
|1987||Like Father Like Son||Clarence / Trigger|
|White Water Summer||Alan|
|1989||The War of the Roses||Josh Rose (age 17)|
|Staying Together||Duncan McDermott|
|1990||Memphis Belle||Sergeant Richard "Rascal" Moore|
|1991||Toy Soldiers||William Tepper|
|The Willies||Michael|
|1992||Where the Day Takes You||Greg|
|Encino Man||Dave Morgan|
|1993||Rudy||Daniel Ruettiger|
|1994||Teresa's Tattoo||Step Brother||Uncredited||[45]|
|Safe Passage||Izzy Singer|
|1995||The Low Life||Andrew|
|1996||Courage Under Fire||Patella|
|1998||Boy Meets Girl||Mike|
|Bulworth||Gary|
|1999||Deterrence||Ralph|
|Kimberly||Bob|
|2000||Dish Dogs||Morgan|
|The Last Producer||Bo Pomerantz|
|Icebreaker||Matt Foster|
|The Sky Is Falling||Mr. Schwartz|
|2001||The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring||Samwise Gamgee|
|2002||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Samwise Gamgee|
|2003||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Samwise Gamgee|
|2004||Balto III: Wings of Change||Kodi||Voice role|
|Elvis Has Left the Building||Aaron|
|50 First Dates||Doug Whitmore|
|2005||Smile||Mike Matthews|
|Bigger Than the Sky||Ken Zorbell|
|Slipstream||Stuart Conway||Direct-to-DVD|
|Marilyn Hotchkiss Ballroom Dancing & Charm School||Kip Kipling|
|Borderland||Randall|
|Thanks to Gravity||Coach Amal||Direct-to-DVD|
|2006||What Love Is||George||Direct-to- VOD|
|Asterix and the Vikings||Justforkix||English dub|
|Click||Bill|
|2007||The Final Season||Kent Stock|
|My Wife Is Retarded||Jeff||Short film|
|2008||Forever Strong||Marcus|
|Spirit of the Forest||Furi||Voice role|
|2009||Stay Cool||Big Girl||Direct-to-VOD|
|Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel||Meerkat Manor Narrator||Voice role|
|2011||Demoted||Mike||Direct-to-VOD|
|2012||Boobathon||Takin Mastuhmik||Trailer||[26]|
|Amazing Love: The Story of Hosea||Stuart||Direct-to-DVD|
|2013||The Freemason||Leon Weed||Direct-to-DVD|
|2014||Justice League: War||Shazam||Voice role|
|Boys of Abu Ghraib||Staff Sergeant Tanner||Direct-to-VOD|
|Cabin Fever: Patient Zero||Porter||Direct-to-DVD||[46] [47]|
|Moms' Night Out||Sean||[48] [49]|
|Video Games: The Movie||Narrator||Documentary|
|Ribbit||Ribbit||Voice role|
|The Hero of Color City||Horatio||Voice role|
|The Surface||Mitch||Direct-to-VOD|
|2015||Justice League: Throne of Atlantis||Shazam||Voice role|
|Do You Believe?||Dr. Farell|
|Woodlawn||Hank|
|Checkmate||Dyson|
|2016||The Do-Over||Ted-O|
|Range 15||Grigsby|
|Unleashed||Carl|
|2017||Bad Kids of Crestview Academy||Headmaster Nash|
|Dead Ant||Art|
|Espionage Tonight||Sam Jacobson|
|The Lears||Tom Cornwall|
|2018||Gloria Bell||Jeremy|
|2020||Adverse||Frankie|
|Lego DC: Shazam!: Magic and Monsters||Shazam||Voice role|
|2021||Hero Mode||Jimmy|
|Charming the Hearts of Men||George|
|2023||The AD-X2 Controversy||Himself||Documentary short|
|iMordecai||Marvin|
|TBA||Cash Out||TBA||Post-production||[50] [51]|
|Year||Title||Role||Notes||Ref.|
|1981||Please Don't Hit Me, Mom||Brian Reynolds|
|1982||The Rules of Marriage||Charlie Hagen|
|1985||The O'Briens||The Son|
|1986||The B.R.A.T. Patrol||Leonard Kinsey|
|1995||Harrison Bergeron||Harrison Bergeron||Movie|
|2003||Angel||N/A||Director (episode: " Soulless ")|
|2003–2004||Jeremiah||Mister Smith||Main role (season 2)|
|2004||Higglytown Heroes||Pix the Elf||Guest voice role (1 episode)||[52]|
|2005||Hercules||Linus||Main role|
|Into The West||Martin Jarrett||Miniseries|
|2005–2007||Meerkat Manor||Narrator||Seasons 1 – 3|
|2006||24||Lynn McGill||Main role ( Season 5 )|
|2007||Masters of Science Fiction||Charlie Kramer||Episode: "Watchbird"|
|Monk||Paul Buchanan||Episode: "Mr. Monk Is At Your Service"|
|My Name Is Earl||Salesman||Episode: "Get a Real Job"|
|2008||Terry Pratchett's The Colour of Magic||Twoflower||Movie|
|Law & Order||Pastor Hensley||Episode: "Angelgrove"|
|2009–2012||Special Agent Oso||Agent Oso||Main role (60 episodes)|
|2011||Love's Christmas Journey||Mayor Wayne||Movie|
|2012||NCIS||Tyler Elliot||Episode: " The Tell "|
|Adopting Terror||Tim||Movie|
|Dorothy and the Witches of Oz||Frack||Miniseries|
|Hollywood Treasure||Himself||Episode: " Riddler Rudy and the Ruby Slippers "|
|Franklin & Bash||Viper||Episode: "Viper"|
|Alphas||Mitchell||2 episodes|
|2012–2017||Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles||Raphael||Voice role|
|2013||Santa Switch||Eddie||Movie||[53]|
|2014||The Strain||Jim Kent||Main role|
|2015, 2017||Penn Zero: Part-Time Hero||Blaze||Voice role; 4 episodes||[54] [55]|
|2016||The Loud House||Loni||Voice role; Episode: "One of the Boys"||[56]|
|The Librarians||Kirby Goulding||Episode: " And the Tears of a Clown "|
|2016–2018||Justice League Action||Billy Batson / Shazam||Voice role|
|Bunnicula||Chester||Voice role|
|2017–2019||Stranger Things||Bob Newby||10 episodes|
|2018–2020||The Epic Tales of Captain Underpants||Narrator|
|2019||The Big Bang Theory||Dr. Pemberton||Episodes: "The Confirmation Polarization," "The Laureate Accumulation," & "The Plagiarism Schism"|
|No Good Nick||Ed||Main role|
|Brooklyn Nine-Nine||Sergeant Knox||Episode: "Ticking Clocks"|
|2019–2020||Supergirl||Pete Andrews|| Episode: "Blurred Lines" (Photograph) |
Episode: "The Missing Link"
|2021||Jungledyret Hugo||Hugo|
|Playing with Power: The Nintendo Story||Narrator|
|Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?||Himself||Voice role; Episode: "Returning of the Key Ring!"|
|2023||Perry Mason||Sunny Gryce||Season 2 (8 episodes)||[57]|
|2023||The Conners||Tyler||Episode: "What's So Funny About Peas, Love and Understanding?"||[58]|
|Year||Title||Role||Notes|
|2002||Kingdom Hearts||Hercules||English version|
|2003||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Samwise Gamgee|
|2004||Men of Valor||Pat 'Mouth' Hodges|
|2006||The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II: The Rise of the Witch-king||Samwise Gamgee|
|2010||The Lord of the Rings: Aragorn's Quest||Samwise Gamgee|
|2012||Lego The Lord of the Rings||Samwise Gamgee||Archive recordings|
|2013||Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles||Raphael|
|2015||Lego Dimensions||Samwise Gamgee|
|2016||Minecraft: Story Mode||Reginald|
|Year||Association||Category||Work||Result||Ref.|
|1985||Young Artist Awards||Best Starring Performance by a Young Actor – Motion Picture||The Goonies||Won|
|1989||Young Artist Awards||Best Young Actor Starring in a Motion Picture||Staying Together||Won|
|1991||Young Artist Awards||Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast in a Motion Picture||Toy Soldiers||Nominated|
|1994||Academy Awards||Best Live Action Short Film||Kangaroo Court||Nominated|
|2001||Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring||Nominated|
|2002||MTV Movie Awards||MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Team (shared with Elijah Wood and Gollum / Andy Serkis )||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Won|
|Visual Effects Society||Best Performance by an Actor in an Effects Film (shared with Elijah Wood and Andy Serkis )||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Won|
|Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Nominated|
|2003||Chicago Film Critics Association||Best Supporting Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Nominated|
|National Board of Review||Best Cast||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Saturn Awards||Best Supporting Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Visual Effects Society||Outstanding Male or Female Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association||Best Ensemble||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Nominated|
|2014||Utah Film Awards||Best Actor||The Freemason||Won||[59]|
|2017||Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series||Stranger Things||Nominated|
- ^ Otterson, Joe (June 7, 2018). "Sean Astin Talks 'Stranger Things': 'Bob Newby Was Tailor-Made for Me'" . Variety . Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved December 30, 2018 .
- ^ "Astin, Sean (Patrick)" . Encyclopedia.com . Archived from the original on March 7, 2016 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ "Personal Biography" . seanastin.com . Archived from the original on March 15, 2015 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ "Sean Astin profile" . IGN . Archived from the original on February 27, 2015 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Astin | 9 |
who plays sam in lord of the rings | Sean Astin explains why people connect with Sam from Lord of the Rings | Whether he’s carrying Frodo on his back to reach the top of Mount Doom or simply trying to explain how to pronounce “potatoes,” we all love Samwise Gamgee. If there was ever an example of a perfect friend, it’s him. Even over two decades since Peter Jackson’s The Lord of the Rings movies first hit theatres, Sam remains as beloved as ever, and over the years, star Sean Astin has learned exactly why.
Recently speaking with the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette , Astin was asked why fans still connect with his iconic portrayal of Sam. According to Astin, it all comes down to Sam’s wonderful way with words.
Some of the speeches Samwise gets to deliver, there are just certain phrases that just feel like home. They feel safe, warm, protective. There’s something about the way they come out and the context that is like a song. It’s like a warm blanket sitting by the fire for people.
I don’t think any actor could’ve portrayed Sam in the same way Sean Astin did. His impact on fans has stretched way beyond the screen, with his speeches being used as a source of comfort, especially during the “pandemic era.” Astin feels honored to be able to ease people in difficult situations. “I got to do that,” he said. “What a blessing.”
So how does an actor do justice to such a beloved character? The most obvious answer would be that he grew up with the character and knew them inside and out. However, not only had Sean Astin not heard of The Lord of the Rings before auditioning for the role, he didn’t even know about The Hobbit .
“I didn’t even know what Lord of the Rings was when my agent called me,” the actor told Collider . “Would’ve been late spring of ’99. She’s like, ‘It’s the Lord of the Rings trilogy.’ I’m like, ‘What’s that?’ She goes, ‘ The Hobbit . It’s The Hobbit. ’ I’m like, ‘What?’ So that’s bad. But I went to the bookstore. And I went in there, [because] she said I was going to audition for Sam.”
It was like data mining. I was hard-charging through the book so I could appreciate the literature. I could appreciate the descriptions of the topography and all that. But I didn’t enjoy the books in the way that fans for 20 years have been describing to me how they enjoy the books.
However fast he read them, it clearly paid off.
It remains to be seen whether Amazon Prime Video’s upcoming Lord of the Rings prequel series will have a character as likable and inspiring as Samwise. Let’s hope Middle-earth’s next crop of stars can stand toe-to-toe with those who have come before.
Amazon’s big-budget The Lord of the Rings show premieres later this year on September 2, 2022.
To stay up to date on everything fantasy, science fiction, and WiC, follow our all-encompassing Facebook page and sign up for our exclusive newsletter . | https://winteriscoming.net/2022/01/05/sean-astin-explains-people-connect-sam-lord-of-the-rings/ | 9 |
who plays sam in lord of the rings | Sean Astin on 'Fellowship of the Ring' 20 Years Later, His New Perspective on Sam, and Reading the Book With Fans | By
He also talks about why Samwise Gamgee is a great literary character and how he himself now comes to the books as a "different entity."
20 years ago, on December 19, 2001, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring was released in theaters, and the landscape of fantasy filmmaking was changed forever with Peter Jackson 's adaptation of J.R.R. Tolkien 's series. The massive success of Fellowship of the Ring would go on to be followed by two equally successful sequels in 2002's The Two Towers and 2003's Return of the King . This year, Fellowship of the Ring was also selected for inclusion in the U.S. National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, which recognizes films for their cultural or historical significance.
In celebration of Fellowship of the Ring 's 20th anniversary, Collider had the chance to chat with Sean Astin , who played the loyal hobbit and steadfast friend Samwise Gamgee. In the following interview, which you can both watch above and read below, Astin spoke about how his perspective on Sam is different now than it was when he first played the character 20 years ago and how the films defined his own career for all that time. He also spoke about how he's reading Fellowship with the Ring with fans as part of his new book club on Fable , why Sam is a great literary character, and why his commitment is to approach the book as a fan without any pressure on himself.
Collider: It's such a pleasure to be talking with you, what with Fellowship [of the Ring] having its anniversary this weekend and everything.
SEAN ASTIN: Carly! We're still alive!
Miraculously, right? Looking back on the movie, for you especially, people associate with you with Sam. But how do you feel about him now at this point in your life, as opposed to when you were playing him for the first time? Has your perspective on the character changed in the time since then?
ASTIN: Well, my depth of understanding him changes all the time. I mean, just in this series of interviews I've been doing, I talked to one person about the fact that Sam is a Ring-Bearer. When Shelob stabs Frodo, and Sam thinks he's dead, Sam takes the Ring. He realizes Frodo's not dead. He goes up to the Tower of Cirith Ungol, he kills Shagrat, and then Frodo wants the Ring back. So yesterday, 20 years and the day after the movies I realized, it's the first time that it occurred to me that he didn't put the Ring on. Unless he did. Did he put it on to hide from the orcs? I don't think he did.
So fable.co is a new platform that has book clubs, and I have a book club. We just finished my first one, which is Aldous Huxley's Brave New World . The publisher of Lord of the Rings granted us the right to use it just a week ago. So we switched from the book I was going to do to Lord of the Rings . And we're going to do a chapter a week. We started yesterday. It's an amazing thing. I made a determination with the members of the book club to try and experience it the best [that] I can not from Sam's point of view.
I didn't even know what Lord of the Rings was when my agent called me. Would've been late spring of '99. She's like, "It's the Lord of the Rings trilogy." I'm like, "What's that?" She goes, " The Hobbit . It's The Hobbit ." I'm like, "What?" So that's bad. But I went to the bookstore. And I went in there, [because] she said I was going to audition for Sam. So from the second I heard of the existence of these things, I heard the name Lord of the Rings and the character of Sam. So everything I've experienced from Lord of the Rings has been from Sam's point of view.
So I feel like I could do a dissertation, or maybe I have, on Sam. But in terms of perspective about him, I mean, he's so reliable. He's so reliable in his ethics, in his choices, the choices of Master Samwise, but just as a literary character, he's such a reliable literary character.
RELATED:
For sure. And a devoted friend, too.
ASTIN: Yeah. It's reliable that he's a devoted friend and never is compromised. So the story takes you in all these different places and all these different conflicts and all these ... But the one thing that you can go back to and can have faith in is that at least there's Sam by your side all the time. It's just one thread of many to focus on. So I don't think my perspective on that has changed.
I'm 50 years old now. I'm a 50-year-old man. I come to these books now as a different entity. I have three kids now. The youngest one's about to finish high school. So I wonder as I come into this how I'll experience Sam differently this time from before. But one thing [that] is immutable is just his faithfulness. That fidelity is... We need it so much in this world. You need it, or else there's just chaos. So it's an amazing thing that Tolkien created this character that can provide that to us. You know?
Definitely. I'm glad you brought up the book club, because that was actually going to be my next question, which is first of all — and you already answered this — when you first read the books, but also: what do you enjoy about getting to do this buddy read with the fans officially?
ASTIN: Well, okay. So I tell people that the first ... I read it three times while we were making the films, but it was more like I was being in a cockpit of a plane that the engines had just gone out, and you're looking at your checklist. And you're just reading through it, trying to find the little piece of information that I need to know in order to get the engine to start back up. It was like data mining. I was hard-charging through the book so I could appreciate the literature. I could appreciate the descriptions of the topography and all that. But I didn't enjoy the books in the way that fans for 20 years have been describing to me how they enjoy the books.
So now even that creates its own sense of pressure about my relationship to the books, about any of our relationship to the books who worked on the films. So my commitment is to just try and let that go. And we're reading it in... The plan is to read it in bite-size chunks. I know people who read the book every year, and it takes them two days. They go into a room, they close the door, and they come out two days later with tears streaked on their face, feeling like they're recharged for the next year. I can't do that. The reading's too dense. The ideas are too evocative and provocative. So, to me, I just want to take each of these chapters, I think we're doing one a week or something, and just tune out, turn off the alerts on my phone.
I'm in graduate school at the moment. I just took my final yesterday. I have a managerial economic class I just took, I passed it barely. I know you're wondering. But I'm on the plane, and I'm like, "Okay, how can I decompress from that?" What's the trick of the mind that allows you to totally focus on what you're doing so that you can be completely relaxed while you're doing it?
It's like golf. I don't know if you ever played golf. Golf, you have to be focused and relaxed at the same time. I mean, what I came away with from the first six or seven pages on the plane last night was just this light tone about these ... Concerning Hobbits. It's this lovely pastoral land and they're fat, and they're happy. And in a weird way, it can't last. It wouldn't be a good book if it lasted. So I'm wanting to meet the book where the book's wanting me to be. The book wants me to have anticipation for what's coming next. So I'm wanting to calibrate that. It's going to be an amazing new experience.
And what I've been saying is, the movies are 20 years old. You've got this DVD set now, the 31 DVDs, this ultimate collection. It's the super ultimate, mondo, you-got-to-be-kidding-me, ridiculous, I-didn't-know-that-there-was-so-much-love-in-the-world collection of Lord of the Rings . [And] for me, nothing can take away the movies. Nothing can take away the 20 years of fandom that's come at me, all the conventions and autographs and interviews and the awards shows and everything that's gone into it. It's defined my whole life from my 30s to my 50s. Nothing can ever take that [away].
So now I can actually afford to read the books without pressure, without the pressure of my career, and [thinking] "What's the impact going to be on my career? What are my agents going to think?" All of that stuff that operates in your neurology, when I was making my bones, so to speak. But now my acting career is going to go where it's going to go. I'll continue to work.
When I finished Lord of the Rings . I was like, "What if I never work again?" Peter Jackson teased me at one point. Because we were playing these little hobbits. And it's cute, and it's funny, and it's sweet. But in a way, we're diminutive. And in a way that it's charming, it's also can be kind of pejorative. We had these doubles that were filming. BK [Bhoja 'BK' Kannada] was my double, he's three feet tall. He's a 30-year-old man, and he was patient with all of us. And we developed a level of... mostly because he would beat me at chess and have more knowledge in our geopolitical discussions than I did. And I was always learning from him. But that aside, I just remember having a moment of concern. And Peter's like, "You mean, you think you're going to walk into an audition two years from now and they're going to be like, 'Oh, we thought you were going to be like a little...'?" (laughs) And I'm like, "Yeah." And come to think of it, that's all behind me now.
I give talks about mental health all over the country. And the country was in a mental health crisis, particularly children, before the pandemic. And now we have the pandemic and soon to hopefully be post-pandemic. And the damage that's been done to our emotional and psychiatric and psychological life, won't be fully understood for a decade.
We try to ignore it. We're just moving past it. Everybody's doing their own thing, but there's going to be scholars. There's going to be tests done. Through the lens of history, you'll look back at this moment, you'll go, "Holy crap. That was an amazing thing." Nothing like that had ever happened, where the entire planet shut down, where people were forced to stay away from each other.
And the more you love someone, the more you were interested, the more intensely you wanted to stay away from them in order to protect them. That is a psychological thing that we don't know how to deal with. So these speeches that Samwise gets to give, "There's some good left in this world and it's worth fighting for." "Even darkness must pass and a new day will come. And when the sun shines, it will shine out the clearer." There are things that Tolkien put in here that are the result of a lifetime of high quality, intellectual focus, and spiritual focus, forged in the fires of [the] First World War and is apparent of someone in the Second World War. And it's here, it's right in this little book.
I'm using the members of the book club as a tether. And they're using me as a pace car. And together, I'm hoping... you just sit and read the book. Yes. Read the book. Oh, it's great. It's so much more than that. The tens of thousands of people who I have personally met over 20 years who have tattooed themselves into oblivion with Lord of the Rings language and mythology and imagery, imagery from the movies, our faces tattooed on their bodies, doctors and lawyers and plumbers and homeless people, [those] people look to the books... look to the movies. They're bigger than movies, they're bigger than books. | https://collider.com/sean-astin-lord-of-the-rings-interview-fellowship-of-the-ring-samwise-gamgee/ | 9 |
who plays sam in lord of the rings | Sean Astin - Tolkien Gateway | Sean Patrick Astin (b. 1971 ) is an American film actor who played Samwise Gamgee in The Lord of the Rings film series and some of the tie-in games of the franchise.
Amusingly, he kept meticulous count of the times when he was fitted with hobbit feet and subsequently the feet were never "in shot".
He suffered an injury during the filming of the scene at Parth Galen when Sam ran into the river after Frodo — there was a shard of glass in the river bed and Astin's foot was pierced and bled profusely. Despite the injury he was back on set the next day.
Both of his parents worked in the film industry: his father John Astin created the character of Gomez Addams in the TV series "The Addams Family" while his mother, Patty Duke, won an Oscar for her performance in "The Miracle Worker".
- 2003 - PFCS Award , Best Acting Ensemble, Peter Jackson's The Two Towers
- 2003 - VES Award , Outstanding Performance by a Male or Female Actor in an Effects Film, Peter Jackson's The Two Towers
- 2003 - MTV Movie Award , Best On-Screen Team, Peter Jackson's The Two Towers
- 2004 - Sierra Award , Best Supporting Actor, Peter Jackson's The Return of the King
- 2004 - Critics' Choice Award , Best Acting Ensemble, Peter Jackson's The Return of the King
- 2004 - NBR Award , Best Acting by an Ensemble (shared with see previous)
- 2004 - VES Award , Best Performance by an Actor in an Effects Film, Peter Jackson's The Return of the King
- 2004 - SAG Award , Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, Peter Jackson's The Return of the King
- 2004 - Saturn Award , Best Supporting Actor, Peter Jackson's The Return of the King | https://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Sean_Astin | 9 |
who plays sam in lord of the rings | Sean Astin - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sean Astin
|Born|
Sean Patrick Duke
February 25, 1971
Santa Monica, California , U.S.
|Alma mater||University of California, Los Angeles ( BA )|
|Occupation|
Actor
|Years active||1980–present|
|Spouse|
Christine Harrell
( m. 1992 )
|Children||3|
|Parents|
|Relatives||Mackenzie Astin (brother)|
|Website|| seanastin |
Sean Patrick Astin ( né Duke ; born February 25, 1971) is an American actor. His acting roles include Samwise Gamgee in The Lord of the Rings trilogy (2001–2003), Mikey Walsh in The Goonies (1985), Billy Tepper in Toy Soldiers (1991), Daniel Ruettiger in Rudy (1993), Doug Whitmore in 50 First Dates (2004), Bill in Click (2006), Lynn McGill in the fifth season of 24 (2006), Oso in Special Agent Oso (2009–2012), Raphael in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2012–2017), Bob Newby in the second and third seasons of Netflix 's Stranger Things (2017; 2019), [1] and Ed in No Good Nick (2019).
He is the son of actress Patty Duke and adopted by actor John Astin . He has received various recognitions including a Screen Actors Guild Award and two Young Artist Awards . Additionally, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film in 1994 for the short film Kangaroo Court .
Astin was born in Santa Monica , California on February 25, 1971, as the son of actress Patty Duke (1946–2016) and Michael Tell (born 1950). [2] [3] [4] However, at the time, it was reported that entertainer Desi Arnaz Jr. was his biological father . During that time, Duke also had a personal relationship with Michael Tell, a writer, music promoter , and publisher of the newspaper The Las Vegas Israelite . When Duke became pregnant, she was unsure whether Arnaz or Tell was the father, so Tell offered to marry her as a way out of the scandal. The marriage lasted only 13 days in 1970 and ended before Astin was born. [5] [6] [7]
On August 5, 1972, Duke married actor John Astin , having been in a relationship with him for two years. When the wedding guests were invited to speak, 18-month-old Sean looked at John and cried, "Daddy!", to which the Episcopal priest performing the ceremony remarked, "Well, that about does it!" [8] Astin subsequently adopted Sean. In 1973, Duke gave birth to Astin's brother Mackenzie Astin , who also became an actor. Duke and John Astin divorced in 1985. [9] Duke married Mike Pearce in 1986, [5] and they adopted a son, Kevin, in 1989. [9]
When Astin was 14, Duke told him that Arnaz was his father, and the two developed a relationship. However, in his mid-20s, Astin met a relative of Michael Tell who suggested they were related. Sean set out to find the truth about his biological father, and underwent genetic tests which showed Tell was his biological father. [10] Astin has maintained close relationships with all three, and saying: "Desi Arnaz Jr. loves me, and I love him. We are so close ... Science tells me ... that he's not my biological father. Science tells me that Mike Tell is." Astin considers John his father, as John was the one who raised him. Astin is also close to his stepfather, Mike Pearce, saying, "I can call any of them on the phone any time I want to. John, Desi, Mike, or Papa Mike ... my four dads." [5]
Astin is of German and Irish ancestry through his mother and Austrian Jewish and Polish Jewish through his biological father. [11] [12] [13] He attended Catholic school and later became a Protestant . [14]
Astin attended the Crossroads High School for the Arts and undertook master classes at the Stella Adler Conservatory in Los Angeles . He graduated cum laude from UCLA with a B.A. in History and English (American literature and culture). An alumnus of Los Angeles Valley College , Astin served on the school's board of directors of the Patrons Association and the Arts Council . [15]
Astin's first acting role was in a 1981 television movie titled Please Don't Hit Me, Mom , [16] in which he played an 8-year-old child with an abusive mother (portrayed by his real-life mother Patty Duke ). He made his film debut at the age of 13 as Mikey in The Goonies (1985).
After The Goonies , Astin appeared in several more films, including the Disney made-for-TV movie, The B.R.A.T. Patrol , opposite Nia Long , Tim Thomerson , and Brian Keith ; Like Father Like Son (1987); White Water Summer with Kevin Bacon (1987), The War of the Roses (1989); the World War II film Memphis Belle (1990); Toy Soldiers (1991); Encino Man (1992); and the college football biopic Rudy (1993), about the life-changing struggles and rewards of the titular character, Daniel Ruettiger .
In 1994, Astin directed and co-produced (with his wife, Christine Astin) the short film Kangaroo Court , which received an Academy Award nomination for Best Live Action Short Film . Astin continued to appear in films throughout the 1990s, including the Showtime science fiction film Harrison Bergeron (1995), the Gulf War film Courage Under Fire (1996), and the Warren Beatty political satire Bulworth (1998).
In the early 2000s, Astin played Samwise Gamgee in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , consisting of The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002), and The Return of the King (2003). Many awards were bestowed upon the trilogy, particularly its final installment, which earned eleven Academy Awards , including Best Picture. Astin received seven award nominations for his own performance, and won five, including the Saturn Award , the Sierra Award, the Seattle Film Critics Award, and the Utah Film Critics Award (all for Best Supporting Actor), and the Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male or Female in an Effects Film. [17] [ better source needed ] The Return of the King cast as an ensemble received awards from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures , the Screen Actors Guild , the Broadcast Film Critics Association , and received a Gold Derby Award. [18] [ better source needed ]
Throughout the filming process, Astin became close friends with several cast members, and became particularly good friends with costar Elijah Wood . Astin's daughter, Alexandra, is in the closing scene of The Return of the King . She plays his onscreen daughter, Elanor Gamgee, who runs out to him as he returns from the Grey Havens.
While working on The Lord of the Rings , Astin persuaded a number of fellow cast and crew members, including director Peter Jackson , to assist him in making his second short film, The Long and Short of It . The film, which takes place on a street in Wellington , New Zealand, premiered at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival and can be found on the DVD for The Two Towers , along with a "making of" video.
In 2004, Astin released There and Back Again ( ISBN 0-312-33146-0 ), a memoir (co-written with Joe Layden) of his film career with emphasis on his experiences during production of The Lord of the Rings trilogy . The title is derived from the title of J. R. R. Tolkien 's novel The Hobbit , as well as the fictional book written by Bilbo Baggins in The Lord of the Rings .
Since The Lord of the Rings , Astin has continued to work in film and television. His film roles have included the Adam Sandler comedies 50 First Dates and Click . Astin played the role of Malibu High School principal Mike Matthews in the movie Smile . [19] [ better source needed ]
In television, Astin guest-starred as Lynn McGill throughout the fifth season of the Fox drama 24 . He also appeared in the made-for-TV films Hercules and The Colour of Magic and in episodes of Monk , Las Vegas , My Name is Earl (in which he parodied his 1993 film Rudy with co-stars Charles S. Dutton and Chelcie Ross ), and Law & Order , among other shows. He directed a 2003 episode of the TV series Angel , titled "Soulless" . He played the enigmatic Mr. Smith on the second season of the Showtime series Jeremiah . [20] [ better source needed ]
Astin's career has also expanded to include voice-over roles. He narrated the American version of the Animal Planet series Meerkat Manor , and voices the title character in Special Agent Oso which aired on Playhouse Disney from 2009 to 2011 and Disney Junior from 2011 to early 2014. [21] His other voice work includes Balto III: Wings of Change , in which he voiced Kodi, a teenage husky who is the son of the titular character, and the video game Kingdom Hearts , in the latter of which he provided the voice of Hercules , replacing actor Tate Donovan , who was unavailable but would return for Kingdom Hearts II . Astin voiced Raphael in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles animated series on Nickelodeon , which premiered on September 29, 2012, running for five seasons and 124 episodes, and ending on November 12, 2017.
In 2010, he joined the Stella Adler Los Angeles Theatre Collective acting company. [22] Also as of 2010, Astin and his wife, Christine, were making a movie based on Lois Lowry 's Newbery Medal -winning novel Number the Stars . [23] [24] They bought the film rights in 2008 and wrote a screenplay adaptation, with plans to direct and produce it themselves. [25]
In March 2012, Astin played a cosmetic surgeon named Takin Mastuhmik in a fake movie trailer entitled Boobathon which appeared on Funny or Die . [26] In March 2014, Astin played a soldier in Boys of Abu Ghraib , a military thriller inspired by the events that made worldwide news in 2004 . [27] [ better source needed ] In June of that year, he began playing the role of Jim Kent on the FX drama The Strain . [28]
In October 2015, Astin played Hank Erwin in Woodlawn , a story about how a high school football team overcame racism and hate, and found unity and success through following Jesus . [29]
In 2017, Astin played the role of Bob Newby in season two of the Netflix series Stranger Things . In 2019, Astin reprised the role of Newby in flashback scenes during the series' third season, played the role of Dr. Greg Pemberton on several episodes of The Big Bang Theory , and had a guest appearance on the fifth season of Supergirl . In 2019, he was in the Netflix dramedy No Good Nick in which he played Ed. Also in 2019, he appeared in the 6th season of Brooklyn Nine-Nine .
In May 2020, Astin joined Josh Gad 's YouTube series Reunited Apart , which reunites the casts of popular movies through video-conferencing, and promotes donations to non-profit charities. Others in the episode were fellow The Lord of the Rings castmates Sean Bean, Orlando Bloom, Billy Boyd, Ian McKellen, Dominic Monaghan, Viggo Mortensen, Miranda Otto, John Rhys-Davies, Andy Serkis, Liv Tyler, Karl Urban, and Elijah Wood, plus writer Philippa Boyens and director Peter Jackson. [30] [31]
Astin married Christine Harrell on July 11, 1992. They have three daughters: Alexandra (born in November 1996), Elizabeth (born in August 2002), and Isabella (born in July 2005), all having the middle name Louise. [32] His wife held the Miss Indiana Teen USA title in 1984. [33] Alexandra had a small cameo role in The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King as Elanor Gamgee, Astin's character's daughter, and appears in Bad Kids of Crestview Academy as Ethel Balducci.
Astin has a tattoo on his ankle of the word "nine" written with the Tengwar script, commemorating his Lord of the Rings involvement and his character's membership in the "Fellowship of the Ring" . Seven of the eight other actors ( Elijah Wood , Sean Bean , Billy Boyd , Ian McKellen , Dominic Monaghan , Viggo Mortensen and Orlando Bloom ) all have the same tattoo. John Rhys-Davies ' stunt double, Brett Beattie, has the tattoo as well. [34]
In an August 2013 interview, Astin said he is a Lutheran Christian, having been "baptized in my wife's Lutheran church". [14]
In January 2015, Astin completed the Dopey Challenge at the Walt Disney World Resort which involves running a 5k, 10k, half-marathon and full marathon on four consecutive days. [35] [36]
On October 10, 2015, Astin competed in the 2015 Ironman World Championship in Kailua Kona, Hawaii . Wearing number 143, Astin finished the race in a time of 15:30:31. [37]
From 1995 to 2005, Astin served as a Civilian Aide to the Secretary of the Army (CASA) and afterwards served on the President's Council on Service and Civic Participation for two years during the George W. Bush administration. [38] [39]
Astin is a lifelong supporter of the Democratic Party. [ citation needed ]
During the 2004 United States presidential election , Astin backed Senator John Kerry and participated in Kerry's campaign rally in Portland, Oregon , as the opening speaker. [40]
In the 2008 presidential election , Astin lent his support to then-Senator Hillary Clinton for the first of her two Presidential campaigns and made multiple campaign appearances on her behalf, including joining Clinton's daughter Chelsea at some stops. [41]
Astin served as the campaign manager for Democrat Dan Adler, a businessman friend in the entertainment industry, in California's 36th congressional district special election of 2011 . [39]
In the 2016 presidential election , Astin campaigned for Hillary Clinton in midwestern states such as Iowa , Nebraska and Wisconsin . [42]
In a 2020 Twitter post, Astin voiced his support for Democratic nominee Joe Biden . [43]
|Year||Title||Role||Notes||Ref.|
|1985||The Goonies||Mikey Walsh|
|1986||The B.R.A.T. Patrol||Leonard Kinsey||[44]|
|1987||Like Father Like Son||Clarence / Trigger|
|White Water Summer||Alan|
|1989||The War of the Roses||Josh Rose (age 17)|
|Staying Together||Duncan McDermott|
|1990||Memphis Belle||Sergeant Richard "Rascal" Moore|
|1991||Toy Soldiers||William Tepper|
|The Willies||Michael|
|1992||Where the Day Takes You||Greg|
|Encino Man||Dave Morgan|
|1993||Rudy||Daniel Ruettiger|
|1994||Teresa's Tattoo||Step Brother||Uncredited||[45]|
|Safe Passage||Izzy Singer|
|1995||The Low Life||Andrew|
|1996||Courage Under Fire||Patella|
|1998||Boy Meets Girl||Mike|
|Bulworth||Gary|
|1999||Deterrence||Ralph|
|Kimberly||Bob|
|2000||Dish Dogs||Morgan|
|The Last Producer||Bo Pomerantz|
|Icebreaker||Matt Foster|
|The Sky Is Falling||Mr. Schwartz|
|2001||The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring||Samwise Gamgee|
|2002||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Samwise Gamgee|
|2003||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Samwise Gamgee|
|2004||Balto III: Wings of Change||Kodi||Voice role|
|Elvis Has Left the Building||Aaron|
|50 First Dates||Doug Whitmore|
|2005||Smile||Mike Matthews|
|Bigger Than the Sky||Ken Zorbell|
|Slipstream||Stuart Conway||Direct-to-DVD|
|Marilyn Hotchkiss Ballroom Dancing & Charm School||Kip Kipling|
|Borderland||Randall|
|Thanks to Gravity||Coach Amal||Direct-to-DVD|
|2006||What Love Is||George||Direct-to- VOD|
|Asterix and the Vikings||Justforkix||English dub|
|Click||Bill|
|2007||The Final Season||Kent Stock|
|My Wife Is Retarded||Jeff||Short film|
|2008||Forever Strong||Marcus|
|Spirit of the Forest||Furi||Voice role|
|2009||Stay Cool||Big Girl||Direct-to-VOD|
|Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel||Meerkat Manor Narrator||Voice role|
|2011||Demoted||Mike||Direct-to-VOD|
|2012||Boobathon||Takin Mastuhmik||Trailer||[26]|
|Amazing Love: The Story of Hosea||Stuart||Direct-to-DVD|
|2013||The Freemason||Leon Weed||Direct-to-DVD|
|2014||Justice League: War||Shazam||Voice role|
|Boys of Abu Ghraib||Staff Sergeant Tanner||Direct-to-VOD|
|Cabin Fever: Patient Zero||Porter||Direct-to-DVD||[46] [47]|
|Moms' Night Out||Sean||[48] [49]|
|Video Games: The Movie||Narrator||Documentary|
|Ribbit||Ribbit||Voice role|
|The Hero of Color City||Horatio||Voice role|
|The Surface||Mitch||Direct-to-VOD|
|2015||Justice League: Throne of Atlantis||Shazam||Voice role|
|Do You Believe?||Dr. Farell|
|Woodlawn||Hank|
|Checkmate||Dyson|
|2016||The Do-Over||Ted-O|
|Range 15||Grigsby|
|Unleashed||Carl|
|2017||Bad Kids of Crestview Academy||Headmaster Nash|
|Dead Ant||Art|
|Espionage Tonight||Sam Jacobson|
|The Lears||Tom Cornwall|
|2018||Gloria Bell||Jeremy|
|2020||Adverse||Frankie|
|Lego DC: Shazam!: Magic and Monsters||Shazam||Voice role|
|2021||Hero Mode||Jimmy|
|Charming the Hearts of Men||George|
|2023||The AD-X2 Controversy||Himself||Documentary short|
|iMordecai||Marvin|
|TBA||Cash Out||TBA||Post-production||[50] [51]|
|Year||Title||Role||Notes||Ref.|
|1981||Please Don't Hit Me, Mom||Brian Reynolds|
|1982||The Rules of Marriage||Charlie Hagen|
|1985||The O'Briens||The Son|
|1986||The B.R.A.T. Patrol||Leonard Kinsey|
|1995||Harrison Bergeron||Harrison Bergeron||Movie|
|2003||Angel||N/A||Director (episode: " Soulless ")|
|2003–2004||Jeremiah||Mister Smith||Main role (season 2)|
|2004||Higglytown Heroes||Pix the Elf||Guest voice role (1 episode)||[52]|
|2005||Hercules||Linus||Main role|
|Into The West||Martin Jarrett||Miniseries|
|2005–2007||Meerkat Manor||Narrator||Seasons 1 – 3|
|2006||24||Lynn McGill||Main role ( Season 5 )|
|2007||Masters of Science Fiction||Charlie Kramer||Episode: "Watchbird"|
|Monk||Paul Buchanan||Episode: "Mr. Monk Is At Your Service"|
|My Name Is Earl||Salesman||Episode: "Get a Real Job"|
|2008||Terry Pratchett's The Colour of Magic||Twoflower||Movie|
|Law & Order||Pastor Hensley||Episode: "Angelgrove"|
|2009–2012||Special Agent Oso||Agent Oso||Main role (60 episodes)|
|2011||Love's Christmas Journey||Mayor Wayne||Movie|
|2012||NCIS||Tyler Elliot||Episode: " The Tell "|
|Adopting Terror||Tim||Movie|
|Dorothy and the Witches of Oz||Frack||Miniseries|
|Hollywood Treasure||Himself||Episode: " Riddler Rudy and the Ruby Slippers "|
|Franklin & Bash||Viper||Episode: "Viper"|
|Alphas||Mitchell||2 episodes|
|2012–2017||Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles||Raphael||Voice role|
|2013||Santa Switch||Eddie||Movie||[53]|
|2014||The Strain||Jim Kent||Main role|
|2015, 2017||Penn Zero: Part-Time Hero||Blaze||Voice role; 4 episodes||[54] [55]|
|2016||The Loud House||Loni||Voice role; Episode: "One of the Boys"||[56]|
|The Librarians||Kirby Goulding||Episode: " And the Tears of a Clown "|
|2016–2018||Justice League Action||Billy Batson / Shazam||Voice role|
|Bunnicula||Chester||Voice role|
|2017–2019||Stranger Things||Bob Newby||10 episodes|
|2018–2020||The Epic Tales of Captain Underpants||Narrator|
|2019||The Big Bang Theory||Dr. Pemberton||Episodes: "The Confirmation Polarization," "The Laureate Accumulation," & "The Plagiarism Schism"|
|No Good Nick||Ed||Main role|
|Brooklyn Nine-Nine||Sergeant Knox||Episode: "Ticking Clocks"|
|2019–2020||Supergirl||Pete Andrews|| Episode: "Blurred Lines" (Photograph) |
Episode: "The Missing Link"
|2021||Jungledyret Hugo||Hugo|
|Playing with Power: The Nintendo Story||Narrator|
|Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?||Himself||Voice role; Episode: "Returning of the Key Ring!"|
|2023||Perry Mason||Sunny Gryce||Season 2 (8 episodes)||[57]|
|2023||The Conners||Tyler||Episode: "What's So Funny About Peas, Love and Understanding?"||[58]|
|Year||Title||Role||Notes|
|2002||Kingdom Hearts||Hercules||English version|
|2003||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Samwise Gamgee|
|2004||Men of Valor||Pat 'Mouth' Hodges|
|2006||The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II: The Rise of the Witch-king||Samwise Gamgee|
|2010||The Lord of the Rings: Aragorn's Quest||Samwise Gamgee|
|2012||Lego The Lord of the Rings||Samwise Gamgee||Archive recordings|
|2013||Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles||Raphael|
|2015||Lego Dimensions||Samwise Gamgee|
|2016||Minecraft: Story Mode||Reginald|
|Year||Association||Category||Work||Result||Ref.|
|1985||Young Artist Awards||Best Starring Performance by a Young Actor – Motion Picture||The Goonies||Won|
|1989||Young Artist Awards||Best Young Actor Starring in a Motion Picture||Staying Together||Won|
|1991||Young Artist Awards||Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast in a Motion Picture||Toy Soldiers||Nominated|
|1994||Academy Awards||Best Live Action Short Film||Kangaroo Court||Nominated|
|2001||Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring||Nominated|
|2002||MTV Movie Awards||MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Team (shared with Elijah Wood and Gollum / Andy Serkis )||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Won|
|Visual Effects Society||Best Performance by an Actor in an Effects Film (shared with Elijah Wood and Andy Serkis )||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Won|
|Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers||Nominated|
|2003||Chicago Film Critics Association||Best Supporting Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Nominated|
|National Board of Review||Best Cast||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Saturn Awards||Best Supporting Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Visual Effects Society||Outstanding Male or Female Actor||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Won|
|Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association||Best Ensemble||The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King||Nominated|
|2014||Utah Film Awards||Best Actor||The Freemason||Won||[59]|
|2017||Screen Actors Guild||Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series||Stranger Things||Nominated|
- ^ Otterson, Joe (June 7, 2018). "Sean Astin Talks 'Stranger Things': 'Bob Newby Was Tailor-Made for Me'" . Variety . Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved December 30, 2018 .
- ^ "Astin, Sean (Patrick)" . Encyclopedia.com . Archived from the original on March 7, 2016 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ "Personal Biography" . seanastin.com . Archived from the original on March 15, 2015 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ "Sean Astin profile" . IGN . Archived from the original on February 27, 2015 . Retrieved March 15, 2015 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Astin | 9 |
where is the lake isle of innisfree located | The Lake Isle of Innisfree | I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,
And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made;
Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee,
And live alone in the bee-loud glade .
And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow,
Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket sings;
There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,
And evening full of the linnet's wings.
I will arise and go now, for always night and day
I hear lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore;
While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavements grey,
I hear it in the deep heart's core.
" The Lake Isle of Innisfree " is a twelve-line poem comprising three quatrains , written by William Butler Yeats in 1888 and first published in the National Observer in 1890. It was reprinted in The Countess Kathleen and Various Legends and Lyrics in 1892 and as an illustrated Cuala Press Broadside in 1932.
"The Lake Isle of Innisfree" exemplifies the style of the Celtic Revival : it is an attempt to create a form of poetry that was Irish in origin rather than one that adhered to the standards set by English poets and critics. [1] It received critical acclaim in the United Kingdom and France . [2] The poem is featured in Irish passports . [3]
Lake Isle of Innisfree is an uninhabited island within Lough Gill , in Ireland , near which Yeats spent his summers as a child. Yeats describes the inspiration for the poem coming from a "sudden" memory of his childhood while walking down Fleet Street in London in 1888. He writes, "I had still the ambition, formed in Sligo in my teens, of living in imitation of Thoreau on Innisfree, a little island in Lough Gill, and when walking through Fleet Street very homesick I heard a little tinkle of water and saw a fountain in a shop-window which balanced a little ball upon its jet, and began to remember lake water. From the sudden remembrance came my poem "Innisfree," my first lyric with anything in its rhythm of my own music. I had begun to loosen rhythm as an escape from rhetoric and from that emotion of the crowd that rhetoric brings, but I only understood vaguely and occasionally that I must for my special purpose use nothing but the common syntax. A couple of years later I could not have written that first line with its conventional archaism—"Arise and go"—nor the inversion of the last stanza." [4]
The twelve-line poem is divided into three quatrains and is an example of Yeats's earlier lyric poems. The poem expresses the speaker's longing for the peace and tranquility of Innisfree while residing in an urban setting. He can escape the noise of the city and be lulled by the "lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore." On this small island, he can return to nature by growing beans and having bee hives, by enjoying the "purple glow" of heather at noon, the sounds of birds' wings, and, of course, the bees. He can even build a cabin and stay on the island much as Thoreau, the American Transcendentalist , lived at Walden Pond. During Yeats's lifetime it was—to his annoyance—one of his most popular poems, and on one occasion was recited (or sung) in his honor by two (or ten—accounts vary) thousand Boy Scouts. [5] The first quatrain speaks to the needs of the body (food and shelter); the second to the needs of the spirit (peace); the final quatrain is the meeting of the inner life (memory) with the physical world (pavement grey). [ citation needed ]
- Muriel Herbert set the poem in 1928.
- Seattle, WA band Fleet Foxes mentions the Isles of Innisfree in many other songs including "The Shrine/An Argument", "Isles" and "Bedouin Dress".
- American composer Ben Moore has also composed a setting of the poem.
- Another musical setting is featured in Branduardi canta Yeats (published by Edizioni Musicali Musiza, 1986), composed and played by Angelo Branduardi on translation of Luisa Zappa.
- Michael McGlynn of the Irish group Anúna arranged this as a choral piece: a recording of it is featured on Anúna's album Invocation . [6]
- Composer and pianist Ola Gjeilo set this text to music in a piece called " The Lake Isle ."
- Popular settings of the poem have been done by Judy Collins and the Dream Brothers.
- Australian musician Paul Kelly performs a version on his 2013 album Conversations with Ghosts .
- Shusha Guppy recorded an unaccompanied version on her album This is the Day (United Artist Records, 1974).
- "The Lake Isle of Innisfree" is part of the song cycle 5 Songs on Poems by W. B. Yeats composed by the Dutch composer Carolien Devilee.
- A musical setting of this poem is featured in DUBLIN 1916, An Irish Oratorio and YEATS SONGS , a song cycle, both composed by Richard B. Evans (published by Seacastle Music Company, 1995).
- A choral setting for treble voices by Canadian composer Eleanor Joanne Daley published by Oxford University Press .
- The text was set to a choral piece for SATB and hammered dulcimer , composed by Shawn Kirchner and published by Boosey & Hawkes.
- In the finale episode of the fourth season of the Fox science-fiction drama television series Fringe entitled Brave New World (Part 2) , Dr. William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) narrates the first stanza of the poem, alluding to his plans of collapsing the two universes into a new world where he plays God.
- In the film Million Dollar Baby , directed by Clint Eastwood , Frankie Dunn (portrayed by Eastwood) reads the first two quatrains to Margaret Fitzgerald ( Hilary Swank ) at the hospital after a fight where her neck has broken.
- In the climactic scene from the film Three And Out , Tommy recites the poem just before he gets hit by the train.
- John Ford's Academy Award winning film The Quiet Man (1952) is set in "Inisfree" and clearly takes Yeats's poem as one of its principal subtexts.
- Hard rock band Sir Lord Baltimore has a song called "Lake Isle of Innersfree," presumably inspired by Yeats's poem. It appears on their 1970 LP Kingdom Come .
- In the song "The Shrine/An Argument" by Seattle indie folk band Fleet Foxes Innisfree is mentioned in the song's final lyric: "Carry me to Innisfree like pollen on the breeze." The band also mentions Innisfree in their song "Bedouin Dress" on the same album, saying frequently: "One day at Innisfree, one day that's mine there" and "Just to be at Innisfree again".
- In the song " Yeats ' Grave" by Irish band The Cranberries there is a line that says "And you sit here with me, in the Isle Innisfree".
- The poem inspired Philip Gates's "The Lake Isle" for oboe and piano.
- The folksinger, songwriter, and actor Hamilton Camp released a beautiful version called "Innisfree" on his 1964 album Paths of Victory on Elektra Records .
- Composer Ola Gjeilo composed a choral song named "The Lake Isle" based on the poem. [7]
- In his debut novel Ghostwritten the British author David Mitchell quotes the first two quatrains in the chapter "London" and the last in the chapter "Clear Island."
- The third book in Nicolas Freeling 's Henri Castang series is Lake Isle , with explicit reference to Yeats's poem.
- J. B. Priestley closes his 1932 essay "At Thurston's" by declaring that watching a billiards match at Thurston's Hall is "as near to the Isle of Innisfree as we can get within a hundred miles of Leicester Square."
- South Korean cosmetic brand Innisfree takes its name from the poem.
- Canadian singer-songwriter Christine Fellows mentions reading Yeats to hens in the song "The Spinster's Almanac," singing "who wouldn't like to wake up on the Isle of Innisfree/ To muck about that bee-loud glade like he?"
- Scottish songwriter and musician Jackie Leven released an album titled For Peace Comes Dropping Slow (1997), Haunted Valley – reissued by Cooking Vinyl (2004). The title comes from the first line of the second quatrain.
- The song "Bedouin Dress" by the American indie folk band Fleet Foxes makes several references to Innisfree. Robin Pecknold, the band's lead singer/songwriter, sings in the 2nd verse: 'And believe me it's not easy when I look back / Everything I took I'd soon return / Just to be at Innisfree again / All of the sirens are driving me over the stern / Just to be at Innisfree again." Moreover, the song includes (and concludes) with the refrain, "One day at Innisfree / One day that's mine there." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lake_Isle_of_Innisfree | 10 |
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