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who played the judge in the good place | Judge Gen | The Judge , commonly known as Judge Gen (Gen being short for Hydrogen , the only element in existence when she was born) is the all-knowing judge found in the Neutral Zone between the Bad Place and the Good Place.
She rules on cases brought to her, such as that of Eleanor , Chidi , Jason , and Tahani in Chapter 25: The Burrito . Gen's real name is only said once and she is credited as Judge, which is what everyone refers to her as.
Gen is good-natured, but does not like to step outside of the rules of The Afterlife , which she enforces.
While she hears the cases of the four humans, she sentences them to eternity in The Bad Place , but not before playing a cheerful montage of their time together.
She also enjoys binge watching NCIS and Deadwood.
While she is later convinced by Michael to attempt an experiment in which the humans do not die, to see if they can become better people on Earth, Gen reacts to discovering that Michael had snuck back down to Earth twice by telling him that he will face retirement .
It can be assumed that she was also responsible for deciding on the case of Mindy St. Claire , which led to the creation of The Medium Place .
Gen was at first startled by the unexpected appearance of the humans in her dimension after they escaped The Bad Place. She was at first conflicted about giving them a case, but she gave them a case because she was bored.
Gen gave each of the humans trials, which all of them failed except possibly Eleanor , and judged that they should go to The Bad Place , however Michael and Janet come in and inform her of the nature of their experiment. Gen then comes to an agreement with Michael and then gives him permission to only go down to Earth once and that was to save the Four Humans.
Gen also allowed Michael and Janet to stay in her realm and monitor the humans.
Gen continued to allow Michael and Janet to stay, and had no idea about their antics on Earth. However, she soon found out after weird things started happening. Gen then told Michael that he couldn't monitor the humans any longer and that Michael and Janet had to return to the Bad Place.
However, at this point the stuff Janet wanted to summon on Earth appeared, giving Michael and Janet time to escape from Gen. She then calls Michael and Janet via the key to express her anger at them, and they (unsuccessfully) attempt to break the connection.
After Michael returned to the Afterlife with Janet and the humans, he set up a meeting with Gen at the IHOP , which she angrily agreed on. There he explained that Earth was more complicated, and thus the point system was unfair. Gen traveled down to Earth to determine whether this was true, and when she returned, she agreed with Michael.
She summoned Shawn , and Chidi came up with the idea to create a new Neighborhood and experiment on four new humans, an idea of which Gen approved, and set up guidelines for the experiment, stating that she would monitor the humans' progress, before departing to the Neutral Zone.
After being informed of the Bad Place's attempt to sneak a demon, Chris Baker disguised as Linda into the experiment, Gen bans Shawn from interfering in the experiment any further.
The judge then decides on the fate of the experiment and rules to reboot earth. However, Gen's shortsightedness blinds her to the fact that this won't do anything useful; since humanity will just get back to this point again, where the Point System will remain lopsided.
After Bad Janet arrives, along with the other Janets, Gen begins to marbelize them as she is looking for the Humanity Eraser Thingy device. Good Janet tries to convince the judge to maintain Earth. Knowing that Gen is a fan of Justified, the team tricks her into listening to their plan by having Janet conjure Timothy Olyphant (played by himself) inside her void. Gen only agreed to the plan once Shawn eventually got on board.
After the Joint Afterlife Committee is running smoothly, Gen agrees with Eleanor's request to turn Michael into a human; after being told it would allow her peace from all of them.
Gen is an extremely powerful immortal being who serves as the highest authority in the Afterlife.
- Immortality : Gen, like all eternal beings, is immortal.
- Dimension Manipulation : Gen was shown to be able to modify her neutral dimension to her will in order to create the trials and even changing Eleanor, Jason, Tahani, and Chidi's outfits. It is also a possibility that she is not limited to manipulating only the Neutral Zone. She is also seen to make a picture with a frame appear after looking at a slideshow with said picture with the four humans
- Telekinesis : Gen was seen using telekinesis to throw Trevor, and Janet's objects into the void.
- Judgement : Gen has the unique ability to judge people's fates and where they will reside in the afterlife. This was seen how she could open portals to the Good Place and the Bad place.
- Power Granting: Gen was able to grant Janet the ability to turn Michael human.
- Humanity Wiper: Gen is able to erase all life on Earth thanks to the human eraser thingy.
Gen's abilities are limited in the IHOP , being only able to manipulate dimensional matter on the same scale as other Immortal Beings.
- It is stated in the Podcast that Mike Schur originally knew that the Judge was going to be played by a woman, which is why he chose Shawn to pretend to be the Judge in Michael's experiment .
- Gen hates the IHOP.
- She has been shown to have a presumably romantic attraction to Chidi and actors Timothy Olyphant & Mark Harmon. It is also mentioned that she usually has attractions to the father figures in the TV shows that she watches.
- According to Judge Gen herself, she was unaware that she was considered ‘black’ amongst the humans.
Others like you also viewed | https://thegoodplace.fandom.com/wiki/Judge_Gen | 20 |
who played the judge in the good place | Judge Gen | The Judge , commonly known as Judge Gen (Gen being short for Hydrogen , the only element in existence when she was born) is the all-knowing judge found in the Neutral Zone between the Bad Place and the Good Place.
She rules on cases brought to her, such as that of Eleanor , Chidi , Jason , and Tahani in Chapter 25: The Burrito . Gen's real name is only said once and she is credited as Judge, which is what everyone refers to her as.
Gen is good-natured, but does not like to step outside of the rules of The Afterlife , which she enforces.
While she hears the cases of the four humans, she sentences them to eternity in The Bad Place , but not before playing a cheerful montage of their time together.
She also enjoys binge watching NCIS and Deadwood.
While she is later convinced by Michael to attempt an experiment in which the humans do not die, to see if they can become better people on Earth, Gen reacts to discovering that Michael had snuck back down to Earth twice by telling him that he will face retirement .
It can be assumed that she was also responsible for deciding on the case of Mindy St. Claire , which led to the creation of The Medium Place .
Gen was at first startled by the unexpected appearance of the humans in her dimension after they escaped The Bad Place. She was at first conflicted about giving them a case, but she gave them a case because she was bored.
Gen gave each of the humans trials, which all of them failed except possibly Eleanor , and judged that they should go to The Bad Place , however Michael and Janet come in and inform her of the nature of their experiment. Gen then comes to an agreement with Michael and then gives him permission to only go down to Earth once and that was to save the Four Humans.
Gen also allowed Michael and Janet to stay in her realm and monitor the humans.
Gen continued to allow Michael and Janet to stay, and had no idea about their antics on Earth. However, she soon found out after weird things started happening. Gen then told Michael that he couldn't monitor the humans any longer and that Michael and Janet had to return to the Bad Place.
However, at this point the stuff Janet wanted to summon on Earth appeared, giving Michael and Janet time to escape from Gen. She then calls Michael and Janet via the key to express her anger at them, and they (unsuccessfully) attempt to break the connection.
After Michael returned to the Afterlife with Janet and the humans, he set up a meeting with Gen at the IHOP , which she angrily agreed on. There he explained that Earth was more complicated, and thus the point system was unfair. Gen traveled down to Earth to determine whether this was true, and when she returned, she agreed with Michael.
She summoned Shawn , and Chidi came up with the idea to create a new Neighborhood and experiment on four new humans, an idea of which Gen approved, and set up guidelines for the experiment, stating that she would monitor the humans' progress, before departing to the Neutral Zone.
After being informed of the Bad Place's attempt to sneak a demon, Chris Baker disguised as Linda into the experiment, Gen bans Shawn from interfering in the experiment any further.
The judge then decides on the fate of the experiment and rules to reboot earth. However, Gen's shortsightedness blinds her to the fact that this won't do anything useful; since humanity will just get back to this point again, where the Point System will remain lopsided.
After Bad Janet arrives, along with the other Janets, Gen begins to marbelize them as she is looking for the Humanity Eraser Thingy device. Good Janet tries to convince the judge to maintain Earth. Knowing that Gen is a fan of Justified, the team tricks her into listening to their plan by having Janet conjure Timothy Olyphant (played by himself) inside her void. Gen only agreed to the plan once Shawn eventually got on board.
After the Joint Afterlife Committee is running smoothly, Gen agrees with Eleanor's request to turn Michael into a human; after being told it would allow her peace from all of them.
Gen is an extremely powerful immortal being who serves as the highest authority in the Afterlife.
- Immortality : Gen, like all eternal beings, is immortal.
- Dimension Manipulation : Gen was shown to be able to modify her neutral dimension to her will in order to create the trials and even changing Eleanor, Jason, Tahani, and Chidi's outfits. It is also a possibility that she is not limited to manipulating only the Neutral Zone. She is also seen to make a picture with a frame appear after looking at a slideshow with said picture with the four humans
- Telekinesis : Gen was seen using telekinesis to throw Trevor, and Janet's objects into the void.
- Judgement : Gen has the unique ability to judge people's fates and where they will reside in the afterlife. This was seen how she could open portals to the Good Place and the Bad place.
- Power Granting: Gen was able to grant Janet the ability to turn Michael human.
- Humanity Wiper: Gen is able to erase all life on Earth thanks to the human eraser thingy.
Gen's abilities are limited in the IHOP , being only able to manipulate dimensional matter on the same scale as other Immortal Beings.
- It is stated in the Podcast that Mike Schur originally knew that the Judge was going to be played by a woman, which is why he chose Shawn to pretend to be the Judge in Michael's experiment .
- Gen hates the IHOP.
- She has been shown to have a presumably romantic attraction to Chidi and actors Timothy Olyphant & Mark Harmon. It is also mentioned that she usually has attractions to the father figures in the TV shows that she watches.
- According to Judge Gen herself, she was unaware that she was considered ‘black’ amongst the humans.
Others like you also viewed | https://thegoodplace.fandom.com/wiki/Judge_Gen | 20 |
who played the judge in the good place | Maya Rudolph | Maya Rudolph is an actress. She portrays the Judge, Gen , in The Good Place .
She first appears in Chapter 25: The Burrito , but her casting was not announced in advance, so that it would come as a surprise to viewers watching the episode as broadcast. | https://thegoodplace.fandom.com/wiki/Maya_Rudolph | 20 |
who played the judge in the good place | The Real-Life Inspiration Behind The Judge From The Good Place - Looper | NBCUniversal
By Keegan McGuire / April 3, 2021 11:29 am EST
NBC's introspective and experimental comedy The Good Place covered a lot of ground in its 53 episodes. The show never met a philosophical problem or uncomfortable question that it wasn't willing to explore as characters like Eleanor Shellstrop ( Kristen Bell ) and Chidi Anagonye (William Jackson Harper) learned about morality, death, and ethics in the afterlife.
One of the things that set The Good Place apart was its willingness to play with its own rules and bend viewer expectations to create interesting settings and introduce compelling characters. While the show was, on the surface, about the journey of its main characters into worlds that were analogous to Heaven or Hell, it often reminded viewers that the Good Place was not a cloud-bound plane of perfection and that the Bad Place was more than a pit of flames. As such, show creator Michael Schur was free to portray the demons and celestial beings that ruled over, worked at, and otherwise existed in the afterlife in creative, exciting ways.
This meant that viewers encountered demons like Shawn (Marc Evan Jackson), who is little more than a bureaucrat with transformative powers and a mean streak. Fans also met Jeff the Doorman (Mike O'Malley), a guardian of the passageway between dimensions easily bribed with collectible frogs. One of the more vital characters, however, was The Judge (Maya Rudolph), who ruled on all matters related to the afterlife and whose appearance, it turns out, was based on a famous figure. Here is the real-life inspiration behind The Judge from The Good Place.
NBCUniversal
Maya Rudolph's portrayal of the good-natured but strict Judge struck a chord with critics, and her appearances in the final season of The Good Place earned Rudolph one of the three Emmy nominations she received in 2020. For her role as The Judge, Rudolph was nominated as an Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series, a category that she was up for twice that year. The other nomination, and eventual Emmy win, was for her impression of Senator Kamala Harris on Saturday Night Live .
After Rudolph received her Guest Actress Emmy for her Saturday Night Live nomination, a reporter asked how she felt about losing the award to herself. In her response, Rudolph said she was just happy to be placed among legendary performers such as Bette Midler and Angela Basset, especially since The Judge was inspired by a feminist hero, Ruth Bader Ginsberg.
Rudolph said, "I was actually thinking about The Good Place a lot and about how we modeled her robe after Ruth Bader Ginsberg and how much of that was an homage to an iconic human being. When you think of a judge, when you think of all-knowing, when you think of powerful, when you think of all good, yeah, we modeled her robe after RBG, so that was pretty cool" (via Deadline ).
As The New York Times reported, Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsberg had sadly passed away Sept. 18, 2020, the day before Rudolph's interview, making Rudolph's tribute even more poignant. While The Judge was very much a creation of Michael Schur and Maya Rudolph, it's nice to know that The Good Place celebrated the life and style of such an inspiring figure in a critical character. | https://www.looper.com/373462/the-real-life-inspiration-behind-the-judge-from-the-good-place/ | 20 |
who played the judge in the good place | Maya Rudolph Modeled The Good Place’s Judge Gen On Ruth Bader Ginsburg | By
Maya Rudolph, who played Judge Gen on The Good Place, reveals that her character was modeled after Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg.
Maya Rudolph, who played Judge Gen on NBC’s The Good Place , recently revealed that her character was modeled after Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Airing in September 2016, The Good Place follows Eleanor (Kristen Bell), a morally corrupt saleswoman who recently passed away, as she finds her way through the afterlife. The Good Place quickly became a fan favorite for its fascinating story, quirky jokes, diverse cast, and existential questions. On the show, Maya Rudolph played Judge Gen, an omniscient immortal being who decides where each human will spend eternity after he or she dies.
Though The Good Place ended this January after four seasons, its cast and crew have been keeping busy and are still gaining well-deserved recognition for their parts on the show. Maya Rudolph was recently nominated for an Emmy for her performance as the Judge on The Good Place , and though she did not win for this particular role, Rudolph went home with two Emmys in hand this past week - one for Netflix's Big Mouth and the other for Saturday Night Live .
Related:
In an interview with Deadline after her Emmy wins this weekend, Rudolph spoke about how her character was inspired by Ruth Bader Ginsburg, the influential Supreme Court Justice who sadly passed away this weekend. She revealed that not only was Judge Gen’s robe modeled after RBG’s, but also that the creators aimed to pay homage to Ruth Bader Ginsburg’s powerful, all-good, all-knowing persona with Judge Gen. Read an excerpt of the interview below:
“I was actually thinking about The Good Place a lot and about how we modeled her robe after Ruth Bader Ginsberg and how much of that was an homage to an iconic human being. When you think of a judge, when you think of all-knowing, when you think of powerful, when you think of all good, yeah, we modeled her robe after RBG, so that was pretty cool.”
Maya Rudolph’s insight shows just how influential Ruth Bader Ginsburg was not only to the American justice system, but to entertainment and media all over the world. RBG was a leading figure in the fight for gender equality and civil rights, and was once name-dropped on The Good Place by Tahani. While Rudolph’s Judge Gen greatly differs from Ruth Bader Ginsburg in real life, it is uplifting to know that the creators of The Good Place had RBG’s achievements in mind while writing a show about how every action, no matter how small, can have a great impact.
Though The Good Place had a short run compared to many other modern sitcoms, it taught many valuable lessons through comedy and imperfect characters. Even Rudolph’s character, the Judge herself, could be accused of being lazy and careless, but The Good Place maintains that despite each character’s flaws, their determination to do the right thing will eventually bring about the best outcome. It seems fitting that Rudolph’s character was modeled after Ruth Bader Ginsburg, who overcame countless difficulties, and whose legacy will live on both in American politics and in her impact on the global entertainment industry .
More:
Source: Deadline | https://screenrant.com/good-place-maya-rudolf-judge-gen-ruth-bader-ginsberg/ | 20 |
who played the judge in the good place | The Good Place - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|The Good Place|
|Genre|
|Created by||Michael Schur|
|Starring|
|Composer||David Schwartz|
|Country of origin||United States|
|Original language||English|
|No. of seasons||4|
|No. of episodes||53 [8] ( list of episodes )|
|Production|
|Executive producers|
|Producers|
|Cinematography|
|Editors|
|Camera setup||Single-camera|
|Running time||22 minutes|
|Production companies|
|Release|
|Original network||NBC|
|Picture format||HDTV 1080i|
|Audio format||5.1 Dolby Digital with DVS on SAP|
|Original release|| September 19, 2016 – |
January 30, 2020
The Good Place is an American fantasy comedy television series created by Michael Schur . It premiered on NBC on September 19, 2016, and concluded on January 30, 2020, after four seasons and 53 episodes .
Although the plot evolves significantly over the course of the series, the initial premise follows Eleanor Shellstrop ( Kristen Bell ), a woman welcomed after her death to the Good Place, a highly selective Heaven -like utopia designed and run by afterlife "architect" Michael ( Ted Danson ) as a reward for her righteous life. She realizes, however, she was sent there by mistake and must hide her morally imperfect past behavior while trying to become a better, more ethical person. William Jackson Harper , Jameela Jamil , and Manny Jacinto co-star as other residents of the Good Place, with D'Arcy Carden as Janet, an artificial being who assists the residents.
The Good Place received critical acclaim for its originality, writing, acting, setting, and tone. The first season's twist ending and the show's exploration and creative use of ethics and philosophy were specifically praised. Among other accolades, it received a Peabody Award and four Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form . It was nominated for 14 Primetime Emmy Awards , including Outstanding Comedy Series for its third and fourth seasons.
The series is centered on an afterlife in which humans are sent to "the Good Place" or "the Bad Place" after death. All humans are assigned a numerical score based on the morality of their conduct in life, and only those with the very highest scores are sent to the Good Place, where they enjoy eternal happiness with their every wish granted, guided by an artificial intelligence named Janet; all others experience an eternity of torture in the Bad Place.
In the first season , amoral loner Eleanor and small-time criminal Jason believe that they have been sent to the Good Place incorrectly. Eleanor's assigned soulmate , Chidi, a moral philosopher , attempts to teach them ethics so they can earn their presence there. Jason's soulmate, wealthy socialite Tahani, attempts to help Michael, the kindly designer of their neighborhood, deal with the chaos apparently caused by Eleanor and Jason's presence. In the season finale, Eleanor realizes that the four humans have actually been in an experimental Bad Place all along, chosen by Michael to torture each other emotionally and psychologically for eternity.
In the second season , Michael repeatedly erases the humans' memories to try to restart their psychological torture, but they figure out the truth each time. Michael's failures result in him being blackmailed by another demon who wants his job, so Michael convinces the humans to help him fool his boss in exchange for passage to the real Good Place. When Michael sees that humans can improve their goodness after they die, he appeals their case to the eternal Judge, who rules that the humans may be returned to their lives on Earth, with no memory of the afterlife, to attempt to prove their moral development.
Back on Earth in the third season , the group participates in a research study led by Chidi and his colleague Simone. Once they learn the truth about the afterlife, they try to help others improve their moral behavior. Eventually they discover that no one has been admitted to the Good Place in centuries. They propose that the points system is fundamentally flawed and set up an experimental simulated Good Place to test their thesis that humans can develop morally with proper support.
In the final season , the year-long experiment eventually proves that humans can show moral improvement in the afterlife. The group institutes a new system whereby deceased humans will earn their way into the Good Place by passing tests of moral development; and then, to avoid becoming numbed by the ennui of eternal bliss, humans may choose to exit the Good Place and peacefully end their afterlife. In the final episode, Jason, Chidi, and Eleanor eventually choose to exit; Tahani becomes a designer of afterlife environments, and Michael is allowed to be sent to Earth to live as a human.
- Kristen Bell as Eleanor Shellstrop, a deceased selfish American pharmaceutical saleswoman from Phoenix, Arizona , who seemingly winds up in the Good Place in error after being mistaken for a lawyer who exonerated innocent clients facing death sentences . In order to earn her spot, she recruits Chidi to teach her the fundamentals of becoming a better person. [9] Eleanor is bisexual . [10]
- William Jackson Harper as Chidi Anagonye, a deceased French-speaking Nigerian-Senegalese professor of ethics and moral philosophy who taught at the Sorbonne and St. John's University in Australia. Although he has a kind and supportive nature, his inability to make choices frequently leaves him overanxious and indecisive, often resulting in poor decision-making. Assigned as Eleanor's soulmate in Michael's first Good Place experiment, he gives her ethics lessons in an attempt to make her a better person. [11]
- Jameela Jamil as Tahani Al-Jamil, a deceased wealthy British philanthropist and fashion model who believes she belongs in the Good Place. She forms an unlikely friendship with Eleanor, who initially dislikes her positive attitude, condescending way of speaking, and tendency to name-drop . [12]
- D'Arcy Carden as Janet, a programmed guide and knowledge bank who acts as the Good Place's main source of information and can provide its residents with whatever they desire. She is described as a foundational mainframe for all neighborhoods across the Good and Bad Places. Later, Janet gains a more humanlike disposition and begins to act differently from the way she was designed.
- Carden also portrays multiple Janet iterations throughout the series. Among them are "Bad Janet", a Bad Place counterpart specifically designed by the demons to respond to residents in an inappropriate and impolite manner; [13] "Neutral Janet", an impartial, robotic version of Janet that works in the Accountant's Office; [14] "Disco Janet" who is "fun, but a lot" and, in " Janet(s) ", Janet-versions of Eleanor, Chidi, Tahani, and Jason. [15]
- Manny Jacinto as Jason Mendoza, a deceased Filipino American amateur disc jockey and drug dealer from Jacksonville, Florida , who seemingly winds up in the Good Place by mistake. He is introduced as Jianyu Li, a Taiwanese Buddhist monk who took a vow of silence . Later, Jason proves to be an immature, simple but kindhearted Jacksonville Jaguars and Blake Bortles fan. [16]
- Ted Danson as Michael, a Bad Place architect who runs the Good Place neighborhood in which Eleanor, Chidi, Tahani, and Jason reside. Michael has a fascination with the mundane aspects of human life, like playing with paper clips or searching for one's car keys. In the first-season finale, it is revealed that he has been tricking the four humans all along and is actually a demon torturing them, though he later teams up with and befriends them. "Michael" is a Hebrew name meaning "who is like God". [17] The character of Michael was based on the archangel Michael . [18]
- Tiya Sircar as Vicky, a Bad Place demon who portrays the "real Eleanor Shellstrop", whose position in the Good Place Eleanor supposedly stole in the first season. In the second season, when Michael's plans repeatedly fail, she tries to blackmail Michael into giving her control over the neighborhood. Late in the series, Michael places her in charge of introducing the other demons to the revised afterlife system.
- Adam Scott as Trevor, a cruel Bad Place demon who bullies the main group. He makes a return in the third season posing as an overenthusiastic member of Chidi's academic study on Earth, only to be later exiled by the Judge upon being discovered. [19]
- Marc Evan Jackson as Shawn, Michael's wicked boss. Shawn gives Michael two chances to pull off the torture experiment and later turns against him when he finds out about Michael's betrayal. [20] He is also the main character of the spin-off series The Selection . [21]
- Luke Guldan as Chris Baker, a muscular Bad Place demon assigned as Eleanor's soulmate in the second attempt. [22] Chris was sent to the experimental Good Place disguised as "Linda". His mission was to distract Eleanor and the others so the Bad Place could kidnap Good Janet and replace her with a Bad Janet.
- Jama Williamson as Val, a demon and Shawn's secretary.
- Amy Okuda as Gayle, a Bad Place demon pretending to be a Good Place resident by the name of Jessica. She shows a lack of interest in the humans, despite Shawn's obsession.
- Steve Berg as Chuck, a Bad Place demon pretending to be a Good Place resident by the name of Gunnar. His preferred form of punishment is chewing.
- Bambadjan Bamba as Bambadjan, a Bad Place demon pretending to be a lawyer in the Good Place. He is among the more cunning of Shawn's demons.
- Josh Siegal as Glenn, a Bad Place demon pretending to be a cheerfully dopey Good Place resident. He is among the few demons to show actual concern for another being. He blows up in "Tinker, Tailor, Demon, Spy", although Michael stated that he would reconstitute himself with time, having to relive the life cycle of a demon.
- Joe Mande as the voice of Toddrick "Todd" Hemple, a lava monster who refuses to wear a human suit.
- Maribeth Monroe as Mindy St. Claire, a deceased corporate lawyer and addict who died in the process of founding a charity she had planned during a cocaine high. The charity generated enough good points after her death that her point total exceeded that required to enter the Good Place. As a compromise, the Judge ruled that she would receive her own private Medium Place, where everything is mediocre and grounded in the 1980s.
- Kirby Howell-Baptiste as Simone Garnett, an Australian neuroscientist and, briefly, Chidi's girlfriend. She is also the second test subject to be sent to the experimental Good Place, although she initially believed that she was experiencing a brain-death hallucination.
- Eugene Cordero as Steven "Pillboi" Peleaz, Jason's best friend and partner in crime. Jason, Tahani and Michael manage to convince him to avoid criminal behaviour and focus on his career in elder care so that he could get into the Good Place.
- Ben Lawson as Larry Hemsworth, Tahani's former boyfriend and the fictional fourth Hemsworth brother. Despite being a very attractive, successful paediatric surgeon, he constantly berates himself.
- Rebecca Hazlewood as Kamilah Al-Jamil, Tahani's exceedingly successful and competitive younger sister. Tahani died attempting to humiliate her.
- Ajay Mehta as Waqas Al-Jamil, Tahani's father.
- Anna Khaja as Manisha Al-Jamil, Tahani's mother.
- Leslie Grossman as Donna Shellstrop, Eleanor's cruel, self-centered, negligent mother. In the third season, it is revealed that she faked her death in Arizona and has found peace as a PTA mom in a Nevada suburb.
- Angela Trimbur as Madison, Eleanor's roommate.
- Meryl Hathaway as Brittany, Eleanor's roommate.
- Mitch Narito as Donkey Doug, Jason's dopey father. Jason, Tahani and Michael's plan to get him into the Good Place by convincing him to become a qualified electrician fails after Donkey Doug plans several robberies as part of a get-rich-quick scheme involving a combined energy drink and body spray product.
- Keston John as Uzo, Chidi's best friend. He had long suffered from Chidi's indecisiveness and witnessed Chidi's original death.
- Brandon Scott Jones as John Wheaton, the first test subject sent to the experimental Good Place. In life, he was a gossip columnist and published trashy articles, especially about Tahani.
- Ben Koldyke as Brent Norwalk, a bigoted and arrogant corporate chief executive, and the fourth test subject sent to the experimental Good Place.
- Michael McKean and Noah Garfinkel as Doug Forcett. Michael keeps a picture of Garfinkel as Forcett on his office wall as a reminder of the human who during a magic mushroom high almost understood the afterlife points system (with many major religions only understanding about five percent of it). In a later episode, Michael McKean appears as an older Forcett trying to live the best life possible on Earth, much to the detriment of his own happiness. Garfinkel appears as Forcett in the final episode.
- Jason Mantzoukas as Derek, a malfunctioning artificial rebound boyfriend created by Janet. Gifted by the humans to Mindy for helping them escape the fake Good Place, he was repeatedly rebooted for privacy or amusement. He serves as a template for the 'Janet baby' Good Place residents for Eleanor and Michael's experiment.
- Maya Rudolph as Gen, the judge who rules on interdimensional matters between the Good Place and the Bad Place
- Mike O'Malley as Jeff the Doorman, the gatekeeper of the doorway between the afterlife and Earth. He has an affinity for frogs.
- Brad Morris as Matt, a suicidal accountant who works in a neutral office between the Good Place and the Bad Place. He is assigned as the accountant for Eleanor and Michael's experiment. He had been formerly assigned to evaluating "Weird Sex Things" in Accounting, which accounted for nearly all case studies of unprecedented human behaviour.
- Paul Scheer as Chuck, leader of the Good Place committee. Ostensibly wanting to help Eleanor and her friends, he is very hesitant to take any actual action and is overly deferential to any demands by the Bad Place in negotiations. Chuck and the rest of the committee abandon the Good Place after inducting Michael as a resident (and its new leader), having run out of ideas of how to lift the sense of ennui hanging over its residents.
- Stephen Merchant as Neil, the manager in the Accounting office where all the life points are calculated. He reveals that nobody has been sent to the Good Place for about 500 years.
- Nicole Byer as Gwendolyn, an optimistic and bubbly mailwoman who works at the Good Place Correspondent Centre. She is naive and was quick to believe that the main group had won a raffle to a free tour of the Good Place. She also guided Michael how to contact the Good Place committee. Despite being quietly furious after she realized the group was lying to her, she was still able to kindly wave them goodbye as they joined the Judge to IHOP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Good_Place | 20 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | 'Saved by the bell' - the meaning and origin of this phrase | Saved by a last minute intervention.
There is a widespread notion that 'saved by the bell' originated as an expression that relates to people being buried alive. The idea was that, if someone were comatose and mistakenly pronounced dead and interred, they could, if they later revived, ring a bell that was attached to the coffin and be saved. The idea is certainly plausible as the fear of being buried alive was and is real. Several prominent people expressed this fear when close to death themselves:
"All I desire for my own burial is not to be buried alive." - Lord Chesterfield, 1769.
"Have me decently buried, but do not let my body be put into a vault in less than two days after I am dead." - deathbed request of George Washington.
"Swear to make them cut me open, so that I won't be buried alive."- Frederic Chopin's last words.
Just as real were the devices themselves, several of which were patented in England and in the USA. These were known as 'safety coffins' and designs were registered in the 19th century and up to as late as 1955; for example:
The Improved Burial Case.
Patent No. 81,437 Franz Vester, Newark, New Jersey.
August 25, 1868.
As well as a handy bell, Vester's device had the novel enhancement of a glass screen to view the coffin's occupant. Presumably the mourners could wave to the deceased and, if he waved back, they knew they were on to something.
There's no evidence to show that anyone was ever saved by these coffins or even that they were ever put to use, and there's a similar lack of evidence of the phrase 'saved by the bell' ever being used in that sense prior to it having been used in other contexts.
In fact, the expression is boxing slang and it came into being in the latter half of the 19th century. A boxer who is in danger of losing a bout can be 'saved' from defeat by the respite signalled by bell that marks the end of a round. The earliest reference to this that I can find is in the Massachusetts newspaper The Fitchburg Daily Sentinel, February 1893:
"Martin Flaherty defeated Bobby Burns in 32 rounds by a complete knockout. Half a dozen times Flaherty was saved by the bell in the earlier rounds."
There are other popular etymological fallacies related to death - notably dead ringer and graveyard shift . | https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/saved-by-the-bell.html | 21 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | Saved by the bell Idiom Definition | Saved by the bell means to escape catastrophe through a last-minute intervention. The phrase saved by the bell is derived from the sport of boxing. When a boxer is knocked to the ground, he must get back to his feet before the referee counts to ten or the victory will be awarded to his opponent. However, if the end-of-round bell sounds before the prone boxer is counted out, then he is allowed to continue fighting in the next round. When the bell rings before a boxer can be counted out, he is said to have been saved by the bell . Today, the phrase has become a metaphor for anyone who escapes a catastrophe through some type of last-minute intervention. The story that states that the phrase saved by the bell started with eighteenth-century coffins equipped with bells for people to ring if they found themselves buried alive, is apocryphal. While the bell-quipped coffins were real inventions, the term saved by the bell is properly attributed to boxing lingo.
Examples
Trevor Kershaw won the title, beating Paul Devitt by one point after being saved by the bell. ( The Telegraph and Argus )
Timothy Bradley saved by the bell in win over Jessie Vargas as interim WBO title bout is farcically ended 10 seconds early ( The Daily Mail )
“She was saved by the bell,” Dunton said. “She was saved by the fact that he would stop forcing himself on her when there was a possibility he would get caught.” ( The St. Augustine Record )
“We were crossing our fingers. We were saved by the bell on this one. Today’s news was incredible,” she said. ( The Bismarck Tribune )
“I was saved by the bell,” she said from in front of her porch, which is already starting to look better. ( The Appleton Post-Crescent ) | https://grammarist.com/idiom/saved-by-the-bell/ | 21 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | Saved by the Bell | September 4th 2019
“Saved by the bell” is the phrase we use when we want to say that someone or something is saved by a last-minute intervention.
Many people believe that this phrase was invented in the 17 th century, where people at the time, out of their fear of being buried alive created the “Safety Coffins”. The myth says that a bell was attached to the deceased person’s finger, so that they could ring it in case they woke up and be saved by the relative who would stay at the burial site for 24hours. There is no concrete evidence that the “Safety Coffins” were ever used or if anyone was ever saved by them.
It’s very simple!
NEVER stop providing CPR in an unresponsive, non-breathing victim!
CPR is basically the last chance a person has to survive. By performing CPR, we are giving the victim that very last chance, even though the likelihood of recovery is fading by the minute.
There are many recorded cases of CPR saving a victim’s life and the majority of those were at the hospital where prolonged CPR had resulted in the recovery of the victim. An incredible case of CPR saving a life, was the case of a 35-year-old woman who recovered after a total duration of 340 recorded minutes of CPR.
Cases like these are rare, but what we comprehend is that the guidelines emphasize on the continuous resuscitation of a non-breathing victim, which is vital.
During all our training courses that involve CPR training we emphasize that CPR only comes to a standstill if the victim starts breathing normally or if help arrives and takes over and only if the rescuer is unable to continue CPR.
Join one of our First Aid courses to find out more about the importance of CPR in saving a life along with more important first aid knowledge that could help you deal with any emergency. | https://empmedic.com/saved-by-the-bell/ | 21 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | The True Origin Of The Phrase "Saved By The Bell" - I'm A Useless Info Junkie | Contrary to popular belief, the phrase “saved by the bell” has nothing to do with people being buried alive. In fact, the expression is a boxing slang.
Coined in the 19th century, saved by the bell is a reference to the bell that marks the end of the round. When a boxer was in danger of losing the bout and the bell rang, it was actually saving the boxer from defeat. According to phrases.org.uk, the earliest reference to the expression is found in the Massachusetts newspaper The Fitchburg Daily Sentinel, February 1893:
“Martin Flaherty defeated Bobby Burns in 32 rounds by a complete knockout. Half a dozen times Flaherty was saved by the bell in the earlier rounds.” So how did we end up with the ‘buried alive’ myth? (the article continues after the ad)
First of all, for those who don’t know, the myth says that the phrase was invented during the 17th century and originates from the fact that people were buried with a bell attached to their coffin just in case they were comatose and mistakenly reported dead. By having the bell attached to their finger, the buried persons would have rung the bell and saved by the relative who, for 24hours, would have remained at the burial site.
There were indeed patented coffins that came with the bell attachment called ‘safety coffins’ as being buried alive was a common fear at the time. But, there’s absolutely no evidence to suggest that these coffins were ever used, let alone save anyone. In addition, up until the 19th century, the phrase is nowhere to be found.
Photos: livescience.com, 61015 / Pixabay
Photoshop: I’m A Useless Info Junkie
Widget not in any sidebars | https://theuijunkie.com/saved-by-the-bell-origin/ | 21 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | 'Saved by the bell' - the meaning and origin of this phrase | Saved by a last minute intervention.
There is a widespread notion that 'saved by the bell' originated as an expression that relates to people being buried alive. The idea was that, if someone were comatose and mistakenly pronounced dead and interred, they could, if they later revived, ring a bell that was attached to the coffin and be saved. The idea is certainly plausible as the fear of being buried alive was and is real. Several prominent people expressed this fear when close to death themselves:
"All I desire for my own burial is not to be buried alive." - Lord Chesterfield, 1769.
"Have me decently buried, but do not let my body be put into a vault in less than two days after I am dead." - deathbed request of George Washington.
"Swear to make them cut me open, so that I won't be buried alive."- Frederic Chopin's last words.
Just as real were the devices themselves, several of which were patented in England and in the USA. These were known as 'safety coffins' and designs were registered in the 19th century and up to as late as 1955; for example:
The Improved Burial Case.
Patent No. 81,437 Franz Vester, Newark, New Jersey.
August 25, 1868.
As well as a handy bell, Vester's device had the novel enhancement of a glass screen to view the coffin's occupant. Presumably the mourners could wave to the deceased and, if he waved back, they knew they were on to something.
There's no evidence to show that anyone was ever saved by these coffins or even that they were ever put to use, and there's a similar lack of evidence of the phrase 'saved by the bell' ever being used in that sense prior to it having been used in other contexts.
In fact, the expression is boxing slang and it came into being in the latter half of the 19th century. A boxer who is in danger of losing a bout can be 'saved' from defeat by the respite signalled by bell that marks the end of a round. The earliest reference to this that I can find is in the Massachusetts newspaper The Fitchburg Daily Sentinel, February 1893:
"Martin Flaherty defeated Bobby Burns in 32 rounds by a complete knockout. Half a dozen times Flaherty was saved by the bell in the earlier rounds."
There are other popular etymological fallacies related to death - notably dead ringer and graveyard shift . | https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/saved-by-the-bell.html | 21 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | The Real Stories Behind 7 Everyday Expressions | Many of our everyday phrases come from Shakespeare , while others have more gruesome beginnings .
But some widely repeated phrase "origins" are folk etymologies that have been passed on by word of mouth and AOL spam emails.
Keep reading to see seven everyday phrase origins that are complete myths according to historical linguists, from "rule of thumb" to "raining cats and dogs."
1. "Rule of thumb"
Many people believe that the phrase “rule of thumb” dates back to when an 18th-century judge ruled that it was acceptable for a man to beat his wife as long as he used a stick no wider than his thumb.
But the phrase, which today means "to do something the way it has always been done," was already in existence by the late 1600s . It originates from the human thumb's long history of being used to estimate measurements, from alignment to distance.
For the confusion, we can thank a satirical cartoon artist named James Gillray , who published a harsh cartoon of a judge named Sir Francis Buller in 1783. It shows Buller carrying bundles of sticks while a man beats a woman in the background with a caption that reads, "Thumbsticks — for family correction: Warranted lawful!"
Yet despite a scholarly investigation , no evidence suggests that a judge has ever said this — let alone Buller — and there are no cases in British common law that have ever held that it was legal for a man to beat his wife with a stick of any size.
It is, of course, entirely plausible that Buller may have said or joked about such a thing, and for that he certainly deserves Gillray's derisive cartoon (as well as a good whacking himself).
2. "Paying through the nose"
The internet has a few fake etymologies for "paying through the nose," the most gruesome of which says that Vikings used to slit conquered villagers' noses if they could not pay their taxes. They were "paying through the nose," or paying out handsomely.
This is extremely unlikely, given that the idiom surfaced eight cent uries after the V ikings' raids, but if it does come from the Vikings, the origin is probably much more boring.
The most plausible explanation given by Anatoly Liberman from the Oxford University Press blog is that when the Danes conquered Ireland, they wanted to make money off of their new subjects, a common goal among conquerors, and imposed a tax. This was known as a poll tax or "nose tax."
It had nothing to do with an actual nose in the same way that a "head count" does not refer to counting dismembered heads. The nose was a synecdoche for a person — the Danes wanted to tax every person in Ireland, or all of their "noses."
Some historians disagree and argue that "paying through the nose" comes from an 1898 essay by a former sailor named Richard Edgcumbe , who said the expression was originally used on ships, with "nose" referring to the bow of a ship:
It does not seem very difficult (at all events, for a sailor) to associate extortionate disbursements with handsome payments — such, for instance, as paying out a chain cable (through the nose), especially when the order is conveyed in such a language as this, 'Pay out handsomely.' At all events, I can speak on this matter from personal experience as a midshipman. To my mind, 'paying through the nose' for anything has always been associated with the rattling of a 'payed out' chain cable, after the anchor has gripped the ground.
Whether with boring taxes or sailor slang that reached the mainland, it certainly has nothing to do with actually slitting noses.
3. "Pulling one's leg"
A popular fake etymology for "pulling one's leg" says street thieves in London (from the Victorian or Medieval period, depending on the storyteller) would trip their victims to more easily rob them.
Another tale was that "pulling one's leg" dates back to when people would pull on the legs of those hanged in Tyburn, England, (the principal place for execution in the 1700s). While this did happen to speed the deaths, it is implausible as a source because it has nothing to do with the phrase's current meaning and was not popular when these hangings took place.
As far as etymologists can tell , the phrase is most likely American. It was first printed in an Ohio newspaper called The Newark Daily Advocate in February 1883. The paper treated it as a new phrase, meaning the citation is probably close to the phrase's actual origin.
And though some etymology experts believe the phrase may have originated from "playfully tripping" someone, the actual origin remains somewhat of a mystery.
4. "Raining cats and dogs"
People say this phrase comes from Norse mythology and the storm god Odin, whose animal attendants were cats (which represented heavy rain or wind) and dogs (another symbol for wind). So when it was raining hard, Odin's "animals" were outside.
But Anatoly Liberman from the Oxford University Press blog best summed up why this theory gets the basics so, so wrong:
In Norse mythology , Odin is not a storm god, his "animals" are a horse and two ravens, cats have nothing to do with either Odin or witches, and rain is not connected with any divinity. Odin presides over the Wild Hunt in late Scandinavian folklore , not mythology. The Wild Hunt, which is known in most of northern Europe, is obviously associated with stormy weather, but Odin's following is made up of flying corpses, not of cats, dogs, or witches.
So yes Odin is associated with stormy weather, but everything else is pretty much made up.
Liberman thinks it most likely originated from a 1592 sentence by Gabriel Harvey (and documented by the Oxford English Dictionary) that reads : " Instead of thunderboltes shooteth nothing but dogboltes or catboltes." The "dog bolts" were iron bolts to secure a door or a gate, while "cat bolts" were used to fasten together pieces of wood. In other words, they likened a heavy rainstorm to heavy metal bolts falling out of the sky.
At some point, Liberman believes the "bolt" was dropped either as a joke or to make it easier to say, causing the phrase to make no sense today.
5. "Saved by the bell"
This phrase supposedly dates back to a time when people were at risk of being buried alive. To keep from waking up inside a coffin (and then really dying), loved ones were buried with bell ropes so they could ring the bell if they woke up. Once someone heard them, they were dug up and thus "saved by the bell."
And while that does match the phrase's current meaning — saved by a last-minute intervention — and even though being buried alive was a very real fear (with actual " safety coffins " designed at this time), this is not where the phrase actually comes from.
Instead, "saved by the bell" is boxing slang that became common in the late 19th century. A boxer who was about to be defeated would be saved if the bell that marked the end of a round rang out. Eventually, the phrase hit the mainstream.
6. "Dead ringer"
Today, to be a "dead ringer" for somebody else means a person looks like an exact duplicate.
But "dead ringer" is said to come from the same false source as "saved by the bell" — that people were buried with bells in case they weren't actually dead. They were "dead ringers."
But this could not be more wrong. Instead, "dead ringer" comes from US horse racing , when cheating owners would switch one horse with another and showcase it under a false name and pedigree to defraud bookies.
The term "ringer" comes from an old slang usage of "ring," which meant to exchange or substitute something counterfeit for something real . The "dead" was added for emphasis.
Because the horses would have to look alike to be switched, the phrase evolved to mean two things that look extremely similar.
7. "Upper crust"
People who are "upper crust" are upper-class, wealthy members of society.
The phrase was said to date back to a tradition in which bread was divided according to everyone's status. For instance, the burnt bottom would go to servants; the family would get the middle portion; and the honored guests would receive the top of the loaf, or its "upper crust."
The only source that even hints at such a custom is a book called " Boke of Nuruture " dating from 1460 that says "cut the upper crust for your lord." Because the phrase didn't become a slang term until the 19th century , this is unlikely the source.
A likelier scenario is that because the upper class was at the top of society, using bread as a metaphor they would be considered "upper crust."
BONUS: “Bury your head in the sand"
When you "bury your head in the sand" it means that you are willfully ignoring a problem, usually with dire consequences.
It supposedly comes from how ostriches hide their heads in the sand when they're attacked by predators, something observed by Roman writer Pliny the Elder .
However, Pliny had it all wrong: Ostriches don't bury their heads when they sense danger — they run away or lie down on the ground and play dead. Historians hypothesize that Pliny either saw an ostrich lying down and its light-colored head merely blended in with the sand, or he saw an ostrich eating .
Either way, you can stop attributing this phrase to ostriches. | https://www.businessinsider.com/phrase-origins-that-are-wrong-2015-1 | 21 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | Saved by the bell Idiom Definition | Saved by the bell means to escape catastrophe through a last-minute intervention. The phrase saved by the bell is derived from the sport of boxing. When a boxer is knocked to the ground, he must get back to his feet before the referee counts to ten or the victory will be awarded to his opponent. However, if the end-of-round bell sounds before the prone boxer is counted out, then he is allowed to continue fighting in the next round. When the bell rings before a boxer can be counted out, he is said to have been saved by the bell . Today, the phrase has become a metaphor for anyone who escapes a catastrophe through some type of last-minute intervention. The story that states that the phrase saved by the bell started with eighteenth-century coffins equipped with bells for people to ring if they found themselves buried alive, is apocryphal. While the bell-quipped coffins were real inventions, the term saved by the bell is properly attributed to boxing lingo.
Examples
Trevor Kershaw won the title, beating Paul Devitt by one point after being saved by the bell. ( The Telegraph and Argus )
Timothy Bradley saved by the bell in win over Jessie Vargas as interim WBO title bout is farcically ended 10 seconds early ( The Daily Mail )
“She was saved by the bell,” Dunton said. “She was saved by the fact that he would stop forcing himself on her when there was a possibility he would get caught.” ( The St. Augustine Record )
“We were crossing our fingers. We were saved by the bell on this one. Today’s news was incredible,” she said. ( The Bismarck Tribune )
“I was saved by the bell,” she said from in front of her porch, which is already starting to look better. ( The Appleton Post-Crescent ) | https://grammarist.com/idiom/saved-by-the-bell/ | 21 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | 'Saved by the bell' - the meaning and origin of this phrase | Saved by a last minute intervention.
There is a widespread notion that 'saved by the bell' originated as an expression that relates to people being buried alive. The idea was that, if someone were comatose and mistakenly pronounced dead and interred, they could, if they later revived, ring a bell that was attached to the coffin and be saved. The idea is certainly plausible as the fear of being buried alive was and is real. Several prominent people expressed this fear when close to death themselves:
"All I desire for my own burial is not to be buried alive." - Lord Chesterfield, 1769.
"Have me decently buried, but do not let my body be put into a vault in less than two days after I am dead." - deathbed request of George Washington.
"Swear to make them cut me open, so that I won't be buried alive."- Frederic Chopin's last words.
Just as real were the devices themselves, several of which were patented in England and in the USA. These were known as 'safety coffins' and designs were registered in the 19th century and up to as late as 1955; for example:
The Improved Burial Case.
Patent No. 81,437 Franz Vester, Newark, New Jersey.
August 25, 1868.
As well as a handy bell, Vester's device had the novel enhancement of a glass screen to view the coffin's occupant. Presumably the mourners could wave to the deceased and, if he waved back, they knew they were on to something.
There's no evidence to show that anyone was ever saved by these coffins or even that they were ever put to use, and there's a similar lack of evidence of the phrase 'saved by the bell' ever being used in that sense prior to it having been used in other contexts.
In fact, the expression is boxing slang and it came into being in the latter half of the 19th century. A boxer who is in danger of losing a bout can be 'saved' from defeat by the respite signalled by bell that marks the end of a round. The earliest reference to this that I can find is in the Massachusetts newspaper The Fitchburg Daily Sentinel, February 1893:
"Martin Flaherty defeated Bobby Burns in 32 rounds by a complete knockout. Half a dozen times Flaherty was saved by the bell in the earlier rounds."
There are other popular etymological fallacies related to death - notably dead ringer and graveyard shift . | https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/saved-by-the-bell.html | 21 |
where did expression saved by the bell originate | "Saved by the Bell" | Origin and Meaning | The term "saved by the bell" means saved at the last possible moment.
Table of Contents
- English Proverbs and Idioms Test
- More Proverbs, Sayings, and Idioms
Examples of Use:
- The bus arrived before Jack could answer Jill's question. He was definitely saved by the bell .
- The police officer's radio summoned him to an urgent job just before he searched my bag. I was saved by the bell !
- The goal was disallowed because the referee had blow the whistle. Saved by the bell ! Well, literally the whistle, but you know what I mean.
The term "saved by the bell" originates from boxing in the late 19th century; however, it was not popularized until the 1920s, most probably by the radio commentaries of boxing bouts. The term initially referred to a boxer who was taking a pounding being saved by the bell at the end of a round, giving him time to recover.
In 1893, "The Fitchburg Daily Sentinel" from Massachusetts used the phrase in its literal meaning :
In 1893, "The Fitchburg Daily Sentinel" from Massachusetts used the phrase in its literal meaning :
- "Martin Flaherty defeated Bobby Burns in 32 rounds by a complete knockout. Half a dozen times Flaherty was saved by the bell in the earlier rounds."
Nowadays, "saved by the bell" is used figuratively to refer to any last-minute intervention that rescues a situation.
Example of use:
- I was trying to explain my presence to the doorman when his radio called him to another, more-pressing incident. Saved by the bell !
"Saved by the bell" originates from the 18th century when people were so fearful of being buried alive they would be buried with a string attached to a bell on the surface. If, after being buried, the "deceased" came around, they could ring the bell to alert people. The fear of being buried alive was rife in those times, to the extent that many (including President George Washington) believed that Jesus was initially buried alive (as opposed to being resurrected):
- "I am just going. Have me decently buried and do not let my body be put into the vault in less than two days after I am dead...Do you understand me?" (President George Washington, 1797)
- "All I desire for my own burial is not to be buried alive." (Lord Chesterfield, 1769)
- "Swear to make them cut me open, so that I won't be buried alive." (last words of Composer Frederic Chopin, 1849)
Detractors of this theory note that the term does not appear in print until the 1920s ( evidence ) and also highlight that there are no reported cases of a person being saved by the surface bell.
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where did expression saved by the bell originate | The True Origin Of The Phrase "Saved By The Bell" - I'm A Useless Info Junkie | Contrary to popular belief, the phrase “saved by the bell” has nothing to do with people being buried alive. In fact, the expression is a boxing slang.
Coined in the 19th century, saved by the bell is a reference to the bell that marks the end of the round. When a boxer was in danger of losing the bout and the bell rang, it was actually saving the boxer from defeat. According to phrases.org.uk, the earliest reference to the expression is found in the Massachusetts newspaper The Fitchburg Daily Sentinel, February 1893:
“Martin Flaherty defeated Bobby Burns in 32 rounds by a complete knockout. Half a dozen times Flaherty was saved by the bell in the earlier rounds.” So how did we end up with the ‘buried alive’ myth? (the article continues after the ad)
First of all, for those who don’t know, the myth says that the phrase was invented during the 17th century and originates from the fact that people were buried with a bell attached to their coffin just in case they were comatose and mistakenly reported dead. By having the bell attached to their finger, the buried persons would have rung the bell and saved by the relative who, for 24hours, would have remained at the burial site.
There were indeed patented coffins that came with the bell attachment called ‘safety coffins’ as being buried alive was a common fear at the time. But, there’s absolutely no evidence to suggest that these coffins were ever used, let alone save anyone. In addition, up until the 19th century, the phrase is nowhere to be found.
Photos: livescience.com, 61015 / Pixabay
Photoshop: I’m A Useless Info Junkie
Widget not in any sidebars | https://theuijunkie.com/saved-by-the-bell-origin/ | 21 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | What Is Anointing of the Sick and Is it Biblical? | The Anointing of the Sick is a biblically-based ceremony performed in certain Christian denominations for the benefit of a person who is ill, frail from age, or about to have major surgery. The ceremony petitions God for the person’s spiritual and physical healing through the Holy Spirit, and is meant to unite the person with the suffering of Christ.
The Anointing of the Sick is most commonly associated with the Roman Catholic Church and, as such, this article explores the rite from the Catholic faith’s perspective. In Catholicism , the Anointing of the Sick is considered a sacrament and centers on the Lord’s healing presence and the forgiveness of sins.
Most anointings in the Bible consisted of the smearing of olive oil or ointments on a person or object for secular or sacred purposes. Anointings with olive oil were commonplace in Biblical times, and having enough olive oil to use for anointings was a sign of prosperity and blessings ( 2 Kings 20:13 ESV; Joel 2:19 ). Scripture also notes that some anointings occurred spiritually through the infusion of the Holy Spirit.
1. Commonplace anointings with oil: In Biblical times, it was traditional to anoint people or objects for secular reasons. For example, Jews showed hospitality to their visitors by anointing the visitor’s head with oil ( Luke 7:46 ; Psalm 23:5 ). Further, Jews anointed their own head and bodies with oil to smooth and refresh their hair and skin ( Ruth 3:3 ; Psalms 104:15 ). In addition, the Bible tells us that in times of war, soldiers prepared their shields by smearing oil on the shield’s leather to make the leather less susceptible to cracking and, thus, make the shield better-suited for battle ( Isaiah 21:5 ).
2. Medicinal anointings with oil: Oil was also used for medicinal purposes to heal the sick and soothe the wounds of the injured. For example, the prophet Isaiah mentions olive oil’s therapeutic qualities in his writings ( Isaiah 1:6 ), and the Good Samaritan knew to mix oil with wine to dress the wounds of the man who fell among robbers ( Luke 10:34 ). Further, St. James also recommends anointing the sick with oil to help them recover from their infirmity and to confer upon them the forgiveness of sins ( James 5:14-15 ). The Bible also records that the Twelve Apostles healed many of the sick in their day by anointing them with oil ( Mark 6:13 ).
3. Religious anointings with oil: The practice of anointing with oil for religious reasons was also customary in Biblical times. To “ anoint ” in a theological context means to smear or pour oil over a person or object to set it apart for divine use. Prophets, priests, and kings were anointed with oil to symbolize their divine appointment to God’s service ( 1 Kings 19:16 ; Exodus 29:21 ; 1 Samuel 16:13 ). Fragrant ointments were also used in religious rituals to anoint the dead to prepare them for burial ( Mark 14:8 ; John 19:39-40 ).
In a similar way, objects were also consecrated with oil to be set apart for religious use. Scripture tells us that objects anointed with oil included: the Ark of the Covenant, the Tabernacle, altars, lampstands, and pillars ( Exodus 30:25-29 ; Genesis 28:18 ).
4. Religious anointings with the Holy Spirit: Scripture also declares that people can be anointed with the Holy Ghost. The most prominent example of this is, of course, Jesus, who was anointed with the Holy Spirit and power ( John 1:32-42 ; Acts 10:38 ).
Aside from Jesus’s anointing with the Holy Spirit, Christians are anointed by God with the Holy Spirit who dwells in us ( 1 John 2:20 ; 2 Corinthians 1:21-22 ). A Christian’s anointing with the Holy Ghost differs from Jesus’s anointing in that God imbued Jesus with the Holy Ghost without limit so that all the fullness of deity dwells in Jesus Christ ( John 3:34 ; Colossians 2:9 ).
The Roman Catholic Church considers the Anointing of the Sick—formerly known as Extreme Unction—to be a sacrament. A sacrament is a ritual performed to convey God’s grace to the recipient through the power of the Holy Spirit.
The practice of the Anointing of the Sick is based primarily on James 5:14-15 , which states:
Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the one who is sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.
The sacrament of Anointing is also grounded in the Twelve Apostles’ practice of healing the sick with anointing oil ( Mark 6:13 ).
Photo Credit:©GettyImages/RandyDollins
God promises to heal His faithful and the sick are anointed because they are petitioning God for this healing, if it’s in His will ( Exodus 15:26 ).
Scripture gives examples of God working through ordinary people to heal the sick through the ordinary person’s anointing them with oil, laying hands on them, and praying for them ( James 5:14-15 ; Mark 6:13 ). Today, Catholics request the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick to ask God for a similar healing. The person requesting the anointing must be either gravely ill, frail from advanced age, or facing major surgery ( Catechism of the Catholic Church “CCC” 1514-1515 ).
Catholics believe that during the Anointing of the Sick, Jesus Himself—through the rituals of the priest—touches the sick or frail person to spiritually heal them from sin and, if it’s in God’s will, also from their physical (or psychological) ailment ( CCC 1504, 1512 ). Catholics believe that even where there is no physical healing, the main purpose of the anointing is to heal the recipient spiritually through the Holy Spirit’s gifts of strength, peace, and courage to endure the pain that accompanies the sick person’s ailment ( CCC 1520 ).
The Anointing of the Sick can be celebrated in the family home with relatives present, in a hospital with relatives or hospital staff present, or in a church, whether only the ill person is in attendance or a group of ill people and their families. The presence of others, although not necessary, helps to assure the infirm person that the faith community that is Jesus’s body is present in prayer.
The Anointing of the Sick ceremony generally consists of the following stages:
1. The sprinkling of holy water on the sacrament’s recipient and others present
2. Introductory prayers during which a priest may include a brief penitential rite if the person to be anointed hasn’t already received the Sacrament of Reconciliation (commonly referred to as confession) prior to the anointing ( John 20:19-23 )
3. Readings from Holy Scripture
4. The laying on of hands by the priest in anointing the sick person’s forehead and hands with holy oil to petition the Holy Spirit’s presence upon the sick person ( Mark 6:13 ; CCC 1513 ). During the anointing, the priest says the following prayer:
Through this holy anointing may the Lord in His love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit. May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up ( James 5:14-15 ; CCC 1513 ).
5. The communal recitation of the Lord’s Prayer ( Matthew 6:9-13 )
6. Holy Communion if the infirm person is able to receive the Eucharist ( John 6:54 )
7. The dismissal, which includes a blessing
Notably, if the sick person who received the anointing recovers and, at a later time, falls gravely ill again, he can receive this sacrament again ( CCC 1515 ).
The Anointing of the Sick differs from Last Rites in that a person doesn’t have to be dying to be given the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick. However, when the Anointing of the Sick is administered to someone who is at the point of death, Last Rites may be given in conjunction with the anointing.
Last Rites encompass the administration to a dying person of the Anointing of the Sick, Penance, and Holy Communion. Last Rites focus in particular on the dying person’s final reception of the Holy Eucharist. This is because, just as Holy Communion nourishes the recipient during his journey through his earthly life, Holy Communion also prepares the recipient for his journey passing over into his eternal life.
For this reason, Holy Communion that is given to someone at the brink of death is called Viaticum , which means “provision for a journey” in Latin.
Photo Credit: ©GettyImages Pablo K
The Eastern Orthodox and Anglican churches also consider the Anointing of the Sick to be a sacrament. Other Christian denominations—such as the Lutheran and Methodist churches—don’t consider anointing the sick to be a sacrament but do offer anointing ceremonies, the nature of which varies from church to church.
In recent years, healing services that anoint with oil have become more common in Protestant denominations generally.
The Anointing of the Sick is grounded in the words of St. James to anoint the sick with oil to bring about healing and forgiveness ( James 5:14-15 ). The rite is meant to unite the recipient with the suffering of Christ by calling upon the Holy Spirit to imbue the sick and frail with the strength, peace, and courage to endure the sufferings of illness or old age in Jesus’ name.
Importantly, the sacrament acknowledges that God’s plan for us may or may not include healing us from our physical infirmities. As such, the Anointing of the Sick is not meant to take the place of seeking treatment through medical professionals. Rather, the ceremony adds to the healing resources available by offering the sick person spiritual healing as he or she is prayed over, anointed with holy oil, united with the Lord’s healing presence, and forgiven for prior sins.
Photo Credit: ©GettyImages/yelo34
Dolores Smyth is a nationally published faith and parenting writer. She draws inspiration for her writing from everyday life. Connect with her over Twitter @byDoloresSmyth. | https://www.christianity.com/wiki/christian-life/what-is-anointing-of-the-sick-and-is-it-biblical.html | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | Who can receive Sacrament of anointing of the sick? – MassInitiative | The Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick is for all who face a serious illness or surgery or who are impaired by old age. It is distinct from the “Last Rites,” or Viaticum, in which the Church offers Holy Communion as food for the journey to life eternal.
A sick person should not be brought to the church, church offices, or rectory to be anointed. The sacrament of anointing is only strictly necessary when a person is unable to manifest sorrow for his or her sins (e.g., the person is unconscious and so cannot make a confession), and is in need of forgiveness.
Can anyone receive Anointing of the Sick?
The sacrament of anointing can be administered to an individual whether at home, in a hospital or institution, or in church. Several sick persons may be anointed within the rite, especially if the celebration takes place in a church or hospital. The celebration may also take place during a Catholic Mass.
Can a priest give last rites to a non Catholic?
Who Can Receive Last Rites? The Last Rites are for any Catholic who wants to receive them. However, they’re also for non-Catholics. For baptized non-Catholics who can’t reach their own minister, they can receive the Last Rites within a Catholic church.
It is customary to thank the clergy for their assistance and to offer an honorarium if they are involved in the service. It is considered inappropriate to ask the clergy what fee they “charge” for funerals. A typical honorarium is $150–300, in consideration of the hours spent with the family and performing the service.
Spiritual comfort – sick people who are anointed receive God’s grace via the Holy Spirit. Forgiveness of sins – when they die, they will be healed, and all sin removed.
Can anyone receive anointing of the sick?
Who can receive matrimony?
You can only receive the Sacrament of Matrimony once unless your spouse dies. Faithful: No adultery. Fruitful: Open to the possibility of children if God wills it. | https://massinitiative.org/who-can-receive-sacrament-of-anointing-of-the-sick/ | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | What Is Anointing of the Sick and Is it Biblical? | The Anointing of the Sick is a biblically-based ceremony performed in certain Christian denominations for the benefit of a person who is ill, frail from age, or about to have major surgery. The ceremony petitions God for the person’s spiritual and physical healing through the Holy Spirit, and is meant to unite the person with the suffering of Christ.
The Anointing of the Sick is most commonly associated with the Roman Catholic Church and, as such, this article explores the rite from the Catholic faith’s perspective. In Catholicism , the Anointing of the Sick is considered a sacrament and centers on the Lord’s healing presence and the forgiveness of sins.
Most anointings in the Bible consisted of the smearing of olive oil or ointments on a person or object for secular or sacred purposes. Anointings with olive oil were commonplace in Biblical times, and having enough olive oil to use for anointings was a sign of prosperity and blessings ( 2 Kings 20:13 ESV; Joel 2:19 ). Scripture also notes that some anointings occurred spiritually through the infusion of the Holy Spirit.
1. Commonplace anointings with oil: In Biblical times, it was traditional to anoint people or objects for secular reasons. For example, Jews showed hospitality to their visitors by anointing the visitor’s head with oil ( Luke 7:46 ; Psalm 23:5 ). Further, Jews anointed their own head and bodies with oil to smooth and refresh their hair and skin ( Ruth 3:3 ; Psalms 104:15 ). In addition, the Bible tells us that in times of war, soldiers prepared their shields by smearing oil on the shield’s leather to make the leather less susceptible to cracking and, thus, make the shield better-suited for battle ( Isaiah 21:5 ).
2. Medicinal anointings with oil: Oil was also used for medicinal purposes to heal the sick and soothe the wounds of the injured. For example, the prophet Isaiah mentions olive oil’s therapeutic qualities in his writings ( Isaiah 1:6 ), and the Good Samaritan knew to mix oil with wine to dress the wounds of the man who fell among robbers ( Luke 10:34 ). Further, St. James also recommends anointing the sick with oil to help them recover from their infirmity and to confer upon them the forgiveness of sins ( James 5:14-15 ). The Bible also records that the Twelve Apostles healed many of the sick in their day by anointing them with oil ( Mark 6:13 ).
3. Religious anointings with oil: The practice of anointing with oil for religious reasons was also customary in Biblical times. To “ anoint ” in a theological context means to smear or pour oil over a person or object to set it apart for divine use. Prophets, priests, and kings were anointed with oil to symbolize their divine appointment to God’s service ( 1 Kings 19:16 ; Exodus 29:21 ; 1 Samuel 16:13 ). Fragrant ointments were also used in religious rituals to anoint the dead to prepare them for burial ( Mark 14:8 ; John 19:39-40 ).
In a similar way, objects were also consecrated with oil to be set apart for religious use. Scripture tells us that objects anointed with oil included: the Ark of the Covenant, the Tabernacle, altars, lampstands, and pillars ( Exodus 30:25-29 ; Genesis 28:18 ).
4. Religious anointings with the Holy Spirit: Scripture also declares that people can be anointed with the Holy Ghost. The most prominent example of this is, of course, Jesus, who was anointed with the Holy Spirit and power ( John 1:32-42 ; Acts 10:38 ).
Aside from Jesus’s anointing with the Holy Spirit, Christians are anointed by God with the Holy Spirit who dwells in us ( 1 John 2:20 ; 2 Corinthians 1:21-22 ). A Christian’s anointing with the Holy Ghost differs from Jesus’s anointing in that God imbued Jesus with the Holy Ghost without limit so that all the fullness of deity dwells in Jesus Christ ( John 3:34 ; Colossians 2:9 ).
The Roman Catholic Church considers the Anointing of the Sick—formerly known as Extreme Unction—to be a sacrament. A sacrament is a ritual performed to convey God’s grace to the recipient through the power of the Holy Spirit.
The practice of the Anointing of the Sick is based primarily on James 5:14-15 , which states:
Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the one who is sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.
The sacrament of Anointing is also grounded in the Twelve Apostles’ practice of healing the sick with anointing oil ( Mark 6:13 ).
Photo Credit:©GettyImages/RandyDollins
God promises to heal His faithful and the sick are anointed because they are petitioning God for this healing, if it’s in His will ( Exodus 15:26 ).
Scripture gives examples of God working through ordinary people to heal the sick through the ordinary person’s anointing them with oil, laying hands on them, and praying for them ( James 5:14-15 ; Mark 6:13 ). Today, Catholics request the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick to ask God for a similar healing. The person requesting the anointing must be either gravely ill, frail from advanced age, or facing major surgery ( Catechism of the Catholic Church “CCC” 1514-1515 ).
Catholics believe that during the Anointing of the Sick, Jesus Himself—through the rituals of the priest—touches the sick or frail person to spiritually heal them from sin and, if it’s in God’s will, also from their physical (or psychological) ailment ( CCC 1504, 1512 ). Catholics believe that even where there is no physical healing, the main purpose of the anointing is to heal the recipient spiritually through the Holy Spirit’s gifts of strength, peace, and courage to endure the pain that accompanies the sick person’s ailment ( CCC 1520 ).
The Anointing of the Sick can be celebrated in the family home with relatives present, in a hospital with relatives or hospital staff present, or in a church, whether only the ill person is in attendance or a group of ill people and their families. The presence of others, although not necessary, helps to assure the infirm person that the faith community that is Jesus’s body is present in prayer.
The Anointing of the Sick ceremony generally consists of the following stages:
1. The sprinkling of holy water on the sacrament’s recipient and others present
2. Introductory prayers during which a priest may include a brief penitential rite if the person to be anointed hasn’t already received the Sacrament of Reconciliation (commonly referred to as confession) prior to the anointing ( John 20:19-23 )
3. Readings from Holy Scripture
4. The laying on of hands by the priest in anointing the sick person’s forehead and hands with holy oil to petition the Holy Spirit’s presence upon the sick person ( Mark 6:13 ; CCC 1513 ). During the anointing, the priest says the following prayer:
Through this holy anointing may the Lord in His love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit. May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up ( James 5:14-15 ; CCC 1513 ).
5. The communal recitation of the Lord’s Prayer ( Matthew 6:9-13 )
6. Holy Communion if the infirm person is able to receive the Eucharist ( John 6:54 )
7. The dismissal, which includes a blessing
Notably, if the sick person who received the anointing recovers and, at a later time, falls gravely ill again, he can receive this sacrament again ( CCC 1515 ).
The Anointing of the Sick differs from Last Rites in that a person doesn’t have to be dying to be given the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick. However, when the Anointing of the Sick is administered to someone who is at the point of death, Last Rites may be given in conjunction with the anointing.
Last Rites encompass the administration to a dying person of the Anointing of the Sick, Penance, and Holy Communion. Last Rites focus in particular on the dying person’s final reception of the Holy Eucharist. This is because, just as Holy Communion nourishes the recipient during his journey through his earthly life, Holy Communion also prepares the recipient for his journey passing over into his eternal life.
For this reason, Holy Communion that is given to someone at the brink of death is called Viaticum , which means “provision for a journey” in Latin.
Photo Credit: ©GettyImages Pablo K
The Eastern Orthodox and Anglican churches also consider the Anointing of the Sick to be a sacrament. Other Christian denominations—such as the Lutheran and Methodist churches—don’t consider anointing the sick to be a sacrament but do offer anointing ceremonies, the nature of which varies from church to church.
In recent years, healing services that anoint with oil have become more common in Protestant denominations generally.
The Anointing of the Sick is grounded in the words of St. James to anoint the sick with oil to bring about healing and forgiveness ( James 5:14-15 ). The rite is meant to unite the recipient with the suffering of Christ by calling upon the Holy Spirit to imbue the sick and frail with the strength, peace, and courage to endure the sufferings of illness or old age in Jesus’ name.
Importantly, the sacrament acknowledges that God’s plan for us may or may not include healing us from our physical infirmities. As such, the Anointing of the Sick is not meant to take the place of seeking treatment through medical professionals. Rather, the ceremony adds to the healing resources available by offering the sick person spiritual healing as he or she is prayed over, anointed with holy oil, united with the Lord’s healing presence, and forgiven for prior sins.
Photo Credit: ©GettyImages/yelo34
Dolores Smyth is a nationally published faith and parenting writer. She draws inspiration for her writing from everyday life. Connect with her over Twitter @byDoloresSmyth. | https://www.christianity.com/wiki/christian-life/what-is-anointing-of-the-sick-and-is-it-biblical.html#:~:text=The%20Anointing%20of%20the%20Sick%20can%20be%20celebrated,a%20group%20of%20ill%20people%20and%20their%20families. | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | Who May Receive the Anointing of the Sick | Listen to the audio version of this content
May a person who is not physically ill (but is mentally or spiritually ill or suffering from addiction, etc.) receive the anointing of the sick?
This is a great question! The fact is that anyone who is baptized and of the age where he can go to confession is able to receive the sacrament of the anointing of the sick validly.
However, the discipline of the Roman rite Church restricts the reception of this sacrament to those who on account of age or infirmity are in some grave danger. They do not have to be dying, but their condition should be supposed serious. In the Byzantine rite of the Catholic Church, everyone is allowed to receive this sacrament once a year on Holy Wednesday of Holy Week. The tendency in the Roman rite nowadays is to be rather permissive in giving this sacrament, as one can see with the various Masses that are celebrated for the sick generally. Everyone is allowed to come forward who wants to, and there is no questioning of whether persons are seriously ill or not.
The fact is that the effect of the anointing of the sick is precisely the removal of the remains of sin (the fomes, or “kindling” ) in the soul in view of death and judgment, so it is a kind of “confirmation” complementing the sacrament of penance that removes sin itself. This sacrament is a kind of strengthening of the effects of sacramental confession, as confirmation strengthens the effect of baptism.
So, I think the practical solution is to seek this sacrament according to your best judgment when you attend a general Mass for the communal anointing of the sick but to limit requests for an individual appointment for times of obvious serious illness. You can also visit a Byzantine Catholic church on Holy Wednesday each year, which would be an enriching experience. | https://www.catholic.com/qa/who-may-receive-the-anointing-of-the-sick | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Anointing of the Sick within the Catholic Church. For the topic in other settings, see Anointing of the sick .
In the Catholic Church , the anointing of the sick , also known as Extreme Unction , is a Catholic sacrament that is administered to a Catholic "who, having reached the age of reason, begins to be in danger due to sickness or old age", [1] except in the case of those who "persevere obstinately in manifest grave sin". [2] Proximate danger of death, the occasion for the administration of Viaticum , is not required, but only the onset of a medical condition of serious illness or injury or simply old age: "It is not a sacrament for those only who are at the point of death. Hence, as soon as anyone of the faithful begins to be in danger of death from sickness or old age, the fitting time for him to receive this sacrament has certainly already arrived." [3]
Despite that position, anointing of the sick has in practice often been postponed until someone is near dying, in spite of the fact that in all celebrations of this sacrament, the liturgy prays for recovery of the health of the sick person if that would be conducive to his salvation. In the past it became increasingly administered only to the dying and so came to be called Extreme Unction (Final Anointing). [3]
The sacrament is administered by a bishop or priest , who uses the oleum infirmorum ('oil of the sick'), an olive oil or another pure plant oil blessed by a bishop, to anoint the patient's forehead and perhaps other parts of the body while reciting certain prayers. It gives comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick person is unable to make a confession, even forgiveness of sins. [4] [5] [6]
The Catholic Church sees the effects of the sacrament as follows: As the sacrament of Marriage gives grace for the married state, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick gives grace for the state into which people enter through sickness. Through the sacrament a gift of the Holy Spirit is given, that renews confidence and faith in God and strengthens against temptations to discouragement, despair and anguish at the thought of death and the struggle of death; it prevents the believer from losing Christian hope in God's justice, truth and salvation. Because one of the effects of the sacrament is to absolve the recipient of any sins not previously absolved through the sacrament of penance , only an ordained priest or bishop may administer the sacrament. [7] [8]
"The special grace of the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick has as its effects:
- the uniting of the sick person to the passion of Christ, for his own good and that of the whole Church;
- the strengthening, peace, and courage to endure in a Christian manner the sufferings of illness or old age;
- the forgiveness of sins, if the sick person was not able to obtain it through the sacrament of penance;
- the restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of his soul;
- the preparation for passing over to eternal life." [9]
An extensive account of the teaching of the Catholic Church on Anointing of the Sick is given in Catechism of the Catholic Church , 1499–1532.
The chief Biblical text concerning anointing of the sick is James 5:14–15 : "Is any man sick among you? Let him bring in the priests of the church and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith shall save the sick man. And the Lord shall raise him up: and if he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him." Matthew 10:8 , Luke 10:8–9 and Mark 6:13 are also quoted in this regard.
In the past, the usual name of the sacrament in official documents of the Catholic Church was Extreme Unction [10] (meaning final anointing ), a name attached to it as it was administered only to those near death. Peter Lombard (died 1160) is the first writer known to have used the term, [11] which did not become the usual name in the West until towards the end of the twelfth century, and never became current in the East. [12] The word "extreme" (final) indicated either that it was the last of the sacramental unctions (after the anointings at Baptism, Confirmation and, if received, Holy Orders) or because at that time it was normally administered only when a patient was in extremis (near death). [11] In the early 1970s the official name was changed to Anointing of the Sick to reflect Church teaching that the sacrament is to be conferred on those who are "dangerously ill". [13]
The sacrament has also been known by various other names in Western Christianity throughout the years, including: the holy oil or unction of the sick; the unction or blessing of consecrated oil; the unction of God; the office of the unction. In the Eastern Church it is technically known as euchelaion (i.e., prayer-oil); other names used include: elaion hagion (holy oil), hegismenon elaion (consecrated oil), elaiou chrisis (anointing with oil), chrisma (anointing). [12]
Catholic canon law indicates who may receive the sacrament: "The anointing of the sick can be administered to a member of the faithful who, having reached the use of reason, begins to be in danger due to sickness or old age." [14] If a new illness develops or the first illness relapses or worsens, the patient may receive the sacrament a further time. A priest may, on the basis of his pastoral judgment, administer the sacrament numerous times in cases of old age or chronic illness. [15] Like any sacrament, anointing of the sick can be given only to someone who is alive; however, as the precise moment of death is not known or defined with precision, someone may be anointed during a brief period after being declared clinically dead.
The sacrament of anointing can be administered to an individual whether at home, in a hospital or institution, or in church. Several sick persons may be anointed within the rite, especially if the celebration takes place in a church or hospital. The celebration may also take place during a Catholic Mass .
When administered to those near to death, the sacraments of Penance , Anointing of the Sick and Viaticum (Holy Communion administered to someone who is dying) are sometimes called the last rites .
What in the judgment of the Catholic Church are properly described as the last rites are Viaticum , and the ritual prayers of Commendation of the Dying, and Prayers for the Dead. [16]
The normal order of administration of these three sacraments to the dying is: first Reconciliation (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, absolution is given conditionally on the existence of contrition), then Anointing, then Viaticum.
Only a priest or bishop can administer the sacraments of Reconciliation and Anointing of the Sick, but a lay person may give a dying person Holy Communion as "Viaticum, the Last Sacrament of the Christian". [8] [17]
The oil used in the sacrament is usually olive oil , though other oils may also be used. [18] It is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism Mass he celebrates on Holy Thursday or on a day close to it. In case of necessity, the priest administering the sacrament may bless the oil within the framework of the celebration. [19]
In the Roman Rite of the Latin Church , the priest anoints the sick person's forehead and hands with oil (usually in the form of a cross), saying: "Through this holy anointing, may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit. May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up." He may also, in accordance with local culture and traditions, and the needs of the sick person, anoint other parts of the body, but without repeating the sacramental formula.
This is the form established for the Roman Rite through the papal document Sacram unctionem infirmorum of 1972. The form used in the Roman Rite in the preceding period included anointing of seven parts of the body (though that of the loins was generally omitted in English-speaking countries), while saying (in Latin ): "Through this holy anointing, may the Lord pardon you whatever sins/faults you have committed by... ." The sense in question was then mentioned: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, walking, carnal delectation. [20]
In the Eastern Catholic churches , the sacrament (or " sacred mystery ") of Anointing the Sick is administered using various liturgies often identical with forms used by non-Catholic Eastern churches . Adaptation or development of the liturgical forms used in the Eastern Catholic churches is overseen by the Congregation for the Oriental Churches , part of the Roman Curia .
- ^
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick_in_the_Catholic_Church | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Anointing of the Sick within the Catholic Church. For the topic in other settings, see Anointing of the sick .
In the Catholic Church , the anointing of the sick , also known as Extreme Unction , is a Catholic sacrament that is administered to a Catholic "who, having reached the age of reason, begins to be in danger due to sickness or old age", [1] except in the case of those who "persevere obstinately in manifest grave sin". [2] Proximate danger of death, the occasion for the administration of Viaticum , is not required, but only the onset of a medical condition of serious illness or injury or simply old age: "It is not a sacrament for those only who are at the point of death. Hence, as soon as anyone of the faithful begins to be in danger of death from sickness or old age, the fitting time for him to receive this sacrament has certainly already arrived." [3]
Despite that position, anointing of the sick has in practice often been postponed until someone is near dying, in spite of the fact that in all celebrations of this sacrament, the liturgy prays for recovery of the health of the sick person if that would be conducive to his salvation. In the past it became increasingly administered only to the dying and so came to be called Extreme Unction (Final Anointing). [3]
The sacrament is administered by a bishop or priest , who uses the oleum infirmorum ('oil of the sick'), an olive oil or another pure plant oil blessed by a bishop, to anoint the patient's forehead and perhaps other parts of the body while reciting certain prayers. It gives comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick person is unable to make a confession, even forgiveness of sins. [4] [5] [6]
The Catholic Church sees the effects of the sacrament as follows: As the sacrament of Marriage gives grace for the married state, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick gives grace for the state into which people enter through sickness. Through the sacrament a gift of the Holy Spirit is given, that renews confidence and faith in God and strengthens against temptations to discouragement, despair and anguish at the thought of death and the struggle of death; it prevents the believer from losing Christian hope in God's justice, truth and salvation. Because one of the effects of the sacrament is to absolve the recipient of any sins not previously absolved through the sacrament of penance , only an ordained priest or bishop may administer the sacrament. [7] [8]
"The special grace of the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick has as its effects:
- the uniting of the sick person to the passion of Christ, for his own good and that of the whole Church;
- the strengthening, peace, and courage to endure in a Christian manner the sufferings of illness or old age;
- the forgiveness of sins, if the sick person was not able to obtain it through the sacrament of penance;
- the restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of his soul;
- the preparation for passing over to eternal life." [9]
An extensive account of the teaching of the Catholic Church on Anointing of the Sick is given in Catechism of the Catholic Church , 1499–1532.
The chief Biblical text concerning anointing of the sick is James 5:14–15 : "Is any man sick among you? Let him bring in the priests of the church and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith shall save the sick man. And the Lord shall raise him up: and if he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him." Matthew 10:8 , Luke 10:8–9 and Mark 6:13 are also quoted in this regard.
In the past, the usual name of the sacrament in official documents of the Catholic Church was Extreme Unction [10] (meaning final anointing ), a name attached to it as it was administered only to those near death. Peter Lombard (died 1160) is the first writer known to have used the term, [11] which did not become the usual name in the West until towards the end of the twelfth century, and never became current in the East. [12] The word "extreme" (final) indicated either that it was the last of the sacramental unctions (after the anointings at Baptism, Confirmation and, if received, Holy Orders) or because at that time it was normally administered only when a patient was in extremis (near death). [11] In the early 1970s the official name was changed to Anointing of the Sick to reflect Church teaching that the sacrament is to be conferred on those who are "dangerously ill". [13]
The sacrament has also been known by various other names in Western Christianity throughout the years, including: the holy oil or unction of the sick; the unction or blessing of consecrated oil; the unction of God; the office of the unction. In the Eastern Church it is technically known as euchelaion (i.e., prayer-oil); other names used include: elaion hagion (holy oil), hegismenon elaion (consecrated oil), elaiou chrisis (anointing with oil), chrisma (anointing). [12]
Catholic canon law indicates who may receive the sacrament: "The anointing of the sick can be administered to a member of the faithful who, having reached the use of reason, begins to be in danger due to sickness or old age." [14] If a new illness develops or the first illness relapses or worsens, the patient may receive the sacrament a further time. A priest may, on the basis of his pastoral judgment, administer the sacrament numerous times in cases of old age or chronic illness. [15] Like any sacrament, anointing of the sick can be given only to someone who is alive; however, as the precise moment of death is not known or defined with precision, someone may be anointed during a brief period after being declared clinically dead.
The sacrament of anointing can be administered to an individual whether at home, in a hospital or institution, or in church. Several sick persons may be anointed within the rite, especially if the celebration takes place in a church or hospital. The celebration may also take place during a Catholic Mass .
When administered to those near to death, the sacraments of Penance , Anointing of the Sick and Viaticum (Holy Communion administered to someone who is dying) are sometimes called the last rites .
What in the judgment of the Catholic Church are properly described as the last rites are Viaticum , and the ritual prayers of Commendation of the Dying, and Prayers for the Dead. [16]
The normal order of administration of these three sacraments to the dying is: first Reconciliation (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, absolution is given conditionally on the existence of contrition), then Anointing, then Viaticum.
Only a priest or bishop can administer the sacraments of Reconciliation and Anointing of the Sick, but a lay person may give a dying person Holy Communion as "Viaticum, the Last Sacrament of the Christian". [8] [17]
The oil used in the sacrament is usually olive oil , though other oils may also be used. [18] It is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism Mass he celebrates on Holy Thursday or on a day close to it. In case of necessity, the priest administering the sacrament may bless the oil within the framework of the celebration. [19]
In the Roman Rite of the Latin Church , the priest anoints the sick person's forehead and hands with oil (usually in the form of a cross), saying: "Through this holy anointing, may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit. May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up." He may also, in accordance with local culture and traditions, and the needs of the sick person, anoint other parts of the body, but without repeating the sacramental formula.
This is the form established for the Roman Rite through the papal document Sacram unctionem infirmorum of 1972. The form used in the Roman Rite in the preceding period included anointing of seven parts of the body (though that of the loins was generally omitted in English-speaking countries), while saying (in Latin ): "Through this holy anointing, may the Lord pardon you whatever sins/faults you have committed by... ." The sense in question was then mentioned: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, walking, carnal delectation. [20]
In the Eastern Catholic churches , the sacrament (or " sacred mystery ") of Anointing the Sick is administered using various liturgies often identical with forms used by non-Catholic Eastern churches . Adaptation or development of the liturgical forms used in the Eastern Catholic churches is overseen by the Congregation for the Oriental Churches , part of the Roman Curia .
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- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick_in_the_Catholic_Church | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | Anointing of the Sick | USCCB | Jesus came to heal the whole person, body and soul.
In the Church's Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick, throughthe ministry of the priest, it is Jesus who touches the sick to heal them from sin – and sometimes even from physical ailment. His cures were signs of the arrival of the Kingdom of God. The core message of his healing tells us of his plan to conquer sin and death by his dying and rising.
The Rite of Anointing tells us there is no need to wait until a person is at the point of death to receive the Sacrament. A careful judgment about the serious nature of the illness is sufficient.
When the Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is given, the hoped-for effect is that, if it be God's will, the person be physically healed of illness. But even if there is no physical healing, the primary effect of the Sacrament is a spiritual healing by which the sick person receives the Holy Spirit's gift of peace and courage to deal with the difficulties that accompany serious illness or the frailty of old age.
- Explore the USCCA to learn about the liturgy for the Anointing of the Sick and its effects within the community and the life of the sick. | en español | https://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/sacraments-and-sacramentals/anointing-of-the-sick | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | The Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church | The Anointing of the Sick is a remarkable sign of God's great love for us. In his merciful efforts to bring us safely to himself in heaven, God seems to have gone to the very limit.
Jesus has given us the sacrament of Baptism, in which original sin and all pre-Baptismal sins are cleansed from the soul. Allowing for mankind's spiritual weakness, Jesus also gave us the sacrament of Penance, by which post-Baptismal sins could be forgiven. As though he were impatient lest a soul be delayed a single instant from its entry into heaven, Jesus gave to his Church the power to remit the temporal punishment due to sin, a power which the Church exercises in the granting of indulgences.
Finally, as though to make doubly sure that no one, except through his own deliberate fault, would lose heaven or even spend time in purgatory, Jesus instituted the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church's section on the Anointing of the Sick defines the purpose of the sacrament as "the conferral of a special grace on the Christian experiencing the difficulties inherent in the condition of grave illness or old age." ( Catechism , 1527)
In his Gospel St. Mark (6:12-13) gives us an indication of this sacrament of the sick when he tells us that the apostles, going forth, "preached that men should repent, and they cast out many devils, and anointed with oil many sick people, and healed them."
However, the classical description which the Bible gives of the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is found in the Epistle of St. James:
Is any one among you sick? Let him bring in the presbyters [priests] of the Church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up, and if he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him.
(James 5:14-15)
The oil used in administering the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is called Oil of the Sick. It is one of the three Holy oils blessed by the bishop of the diocese at his cathedral on Holy Thursday morning, the other two Holy Oils being Holy Chrism and the Oil of Catechumens, which is used in Baptism.
Oil of the Sick is pure olive oil—nothing being added except the blessing of the bishop. Its appropriateness as part of the outward sign of Anointing of the Sick is evident from the healing and strengthening effects which are characteristic of olive oil.
The essence of the sacrament lies in the actual anointing and the short prayer which accompanies the anointing.
In giving the sacrament, the priest anoints the sick person on the forehead and hands. During this anointing, the priest says: "Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit. May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up."
When faced with the danger of death, a person normally will experience a feeling of great anxiety.
This is to be expected. God has planted in human nature a strong attachment to life which we commonly call the instinct for self-preservation. He has done so precisely in order to assure that we take due care of our physical well-being and do not expose ourselves to unnecessary danger to our life.
We need not feel ashamed, therefore, nor convicted of lack of faith if we find ourselves apprehensive when the shadow of death looms over us.
To counteract this fear of death when it needs to be counteracted, and to remove all cause for fear, God has given us the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick.
In common with all the sacraments, Anointing of the Sick confers sanctifying grace.
It is an increase in sanctifying grace that Anointing of the Sick gives, since it presupposes that the recipient already is free from mortal sin. Thus there is intensified in the soul that supernatural life, that oneness with God, which is the source of all spiritual strength as it is also the measure of our capacity for the happiness of heaven.
Besides this increase in sanctifying grace, Anointing of the Sick gives its own special sacramental grace.
The primary purpose of the special grace of Anointing of the Sick is to comfort and to strengthen the soul of the sick person.
- This is the grace that quiets anxiety and dissipates fear.
- It is the grace which enables the sick person to embrace God's will and to face the possibility of death without apprehension.
- It is the grace which gives the soul the strength to face and conquer whatever temptations to doubt, despondency, or even despair may mark Satan's last effort to seize this soul for himself.
Doubtless some who read this have already received Anointing of the Sick, perhaps even several times. If so, they know by experience, as does the writer, what peace of mind and confidence in God this sacrament bestows.
This spiritual tranquility and strength is further increased by the second effect of Anointing of the Sick. This is the preparation of the soul for entrance into heaven by the forgiveness of venial sins and the cleansing of the soul from the remains of sin.
If we are so blessed as to receive the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick in our last illness, we may have every confidence that we shall enter into the happiness of heaven immediately after death. We hope that our friends still will continue to pray for us after death, since we never can be sure of the adequacy of our own dispositions in receiving this sacrament; and if we do not need the prayers, someone else will profit by them.
Yet we should have a high degree of confidence, once we have received Anointing of the Sick, that we shall look upon the face of God moments after our soul leaves our body. The soul has been cleansed from all that might hold it back from God, from venial sins and from the temporal punishment due to sin.
The "remains of sin" from which Anointing of the Sick cleanses the soul include that moral weakness of soul which is the result of sin, both of original sin and our own sins. This weakness—even to the point of spiritual indifference—is likely to afflict that person especially who has been a habitual sinner.
Here again, the soul of the sick person is tempered and prepared against the possibility of any last-moment conflict with the world, the flesh, and the devil.
Since Penance (Confession) is the sacrament by which God intends our mortal sins to be forgiven, a sick person who has mortal sins to confess must receive the sacrament of Penance before he receives the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick.
However, it is a comfort to know that Anointing of the Sick does forgive mortal sin also if the critically ill person is unable to receive the sacrament of Penance. This could happen, for example, if Anointing of the Sick were administered to an unconscious person who had made an act of imperfect contrition for his mortal sins before losing consciousness.
It is plain that the principal purpose of the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is a spiritual one: to prepare the soul for death, if death is to eventuate.
However, there is a secondary and conditional effect of Anointing of the Sick: the recovery of bodily health by the sick or injured person. The condition under which this secondary effect can be expected to operate is stated by the Council of Trent: "When it is expedient for the soul's salvation."
In other words, if it will be spiritually good for the sick person to recover, then his recovery can with certainty be expected.
The recovery, however, will not be a sudden miraculous recovery.
God does not multiply marvels unnecessarily. Whenever possible he works through natural causes. In this instance, recovery will be the result of the powers of nature, stimulated by the graces of the sacrament.
By eliminating anxiety, abolishing fear, inspiring confidence in God with resignation to his will, Anointing of the Sick reacts upon the bodily processes for the physical betterment of the patient. It is evident that we have no right to expect this physical result from Anointing of the Sick if the priest is not called until the body is hopelessly ravaged by disease.
But perhaps "hopelessly" is not a good word. Every priest who has had much experience in caring for the sick can recall some remarkable and unexpected recoveries that have followed after Anointing of the Sick.
You can return to the main article on the Catholic Sacraments , or go to our home page to see the other articles about the Catholic faith.
This article contains material adapted and abridged from Father Leo Trese's classic book, The Faith Explained . That work is Nihil Obstat : Louis J. Putz, C.S.C., University of Notre Dame. Imprimatur : Leo A. Pursley, D.D., Bishop of Fort Wayne, Indiana.
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where can the anointing of the sick be received | Anointing of the Sick | Catholic Answers | Listen to the audio version of this content
The anointing of the sick is administered to bring spiritual and even physical strength during an illness, especially near the time of death. It is most likely one of the last sacraments one will receive. A sacrament is an outward sign established by Jesus Christ to confer inward grace. In more basic terms, it is a rite that is performed to convey God’s grace to the recipient, through the power of the Holy Spirit.
Like all the sacraments, holy anointing was instituted by Jesus Christ during his earthly ministry. The Catechism explains, “This sacred anointing of the sick was instituted by Christ our Lord as a true and proper sacrament of the New Testament. It is alluded to indeed by Mark, but is recommended to the faithful and promulgated by James the apostle and brother of the Lord” (CCC 1511; Mark 6:13; Jas. 5:14-15).
The anointing of the sick conveys several graces and imparts gifts of strengthening in the Holy Spirit against anxiety, discouragement, and temptation, and conveys peace and fortitude (CCC 1520). These graces flow from the atoning death of Jesus Christ, for “this was to fulfill what was spoken by the prophet Isaiah, ‘He took our infirmities and bore our diseases’” (Matt. 8:17).
Mark refers to the sacrament when he recounts how Jesus sent out the twelve disciples to preach, and “they cast out many demons, and anointed with oil many that were sick and healed them” (Mark 6:13). In his epistle, James says, “Is any among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up; and if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven” (Jas. 5:14–15).
The early Church Fathers recognized this sacrament’s role in the life of the Church. Around A.D. 250, Origen wrote that the penitent Christian “does not shrink from declaring his sin to a priest of the Lord and from seeking medicine . . . [of] which the apostle James says: ‘If then there is anyone sick, let him call the presbyters of the Church, and let them impose hands upon him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and if he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him’” ( Homilies on Leviticus 2:4).
In the year 350, Bishop Serapion wrote, “We beseech you, Savior of all men, you that have all virtue and power, Father of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, and we pray that you send down from heaven the healing power of the only-begotten [Son] upon this oil, so that for those who are anointed . . . it may be effected for the casting out of every disease and every bodily infirmity . . . for good grace and remission of sins” ( The Sacramentary of Serapion 29:1).
“The special grace of the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick has as its effects: the uniting of the sick person to the passion of Christ, for his own good and that of the whole Church; the strengthening, peace, and courage to endure in a Christian manner the sufferings of illness or old age; the forgiveness of sins, if the sick person was not able to obtain it through the sacrament of penance; the restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of his soul; the preparation for passing over to eternal life” (CCC 1532).
Does a person have to be dying to receive this sacrament? No. The Catechism says, “The anointing of the sick is not a sacrament for those only who are at the point of death. Hence, as soon as anyone of the faithful begins to be in danger of death from sickness or old age, the fitting time for him to receive this sacrament has certainly already arrived” (CCC 1514).
Today some Christians go to extremes in their expectation of divine healing. On one hand, some say that if a Christian is not healed of all his diseases, this reflects his lack of faith. Others claim that divine healings were only for the apostolic age, when all diseases were healed instantly and automatically. Both extremes are wrong.
God does not always heal the physical infirmities that afflict us. Paul preached to the Galatians while he was afflicted by a “bodily ailment” (Gal. 4:13– 14). He also mentions that he had to leave his companion Trophimus in the town of Miletus because he was too sick to travel (2 Tim. 4:20). In his first letter to Timothy, Paul urges his young protégé to “no longer drink only water, but to use a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent ailments” (1 Tim. 5:23).
The last passage is especially informative. Not only does it reveal that illnesses were not always healed in the apostolic age, but it also shows an apostle’s practical advice to a fellow Christian on how to deal with an illness. Notice that Paul does not tell Timothy to pray harder and have more faith that God will heal him from his stomach ailment. Rather, he tells him how to manage the illness through medicinal means.
Some argue that healings were always instantaneous and were only for those living during the apostolic age, but that afterward the gift of healing disappeared. The problem with that theory is that the Bible tells us otherwise. For example, when Jesus healed the blind man at Bethsaida, he laid his hands upon him twice before the man was fully healed (Mark 8:22–26).
Finally, we have a standing command of the New Testament in James 5:14–15, cited earlier. This command is never revoked anywhere in the Bible, and there are no statements anywhere that God will cease to heal. Thus the command is in effect to this very day.
Of course, our healing, like all things, is subject to God’s will. As James pointed out just a chapter earlier, “You do not know about tomorrow. What is your life? For you are a mist that appears for a little time and then vanishes. Instead you ought to say, ‘ If the Lord wills, we shall live and we shall do this or that’” (Jas. 4:14–15, emphasis added). We have a promise of healing, but not an unqualified one. It is conditional on the will of God.
If God can heal us, why doesn’t he? Why isn’t it always his will to do so? One answer to this question is found in the spiritual discipline and training that can result from facing illness and adversity. Scripture says, “It is for discipline that you have to endure. God is treating you as sons; for what son is there whom his father does not discipline? . . . For the moment all discipline seems painful rather than pleasant; later it yields the peaceful fruit of righteousness to those who have been trained by it” (Heb. 12:7, 11).
God often permits these trials for our sanctification, as Paul himself learned when he prayed that God would remove from him an angel of Satan who was afflicting him: “And to keep me from being too elated by the abundance of revelations, a thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger [Greek: angelos ] of Satan, to harass me, to keep me from being too elated. Three times I besought the Lord about this, that it should leave me; but he said to me, ‘My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.’” (2 Cor. 12:7–9).
God also uses our suffering to help others. If Paul had not become ill while on his first missionary journey and been forced to stop traveling, he would not have preached to the Galatians, for he tells them, “You know it was because of a bodily ailment that I preached the gospel to you at first” (Gal. 4:13). God used Paul’s illness to bring salvation to the Galatians and to bring us a work of Scripture, through which we are still receiving benefits from God.
This is just one example of how God used suffering to bring about good. Therefore, if we suffer, we should look upon it as an opportunity for good, such as by offering up our sufferings for our own sanctification and for our departed brothers and sisters in Christ.
In his steadfast love for us, the Lord gives us the sacraments involved in the last rites to comfort us in our final days and prepare us for the journey ahead. “These include penance (or confession), confirmation (when lacking), anointing of the sick . . . and Viaticum (which is meant to be the last reception of Communion for the journey from this life to eternity). . . .
“The present ritual orders these sacraments in two ways. The ‘continuous rites of penance and anointing’ include: Introductory Rites, Liturgy of Penance, Liturgy of Confirmation, Liturgy of Anointing, Liturgy of Viaticum, and Concluding Rites. The ‘rite for emergencies’ includes the sacrament of penance, Apostolic Pardon, Lord’s Prayer, Communion as Viaticum, prayer before anointing, anointing, concluding prayer, blessing, sign of peace” (Fr. Peter Stravinskas, Catholic Encyclopedia , 572).
The most important part of the last rites is the reception of the Lord in one’s final Communion, also called “Viaticum” (Latin: that which you take on the road, i.e., provisions for a journey) This special Communion prepares us to travel with the Lord on the final part of our journey.
The comfort of Viaticum has been valued by Christians since the beginning of Church history. The first ecumenical council, held at Nicaea in 325, decreed: “Concerning the departing, the ancient canonical law is still to be maintained, to wit, that, if any man be at the point of death, he must not be deprived of the last and most indispensable Viaticum” (canon 13). Having repented of our sins and received reconciliation, we travel with the Lord Jesus out of this earthly life and to eternal happiness with him in heaven.
From the earliest times, the sacrament of the anointing of the sick was cherished among Christians, not only in immediate danger of death, but even at the beginning sign of danger from illness or old age. A sermon of Caesar of Arles (ca. A.D. 470-542) contains the following: “As often as some infirmity overtakes a man, let him who is ill receive the body and blood of Christ; let him humbly and in faith ask the presbyters for blessed oil, to anoint his body, so that what was written may be fulfilled in him: ‘Is anyone among you sick? Let him bring in the presbyters, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up; and if he be in sins, they will be forgiven him. . . . See to it, brethren, that whoever is ill hasten to the church, both that he may receive health of body and will merit to obtain the forgiveness of his sins” ( Sermons 13[325]:3).
NIHIL OBSTAT: I have concluded that the materials
presented in this work are free of doctrinal or moral errors.
Bernadeane Carr, STL, Censor Librorum, August 10, 2004
IMPRIMATUR: In accord with 1983 CIC 827
permission to publish this work is hereby granted.
+Robert H. Brom, Bishop of San Diego, August 10, 2004 | https://www.catholic.com/tract/anointing-of-the-sick | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | Annointing of the Sick | Blessed Sacrament CC | The sacrament of Anointing of the Sick may be received by any member of the faithful who has reached the age of reason (Cf. CIC, CAN. 1004) “whose health is seriously impaired by sickness or old age,” (PCS, no. 8) including serious mental sickness (Cf. PCS, no. 53). A sick person may be anointed before surgery whenever a serious illness is the reason for the surgery and elderly people may be anointed if they have become notably weakened even though no serious illness is present. (Cf. PCS, nos. 11-12) “Anointing is to be conferred on sick people who, although they have lost consciousness or the use of reason, would, as Christian believers, have at least implicitly asked for it when they were in control of their faculties.” (PCS, no. 14)
As noted above , those “whose health is seriously impaired by sickness or old age,” (PCS, no. 8) should receive the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick. The footnote on this statement in PCS says that the word “seriously” was carefully chosen, rather than “gravely,” “dangerously,” or “perilously,” so as “to avoid restrictions upon the celebration of the sacrament” such that those “whose health is seriously impaired,” receive it, but also avoiding the sacrament being “given indiscriminately or to any person whose health is not seriously impaired.” “A serious illness or disorder represents a sever dysfunction of the balance of one’s psycho-physiological makeup.” (Kasza, 10-11) “That is to say, the sacrament is for those who, being clinically ill, undergo serious spiritual crisis, making it difficult for them to sustain faith and hope, and to live human life with resolution and dignity.” (Power, 101) “The seriously ill are those who suffer in mind, body, or spirit to such a degree that they become incapacitated as Christians or as human beings.” (Kasza, 12)
“‘Anointing of the Sick,’ is not a sacrament for those only who are at the point of death. Hence, as soon as anyone of the faithful begins to be in danger of death from sickness or old age, the fitting time for him to receive this sacrament has certainly already arrived.” (SC, no. 73) “The faithful should . . . ask for the sacrament of anointing . . . as soon as the right time comes, . . . and . . . should not follow the wrongful practice of delaying the reception of the sacrament.” (PCS, no. 13) In addition, for special cases, when there is a genuine necessity, for example, when sudden illness or an accident or some other cause has placed one of the faithful in the proximate or immediate danger of death, (Cf. PCS, nos. 30, 232) rites are provided for these exceptional circumstances and emergency situations.
Only priests (bishops and presbyters) and a priest alone can validly administer the Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick. (Cf. CCC, no. 1516; CIC, CAN. 1003 §1)
The effects of the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick are as follows: “the uniting of the sick person to the passion of Christ, for [their] own good and that of the whole Church; the strengthening, peace, and courage to endure in a Christian manner the sufferings of illness or old age; the forgiveness of sins, if the sick person was not able to obtain it through the sacrament of Penance; the restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of [their] soul; the preparation for passing over to eternal life.” (CCC, no. 1532) “The foremost effect attributed to the sacrament is the salvation of the whole person in the midst of the challenge to faith and to hope posed by the experience of sickness . . . both physical cure and the forgiveness of sins are secondary effects contingent upon the need of the recipient.” (Glen, 1179)
“There are three distinct and integral aspects to the celebration of [the sacrament of Anointing of the sick]: the prayer of faith, the laying on of hands, and the anointing with oil.” (PCS, no. 104) “The community, asking God’s help for the sick, makes its prayer of faith in response to God’s word and in a spirit of trust (see James 5:14-15 ).” (PCS, no. 105) The gesture of the laying on of hands has several meanings: the priest identifies the person who is the object of the Churches prayer of faith; it’s a sign of blessing; it’s an invocation for the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the sick person; and, above all, it’s a biblical gesture of healing and Jesus’ own usual manner of healing. (Cf. PCS, no. 106) “The practice of anointing the sick with oil signifies healing, strengthening, and the presence of the Spirit. . . . Thus, the sick person is strengthened to fight against the physically and spiritually debilitating effects of illness, . . . [and] the oil of anointing is a sacramental sign of the presence, power, and grace of the Holy Spirit.” (PCS, no. 107)
Like all sacraments, Anointing of the Sick is a “liturgical service.” “Liturgical services are not private functions but are celebrations of the Church which . . . pertain to the whole Body of the Church . . . and . . . touch individual members of the Church in different ways.” (SC, no. 26) The “rites . . . are meant to be celebrated in common, with the faithful present and actively participating.” (SC, no. 27) Therefore, given the Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick’s liturgical and communal nature, it is “very fitting to celebrate it within the Eucharist,” (CCC, no. 1517) i.e. within the context of a Mass.
If it is not possible for the sick person to receive the sacrament during a Mass, there are also rites for “anointing outside of Mass, . . . and anointing in a hospital or institution.” (PCS, no. 97) No matter where the sacrament of anointing is celebrated (home, hospital, institution, or church), it “should be celebrated with members of the family and other representatives of the Christian community whenever this is possible. Then the sacrament is seen for what it is— a part of the prayer of the Church and an encounter with the Lord.” (PCS, no. 99)
The effects of the Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick continue as long as the one who receives it remains in the same infirm condition that occasioned the reception and the benefit persists until the need for its sacramental power has passed. (Cf. Hardon, 542-3) The “sacrament can be repeated if the sick person, having recovered, again becomes gravely ill or if the condition becomes more grave during the same illness.” (CIC, CAN. 1004 §2)
From its beginning (Cf. Mk 6:13 ; Jas 5:13-15 ), “the church practiced anointing as a rite for the sick.” (Gusmer, 23) “Nowhere in the early tradition does one find mention of the Anointing as a sacrament of preparation for death. Where mention is made of a ‘sacrament of the dying,’ the reference is always to the Eucharist, administered as Viaticum.” (McBrien, 844) Viaticum (Latin, ‘provision for a journey’) is “the Eucharist received by a dying person. It is the spiritual food for one’s ‘passing over’ to the Father from this world.” (CCC, Glossary “Viaticum”) Several factors during the Middle Ages caused the meaning of anointing to be altered from a rite for the sick into a sacrament for the dying, such that by the twelfth century the original order of penance, anointing, viaticum had been altered to penance, viaticum, anointing—anointing had become quite literally Extreme Unction, (Latin, ‘last anointing’). (Cf. Gusmer, 24) The Second Vatican Council directed that a new rite be developed for “Extreme Unction,” which is more fittingly called “Anointing of the Sick,” that should correspond more to the ancient practice of the church. (Cf. Martos, 397; SC, no. 73) The council also ordered that the earlier sequence should be restored so that, if in fact they were dying, Catholics would be anointed before and not after they received viaticum, (Cf. Martos, 397) so that “as the sacrament of Christ’s Passover, the Eucharist should always be the last sacrament of the earthly journey, the ‘viaticum’ for ‘passing over’ to eternal life.” (CCC, no. 1517)
From this we can see that under normal circumstances (i.e. not the exceptional or emergency situations triggered by sudden illness, accident, or some other cause placing one of the faithful in the proximate or immediate danger of death), the rites of Penance (also referred to as “Confession” or “Reconciliation”), Anointing of the Sick, and Viaticum are separate and distinct. The faithful receives the sacrament of Penance, as needed, for the forgiveness of sins. “The sacrament of the anointing of the sick should be celebrated at the beginning of a serious illness.” (PCS, no. 175) “The celebration of the eucharist as viaticum, food for the passage through death to eternal life, is the sacrament proper to the dying Christian . . . Viaticum, celebrated when death is close, will then be better understood as the last sacrament of Christian life." (PCS, nos. 175) It should be noted that although only a priest can administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the Sick, a deacon or a duly appointed lay minister of Holy Communion can administer Viaticum. (Cf. PCS, no. 29)
For exceptional circumstances, a "Continuous Rite of Penance, Anointing, and Viaticum" has been set out so that these sacraments may be given together in a single celebration and if the person is unable to receive holy communion, the priest can use this rite, omitting the liturgy of viaticum. (Cf. PCS, no. 233) Since in this situation, the priest is giving the rites or sacraments of the church for the last time, it is sometimes referred to as “last rites.” (Cf. Keller, 105). Additionally, if death seems imminent and there is not enough time to celebrate the three sacraments in the manner given in the continuous rite, there is a “Rite for Emergencies” that the priest should use. (Cf. PCS, no. 234)
For normal circumstances (i.e. not the exceptional or emergency situations triggered by sudden illness, accident, or some other cause placing one of the faithful in the proximate or immediate danger of death), the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick is offered at the discretion of the Pator. Specific dates will be published in the bulletin, social media, and website. If anointing is needed before for a a surgery, where a serious illness is the reason for the surgery, chemotherapy, radiation treatment, etc., call the parish office at (540)434-4341.
CCC: Catechism of the Catholic Church. Second ed. Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference, 2000.
CIC: Code of Canon Law: New English Translation. Washington, DC: Canon Law Society of America, 1998.
Glen, Jennifer, CCVI. "Sick, Pastoral Care of The." In The New Dictionary of Sacramental Worship, edited by Peter E. Fink, 1167-82. Collegeville, MN:
Liturgical Press, 2000.
Gusmer, Charles W. "Anointing of the Sick." In The New Dictionary of Theology, edited by Joseph A. Komonchak, Mary Collins and Dermot A. Lane, 23-7.
Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2000.
Hardon, John A. The Catholic Catechism. New York: Image Books, 1981.
Kasza, John C. Understanding Sacramental Healing: Anointing and Viaticum. Chicago: Hillenbrand Books, 2007.
Keller, Paul Jerome. 101 Questions & Answers on the Sacraments of Healing: Penance and Anointing of the Sick. New York; Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press,
2010.
LG: Vatican Council II. "Dogmatic Constitution on the Church: Lumen Gentium (21 Nov 1964)." In Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar
Documents. Electronic ed. of the new revised ed. Vol. 1. Vatican Collection, 356-426. Northport; NY: Costello Publishing, 1992.
Martos, Joseph. Doors to the Sacred: A Historical Introduction to Sacraments in the Catholic Church. Vatican II Golden Anniversary ed. Liguori, MO: Liguori
Publications, 2014.
McBrien, Richard P. Catholicism: New Edition. New York: HarperOne, 1994.
PCS: International Commission on English in the Liturgy. Pastoral Care of the Sick: Rites of Anointing and Viaticum. New Jersey: Catholic Book Publishing
Corp., 1983.
Power, David Noel. “The Sacrament of Anointing: Open Questions.” In The Pastoral Care of the Sick, 95–107. London: SCM Press, 1991.
SC: Vatican Council II. "The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy: Sacrosanctum Concilium (4 Dec 1963)." In Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post
Conciliar Documents. Electronic ed. of the new revised ed. Vol. 1. Vatican Collection, 1-37. Northport; NY: Costello Publishing, 1992.
154 N Main St., Harrisonburg, VA 22802, USA
[email protected] | (540) 434-4341 | Fax: (540) 434-5549
Office Hours:
Monday - Friday
( 9:00am - 4:00pm) | https://www.bsccva.org/anointing-of-the-sick | 22 |
where can the anointing of the sick be received | The Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick | The Roman Catholic Parish of St. John the Evangelist | MONTHLY MASS & ANOINTING OF THE SICK
On the last Monday of each month at St. John's, the Sacrament of the Sick is offered following the 6:30PM Mass. It is offered each month and all are welcome to attend.
“Is anyone among you sick? They should call for the priests of the church, and he will pray over them and anoint the sick with oil in the name of the Lord, and the prayer of faith will save the sick person, and the Lord will raise them up. If they have committed any sins, they will be forgiven." — Letter of St. James 5:14-15
Suffering and illness affect us in body and spirit. If one member suffers in the
Body of Christ, which is the Church, all the members suffer with that member. In times of frailty, sickness, treatment, or surgeries the parish family assures the infirmed of our care and support through our prayer, personal visits and the Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick.
The Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick is for all who face a serious illness or surgery or who are impaired by old age. It is distinct from the “Last Rites,” or Viaticum, in which the Church offers Holy Communion as food for the journey to life eternal.
One may celebrate the Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick many times if needed for strength and healing in mind, body and spirit. In this sacrament of anointing, Christ strengthens our faith and bestows God’s grace in a time of anxiety and pain.
WHEN TO ASK FOR THE SACRAMENT?
If you know you will be hospitalized for a planned surgery you should contact the parish before you enter the hospital to arrange a time celebrate the sacrament. Often the Sacrament of Anointing can be celebrated after Mass. Call the Parish Office to make an arrangement for the Sacrament.
If someone is in the hospital, simply notify the Catholic Chaplain and they will make arrangements for the Sacrament of the Sick to be offered.
EMERGENCY
If there is an emergency and need immediate assistance for the Sacrament of the Sick, call the parish number (508-222-1206) and listen to the options for contacting the priest. | https://attleborocatholics.org/sacraments/sacrament-anointing-sick | 22 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead - Wikipedia | The Book of the Dead ( Ancient Egyptian : 𓂋𓏤𓈒𓈒𓈒𓏌𓏤𓉐𓂋𓏏𓂻𓅓𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤 , r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) ) is an ancient Egyptian funerary text generally written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE. [1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) , [2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day [3] or Book of Emerging Forth into the Light . [ citation needed ] "Book" is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts [4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat , or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1,000 years. Karl Richard Lepsius introduced for these texts the German name Todtenbuch (modern spelling Totenbuch ), translated to English as Book of the Dead.
The Book of the Dead , which was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects, not written on papyrus. Some of the spells included in the book were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which make up the Book continued to be separately inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as the spells from which they originated always had been.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
The finest extant example of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in antiquity is the Papyrus of Ani . Ani was an Egyptian scribe. It was discovered by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1888 and was taken to the British Museum , where it currently resides.
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th Dynasty , around 2400 BCE. [5] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the pharaoh (and, from the 6th Dynasty , the queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh. [6] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead king take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . [6] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials. [6]
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri. [6] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [7]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes toward the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 16th Dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record. [8]
By the 17th Dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. [9]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the ' Weighing of the Heart ', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c. 1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th Dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [10]
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat . [11]
During the 25th and 26th Dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were ordered and numbered consistently for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) Dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead continued to be based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. [12]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word r(ꜣ) , which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power. [14] In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either chapter or spell . In this article, the word spell is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known, [15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . [16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgment of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs. [17]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [18] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [19] The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [20] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing. [19] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [20] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present. [21] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them. [22]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [23] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva. [18]
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [24] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts, [25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [26] It is only from the Saite period ( 26th Dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order. [27]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
- Chapters 1–16 : The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
- Chapters 17–63 : Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
- Chapters 64–129 : The deceased travels across the sky in the sun barque as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
- Chapters 130–189 : Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [26]
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence. [28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects; [29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [30] The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka , or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied. [31] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [32] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba , depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [33] Finally, the shut , or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods. [35]
The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off Apep . [36] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ', a paradisiac likeness of the real world. [37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [38] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [ Name ]" in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures. [40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions. [42] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [43]
The deceased's first task was to correctly address each of the forty-two Assessors of Maat by name, while reciting the sins they did not commit during their lifetime. [44] This process allowed the dead to demonstrate that they knew each of the judges’ names or Ren and established that they were pure, and free of sin.
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , [45] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [46] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru , meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice". [47] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and rather unpleasant end. [48]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [49] While the Ten Commandments of Jewish and Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [50] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [48] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife", [49] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour. [51]
A Book of the Dead was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funerals, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver, [52] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer. [53] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests . In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus. [54]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly ten copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, two were for women for every one for a man; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic papyri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods. [55]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40 m long while some are as short as 1 m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru , or coming forth by day sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [54]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later. [56] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani , the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely. [53]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [57]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . [58] The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water. [59]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [60]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together. [54] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one. [58] The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [61]
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken belief that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an . [62] [63]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead" ( das Todtenbuch ). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells. [15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation. [64] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny. [65]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date. [66] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972). [67] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192. [15]
In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists. [68] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online. [69] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . [70] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished. [71]
In 2023, the Ministry of Antiquities announced the finding of sections of the Book of the Dead on a 16-foot papyrus in a coffin near the Step Pyramid of Djoser . [72]
- c. 3150 BCE – First preserved hieroglyphs, on small labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
- c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
- c. 2345 BCE – First royal pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors (intended only for the king) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
- c. 2100 BCE – First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
- c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , an ancestor of kings from the New Kingdom
- c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the beginning of the New Kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
- c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
- 42–553 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt, gradually replacing the native religion as successive emperors alternately tolerate or suppress them, culminating in the last temple at Philae (also site of the last known religious inscription in demotic, dating from 452) being closed by order of Emperor Justinian in 533
- 2nd century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced, but it is a poorly documented era of history
- 1798 CE – Napoleon's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
- 1805 CE – Jean-Marcel Cadet makes the first publication, on 18 plates, of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d'un rouleau de papyrus trouvé à Thèbes, dans un tombeau des rois [73]
- 1822 CE – Jean-François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the most extensive after his death in 1832
- 1842 CE – Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name "Book of the Dead" into general circulation [74]
- ^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead . New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113.
- Allen, James P. , Middle Egyptian – An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs , first edition, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-77483-7
- Faulkner, Raymond O (translator); von Dassow, Eva (editor), The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Book of Going forth by Day. The First Authentic Presentation of the Complete Papyrus of Ani . Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 1994.
- Hornung, Erik ; Lorton, D (translator), The Ancient Egyptian books of the Afterlife . Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8014-8515-0
- Müller-Roth, Marcus, "The Book of the Dead Project: Past, present and future." British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 15 (2010): 189-200.
- Pinch, Geraldine, Magic in Ancient Egypt . British Museum Press, London, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-0971-1
- Taylor, John H. (Editor), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife . British Museum Press, London, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
- Allen, Thomas George, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1960.
- Allen, Thomas George, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day. Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms, SAOC vol. 37; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974.
- Assmann, Jan (2005) [2001]. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt . Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9
- D'Auria, S ( et al. ) Mummies and Magic: the Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt . Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1989. ISBN 0-87846-307-0
- Faulkner, Raymond O ; Andrews, Carol (editor), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead . University of Texas Press, Austin, 1972.
- Lapp, G, The Papyrus of Nu (Catalogue of Books of the Dead in the British Museum) . British Museum Press, London, 1997.
- Niwinski, Andrzej [ pl ] , Studies on the Illustrated Theban Funerary Papyri of the 11th and 10th Centuries B.C. . OBO vol. 86; Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1989. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead - Wikipedia | The Book of the Dead ( Ancient Egyptian : 𓂋𓏤𓈒𓈒𓈒𓏌𓏤𓉐𓂋𓏏𓂻𓅓𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤 , r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) ) is an ancient Egyptian funerary text generally written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE. [1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) , [2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day [3] or Book of Emerging Forth into the Light . [ citation needed ] "Book" is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts [4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat , or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1,000 years. Karl Richard Lepsius introduced for these texts the German name Todtenbuch (modern spelling Totenbuch ), translated to English as Book of the Dead.
The Book of the Dead , which was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects, not written on papyrus. Some of the spells included in the book were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which make up the Book continued to be separately inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as the spells from which they originated always had been.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
The finest extant example of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in antiquity is the Papyrus of Ani . Ani was an Egyptian scribe. It was discovered by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1888 and was taken to the British Museum , where it currently resides.
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th Dynasty , around 2400 BCE. [5] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the pharaoh (and, from the 6th Dynasty , the queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh. [6] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead king take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . [6] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials. [6]
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri. [6] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [7]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes toward the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 16th Dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record. [8]
By the 17th Dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. [9]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the ' Weighing of the Heart ', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c. 1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th Dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [10]
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat . [11]
During the 25th and 26th Dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were ordered and numbered consistently for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) Dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead continued to be based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. [12]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word r(ꜣ) , which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power. [14] In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either chapter or spell . In this article, the word spell is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known, [15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . [16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgment of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs. [17]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [18] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [19] The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [20] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing. [19] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [20] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present. [21] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them. [22]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [23] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva. [18]
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [24] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts, [25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [26] It is only from the Saite period ( 26th Dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order. [27]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
- Chapters 1–16 : The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
- Chapters 17–63 : Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
- Chapters 64–129 : The deceased travels across the sky in the sun barque as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
- Chapters 130–189 : Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [26]
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence. [28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects; [29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [30] The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka , or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied. [31] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [32] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba , depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [33] Finally, the shut , or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods. [35]
The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off Apep . [36] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ', a paradisiac likeness of the real world. [37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [38] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [ Name ]" in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures. [40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions. [42] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [43]
The deceased's first task was to correctly address each of the forty-two Assessors of Maat by name, while reciting the sins they did not commit during their lifetime. [44] This process allowed the dead to demonstrate that they knew each of the judges’ names or Ren and established that they were pure, and free of sin.
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , [45] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [46] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru , meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice". [47] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and rather unpleasant end. [48]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [49] While the Ten Commandments of Jewish and Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [50] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [48] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife", [49] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour. [51]
A Book of the Dead was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funerals, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver, [52] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer. [53] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests . In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus. [54]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly ten copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, two were for women for every one for a man; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic papyri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods. [55]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40 m long while some are as short as 1 m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru , or coming forth by day sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [54]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later. [56] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani , the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely. [53]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [57]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . [58] The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water. [59]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [60]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together. [54] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one. [58] The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [61]
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken belief that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an . [62] [63]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead" ( das Todtenbuch ). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells. [15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation. [64] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny. [65]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date. [66] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972). [67] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192. [15]
In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists. [68] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online. [69] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . [70] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished. [71]
In 2023, the Ministry of Antiquities announced the finding of sections of the Book of the Dead on a 16-foot papyrus in a coffin near the Step Pyramid of Djoser . [72]
- c. 3150 BCE – First preserved hieroglyphs, on small labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
- c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
- c. 2345 BCE – First royal pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors (intended only for the king) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
- c. 2100 BCE – First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
- c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , an ancestor of kings from the New Kingdom
- c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the beginning of the New Kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
- c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
- 42–553 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt, gradually replacing the native religion as successive emperors alternately tolerate or suppress them, culminating in the last temple at Philae (also site of the last known religious inscription in demotic, dating from 452) being closed by order of Emperor Justinian in 533
- 2nd century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced, but it is a poorly documented era of history
- 1798 CE – Napoleon's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
- 1805 CE – Jean-Marcel Cadet makes the first publication, on 18 plates, of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d'un rouleau de papyrus trouvé à Thèbes, dans un tombeau des rois [73]
- 1822 CE – Jean-François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the most extensive after his death in 1832
- 1842 CE – Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name "Book of the Dead" into general circulation [74]
- ^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead . New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113.
- Allen, James P. , Middle Egyptian – An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs , first edition, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-77483-7
- Faulkner, Raymond O (translator); von Dassow, Eva (editor), The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Book of Going forth by Day. The First Authentic Presentation of the Complete Papyrus of Ani . Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 1994.
- Hornung, Erik ; Lorton, D (translator), The Ancient Egyptian books of the Afterlife . Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8014-8515-0
- Müller-Roth, Marcus, "The Book of the Dead Project: Past, present and future." British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 15 (2010): 189-200.
- Pinch, Geraldine, Magic in Ancient Egypt . British Museum Press, London, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-0971-1
- Taylor, John H. (Editor), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife . British Museum Press, London, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
- Allen, Thomas George, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1960.
- Allen, Thomas George, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day. Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms, SAOC vol. 37; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974.
- Assmann, Jan (2005) [2001]. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt . Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9
- D'Auria, S ( et al. ) Mummies and Magic: the Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt . Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1989. ISBN 0-87846-307-0
- Faulkner, Raymond O ; Andrews, Carol (editor), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead . University of Texas Press, Austin, 1972.
- Lapp, G, The Papyrus of Nu (Catalogue of Books of the Dead in the British Museum) . British Museum Press, London, 1997.
- Niwinski, Andrzej [ pl ] , Studies on the Illustrated Theban Funerary Papyri of the 11th and 10th Centuries B.C. . OBO vol. 86; Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1989. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead - Wikipedia | The Book of the Dead ( Ancient Egyptian : 𓂋𓏤𓈒𓈒𓈒𓏌𓏤𓉐𓂋𓏏𓂻𓅓𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤 , r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) ) is an ancient Egyptian funerary text generally written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE. [1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) , [2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day [3] or Book of Emerging Forth into the Light . [ citation needed ] "Book" is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts [4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat , or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1,000 years. Karl Richard Lepsius introduced for these texts the German name Todtenbuch (modern spelling Totenbuch ), translated to English as Book of the Dead.
The Book of the Dead , which was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects, not written on papyrus. Some of the spells included in the book were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which make up the Book continued to be separately inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as the spells from which they originated always had been.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
The finest extant example of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in antiquity is the Papyrus of Ani . Ani was an Egyptian scribe. It was discovered by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1888 and was taken to the British Museum , where it currently resides.
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th Dynasty , around 2400 BCE. [5] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the pharaoh (and, from the 6th Dynasty , the queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh. [6] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead king take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . [6] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials. [6]
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri. [6] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [7]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes toward the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 16th Dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record. [8]
By the 17th Dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. [9]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the ' Weighing of the Heart ', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c. 1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th Dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [10]
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat . [11]
During the 25th and 26th Dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were ordered and numbered consistently for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) Dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead continued to be based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. [12]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word r(ꜣ) , which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power. [14] In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either chapter or spell . In this article, the word spell is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known, [15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . [16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgment of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs. [17]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [18] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [19] The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [20] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing. [19] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [20] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present. [21] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them. [22]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [23] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva. [18]
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [24] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts, [25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [26] It is only from the Saite period ( 26th Dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order. [27]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
- Chapters 1–16 : The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
- Chapters 17–63 : Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
- Chapters 64–129 : The deceased travels across the sky in the sun barque as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
- Chapters 130–189 : Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [26]
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence. [28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects; [29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [30] The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka , or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied. [31] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [32] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba , depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [33] Finally, the shut , or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods. [35]
The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off Apep . [36] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ', a paradisiac likeness of the real world. [37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [38] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [ Name ]" in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures. [40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions. [42] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [43]
The deceased's first task was to correctly address each of the forty-two Assessors of Maat by name, while reciting the sins they did not commit during their lifetime. [44] This process allowed the dead to demonstrate that they knew each of the judges’ names or Ren and established that they were pure, and free of sin.
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , [45] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [46] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru , meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice". [47] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and rather unpleasant end. [48]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [49] While the Ten Commandments of Jewish and Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [50] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [48] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife", [49] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour. [51]
A Book of the Dead was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funerals, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver, [52] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer. [53] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests . In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus. [54]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly ten copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, two were for women for every one for a man; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic papyri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods. [55]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40 m long while some are as short as 1 m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru , or coming forth by day sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [54]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later. [56] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani , the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely. [53]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [57]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . [58] The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water. [59]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [60]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together. [54] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one. [58] The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [61]
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken belief that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an . [62] [63]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead" ( das Todtenbuch ). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells. [15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation. [64] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny. [65]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date. [66] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972). [67] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192. [15]
In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists. [68] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online. [69] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . [70] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished. [71]
In 2023, the Ministry of Antiquities announced the finding of sections of the Book of the Dead on a 16-foot papyrus in a coffin near the Step Pyramid of Djoser . [72]
- c. 3150 BCE – First preserved hieroglyphs, on small labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
- c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
- c. 2345 BCE – First royal pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors (intended only for the king) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
- c. 2100 BCE – First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
- c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , an ancestor of kings from the New Kingdom
- c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the beginning of the New Kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
- c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
- 42–553 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt, gradually replacing the native religion as successive emperors alternately tolerate or suppress them, culminating in the last temple at Philae (also site of the last known religious inscription in demotic, dating from 452) being closed by order of Emperor Justinian in 533
- 2nd century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced, but it is a poorly documented era of history
- 1798 CE – Napoleon's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
- 1805 CE – Jean-Marcel Cadet makes the first publication, on 18 plates, of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d'un rouleau de papyrus trouvé à Thèbes, dans un tombeau des rois [73]
- 1822 CE – Jean-François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the most extensive after his death in 1832
- 1842 CE – Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name "Book of the Dead" into general circulation [74]
- ^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead . New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113.
- Allen, James P. , Middle Egyptian – An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs , first edition, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-77483-7
- Faulkner, Raymond O (translator); von Dassow, Eva (editor), The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Book of Going forth by Day. The First Authentic Presentation of the Complete Papyrus of Ani . Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 1994.
- Hornung, Erik ; Lorton, D (translator), The Ancient Egyptian books of the Afterlife . Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8014-8515-0
- Müller-Roth, Marcus, "The Book of the Dead Project: Past, present and future." British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 15 (2010): 189-200.
- Pinch, Geraldine, Magic in Ancient Egypt . British Museum Press, London, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-0971-1
- Taylor, John H. (Editor), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife . British Museum Press, London, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
- Allen, Thomas George, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1960.
- Allen, Thomas George, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day. Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms, SAOC vol. 37; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974.
- Assmann, Jan (2005) [2001]. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt . Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9
- D'Auria, S ( et al. ) Mummies and Magic: the Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt . Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1989. ISBN 0-87846-307-0
- Faulkner, Raymond O ; Andrews, Carol (editor), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead . University of Texas Press, Austin, 1972.
- Lapp, G, The Papyrus of Nu (Catalogue of Books of the Dead in the British Museum) . British Museum Press, London, 1997.
- Niwinski, Andrzej [ pl ] , Studies on the Illustrated Theban Funerary Papyri of the 11th and 10th Centuries B.C. . OBO vol. 86; Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1989. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead | ancient Egyptian text | Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
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Book of the Dead , ancient Egyptian collection of mortuary texts made up of spells or magic formulas, placed in tombs and believed to protect and aid the deceased in the hereafter. Probably compiled and reedited during the 16th century bce , the collection included Coffin Texts dating from c. 2000 bce , Pyramid Texts dating from c. 2400 bce , and other writings. Later compilations included hymns to Re , the sun god . Numerous authors, compilers, and sources contributed to the work. Scribes copied the texts on rolls of papyrus , often colourfully illustrated, and sold them to individuals for burial use. Many copies of the book have been found in Egyptian tombs, but none contains all of the approximately 200 known chapters. The collection, literally titled “The Chapters of Coming-Forth-by-Day,” received its present name from Karl Richard Lepsius , the German Egyptologist who published the first collection of the texts in 1842.
This article was most recently revised and updated by John M. Cunningham . | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-the-Dead-ancient-Egyptian-text | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead | ancient Egyptian text | Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Book of the Dead , ancient Egyptian collection of mortuary texts made up of spells or magic formulas, placed in tombs and believed to protect and aid the deceased in the hereafter. Probably compiled and reedited during the 16th century bce , the collection included Coffin Texts dating from c. 2000 bce , Pyramid Texts dating from c. 2400 bce , and other writings. Later compilations included hymns to Re , the sun god . Numerous authors, compilers, and sources contributed to the work. Scribes copied the texts on rolls of papyrus , often colourfully illustrated, and sold them to individuals for burial use. Many copies of the book have been found in Egyptian tombs, but none contains all of the approximately 200 known chapters. The collection, literally titled “The Chapters of Coming-Forth-by-Day,” received its present name from Karl Richard Lepsius , the German Egyptologist who published the first collection of the texts in 1842.
This article was most recently revised and updated by John M. Cunningham . | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-the-Dead-ancient-Egyptian-text | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead - Wikipedia | The Book of the Dead ( Ancient Egyptian : 𓂋𓏤𓈒𓈒𓈒𓏌𓏤𓉐𓂋𓏏𓂻𓅓𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤 , r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) ) is an ancient Egyptian funerary text generally written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE. [1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) , [2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day [3] or Book of Emerging Forth into the Light . [ citation needed ] "Book" is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts [4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat , or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1,000 years. Karl Richard Lepsius introduced for these texts the German name Todtenbuch (modern spelling Totenbuch ), translated to English as Book of the Dead.
The Book of the Dead , which was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects, not written on papyrus. Some of the spells included in the book were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which make up the Book continued to be separately inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as the spells from which they originated always had been.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
The finest extant example of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in antiquity is the Papyrus of Ani . Ani was an Egyptian scribe. It was discovered by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1888 and was taken to the British Museum , where it currently resides.
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th Dynasty , around 2400 BCE. [5] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the pharaoh (and, from the 6th Dynasty , the queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh. [6] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead king take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . [6] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials. [6]
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri. [6] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [7]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes toward the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 16th Dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record. [8]
By the 17th Dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. [9]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the ' Weighing of the Heart ', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c. 1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th Dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [10]
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat . [11]
During the 25th and 26th Dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were ordered and numbered consistently for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) Dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead continued to be based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. [12]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word r(ꜣ) , which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power. [14] In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either chapter or spell . In this article, the word spell is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known, [15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . [16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgment of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs. [17]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [18] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [19] The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [20] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing. [19] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [20] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present. [21] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them. [22]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [23] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva. [18]
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [24] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts, [25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [26] It is only from the Saite period ( 26th Dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order. [27]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
- Chapters 1–16 : The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
- Chapters 17–63 : Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
- Chapters 64–129 : The deceased travels across the sky in the sun barque as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
- Chapters 130–189 : Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [26]
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence. [28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects; [29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [30] The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka , or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied. [31] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [32] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba , depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [33] Finally, the shut , or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods. [35]
The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off Apep . [36] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ', a paradisiac likeness of the real world. [37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [38] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [ Name ]" in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures. [40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions. [42] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [43]
The deceased's first task was to correctly address each of the forty-two Assessors of Maat by name, while reciting the sins they did not commit during their lifetime. [44] This process allowed the dead to demonstrate that they knew each of the judges’ names or Ren and established that they were pure, and free of sin.
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , [45] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [46] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru , meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice". [47] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and rather unpleasant end. [48]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [49] While the Ten Commandments of Jewish and Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [50] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [48] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife", [49] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour. [51]
A Book of the Dead was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funerals, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver, [52] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer. [53] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests . In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus. [54]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly ten copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, two were for women for every one for a man; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic papyri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods. [55]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40 m long while some are as short as 1 m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru , or coming forth by day sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [54]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later. [56] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani , the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely. [53]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [57]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . [58] The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water. [59]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [60]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together. [54] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one. [58] The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [61]
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken belief that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an . [62] [63]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead" ( das Todtenbuch ). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells. [15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation. [64] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny. [65]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date. [66] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972). [67] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192. [15]
In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists. [68] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online. [69] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . [70] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished. [71]
In 2023, the Ministry of Antiquities announced the finding of sections of the Book of the Dead on a 16-foot papyrus in a coffin near the Step Pyramid of Djoser . [72]
- c. 3150 BCE – First preserved hieroglyphs, on small labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
- c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
- c. 2345 BCE – First royal pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors (intended only for the king) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
- c. 2100 BCE – First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
- c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , an ancestor of kings from the New Kingdom
- c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the beginning of the New Kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
- c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
- 42–553 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt, gradually replacing the native religion as successive emperors alternately tolerate or suppress them, culminating in the last temple at Philae (also site of the last known religious inscription in demotic, dating from 452) being closed by order of Emperor Justinian in 533
- 2nd century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced, but it is a poorly documented era of history
- 1798 CE – Napoleon's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
- 1805 CE – Jean-Marcel Cadet makes the first publication, on 18 plates, of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d'un rouleau de papyrus trouvé à Thèbes, dans un tombeau des rois [73]
- 1822 CE – Jean-François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the most extensive after his death in 1832
- 1842 CE – Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name "Book of the Dead" into general circulation [74]
- ^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead . New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113.
- Allen, James P. , Middle Egyptian – An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs , first edition, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-77483-7
- Faulkner, Raymond O (translator); von Dassow, Eva (editor), The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Book of Going forth by Day. The First Authentic Presentation of the Complete Papyrus of Ani . Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 1994.
- Hornung, Erik ; Lorton, D (translator), The Ancient Egyptian books of the Afterlife . Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8014-8515-0
- Müller-Roth, Marcus, "The Book of the Dead Project: Past, present and future." British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 15 (2010): 189-200.
- Pinch, Geraldine, Magic in Ancient Egypt . British Museum Press, London, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-0971-1
- Taylor, John H. (Editor), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife . British Museum Press, London, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
- Allen, Thomas George, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1960.
- Allen, Thomas George, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day. Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms, SAOC vol. 37; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974.
- Assmann, Jan (2005) [2001]. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt . Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9
- D'Auria, S ( et al. ) Mummies and Magic: the Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt . Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1989. ISBN 0-87846-307-0
- Faulkner, Raymond O ; Andrews, Carol (editor), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead . University of Texas Press, Austin, 1972.
- Lapp, G, The Papyrus of Nu (Catalogue of Books of the Dead in the British Museum) . British Museum Press, London, 1997.
- Niwinski, Andrzej [ pl ] , Studies on the Illustrated Theban Funerary Papyri of the 11th and 10th Centuries B.C. . OBO vol. 86; Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1989. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Egyptian Book of the Dead | The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a collection of spells which enable the soul of the deceased to navigate the afterlife. The famous title was given the work by western scholars; the actual title would translate as The Book of Coming Forth by Day or Spells for Going Forth by Day.
A more apt translation to English would be The Egyptian Book of Life as the purpose of the work is to assure one, not only of the survival of bodily death , but the promise of eternal life in a realm very like the world the soul had left behind. The spells provided this assurance through precise detail of what to expect after death and the kind of knowledge required to reach paradise.
Although the work is often referred to as "the Ancient Egyptian Bible " it is no such thing although the two works share the similarity of being ancient compilations of texts written at different times eventually gathered together in book form. The Book of the Dead was never codified and no two copies of the work are exactly the same. They were created specifically for each individual who could afford to purchase one as a kind of manual to help them after death. Egyptologist Geralidine Pinch explains:
The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a term coined in the nineteenth century CE for a body of texts known to the Ancient Egyptians as the Spells for Going Forth by Day. After the Book of the Dead was first translated by Egyptologists, it gained a place in the popular imagination as the Bible of the Ancient Egyptians. The comparison is very inappropriate. The Book of the Dead was not the central holy book of Egyptian religion . It was just one of a series of manuals composed to assist the spirits of the elite dead to achieve and maintain a full afterlife. (26)
The afterlife was considered to be a continuation of life on earth and, after one had passed through various difficulties and judgment in the Hall of Truth, a paradise which was a perfect reflection of one's life on earth. After the soul had been justified in the Hall of Truth it passed on to cross over Lily Lake to rest in the Field of Reeds where one would find all that one had lost in life and could enjoy it eternally. In order to reach that paradise, however, one needed to know where to go, how to address certain gods, what to say at certain times, and how to comport one's self in the land of the dead; which is why one would find an afterlife manual extremely useful.
Having a Book of the Dead in one's tomb would be the equivalent of a student in the modern day getting their hands on all the test answers they would ever need.
The Book of the Dead originated from concepts depicted in tomb paintings and inscriptions from as early as the Third Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2670 - 2613 BCE). By the 12th Dynasty (1991 - 1802 BCE) these spells, with accompanying illustrations, were written on papyrus and placed in tombs and graves with the dead.
Their purpose, as historian Margaret Bunson explains, "was to instruct the deceased on how to overcome the dangers of the afterlife by enabling them to assume the form of serveral mythical creatures and to give them the passwords necessary for admittance to certain stages of the underworld" (47).
They also served, however, to provide the soul with fore-knowledge of what would be expected at every stage. Having a Book of the Dead in one's tomb would be the equivalent of a student in the modern day getting their hands on all the test answers they would ever need in every grade of school.
At some point prior to 1600 BCE the different spells had been divided in chapters and, by the time of the New Kingdom (c. 1570 - c. 1069 BCE), the book was extremely popular. Scribes who were experts in spells would be consulted to fashion custom-made books for an individual or a family. Bunson notes, "These spells and passwords were not part of a ritual but were fashioned for the deceased, to be recited in the afterlife" (47). If someone were sick, and feared they might die, they would go to a scribe and have them write up a book of spells for the afterlife. The scribe would need to know what kind of life the person had lived in order to surmise the type of journey they could expect after death; then the appropriate spells would be written specifically for that individual.
Prior to the New Kingdom, The Book of the Dead was only available to the royalty and the elite. The popularity of the Osiris Myth in the period of the New Kingdom made people believe the spells were indispensible because Osiris featured so prominently in the soul's judgment in the afterlife. As more and more people desired their own Book of the Dead, scribes obliged them and the book became just another commodity produced for sale.
In the same way that publishers in the present day offer Print on Demand books or self-published works, the scribes offered different "packages" to clients to choose from. They could have as few or as many spells in their books as they could afford. Bunson writes, "The individual could decide the number of chapters to be included, the types of illustrations, and the quality of the papyrus used. The individual was limited only by his or her financial resources" (48).
From the New Kingdom through the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323 - 30 BCE) The Book of the Dead was produced this way. It continued to vary in form and size until c. 650 BCE when it was fixed at 190 uniform spells but, still, people could add or subtract what they wanted to from the text. A Book of the Dead from the Ptolemaic Dynasty which belonged to a woman named Tentruty had the text of The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys attached to it which was never included as part of the Book of the Dead. Other copies of the book continued to be produced with more or less spells depending on what the buyer could afford. The one spell which every copy seems to have had, however, was Spell 125.
Spell 125 is the best known of all the texts of the Book of the Dead. People who are unacquainted with the book, but who have even the slightest acquaintance with Egyptian mythology , know the spell without even realizing it. Spell 125 describes the judging of the heart of the deceased by the god Osiris in the Hall of Truth, one of the best known images from ancient Egypt , even though the god with his scales is never actually described in the text. As it was vital that the soul pass the test of the weighing of the heart in order to gain paradise, knowing what to say and how to act before Osiris, Thoth , Anubis , and the Forty-Two Judges was considered the most important information the deceased could arrive with.
When a person died, they were guided by Anubis to the Hall of Truth (also known as The Hall of Two Truths) where they would make the Negative Confession (also known as The Declaration of Innocence). This was a list of 42 sins the person could honestly say they had never indulged in. Once the Negative Confession was made, Osiris, Thoth, Anubis, and the Forty-Two Judges would confer and, if the confession was accepted, the heart of the deceased was then weighed in the balance against the white feather of Ma'at , the feather of truth. If the heart was found to be lighter than the feather, the soul passed on toward paradise; if the heart was heavier, it was thrown onto the floor where it was devoured by the monster goddess Ammut and the soul would cease to exist.
Spell 125 begins with an introduction to the reader (the soul): "What should be said when arriving at this Hall of Justice, purging _____[person's name] of all the evil which he has done and beholding the faces of the gods." The spell then begins very clearly telling the soul exactly what to say when meeting Osiris:
Hail to you, great god, Lord of Justice! I have come to you, my lord, that you may bring me so that I may see your beauty for I know you and I know your name and I know the names of the forty-two gods of those who are with you in this Hall of Justice, who live on those who cherish evil and who gulp down their blood on that day of the reckoning of characters in the presence of Wennefer [another name for Osiris]. Behold the double son of the Songstresses; Lord of Truth is your name. Behold, I have come to you, I have brought you truth, I have repelled falsehood for you. I have not done falsehood against men, I have not impoverished my associates, I have done no wrong in the Place of Truth, I have not learnt that which is not...
After this prologue the soul then speaks the Negative Confession and is questioned by the gods and the Forty-Two Judges. At this point certain very specific information was required in order to be justified by the gods. One needed to know the different gods' names and what they were responsible for but one also needed to know such details as the names of the doors in the room and the floor one needed to walk across; one even needed to know the names of one's own feet. As the soul answered each deity and object with the correct response, they would hear the reply, "You know us; pass by us" and could continue. At one point, the soul must answer the floor about the soul's feet:
"I will not let you tread on me," says the floor of this Hall of Justice.
"Why not? I am pure."
"Because I do not know the names of your feet with which you would tread on me. Tell them to me."
"`Secret image of Ha' is the name of my right foot; `Flower of Hathor ' is the name of my left foot."
"You know us; enter by us."
The spell concludes with what the soul should be wearing when it meets judgment and how one should recite the spell:
The correct procedure in this Hall of Justice: One shall utter this spell pure and clean and clad in white garments and sandals, painted with black eye-paint and annointed with myrrh. There shall be offered to him meat and poultry, incense, bread, beer , and herbs when you have put this written procedure on a clean floor of ochre overlaid with earth upon which no swine or small cattle have trodden.
Following this, the scribe who wrote the spell congratulates himself on a job well done and assures the reader that he, the scribe, will flourish as will his children for his part in providing the spell. He will do well, he says, when he himself comes to judgment and will "be ushered in with the kings of Upper Egypt and the kings of Lower Egypt and he shall be in the suite of Osiris. A matter a million times true." For providing the spell, the scribe was considered part of the inner-workings of the afterlife and so was assured of a favorable welcome in the underworld and passage on to paradise.
For the average person, even the king, the whole experience was much less certain. If one answered all of these questions correctly, and had a heart lighter than the feather of truth, and if one managed to be kind to the surly Divine Ferryman who would row the souls across Lily Lake, one would find one's self in paradise. The Egyptian Field of Reeds (sometimes called the Field of Offerings) was exactly what one had left behind in life. Once there, the soul was reunited with lost loved ones and even beloved pets. The soul would live in an image of the home they had always known with the exact same yard, same trees, same birds singing at evening or morning, and this would be enjoyed for eternity in the presence of the gods.
There were quite a number of slips the soul might make, however, between arrival at the Hall of Truth and the boat ride to paradise. The Book of the Dead includes spells for any kind of circumstance but it does not seem one was guaranteed to survive these twists and turns. Egypt has a long history and, as with any culture , beliefs changed in time, changed back, and changed again.
Not every detail described above was included in the vision of every era of Egyptian history. In some periods the modifications are minor while, in others, the afterlife is seen as a perilous journey toward a paradise that is only temporary. At some points in the culture the way to paradise was very straightforward after the soul was justified by Osiris while, in others, crocodiles might thwart the soul or bends in the road prove dangerous or demons appear to trick or even attack.
In these cases, the soul needed spells to survive and reach paradise. Spells included in the book include titles such as "For Repelling A Crocodile Which Comes To Take Away", "For Driving Off A Snake", "For Not Being Eaten By A Snake In The Realm Of The Dead", "For Not Dying Again In The Realm Of The Dead", "For Being Transformed Into A Divine Falcon", "For Being Transformed Into A Lotus""For Being Transformed Into A Phoenix" and so on.
The spells of transformation have become known through popular allusions to the book in television and film productions which has resulted in the misguided understanding that The Book of the Dead is some kind of magical Harry Potter type of work which ancient Egyptians once used for mystical rites. The Book of the Dead , as noted, was never used for magical transformations on earth; the spells only worked in the afterlife. The claim that The Book of the Dead was some kind of sorceror's text is as wrong and unfounded as the comparison with the Bible.
The Egyptian Book of the Dead is also nothing like The Tibetan Book of the Dead , although these two works are often equated as well. The Tibetan Book of the Dead (actual name, Bardo Thodol , "Great Liberation Through Hearing During the Intermediate State") is a collection of texts to be read to a person who is dying or has recently died and lets the soul know what is happening step-by-step. The similarity it shares with the Egyptian work is that it is intended to comfort the soul and lead it out of the body and on to the afterlife.
The Tibetan Book of the Dead, of course, deals with an entirely different cosmology and belief system but the most significant difference is that it is designed to be read by the living to the dead; it is not a manual for the dead to recite themselves. Both works have suffered from the labels "Book of the Dead" which either attracts the attention of those who believe them to be keys to enlightened knowledge or works of the devil to be avoided; they are actually neither. Both books are cultural constructs designed to make death a more manageable experience.
The spells throughout the Book of the Dead, no matter what era the texts were written or collected in, promised a continuation of one's existence after death. Just as in life, there were trials and there were unexpected turns in the path, areas and experiences to be avoided, friends and allies to cultivate, but eventually the soul could expect to be rewarded for living a good and virtuous life.
For those left behind in life, the spells would have been interpreted the way people in the present day read horoscopes. Horoscopes are not written to emphasize a person's bad points nor are they read to feel badly about one's self; in the same way, the spells were constructed so that someone still living could read them, think of their loved one in the afterlife, and feel assured that they had made their way safely through to the Field of Reeds. | https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Book_of_the_Dead/ | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead - Wikipedia | The Book of the Dead ( Ancient Egyptian : 𓂋𓏤𓈒𓈒𓈒𓏌𓏤𓉐𓂋𓏏𓂻𓅓𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤 , r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) ) is an ancient Egyptian funerary text generally written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE. [1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) , [2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day [3] or Book of Emerging Forth into the Light . [ citation needed ] "Book" is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts [4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat , or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1,000 years. Karl Richard Lepsius introduced for these texts the German name Todtenbuch (modern spelling Totenbuch ), translated to English as Book of the Dead.
The Book of the Dead , which was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects, not written on papyrus. Some of the spells included in the book were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which make up the Book continued to be separately inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as the spells from which they originated always had been.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
The finest extant example of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in antiquity is the Papyrus of Ani . Ani was an Egyptian scribe. It was discovered by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1888 and was taken to the British Museum , where it currently resides.
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th Dynasty , around 2400 BCE. [5] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the pharaoh (and, from the 6th Dynasty , the queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh. [6] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead king take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . [6] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials. [6]
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri. [6] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [7]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes toward the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 16th Dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record. [8]
By the 17th Dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. [9]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the ' Weighing of the Heart ', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c. 1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th Dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [10]
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat . [11]
During the 25th and 26th Dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were ordered and numbered consistently for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) Dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead continued to be based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. [12]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word r(ꜣ) , which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power. [14] In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either chapter or spell . In this article, the word spell is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known, [15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . [16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgment of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs. [17]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [18] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [19] The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [20] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing. [19] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [20] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present. [21] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them. [22]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [23] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva. [18]
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [24] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts, [25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [26] It is only from the Saite period ( 26th Dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order. [27]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
- Chapters 1–16 : The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
- Chapters 17–63 : Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
- Chapters 64–129 : The deceased travels across the sky in the sun barque as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
- Chapters 130–189 : Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [26]
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence. [28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects; [29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [30] The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka , or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied. [31] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [32] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba , depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [33] Finally, the shut , or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods. [35]
The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off Apep . [36] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ', a paradisiac likeness of the real world. [37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [38] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [ Name ]" in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures. [40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions. [42] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [43]
The deceased's first task was to correctly address each of the forty-two Assessors of Maat by name, while reciting the sins they did not commit during their lifetime. [44] This process allowed the dead to demonstrate that they knew each of the judges’ names or Ren and established that they were pure, and free of sin.
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , [45] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [46] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru , meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice". [47] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and rather unpleasant end. [48]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [49] While the Ten Commandments of Jewish and Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [50] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [48] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife", [49] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour. [51]
A Book of the Dead was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funerals, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver, [52] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer. [53] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests . In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus. [54]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly ten copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, two were for women for every one for a man; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic papyri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods. [55]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40 m long while some are as short as 1 m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru , or coming forth by day sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [54]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later. [56] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani , the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely. [53]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [57]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . [58] The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water. [59]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [60]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together. [54] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one. [58] The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [61]
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken belief that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an . [62] [63]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead" ( das Todtenbuch ). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells. [15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation. [64] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny. [65]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date. [66] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972). [67] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192. [15]
In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists. [68] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online. [69] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . [70] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished. [71]
In 2023, the Ministry of Antiquities announced the finding of sections of the Book of the Dead on a 16-foot papyrus in a coffin near the Step Pyramid of Djoser . [72]
- c. 3150 BCE – First preserved hieroglyphs, on small labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
- c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
- c. 2345 BCE – First royal pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors (intended only for the king) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
- c. 2100 BCE – First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
- c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , an ancestor of kings from the New Kingdom
- c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the beginning of the New Kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
- c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
- 42–553 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt, gradually replacing the native religion as successive emperors alternately tolerate or suppress them, culminating in the last temple at Philae (also site of the last known religious inscription in demotic, dating from 452) being closed by order of Emperor Justinian in 533
- 2nd century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced, but it is a poorly documented era of history
- 1798 CE – Napoleon's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
- 1805 CE – Jean-Marcel Cadet makes the first publication, on 18 plates, of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d'un rouleau de papyrus trouvé à Thèbes, dans un tombeau des rois [73]
- 1822 CE – Jean-François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the most extensive after his death in 1832
- 1842 CE – Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name "Book of the Dead" into general circulation [74]
- ^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead . New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113.
- Allen, James P. , Middle Egyptian – An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs , first edition, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-77483-7
- Faulkner, Raymond O (translator); von Dassow, Eva (editor), The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Book of Going forth by Day. The First Authentic Presentation of the Complete Papyrus of Ani . Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 1994.
- Hornung, Erik ; Lorton, D (translator), The Ancient Egyptian books of the Afterlife . Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8014-8515-0
- Müller-Roth, Marcus, "The Book of the Dead Project: Past, present and future." British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 15 (2010): 189-200.
- Pinch, Geraldine, Magic in Ancient Egypt . British Museum Press, London, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-0971-1
- Taylor, John H. (Editor), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife . British Museum Press, London, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
- Allen, Thomas George, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1960.
- Allen, Thomas George, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day. Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms, SAOC vol. 37; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974.
- Assmann, Jan (2005) [2001]. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt . Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9
- D'Auria, S ( et al. ) Mummies and Magic: the Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt . Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1989. ISBN 0-87846-307-0
- Faulkner, Raymond O ; Andrews, Carol (editor), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead . University of Texas Press, Austin, 1972.
- Lapp, G, The Papyrus of Nu (Catalogue of Books of the Dead in the British Museum) . British Museum Press, London, 1997.
- Niwinski, Andrzej [ pl ] , Studies on the Illustrated Theban Funerary Papyri of the 11th and 10th Centuries B.C. . OBO vol. 86; Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1989. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead - Wikipedia | The Book of the Dead ( Ancient Egyptian : 𓂋𓏤𓈒𓈒𓈒𓏌𓏤𓉐𓂋𓏏𓂻𓅓𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤 , r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) ) is an ancient Egyptian funerary text generally written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE. [1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) , [2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day [3] or Book of Emerging Forth into the Light . [ citation needed ] "Book" is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts [4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat , or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1,000 years. Karl Richard Lepsius introduced for these texts the German name Todtenbuch (modern spelling Totenbuch ), translated to English as Book of the Dead.
The Book of the Dead , which was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects, not written on papyrus. Some of the spells included in the book were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which make up the Book continued to be separately inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as the spells from which they originated always had been.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
The finest extant example of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in antiquity is the Papyrus of Ani . Ani was an Egyptian scribe. It was discovered by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1888 and was taken to the British Museum , where it currently resides.
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th Dynasty , around 2400 BCE. [5] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the pharaoh (and, from the 6th Dynasty , the queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh. [6] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead king take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . [6] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials. [6]
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri. [6] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [7]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes toward the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 16th Dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record. [8]
By the 17th Dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. [9]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the ' Weighing of the Heart ', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c. 1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th Dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [10]
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat . [11]
During the 25th and 26th Dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were ordered and numbered consistently for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) Dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead continued to be based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. [12]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word r(ꜣ) , which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power. [14] In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either chapter or spell . In this article, the word spell is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known, [15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . [16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgment of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs. [17]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [18] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [19] The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [20] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing. [19] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [20] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present. [21] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them. [22]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [23] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva. [18]
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [24] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts, [25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [26] It is only from the Saite period ( 26th Dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order. [27]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
- Chapters 1–16 : The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
- Chapters 17–63 : Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
- Chapters 64–129 : The deceased travels across the sky in the sun barque as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
- Chapters 130–189 : Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [26]
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence. [28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects; [29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [30] The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka , or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied. [31] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [32] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba , depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [33] Finally, the shut , or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods. [35]
The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off Apep . [36] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ', a paradisiac likeness of the real world. [37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [38] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [ Name ]" in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures. [40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions. [42] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [43]
The deceased's first task was to correctly address each of the forty-two Assessors of Maat by name, while reciting the sins they did not commit during their lifetime. [44] This process allowed the dead to demonstrate that they knew each of the judges’ names or Ren and established that they were pure, and free of sin.
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , [45] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [46] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru , meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice". [47] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and rather unpleasant end. [48]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [49] While the Ten Commandments of Jewish and Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [50] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [48] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife", [49] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour. [51]
A Book of the Dead was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funerals, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver, [52] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer. [53] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests . In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus. [54]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly ten copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, two were for women for every one for a man; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic papyri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods. [55]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40 m long while some are as short as 1 m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru , or coming forth by day sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [54]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later. [56] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani , the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely. [53]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [57]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . [58] The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water. [59]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [60]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together. [54] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one. [58] The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [61]
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken belief that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an . [62] [63]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead" ( das Todtenbuch ). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells. [15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation. [64] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny. [65]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date. [66] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972). [67] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192. [15]
In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists. [68] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online. [69] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . [70] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished. [71]
In 2023, the Ministry of Antiquities announced the finding of sections of the Book of the Dead on a 16-foot papyrus in a coffin near the Step Pyramid of Djoser . [72]
- c. 3150 BCE – First preserved hieroglyphs, on small labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
- c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
- c. 2345 BCE – First royal pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors (intended only for the king) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
- c. 2100 BCE – First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
- c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , an ancestor of kings from the New Kingdom
- c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the beginning of the New Kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
- c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
- 42–553 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt, gradually replacing the native religion as successive emperors alternately tolerate or suppress them, culminating in the last temple at Philae (also site of the last known religious inscription in demotic, dating from 452) being closed by order of Emperor Justinian in 533
- 2nd century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced, but it is a poorly documented era of history
- 1798 CE – Napoleon's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
- 1805 CE – Jean-Marcel Cadet makes the first publication, on 18 plates, of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d'un rouleau de papyrus trouvé à Thèbes, dans un tombeau des rois [73]
- 1822 CE – Jean-François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the most extensive after his death in 1832
- 1842 CE – Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name "Book of the Dead" into general circulation [74]
- ^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead . New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113.
- Allen, James P. , Middle Egyptian – An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs , first edition, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-77483-7
- Faulkner, Raymond O (translator); von Dassow, Eva (editor), The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Book of Going forth by Day. The First Authentic Presentation of the Complete Papyrus of Ani . Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 1994.
- Hornung, Erik ; Lorton, D (translator), The Ancient Egyptian books of the Afterlife . Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8014-8515-0
- Müller-Roth, Marcus, "The Book of the Dead Project: Past, present and future." British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 15 (2010): 189-200.
- Pinch, Geraldine, Magic in Ancient Egypt . British Museum Press, London, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-0971-1
- Taylor, John H. (Editor), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife . British Museum Press, London, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
- Allen, Thomas George, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1960.
- Allen, Thomas George, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day. Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms, SAOC vol. 37; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974.
- Assmann, Jan (2005) [2001]. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt . Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9
- D'Auria, S ( et al. ) Mummies and Magic: the Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt . Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1989. ISBN 0-87846-307-0
- Faulkner, Raymond O ; Andrews, Carol (editor), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead . University of Texas Press, Austin, 1972.
- Lapp, G, The Papyrus of Nu (Catalogue of Books of the Dead in the British Museum) . British Museum Press, London, 1997.
- Niwinski, Andrzej [ pl ] , Studies on the Illustrated Theban Funerary Papyri of the 11th and 10th Centuries B.C. . OBO vol. 86; Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1989. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead | 23 |
who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by DayThe Complete Papyrus of Ani Featuring Integrated Text and Full-Color Images: Faulkner, Dr. Raymond, Goelet, Ogden, Andrews, Carol, Gunther, J. Daniel, Wasserman, James: 0783324817898: Amazon.com: Books | For the first time in 3,300 years, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day: The Papyrus of Ani is showcased in its entirety in seventy four magnificent color pages.
Maybe the most stunning presentation of this book in 3300 years: Upon death, it was the practice for some Egyptians to produce a papyrus manuscript called the Book of Going Forth by Day or the Book of the Dead . A Book of the Dead included declarations and spells to help the deceased in the afterlife. The Papyrus of Ani is the manuscript compiled for Ani, the royal scribe of Thebes. Written and illustrated almost 3,300 years ago, The Papyrus of Ani is a papyrus manuscript with cursive hieroglyphs and color illustrations. It is the most beautiful, best preserved, and complete example of ancient Egyptian philosophical and religious thought known to exist.
The Egyptian Book of the Dead is an integral part of the world's spiritual heritage. It is an artistic rendering of the mysteries of life and death. For the first time since its creation, this ancient papyrus is now available in full color with an integrated English translation directly below each image. This twentieth anniversary edition of The Egyptian Book of the Dead has been revised and expanded to include:
Maybe the most stunning presentation of this book in 3300 years: Upon death, it was the practice for some Egyptians to produce a papyrus manuscript called the Book of Going Forth by Day or the Book of the Dead . A Book of the Dead included declarations and spells to help the deceased in the afterlife. The Papyrus of Ani is the manuscript compiled for Ani, the royal scribe of Thebes. Written and illustrated almost 3,300 years ago, The Papyrus of Ani is a papyrus manuscript with cursive hieroglyphs and color illustrations. It is the most beautiful, best preserved, and complete example of ancient Egyptian philosophical and religious thought known to exist.
The Egyptian Book of the Dead is an integral part of the world's spiritual heritage. It is an artistic rendering of the mysteries of life and death. For the first time since its creation, this ancient papyrus is now available in full color with an integrated English translation directly below each image. This twentieth anniversary edition of The Egyptian Book of the Dead has been revised and expanded to include:
- Significant improvements to the display of the images of the Papyrus.
- A survey of the continuing importance of ancient Egypt in modern culture.
- A detailed history of Egyptian translation and philology since the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799.
- And, a state of the art Annotated Bibliography and Study Guide for Ancient Egyptian studies.
As the third revised edition, the entire corpus of this critical work is given its most accessible and lavish presentation ever.
- Includes a detailed history of Egyptian scholarship, an annotated bibliography and study guide, and several improvements to the color plates.
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who wrote the book of the dead egyptian | Book of the Dead - Wikipedia | The Book of the Dead ( Ancient Egyptian : 𓂋𓏤𓈒𓈒𓈒𓏌𓏤𓉐𓂋𓏏𓂻𓅓𓉔𓂋𓅱𓇳𓏤 , r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) ) is an ancient Egyptian funerary text generally written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE. [1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated r(ꜣ)w n(y)w prt m hrw(w) , [2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day [3] or Book of Emerging Forth into the Light . [ citation needed ] "Book" is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts [4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat , or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1,000 years. Karl Richard Lepsius introduced for these texts the German name Todtenbuch (modern spelling Totenbuch ), translated to English as Book of the Dead.
The Book of the Dead , which was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects, not written on papyrus. Some of the spells included in the book were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which make up the Book continued to be separately inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as the spells from which they originated always had been.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
The finest extant example of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in antiquity is the Papyrus of Ani . Ani was an Egyptian scribe. It was discovered by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1888 and was taken to the British Museum , where it currently resides.
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th Dynasty , around 2400 BCE. [5] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the pharaoh (and, from the 6th Dynasty , the queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh. [6] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead king take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . [6] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials. [6]
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri. [6] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [7]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes toward the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 16th Dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record. [8]
By the 17th Dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus. [9]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the ' Weighing of the Heart ', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c. 1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th Dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [10]
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat . [11]
During the 25th and 26th Dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were ordered and numbered consistently for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) Dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead continued to be based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times. [12]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word r(ꜣ) , which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power. [14] In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either chapter or spell . In this article, the word spell is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known, [15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . [16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgment of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs. [17]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [18] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [19] The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [20] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing. [19] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [20] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present. [21] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power over them. [22]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [23] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva. [18]
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [24] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts, [25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [26] It is only from the Saite period ( 26th Dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order. [27]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
- Chapters 1–16 : The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
- Chapters 17–63 : Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again so that he may arise, reborn, with the morning sun.
- Chapters 64–129 : The deceased travels across the sky in the sun barque as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
- Chapters 130–189 : Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [26]
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence. [28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects; [29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [30] The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka , or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied. [31] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [32] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba , depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [33] Finally, the shut , or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods. [35]
The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off Apep . [36] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ', a paradisiac likeness of the real world. [37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [38] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [ Name ]" in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures. [40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions. [42] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [43]
The deceased's first task was to correctly address each of the forty-two Assessors of Maat by name, while reciting the sins they did not commit during their lifetime. [44] This process allowed the dead to demonstrate that they knew each of the judges’ names or Ren and established that they were pure, and free of sin.
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , [45] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [46] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru , meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice". [47] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and rather unpleasant end. [48]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [49] While the Ten Commandments of Jewish and Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [50] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [48] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife", [49] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour. [51]
A Book of the Dead was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funerals, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver, [52] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer. [53] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests . In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus. [54]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly ten copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, two were for women for every one for a man; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic papyri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods. [55]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40 m long while some are as short as 1 m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru , or coming forth by day sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [54]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later. [56] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani , the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely. [53]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [57]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . [58] The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water. [59]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [60]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together. [54] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one. [58] The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [61]
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken belief that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an . [62] [63]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead" ( das Todtenbuch ). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells. [15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation. [64] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny. [65]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date. [66] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972). [67] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192. [15]
In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists. [68] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online. [69] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . [70] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished. [71]
In 2023, the Ministry of Antiquities announced the finding of sections of the Book of the Dead on a 16-foot papyrus in a coffin near the Step Pyramid of Djoser . [72]
- c. 3150 BCE – First preserved hieroglyphs, on small labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
- c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
- c. 2345 BCE – First royal pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors (intended only for the king) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
- c. 2100 BCE – First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
- c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , an ancestor of kings from the New Kingdom
- c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the beginning of the New Kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
- c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
- 42–553 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt, gradually replacing the native religion as successive emperors alternately tolerate or suppress them, culminating in the last temple at Philae (also site of the last known religious inscription in demotic, dating from 452) being closed by order of Emperor Justinian in 533
- 2nd century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced, but it is a poorly documented era of history
- 1798 CE – Napoleon's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
- 1805 CE – Jean-Marcel Cadet makes the first publication, on 18 plates, of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d'un rouleau de papyrus trouvé à Thèbes, dans un tombeau des rois [73]
- 1822 CE – Jean-François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the most extensive after his death in 1832
- 1842 CE – Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name "Book of the Dead" into general circulation [74]
- ^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead . New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113.
- Allen, James P. , Middle Egyptian – An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs , first edition, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-77483-7
- Faulkner, Raymond O (translator); von Dassow, Eva (editor), The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Book of Going forth by Day. The First Authentic Presentation of the Complete Papyrus of Ani . Chronicle Books, San Francisco, 1994.
- Hornung, Erik ; Lorton, D (translator), The Ancient Egyptian books of the Afterlife . Cornell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8014-8515-0
- Müller-Roth, Marcus, "The Book of the Dead Project: Past, present and future." British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 15 (2010): 189-200.
- Pinch, Geraldine, Magic in Ancient Egypt . British Museum Press, London, 1994. ISBN 0-7141-0971-1
- Taylor, John H. (Editor), Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Journey through the afterlife . British Museum Press, London, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7141-1993-9
- Allen, Thomas George, The Egyptian Book of the Dead: Documents in the Oriental Institute Museum at the University of Chicago . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1960.
- Allen, Thomas George, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day. Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms, SAOC vol. 37; University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1974.
- Assmann, Jan (2005) [2001]. Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt . Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-4241-9
- D'Auria, S ( et al. ) Mummies and Magic: the Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt . Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1989. ISBN 0-87846-307-0
- Faulkner, Raymond O ; Andrews, Carol (editor), The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead . University of Texas Press, Austin, 1972.
- Lapp, G, The Papyrus of Nu (Catalogue of Books of the Dead in the British Museum) . British Museum Press, London, 1997.
- Niwinski, Andrzej [ pl ] , Studies on the Illustrated Theban Funerary Papyri of the 11th and 10th Centuries B.C. . OBO vol. 86; Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1989. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead | 23 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | I Said Hi - Wikipedia | " I Said Hi " is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Amy Shark . It was released on 13 April 2018 as the lead single from her studio album Love Monster (July 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , Dann Hume and M-Phazes won Producer of the Year for their work on "I Said Hi". At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , it won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. For the ceremony, Electric Fields performed their cover version of "I Said Hi". On the ARIA Singles Chart , it peaked at No. 6. By the end of 2020 it was certified 5× platinum for shipment of over 350000 copies.
Amy Shark says "I Said Hi" was inspired by her retort to managers when they told her whom she was meeting to discuss her future: the same people who had knocked back her emails and calls. [1] Shark told MusicFeeds: "It's an anthem for anyone who is waking up everyday fighting for what they believe in and challenging the universe!" [2]
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , "I Said Hi" was nominated for four awards; with Dann Hume and M-Phazes winning the Producer of the Year for "I Said Hi". [3] At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , the song won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. At the event, Electric Fields performed the song. [4] At the Queensland Music Awards 2019 "I Said Hi" won Highest Selling Single. [5]
The music video, filmed in Melbourne , was directed by Nick Waterman and co-directed by Amy Shark and released on 8 May 2018. [6]
|Chart (2018)|| Peak |
position
|Australia ( ARIA ) [7]||6|
|US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [8]||34|
|US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [9]||38|
|Chart (2018)||Position|
|Australia (ARIA) [10]||31|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Australia ( ARIA ) [11]||5× Platinum||350,000|
Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
|Country||Date||Format||Label||Catalogue|
|Australia||13 April 2018||Digital download , streaming||Wonderlick, Sony Music Australia||886447028506|
|United Kingdom||28 December 2018||TV and Radio Airplay, Digital Download||Columbia| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Said_Hi | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | I Said Hi - Wikipedia | " I Said Hi " is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Amy Shark . It was released on 13 April 2018 as the lead single from her studio album Love Monster (July 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , Dann Hume and M-Phazes won Producer of the Year for their work on "I Said Hi". At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , it won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. For the ceremony, Electric Fields performed their cover version of "I Said Hi". On the ARIA Singles Chart , it peaked at No. 6. By the end of 2020 it was certified 5× platinum for shipment of over 350000 copies.
Amy Shark says "I Said Hi" was inspired by her retort to managers when they told her whom she was meeting to discuss her future: the same people who had knocked back her emails and calls. [1] Shark told MusicFeeds: "It's an anthem for anyone who is waking up everyday fighting for what they believe in and challenging the universe!" [2]
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , "I Said Hi" was nominated for four awards; with Dann Hume and M-Phazes winning the Producer of the Year for "I Said Hi". [3] At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , the song won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. At the event, Electric Fields performed the song. [4] At the Queensland Music Awards 2019 "I Said Hi" won Highest Selling Single. [5]
The music video, filmed in Melbourne , was directed by Nick Waterman and co-directed by Amy Shark and released on 8 May 2018. [6]
|Chart (2018)|| Peak |
position
|Australia ( ARIA ) [7]||6|
|US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [8]||34|
|US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [9]||38|
|Chart (2018)||Position|
|Australia (ARIA) [10]||31|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Australia ( ARIA ) [11]||5× Platinum||350,000|
Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
|Country||Date||Format||Label||Catalogue|
|Australia||13 April 2018||Digital download , streaming||Wonderlick, Sony Music Australia||886447028506|
|United Kingdom||28 December 2018||TV and Radio Airplay, Digital Download||Columbia| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Said_Hi | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | I Said Hi - Wikipedia | " I Said Hi " is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Amy Shark . It was released on 13 April 2018 as the lead single from her studio album Love Monster (July 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , Dann Hume and M-Phazes won Producer of the Year for their work on "I Said Hi". At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , it won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. For the ceremony, Electric Fields performed their cover version of "I Said Hi". On the ARIA Singles Chart , it peaked at No. 6. By the end of 2020 it was certified 5× platinum for shipment of over 350000 copies.
Amy Shark says "I Said Hi" was inspired by her retort to managers when they told her whom she was meeting to discuss her future: the same people who had knocked back her emails and calls. [1] Shark told MusicFeeds: "It's an anthem for anyone who is waking up everyday fighting for what they believe in and challenging the universe!" [2]
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , "I Said Hi" was nominated for four awards; with Dann Hume and M-Phazes winning the Producer of the Year for "I Said Hi". [3] At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , the song won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. At the event, Electric Fields performed the song. [4] At the Queensland Music Awards 2019 "I Said Hi" won Highest Selling Single. [5]
The music video, filmed in Melbourne , was directed by Nick Waterman and co-directed by Amy Shark and released on 8 May 2018. [6]
|Chart (2018)|| Peak |
position
|Australia ( ARIA ) [7]||6|
|US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [8]||34|
|US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [9]||38|
|Chart (2018)||Position|
|Australia (ARIA) [10]||31|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Australia ( ARIA ) [11]||5× Platinum||350,000|
Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
|Country||Date||Format||Label||Catalogue|
|Australia||13 April 2018||Digital download , streaming||Wonderlick, Sony Music Australia||886447028506|
|United Kingdom||28 December 2018||TV and Radio Airplay, Digital Download||Columbia| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Said_Hi | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | I Said Hi - Wikipedia | " I Said Hi " is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Amy Shark . It was released on 13 April 2018 as the lead single from her studio album Love Monster (July 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , Dann Hume and M-Phazes won Producer of the Year for their work on "I Said Hi". At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , it won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. For the ceremony, Electric Fields performed their cover version of "I Said Hi". On the ARIA Singles Chart , it peaked at No. 6. By the end of 2020 it was certified 5× platinum for shipment of over 350000 copies.
Amy Shark says "I Said Hi" was inspired by her retort to managers when they told her whom she was meeting to discuss her future: the same people who had knocked back her emails and calls. [1] Shark told MusicFeeds: "It's an anthem for anyone who is waking up everyday fighting for what they believe in and challenging the universe!" [2]
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , "I Said Hi" was nominated for four awards; with Dann Hume and M-Phazes winning the Producer of the Year for "I Said Hi". [3] At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , the song won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. At the event, Electric Fields performed the song. [4] At the Queensland Music Awards 2019 "I Said Hi" won Highest Selling Single. [5]
The music video, filmed in Melbourne , was directed by Nick Waterman and co-directed by Amy Shark and released on 8 May 2018. [6]
|Chart (2018)|| Peak |
position
|Australia ( ARIA ) [7]||6|
|US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [8]||34|
|US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [9]||38|
|Chart (2018)||Position|
|Australia (ARIA) [10]||31|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Australia ( ARIA ) [11]||5× Platinum||350,000|
Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
|Country||Date||Format||Label||Catalogue|
|Australia||13 April 2018||Digital download , streaming||Wonderlick, Sony Music Australia||886447028506|
|United Kingdom||28 December 2018||TV and Radio Airplay, Digital Download||Columbia| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Said_Hi | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | I Said Hi - Wikipedia | " I Said Hi " is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Amy Shark . It was released on 13 April 2018 as the lead single from her studio album Love Monster (July 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , Dann Hume and M-Phazes won Producer of the Year for their work on "I Said Hi". At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , it won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. For the ceremony, Electric Fields performed their cover version of "I Said Hi". On the ARIA Singles Chart , it peaked at No. 6. By the end of 2020 it was certified 5× platinum for shipment of over 350000 copies.
Amy Shark says "I Said Hi" was inspired by her retort to managers when they told her whom she was meeting to discuss her future: the same people who had knocked back her emails and calls. [1] Shark told MusicFeeds: "It's an anthem for anyone who is waking up everyday fighting for what they believe in and challenging the universe!" [2]
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , "I Said Hi" was nominated for four awards; with Dann Hume and M-Phazes winning the Producer of the Year for "I Said Hi". [3] At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , the song won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. At the event, Electric Fields performed the song. [4] At the Queensland Music Awards 2019 "I Said Hi" won Highest Selling Single. [5]
The music video, filmed in Melbourne , was directed by Nick Waterman and co-directed by Amy Shark and released on 8 May 2018. [6]
|Chart (2018)|| Peak |
position
|Australia ( ARIA ) [7]||6|
|US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [8]||34|
|US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [9]||38|
|Chart (2018)||Position|
|Australia (ARIA) [10]||31|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Australia ( ARIA ) [11]||5× Platinum||350,000|
Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
|Country||Date||Format||Label||Catalogue|
|Australia||13 April 2018||Digital download , streaming||Wonderlick, Sony Music Australia||886447028506|
|United Kingdom||28 December 2018||TV and Radio Airplay, Digital Download||Columbia| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Said_Hi | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | I Said Hi - Wikipedia | " I Said Hi " is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Amy Shark . It was released on 13 April 2018 as the lead single from her studio album Love Monster (July 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , Dann Hume and M-Phazes won Producer of the Year for their work on "I Said Hi". At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , it won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. For the ceremony, Electric Fields performed their cover version of "I Said Hi". On the ARIA Singles Chart , it peaked at No. 6. By the end of 2020 it was certified 5× platinum for shipment of over 350000 copies.
Amy Shark says "I Said Hi" was inspired by her retort to managers when they told her whom she was meeting to discuss her future: the same people who had knocked back her emails and calls. [1] Shark told MusicFeeds: "It's an anthem for anyone who is waking up everyday fighting for what they believe in and challenging the universe!" [2]
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , "I Said Hi" was nominated for four awards; with Dann Hume and M-Phazes winning the Producer of the Year for "I Said Hi". [3] At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , the song won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. At the event, Electric Fields performed the song. [4] At the Queensland Music Awards 2019 "I Said Hi" won Highest Selling Single. [5]
The music video, filmed in Melbourne , was directed by Nick Waterman and co-directed by Amy Shark and released on 8 May 2018. [6]
|Chart (2018)|| Peak |
position
|Australia ( ARIA ) [7]||6|
|US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [8]||34|
|US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [9]||38|
|Chart (2018)||Position|
|Australia (ARIA) [10]||31|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Australia ( ARIA ) [11]||5× Platinum||350,000|
Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
|Country||Date||Format||Label||Catalogue|
|Australia||13 April 2018||Digital download , streaming||Wonderlick, Sony Music Australia||886447028506|
|United Kingdom||28 December 2018||TV and Radio Airplay, Digital Download||Columbia| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Said_Hi | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | I Said Hi - Wikipedia | " I Said Hi " is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Amy Shark . It was released on 13 April 2018 as the lead single from her studio album Love Monster (July 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , Dann Hume and M-Phazes won Producer of the Year for their work on "I Said Hi". At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , it won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. For the ceremony, Electric Fields performed their cover version of "I Said Hi". On the ARIA Singles Chart , it peaked at No. 6. By the end of 2020 it was certified 5× platinum for shipment of over 350000 copies.
Amy Shark says "I Said Hi" was inspired by her retort to managers when they told her whom she was meeting to discuss her future: the same people who had knocked back her emails and calls. [1] Shark told MusicFeeds: "It's an anthem for anyone who is waking up everyday fighting for what they believe in and challenging the universe!" [2]
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , "I Said Hi" was nominated for four awards; with Dann Hume and M-Phazes winning the Producer of the Year for "I Said Hi". [3] At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , the song won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. At the event, Electric Fields performed the song. [4] At the Queensland Music Awards 2019 "I Said Hi" won Highest Selling Single. [5]
The music video, filmed in Melbourne , was directed by Nick Waterman and co-directed by Amy Shark and released on 8 May 2018. [6]
|Chart (2018)|| Peak |
position
|Australia ( ARIA ) [7]||6|
|US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [8]||34|
|US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [9]||38|
|Chart (2018)||Position|
|Australia (ARIA) [10]||31|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Australia ( ARIA ) [11]||5× Platinum||350,000|
Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
|Country||Date||Format||Label||Catalogue|
|Australia||13 April 2018||Digital download , streaming||Wonderlick, Sony Music Australia||886447028506|
|United Kingdom||28 December 2018||TV and Radio Airplay, Digital Download||Columbia| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Said_Hi | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | First Spin: Amy Shark unveils debut album with 'I Said Hi' - triple j | Share
Amy Shark has kicked off the year in fine fashion: another run in the Hottest 100 and on US TV , snagging another trophy for the cabinet , logging studio time with idols , a swag of local and international touring and a fresh Splendour slot . And now she's announcing her debut album.
The full length follow-up to last year's ARIA-winning The Night Thinker EP is called Love Monster (out 13 July) and after teasing it online , the Gold Coast songwriter dropped by triple j Breakfast this morning for the world premiere of new single 'I Said Hi'.
While many musicians would kill to have the career Amy Shark has now, it hasn't always been roses and 'I Said Hi' is a song about overcoming adversity and a nod to the perseverance it's taken to get here.
“It’s about the struggle of the ups and downs of the industry. It hasn’t been a complete Cinderella story for me from day one. It’s taken a while," she tells Ben & Liam on triple j Breakfast.
With its forceful chorus and lyrical imagery of a bruised, tired boxer refusing to give up, it's a tough contrast to 'Weekends' or the swooning Love, Simon cut 'Sink In' , reflecting on the parts of her journey that bust the myth of overnight success.
"I had my heart set on a whole other song then my manager was like, I really like the idea of you going out swinging with ‘I Said Hi’," Amy says.
"It's really special because it’s a newcomer. I’ve only just written it. A lot of songs I’ve had in the bank for a while but this one was so fresh," a nervous Shark explains that the song spontaneously came to her the night before a final, very busy session in the studio.
"I remember I ruined all mine and [producer] Dann Hume’s plans... Because I came in, ‘I’ve got this song, I know we’ve got a lot to do today, but this is really important. I need to do this whole song, today'."
Amy can't reveal the full tracklist just yet but describes her debut as bigger, better, and more confessional. "It's like my diary has opened up to another 13 more songs,"
Love Monster is out 13 July via Wonderlick Recording Company/Sony Music Entertainment Australia. More info here .
Posted | https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/news/first-spin:-amy-shark-unveils-debut-album-with-i-said-hi/9642062 | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | Amy Shark releases emotional new single "I Said Hi" - Substream Magazine | Amy Shark released her newest single, “I Said Hi,” giving us a taste of what her upcoming album, Love Monster, will bring. The Australian artist has been releasing music since 2014, including tracks such as “Golden Fleece” and “Adore.”
“I Said Hi” showcases the artist’s classic slow indie-pop sound and meaningful lyrics that describe Shark going through an emotional back and forth. In an interview with Substream back in February , Shark shared with us her challenge in writing and singing about heavy topics.
“It’s a balance. some of my songs sometimes will come out sounding a bit intense or it can be a bit much, so I’ll hold it back or I’ll tweak it so it doesn’t come off so intense,” Shark said.
The upcoming album , Love Monster is set to release on July 13, 2018.
Tour dates:
APR 21 | Ocean Rhythms Festival Old Bar, Australia
MAY 12 | The Hollow, Albany, NY
MAY 14 | The Shelter, Detroit, MI
MAY 15 | A&R Music Bar, Columbus, OH
MAY 16 | 20th Century Theatre, Cincinnati, OH
MAY 18 | Aisle 5, Atlanta, GA
MAY 19 | Hangout Music Festival,Gulf Shores, AL
MAY 21 | White Oak Music Hall, Houston, TX
MAY 22 | Club Dada, Dallas, TX
MAY 24 | Globe Hall, Denver, CO
MAY 25 | Urban Lounge, Salt Lake City, UT
MAY 27 | BottleRock Festival, Napa, CA
JUL 21 | Splendour in the Grass, Yelgun, Australia
AUG 03 | Osheaga, Montreal, Canada | https://substreammagazine.com/2018/04/amy-shark-releases-emotional-new-single-i-said-hi/ | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | Amy Shark Reveals What "I said Hi" Is REALLY About | Amy Shark has had a huge week following the release of her highly anticipated first ever album "Love Monster".
She spoke to Hit about her now Platinum track "I Said Hi", and revealed that the song is not about about a break-up.. | https://www.hit.com.au/story/amy-shark-reveals-what-i-said-hi-is-really-about-97419 | 24 |
what is amy shark i said hi about | I Said Hi - Wikipedia | " I Said Hi " is a song recorded by Australian singer-songwriter Amy Shark . It was released on 13 April 2018 as the lead single from her studio album Love Monster (July 2018). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , Dann Hume and M-Phazes won Producer of the Year for their work on "I Said Hi". At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , it won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. For the ceremony, Electric Fields performed their cover version of "I Said Hi". On the ARIA Singles Chart , it peaked at No. 6. By the end of 2020 it was certified 5× platinum for shipment of over 350000 copies.
Amy Shark says "I Said Hi" was inspired by her retort to managers when they told her whom she was meeting to discuss her future: the same people who had knocked back her emails and calls. [1] Shark told MusicFeeds: "It's an anthem for anyone who is waking up everyday fighting for what they believe in and challenging the universe!" [2]
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018 , "I Said Hi" was nominated for four awards; with Dann Hume and M-Phazes winning the Producer of the Year for "I Said Hi". [3] At the APRA Music Awards of 2019 , the song won Pop Work of the Year and Song of the Year. At the event, Electric Fields performed the song. [4] At the Queensland Music Awards 2019 "I Said Hi" won Highest Selling Single. [5]
The music video, filmed in Melbourne , was directed by Nick Waterman and co-directed by Amy Shark and released on 8 May 2018. [6]
|Chart (2018)|| Peak |
position
|Australia ( ARIA ) [7]||6|
|US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) [8]||34|
|US Adult Alternative Songs ( Billboard ) [9]||38|
|Chart (2018)||Position|
|Australia (ARIA) [10]||31|
|Region||Certification||Certified units /sales|
|Australia ( ARIA ) [11]||5× Platinum||350,000|
Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
|Country||Date||Format||Label||Catalogue|
|Australia||13 April 2018||Digital download , streaming||Wonderlick, Sony Music Australia||886447028506|
|United Kingdom||28 December 2018||TV and Radio Airplay, Digital Download||Columbia| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Said_Hi | 24 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Captaincy General of Santo Domingo | Capitanía General de Santo Domingo ( Spanish )
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The Captaincy General of Santo Domingo ( Spanish : Capitanía General de Santo Domingo pronounced [kapitaˈni.a xeneˈɾal de ˈsanto ðoˈmiŋɡo] (
listen ) ) was the first colony in the New World , established by Spain in 1492 on the island of Hispaniola . The colony, under the jurisdiction of the Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo , was granted administrative powers over the Spanish possessions in the Caribbean and most of its mainland coasts, making Santo Domingo the principal political entity of the early colonial period. [1]
Due to its strategic location, the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo served as headquarters for Spanish conquistadors on their way to the mainland and was important in the establishment of other European colonies in the Western Hemisphere. It is the site of the first European city in the Americas, Santo Domingo , and of the oldest castle, fortress, cathedral, and monastery in the region. The colony was a meeting point of European explorers, soldiers, and settlers who brought with them the culture, architecture, laws, and traditions of the Old World .
The colony remained a military stronghold of the Spanish Empire for over a century, successfully defending against British, Dutch, and French expeditions into the region until the early 17th century. After pirates working for the French colonial empire took over part of the west coast, French settlers arrived and decades of armed conflict ensued. Spain finally ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France in the 1697 Peace of Ryswick , thus establishing the basis for the future nations of the Dominican Republic and Haiti .
Prior to the arrival of Christopher Columbus and the Spanish in 1492, the native Taíno people populated the island which they called Ayiti (land of high mountains) or "Quisqueya" (from Quizqueia), meaning "great thing" or "big land" (mother of all lands), and which the Spanish later named Hispaniola . At the time, the island's territory consisted of five chiefdoms: Marién, Maguá, Maguana, Jaragua, and Higüey. [2] These were ruled respectively by caciques (chiefs) Guacanagarix, Guarionex, Caonabo , Bohechío, and Cayacoa.
On his first voyage the navigator Christopher Columbus , arrived in 1492 under the Spanish Crown as he landed on a large island in the region of the western Atlantic Ocean that later came to be known as the Caribbean . Columbus promptly claimed the island for the Spanish Crown , naming it La Isla Española ("the Spanish Island"), later Latinized to Hispaniola . He established a settlement in the northern part of the island, which later came under attack by the people of the area. The native Taínos' egalitarian social system clashed with the Europeans' feudalist system, which had more rigid class structures. The Europeans believed the Taínos to be misled, and they began to treat the tribes with violence.
After the sinking of the Santa María ship Columbus established a military fort to support his claim to the island. The fort was called La Navidad because the shipwrecking and the founding of the fort occurred on Christmas Day. While Columbus was away, the garrison manning the fort was wracked by divisions that evolved into conflict. The more rapacious men began to terrorize the Taíno, the Ciguayo , and the Macorix peoples. The powerful Cacique Caonabo of the Maguana Chiefdom attacked the Europeans and destroyed La Navidad.
In 1493, Columbus returned to the island on his second voyage and founded the first Spanish colony in the New World, the city of Isabella. In 1496, his brother Bartholomew Columbus established the settlement of Santo Domingo de Guzmán on the southern coast, which became the new capital. An estimated 400,000 Tainos living on the island were soon enslaved to work in gold mines. By 1508, their numbers had decreased to around 60,000 because of forced labor, hunger, disease, and mass killings. By 1535, only a few dozen were still alive. [3]
Dating from 1496, when the Spanish settled on the island, and officially from 5 August 1498, Santo Domingo became the first European city in the Americas. Bartholomew Columbus founded the settlement and named it La Nueva Isabela, after an earlier settlement in the north named after the Queen of Spain Isabella I . [4] In 1495 it was renamed "Santo Domingo", in honor of Saint Dominic , the patron saint of astronomy .
Santo Domingo came to be known as the "Gateway to the New World" and the chief city and capital of all Spanish colonies in the Americas during the colonization era. [5] Spanish Expeditions which led to Ponce de León 's colonization of Puerto Rico , Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 's colonization of Cuba , Hernando Cortes ' conquest of Mexico , and Vasco Núñez de Balboa 's discovery of the Pacific Ocean were all launched from Santo Domingo.
A large discovery of gold was also found in the island, in the Cordillera Central mountain region, which led to a mining boom and a gold rush that lasted from 1500 until 1508. [6] : 44, 50, 57–58, 74 Ferdinand II of Aragon "ordered gold from the richest mines reserved for the Crown." The total sum of gold extracted during the first two decades in the Island was estimated at 30,000 kilos, an amount greater than the totality of production in Europe in those years and above the total gold collected by the Portuguese in Africa.
The colony's Spanish leadership changed several times, when Columbus departed on another exploration, Francisco de Bobadilla became governor. Settlers' allegations of mismanagement by Columbus helped create a tumultuous political situation. In 1502, Nicolás de Ovando replaced de Bobadilla as governor, it was he who dealt most brutally with the Taíno people. In June 1502, [7] Santo Domingo was destroyed by a major hurricane, and the new Governor Nicolás de Ovando had it rebuilt on a different site on the other side of the Ozama River . [8] [6] : 55, 73
In 1503 the Hospital San Nicolás de Bari , first hospital in the Americas, begins construction at the behest of governor (and namesake of the hospital) Nicolás de Ovando . This grand project was in keeping with the desire to emulate European princely courts, and looked to Renaissance Italy for inspiration. [9] At the time of its completion, the wards could accommodate up to 70 patients, comparable to the most advanced churches of Rome. [10]
In 1509, the Reales Atarazanas (Royal Shipyards), a waterside building that housed the shipyards, warehouses, customs house and tax offices in the port of Santo Domingo , began construction. [11] In addition to serving as warehouses, the complex also housed the Santo Domingo office of the Casa de la Contratación , headquartered in Seville . Thus, the Atarazanas also served as the first customs and tax house of the New World . Management was contracted by the Crown to the powerful Welser banking family , which had a slave trading empire.
The Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand I and Isabella granted permission to the colonists of the Caribbean to import African slaves , and in 1510 the first sizable shipment consisting of 250 Black Ladinos arrived in Hispaniola from Spain. Eight years later African-born slaves arrived in the West Indies . Sugar cane was introduced to Hispaniola from the Canary Islands , and the first sugar mill in the New World was established in 1516. [12] The need for a labor force to meet the growing demands of sugar cane cultivation led to an exponential increase in the importation of slaves over the following two decades. The sugar mill owners soon formed a new colonial elite, and initially convinced the Spanish king to allow them to elect the members of the Real Audiencia from their ranks. Diego Colon arrived in 1509, assuming the powers of Viceroy and admiral. In 1512, Ferdinand established a Real Audiencia with Juan Ortiz de Matienzo , Marcelo de Villalobos, and Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon appointed as judges of appeal. In 1514, Pedro Ibanez de Ibarra arrived with the Laws of Burgos . Rodrigo de Alburquerque was named repartidor de indios and soon named visitadores to enforce the laws. [6] : 143–144, 147
The first major slave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo on 26 December 1522, when enslaved Muslims of the Wolof nation led an uprising in the sugar plantation of admiral Don Diego Colon , son of Christopher Columbus . Many of these insurgents managed to escape to the mountains where they formed independent maroon communities in the south of the island, but the Admiral also had a lot of captured rebels hanged. [13]
Another rebel also fought back, the native Taino Enriquillo led a group who fled to the mountains and attacked the Spanish repeatedly for fourteen years. The Spanish ultimately offered him a peace treaty and gave Enriquillo and his followers their own city in 1534. By 1545, there were an estimated 7,000 maroons beyond Spanish control on Hispaniola. The Bahoruco Mountains in the south-west were their main area of concentration, although Africans had escaped to other areas of the island as well.
By the 1540s, the Caribbean Sea had become overrun with European pirates from England, France, and the Netherlands. In 1541, Spain authorized the construction of Santo Domingo's fortified wall, and decided to restrict sea travel to enormous, well-armed convoys. In another move, which would destroy Hispaniola 's sugar industry, Havana , more strategically located in relation to the Gulf Stream , was selected as the designated stopping point for the merchant flotas , which had a royal monopoly on commerce with the Americas. With the conquest of the Spanish Main , Hispaniola slowly declined. Many Spanish colonists left for the silver-mines of the American mainland , while new immigrants from Spain bypassed the island. Agriculture dwindled, new imports of slaves ceased, and white colonists, free blacks, and slaves alike lived in poverty, weakening the racial hierarchy and aiding intermixing , resulting in a population of predominantly mixed Spaniard, Taíno, and African descent. Except for the city of Santo Domingo, which managed to maintain some legal exports, Dominican ports were forced to rely on contraband trade, which, along with livestock, became the sole source of livelihood for the island dwellers.
In 1586, Francis Drake captured the city and held it for ransom. [14] Drake's invasion signaled the decline of Spanish dominion over the Caribbean region, which was accentuated in the early 17th century by policies that resulted in the depopulation of most of the island outside of the capital. An expedition sent by Oliver Cromwell in 1655 attacked the city of Santo Domingo, but was defeated. The English troops withdrew and took the less guarded colony of Jamaica , instead. [15] In 1697, the Treaty of Ryswick included the acknowledgement by Spain of France's dominion over the Western third of the island, now Haiti .
In 1605, Spain, unhappy that Santo Domingo was facilitating trade between its other colonies and other European powers, attacked vast parts of the colony's northern and western regions, forcibly resettling their inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo. [16] This action, known as the devastaciones de Osorio , proved disastrous; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease. [17] The city of Santo Domingo was subjected to a smallpox epidemic, cacao blight, and hurricane in 1666; another storm two years later; a second epidemic in 1669; a third hurricane in September 1672; plus an earthquake in May 1673 that killed two dozen residents. [18] San José de Ocoa, the best-known maroon settlement in Santo Domingo, was subjugated by the Spanish in 1666.
In the 17th century, the French began occupying the unpopulated western third of Hispaniola. In 1625, French and English pirates arrived on the western side of the island. The pirates were attacked in 1629 by Spanish forces commanded by Don Fadrique de Toledo , who fortified the island, and expelled the French and English. In 1654, the Spanish re-captured the west side the island . [19]
In 1655 the west of Hispaniola was reoccupied by the English and French. In 1660 the English appointed a Frenchman as Governor who proclaimed the King of France, set up French colours, and defeated several English attempts to reclaim the island. [20] In 1665, French colonization of the island was officially recognized by King Louis XIV . The French colony was given the name Saint-Domingue . By 1670 a Welsh privateer named Henry Morgan invited the pirates on the island of Tortuga to set sail under him. They were hired by the French as a striking force that allowed France to have a much stronger hold on the Caribbean region. Consequently, the pirates never really controlled the island and kept Tortuga as a neutral hideout. The capital of the French Colony of Saint-Domingue was moved from Tortuga to Port-de-Paix on the mainland of Hispaniola in 1676.
In 1680, new Acts of Parliament forbade sailing under foreign flags (in opposition to former practice). This was a major legal blow to the Caribbean pirates. Settlements were made in the Treaty of Ratisbon of 1684, signed by the European powers, that put an end to piracy. Most of the pirates after this time were hired out into the Royal services to suppress their former buccaneer allies. In the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick , Spain formally ceded the western third of the island to France. [21] [22] It was an important port in the Americas for goods and products flowing to and from France and Europe. Intermittent clashes between French and Spanish colonists followed, even after the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick recognized the de facto occupations of France and Spain around the globe. Periodic confrontations also continued despite a 1731 agreement that partially defined a border between the two colonies along the Massacre and Pedernales rivers. In 1777, the Treaty of Aranjuez established a definitive border between what Spain called Santo Domingo and what the French named Saint-Domingue , thus ending 150 years of local conflicts and imperial ambitions to extend control over the island. [23]
The House of Bourbon replaced the House of Habsburg in Spain in 1700 and introduced economic reforms that gradually began to revive trade in Santo Domingo. The crown progressively relaxed the rigid controls and restrictions on commerce between Spain and the colonies and among the colonies. The last flotas sailed in 1737; the monopoly port system was abolished shortly thereafter. Many Spaniards and Hispaniola-born Creoles also then became pirates and privateers. By the middle of the century, the population was bolstered by emigration from the Canary Islands , resettling the northern part of the colony and planting tobacco in the Cibao Valley , and importation of slaves was renewed.
Santo Domingo's exports soared and the island's agricultural productivity rose, which was assisted by the involvement of Spain in the Seven Years' War , allowing privateers operating out of Santo Domingo to once again patrol surrounding waters for enemy merchantmen . [24] Dominican pirates captured British, Dutch, French and Danish ships throughout the eighteenth century. [25] Dominicans constituted one of the many diverse units which fought under Bernardo de Gálvez during the conquest of British West Florida (1779–1781). [26] [27]
Dominican privateers had already been active in the Guerra del Asiento decades prior, and they sharply reduced the amount of enemy trade operating in West Indian waters. [24] The prizes they took were carried back to Santo Domingo, where their cargoes were sold to the colony's inhabitants or to foreign merchants doing business there. During this period, Spanish privateers from Santo Domingo sailed into enemy ports looking for ships to plunder, thus disrupting commerce between Spain's enemies in the Atlantic . As a result of these developments, Spanish privateers frequently sailed back into Santo Domingo with their holds filled with captured plunder which were sold in Hispaniola's ports, with profits accruing to individual sea raiders. The revenue acquired in these acts of piracy was invested in the economic expansion of the colony and led to repopulation from Europe. [28] The enslaved population of the colony also rose dramatically, as numerous captive Africans were taken from enemy slave ships in West Indian waters. [24] The author of Idea del valor de la Isla Española emphasized the activities of Dominican privateer Lorenzo Daniel (also known as Lorencín Daniel), and noted that in his career as a privateer, Daniel captured more than 60 enemy ships, including "those used for trade as well as war”. [a]
The population of Santo Domingo grew to approximately 125,000 in the year 1791. Of this number, 40,000 were white landowners, about 70,000 were mulatto freedmen, and some 15,000 were black slaves. [30] This contrasted sharply with neighboring Saint-Domingue (Haiti), which had an enslaved population of over 500,000, representing 90% of the French colony's population, and overall seven times as numerous as the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo. [31] The French had become the wealthiest colonists in the Western Hemisphere due to the exploitation of their massive slave population. As restrictions on colonial trade were relaxed, the colonial French elites of St. Domingue offered the principal market for Santo Domingo's exports of beef, hides, mahogany and tobacco. The 'Spanish' settlers, whose blood by now was mixed with that of Taínos, Africans, and Canary Guanches, proclaimed: 'It does not matter if the French are richer than us, we are still the true inheritors of this island. In our veins runs the blood of the heroic conquistadores who won this island of ours with sword and blood.' [32] . [33]
With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution , the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy left the island, while most of the rural hateros (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market. Nevertheless, the Spanish crown back in Europe saw in the unrest an opportunity to seize all, or part, of the western region of the island in an alliance of convenience with the rebellious slaves. The Spanish governor of Santo Domingo purchased the allegiance of mulatto and black rebel leaders and their personal armies. [34] In July 1793, Spanish forces, including former slaves, crossed the border and pushed back the disheveled French forces before them. [34]
Although the Spanish and Dominican soldiers had been successful in the island during their battles against the French, [34] such had not been the case in the European front, as Spain and Portugal lost the War of the Pyrenees , and on July 22, 1795, the French Republic and Spanish crown signed the Treaty of Basel . Frenchmen were to return to their side of the Pyrenees in Europe and Spanish Santo Domingo was to be ceded to France. This period called the Era de Francia , lasted until 1809 until being recaptured by the Dominican general Juan Sanchez Ramirez in the reconquest of Santo Domingo .
|Cities and towns||Foundation|
|Isabela||1492|
|Concepción de la Vega||1494|
|San Antonio de Bonao||1494|
|Santiago de los Caballeros||1495|
|Santo Domingo||1496|
|San Felipe de Puerto Plata||1499|
|Santa Cruz del Seybo||1502|
|Santa María de la Vera Paz||1503|
|Les Cayes||1503|
|Lares de Guaba||1503|
|Salvaleón de Higüey||1503|
|San Juan de la Maguana||1503|
|Compostela de Azua||1504|
|Villanueva de Yáquimo||1504|
|Puerto Real de Bayajá||1504|
|La Buenaventura||1504|
|Cotuy||1505|
|San Fernando de Monte Cristi||1506|
|Hato Mayor del Rey||1520|
|Sabana Grande de Boyá||1535|
|Neyba||1546|
|Peralvillo||1601|
|San Juan Bautista de Bayaguana||1606|
|Monte Plata||1606|
|Concepción de Hincha||1704|
|Santa Bárbara de Samaná||1756|
|Sabana de la Mar||1760|
|Saint-Raphaël, Haiti||1761|
|San Gabriel de Las Caobas||1763|
|Baní||1764|
|San Miguel de la Atalaya||1768|
|San Francisco de Macorís||1778|
|San José de los Llanos||1779|
|Las Matas de Farfán||1780|
The St. Thomas Aquinas University, today the Autonomous University of Santo Domingo , is the first institution of higher education in the Americas . It was founded by papal bull in 1538 in Santo Domingo . The headquarters of the university was the Church and Convent of los Dominicos . Founded during the reign of Charles I of Spain , it was originally a seminary operated by Catholic monks of the Dominican Order . Later, the institution received a university charter by Pope Paul III 's papal bull In Apostulatus Culmine , dated October 28, 1538.
In its structure and purpose the new university was modeled after the University of Alcalá in the city of Henares, Spain. In this capacity it became a standard-bearer for the medieval ideology of the Spanish Conquest , and gained its royal charter in 1558. In this royal decree, the university was given the name University of Saint Thomas Aquinas (Universidad Santo Tomás de Aquino).
The university was closed in 1801 under the French, but reopened in 1815 as a secular institution. [35]
The Archdiocese of Santo Domingo is considered the first episcopal seat in America. Of all the dioceses in the north and south of the American continent, only the archbishop of Santo Domingo corresponds to the title of first of the Indies. It is the oldest of the surviving dioceses in the Americas, the Diocese of Santo Domingo was created on August 8, 1511 by Pope Julius II's bull Romanus Pontifex of August 8, 1511. In those days, the diocese of Concepción (today in La Vega, Dominican Republic). In 1527 the diocese of Concepción de la Vega was abolished, leaving the entire island of Hispaniola under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Santo Domingo.
It was elevated to Metropolitan Archdiocese on February 12, 1546, through the bull Super universas orbis ecclesiae of Pope Paul III, being its first archbishop Alonso de Fuenmayor. The Diocese of Puerto Rico, the Diocese of Venezuela (with headquarters in Coro, founded in 1531; today the Archdiocese of Caracas), the Diocese of Cuba (with headquarters in Santiago de Cuba, initially founded in Baracoa in 1518; today Archdiocese of Santiago de Cuba), the Diocese of Honduras (based in Comayagua, initially founded in Trujillo in 1531; today Archdiocese of Tegucigalpa) and the territorial abbey of Jamaica (suppressed in 1655).
The Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo was the first court of the Spanish crown in America. It was created by Ferdinand V of Castile in his decree of 1511, and was implemented by Charles V in his decree of September 14, 1526. This audiencia would become part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain upon the creation of the latter two decades later.
The audiencia president was at the same time governor and captain general of the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, which granted him broad administrative powers and autonomy over the Spanish possessions of the Caribbean and most of its mainland coasts . This combined with the judicial oversight that the audiencia judges had over the region meant that the Santo Domingo Audiencia was the principal political entity of this region during the colonial period .
— We order that in the City of Santo Domingo on the Island of Hispaniola reside our Royal Audiencia and Chancellory, as it has been established, with a president, who shall be governor and captain general; four judges of civil cases , who shall also serve as judges of criminal cases ; a crown attorney; a bailiff; and a lieutenant of the Gran Chancellor; and the other necessary ministers and officials, which will have for district all of the Lesser Antilles , and the coast of Tierra Firme , and in them the Governments of Venezuela , New Andalusia , Riohacha , which is of the Government of Santa Marta ; and in Guayana or Province of El Dorado, the regions which it now has and no more; dividing territory in the south with the four Audiencias of the New Kingdom of Granada , Tierra Firme [Panama], Guatemala and New Spain , along the coasts which run along the west of North Sea , with the Provinces of Florida , and with the rest in the North Sea; and that the president-governor-captain general can order and will order what is necessary in military matters and relating to the good governance and defense of said Island of Santo Domingo.
In 1501 Queen Isabella declared Native Americans as subjects to the crown, this implied that enslaving them was illegal except on very specific conditions. This would lead to the necessity of importing African slaves to the island in the years to come. Native chiefs were responsible for keeping track of the laborers in their community. The encomienda system did not grant people land, but it indirectly aided in the conquistadors and settlers' acquisition of land with the intent of establishing new towns and populations. As initially defined, the encomendero and his heirs expected to hold these grants in perpetuity.
The encomiendas became very corrupt and harsh. In the neighborhood of La Concepción, north of Santo Domingo, the adelantado of Santiago heard rumors of a 15,000-man army of Tainos planning to stage a rebellion. [36] Upon hearing this, the adelantado captured the caciques involved and had most of them hanged.
Later, a chieftain named Guarionex laid havoc to the countryside before an army of about 3,090 routed the Ciguana people under his leadership. [37] Although expecting Spanish protection from warring tribes, the islanders sought to join the Spanish forces. They helped the Spaniards deal with their ignorance of the surrounding environment. [38] The change of requiring the encomendado to be returned to the crown after two generations was frequently overlooked, as the colonists did not want to give up the labor or power.
Contemporary map showing the border situation on Hispaniola following the Treaty of Aranjuez
- ^ During the war of 1762, a packet boat, a brigantine, six sloops, two schooners, and a coastal vessel were brought into port and it was Dominican corsairs, Lorenzo Daniel, Juan Bautista San Marcos, Juan Cueto, and Domingo Alberto Serrano who brought them in. [29]
- ^ Spain (1680). Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias. Titulo Quince. De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias . Madrid. Spanish-language facsimile of the original .
- ^ Perez, Cosme E. (20 December 2011). Quisqueya: un país en el mundo: La Revelación Maya Del 2012 . Palibrio. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4633-1368-5 . Retrieved 4 June 2012 .
- ^ Hartlyn, Jonathan (1998). The Struggle for Democratic Politics in the Dominican Republic . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 25. ISBN 0-8078-4707-0 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Dominican Republic - THE FIRST COLONY | The island of Hispaniola (La Isla Española) was the first New World colony settled by Spain. As such, it served as the logistical base for the conquest of most of the Western Hemisphere. Christopher Columbus first sighted the island in 1492 toward the end of his first voyage to "the Indies." Columbus and his crew found the island inhabited by a large population of friendly Taino Indians (Arawaks), who made the explorers welcome. The land was fertile, but of greater importance to the Spaniards was the discovery that gold could be obtained either by barter with the natives, who adorned themselves with golden jewelry, or by extraction from alluvial deposits on the island.
After several attempts to plant colonies along the north coast of Hispaniola, Spain's first permanent settlement in the New World was established on the southern coast at the present site of Santo Domingo. Under Spanish sovereignty, the entire island bore the name Santo Domingo. Indications of the presence of gold--the life's blood of the nascent mercantilist system--and a population of tractable natives who could be used as laborers combined to attract many Spanish newcomers during the early years. Most were adventurers who, at least initially, were more interested in acquiring sudden wealth than they were in settling the land. Their relations with the Taino Indians, whom they ruthlessly maltreated, deteriorated from the beginning. Aroused by continued seizures of their food supplies, other exactions, and abuse of their women, the formerly peaceful Indians rebelled- -only to be crushed decisively in 1495.
Columbus, who ruled the colony as royal governor until 1499, attempted to put an end to the more serious abuses to which the Indians were subjected by prohibiting foraging expeditions against them and by regulating the informal taxation imposed by the settlers. Being limited to this milder form of exploitation engendered active opposition among the settlers. To meet their demands, Columbus devised the repartimiento system of land settlement and native labor under which a settler, without assuming any obligation to the authorities, could be granted in perpetuity a large tract of land together with the services of the Indians living on it.
The repartimiento system did nothing to improve the lot of the Indians, and the Spanish crown changed it by instituting the system of encomienda in 1503. Under the encomienda system, all land became in theory the property of the crown, and the Indians thus were considered tenants on royal land. The crown's right to service from the tenants could be transferred in trust to individual Spanish settlers ( encomenderos ) by formal grant and the regular payment of tribute. The encomenderos were entitled to certain days of labor from the Indians, who became their charges. Encomenderos thus assumed the responsibility of providing for the physical well-being of the Indians and for their instruction in Christianity. An encomienda theoretically did not involve ownership of land; in practice, however, possession was gained through other means.
The hard work demanded of the Indians and the privations that they suffered demonstrated the unrealistic nature of the encomienda system, which effectively operated on a honor system as a result of the absence of enforcement efforts by Spanish authorities. The Indian population died off rapidly from exhaustion, starvation, disease, and other causes. By 1548 the Taino population, estimated at 1 million in 1492, had been reduced to approximately 500. The consequences were profound. The need for a new labor force to meet the growing demands of sugarcane cultivation prompted the importation of African slaves beginning in 1503. By 1520, black African labor was used almost exclusively.
The early grants of land without obligation under the repartimiento system resulted in a rapid decentralization of power. Each landowner possessed virtually sovereign authority. Power was diffused because of the tendency of the capital city, Santo Domingo (which also served as the seat of government for the entire Spanish Indies), to orient itself toward the continental Americas, which provided gold for the crown, and toward Spain, which provided administrators, supplies, and immigrants for the colonies. Local government was doomed to ineffectiveness because there was little contact between the capital and the hinterland; for practical purposes, the countryside fell under the sway of the large landowners. Throughout Dominican history, this sociopolitical order was a major factor in the development of some of the distinctive characteristics of the nation's political culture such as paternalism, personalism, and the tendency toward strong, even authoritarian, leadership.
As early as the 1490s, the landowners demonstrated their power by successfully conspiring against Columbus. His successor, Francisco de Bobadilla, was appointed chief justice and royal commissioner by the Spanish crown in 1499. Bobadilla sent Columbus back to Spain in irons, but Queen Isabella soon ordered him released. Bobadilla proved an inept administrator, and he was replaced in 1503 by the more efficient Nicolás de Ovando, who assumed the titles of governor and supreme justice. Because of his success in initiating reforms desired by the crown--the encomienda system among them--de Ovando received the title of Founder of Spain's Empire in the Indies.
In 1509 Columbus's son, Diego Columbus, was appointed governor of the colony of Santo Domingo. Diego's ambition and the splendid surroundings he provided for himself aroused the suspicions of the crown. As a resulted, in 1511 of the crown established the audiencia , a new political institution intended to check the power of the governor. The first audiencia was simply a tribunal composed of three judges whose jurisdiction extended over all the West Indies. In this region, it formed the highest court of appeal. Employment of the audiencia eventually spread throughout Spanish America.
The tribunal's influence grew, and in 1524 it was designated the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo, with jurisdiction in the Caribbean, the Atlantic coast of Central America and Mexico, and the northern coast of South America, including all of what is now Venezuela and part of present-day Colombia. As a court representing the crown, the audiencia was given expanded powers that encompassed administrative, legislative, and consultative functions; the number of judges increased correspondingly. In criminal cases the audiencia 's decisions were final, but important civil suits could be appealed to the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies (Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias) in Spain.
The Council of the Indies, created by Charles V in 1524, was the Spanish crown's main agency for directing colonial affairs. During most of its existence, the council exercised almost absolute power in making laws, administering justice, controlling finance and trade, supervising the church, and directing armies.
The arm of the Council of the Indies that dealt with all matters concerning commerce between Spain and its colonies in the Americas was the House of Trade (Casa de Contratación), organized in 1503. Control of commerce in general, and of tax collection in particular, was facilitated by the designation of monopoly seaports on either side of the Atlantic Ocean. During most of the colonial period, overseas trade consisted largely of annual convoys between monopoly ports. Trade between the colonies and countries other than Spain was prohibited. The crown also restricted trade among the colonies. These restrictions hampered economic activity in the New World and encouraged contraband traffic.
The Roman Catholic Church became the primary agent in spreading Spanish culture in the Americas. The ecclesiastical organization developed for Santo Domingo and later extended throughout Spanish America reflected a union of church and state actually closer than that prevailing in Spain itself. The Royal Patronage of the Indies (Real Patronato de las Indias, or, as it was called later, the Patronato Real) served as the organizational agent of this affiliation of the church and the Spanish crown.
Santo Domingo's prestige began to decline in the first part of the sixteenth century with the conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés in 1521 and the discovery there, and later in Peru, of great wealth in gold and silver. These events coincided with the exhaustion of the alluvial deposits of gold and the dying off of the Indian labor force in Santo Domingo. Large numbers of colonists left for Mexico and Peru; new immigrants from Spain largely bypassed Santo Domingo for the greater wealth to be found in lands to the west. The population of Santo Domingo dwindled, agriculture languished, and Spain soon became preoccupied with its richer and vaster mainland colonies.
The stagnation that prevailed in Santo Domingo for the next 250 years was interrupted on several occasions by armed engagements, as the French and the English attempted to weaken Spain's economic and political dominance in the New World. In 1586 the English admiral, Sir Francis Drake, captured the city of Santo Domingo and collected a ransom for its return to Spanish control. In 1655 Oliver Cromwell dispatched an English fleet, commanded by Sir William Penn, to take Santo Domingo. After meeting heavy resistance, the English sailed farther west and took Jamaica instead.
The withdrawal of the colonial government from the northern coastal region opened the way for French buccaneers, who had a base on Tortuga Island (Ile de la Tortue), off the northwest coast of present-day Haiti, to settle on Hispaniola in the mid- seventeenth century. Although the Spanish destroyed the buccaneers' settlements several times, the determined French would not be deterred or expelled. The creation of the French West India Company in 1664 signalled France's intention to colonize western Hispaniola. Intermittent warfare went on between French and Spanish settlers over the next three decades; however, Spain, hard-pressed by warfare in Europe, could not maintain a garrison in Santo Domingo sufficient to secure the entire island against encroachment. In 1697, under the Treaty of Ryswick, Spain ceded the western third of the island to France. The exact boundary of this territory (Saint-Domingue--now Haiti) was not established at the time of cession and remained in question until 1929.
During the first years of the eighteenth century, landowners in the Spanish colony did little with their huge holdings, and the sugar plantations along the southern coast were abandoned because of harassment by pirates. Foreign trade all but ceased, and almost all domestic commerce took place in the capital city.
The Bourbon dynasty replaced the Habsburgs in Spain in 1700. The new regime introduced innovations--especially economic reforms--that gradually began to revive trade in Santo Domingo. The crown progressively relaxed the rigid controls and restrictions on commerce between the mother country and the colonies and among the colonies. The last convoys sailed in 1737; the monopoly port system was abolished shortly thereafter. By the middle of the century, both immigration and the importation of slaves had increased.
In 1765 the Caribbean islands received authorization for almost unlimited trade with Spanish ports; permission for the Spanish colonies in the Americas to trade among themselves followed in 1774. Duties on many commodities were greatly reduced or were removed altogether. By 1790 traders from any port in Spain could buy and sell anywhere in Spanish America, and by 1800 Spain had opened colonial trade to all neutral vessels.
As a result of the stimulus provided by the trade reforms, the population of the colony of Santo Domingo increased from about 6,000 in 1737 to approximately 125,000 in 1790. Of this number, about 40,000 were white landowners, about 25,000 were black or mulatto freedmen, and some 60,000 were slaves. The composition of Santo Domingo's population contrasted sharply with that of the neighboring French colony of Saint-Domingue, where some 30,000 whites and 27,000 freedmen extracted labor from at least 500,000 black slaves. To the Spanish colonists, Saint- Domingue represented a powder keg, the eventual explosion of which would echo throughout the island.
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Source: U.S. Library of Congress | https://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/3.htm | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Unit 1 - Spain in the New World to 1600 - Fort Raleigh National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service) | Bristol Mariners seem to have visited Canada in the 1480s, and Christopher Columbus may have learned of, and been inspired by, their voyages. In 1492, William Ayers, an Irishman undoubtedly familiar with English activities, sailed with Columbus on the Santa Maria. In 1497 and 1498 John Cabot, like Columbus a Genoese expatriate, explored eastern Canada under the English flag. By 1502 Englishmen were trading in Newfoundland and parts south, and organizing syndicates, some involving Azorean Portuguese, to exploit the fisheries there. England did not miss the entire European rediscovery of the Western Hemisphere, but did retire early. While England slept, Spain became dominant in the New World and on the high seas.
The Caribbean and the Mainland
In 1493, during his second voyage, Columbus founded Isabela, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the New World, on Hispaniola. After finding gold in recoverable quantities nearby, the Spanish quickly overran the island and spread to Puerto Rico in 1508, to Jamaica in 1509, and to Cuba in 1511. The natives fared badly. Many died in one-sided armed conflict with soldiers and settlers, or in forced servitude in mines and on plantations. Others died of diseases to which they had no immunity. By mid-century, the native Ciboney of Hispaniola and western Cuba were extinct, and other tribes, including the Arawak of Puerto Rico, were nearly so.
Beginning in 1508, Spanish settlements sprang up on the mainland of Central and South America. In 1519, just six years after Balboa had crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the entire Pacific Ocean for Spain, Pedro Arias de Avila, Balboa's father-in-law and executioner, founded the city of Panama on the Pacific coast. The same year, Hernan Cortes led a small force from Cuba to the Gulf coast of Mexico, founded Veracruz , and set about destroying the Aztec empire. Most of Mexico fell within two years. Subsequent conquistadors followed the example set by Cortes. By 1532, Francisco Pizarro, had effected the early stages of his conquest of the Inca empire of Peru. By 1550 Spain had dominion over the West Indies and Central America and its large surviving native population.
New World mines yielded gold and silver for Spain in far greater amounts than France and Portugal had ever been able to extract from West Africa. One-fifth of the total production, the quinto real, went to the Spanish Crown. The average value of silver shipped to Spain rose to a million pesos a year before the conquest of Peru, and to more than 35 million a year by the end of the century. Cacao, cochineal, hides, spices, sugar, timber, and tobacco yielded additional income. Seville, through which all legal trade with the colonies passed, became a great financial center and nearly quadrupled in size between 1517 and 1594.
With such wealth at stake, Spain was concerned about possible interference by other nations. Initially, only Portugal posed a serious threat to Spanish monopoly. At the Pope's insistence Spain and Portugal had ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Intended to exclude Spain from Africa and India, and Portugal from the Far East, this treaty also effectively deprived Spain of any legitimate claim to much of present-day Brazil. Shortly after the ratification of the treaty, Portugal gained control of trade with the Spice Islands, and showed occasional interest in Newfoundland. In 1580, to eliminate the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain annexed Portugal. Although Spain mortgaged Venezuela to a German banking house for a brief period (1528-1547), she was successful in keeping most interlopers out of her holdings from Mexico to Chile for the remainder of the sixteenth century.
North America
The nine-tenths of North America lying north and east of Mexico was another matter. In the early 1500s, Spain made a few attempts to explore Florida and the Gulf coast. Around 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, conqueror of Puerto Rico, conducted the first reconnaissance of the area. In 1519 Alonso Alvarez de Pineda explored and mapped the Gulf of Mexico. Two years later, Ponce de Leon died in a disastrous attempt to build a settlement in Florida, and Spain withdrew from further serious efforts to establish a permanent presence there for another half-century.
The first Spanish town in what is now the United States was not in Florida, but somewhere between 30 degrees and 34 degrees North. It was built in 1526, by Luis Vasquez de Ayllon, a Spanish official based on Hispaniola. In 1520, Ayllon had ordered a slaving expedition, and in 1526, set out himself with approximately 500 Spanish colonists--including women, children, and three Dominican friars--and a number of African slaves. After a false start, Ayllon built the town of San Miguel de Guadalupe. His venture was doomed from the outset. The principals of the colony quarreled, Indians attacked, slaves rebelled, and Ayllon died. Only 150 survivors returned to Hispaniola. Later, in 1528 a slightly smaller group under Narvaez plundered and skirmished along the Gulf coast from Yampa Bay to Texas, where it disintegrated. Cabeza de Vaca and three other members finally reached Mexico in 1536. From 1539 to 1543 de Soto and, after his death, Moscoso led an ever-shrinking party on a circuitous route through the southeastern and southcentral United States. From 1540 to 1542 Coronado explored the Southwest. In all cases, these Spanish explorers antagonized the Indians and failed to entice settlers to the higher latitudes.
France
The parts of North America neglected by Spain were attractive on that account to her ancient enemy--France. Although the Treaty of Tordesillas had given France no share of the New World, the French crown ignored the arrangement. Francis I underwrote Verrazzano's exploratory voyage (1524) and the more ambitious enterprises of Cartier and Roberval on the St. Lawrence (1534-1543). Even though war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire impeded French expansion in the 1520s and 1530s, and the death of Henry II in 1559 led to civil and religious strife that nearly tore the country apart, France was the largest and most populous kingdom in western Europe and still a formidable adversary. Expecting a French challenge in North America, Spain sent a large contingent (1559-1561) to secure a settlement site on the Gulf and an overland route thence to the coast of Georgia or South Carolina. In 1561, Angel de Villafane followed the Atlantic coast north past Cape Fear, looking for suitable sites and any foreigners making unauthorized use of them. Villafane dismissed the area as worthless. The next year, however, Jean Ribault, under the banner of France, built Charlesfort, probably on Port Royal Sound, South Carolina. Charlesfort lasted only a few months, but this French incursion and well-founded rumors about a second, to the south, caused King Philip II of Spain to send Pedro Menendez de Aviles to establish a settlement in Florida, and to expel any Frenchmen in the area.
Menendez arrived in August 1565 and wasted no time laying out the first St. Augustine. In September and October he massacred the French Garrison of Fort Caroline, at the mouth of the St. Johns River. In due course he founded ten outposts in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina (1565-1567); ordered exploration of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts (1570); and personally avenged (1572) the Jesuits' murder by Indians. Menendez, a strong supporter of colonization, was nearly alone in his enthusiasm for the region. His death in 1574 resulted in a decline of Spanish colonies in the area. Through Philip II continued to be interested until his death in 1598, the lack of an on-site manager with the enthusiasm and ability of Menendez made it easier for another country ignored at Tordesillas to reenter the struggle for empire in the New World.
England Redux
The prodigious wealth flowing into Spain from its colonies and crown efforts to monopolize colonial trade prompted international smuggling and piracy. As a seafaring nation with few continental distractions and only one border to defend, England was a natural leader in both enterprises.
Shortly after her accession to the English throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth disestablished Roman Catholicism once and for all. She further widened the breech with Catholic Spain by rejecting Philip's proposals of marriage, and by overlooking her subjects unofficial trade with Spanish colonies and attacks on Spanish shipping. John Hawkins' first voyage to the Caribbean with African slaves (1562-1563) had been so profitable that the queen herself invested in the second and third. When Hawkins anchored at the Mexican port of San Juan de Ullua on his third voyage in 1568, however, the Spanish retaliated with great force and skill. Only two English ships escaped. The incident poisoned Anglo-Spanish relations for the rest of the century. As a consequence, English depredations increased in frequency. From 1577 to 1580 Sir Francis Drake, who had been with Hawkins, humiliated Spain by circumnavigating the globe, much of which Spain considered its own, plundering as he went. Despite vehement Spanish protests, Elizabeth knighted him.
The passage of time did little to abate English outrage over San Juan de Ullua, nor did it reduce English covetousness of Spanish treasure and trade. In 1578 Elizabeth I revived Cabot's eighty-year-old territorial claim and permitted Humphrey Gilbert to explore and settle any part of North America not then occupied by Christians, that is, nearly all of it. Gilbert disappeared returning from Newfoundland in 1583, but his half-brother, Walter Ralegh, carried on under a slightly different patent of discovery. Ralegh and his associates developed a plan to build a base well north of St. Augustine, from which to attack Spanish shipping in the western Atlantic and exploit the mineral resources of the region. To this end, Amadas and Barlowe reconnoitered the coast in 1584, and the Grenville expedition of 1585 left 108 men on Roanoke Island under Ralph Lane. But Grenville was tardy in resupplying the colonists, and Drake, sailing homeward from victories over the Spanish at Cartagena and St. Augustine, removed them in 1586. Neither the Lane colony nor the 1587 "lost colony" had any noticeable effect on Spanish shipping. However, Spanish colonial expansion and seemingly unending sources of wealth in the New World profoundly affected English colonial policies. Drake pillaged the Caribbean in 1585-1586, broke the Bank of Spain; nearly broke the Bank of Venice, to which Spain was heavily indebted; and ruined Spanish credit. English military intervention in the Netherlands (1584) persuaded Philip to build the Armada; Drake's subsequent affront moved him to launch it. Although Drake's brazen attack on Cadiz in 1587 set Spanish plans back a year, the Armada finally sailed, and when it did, it was largely responsible for preventing timely relief of the 1587 colony on Roanoke Island. Even after the Armada suffered mortifying defeat, and Spanish attempts to find and destroy the Roanoke colony had been indolent and inept, the threat of Spanish reprisal partly dictated the site of Jamestown. Hostility left over from Spanish activities on the Chesapeake in the 1570s may have affected the Virginia colonists' early dealings with the Powhatan Confederation.
Spain did not lose her last foothold in the Americas until the Spanish-American War (1898). Spanish language and culture are still integral to daily life in much of North and South America. But the Spanish star had begun to set over the New World by 1600.
Text based on "Spain in the New World," by John D. Neville.
Edited and expanded by lebame houston and Wynne Dough
Illustrations: Vicki Wallace | https://www.nps.gov/fora/learn/education/unit-1-spain-in-the-new-world-to-1600.htm | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Unit 1 - Spain in the New World to 1600 - Fort Raleigh National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service) | Bristol Mariners seem to have visited Canada in the 1480s, and Christopher Columbus may have learned of, and been inspired by, their voyages. In 1492, William Ayers, an Irishman undoubtedly familiar with English activities, sailed with Columbus on the Santa Maria. In 1497 and 1498 John Cabot, like Columbus a Genoese expatriate, explored eastern Canada under the English flag. By 1502 Englishmen were trading in Newfoundland and parts south, and organizing syndicates, some involving Azorean Portuguese, to exploit the fisheries there. England did not miss the entire European rediscovery of the Western Hemisphere, but did retire early. While England slept, Spain became dominant in the New World and on the high seas.
The Caribbean and the Mainland
In 1493, during his second voyage, Columbus founded Isabela, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the New World, on Hispaniola. After finding gold in recoverable quantities nearby, the Spanish quickly overran the island and spread to Puerto Rico in 1508, to Jamaica in 1509, and to Cuba in 1511. The natives fared badly. Many died in one-sided armed conflict with soldiers and settlers, or in forced servitude in mines and on plantations. Others died of diseases to which they had no immunity. By mid-century, the native Ciboney of Hispaniola and western Cuba were extinct, and other tribes, including the Arawak of Puerto Rico, were nearly so.
Beginning in 1508, Spanish settlements sprang up on the mainland of Central and South America. In 1519, just six years after Balboa had crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the entire Pacific Ocean for Spain, Pedro Arias de Avila, Balboa's father-in-law and executioner, founded the city of Panama on the Pacific coast. The same year, Hernan Cortes led a small force from Cuba to the Gulf coast of Mexico, founded Veracruz , and set about destroying the Aztec empire. Most of Mexico fell within two years. Subsequent conquistadors followed the example set by Cortes. By 1532, Francisco Pizarro, had effected the early stages of his conquest of the Inca empire of Peru. By 1550 Spain had dominion over the West Indies and Central America and its large surviving native population.
New World mines yielded gold and silver for Spain in far greater amounts than France and Portugal had ever been able to extract from West Africa. One-fifth of the total production, the quinto real, went to the Spanish Crown. The average value of silver shipped to Spain rose to a million pesos a year before the conquest of Peru, and to more than 35 million a year by the end of the century. Cacao, cochineal, hides, spices, sugar, timber, and tobacco yielded additional income. Seville, through which all legal trade with the colonies passed, became a great financial center and nearly quadrupled in size between 1517 and 1594.
With such wealth at stake, Spain was concerned about possible interference by other nations. Initially, only Portugal posed a serious threat to Spanish monopoly. At the Pope's insistence Spain and Portugal had ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Intended to exclude Spain from Africa and India, and Portugal from the Far East, this treaty also effectively deprived Spain of any legitimate claim to much of present-day Brazil. Shortly after the ratification of the treaty, Portugal gained control of trade with the Spice Islands, and showed occasional interest in Newfoundland. In 1580, to eliminate the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain annexed Portugal. Although Spain mortgaged Venezuela to a German banking house for a brief period (1528-1547), she was successful in keeping most interlopers out of her holdings from Mexico to Chile for the remainder of the sixteenth century.
North America
The nine-tenths of North America lying north and east of Mexico was another matter. In the early 1500s, Spain made a few attempts to explore Florida and the Gulf coast. Around 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, conqueror of Puerto Rico, conducted the first reconnaissance of the area. In 1519 Alonso Alvarez de Pineda explored and mapped the Gulf of Mexico. Two years later, Ponce de Leon died in a disastrous attempt to build a settlement in Florida, and Spain withdrew from further serious efforts to establish a permanent presence there for another half-century.
The first Spanish town in what is now the United States was not in Florida, but somewhere between 30 degrees and 34 degrees North. It was built in 1526, by Luis Vasquez de Ayllon, a Spanish official based on Hispaniola. In 1520, Ayllon had ordered a slaving expedition, and in 1526, set out himself with approximately 500 Spanish colonists--including women, children, and three Dominican friars--and a number of African slaves. After a false start, Ayllon built the town of San Miguel de Guadalupe. His venture was doomed from the outset. The principals of the colony quarreled, Indians attacked, slaves rebelled, and Ayllon died. Only 150 survivors returned to Hispaniola. Later, in 1528 a slightly smaller group under Narvaez plundered and skirmished along the Gulf coast from Yampa Bay to Texas, where it disintegrated. Cabeza de Vaca and three other members finally reached Mexico in 1536. From 1539 to 1543 de Soto and, after his death, Moscoso led an ever-shrinking party on a circuitous route through the southeastern and southcentral United States. From 1540 to 1542 Coronado explored the Southwest. In all cases, these Spanish explorers antagonized the Indians and failed to entice settlers to the higher latitudes.
France
The parts of North America neglected by Spain were attractive on that account to her ancient enemy--France. Although the Treaty of Tordesillas had given France no share of the New World, the French crown ignored the arrangement. Francis I underwrote Verrazzano's exploratory voyage (1524) and the more ambitious enterprises of Cartier and Roberval on the St. Lawrence (1534-1543). Even though war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire impeded French expansion in the 1520s and 1530s, and the death of Henry II in 1559 led to civil and religious strife that nearly tore the country apart, France was the largest and most populous kingdom in western Europe and still a formidable adversary. Expecting a French challenge in North America, Spain sent a large contingent (1559-1561) to secure a settlement site on the Gulf and an overland route thence to the coast of Georgia or South Carolina. In 1561, Angel de Villafane followed the Atlantic coast north past Cape Fear, looking for suitable sites and any foreigners making unauthorized use of them. Villafane dismissed the area as worthless. The next year, however, Jean Ribault, under the banner of France, built Charlesfort, probably on Port Royal Sound, South Carolina. Charlesfort lasted only a few months, but this French incursion and well-founded rumors about a second, to the south, caused King Philip II of Spain to send Pedro Menendez de Aviles to establish a settlement in Florida, and to expel any Frenchmen in the area.
Menendez arrived in August 1565 and wasted no time laying out the first St. Augustine. In September and October he massacred the French Garrison of Fort Caroline, at the mouth of the St. Johns River. In due course he founded ten outposts in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina (1565-1567); ordered exploration of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts (1570); and personally avenged (1572) the Jesuits' murder by Indians. Menendez, a strong supporter of colonization, was nearly alone in his enthusiasm for the region. His death in 1574 resulted in a decline of Spanish colonies in the area. Through Philip II continued to be interested until his death in 1598, the lack of an on-site manager with the enthusiasm and ability of Menendez made it easier for another country ignored at Tordesillas to reenter the struggle for empire in the New World.
England Redux
The prodigious wealth flowing into Spain from its colonies and crown efforts to monopolize colonial trade prompted international smuggling and piracy. As a seafaring nation with few continental distractions and only one border to defend, England was a natural leader in both enterprises.
Shortly after her accession to the English throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth disestablished Roman Catholicism once and for all. She further widened the breech with Catholic Spain by rejecting Philip's proposals of marriage, and by overlooking her subjects unofficial trade with Spanish colonies and attacks on Spanish shipping. John Hawkins' first voyage to the Caribbean with African slaves (1562-1563) had been so profitable that the queen herself invested in the second and third. When Hawkins anchored at the Mexican port of San Juan de Ullua on his third voyage in 1568, however, the Spanish retaliated with great force and skill. Only two English ships escaped. The incident poisoned Anglo-Spanish relations for the rest of the century. As a consequence, English depredations increased in frequency. From 1577 to 1580 Sir Francis Drake, who had been with Hawkins, humiliated Spain by circumnavigating the globe, much of which Spain considered its own, plundering as he went. Despite vehement Spanish protests, Elizabeth knighted him.
The passage of time did little to abate English outrage over San Juan de Ullua, nor did it reduce English covetousness of Spanish treasure and trade. In 1578 Elizabeth I revived Cabot's eighty-year-old territorial claim and permitted Humphrey Gilbert to explore and settle any part of North America not then occupied by Christians, that is, nearly all of it. Gilbert disappeared returning from Newfoundland in 1583, but his half-brother, Walter Ralegh, carried on under a slightly different patent of discovery. Ralegh and his associates developed a plan to build a base well north of St. Augustine, from which to attack Spanish shipping in the western Atlantic and exploit the mineral resources of the region. To this end, Amadas and Barlowe reconnoitered the coast in 1584, and the Grenville expedition of 1585 left 108 men on Roanoke Island under Ralph Lane. But Grenville was tardy in resupplying the colonists, and Drake, sailing homeward from victories over the Spanish at Cartagena and St. Augustine, removed them in 1586. Neither the Lane colony nor the 1587 "lost colony" had any noticeable effect on Spanish shipping. However, Spanish colonial expansion and seemingly unending sources of wealth in the New World profoundly affected English colonial policies. Drake pillaged the Caribbean in 1585-1586, broke the Bank of Spain; nearly broke the Bank of Venice, to which Spain was heavily indebted; and ruined Spanish credit. English military intervention in the Netherlands (1584) persuaded Philip to build the Armada; Drake's subsequent affront moved him to launch it. Although Drake's brazen attack on Cadiz in 1587 set Spanish plans back a year, the Armada finally sailed, and when it did, it was largely responsible for preventing timely relief of the 1587 colony on Roanoke Island. Even after the Armada suffered mortifying defeat, and Spanish attempts to find and destroy the Roanoke colony had been indolent and inept, the threat of Spanish reprisal partly dictated the site of Jamestown. Hostility left over from Spanish activities on the Chesapeake in the 1570s may have affected the Virginia colonists' early dealings with the Powhatan Confederation.
Spain did not lose her last foothold in the Americas until the Spanish-American War (1898). Spanish language and culture are still integral to daily life in much of North and South America. But the Spanish star had begun to set over the New World by 1600.
Text based on "Spain in the New World," by John D. Neville.
Edited and expanded by lebame houston and Wynne Dough
Illustrations: Vicki Wallace | https://www.nps.gov/fora/learn/education/unit-1-spain-in-the-new-world-to-1600.htm | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Unit 1 - Spain in the New World to 1600 - Fort Raleigh National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service) | Bristol Mariners seem to have visited Canada in the 1480s, and Christopher Columbus may have learned of, and been inspired by, their voyages. In 1492, William Ayers, an Irishman undoubtedly familiar with English activities, sailed with Columbus on the Santa Maria. In 1497 and 1498 John Cabot, like Columbus a Genoese expatriate, explored eastern Canada under the English flag. By 1502 Englishmen were trading in Newfoundland and parts south, and organizing syndicates, some involving Azorean Portuguese, to exploit the fisheries there. England did not miss the entire European rediscovery of the Western Hemisphere, but did retire early. While England slept, Spain became dominant in the New World and on the high seas.
The Caribbean and the Mainland
In 1493, during his second voyage, Columbus founded Isabela, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the New World, on Hispaniola. After finding gold in recoverable quantities nearby, the Spanish quickly overran the island and spread to Puerto Rico in 1508, to Jamaica in 1509, and to Cuba in 1511. The natives fared badly. Many died in one-sided armed conflict with soldiers and settlers, or in forced servitude in mines and on plantations. Others died of diseases to which they had no immunity. By mid-century, the native Ciboney of Hispaniola and western Cuba were extinct, and other tribes, including the Arawak of Puerto Rico, were nearly so.
Beginning in 1508, Spanish settlements sprang up on the mainland of Central and South America. In 1519, just six years after Balboa had crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the entire Pacific Ocean for Spain, Pedro Arias de Avila, Balboa's father-in-law and executioner, founded the city of Panama on the Pacific coast. The same year, Hernan Cortes led a small force from Cuba to the Gulf coast of Mexico, founded Veracruz , and set about destroying the Aztec empire. Most of Mexico fell within two years. Subsequent conquistadors followed the example set by Cortes. By 1532, Francisco Pizarro, had effected the early stages of his conquest of the Inca empire of Peru. By 1550 Spain had dominion over the West Indies and Central America and its large surviving native population.
New World mines yielded gold and silver for Spain in far greater amounts than France and Portugal had ever been able to extract from West Africa. One-fifth of the total production, the quinto real, went to the Spanish Crown. The average value of silver shipped to Spain rose to a million pesos a year before the conquest of Peru, and to more than 35 million a year by the end of the century. Cacao, cochineal, hides, spices, sugar, timber, and tobacco yielded additional income. Seville, through which all legal trade with the colonies passed, became a great financial center and nearly quadrupled in size between 1517 and 1594.
With such wealth at stake, Spain was concerned about possible interference by other nations. Initially, only Portugal posed a serious threat to Spanish monopoly. At the Pope's insistence Spain and Portugal had ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Intended to exclude Spain from Africa and India, and Portugal from the Far East, this treaty also effectively deprived Spain of any legitimate claim to much of present-day Brazil. Shortly after the ratification of the treaty, Portugal gained control of trade with the Spice Islands, and showed occasional interest in Newfoundland. In 1580, to eliminate the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain annexed Portugal. Although Spain mortgaged Venezuela to a German banking house for a brief period (1528-1547), she was successful in keeping most interlopers out of her holdings from Mexico to Chile for the remainder of the sixteenth century.
North America
The nine-tenths of North America lying north and east of Mexico was another matter. In the early 1500s, Spain made a few attempts to explore Florida and the Gulf coast. Around 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, conqueror of Puerto Rico, conducted the first reconnaissance of the area. In 1519 Alonso Alvarez de Pineda explored and mapped the Gulf of Mexico. Two years later, Ponce de Leon died in a disastrous attempt to build a settlement in Florida, and Spain withdrew from further serious efforts to establish a permanent presence there for another half-century.
The first Spanish town in what is now the United States was not in Florida, but somewhere between 30 degrees and 34 degrees North. It was built in 1526, by Luis Vasquez de Ayllon, a Spanish official based on Hispaniola. In 1520, Ayllon had ordered a slaving expedition, and in 1526, set out himself with approximately 500 Spanish colonists--including women, children, and three Dominican friars--and a number of African slaves. After a false start, Ayllon built the town of San Miguel de Guadalupe. His venture was doomed from the outset. The principals of the colony quarreled, Indians attacked, slaves rebelled, and Ayllon died. Only 150 survivors returned to Hispaniola. Later, in 1528 a slightly smaller group under Narvaez plundered and skirmished along the Gulf coast from Yampa Bay to Texas, where it disintegrated. Cabeza de Vaca and three other members finally reached Mexico in 1536. From 1539 to 1543 de Soto and, after his death, Moscoso led an ever-shrinking party on a circuitous route through the southeastern and southcentral United States. From 1540 to 1542 Coronado explored the Southwest. In all cases, these Spanish explorers antagonized the Indians and failed to entice settlers to the higher latitudes.
France
The parts of North America neglected by Spain were attractive on that account to her ancient enemy--France. Although the Treaty of Tordesillas had given France no share of the New World, the French crown ignored the arrangement. Francis I underwrote Verrazzano's exploratory voyage (1524) and the more ambitious enterprises of Cartier and Roberval on the St. Lawrence (1534-1543). Even though war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire impeded French expansion in the 1520s and 1530s, and the death of Henry II in 1559 led to civil and religious strife that nearly tore the country apart, France was the largest and most populous kingdom in western Europe and still a formidable adversary. Expecting a French challenge in North America, Spain sent a large contingent (1559-1561) to secure a settlement site on the Gulf and an overland route thence to the coast of Georgia or South Carolina. In 1561, Angel de Villafane followed the Atlantic coast north past Cape Fear, looking for suitable sites and any foreigners making unauthorized use of them. Villafane dismissed the area as worthless. The next year, however, Jean Ribault, under the banner of France, built Charlesfort, probably on Port Royal Sound, South Carolina. Charlesfort lasted only a few months, but this French incursion and well-founded rumors about a second, to the south, caused King Philip II of Spain to send Pedro Menendez de Aviles to establish a settlement in Florida, and to expel any Frenchmen in the area.
Menendez arrived in August 1565 and wasted no time laying out the first St. Augustine. In September and October he massacred the French Garrison of Fort Caroline, at the mouth of the St. Johns River. In due course he founded ten outposts in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina (1565-1567); ordered exploration of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts (1570); and personally avenged (1572) the Jesuits' murder by Indians. Menendez, a strong supporter of colonization, was nearly alone in his enthusiasm for the region. His death in 1574 resulted in a decline of Spanish colonies in the area. Through Philip II continued to be interested until his death in 1598, the lack of an on-site manager with the enthusiasm and ability of Menendez made it easier for another country ignored at Tordesillas to reenter the struggle for empire in the New World.
England Redux
The prodigious wealth flowing into Spain from its colonies and crown efforts to monopolize colonial trade prompted international smuggling and piracy. As a seafaring nation with few continental distractions and only one border to defend, England was a natural leader in both enterprises.
Shortly after her accession to the English throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth disestablished Roman Catholicism once and for all. She further widened the breech with Catholic Spain by rejecting Philip's proposals of marriage, and by overlooking her subjects unofficial trade with Spanish colonies and attacks on Spanish shipping. John Hawkins' first voyage to the Caribbean with African slaves (1562-1563) had been so profitable that the queen herself invested in the second and third. When Hawkins anchored at the Mexican port of San Juan de Ullua on his third voyage in 1568, however, the Spanish retaliated with great force and skill. Only two English ships escaped. The incident poisoned Anglo-Spanish relations for the rest of the century. As a consequence, English depredations increased in frequency. From 1577 to 1580 Sir Francis Drake, who had been with Hawkins, humiliated Spain by circumnavigating the globe, much of which Spain considered its own, plundering as he went. Despite vehement Spanish protests, Elizabeth knighted him.
The passage of time did little to abate English outrage over San Juan de Ullua, nor did it reduce English covetousness of Spanish treasure and trade. In 1578 Elizabeth I revived Cabot's eighty-year-old territorial claim and permitted Humphrey Gilbert to explore and settle any part of North America not then occupied by Christians, that is, nearly all of it. Gilbert disappeared returning from Newfoundland in 1583, but his half-brother, Walter Ralegh, carried on under a slightly different patent of discovery. Ralegh and his associates developed a plan to build a base well north of St. Augustine, from which to attack Spanish shipping in the western Atlantic and exploit the mineral resources of the region. To this end, Amadas and Barlowe reconnoitered the coast in 1584, and the Grenville expedition of 1585 left 108 men on Roanoke Island under Ralph Lane. But Grenville was tardy in resupplying the colonists, and Drake, sailing homeward from victories over the Spanish at Cartagena and St. Augustine, removed them in 1586. Neither the Lane colony nor the 1587 "lost colony" had any noticeable effect on Spanish shipping. However, Spanish colonial expansion and seemingly unending sources of wealth in the New World profoundly affected English colonial policies. Drake pillaged the Caribbean in 1585-1586, broke the Bank of Spain; nearly broke the Bank of Venice, to which Spain was heavily indebted; and ruined Spanish credit. English military intervention in the Netherlands (1584) persuaded Philip to build the Armada; Drake's subsequent affront moved him to launch it. Although Drake's brazen attack on Cadiz in 1587 set Spanish plans back a year, the Armada finally sailed, and when it did, it was largely responsible for preventing timely relief of the 1587 colony on Roanoke Island. Even after the Armada suffered mortifying defeat, and Spanish attempts to find and destroy the Roanoke colony had been indolent and inept, the threat of Spanish reprisal partly dictated the site of Jamestown. Hostility left over from Spanish activities on the Chesapeake in the 1570s may have affected the Virginia colonists' early dealings with the Powhatan Confederation.
Spain did not lose her last foothold in the Americas until the Spanish-American War (1898). Spanish language and culture are still integral to daily life in much of North and South America. But the Spanish star had begun to set over the New World by 1600.
Text based on "Spain in the New World," by John D. Neville.
Edited and expanded by lebame houston and Wynne Dough
Illustrations: Vicki Wallace | https://www.nps.gov/fora/learn/education/unit-1-spain-in-the-new-world-to-1600.htm | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Unit 1 - Spain in the New World to 1600 - Fort Raleigh National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service) | Bristol Mariners seem to have visited Canada in the 1480s, and Christopher Columbus may have learned of, and been inspired by, their voyages. In 1492, William Ayers, an Irishman undoubtedly familiar with English activities, sailed with Columbus on the Santa Maria. In 1497 and 1498 John Cabot, like Columbus a Genoese expatriate, explored eastern Canada under the English flag. By 1502 Englishmen were trading in Newfoundland and parts south, and organizing syndicates, some involving Azorean Portuguese, to exploit the fisheries there. England did not miss the entire European rediscovery of the Western Hemisphere, but did retire early. While England slept, Spain became dominant in the New World and on the high seas.
The Caribbean and the Mainland
In 1493, during his second voyage, Columbus founded Isabela, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the New World, on Hispaniola. After finding gold in recoverable quantities nearby, the Spanish quickly overran the island and spread to Puerto Rico in 1508, to Jamaica in 1509, and to Cuba in 1511. The natives fared badly. Many died in one-sided armed conflict with soldiers and settlers, or in forced servitude in mines and on plantations. Others died of diseases to which they had no immunity. By mid-century, the native Ciboney of Hispaniola and western Cuba were extinct, and other tribes, including the Arawak of Puerto Rico, were nearly so.
Beginning in 1508, Spanish settlements sprang up on the mainland of Central and South America. In 1519, just six years after Balboa had crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the entire Pacific Ocean for Spain, Pedro Arias de Avila, Balboa's father-in-law and executioner, founded the city of Panama on the Pacific coast. The same year, Hernan Cortes led a small force from Cuba to the Gulf coast of Mexico, founded Veracruz , and set about destroying the Aztec empire. Most of Mexico fell within two years. Subsequent conquistadors followed the example set by Cortes. By 1532, Francisco Pizarro, had effected the early stages of his conquest of the Inca empire of Peru. By 1550 Spain had dominion over the West Indies and Central America and its large surviving native population.
New World mines yielded gold and silver for Spain in far greater amounts than France and Portugal had ever been able to extract from West Africa. One-fifth of the total production, the quinto real, went to the Spanish Crown. The average value of silver shipped to Spain rose to a million pesos a year before the conquest of Peru, and to more than 35 million a year by the end of the century. Cacao, cochineal, hides, spices, sugar, timber, and tobacco yielded additional income. Seville, through which all legal trade with the colonies passed, became a great financial center and nearly quadrupled in size between 1517 and 1594.
With such wealth at stake, Spain was concerned about possible interference by other nations. Initially, only Portugal posed a serious threat to Spanish monopoly. At the Pope's insistence Spain and Portugal had ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Intended to exclude Spain from Africa and India, and Portugal from the Far East, this treaty also effectively deprived Spain of any legitimate claim to much of present-day Brazil. Shortly after the ratification of the treaty, Portugal gained control of trade with the Spice Islands, and showed occasional interest in Newfoundland. In 1580, to eliminate the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain annexed Portugal. Although Spain mortgaged Venezuela to a German banking house for a brief period (1528-1547), she was successful in keeping most interlopers out of her holdings from Mexico to Chile for the remainder of the sixteenth century.
North America
The nine-tenths of North America lying north and east of Mexico was another matter. In the early 1500s, Spain made a few attempts to explore Florida and the Gulf coast. Around 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, conqueror of Puerto Rico, conducted the first reconnaissance of the area. In 1519 Alonso Alvarez de Pineda explored and mapped the Gulf of Mexico. Two years later, Ponce de Leon died in a disastrous attempt to build a settlement in Florida, and Spain withdrew from further serious efforts to establish a permanent presence there for another half-century.
The first Spanish town in what is now the United States was not in Florida, but somewhere between 30 degrees and 34 degrees North. It was built in 1526, by Luis Vasquez de Ayllon, a Spanish official based on Hispaniola. In 1520, Ayllon had ordered a slaving expedition, and in 1526, set out himself with approximately 500 Spanish colonists--including women, children, and three Dominican friars--and a number of African slaves. After a false start, Ayllon built the town of San Miguel de Guadalupe. His venture was doomed from the outset. The principals of the colony quarreled, Indians attacked, slaves rebelled, and Ayllon died. Only 150 survivors returned to Hispaniola. Later, in 1528 a slightly smaller group under Narvaez plundered and skirmished along the Gulf coast from Yampa Bay to Texas, where it disintegrated. Cabeza de Vaca and three other members finally reached Mexico in 1536. From 1539 to 1543 de Soto and, after his death, Moscoso led an ever-shrinking party on a circuitous route through the southeastern and southcentral United States. From 1540 to 1542 Coronado explored the Southwest. In all cases, these Spanish explorers antagonized the Indians and failed to entice settlers to the higher latitudes.
France
The parts of North America neglected by Spain were attractive on that account to her ancient enemy--France. Although the Treaty of Tordesillas had given France no share of the New World, the French crown ignored the arrangement. Francis I underwrote Verrazzano's exploratory voyage (1524) and the more ambitious enterprises of Cartier and Roberval on the St. Lawrence (1534-1543). Even though war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire impeded French expansion in the 1520s and 1530s, and the death of Henry II in 1559 led to civil and religious strife that nearly tore the country apart, France was the largest and most populous kingdom in western Europe and still a formidable adversary. Expecting a French challenge in North America, Spain sent a large contingent (1559-1561) to secure a settlement site on the Gulf and an overland route thence to the coast of Georgia or South Carolina. In 1561, Angel de Villafane followed the Atlantic coast north past Cape Fear, looking for suitable sites and any foreigners making unauthorized use of them. Villafane dismissed the area as worthless. The next year, however, Jean Ribault, under the banner of France, built Charlesfort, probably on Port Royal Sound, South Carolina. Charlesfort lasted only a few months, but this French incursion and well-founded rumors about a second, to the south, caused King Philip II of Spain to send Pedro Menendez de Aviles to establish a settlement in Florida, and to expel any Frenchmen in the area.
Menendez arrived in August 1565 and wasted no time laying out the first St. Augustine. In September and October he massacred the French Garrison of Fort Caroline, at the mouth of the St. Johns River. In due course he founded ten outposts in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina (1565-1567); ordered exploration of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts (1570); and personally avenged (1572) the Jesuits' murder by Indians. Menendez, a strong supporter of colonization, was nearly alone in his enthusiasm for the region. His death in 1574 resulted in a decline of Spanish colonies in the area. Through Philip II continued to be interested until his death in 1598, the lack of an on-site manager with the enthusiasm and ability of Menendez made it easier for another country ignored at Tordesillas to reenter the struggle for empire in the New World.
England Redux
The prodigious wealth flowing into Spain from its colonies and crown efforts to monopolize colonial trade prompted international smuggling and piracy. As a seafaring nation with few continental distractions and only one border to defend, England was a natural leader in both enterprises.
Shortly after her accession to the English throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth disestablished Roman Catholicism once and for all. She further widened the breech with Catholic Spain by rejecting Philip's proposals of marriage, and by overlooking her subjects unofficial trade with Spanish colonies and attacks on Spanish shipping. John Hawkins' first voyage to the Caribbean with African slaves (1562-1563) had been so profitable that the queen herself invested in the second and third. When Hawkins anchored at the Mexican port of San Juan de Ullua on his third voyage in 1568, however, the Spanish retaliated with great force and skill. Only two English ships escaped. The incident poisoned Anglo-Spanish relations for the rest of the century. As a consequence, English depredations increased in frequency. From 1577 to 1580 Sir Francis Drake, who had been with Hawkins, humiliated Spain by circumnavigating the globe, much of which Spain considered its own, plundering as he went. Despite vehement Spanish protests, Elizabeth knighted him.
The passage of time did little to abate English outrage over San Juan de Ullua, nor did it reduce English covetousness of Spanish treasure and trade. In 1578 Elizabeth I revived Cabot's eighty-year-old territorial claim and permitted Humphrey Gilbert to explore and settle any part of North America not then occupied by Christians, that is, nearly all of it. Gilbert disappeared returning from Newfoundland in 1583, but his half-brother, Walter Ralegh, carried on under a slightly different patent of discovery. Ralegh and his associates developed a plan to build a base well north of St. Augustine, from which to attack Spanish shipping in the western Atlantic and exploit the mineral resources of the region. To this end, Amadas and Barlowe reconnoitered the coast in 1584, and the Grenville expedition of 1585 left 108 men on Roanoke Island under Ralph Lane. But Grenville was tardy in resupplying the colonists, and Drake, sailing homeward from victories over the Spanish at Cartagena and St. Augustine, removed them in 1586. Neither the Lane colony nor the 1587 "lost colony" had any noticeable effect on Spanish shipping. However, Spanish colonial expansion and seemingly unending sources of wealth in the New World profoundly affected English colonial policies. Drake pillaged the Caribbean in 1585-1586, broke the Bank of Spain; nearly broke the Bank of Venice, to which Spain was heavily indebted; and ruined Spanish credit. English military intervention in the Netherlands (1584) persuaded Philip to build the Armada; Drake's subsequent affront moved him to launch it. Although Drake's brazen attack on Cadiz in 1587 set Spanish plans back a year, the Armada finally sailed, and when it did, it was largely responsible for preventing timely relief of the 1587 colony on Roanoke Island. Even after the Armada suffered mortifying defeat, and Spanish attempts to find and destroy the Roanoke colony had been indolent and inept, the threat of Spanish reprisal partly dictated the site of Jamestown. Hostility left over from Spanish activities on the Chesapeake in the 1570s may have affected the Virginia colonists' early dealings with the Powhatan Confederation.
Spain did not lose her last foothold in the Americas until the Spanish-American War (1898). Spanish language and culture are still integral to daily life in much of North and South America. But the Spanish star had begun to set over the New World by 1600.
Text based on "Spain in the New World," by John D. Neville.
Edited and expanded by lebame houston and Wynne Dough
Illustrations: Vicki Wallace | https://www.nps.gov/fora/learn/education/unit-1-spain-in-the-new-world-to-1600.htm | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Unit 1 - Spain in the New World to 1600 - Fort Raleigh National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service) | Bristol Mariners seem to have visited Canada in the 1480s, and Christopher Columbus may have learned of, and been inspired by, their voyages. In 1492, William Ayers, an Irishman undoubtedly familiar with English activities, sailed with Columbus on the Santa Maria. In 1497 and 1498 John Cabot, like Columbus a Genoese expatriate, explored eastern Canada under the English flag. By 1502 Englishmen were trading in Newfoundland and parts south, and organizing syndicates, some involving Azorean Portuguese, to exploit the fisheries there. England did not miss the entire European rediscovery of the Western Hemisphere, but did retire early. While England slept, Spain became dominant in the New World and on the high seas.
The Caribbean and the Mainland
In 1493, during his second voyage, Columbus founded Isabela, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the New World, on Hispaniola. After finding gold in recoverable quantities nearby, the Spanish quickly overran the island and spread to Puerto Rico in 1508, to Jamaica in 1509, and to Cuba in 1511. The natives fared badly. Many died in one-sided armed conflict with soldiers and settlers, or in forced servitude in mines and on plantations. Others died of diseases to which they had no immunity. By mid-century, the native Ciboney of Hispaniola and western Cuba were extinct, and other tribes, including the Arawak of Puerto Rico, were nearly so.
Beginning in 1508, Spanish settlements sprang up on the mainland of Central and South America. In 1519, just six years after Balboa had crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the entire Pacific Ocean for Spain, Pedro Arias de Avila, Balboa's father-in-law and executioner, founded the city of Panama on the Pacific coast. The same year, Hernan Cortes led a small force from Cuba to the Gulf coast of Mexico, founded Veracruz , and set about destroying the Aztec empire. Most of Mexico fell within two years. Subsequent conquistadors followed the example set by Cortes. By 1532, Francisco Pizarro, had effected the early stages of his conquest of the Inca empire of Peru. By 1550 Spain had dominion over the West Indies and Central America and its large surviving native population.
New World mines yielded gold and silver for Spain in far greater amounts than France and Portugal had ever been able to extract from West Africa. One-fifth of the total production, the quinto real, went to the Spanish Crown. The average value of silver shipped to Spain rose to a million pesos a year before the conquest of Peru, and to more than 35 million a year by the end of the century. Cacao, cochineal, hides, spices, sugar, timber, and tobacco yielded additional income. Seville, through which all legal trade with the colonies passed, became a great financial center and nearly quadrupled in size between 1517 and 1594.
With such wealth at stake, Spain was concerned about possible interference by other nations. Initially, only Portugal posed a serious threat to Spanish monopoly. At the Pope's insistence Spain and Portugal had ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Intended to exclude Spain from Africa and India, and Portugal from the Far East, this treaty also effectively deprived Spain of any legitimate claim to much of present-day Brazil. Shortly after the ratification of the treaty, Portugal gained control of trade with the Spice Islands, and showed occasional interest in Newfoundland. In 1580, to eliminate the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain annexed Portugal. Although Spain mortgaged Venezuela to a German banking house for a brief period (1528-1547), she was successful in keeping most interlopers out of her holdings from Mexico to Chile for the remainder of the sixteenth century.
North America
The nine-tenths of North America lying north and east of Mexico was another matter. In the early 1500s, Spain made a few attempts to explore Florida and the Gulf coast. Around 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, conqueror of Puerto Rico, conducted the first reconnaissance of the area. In 1519 Alonso Alvarez de Pineda explored and mapped the Gulf of Mexico. Two years later, Ponce de Leon died in a disastrous attempt to build a settlement in Florida, and Spain withdrew from further serious efforts to establish a permanent presence there for another half-century.
The first Spanish town in what is now the United States was not in Florida, but somewhere between 30 degrees and 34 degrees North. It was built in 1526, by Luis Vasquez de Ayllon, a Spanish official based on Hispaniola. In 1520, Ayllon had ordered a slaving expedition, and in 1526, set out himself with approximately 500 Spanish colonists--including women, children, and three Dominican friars--and a number of African slaves. After a false start, Ayllon built the town of San Miguel de Guadalupe. His venture was doomed from the outset. The principals of the colony quarreled, Indians attacked, slaves rebelled, and Ayllon died. Only 150 survivors returned to Hispaniola. Later, in 1528 a slightly smaller group under Narvaez plundered and skirmished along the Gulf coast from Yampa Bay to Texas, where it disintegrated. Cabeza de Vaca and three other members finally reached Mexico in 1536. From 1539 to 1543 de Soto and, after his death, Moscoso led an ever-shrinking party on a circuitous route through the southeastern and southcentral United States. From 1540 to 1542 Coronado explored the Southwest. In all cases, these Spanish explorers antagonized the Indians and failed to entice settlers to the higher latitudes.
France
The parts of North America neglected by Spain were attractive on that account to her ancient enemy--France. Although the Treaty of Tordesillas had given France no share of the New World, the French crown ignored the arrangement. Francis I underwrote Verrazzano's exploratory voyage (1524) and the more ambitious enterprises of Cartier and Roberval on the St. Lawrence (1534-1543). Even though war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire impeded French expansion in the 1520s and 1530s, and the death of Henry II in 1559 led to civil and religious strife that nearly tore the country apart, France was the largest and most populous kingdom in western Europe and still a formidable adversary. Expecting a French challenge in North America, Spain sent a large contingent (1559-1561) to secure a settlement site on the Gulf and an overland route thence to the coast of Georgia or South Carolina. In 1561, Angel de Villafane followed the Atlantic coast north past Cape Fear, looking for suitable sites and any foreigners making unauthorized use of them. Villafane dismissed the area as worthless. The next year, however, Jean Ribault, under the banner of France, built Charlesfort, probably on Port Royal Sound, South Carolina. Charlesfort lasted only a few months, but this French incursion and well-founded rumors about a second, to the south, caused King Philip II of Spain to send Pedro Menendez de Aviles to establish a settlement in Florida, and to expel any Frenchmen in the area.
Menendez arrived in August 1565 and wasted no time laying out the first St. Augustine. In September and October he massacred the French Garrison of Fort Caroline, at the mouth of the St. Johns River. In due course he founded ten outposts in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina (1565-1567); ordered exploration of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts (1570); and personally avenged (1572) the Jesuits' murder by Indians. Menendez, a strong supporter of colonization, was nearly alone in his enthusiasm for the region. His death in 1574 resulted in a decline of Spanish colonies in the area. Through Philip II continued to be interested until his death in 1598, the lack of an on-site manager with the enthusiasm and ability of Menendez made it easier for another country ignored at Tordesillas to reenter the struggle for empire in the New World.
England Redux
The prodigious wealth flowing into Spain from its colonies and crown efforts to monopolize colonial trade prompted international smuggling and piracy. As a seafaring nation with few continental distractions and only one border to defend, England was a natural leader in both enterprises.
Shortly after her accession to the English throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth disestablished Roman Catholicism once and for all. She further widened the breech with Catholic Spain by rejecting Philip's proposals of marriage, and by overlooking her subjects unofficial trade with Spanish colonies and attacks on Spanish shipping. John Hawkins' first voyage to the Caribbean with African slaves (1562-1563) had been so profitable that the queen herself invested in the second and third. When Hawkins anchored at the Mexican port of San Juan de Ullua on his third voyage in 1568, however, the Spanish retaliated with great force and skill. Only two English ships escaped. The incident poisoned Anglo-Spanish relations for the rest of the century. As a consequence, English depredations increased in frequency. From 1577 to 1580 Sir Francis Drake, who had been with Hawkins, humiliated Spain by circumnavigating the globe, much of which Spain considered its own, plundering as he went. Despite vehement Spanish protests, Elizabeth knighted him.
The passage of time did little to abate English outrage over San Juan de Ullua, nor did it reduce English covetousness of Spanish treasure and trade. In 1578 Elizabeth I revived Cabot's eighty-year-old territorial claim and permitted Humphrey Gilbert to explore and settle any part of North America not then occupied by Christians, that is, nearly all of it. Gilbert disappeared returning from Newfoundland in 1583, but his half-brother, Walter Ralegh, carried on under a slightly different patent of discovery. Ralegh and his associates developed a plan to build a base well north of St. Augustine, from which to attack Spanish shipping in the western Atlantic and exploit the mineral resources of the region. To this end, Amadas and Barlowe reconnoitered the coast in 1584, and the Grenville expedition of 1585 left 108 men on Roanoke Island under Ralph Lane. But Grenville was tardy in resupplying the colonists, and Drake, sailing homeward from victories over the Spanish at Cartagena and St. Augustine, removed them in 1586. Neither the Lane colony nor the 1587 "lost colony" had any noticeable effect on Spanish shipping. However, Spanish colonial expansion and seemingly unending sources of wealth in the New World profoundly affected English colonial policies. Drake pillaged the Caribbean in 1585-1586, broke the Bank of Spain; nearly broke the Bank of Venice, to which Spain was heavily indebted; and ruined Spanish credit. English military intervention in the Netherlands (1584) persuaded Philip to build the Armada; Drake's subsequent affront moved him to launch it. Although Drake's brazen attack on Cadiz in 1587 set Spanish plans back a year, the Armada finally sailed, and when it did, it was largely responsible for preventing timely relief of the 1587 colony on Roanoke Island. Even after the Armada suffered mortifying defeat, and Spanish attempts to find and destroy the Roanoke colony had been indolent and inept, the threat of Spanish reprisal partly dictated the site of Jamestown. Hostility left over from Spanish activities on the Chesapeake in the 1570s may have affected the Virginia colonists' early dealings with the Powhatan Confederation.
Spain did not lose her last foothold in the Americas until the Spanish-American War (1898). Spanish language and culture are still integral to daily life in much of North and South America. But the Spanish star had begun to set over the New World by 1600.
Text based on "Spain in the New World," by John D. Neville.
Edited and expanded by lebame houston and Wynne Dough
Illustrations: Vicki Wallace | https://www.nps.gov/fora/learn/education/unit-1-spain-in-the-new-world-to-1600.htm | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Spanish colonization of the Americas | "Conquista" redirects here. For other uses, see Conquista (disambiguation) .
The Spanish colonization of the Americas began in 1493 on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola after the initial 1492 voyage of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus under license from the Queen Isabella I of Castile . These overseas territories of the Spanish Empire were under the jurisdiction of Crown of Castile until the last territory was lost in 1898 . Spaniards saw the dense populations of indigenous peoples as an important economic resource and the territory claimed as potentially producing great wealth for individual Spaniards and the crown. Religion played an important role in the Spanish conquest and incorporation of indigenous peoples, bringing them into the Catholic Church peacefully or by force. The crown created civil and religious structures to administer the vast territory. Spanish colonists settled in greatest numbers where there were dense indigenous populations and the existence of valuable resources for extraction . [1]
The Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands , half of South America, almost all of Central America and most of North America. It is estimated that during the colonial period (1492–1832), a total of 1.86 million Spaniards settled in the Americas , and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era (1850–1950); the estimate is 250,000 in the 16th century and most during the 18th century, as immigration was encouraged by the new Bourbon dynasty . [2]
By contrast, the indigenous population plummeted by an estimated 80% in the first century and a half following Columbus's voyages, primarily through the spread of infectious diseases . Practices like forced labor and slavery for resource extraction, and forced resettlement in new villages and later missions were common during the first decades of colonization. [3] Alarmed by the precipitous fall in indigenous populations and reports of settlers' exploitation of their labor, the crown put in place laws to protect their newly converted indigenous vassals. Europeans imported enslaved Africans to the early Caribbean settlements to replace indigenous labor and enslaved and free Africans were part of colonial-era populations. A mixed-race casta population came into being during the colonial era.
In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the secession of most of Spanish America and the establishment of independent nations. Cuba and Puerto Rico were lost to the United States in 1898, following the Spanish–American War , ending its colonial rule in the Americas.
The expansion of Spain's territory took place under the Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile , Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand , King of Aragon , whose marriage marked the beginning of Spanish power beyond the Iberian peninsula . They pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created the initial stage of a single Spanish monarchy , completed under the eighteenth-century Bourbon monarchs. The first expansion of territory was the conquest of the Muslim Emirate of Granada on 1 January 1492, the culmination of the Christian Reconquest of the Iberian peninsula, held by the Muslims since 711. On 31 March 1492, the Catholic Monarch ordered the expulsion of the Jews in Spain who refused to convert to Christianity. On 12 October 1492, Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus made landfall in the Western Hemisphere, and in 1493 permanent Spanish settlement of the Americas began. [4]
Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, but they remained separate kingdoms. When the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans for Columbus's voyage to reach "the Indies" by sailing West, the funding came from the queen of Castile. The profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. The Kingdom of Portugal authorized a series of voyages down the coast of Africa and when they rounded the southern tip, were able to sail to India and further east. Spain sought similar wealth, and authorized Columbus's voyage sailing west. Once the Spanish settlement in the Caribbean occurred, Spain and Portugal formalized a division of the world between them in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas . [5] The deeply pious Isabella saw the expansion of Spain's sovereignty inextricably paired with the evangelization of non-Christian peoples, the so-called “spiritual conquest” with the military conquest. Pope Alexander VI in a 4 May 1493 papal decree, Inter caetera , divided rights to lands in the Western Hemisphere between Spain and Portugal on the proviso that they spread Christianity. [6] These formal arrangements between Spain and Portugal and the pope were ignored by other European powers, with the French, the English, and the Dutch seizing territory in the Caribbean and in North America claimed by Spain but not effectively settled. Portugal's claim to part of South America under the Treaty of Tordesillas resulted in the creation of Portuguese colony of Brazil. Although during the rule of Charles V , the Spanish Empire was the first to be called " The empire on which the sun never sets ", under Philip II the permanent colonization of the Philippine Islands made it demonstrably true.
The Spanish expansion has sometimes been succinctly summed up as being motivated by "gold, glory, God," that is, the search for material wealth, the enhancement of the conquerors' and the crown's position, and the expansion of Christianity to the exclusion of other religious traditions. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions ( entradas ) of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy. [7] Expeditions required authorization by the crown, which laid out the terms of such expedition. Virtually all expeditions after the Columbus voyages, which were funded by the crown of Castile, were done at the expense of the leader of the expedition and its participants. Although often the participants, conquistadors , are now termed “soldiers”, they were not paid soldiers in ranks of an army, but rather soldiers of fortune , who joined an expedition with the expectation of profiting from it. The leader of an expedition, the adelantado was a senior with material wealth and standing who could persuade the crown to issue him a license for an expedition. He also had to attract participants to the expedition who staked their own lives and meager fortunes on the expectation of the expedition's success. The leader of the expedition pledged the larger share of capital to the enterprise, which in many ways functioned as a commercial firm. Upon the success of the expedition, the spoils of war were divvied up in proportion to the amount a participant initially staked, with the leader receiving the largest share. Participants supplied their own armor and weapons, and those who had a horse received two shares, one for himself, the second recognizing the value of the horse as a machine of war. [8] [9] For the conquest era, two names of Spaniards are generally known because they led the conquests of high indigenous civilizations, Hernán Cortés , leader of the expedition that conquered the Aztecs of Central Mexico , and Francisco Pizarro , leader of the conquest of the Inca in Peru. Spanish conquerors took advantage of indigenous rivalries to forge alliances with groups seeing an advantage for their own goals. This is most clearly seen in conquest of Mexico with the alliance of the Nahua city-state of Tlaxcala against the Aztec Empire resulting in lasting benefits to themselves and their descendants.
Patterns of the first Spanish settlements in the Caribbean were to endure there and had a lasting impact on the Spanish Empire. [10] Until his dying day, Columbus was convinced that he had reached Asia, the Indies. From that misperception the Spanish called the indigenous peoples of the Americas , "Indians" ( indios ), lumping a multiplicity of civilizations, groups, and individuals into a single category. The Spanish royal government called its overseas possessions "The Indies" until its empire dissolved in the nineteenth century.
In the Caribbean, because there was no integrated indigenous civilization such as found in Mexico and Peru, there was no large-scale Spanish conquest of indigenous peoples, but there was indigenous resistance to Spanish colonization. Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus vast powers of governance over this unknown part of the world. The crown of Castile financed more of his trans-Atlantic journeys, a pattern they would not repeat elsewhere. Effective Spanish settlement began in 1493, when Columbus brought livestock, seeds, agricultural equipment. The first settlement of La Navidad , a crude fort built on his first voyage in 1492, had been abandoned by the time he returned in 1493. He then founded the settlement of La Isabela on the island they named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic ).
Spanish explorations of other islands in the Caribbean and what turned out to be the mainland of South and Central America occupied them for over two decades. Columbus had promised the crown that the region he now controlled held a huge treasure in the form of gold and spices. Spanish settlers initially found relatively dense populations of indigenous peoples, who were agriculturalists living in villages ruled by leaders not part of a larger integrated political system. The Spanish saw these populations as a source of labor, there for their exploitation, to supply their own settlements with foodstuffs, but more importantly for the Spanish, to extract mineral wealth or produce another valuable commodity for Spanish enrichment. The labor of dense populations of Tainos were allocated as grants to Spanish settlers in an institution known as the encomienda , where particular indigenous settlements were awarded to individual Spaniards. There was surface gold found in early islands, and holders of encomiendas put the indigenous to work panning for it. For all practical purposes, this was slavery. Queen Isabel put an end to formal slavery, declaring the indigenous to be vassals of the crown, but Spaniards' exploitation of indigenous labor continued. The Taino population on Hispaniola went from hundreds of thousands or millions – the estimates by scholars vary widely – but in the mid-1490s, they were practically wiped out. Disease and overwork, disruption of family life and the agricultural cycle (which caused severe food shortages to Spaniards dependent on them) rapidly decimated the indigenous population. From the Spanish viewpoint, their source of labor and viability of their own settlements was at risk. After the collapse of the Taino population of Hispaniola, Spaniards began raiding indigenous settlements on nearby islands, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica, to enslave those populations, replicating the demographic catastrophe there as well. The names of two indigenous leaders ( caciques ) who rebelled against Spanish colonization, Enriquillo and Hatuey in the Dominican Republic (Hispaniola), have become important. [12]
Dominican friar Antonio de Montesinos denounced Spanish cruelty and abuse in a sermon in 1511, which comes down to us in the writings of Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas . In 1542 Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas wrote a damning account of this demographic catastrophe, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies . It was translated quickly to English and became the basis for the anti-Spanish writings, collectively known as the Black Legend . [13] Las Casas spent his long life attempting to defend the indigenous populations and to enlist the Spanish crown in establishing protections for them, seen most prominently in the enactment of the New Laws of 1542, restricting Spaniards' inheritance of encomiendas .
The first mainland explorations by Spaniards were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua , Venezuela, followed by the founding of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present-day Guajira peninsula . Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas, [14] in 1501 by Franciscan friars , but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa 's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastián de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién . [15]
Spaniards spent over 25 years in the Caribbean where their initial high hopes of dazzling wealth gave way to continuing exploitation of disappearing indigenous populations, exhaustion of local gold mines, initiation of cane sugar cultivation as an export product, and forced migration of enslaved Africans as a labor force. Spaniards continued to expand their presence in the circum-Caribbean region with expeditions. One was by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba in 1517, another by Juan de Grijalva in 1518, which brought promising news of possibilities there. [16] [17] Even by the mid-1510s, the western Caribbean was largely unexplored by Spaniards. A well-connected settler in Cuba, Hernán Cortés received authorization in 1519 by the governor of Cuba to form an expedition of exploration-only to this far western region. That expedition was to make world history. The Caribbean islands became less central to Spain's overseas colonization, but remained important strategically and economically, especially the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola. Smaller islands claimed by Spain were lost to the English and the Dutch, with France taking half of Hispaniola and establishing the sugar-producing colony of St-Domingue , as well as also taking other islands. [18] [19]
It wasn't until [ when? ] Spanish expansion into modern-day Mexico that Spanish explorers were able to find wealth on the scale that they had been hoping for. Unlike Spanish expansion in the Caribbean, which involved limited armed combat and sometimes the participation of indigenous allies, the conquest of central Mexico was protracted and necessitated indigenous allies who chose to participate for their own purposes. The conquest of the Aztec Empire involved the combined effort of armies from many indigenous allies, spearheaded by a small Spanish force of conquistadors. The Aztecs did not govern over an empire in the conventional sense, but were the hegemons of a confederation of dozens of city-states, tribes and other polities; the status of each varied from harshly subjugated to closely allied. The Spaniards persuaded the leaders of Aztec vassals and Tlaxcala (a city-state never conquered by the Aztecs), to ally with them against the Aztecs. Through such methods, the Spaniards came to accumulate a massive force of thousands, perhaps tens of thousands of indigenous warriors. Records of the conquest of central Mexico include accounts by the expedition leader Hernán Cortés, Bernal Díaz del Castillo and other Spanish conquistadors, indigenous allies from the city-states altepetl of Tlaxcala, Texcoco , and Huexotzinco. In addition, indigenous accounts were written by the defeated from the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan , a case of history being written by those other than the victors. [20] [21] [22]
The capture of the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II , by Cortés was not a brilliant stroke of innovation, but came from the playbook that the Spanish developed during their period in the Caribbean. The composition of the expedition was the standard pattern, with a senior leader, and participating men investing in the enterprise with the full expectation of rewards if they did not lose their lives. Cortés's seeking indigenous allies was a typical tactic of warfare: divide and conquer. But the indigenous allies had much to gain by throwing off Aztec rule. For the Spaniards’ Tlaxcalan allies, their crucial support gained them enduring political legacy into the modern era, the Mexican state of Tlaxcala. [23] [24]
The conquest of central Mexico sparked further Spanish conquests, following the pattern of conquered and consolidated regions being the launching point for further expeditions. These were often led by secondary leaders, such as Pedro de Alvarado . Later conquests in Mexico were protracted campaigns with less immediate results than the conquest of the Aztec Empire. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán , the Spanish conquest of Guatemala , the conquest of the Purépecha of Michoacan, the war of Mexico's west , and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations stretching thousands of miles. [25] [26] [27] [28] Not until the conquest of the Incan Empire , which used similar tactics and began in 1532, was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scale of either territory or treasure.
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire . It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas . In the following years, Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization .
The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and Huáscar , and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas , Chachapoyas , and Cañaris . In the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.
Peru was the last territory in the continent under Spanish rule, which ended on 9 December 1824 at the Battle of Ayacucho (Spanish rule continued until 1898 in Cuba and Puerto Rico).
Chile was explored by Spaniards based in Peru, where Spaniards found the fertile soil and mild climate attractive. The Mapuche people of Chile, whom the Spaniards called Araucanians , resisted fiercely. The Spanish did establish the settlement of Chile in 1541, founded by Pedro de Valdivia . [29]
Southward colonization by the Spanish in Chile halted after the conquest of Chiloé Archipelago in 1567. This is thought to have been the result of an increasingly harsh climate to the south, and the lack of a populous and sedentary indigenous population to settle among for the Spanish in the fjords and channels of Patagonia . [30] South of the Bío-Bío River the Mapuche successfully reversed colonization with the Destruction of the Seven Cities in 1599–1604. [29] [31] This Mapuche victory laid the foundation for the establishment of a Spanish-Mapuche frontier called La Frontera . Within this frontier the city of Concepción assumed the role of "military capital" of Spanish-ruled Chile. [32] With a hostile indigenous population, no obvious mineral or other exploitable resources, and little strategic value, Chile was a fringe area of colonial Spanish America, hemmed in geographically by the Andes to the east, Pacific Ocean to the west, and indigenous to the south. [29]
Between 1537 and 1543, six [ citation needed ] Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation , and set up the New Kingdom of Granada ( Spanish : Nuevo Reino de Granada ). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command. [33] It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá , and comprised an area corresponding mainly to modern-day Colombia and parts of Venezuela . The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru . The crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia . [34]
Venezuela was first visited by Europeans during the 1490s, when Columbus was in control of the region, and the region as a source for indigenous slaves for Spaniards in Cuba and Hispaniola, since the Spanish destruction of the local indigenous population. There were few permanent settlements, but Spaniards settled the coastal islands of Cubagua and Margarita to exploit the pearl beds. Western Venezuela's history took an atypical direction in 1528, when Spain's first Hapsburg monarch, Charles I granted rights to colonize to the German banking family of the Welsers . Charles sought to be elected Holy Roman Emperor and was willing to pay whatever it took to achieve that. He became deeply indebted to the German Welser and Fugger banking families. To satisfy his debts to the Welsers, he granted them the right to colonize and exploit western Venezuela, with the proviso that they found two towns with 300 settlers each and construct fortifications. They established the colony of Klein-Venedig in 1528. They founded the towns of Coro and Maracaibo . They were aggressive in making their investment pay, alienating the indigenous populations and Spaniards alike. Charles revoked the grant in 1545, ending the episode of German colonization . [35] [36]
Argentina was not conquered or later exploited in the grand fashion of central Mexico or Peru, since the indigenous population was sparse and there were no precious metals or other valuable resources. Although today Buenos Aires at the mouth of Río de la Plata is a major metropolis, it held no interest for Spaniards and the 1535-36 settlement failed and was abandoned by 1541. Pedro de Mendoza and Domingo Martínez de Irala , who led the original expedition, went inland and founded Asunción, Paraguay , which became the Spaniards' base. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay , who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción , now the capital of Paraguay . [37] Exploration from Peru resulted in the foundation of Tucumán in what is now northwest Argentina. [38]
Much of what is now the Southern United States was claimed by Spain, some of it at least explored by the Spanish starting in the early 1500s, and some permanent settlements established. Spanish explorers claimed land for the crown in the modern-day states of Alabama, Arizona, the Carolinas , Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, New Mexico, Texas, and California. [39] Puerto Rico was also colonized by the Spanish during this era, occasioning the earliest contact between Africans and what would become the United States (via the free Black conquistador Juan Garrido ). Free and enslaved Africans were a feature of New Spain throughout the colonial period. [40]
One of the colonists who conquered Puerto Rico, Juan Ponce de León , is commonly given credit for being the first European to sight Florida in 1513. [41] [a] For political reasons, Spain would sometimes claim that La Florida [b] was all of the North American continent. However, the name was typically used to refer to the peninsula itself as well as the Gulf Coast , Georgia, Carolina, and southern Virginia . [43] In 1521, Ponce de Leon was killed while trying to establish a settlement near what is now Charlotte Harbor, Florida . Another failed attempt was conducted by Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón , who set out with approximately 500 colonists and established the settlement of San Miguel de Gualdape in modern-day South Carolina in 1526. [44]
In the fall of 1528, Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca landed on present day Follet's Island, Texas . [45] In 1565, Spain established a settlement in St. Augustine, Florida , lasting in one way or another until modern times. Permanent Spanish settlements were founded in New Mexico , starting in 1598, with Santa Fe founded in 1610.
The spectacular conquests of central Mexico (1519–21) and Peru (1532) sparked Spaniards' hopes of finding yet another high civilization. Expeditions continued into the 1540s and regional capitals founded by the 1550s. Among the most notable expeditions are Hernando de Soto into southeast North America, leaving from Cuba (1539–42); Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to northern Mexico (1540–42), and Gonzalo Pizarro to Amazonia, leaving from Quito, Ecuador (1541–42). [46] In 1561, Pedro de Ursúa led an expedition of some 370 Spanish (including women and children) into Amazonia to search for El Dorado. Far more famous now is Lope de Aguirre , who led a mutiny against Ursúa, who was murdered. Aguirre subsequently wrote a letter to Philip II bitterly complaining about the treatment of conquerors like himself in the wake of the assertion of crown control over Peru. [47] An earlier expedition that left in 1527 was led by Pánfilo Naváez , who was killed early on. Survivors continued to travel among indigenous groups in the North American south and southwest until 1536. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca was one of four survivors of that expedition, writing an account of it. [48] The crown later sent him to Asunción , Paraguay to be adelantado there. Expeditions continued to explore territories in hopes of finding another Aztec or Inca empire, with no further success. Francisco de Ibarra led an expedition from Zacatecas in northern New Spain, and founded Durango . [49] Juan de Oñate , is sometimes referred to as "the Last Conquistador ", [50] expanded Spanish sovereignty over what is now New Mexico. [51] Like previous conquistadors, Oñate engaged in widespread abuses of the Indian population. [c] Shortly after founding Santa Fe , Oñate was recalled to Mexico City by the Spanish authorities. He was subsequently tried and convicted of cruelty to both natives and colonists and banished from New Mexico for life. [52]
Two major factors affected the density of Spanish settlement in the long term. One was the presence or absence of dense, hierarchically organized indigenous populations that could be made to work. The other was the presence or absence of an exploitable resource for the enrichment of settlers. Best was gold, but silver was found in abundance.
The two main areas of Spanish settlement after 1550 were Mexico and Peru, the sites of the Aztec and Inca indigenous civilizations. Equally important, rich deposits of the valuable metal silver. Spanish settlement in Mexico “largely replicated the organization of the area in preconquest times” while in Peru, the center of the Incas was too far south, too remote, and at too high an altitude for the Spanish capital. The capital Lima was built near the Pacific coast. [53] The capitals of Mexico and Peru, Mexico City and Lima came to have large concentrations of Spanish settlers and became the hubs of royal and ecclesiastical administration, large commercial enterprises and skilled artisans, and centers of culture. Although Spaniards had hoped to find vast quantities of gold, the discovery of large quantities of silver became the motor of the Spanish colonial economy, a major source of income for the Spanish crown, and transformed the international economy. Mining regions in both Mexico were remote, outside the zone of indigenous settlement in central and southern Mexico Mesoamerica , but mines in Zacatecas (founded 1548) and Guanajuato (founded 1548) were key hubs in the colonial economy. In Peru, silver was found in a single silver mountain, the Cerro Rico de Potosí , still producing silver in the 21st century. Potosí (founded 1545) was in the zone of dense indigenous settlement, so that labor could be mobilized on traditional patterns to extract the ore. An important element for productive mining was mercury for processing high-grade ore. Peru had a source in Huancavelica (founded 1572), while Mexico had to rely on mercury imported from Spain.
The Spanish founded towns in the Caribbean, on Hispaniola and Cuba, on a pattern that became spatially similar throughout Spanish America. A central plaza had the most important buildings on the four sides, especially buildings for royal officials and the main church. A checkerboard pattern radiated outward. Residences of the officials and elites were closest to the main square. Once on the mainland, where there were dense indigenous populations in urban settlements, the Spanish could build a Spanish settlement on the same site, dating its foundation to when that occurred. Often they erected a church on the site of an indigenous temple. They replicated the existing indigenous network of settlements, but added a port city. The Spanish network needed a port city so that inland settlements could be connected by sea to Spain. In Mexico, Hernán Cortés and the men of his expedition founded of the port town of Veracruz in 1519 and constituted themselves as the town councilors, as a means to throw off the authority of the governor of Cuba, who did not authorize an expedition of conquest. Once the Aztec Empire was toppled, they founded Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec capital. Their central official and ceremonial area was built on top of Aztec palaces and temples. In Peru, Spaniards founded the city of Lima as their capital and its nearby port of Callao , rather than the high-altitude site of Cuzco , the center of Inca rule. Spaniards established a network of settlements in areas they conquered and controlled. Important ones include Santiago de Guatemala (1524); Puebla (1531); Querétaro (ca. 1531); Guadalajara (1531–42); Valladolid (now Morelia ), (1529–41); Antequera (now Oaxaca (1525–29); Campeche (1541); and Mérida . In southern Central and South America, settlements were founded in Panama (1519); León, Nicaragua (1524); Cartagena (1532); Piura (1532); Quito (1534); Trujillo (1535); Cali (1537) Bogotá (1538); Quito (1534); Cuzco 1534); Lima (1535); Tunja , (1539); Huamanga (1539); Arequipa (1540); Santiago de Chile (1544) and Concepción, Chile (1550). Settled from the south were Buenos Aires (1536, 1580); Asunción (1537); Potosí (1545); La Paz, Bolivia (1548); and Tucumán (1553). [54]
Main article: Columbian exchange
The Columbian Exchange was as significant as the clash of civilizations. [55] [56] Arguably the most significant introduction was diseases brought to the Americas, which devastated indigenous populations in a series of epidemics. The loss of indigenous population had a direct impact on Spaniards as well, since increasingly they saw those populations as a source of their own wealth, disappearing before their eyes. [57]
In the first settlements in the Caribbean, the Spaniards deliberately brought animals and plants that transformed the ecological landscape. Pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, and chickens allowed Spaniards to eat a diet with which they were familiar. But the importation of horses transformed warfare for both the Spaniards and the indigenous. Where the Spaniards had exclusive access to horses in warfare, they had an advantage over indigenous warriors on foot. They were initially a scarce commodity, but horse breeding became an active industry. Horses that escaped Spanish control were captured by indigenous; many indigenous also raided for horses. Mounted indigenous warriors were significant foes for Spaniards. The Chichimeca in northern Mexico, the Comanche in the northern Great Plains and the Mapuche in southern Chile and the pampas of Argentina resisted Spanish conquest. For Spaniards, the fierce Chichimecas barred them for exploiting mining resources in northern Mexico. Spaniards waged a fifty-year war (ca. 1550–1600) to subdue them, but peace was only achieved by Spaniards’ making significant donations of food and other commodities the Chichimeca demanded. "Peace by purchase" ended the conflict. [58] In southern Chile and the pampas, the Araucanians (Mapuche) prevented further Spanish expansion. The image of mounted Araucanians capturing and carrying off white women was the embodiment of Spanish ideas of civilization and barbarism.
Cattle multiplied quickly in areas where little else could turn a profit for Spaniards, including northern Mexico and the Argentine pampas. The introduction of sheep production was an ecological disaster in places where they were raised in great numbers, since they ate vegetation to the ground, preventing the regeneration of plants. [59]
The Spanish brought new crops for cultivation. They preferred wheat cultivation to indigenous sources of carbohydrates: casava, maize (corn), and potatoes, initially importing seeds from Europe and planting in areas where plow agriculture could be utilized, such as the Mexican Bajío . They also imported cane sugar, which was a high-value crop in early Spanish America. Spaniards also imported citrus trees, establishing orchards of oranges, lemons, and limes, and grapefruit. Other imports were figs, apricots, cherries, pears, and peaches among others. The exchange did not go one way. Important indigenous crops that transformed Europe were the potato and maize , which produced abundant crops that led to the expansion of populations in Europe. Chocolate and vanilla were cultivated in Mexico and exported to Europe. Among the foodstuffs that became staples in European cuisine and could be grown there were tomatoes, squashes, bell peppers, and to a lesser extent, chili peppers; also nuts of various kinds: walnut]]s, cashews, pecans, and peanuts. [ citation needed ]
The empire in the Indies was a newly established dependency of the kingdom of Castile alone, so crown power was not impeded by any existing cortes (i.e. parliament), administrative or ecclesiastical institution, or seigneurial group. [60] The crown sought to establish and maintain control over its overseas possessions through a complex, hierarchical bureaucracy, which in many ways was decentralized. The crown asserted is authority and sovereignty of the territory and vassals it claimed, collected taxes, maintained public order, meted out justice, and established policies for governance of large indigenous populations. Many institutions established in Castile found expression in The Indies from the early colonial period. Spanish universities expanded to train lawyer-bureaucrats ( letrados ) for administrative positions in Spain and its overseas empire.
The end of the Habsburg dynasty in 1700 saw major administrative reforms in the eighteenth century under the Bourbon monarchy, starting with the first Spanish Bourbon monarch, Philip V (r. 1700–1746) and reaching its apogee under Charles III (r. 1759–1788). The reorganization of administration has been called "a revolution in government." [61] Reforms sought to centralize government control through reorganization of administration, reinvigorate the economies of Spain and the Spanish empire through changes in mercantile and fiscal policies, defend Spanish colonies and territorial claims through the establishment of a standing military, undermine the power of the Catholic church, and rein in the power of the American-born elites. [62]
The crown relied on ecclesiastics as important councilors and royal officials in the governance of their overseas territories. Archbishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca , Isabella's confessor, was tasked with reining in Columbus's independence. He strongly influenced the formulation of colonial policy under the Catholic Monarchs, and was instrumental in establishing the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) (1503), which enabled crown control over trade and immigration. Ovando fitted out Magellan's voyage of circumnavigation, and became the first President of the Council of the Indies in 1524. [63] Ecclesiastics also functioned as administrators overseas in the early Caribbean period, particularly Frey Nicolás de Ovando , who was sent to investigate the administration of Francisco de Bobadilla , the governor appointed to succeed Christopher Columbus. [64] Later ecclesiastics served as interim viceroys, general inspectors (visitadores), and other high posts.
The crown established control over trade and emigration to the Indies with the 1503 establishment the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) in Seville. Ships and cargoes were registered, and emigrants vetted to prevent migration of anyone not of old Christian heritage, (i.e., with no Jewish or Muslim ancestry), and facilitated the migration of families and women. [65] In addition, the Casa de Contratación took charge of the fiscal organization, and of the organization and judicial control of the trade with the Indies. [66]
The politics of asserting royal authority to oppose Columbus resulted in the suppression of his privileges and the creation of territorial governance under royal authority. These governorates, also called as provinces, were the basic of the territorial government of the Indies, [67] and arose as the territories were conquered and colonized. [68] To carry out the expedition ( entrada ), which entailed exploration, conquest, and initial settlement of the territory, the king, as sovereign, and the appointed leader of an expedition ( adelantado ) agreed to an itemized contract ( capitulación ), with the specifics of the conditions of the expedition in a particular territory. The individual leaders of expeditions assumed the expenses of the venture and in return received as reward the grant from the government of the conquered territories; [69] and in addition, they received instructions about treating the indigenous peoples. [70]
After the end of the period of conquests, it was necessary to manage extensive and different territories with a strong bureaucracy. In the face of the impossibility of the Castilian institutions to take care of the New World affairs, other new institutions were created. [71]
As the basic political entity it was the governorate, or province. The governors exercised judicial ordinary functions of first instance, and prerogatives of government legislating by ordinances. [72] To these political functions of the governor, it could be joined the military ones, according to military requirements, with the rank of Captain general . [73] The office of captain general involved to be the supreme military chief of the whole territory and he was responsible for recruiting and providing troops, the fortification of the territory, the supply and the shipbuilding. [74]
Beginning in 1522 in the newly conquered Mexico, government units in the Spanish empire had a royal treasury controlled by a set of oficiales reales (royal officials). There were also sub-treasuries at important ports and mining districts. The officials of the royal treasury at each level of government typically included two to four positions: a tesorero (treasurer), the senior official who guarded money on hand and made payments; a contador (accountant or comptroller ), who recorded income and payments, maintained records, and interpreted royal instructions; a factor , who guarded weapons and supplies belonging to the king, and disposed of tribute collected in the province; and a veedor (overseer), who was responsible for contacts with native inhabitants of the province, and collected the king's share of any war booty. The veedor , or overseer, position quickly disappeared in most jurisdictions, subsumed into the position of factor . Depending on the conditions in a jurisdiction, the position of factor/veedor was often eliminated, as well. [75]
The treasury officials were appointed by the king, and were largely independent of the authority of the viceroy, audiencia president or governor. On the death, unauthorized absence, retirement or removal of a governor, the treasury officials would jointly govern the province until a new governor appointed by the king could take up his duties. Treasury officials were supposed to be paid out of the income from the province, and were normally prohibited from engaging in income-producing activities. [76]
The protection of the indigenous populations from enslavement and exploitation by Spanish settlers were established in the Laws of Burgos , 1512–1513. The laws were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in the Americas, particularly with regards to treatment of native Indians in the institution of the encomienda . They forbade the maltreatment of natives, and endorsed the forced resettlement of indigenous populations with attempts of conversion to Catholicism. [77] Upon their failure to effectively protect the indigenous and following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the Spanish conquest of Peru , more stringent laws to control conquerors' and settlers' exercise of power, especially their maltreatment of the indigenous populations, were promulgated, known as the New Laws (1542). The crown aimed to prevent the formation of an aristocracy in the Indies not under crown control.
Queen Isabel was the first monarch that laid the first stone for the protection of the indigenous peoples in her testament in which the Catholic monarch prohibited the enslavement of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. [78] Then the first such in 1542; the legal thought behind them was the basis of modern International law . [79]
The Valladolid debate (1550–1551) was the first moral debate in European history to discuss the rights and treatment of a colonized people by colonizers. Held in the Colegio de San Gregorio , in the Spanish city of Valladolid , it was a moral and theological debate about the colonization of the Americas , its justification for the conversion to Catholicism and more specifically about the relations between the European settlers and the natives of the New World . It consisted of a number of opposing views about the way natives were to be integrated into colonial life, their conversion to Christianity and their rights and obligations. According to the French historian Jean Dumont The Valladolid debate was a major turning point in world history “In that moment in Spain appeared the dawn of the human rights” . [80]
The indigenous populations in the Caribbean became the focus of the crown in its roles as sovereigns of the empire and patron of the Catholic Church. Spanish conquerors holding grants of indigenous labor in encomienda ruthlessly exploited them. A number of friars in the early period came to the vigorous defense of the indigenous populations, who were new converts to Christianity. Prominent Dominican friars in Santo Domingo, especially Antonio de Montesinos and Bartolomé de Las Casas denounced the maltreatment and pressed the crown to act to protect the indigenous populations. The crown enacted Laws of Burgos (1513) and the Requerimiento to curb the power of the Spanish conquerors and give indigenous populations the opportunity to peacefully embrace Spanish authority and Christianity. Neither was effective in its purpose. Las Casas was officially appointed Protector of the Indians and spent his life arguing forcefully on their behalf. The New Laws of 1542 were the result, limiting the power of encomenderos, the private holders of grants to indigenous labor previously held in perpetuity. The crown was open to limiting the inheritance of encomiendas in perpetuity as a way to extinguish the coalescence of a group of Spaniards impinging on royal power. In Peru, the attempt of the newly appointed viceroy, Blasco Núñez Vela , to implement the New Laws so soon after the conquest sparked a revolt by conquerors against the viceroy and the viceroy was killed in 1546. [81] In Mexico, Don Martín Cortés , the son and legal heir of conqueror Hernán Cortés , and other heirs of encomiendas led a failed revolt against the crown. Don Martín was sent into exile, while other conspirators were executed. [82]
The conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires ended their sovereignty over their respective territorial expanses, replaced by the Spanish Empire, and indigenous religious beliefs and practices were suppressed and populations converted to Christianity. The Spanish Empire could not have ruled these vast territories and dense indigenous populations without utilizing the existing indigenous political and economic structures at the local level. A key to this was the cooperation between most indigenous elites with the new ruling structure. The Spanish recognized indigenous elites as nobles and gave them continuing standing in their communities. Indigenous elites could use the noble titles don and doña , were exempt from the head-tax, and could entail their landholdings into cacicazgos . [83] These elites played an intermediary role between the Spanish rulers and indigenous commoners. Since in central and southern Mexico ( Mesoamerica ) and the highland Andes indigenous peoples had existing traditions of payment of tribute and required labor service, the Spanish could tap into these systems to extract wealth. There were few Spaniards and huge indigenous populations, so utilizing indigenous intermediaries was a practical solution to the incorporation of the indigenous population into the new regime of rule. By maintaining hierarchical divisions within communities, indigenous noblemen were the direct interface between the indigenous and Spanish spheres and kept their positions so long as they continued to be loyal to the Spanish crown. [84] [85] [86] [87] [88]
The exploitation and demographic catastrophe that indigenous peoples experienced from Spanish rule in the Caribbean also occurred as Spaniards expanded their control over territories and their indigenous populations. The crown set the indigenous communities legally apart from Spaniards (as well as Blacks), who made up the República de Españoles , with the creation of the República de Indios . The crown attempted to curb Spaniards' exploitation, banning Spaniards' bequeathing their private grants of indigenous communities' tribute and encomienda labor in 1542 in the New Laws . [89] In Mexico, the crown established the General Indian Court ( Juzgado General de Indios ), which heard disputes affecting individual indigenous as well as indigenous communities. Lawyers for these cases were funded by a half-real tax, an early example of legal aid for the poor. [90] A similar legal apparatus was set up in Lima. [91]
The Spaniards systematically attempted to transform structures of indigenous governance to those more closely resembling those of Spaniards, so the indigenous city-state became a Spanish town and the indigenous noblemen who ruled became officeholders of the town council (cabildo). Although the structure of the indigenous cabildo looked similar to that of the Spanish institution, its indigenous functionaries continued to follow indigenous practices. In central Mexico, there exist minutes of the sixteenth-century meetings in Nahuatl of the Tlaxcala cabildo. [92] Indigenous noblemen were particularly important in the early period of colonization, since the economy of the encomienda was initially built on the extraction of tribute and labor from the commoners in their communities. As the colonial economy became more diversified and less dependent on these mechanisms for the accumulation of wealth, the indigenous noblemen became less important for the economy. However, noblemen became defenders of the rights to land and water controlled by their communities. In colonial Mexico, there are petitions to the king about a variety of issues important to particular indigenous communities when the noblemen did not get a favorable response from the local friar or priest or local royal officials.
Works by historians in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries have expanded the understanding of the impact of the Spanish conquest and changes during the more than three hundred years of Spanish rule. There are many such works for Mexico, often drawing on native-language documentation in Nahuatl, [93] [94] Mixtec, [95] and Yucatec Maya. [96] [97] For the Andean area, there are an increasing number of publications as well. [98] [99] The history of the Guaraní has also been the subject of a recent study. [100]
In 2000, Pope John Paul II apologized for the wrongs done by the Catholic Church, including those to indigenous peoples. [101] In 2007 Pope Benedict XVI issued a less sweeping apology for the wrongs done in the conversion of indigenous peoples. [102]
In 1524 the Council of the Indies was established, following the system of system of Councils that advised the monarch and made decisions on his behalf about specific matters of government. [103] Based in Castile, with the assignment of the governance of the Indies, it was thus responsible for drafting legislation, proposing the appointments to the King for civil government as well as ecclesiastical appointments, and pronouncing judicial sentences; as maximum authority in the overseas territories, the Council of the Indies took over both the institutions in the Indies as the defense of the interests of the Crown, the Catholic Church, and of indigenous peoples. [104] With the 1508 papal grant to the crown of the Patronato real, the crown, rather than the pope, exercised absolute power over the Catholic Church in the Americas and the Philippines, a privilege the crown zealously guarded against erosion or incursion. Crown approval through the Council of the Indies was needed for the establishment of bishoprics, building of churches, appointment of all clerics. [105]
In 1721, at the beginning of the Bourbon monarchy, the crown transferred the main responsibility for governing the overseas empire from the Council of the Indies to the Ministry of the Navy and the Indies, which were subsequently divided into two separate ministries in 1754. [62]
The impossibility of the physical presence of the monarch and the necessity of strong royal governance in The Indies resulted in the appointment of viceroys ("vice-kings"), the direct representation of the monarch, in both civil and ecclesiastical spheres. Viceroyalties were the largest territory unit of administration in the civil and religious spheres and the boundaries of civil and ecclesiastical governance coincided by design, to ensure crown control over both bureaucracies. [106] Until the eighteenth century, there were just two viceroyalties, with the Viceroyalty of New Spain (founded 1535) administering North America, a portion of the Caribbean, and the Philippines, and the viceroyalty of Peru (founded 1542) having jurisdiction over Spanish South America. Viceroys served as the vice-patron of the Catholic Church, including the Inquisition , established in the seats of the viceroyalties (Mexico City and Lima). Viceroys were responsible for good governance of their territories, economic development, and humane treatment of the indigenous populations. [107]
In the eighteenth-century reforms, the Viceroyalty of Peru was reorganized, splitting off portions to form the Viceroyalty of New Granada (Colombia) (1739) and the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata (Argentina) (1776), leaving Peru with jurisdiction over Peru, Charcas, and Chile. Viceroys were of high social standing, almost without exception born in Spain, and served fixed terms.
Main article: Real Audiencia
The Audiencias were initially constituted by the crown as a key administrative institution with royal authority and loyalty to the crown as opposed to conquerors and first settlers. [108] Although constituted as the highest judicial authority in their territorial jurisdiction, they also had executive and legislative authority, and served as the executive on an interim basis. Judges ( oidores ) held "formidable power. Their role in judicial affairs and in overseeing the implementation of royal legislation made their decisions important for the communities they served." Since their appointments were for life or the pleasure of the monarch, they had a continuity of power and authority that viceroys and captains-general lacked because of their shorter-term appointments. [109] They were the "center of the administrative system [and] gave the government of the Indies a strong basis of permanence and continuity." [110]
Their main function was judicial, as a court of justice of second instance —court of appeal— in penal and civil matters, but also the Audiencias were courts the first instance in the city where it had its headquarters, and also in the cases involving the Royal Treasury. [111] Besides court of justice, the Audiencias had functions of government as counterweight the authority of the viceroys, since they could communicate with both the Council of the Indies and the king without the requirement of requesting authorization from the viceroy. [111] This direct correspondence of the Audiencia with the Council of the Indies made it possible for the council to give the Audiencia direction on general aspects of government. [108]
Audiencias were a significant base of power and influence for American-born elites, starting in the late sixteenth century, with nearly a quarter of appointees being born in the Indies by 1687. During a financial crisis in the late seventeenth century, the crown began selling Audiencia appointments, and American-born Spaniards held 45% of Audiencia appointments. Although there were restrictions of appointees' ties to local elite society and participation in the local economy, they acquired dispensations from the cash-strapped crown. Audiencia judgments and other functions became more tied to the locality and less to the crown and impartial justice.
During the Bourbon Reforms in the mid-eighteenth century, the crown systematically sought to centralize power in its own hands and diminish that of its overseas possessions, appointing peninsular-born Spaniards to Audiencias. American-born elite men complained bitterly about the change, since they lost access to power that they had enjoyed for nearly a century. [109]
See also: Corregidor (position)
During the early era and under the Habsburgs, the crown established a regional layer of colonial jurisdiction in the institution of Corregimiento , which was between the Audiencia and town councils . Corregimiento expanded "royal authority from the urban centers into the countryside and over the indigenous population." [112] As with many colonial institutions, corregimiento had its roots in Castile when the Catholic Monarchs centralize power over municipalities. In the Indies, corregimiento initially functioned to bring control over Spanish settlers who exploited the indigenous populations held in encomienda , in order to protect the shrinking indigenous populations and prevent the formation of an aristocracy of conquerors and powerful settlers. The royal official in charge of a district was the Corregidor , who was appointed by the viceroy, usually for a five-year term. Corregidores collected the tribute from indigenous communities and regulated forced indigenous labor. Alcaldías mayores were larger districts with a royal appointee, the Alcalde mayor .
As the indigenous populations declined, the need for corregimiento decreased and then suppressed, with the alcaldía mayor remaining an institution until it was replaced in the eighteenth-century Bourbon Reforms by royal officials, Intendants . The salary of officials during the Habsburg era were paltry, but the corregidor or alcalde mayor in densely populated areas of indigenous settlement with a valuable product could use his office for personal enrichment. As with many other royal posts, these positions were sold, starting in 1677. [112] The Bourbon-era intendants were appointed and relatively well paid. [113]
Main article: Cabildo (council)
Spanish settlers sought to live in towns and cities, with governance being accomplished through the town council or Cabildo . The cabildo was composed of the prominent residents ( vecinos ) of the municipality, so that governance was restricted to a male elite, with majority of the population exercising power. Cities were governed on the same pattern as in Spain and in the Indies the city was the framework of Spanish life. The cities were Spanish and the countryside indigenous. [114] In areas of previous indigenous empires with settled populations, the crown also melded existing indigenous rule into a Spanish pattern, with the establishment of cabildos and the participation of indigenous elites as officials holding Spanish titles. There were a variable number of councilors ( regidores ), depending on the size of the town, also two municipal judges ( alcaldes menores ), who were judges of first instance, and also other officials as police chief, inspector of supplies, court clerk, and a public herald. [115] They were in charge of distributing land to the neighbors, establishing local taxes, dealing with the public order, inspecting jails and hospitals, preserving the roads and public works such as irrigation ditchs and bridges, supervising the public health, regulating the festive activities, monitoring market prices, or the protection of Indians. [116]
After the reign of Philip II, the municipal offices, including the councilors, were auctioned to alleviate the need for money of the Crown, even the offices could also be sold, which became hereditary, [117] so that the government of the cities went on to hands of urban oligarchies. [118] In order to control the municipal life, the Crown ordered the appointment of corregidores and alcaldes mayores to exert greater political control and judicial functions in minor districts. [119] Their functions were governing the respective municipalities, administering of justice and being appellate judges in the alcaldes menores ' judgments, [120] but only the corregidor could preside over the cabildo . [121] However, both charges were also put up for sale freely since the late 16th century. [122]
Most Spanish settlers came to the Indies as permanent residents, established families and businesses, and sought advancement in the colonial system, such as membership of cabildos, so that they were in the hands of local, American-born ( crillo ) elites. During the Bourbon era, even when the crown systematically appointed peninsular-born Spaniards to royal posts rather than American-born, the cabildos remained in the hands of local elites. [123]
As the empire expanded into areas of less dense indigenous populations, the crown created a chain of presidios , military forts or garrisons, that provided Spanish settlers protection from Indian attacks. In Mexico during the sixteenth-century Chichimec War guarded the transit of silver from the mines of Zacatecas to Mexico City. As many as 60 salaried soldiers were garrisoned in presidios. [124] Presidios had a resident commanders, who set up commercial enterprises of imported merchandise, selling it to soldiers as well as Indian allies. [125]
The other frontier institution was the religious mission to convert the indigenous populations. Missions were established with royal authority through the Patronato real . The Jesuits were effective missionaries in frontier areas until their expulsion from Spain and its empire in 1767. The Franciscans took over some former Jesuit missions and continued the expansion of areas incorporated into the empire. Although their primary focus was on religious conversion, missionaries served as "diplomatic agents, peace emissaries to hostile tribes ... and they were also expected to hold the line against nomadic nonmissionary Indians as well as other European powers." [126] On the frontier of empire, Indians were seen as sin razón , ("without reason"); non-Indian populations were described as gente de razón ("people of reason"), who could be mixed-race castas or black and had greater social mobility in frontier regions. [127]
Christian evangelization of non-Christian peoples was a key factor in Spaniards' justification of the conquest of indigenous peoples in what was called "the spiritual conquest". In 2000, Pope John Paul II apologized for errors committed by the Catholic Church, including forced conversion. [101]
During the early colonial period, the crown authorized friars of Catholic religious orders ( Franciscans , Dominicans , and Augustinians ) to function as priests during the conversion of indigenous populations. During the early Age of Discovery , the diocesan clergy in Spain was poorly educated and considered of a low moral standing, and the Catholic Monarchs were reluctant to allow them to spearhead evangelization. Each order set up networks of parishes in the various regions (provinces), sited in existing indigenous settlements, where Christian churches were built and where evangelization of the indigenous was based. Hernán Cortés requested Franciscan and Dominican friars be sent to New Spain immediately after the conquest of Tenochtitlan to begin evangelization. The Franciscans arrived first in 1525 in a group of twelve, the Twelve Apostles of Mexico . Among this first group was Toribio de Benavente , known now as Motolinia , the Nahuatl word for poor. [128] [129]
After the 1550s, the crown increasingly favored the diocesan clergy over the religious orders. The diocesan clergy) (also called the secular clergy were under the direct authority of bishops, who were appointed by the crown, through the power granted by the pope in the Patronato Real . Religious orders had their own internal regulations and leadership. The crown had authority to draw the boundaries for dioceses and parishes. The creation of the ecclesiastical hierarchy of the diocesan clergy marked a turning point in the crown's control over the religious sphere. The structure of the hierarchy was in many ways parallel to that of civil governance. The pope was the head of the Catholic Church, but the granting of the Patronato Real to the Spanish monarchy gave the king the power of appointment (patronage) of ecclesiastics. The monarch was head of the civil and religious hierarchies. The capital city of a viceroyalty became of the seat of the archbishop. The region overseen by the archbishop was divided into large units, the diocese , headed by a bishop. The diocese was in turn divided into smaller units, the parish , staffed by a parish priest.
In 1574, Philip II promulgated the Order of Patronage ( Ordenaza del Patronato ) ordering the religious orders to turn over their parishes to the secular clergy, a policy that secular clerics had long sought for the central areas of empire, with their large indigenous populations. Although implementation was slow and incomplete, it was an assertion of royal power over the clergy and the quality of parish priests improved, since the Ordenanza mandated competitive examination to fill vacant positions. [130] [131] Religious orders along with the Jesuits then embarked on further evangelization in frontier regions of the empire.
The Jesuits resisted crown control, refusing to pay the tithe on their estates that supported the ecclesiastical hierarchy and came into conflict with bishops. The most prominent example is in Puebla, Mexico, when Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza was driven from his bishopric by the Jesuits. The bishop challenged the Jesuits' continuing to hold Indian parishes and function as priests without the required royal licenses. His fall from power is viewed as an example of the weakening of the crown in the mid-seventeenth century since it failed to protect their duly appointed bishop. [132] The crown expelled the Jesuits from Spain and The Indies in 1767 during the Bourbon Reforms .
Inquisitional powers were initially vested in bishops, who could root out idolatry and heresy. In Mexico, Bishop Juan de Zumárraga prosecuted and had executed in 1539 a Nahua lord, known as Don Carlos of Texcoco for apostasy and sedition for having converted to Christianity and then renounced his conversion and urged others to do so as well. Zumárraga was reprimanded for his actions as exceeding his authority. [133] [134] When the formal institution of the Inquisition was established in 1571, indigenous peoples were excluded from its jurisdiction on the grounds that they were neophytes, new converts, and not capable of understanding religious doctrine.
It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence. [135]
Native populations declined significantly during the period of Spanish expansion. In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. The population of the Native American population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 1–2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. [ citation needed ] In Peru , the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century. [ citation needed ] The overwhelming cause of the decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases , such as smallpox and measles , [136] although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline. [ citation needed ]
Of the history of the indigenous population of California , Sherburne F. Cook (1896–1974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research, he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, during the Mexican and US periods of Californian history (1821–1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period (1846–1910). [137] [138] [139]
Main article: Castas
The largest population in Spanish America was and remained indigenous, what Spaniards called "Indians" ( indios ), a category that did not exist before the arrival of the Europeans. The Spanish Crown separated them into the República de Indios . Europeans immigrated from various provinces of Spain, with initial waves of emigration consisting of more men than women. They were referred to as Españoles and Españolas , and later being differentiated by the terms indicating place of birth, peninsular for those born in Spain; criollo/criolla or Americano/Ameriana for those born in the Americas. Enslaved Africans were imported to Spanish territories, primarily to Cuba . As was the case in peninsular Spain, Africans ( negros ) were able buy their freedom (horro), so that in most of the empire free Blacks and Mulatto (Black + Spanish) populations outnumbered slave populations. Spaniards and Indigenous parents produced Mestizo offspring, who were also part of the República de Españoles. [ citation needed ]
In areas of dense, stratified indigenous populations, especially Mesoamerica and the Andean region, Spanish conquerors awarded perpetual private grants of labor and tribute to particular indigenous settlements, in encomienda they were in a privileged position to accumulate private wealth. Spaniards had some knowledge of the existing indigenous practices of labor and tribute, so that learning in more detail what tribute particular regions delivered to the Aztec Empire prompted the creation of Codex Mendoza , a codification for Spanish use. The rural regions remained highly indigenous, with little interface between the large numbers of indigenous and the small numbers of the República de Españoles, which included Blacks and mixed-race castas. Tribute goods in Mexico were most usually lengths of cotton cloth, woven by women, and maize and other foodstuffs produced by men. These could be sold in markets and thereby converted to cash. In the early period for Spaniards, formal ownership of land was less important than control of indigenous labor and receiving tribute. Spaniards had seen the disappearance of the indigenous populations in the Caribbean, and with that, the disappearance of their main source of wealth, propelling Spaniards to expand their regions of control. With the conquests of the Aztec and Inca empires, large numbers of Spaniards emigrated from the Iberian peninsula to seek their fortune or to pursue better economic conditions for themselves. The establishment of large, permanent Spanish settlements attracted a whole range of new residents, who set up shop as carpenters, bakers, tailors and other artisan activities.
The early Caribbean proved a massive disappointment for Spaniards, who had hoped to find mineral wealth and exploitable indigenous populations. Gold existed in only small amounts, and the indigenous peoples died off in massive numbers. For the colony's continued existence, a reliable source of labor was needed. That was of enslaved Africans. Cane sugar imported from the Old World was a high value, a low bulk export product that became the bulwark of tropical economies of the Caribbean islands and coastal Tierra Firme (the Spanish Main), as well as Portuguese Brazil .
Silver was the bonanza the Spaniards sought. Large deposits were found in a single mountain in the viceroyalty of Peru, the Cerro Rico, in what is now Bolivia, and in several places outside of the dense indigenous zone of settlement in northern Mexico, Zacatecas and Guanajuato . [140] In the Andes, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo revived the indigenous rotary labor system of the mita to supply labor for silver mining. [141] [142] [143] In Mexico, the labor force had to be lured from elsewhere in the colony, and was not based on traditional systems of rotary labor. In Mexico, refining took place in haciendas de minas , where silver ore was refined into pure silver by amalgamation with mercury in what was known as the patio process . Ore was crushed with the aid of mules and then mercury could be applied to draw out the pure silver. Mercury was a monopoly of the crown. In Peru, the Cerro Rico's ore was processed from the local mercury mine of Huancavelica , while in Mexico mercury was imported from the Almadén mercury mine in Spain. Mercury is a neurotoxin, which damaged and killed human and mules coming into contact with it. In the Huancavelica region, mercury continues to wreak ecological damage. [144] [145] [146]
To feed urban populations and mining workforces, small-scale farms (ranchos), ( estancias ), and large-scale enterprises ( haciendas ) emerged to fill the demand, especially for foodstuffs that Spaniards wanted to eat, most especially wheat. In areas of sparse population, ranching of cattle ( ganado mayor ) and smaller livestock ( ganado menor ) such as sheep and goats ranged widely and were largely feral. There is debate about the impact of ranching on the environment in the colonial era, with sheep herding being called out for its negative impact, while others contest that. [147] With only a small labor force to draw on, ranching was an ideal economic activity for some regions. Most agriculture and ranching supplied local needs, since transportation was difficult, slow, and expensive. [148] Only the most valuable low bulk products would be exported.
Cacao beans for chocolate emerged as an export product as Europeans developed a taste for sweetened chocolate. Another important export product was cochineal , a color-fast red dye made from dried insects living on cacti. It became the second-most valuable export from Spanish America after silver. [149]
Government under traditional Spanish law
Loyal to Supreme Central Junta or Cortes
American junta or insurrection movement
Independent state declared or established
Height of French control of the Peninsula
During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain . The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators") were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly criollos (Americas-born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country .
In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of Peru . The first two were in the Alto Perú, present-day Bolivia , at Charcas (present day Sucre , 25 May), and La Paz (16 July); and the third in present-day Ecuador at Quito (10 August). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas.
In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish–American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba , the Philippines , and Puerto Rico . Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self-governing unincorporated territory .
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In the twentieth century, there have been a number of films depicting the life of Christopher Columbus. One in 1949 stars Fredric March as Columbus. [150] With the 1992 commemoration (and critique) of Columbus, more cinematic and television depictions of the era appeared, including a TV miniseries with Gabriel Byrne as Columbus. [151] Christopher Columbus: The Discovery (1992) has Georges Corroface as Columbus with Marlon Brando as Tomás de Torquemada and Tom Selleck as King Ferdinand and Rachel Ward as Queen Isabela. [152] 1492: The Conquest of Paradise stars Gérard Depardieu as Columbus and Sigorney Weaver as Queen Isabel. [153] A 2010 film, Even the Rain starring Gael García Bernal , is set in modern Cochabamba , Bolivia during the Cochabamba Water War , following a film crew shooting a controversial life of Columbus. [154] [155] A 1995 Bolivian-made film is in some ways similar to Even the Rain is To Hear the Birds Singing , with a modern film crew going to an indigenous settlement to shoot a film about the Spanish conquest and end up replicating aspects of the conquest. [156]
For the conquest of Mexico, a 2019 eight-episode Mexican TV miniseries Hernán depicts the conquest of Mexico. Other notable historical figures in the production are Malinche , Cortés cultural translator, and other conquerors Pedro de Alvarado , Cristóbal de Olid , Bernal Díaz del Castillo . Showing the indigenous sides are Xicotencatl , a leader of the Spaniards' Tlaxcalan allies, and Aztec emperors Moctezuma II and Cuitlahuac . [157] The story of Doña Marina, also known as Malinche, was the subject of a Mexican TV miniseries in 2018. [158] A major production in Mexico was the 1998 film, The Other Conquest , which focuses on a Nahua in the post-conquest era and the evangelization of central Mexico. [159]
The epic journey of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca has been portrayed in a 1991 feature-length Mexican film, Cabeza de Vaca . [160] The similarly epic and dark journey of Lope de Aguirre was made into a film by Werner Herzog , Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972), starring Klaus Kinsky . [161]
The Mission was a 1996 film idealizing a Jesuit mission to the Guaraní in the territory disputed between Spain and Portugal. The film starred Robert De Niro , Jeremy Irons , and Liam Neeson and It won an Academy Award . [162]
The life of seventeenth-century Mexican nun, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz , renowned in her lifetime, has been portrayed in a 1990 Argentine film, I, the Worst of All [163] and in a TV miniseries Juana Inés. [164] Seventeenth-century Mexican trickster Martín Garatuza was the subject of a late nineteenth-century novel by Mexican politician and writer, Vicente Riva Palacio . In the twentieth century, Garatuza's life was the subject of a 1935 film [165] and a 1986 telenovela , Martín Garatuza . [166]
For the independence era, the 2016 Bolivian-made film made about Mestiza independence leader Juana Azurduy de Padilla is part of the recent recognition of her role in the independence of Argentina and Bolivia. [167] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas | 25 |
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Updated on August 18, 2018
La Isabela is the name of the first European town established in the Americas. La Isabela was settled by Christopher Columbus and 1,500 others in 1494 AD, on the northern coast of the island of Hispaniola, in what is now the Dominican Republic in the Caribbean Sea. La Isabela was the first European town, but it was not the first colony in the New World--that was L'Anse aux Meadows , established by Norse colonists in Canada nearly 500 years earlier: both of these early colonies were abject failures.
In 1494, the Italian-born, Spanish-financed explorer Christopher Columbus was on his second voyage to the American continents, landing in Hispaniola with a group of 1,500 settlers. The primary purpose of the expedition was to establish a colony, a foothold in the Americas for Spain to begin its conquest . But Columbus was also there to discover sources of precious metals. There on the north shore of Hispaniola, they established the first European town in the New World, called La Isabela after Queen Isabella of Spain, who supported his voyage financially and politically.
For an early colony, La Isabela was a fairly substantial settlement. The settlers quickly built several buildings, including a palace/citadel for Columbus to live in; a fortified storehouse (alhondiga) to store their material goods; several stone buildings for various purposes; and a European-style plaza . There is also evidence for several locations associated with silver and iron ore processing.
The silver processing operations at La Isabela involved the use of European galena, an ore of lead probably imported from ore fields in the Los Pedroches-Alcudia or Linares-La Carolina valleys of Spain. The purpose of the exportation of lead galena from Spain to the new colony is believed to have been to assay the percentage of gold and silver ore in artifacts stolen from the indigenous people of the "New World". Later, it was used in a failed attempt to smelt iron ore.
Artifacts associated with ore assay discovered at the site included 58 triangular graphite-tempered assaying crucibles, a kilogram (2.2 pounds) of liquid mercury , a concentration of about 90 kg (200 lbs) of galena , and several deposits of metallurgical slag, mostly concentrated near or within the fortified storehouse. Adjacent to the slag concentration was a small fire pit, believed to represent a furnace used to process the metal.
Because historical records indicate that the colony was a failure, Tiesler and colleagues investigated the physical evidence of the conditions of the colonists, using macroscopic and histological (blood) evidence on the skeletons excavated from a contact-era cemetery. A total of 48 individuals were buried in La Isabela's church cemetery. Skeletal preservation was variable, and the researchers could only determine that at least 33 of the 48 were men and three were women. Children and adolescents were among the individuals, but there was no one older than 50 at the time of death.
Among the 27 skeletons with adequate preservation, 20 exhibited lesions likely to have been caused by severe adult scurvy, a disease caused by a sustained lack of vitamin C and common to seafarers before the 18th century. Scurvy is reported to have caused 80% of all deaths during long sea voyages in the 16th and 17th centuries. Surviving reports of the colonists' intense fatigue and physical exhaustion on and after arrival are clinical manifestations of scurvy. There were sources of vitamin C on Hispaniola, but the men were not familiar enough with the local environment to pursue them, and instead relied on infrequent shipments from Spain to meet their dietary demands, shipments that did not include fruit.
At least two indigenous communities were located in the northwestern Dominican Republic where Columbus and his crew established La Isabela, known as the La Luperona and El Flaco archaeological sites. Both of these sites were occupied between the 3rd and 15th centuries, and have been the focus of archaeological investigations since 2013. The prehispanic people in the Caribbean region at the time of Columbus's landing were horticulturalists, who combined slash and burn land clearance and house gardens holding domesticated and managed plants with substantive hunting, fishing, and gathering. According to historic documents, the relationship was not a good one.
Based on all the evidence, historical and archaeological, the La Isabela colony was a flat-out disaster: the colonists did not find any extensive quantities of ores, and hurricanes, crop failures, disease, mutinies, and conflicts with the resident Taíno made life unbearable. Columbus himself was recalled to Spain in 1496, to account for the financial disasters of the expedition, and the town was abandoned in 1498.
Archaeological investigations at La Isabela have been conducted since the late 1980s by a team led by Kathleen Deagan and José M. Cruxent of the Florida Museum of Natural History , at which web site much more detail is available.
Interestingly, like at the earlier Viking settlement of L'anse aux Meadows , evidence at La Isabela suggests that the European residents may have failed in part because they were unwilling to fully adapt to local living conditions.
Sources
- Deagan K. 1996. Colonial transformation: Euro-American cultural genesis in the early Spanish-American colonies. Journal of Anthropological Research 52(2):135-160.
- Deagan K, and Cruxent JM. 2002. Columbus's Outpost Among the Tainos: Spain and America at La Isabela, 1493-1498. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Deagan K, and Cruxent JM. 2002. Archaeology at La Isabela, America’s First European Town. New Haven: Yale University Press.
- Laffoon JE, Hoogland MLP, Davies GR, and Hofman CL. 2016. Human dietary assessment in the Pre-colonial Lesser Antilles: New stable isotope evidence from Lavoutte, Saint Lucia . Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 5:168-180.
- Thibodeau AM, Killick DJ, Ruiz J, Chesley JT, Deagan K, Cruxent JM, and Lyman W. 2007. The strange case of the earliest silver extraction by European colonists in the New World. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104(9):3663-3666. | https://www.thoughtco.com/la-isabela-columbus-first-colony-171383 | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Spanish Colonies | United States History I | - Identify the main Spanish American colonial settlements of the 1500s and 1600s, and the motives for establishing them
- Describe the economic, political, and social circumstances of Spanish colonization in the Americas
During the 1500s, Spain expanded its colonial empire to the Philippines in the Far East and to areas in the Americas that later became the United States. The Spanish dreamed of mountains of gold and silver and imagined converting thousands of eager Indians to Catholicism. In their vision of colonial society, everyone would know his or her place. Patriarchy (the rule of men over family, society, and government) shaped the Spanish colonial world. Women occupied a lower status. In all matters, the Spanish held themselves to be atop the social pyramid, with native peoples and Africans beneath them. Both Africans and native peoples, however, contested Spanish claims to dominance. Everywhere the Spanish settled, they brought devastating diseases, such as smallpox, that led to a horrific loss of life among native peoples. European diseases killed far more native inhabitants than did Spanish swords.
The world that Native peoples had known before the coming of the Spanish was further upset by Spanish colonial practices. The Spanish imposed the encomienda system in the areas they controlled. Under this system, Spanish conquerors were rewarded for their conquests with tribute and laborers to work (mostly in mining), with the understanding that the Spaniards who received an encomienda would defend the colony and teach the workers the tenets of Christianity. In reality, the encomienda system exploited Native workers in a system akin to slavery. It was eventually replaced by another colonial labor system, the repartimiento , which required Indian towns to supply a pool of labor for Spanish overlords.
Spain gained a foothold in present-day Florida, viewing that area and the lands to the north as a logical extension of their Caribbean empire. In 1513, Juan Ponce de León had claimed the area around today’s St. Augustine for the Spanish crown, naming the land Pascua Florida (Feast of Flowers, or Easter) for the nearest religious holiday. Ponce de León was unable to establish a permanent settlement there, but by 1565, Spain was in need of an outpost to confront the French and English privateers using Florida as a base from which to attack treasure-laden Spanish ships heading from Cuba to Spain. The threat to Spanish interests took a new turn in 1562 when a group of French Protestants (Huguenots) established a small settlement they called Fort Caroline, north of St. Augustine.
With the authorization of King Philip II, Spanish nobleman Pedro Menéndez led an attack on Fort Caroline, killing most of the colonists and destroying the fort. Eliminating Fort Caroline served dual purposes for the Spanish—it helped reduce the danger from French privateers and eradicated the French threat to Spain’s claim to the area. The contest over Florida illustrates how European rivalries spilled over into the Americas, especially religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants.
In 1565, the victorious Menéndez founded St. Augustine, now the oldest European settlement in the Americas. In the process, the Spanish displaced the local Timucua Indians from their ancient town of Seloy, which had stood for thousands of years. The Timucua suffered greatly from diseases introduced by the Spanish, shrinking from a population of around 200,000 pre-contact to 50,000 in 1590. By 1700, only 1,000 Timucua remained. As in other areas of Spanish conquest, Catholic priests worked to bring about a spiritual conquest by forcing the surviving Timucua, demoralized and reeling from catastrophic losses of family and community, to convert to Catholicism.
Spanish Florida made an inviting target for Spain’s imperial rivals, especially the English, who wanted to gain access to the Caribbean. In 1586, Spanish settlers in St. Augustine discovered their vulnerability to attack when the English pirate Sir Francis Drake destroyed the town with a fleet of twenty ships and one hundred men. Over the next several decades, the Spanish built more wooden forts, all of which were burned by raiding European rivals. Between 1672 and 1695, the Spanish constructed a stone fort, Castillo de San Marcos, to better defend St. Augustine against challengers.
Browse the National Park Service’s multimedia resources on Castillo de San Marcos to see how the fort and gates have looked throughout history.
In the 1630s, the mission system extended into the Apalachee district in the Florida panhandle. The Apalachee, one of the most powerful tribes in Florida at the time of contact, claimed the territory from the modern Florida-Georgia border to the Gulf of Mexico. Apalachee farmers grew an abundance of corn and other crops, and Indian traders carried surplus products east along the Camino Real , the royal road that connected the western anchor of the mission system with St. Augustine. Spanish settlers drove cattle eastward across the St. Johns River and established ranches as far west as Apalachee. Still, Spain held Florida tenuously.
Further west, the Spanish in Mexico, intent on expanding their empire, looked north to the land of the Pueblo Indians. Under orders from King Philip II, Juan de Oñate explored the American southwest for Spain in the late 1590s. The Spanish hoped that what we know today as New Mexico would yield gold and silver, but the land produced little of value to them. In 1610, Spanish settlers established themselves at Santa Fe—originally named La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís, or “Royal City of the Holy Faith of St. Francis of Assisi”—where many Pueblo villages were located. Santa Fe became the capital of the Kingdom of New Mexico, an outpost of the larger Spanish Viceroyalty of New Spain, which had its headquarters in Mexico City.
As they had in other Spanish colonies, Franciscan missionaries labored to bring about a spiritual conquest by converting the Pueblo to Catholicism. At first, the Pueblo adopted the parts of Catholicism that dovetailed with their own long-standing view of the world. However, Spanish priests insisted that natives discard their old ways entirely and angered the Pueblo by focusing on the young, drawing them away from their parents. This deep insult, combined with an extended period of drought and increased attacks by local Apache and Navajo in the 1670s—troubles that the Pueblo came to believe were linked to the Spanish presence—moved the Pueblo to push the Spanish and their religion from the area. Pueblo leader Popé demanded a return to native ways so the hardships his people faced would end. To him and to thousands of others, it seemed obvious that “when Jesus came, the Corn Mothers went away.” The expulsion of the Spanish would bring a return to prosperity and a pure, native way of life.
Few Spaniards relocated to the southwest due to the distance from Mexico City and the dry and hostile environment. Thus, the Spanish never achieved a commanding presence in the region. By 1680, only about 3,000 colonists called Spanish New Mexico home. There, they traded with and exploited the local Puebloan peoples. The region’s Puebloan population had plummeted from as many as 60,000 in 1600 to about 17,000 in 1680.
The Spanish had been maintaining control partly by suppressing Native American beliefs. Friars aggressively enforced Catholic practice, burning native idols, masks, and other sacred objects and banishing traditional spiritual practices. In 1680 the Pueblo religious leader Popé, who had been arrested and whipped for “sorcery” five years earlier, led various Puebloan groups in rebellion. Several thousand Pueblo warriors razed the Spanish countryside and besieged Santa Fe. They killed 400, including 21 Franciscan priests, and allowed 2,000 other Spaniards and Christian Pueblos to flee. It was perhaps the greatest act of Indian resistance in North American history.
In New Mexico, the Pueblos eradicated all traces of Spanish rule. They destroyed churches and threw themselves into rivers to wash away their Christian baptisms. “The God of the Christians is dead,” they proclaimed, before reassuming traditional spiritual practices. The Spanish were exiled for twelve years. They returned in 1692, weakened, to reconquer New Mexico. Some of the Spanish explained the Pueblo success in 1680 as the work of the Devil. Satan, they believed, had stirred up the Pueblo to take arms against God’s chosen people—the Spanish—but the Spanish, and their God, had prevailed in the end.
Spain shifted strategies after the military expeditions wove their way through the southern and western half of North America. Missions became the engine of colonization in North America. Missionaries, most of whom were members of the Franciscan religious order, provided Spain with an advance guard in North America. Catholicism had always justified Spanish conquest, and colonization always carried religious imperatives. By the early seventeenth century, Spanish friars established dozens of missions along the Rio Grande, in New Mexico, and in California.
How did the Pueblo attempt to maintain their autonomy in the face of Spanish settlement?
Show Answer
encomienda : a Spanish labor system in which Spaniards were granted the right to command Indian labor, in exchange for providing supposed benefits to natives. In practice, it was a system of exploitation.
repartimiento : a Spanish colonial system requiring Indian towns to supply workers for the colonizers; it replaced the encomienda
Timucua: the native people of Florida, whom the Spanish displaced with the founding of St. Augustine, the first Spanish settlement in North America
Licenses and Attributions | https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-ushistory1/chapter/spanish-colonies/ | 25 |
the first spanish colony in the new world was established by who | Unit 1 - Spain in the New World to 1600 - Fort Raleigh National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service) | Bristol Mariners seem to have visited Canada in the 1480s, and Christopher Columbus may have learned of, and been inspired by, their voyages. In 1492, William Ayers, an Irishman undoubtedly familiar with English activities, sailed with Columbus on the Santa Maria. In 1497 and 1498 John Cabot, like Columbus a Genoese expatriate, explored eastern Canada under the English flag. By 1502 Englishmen were trading in Newfoundland and parts south, and organizing syndicates, some involving Azorean Portuguese, to exploit the fisheries there. England did not miss the entire European rediscovery of the Western Hemisphere, but did retire early. While England slept, Spain became dominant in the New World and on the high seas.
The Caribbean and the Mainland
In 1493, during his second voyage, Columbus founded Isabela, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the New World, on Hispaniola. After finding gold in recoverable quantities nearby, the Spanish quickly overran the island and spread to Puerto Rico in 1508, to Jamaica in 1509, and to Cuba in 1511. The natives fared badly. Many died in one-sided armed conflict with soldiers and settlers, or in forced servitude in mines and on plantations. Others died of diseases to which they had no immunity. By mid-century, the native Ciboney of Hispaniola and western Cuba were extinct, and other tribes, including the Arawak of Puerto Rico, were nearly so.
Beginning in 1508, Spanish settlements sprang up on the mainland of Central and South America. In 1519, just six years after Balboa had crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the entire Pacific Ocean for Spain, Pedro Arias de Avila, Balboa's father-in-law and executioner, founded the city of Panama on the Pacific coast. The same year, Hernan Cortes led a small force from Cuba to the Gulf coast of Mexico, founded Veracruz , and set about destroying the Aztec empire. Most of Mexico fell within two years. Subsequent conquistadors followed the example set by Cortes. By 1532, Francisco Pizarro, had effected the early stages of his conquest of the Inca empire of Peru. By 1550 Spain had dominion over the West Indies and Central America and its large surviving native population.
New World mines yielded gold and silver for Spain in far greater amounts than France and Portugal had ever been able to extract from West Africa. One-fifth of the total production, the quinto real, went to the Spanish Crown. The average value of silver shipped to Spain rose to a million pesos a year before the conquest of Peru, and to more than 35 million a year by the end of the century. Cacao, cochineal, hides, spices, sugar, timber, and tobacco yielded additional income. Seville, through which all legal trade with the colonies passed, became a great financial center and nearly quadrupled in size between 1517 and 1594.
With such wealth at stake, Spain was concerned about possible interference by other nations. Initially, only Portugal posed a serious threat to Spanish monopoly. At the Pope's insistence Spain and Portugal had ratified the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Intended to exclude Spain from Africa and India, and Portugal from the Far East, this treaty also effectively deprived Spain of any legitimate claim to much of present-day Brazil. Shortly after the ratification of the treaty, Portugal gained control of trade with the Spice Islands, and showed occasional interest in Newfoundland. In 1580, to eliminate the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain annexed Portugal. Although Spain mortgaged Venezuela to a German banking house for a brief period (1528-1547), she was successful in keeping most interlopers out of her holdings from Mexico to Chile for the remainder of the sixteenth century.
North America
The nine-tenths of North America lying north and east of Mexico was another matter. In the early 1500s, Spain made a few attempts to explore Florida and the Gulf coast. Around 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, conqueror of Puerto Rico, conducted the first reconnaissance of the area. In 1519 Alonso Alvarez de Pineda explored and mapped the Gulf of Mexico. Two years later, Ponce de Leon died in a disastrous attempt to build a settlement in Florida, and Spain withdrew from further serious efforts to establish a permanent presence there for another half-century.
The first Spanish town in what is now the United States was not in Florida, but somewhere between 30 degrees and 34 degrees North. It was built in 1526, by Luis Vasquez de Ayllon, a Spanish official based on Hispaniola. In 1520, Ayllon had ordered a slaving expedition, and in 1526, set out himself with approximately 500 Spanish colonists--including women, children, and three Dominican friars--and a number of African slaves. After a false start, Ayllon built the town of San Miguel de Guadalupe. His venture was doomed from the outset. The principals of the colony quarreled, Indians attacked, slaves rebelled, and Ayllon died. Only 150 survivors returned to Hispaniola. Later, in 1528 a slightly smaller group under Narvaez plundered and skirmished along the Gulf coast from Yampa Bay to Texas, where it disintegrated. Cabeza de Vaca and three other members finally reached Mexico in 1536. From 1539 to 1543 de Soto and, after his death, Moscoso led an ever-shrinking party on a circuitous route through the southeastern and southcentral United States. From 1540 to 1542 Coronado explored the Southwest. In all cases, these Spanish explorers antagonized the Indians and failed to entice settlers to the higher latitudes.
France
The parts of North America neglected by Spain were attractive on that account to her ancient enemy--France. Although the Treaty of Tordesillas had given France no share of the New World, the French crown ignored the arrangement. Francis I underwrote Verrazzano's exploratory voyage (1524) and the more ambitious enterprises of Cartier and Roberval on the St. Lawrence (1534-1543). Even though war with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire impeded French expansion in the 1520s and 1530s, and the death of Henry II in 1559 led to civil and religious strife that nearly tore the country apart, France was the largest and most populous kingdom in western Europe and still a formidable adversary. Expecting a French challenge in North America, Spain sent a large contingent (1559-1561) to secure a settlement site on the Gulf and an overland route thence to the coast of Georgia or South Carolina. In 1561, Angel de Villafane followed the Atlantic coast north past Cape Fear, looking for suitable sites and any foreigners making unauthorized use of them. Villafane dismissed the area as worthless. The next year, however, Jean Ribault, under the banner of France, built Charlesfort, probably on Port Royal Sound, South Carolina. Charlesfort lasted only a few months, but this French incursion and well-founded rumors about a second, to the south, caused King Philip II of Spain to send Pedro Menendez de Aviles to establish a settlement in Florida, and to expel any Frenchmen in the area.
Menendez arrived in August 1565 and wasted no time laying out the first St. Augustine. In September and October he massacred the French Garrison of Fort Caroline, at the mouth of the St. Johns River. In due course he founded ten outposts in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina (1565-1567); ordered exploration of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts (1570); and personally avenged (1572) the Jesuits' murder by Indians. Menendez, a strong supporter of colonization, was nearly alone in his enthusiasm for the region. His death in 1574 resulted in a decline of Spanish colonies in the area. Through Philip II continued to be interested until his death in 1598, the lack of an on-site manager with the enthusiasm and ability of Menendez made it easier for another country ignored at Tordesillas to reenter the struggle for empire in the New World.
England Redux
The prodigious wealth flowing into Spain from its colonies and crown efforts to monopolize colonial trade prompted international smuggling and piracy. As a seafaring nation with few continental distractions and only one border to defend, England was a natural leader in both enterprises.
Shortly after her accession to the English throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth disestablished Roman Catholicism once and for all. She further widened the breech with Catholic Spain by rejecting Philip's proposals of marriage, and by overlooking her subjects unofficial trade with Spanish colonies and attacks on Spanish shipping. John Hawkins' first voyage to the Caribbean with African slaves (1562-1563) had been so profitable that the queen herself invested in the second and third. When Hawkins anchored at the Mexican port of San Juan de Ullua on his third voyage in 1568, however, the Spanish retaliated with great force and skill. Only two English ships escaped. The incident poisoned Anglo-Spanish relations for the rest of the century. As a consequence, English depredations increased in frequency. From 1577 to 1580 Sir Francis Drake, who had been with Hawkins, humiliated Spain by circumnavigating the globe, much of which Spain considered its own, plundering as he went. Despite vehement Spanish protests, Elizabeth knighted him.
The passage of time did little to abate English outrage over San Juan de Ullua, nor did it reduce English covetousness of Spanish treasure and trade. In 1578 Elizabeth I revived Cabot's eighty-year-old territorial claim and permitted Humphrey Gilbert to explore and settle any part of North America not then occupied by Christians, that is, nearly all of it. Gilbert disappeared returning from Newfoundland in 1583, but his half-brother, Walter Ralegh, carried on under a slightly different patent of discovery. Ralegh and his associates developed a plan to build a base well north of St. Augustine, from which to attack Spanish shipping in the western Atlantic and exploit the mineral resources of the region. To this end, Amadas and Barlowe reconnoitered the coast in 1584, and the Grenville expedition of 1585 left 108 men on Roanoke Island under Ralph Lane. But Grenville was tardy in resupplying the colonists, and Drake, sailing homeward from victories over the Spanish at Cartagena and St. Augustine, removed them in 1586. Neither the Lane colony nor the 1587 "lost colony" had any noticeable effect on Spanish shipping. However, Spanish colonial expansion and seemingly unending sources of wealth in the New World profoundly affected English colonial policies. Drake pillaged the Caribbean in 1585-1586, broke the Bank of Spain; nearly broke the Bank of Venice, to which Spain was heavily indebted; and ruined Spanish credit. English military intervention in the Netherlands (1584) persuaded Philip to build the Armada; Drake's subsequent affront moved him to launch it. Although Drake's brazen attack on Cadiz in 1587 set Spanish plans back a year, the Armada finally sailed, and when it did, it was largely responsible for preventing timely relief of the 1587 colony on Roanoke Island. Even after the Armada suffered mortifying defeat, and Spanish attempts to find and destroy the Roanoke colony had been indolent and inept, the threat of Spanish reprisal partly dictated the site of Jamestown. Hostility left over from Spanish activities on the Chesapeake in the 1570s may have affected the Virginia colonists' early dealings with the Powhatan Confederation.
Spain did not lose her last foothold in the Americas until the Spanish-American War (1898). Spanish language and culture are still integral to daily life in much of North and South America. But the Spanish star had begun to set over the New World by 1600.
Text based on "Spain in the New World," by John D. Neville.
Edited and expanded by lebame houston and Wynne Dough
Illustrations: Vicki Wallace | https://www.nps.gov/fora/learn/education/unit-1-spain-in-the-new-world-to-1600.htm | 25 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | DNA function & structure (with diagram) (article) | Khan Academy | DNA is the information molecule. It stores instructions for making other large molecules, called proteins. These instructions are stored inside each of your cells, distributed among 46 long structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are made up of thousands of shorter segments of DNA, called genes. Each gene stores the directions for making protein fragments, whole proteins, or multiple specific proteins.
DNA is well-suited to perform this biological function because of its molecular structure, and because of the development of a series of high performance enzymes that are fine-tuned to interact with this molecular structure in specific ways. The match between DNA structure and the activities of these enzymes is so effective and well-refined that DNA has become, over evolutionary time, the universal information-storage molecule for all forms of life. Nature has yet to find a better solution than DNA for storing, expressing, and passing along instructions for making proteins.
In order to understand the biological function of DNA, you first need to understand its molecular structure. This requires learning the vocabulary for talking about the building blocks of DNA, and how these building blocks are assembled to make DNA molecules.
Polymers are large molecules that are built up by repeatedly linking together smaller molecules, called monomers. Think of how a freight train is built by linking lots of individual boxcars together, or how this sentence is built by sticking together a specific sequence of individual letters (plus spaces and punctuation). In all three cases, the large structure—a train, a sentence, a DNA molecule—is composed of smaller structures that are linked together in non-random sequences— boxcars, letters, and, in the biological case, DNA monomers.
Just like a sentence “polymer” is composed of letter “monomers,” a DNA polymer is composed of monomers called nucleotides . A molecule of DNA is a bunch of nucleotide monomers, joined one after another into a very long chain.
The English language has a 26 letter alphabet. In contrast, the DNA “alphabet” has only four “letters,” the four nucleotide monomers. They have short and easy to remember names: A, C, T, G. Each nucleotide monomer is built from three simple molecular parts: a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nucleobase. (Don’t confuse this use of “base” with the other one, which refers to a molecule that raises the pH of a solution; they’re two different things.)
All four nucleotides (A, T, G and C) are made by sticking a phosphate group and a nucleobase to a sugar. The sugar in all four nucleotides is called deoxyribose. It’s a cyclical molecule—most of its atoms are arranged in a ring-structure. The ring contains one oxygen and four carbons. A fifth carbon atom is attached to the fourth carbon of the ring. Deoxyribose also contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the third carbon in the ring.
A diagram showing the three main components of a nucleotide: the phosphate group, the deoxyribose sugar, and the nitrogenous base.
The phosphate group is a phosphorous atom with four oxygen atoms bonded to it. The phosphorous atom in phosphate has a marked tendency to bond to other oxygen atoms (for instance, the oxygen atom sticking off the deoxyribose sugar of another nucleotide).
Each type of nucleotide has a different nucleobase stuck to its deoxyribose sugar.
- A nucleotide contains adenine
- T nucleotide contains thymine
- G nucleotide contains guanine
- C nucleotide contains cytosineAll four of these nucleobases are relatively complex molecules, with the unifying feature that they all tend to have multiple nitrogen atoms in their structures. For this reason, nucleobases are often also called nitrogenous bases.
The nucleotide monomers in a DNA polymer are connected by strong electromagnetic attractions called phosphodiester bonds . Phosphodiester bonds are part of a larger class of electromagnetic attractions between atoms that chemists refer to as covalent bonds.
In order to keep things organized, biochemists have developed a numbering system for talking about the molecular structure of nucleotides. These numbers are applied to the carbon atoms in the sugar, starting at the carbon immediately to the right of the oxygen in the deoxyribose ring, and continuing in a clockwise fashion: the numbers range from 1’ (“one prime”), identifying the carbon immediately to the right of the oxygen) all the way to 5’ (“five prime”), identifying the carbon that sticks off the fourth and final carbon in the deoxyribose ring.
A diagram showing the carbons on the ribose ring numbered. The phosphate group is attached to the 5' carbon. The -OH group is attached to the 3' carbon and the base is attached to the 1' carbon.
The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide. This forms a covalent bond between the oxygen sticking off the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide, and the phosphorous atom in the phosphate group that sticks off the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide. These bonds are called 3’-5’ phosphodiester bonds. Each time nucleotides are bound together, a water molecule is removed (or “lost”) through a process called dehydration synthesis. Many molecules rely on dehydration synthesis to assist with forming polymers.
A diagram showing how dehydration synthesis is used to make a string of DNA.
Chromosomal DNA consists of two DNA polymers that make up a 3-dimensional (3D) structure called a double helix. In a double helix structure, the strands of DNA run antiparallel , meaning the 5’ end of one DNA strand is parallel with the 3’ end of the other DNA strand.
Diagram showing how the two strands of double stranded DNA runs anti-parallel to each other. One strand runs in a 3' to 5' direction while the other runs in a 5' to 3' direction.
The nucleotides forming each DNA strand are connected by noncovalent bonds, called hydrogen bonds . Considered individually, hydrogen bonds are much weaker than a single covalent bond, such as a phosphodiester bond. But, there are so many of them that the two DNA polymers are very strongly connected to each other.
The hydrogen bonds that join DNA polymers happen between certain hydrogen atoms on one base (called hydrogen bond donors) and certain oxygen or nitrogen atoms on the base across from it (called hydrogen bond acceptors). Adenine (“A”) and Thymine (“T”) each have one donor and one acceptor, whereas Cytosine (“C”) has one donor and two acceptors, and Guanine (“G”) has one acceptor and two donors.
The A nucleotides are always hydrogen bonded to T nucleotides, and C nucleotides are always hydrogen bonded to G nucleotides. This selective binding is called complementary base pairing , and creates consistency in the nucleotide sequences of the two DNA polymers that join together to make a chromosome. This was first observed by Erwin Chargaff, who developed methods for counting nucleotides in DNA samples, and found that the percent of A nucleotides always equaled the percent of T nucleotides, and the percent of G nucleotides always equaled the percent of C nucleotides (within a margin of error). Now, we know that complementary base pairing can be explained by reference to hydrogen bonding between the donors and acceptors on the bases of each nucleotide: A nucleotides and T nucleotides have a match (one donor and one acceptor each), and C nucleotides and G nucleotides have a match (the former has one donor and two acceptors, while the latter has one acceptor and two donors).
Diagram showing how adenine and thymine base pair while guanine and cytosine base pair. Adenine and thymine are bound to one another via two hydrogen bonds while guanine and cytosine are bound to one another via three hydrogen bonds.
A protein is one or more polymers of monomers called amino acids. Proteins are the workhorse molecules in your cells. They act as enzymes, structural support, hormones, and a whole host of other functional molecules. All traits derive from the interactions of proteins with each other and the surrounding environments.
Chromosomes are very long structures consisting of two DNA polymers, joined together by hydrogen bonds connecting complementary base pairs. A chromosome is divided into segments of double-stranded DNA called genes.
Image showing how a chromosome is made up of DNA which contains genes.
A codon is a segment (or piece) of double stranded DNA that is three nucleotides long. A gene can be thought of as many three-nucleotide codons strung together.
Image showing how each gene is made up codons (aka the A, T, G, and C bases).
Earlier, we compared a DNA polymer to a sentence, and the nucleotide monomers that make up a polymer to the letters of the alphabet that are used to write sentences down. Now that we know what genes are, and what codons are, we can extend this analogy a bit further, and begin to get an insight into how DNA stores biological information.
If nucleotides are like letters, then codons are like words. Unlike English, where we use 26 letters to make words of all different lengths and meanings, your cells use the four DNA nucleotide monomers to make “words”—codons—of just one length: three nucleotides long. If you do the math, you’ll see that this means that there are just 64 possible “words” in the DNA language—64 different ways of arranging the four DNA nucleotides into three-nucleotide-long combinations.
Just like in English, where each word is associated with a dictionary definition, the codons of the DNA language are each associated with specific amino acids. During translation on the ribosomes, each codon from the original DNA gene is matched with its corresponding amino acid (with the help of tRNA molecules). Just like a human reader puts the definitions of words together to arrive at the meaning of a sentence, a ribosome puts the amino acids referred to by each codon in a gene together, creating covalent bonds between them to make a protein.
Imagine a basic sort of organism that only makes four proteins, each of which consists of four amino acid monomers. The traits of such an organism—how it eats, how it looks like, how it moves, etc.—are fully determined by the actions of these proteins.
The genes that specify how to make each of the four proteins are split across two chromosomes. This means that each chromosome consists of two genes. Since the proteins specified by the genes all have four amino acid monomers, each gene must have four codons. And, since a codon always consists of three nucleotides, each gene contains 12 nucleotide monomers, and, therefore, each chromosome is 24 nucleotides long.
The genome of the organism in our simplified example, purely imaginary as it is, doesn’t match up perfectly to how actual genomes are structured. Chromosomes do consist of only nucleotides (plus some proteins). But, they don’t consist of just genes, and genes don’t consist of only codons.
In fact, under ten percent of the nucleotides in your chromosomes are part of genes. The rest are filler nucleotides between genes—like if each sentence in this paragraph had a bunch of random letters inserted in between them. Scientists call these non-gene nucleotides junk DNA.
Junk DNA exists not just between your genes, but also inside of them. Codons are often separated by regions of nucleotides called introns, which don’t code for amino acids, like the blank space used to separate each paragraph on a page. Cells have developed a fascinating type of enzyme, called a spliceosome, that is able to locate and remove introns from genes as they are transferred to ribosomes. You can learn more about this process in our articles on DNA transcription and translation.
DNA gibberish, in the form of junk DNA and introns, didn’t need to be mentioned when we were coming to terms with how DNA is structured and how it works inside cells because it isn’t essential to the story. It’s just an interesting complication to the more fundamental concepts. Unfortunately, there is another sort of complication to the DNA story that scientists and the media often leave out of the discussion that is essential to the story of how DNA works.
If you’ve read or heard someone say that the gene “for” a particular human trait has just been discovered, then you are already familiar with the complication I am talking about. Just like your DNA is filled with junk nucleotides, many newspapers, TV news broadcasts, and websites are filled with junk reporting on DNA and its role in producing human traits.
What genes are “for” is proteins: as we’ve seen, they provide the instructions a ribosome needs to assemble the amino acid monomers that protein polymers consist of. Traits—everything from eye color, on the simple side, to complex things like autism or the ability to run extremely fast—arise from complicated interactions between proteins, the cells that make them, and the surrounding environment. These interactions vary across time and space, and are further modulated by non-biological factors like diet (relatively simple to understand) to socio-economic status and parenting (extremely hard to quantify and map on to biological processes). It’s almost always a gross simplification to refer to any one gene as being “for” a particular human trait.
Next time you see or hear a news reports of an exciting and potentially lucrative discovery of a gene “for” a particular trait, try translating it into something like this: “a purely statistical scientific study has produced some evidence that a correlation may exist between the presence or absence of a gene and the appearance of a particular trait in a limited sample of a larger population of humans—but more research is needed.” I’ll bet that this way of framing the story will get you closer to the truth—always a better place to be!
- In the "nucleotide structure" diagram, deoxyribose is drawn but it says "ribose".
It says "The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 5’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 3’ carbon of the second nucleotide... These bonds are called 5’-3’ phosphodiester bonds." but DNA is synthesized from 5' to 3' direction according to the "How DNA is replicated" video where the 5'C of the second nucleotide is always linked to the 3'C of the first nucleotide. So shouldn't it say "The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide... These bonds are called 3’-5’ phosphodiester bonds"?
Ribose instead of deoxyribose is drawn in the dehydration synthesis diagram.
It says "The nucleotides forming each DNA strand are connected by noncovalent bonds, called hydrogen bonds." but those are covalent peptide bonds. It should say the bonds holding the two DNA strands together are noncovalent hydrogen bonds.
Are introns also considered junk DNA?•(8 votes)more
- (6 votes)more
- •(2 votes)more
- (12 votes)more
- •(7 votes)more
- •(3 votes)more
- I can think of one consequence: In DNA replication, you could get two completely different strands of DNA than what you started with. So, as your cells divide, they would have a different DNA. For example, say you had a portion of your genome that read: 3' ATC 5'. The complementary strand would be 5' TAG 3'. But after replication, you would end up with 3' ATC 5' and 5' GAG 3' for the first strand, and 3' ACC 5' and 5' TAG 3' for the other. Notice how you retain the two original strands, but you now have two new complementary strands that don't match the original complementary strands. So DNA replication would not be reliable.(3 votes)more
- Just out of curiosity, why does the second double bonded Oxygen on Thymine not function as an acceptor? Are the Oxygens considered as on acceptor because they are essentially the same atom and their bonding to the main molecule is the same (not like NH and NH2 considered 2 different donors)?•(3 votes)more | https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/a/dna-structure-and-function | 26 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | DNA structure and replication review (article) | Khan Academy | AP.BIO:
IST‑1 (EU),
IST‑1.M (LO),
IST‑1.M.1 (EK)
|Term||Meaning|
|DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)||Nucleic acid that transmits genetic information from parent to offspring and codes for the production of proteins|
|Nucleotide||Building block of nucleic acids|
|Double helix||Structure of two strands, intertwining around an axis like a twisted ladder|
|DNA replication||Process during which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules|
|Base pairing||Principle in which the nitrogenous bases of the DNA molecules bond with one another|
DNA is a nucleic acid , one of the four major groups of biological macromolecules.
All nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides . In DNA, each nucleotide is made up of three parts: a 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
DNA uses four kinds of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G) cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
RNA nucleotides may also contain adenine, guanine and cytosine bases, but instead of thymine they have another base called uracil (U).
In the 1950s, a biochemist named Erwin Chargaff discovered that the amounts of the nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, and G) were not found in equal quantities. However, the amount of A always equalled the amount of T, and the amount of C always equalled the amount of G.
These findings turned out to be crucial to uncovering the model of the DNA double helix.
The discovery of the double helix structure of DNA was made thanks to a number of scientists in the 1950s.
Image of a DNA double helix, illustrating its right-handed structure. The major groove is a wider gap that spirals up the length of the molecule, while the minor groove is a smaller gap that runs in parallel to the major groove. The base pairs are found in the center of the helix, while the sugar-phosphate backbones run along the outside.
DNA molecules have an antiparallel structure - that is, the two strands of the helix run in opposite directions of one another. Each strand has a 5' end and a 3' end.
Solving the structure of DNA was one of the great scientific achievements of the century.
Knowing the structure of DNA unlocked the door to understanding many aspects of DNA's function, such as how it is copied and how the information it carries can be used to produce proteins.
DNA replication is semi-conservative. This means that each of the two strands in double-stranded DNA acts as a template to produce two new strands.
Replication relies on complementary base pairing , that is the principle explained by Chargaff's rules: adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) always bonds with guanine (G).
- DNA double helix.
- Hydrogen bonds break and helix opens.
- Each strand of DNA acts as a template for synthesis of a new, complementary strand.
- Replication produces two identical DNA double helices, each with one new and one old strand.
DNA replication occurs through the help of several enzymes. These enzymes "unzip" DNA molecules by breaking the hydrogen bonds that hold the two strands together.
Each strand then serves as a template for a new complementary strand to be created. Complementary bases attach to one another (A-T and C-G).
DNA template strand and the creation of its complementary strand
The primary enzyme involved in this is DNA polymerase which joins nucleotides to synthesize the new complementary strand. DNA polymerase also proofreads each new DNA strand to make sure that there are no errors.
DNA is made differently on the two strands at a replication fork.
One new strand, the leading strand , runs 5' to 3' towards the fork and is made continuously.
The other, the lagging strand , runs 5' to 3' away from the fork and is made in small pieces called Okazaki fragments .
Diagram of leading and lagging replication strands
DNA is only synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. You can determine the sequence of a complementary strand if you are given the sequence of the template strand.
For instance, if you know that the sequence of one strand is 5’-AATTGGCC-3’, the complementary strand must have the sequence 3’-TTAACCGG-5’. This allows each base to match up with its partner:
5'-AATTGGCC-3' 3'-TTAACCGG-5'
These two strands are complementary, with each base in one sticking to its partner on the other. The A-T pairs are connected by two hydrogen bonds, while the G-C pairs are connected by three hydrogen bonds.
- DNA replication is not the same as cell division. Replication occurs before cell division, during the S phase of the cell cycle. However, replication only concerns the production of new DNA strands, not of new cells.
- Some people think that in the leading strand, DNA is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction, while in lagging strand, DNA is synthesized in the 3’ to 5’ direction. This is not the case. DNA polymerase only synthesizes DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction only. The difference between the leading and lagging strands is that the leading strand is formed towards replication fork, while the lagging strand is formed away from replication fork.
- •(10 votes)more | https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/replication/a/hs-dna-structure-and-replication-review | 26 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | DNA function & structure (with diagram) (article) | Khan Academy | DNA is the information molecule. It stores instructions for making other large molecules, called proteins. These instructions are stored inside each of your cells, distributed among 46 long structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are made up of thousands of shorter segments of DNA, called genes. Each gene stores the directions for making protein fragments, whole proteins, or multiple specific proteins.
DNA is well-suited to perform this biological function because of its molecular structure, and because of the development of a series of high performance enzymes that are fine-tuned to interact with this molecular structure in specific ways. The match between DNA structure and the activities of these enzymes is so effective and well-refined that DNA has become, over evolutionary time, the universal information-storage molecule for all forms of life. Nature has yet to find a better solution than DNA for storing, expressing, and passing along instructions for making proteins.
In order to understand the biological function of DNA, you first need to understand its molecular structure. This requires learning the vocabulary for talking about the building blocks of DNA, and how these building blocks are assembled to make DNA molecules.
Polymers are large molecules that are built up by repeatedly linking together smaller molecules, called monomers. Think of how a freight train is built by linking lots of individual boxcars together, or how this sentence is built by sticking together a specific sequence of individual letters (plus spaces and punctuation). In all three cases, the large structure—a train, a sentence, a DNA molecule—is composed of smaller structures that are linked together in non-random sequences— boxcars, letters, and, in the biological case, DNA monomers.
Just like a sentence “polymer” is composed of letter “monomers,” a DNA polymer is composed of monomers called nucleotides . A molecule of DNA is a bunch of nucleotide monomers, joined one after another into a very long chain.
The English language has a 26 letter alphabet. In contrast, the DNA “alphabet” has only four “letters,” the four nucleotide monomers. They have short and easy to remember names: A, C, T, G. Each nucleotide monomer is built from three simple molecular parts: a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nucleobase. (Don’t confuse this use of “base” with the other one, which refers to a molecule that raises the pH of a solution; they’re two different things.)
All four nucleotides (A, T, G and C) are made by sticking a phosphate group and a nucleobase to a sugar. The sugar in all four nucleotides is called deoxyribose. It’s a cyclical molecule—most of its atoms are arranged in a ring-structure. The ring contains one oxygen and four carbons. A fifth carbon atom is attached to the fourth carbon of the ring. Deoxyribose also contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the third carbon in the ring.
A diagram showing the three main components of a nucleotide: the phosphate group, the deoxyribose sugar, and the nitrogenous base.
The phosphate group is a phosphorous atom with four oxygen atoms bonded to it. The phosphorous atom in phosphate has a marked tendency to bond to other oxygen atoms (for instance, the oxygen atom sticking off the deoxyribose sugar of another nucleotide).
Each type of nucleotide has a different nucleobase stuck to its deoxyribose sugar.
- A nucleotide contains adenine
- T nucleotide contains thymine
- G nucleotide contains guanine
- C nucleotide contains cytosineAll four of these nucleobases are relatively complex molecules, with the unifying feature that they all tend to have multiple nitrogen atoms in their structures. For this reason, nucleobases are often also called nitrogenous bases.
The nucleotide monomers in a DNA polymer are connected by strong electromagnetic attractions called phosphodiester bonds . Phosphodiester bonds are part of a larger class of electromagnetic attractions between atoms that chemists refer to as covalent bonds.
In order to keep things organized, biochemists have developed a numbering system for talking about the molecular structure of nucleotides. These numbers are applied to the carbon atoms in the sugar, starting at the carbon immediately to the right of the oxygen in the deoxyribose ring, and continuing in a clockwise fashion: the numbers range from 1’ (“one prime”), identifying the carbon immediately to the right of the oxygen) all the way to 5’ (“five prime”), identifying the carbon that sticks off the fourth and final carbon in the deoxyribose ring.
A diagram showing the carbons on the ribose ring numbered. The phosphate group is attached to the 5' carbon. The -OH group is attached to the 3' carbon and the base is attached to the 1' carbon.
The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide. This forms a covalent bond between the oxygen sticking off the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide, and the phosphorous atom in the phosphate group that sticks off the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide. These bonds are called 3’-5’ phosphodiester bonds. Each time nucleotides are bound together, a water molecule is removed (or “lost”) through a process called dehydration synthesis. Many molecules rely on dehydration synthesis to assist with forming polymers.
A diagram showing how dehydration synthesis is used to make a string of DNA.
Chromosomal DNA consists of two DNA polymers that make up a 3-dimensional (3D) structure called a double helix. In a double helix structure, the strands of DNA run antiparallel , meaning the 5’ end of one DNA strand is parallel with the 3’ end of the other DNA strand.
Diagram showing how the two strands of double stranded DNA runs anti-parallel to each other. One strand runs in a 3' to 5' direction while the other runs in a 5' to 3' direction.
The nucleotides forming each DNA strand are connected by noncovalent bonds, called hydrogen bonds . Considered individually, hydrogen bonds are much weaker than a single covalent bond, such as a phosphodiester bond. But, there are so many of them that the two DNA polymers are very strongly connected to each other.
The hydrogen bonds that join DNA polymers happen between certain hydrogen atoms on one base (called hydrogen bond donors) and certain oxygen or nitrogen atoms on the base across from it (called hydrogen bond acceptors). Adenine (“A”) and Thymine (“T”) each have one donor and one acceptor, whereas Cytosine (“C”) has one donor and two acceptors, and Guanine (“G”) has one acceptor and two donors.
The A nucleotides are always hydrogen bonded to T nucleotides, and C nucleotides are always hydrogen bonded to G nucleotides. This selective binding is called complementary base pairing , and creates consistency in the nucleotide sequences of the two DNA polymers that join together to make a chromosome. This was first observed by Erwin Chargaff, who developed methods for counting nucleotides in DNA samples, and found that the percent of A nucleotides always equaled the percent of T nucleotides, and the percent of G nucleotides always equaled the percent of C nucleotides (within a margin of error). Now, we know that complementary base pairing can be explained by reference to hydrogen bonding between the donors and acceptors on the bases of each nucleotide: A nucleotides and T nucleotides have a match (one donor and one acceptor each), and C nucleotides and G nucleotides have a match (the former has one donor and two acceptors, while the latter has one acceptor and two donors).
Diagram showing how adenine and thymine base pair while guanine and cytosine base pair. Adenine and thymine are bound to one another via two hydrogen bonds while guanine and cytosine are bound to one another via three hydrogen bonds.
A protein is one or more polymers of monomers called amino acids. Proteins are the workhorse molecules in your cells. They act as enzymes, structural support, hormones, and a whole host of other functional molecules. All traits derive from the interactions of proteins with each other and the surrounding environments.
Chromosomes are very long structures consisting of two DNA polymers, joined together by hydrogen bonds connecting complementary base pairs. A chromosome is divided into segments of double-stranded DNA called genes.
Image showing how a chromosome is made up of DNA which contains genes.
A codon is a segment (or piece) of double stranded DNA that is three nucleotides long. A gene can be thought of as many three-nucleotide codons strung together.
Image showing how each gene is made up codons (aka the A, T, G, and C bases).
Earlier, we compared a DNA polymer to a sentence, and the nucleotide monomers that make up a polymer to the letters of the alphabet that are used to write sentences down. Now that we know what genes are, and what codons are, we can extend this analogy a bit further, and begin to get an insight into how DNA stores biological information.
If nucleotides are like letters, then codons are like words. Unlike English, where we use 26 letters to make words of all different lengths and meanings, your cells use the four DNA nucleotide monomers to make “words”—codons—of just one length: three nucleotides long. If you do the math, you’ll see that this means that there are just 64 possible “words” in the DNA language—64 different ways of arranging the four DNA nucleotides into three-nucleotide-long combinations.
Just like in English, where each word is associated with a dictionary definition, the codons of the DNA language are each associated with specific amino acids. During translation on the ribosomes, each codon from the original DNA gene is matched with its corresponding amino acid (with the help of tRNA molecules). Just like a human reader puts the definitions of words together to arrive at the meaning of a sentence, a ribosome puts the amino acids referred to by each codon in a gene together, creating covalent bonds between them to make a protein.
Imagine a basic sort of organism that only makes four proteins, each of which consists of four amino acid monomers. The traits of such an organism—how it eats, how it looks like, how it moves, etc.—are fully determined by the actions of these proteins.
The genes that specify how to make each of the four proteins are split across two chromosomes. This means that each chromosome consists of two genes. Since the proteins specified by the genes all have four amino acid monomers, each gene must have four codons. And, since a codon always consists of three nucleotides, each gene contains 12 nucleotide monomers, and, therefore, each chromosome is 24 nucleotides long.
The genome of the organism in our simplified example, purely imaginary as it is, doesn’t match up perfectly to how actual genomes are structured. Chromosomes do consist of only nucleotides (plus some proteins). But, they don’t consist of just genes, and genes don’t consist of only codons.
In fact, under ten percent of the nucleotides in your chromosomes are part of genes. The rest are filler nucleotides between genes—like if each sentence in this paragraph had a bunch of random letters inserted in between them. Scientists call these non-gene nucleotides junk DNA.
Junk DNA exists not just between your genes, but also inside of them. Codons are often separated by regions of nucleotides called introns, which don’t code for amino acids, like the blank space used to separate each paragraph on a page. Cells have developed a fascinating type of enzyme, called a spliceosome, that is able to locate and remove introns from genes as they are transferred to ribosomes. You can learn more about this process in our articles on DNA transcription and translation.
DNA gibberish, in the form of junk DNA and introns, didn’t need to be mentioned when we were coming to terms with how DNA is structured and how it works inside cells because it isn’t essential to the story. It’s just an interesting complication to the more fundamental concepts. Unfortunately, there is another sort of complication to the DNA story that scientists and the media often leave out of the discussion that is essential to the story of how DNA works.
If you’ve read or heard someone say that the gene “for” a particular human trait has just been discovered, then you are already familiar with the complication I am talking about. Just like your DNA is filled with junk nucleotides, many newspapers, TV news broadcasts, and websites are filled with junk reporting on DNA and its role in producing human traits.
What genes are “for” is proteins: as we’ve seen, they provide the instructions a ribosome needs to assemble the amino acid monomers that protein polymers consist of. Traits—everything from eye color, on the simple side, to complex things like autism or the ability to run extremely fast—arise from complicated interactions between proteins, the cells that make them, and the surrounding environment. These interactions vary across time and space, and are further modulated by non-biological factors like diet (relatively simple to understand) to socio-economic status and parenting (extremely hard to quantify and map on to biological processes). It’s almost always a gross simplification to refer to any one gene as being “for” a particular human trait.
Next time you see or hear a news reports of an exciting and potentially lucrative discovery of a gene “for” a particular trait, try translating it into something like this: “a purely statistical scientific study has produced some evidence that a correlation may exist between the presence or absence of a gene and the appearance of a particular trait in a limited sample of a larger population of humans—but more research is needed.” I’ll bet that this way of framing the story will get you closer to the truth—always a better place to be!
- In the "nucleotide structure" diagram, deoxyribose is drawn but it says "ribose".
It says "The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 5’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 3’ carbon of the second nucleotide... These bonds are called 5’-3’ phosphodiester bonds." but DNA is synthesized from 5' to 3' direction according to the "How DNA is replicated" video where the 5'C of the second nucleotide is always linked to the 3'C of the first nucleotide. So shouldn't it say "The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide... These bonds are called 3’-5’ phosphodiester bonds"?
Ribose instead of deoxyribose is drawn in the dehydration synthesis diagram.
It says "The nucleotides forming each DNA strand are connected by noncovalent bonds, called hydrogen bonds." but those are covalent peptide bonds. It should say the bonds holding the two DNA strands together are noncovalent hydrogen bonds.
Are introns also considered junk DNA?•(8 votes)more
- (6 votes)more
- •(2 votes)more
- (12 votes)more
- •(7 votes)more
- •(3 votes)more
- I can think of one consequence: In DNA replication, you could get two completely different strands of DNA than what you started with. So, as your cells divide, they would have a different DNA. For example, say you had a portion of your genome that read: 3' ATC 5'. The complementary strand would be 5' TAG 3'. But after replication, you would end up with 3' ATC 5' and 5' GAG 3' for the first strand, and 3' ACC 5' and 5' TAG 3' for the other. Notice how you retain the two original strands, but you now have two new complementary strands that don't match the original complementary strands. So DNA replication would not be reliable.(3 votes)more
- Just out of curiosity, why does the second double bonded Oxygen on Thymine not function as an acceptor? Are the Oxygens considered as on acceptor because they are essentially the same atom and their bonding to the main molecule is the same (not like NH and NH2 considered 2 different donors)?•(3 votes)more | https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/a/dna-structure-and-function | 26 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | DNA structure and replication review (article) | Khan Academy | AP.BIO:
IST‑1 (EU),
IST‑1.M (LO),
IST‑1.M.1 (EK)
|Term||Meaning|
|DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)||Nucleic acid that transmits genetic information from parent to offspring and codes for the production of proteins|
|Nucleotide||Building block of nucleic acids|
|Double helix||Structure of two strands, intertwining around an axis like a twisted ladder|
|DNA replication||Process during which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules|
|Base pairing||Principle in which the nitrogenous bases of the DNA molecules bond with one another|
DNA is a nucleic acid , one of the four major groups of biological macromolecules.
All nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides . In DNA, each nucleotide is made up of three parts: a 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
DNA uses four kinds of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G) cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
RNA nucleotides may also contain adenine, guanine and cytosine bases, but instead of thymine they have another base called uracil (U).
In the 1950s, a biochemist named Erwin Chargaff discovered that the amounts of the nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, and G) were not found in equal quantities. However, the amount of A always equalled the amount of T, and the amount of C always equalled the amount of G.
These findings turned out to be crucial to uncovering the model of the DNA double helix.
The discovery of the double helix structure of DNA was made thanks to a number of scientists in the 1950s.
Image of a DNA double helix, illustrating its right-handed structure. The major groove is a wider gap that spirals up the length of the molecule, while the minor groove is a smaller gap that runs in parallel to the major groove. The base pairs are found in the center of the helix, while the sugar-phosphate backbones run along the outside.
DNA molecules have an antiparallel structure - that is, the two strands of the helix run in opposite directions of one another. Each strand has a 5' end and a 3' end.
Solving the structure of DNA was one of the great scientific achievements of the century.
Knowing the structure of DNA unlocked the door to understanding many aspects of DNA's function, such as how it is copied and how the information it carries can be used to produce proteins.
DNA replication is semi-conservative. This means that each of the two strands in double-stranded DNA acts as a template to produce two new strands.
Replication relies on complementary base pairing , that is the principle explained by Chargaff's rules: adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) always bonds with guanine (G).
- DNA double helix.
- Hydrogen bonds break and helix opens.
- Each strand of DNA acts as a template for synthesis of a new, complementary strand.
- Replication produces two identical DNA double helices, each with one new and one old strand.
DNA replication occurs through the help of several enzymes. These enzymes "unzip" DNA molecules by breaking the hydrogen bonds that hold the two strands together.
Each strand then serves as a template for a new complementary strand to be created. Complementary bases attach to one another (A-T and C-G).
DNA template strand and the creation of its complementary strand
The primary enzyme involved in this is DNA polymerase which joins nucleotides to synthesize the new complementary strand. DNA polymerase also proofreads each new DNA strand to make sure that there are no errors.
DNA is made differently on the two strands at a replication fork.
One new strand, the leading strand , runs 5' to 3' towards the fork and is made continuously.
The other, the lagging strand , runs 5' to 3' away from the fork and is made in small pieces called Okazaki fragments .
Diagram of leading and lagging replication strands
DNA is only synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. You can determine the sequence of a complementary strand if you are given the sequence of the template strand.
For instance, if you know that the sequence of one strand is 5’-AATTGGCC-3’, the complementary strand must have the sequence 3’-TTAACCGG-5’. This allows each base to match up with its partner:
5'-AATTGGCC-3' 3'-TTAACCGG-5'
These two strands are complementary, with each base in one sticking to its partner on the other. The A-T pairs are connected by two hydrogen bonds, while the G-C pairs are connected by three hydrogen bonds.
- DNA replication is not the same as cell division. Replication occurs before cell division, during the S phase of the cell cycle. However, replication only concerns the production of new DNA strands, not of new cells.
- Some people think that in the leading strand, DNA is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction, while in lagging strand, DNA is synthesized in the 3’ to 5’ direction. This is not the case. DNA polymerase only synthesizes DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction only. The difference between the leading and lagging strands is that the leading strand is formed towards replication fork, while the lagging strand is formed away from replication fork.
- •(10 votes)more | https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/replication/a/hs-dna-structure-and-replication-review | 26 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | DNA function & structure (with diagram) (article) | Khan Academy | DNA is the information molecule. It stores instructions for making other large molecules, called proteins. These instructions are stored inside each of your cells, distributed among 46 long structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are made up of thousands of shorter segments of DNA, called genes. Each gene stores the directions for making protein fragments, whole proteins, or multiple specific proteins.
DNA is well-suited to perform this biological function because of its molecular structure, and because of the development of a series of high performance enzymes that are fine-tuned to interact with this molecular structure in specific ways. The match between DNA structure and the activities of these enzymes is so effective and well-refined that DNA has become, over evolutionary time, the universal information-storage molecule for all forms of life. Nature has yet to find a better solution than DNA for storing, expressing, and passing along instructions for making proteins.
In order to understand the biological function of DNA, you first need to understand its molecular structure. This requires learning the vocabulary for talking about the building blocks of DNA, and how these building blocks are assembled to make DNA molecules.
Polymers are large molecules that are built up by repeatedly linking together smaller molecules, called monomers. Think of how a freight train is built by linking lots of individual boxcars together, or how this sentence is built by sticking together a specific sequence of individual letters (plus spaces and punctuation). In all three cases, the large structure—a train, a sentence, a DNA molecule—is composed of smaller structures that are linked together in non-random sequences— boxcars, letters, and, in the biological case, DNA monomers.
Just like a sentence “polymer” is composed of letter “monomers,” a DNA polymer is composed of monomers called nucleotides . A molecule of DNA is a bunch of nucleotide monomers, joined one after another into a very long chain.
The English language has a 26 letter alphabet. In contrast, the DNA “alphabet” has only four “letters,” the four nucleotide monomers. They have short and easy to remember names: A, C, T, G. Each nucleotide monomer is built from three simple molecular parts: a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nucleobase. (Don’t confuse this use of “base” with the other one, which refers to a molecule that raises the pH of a solution; they’re two different things.)
All four nucleotides (A, T, G and C) are made by sticking a phosphate group and a nucleobase to a sugar. The sugar in all four nucleotides is called deoxyribose. It’s a cyclical molecule—most of its atoms are arranged in a ring-structure. The ring contains one oxygen and four carbons. A fifth carbon atom is attached to the fourth carbon of the ring. Deoxyribose also contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the third carbon in the ring.
A diagram showing the three main components of a nucleotide: the phosphate group, the deoxyribose sugar, and the nitrogenous base.
The phosphate group is a phosphorous atom with four oxygen atoms bonded to it. The phosphorous atom in phosphate has a marked tendency to bond to other oxygen atoms (for instance, the oxygen atom sticking off the deoxyribose sugar of another nucleotide).
Each type of nucleotide has a different nucleobase stuck to its deoxyribose sugar.
- A nucleotide contains adenine
- T nucleotide contains thymine
- G nucleotide contains guanine
- C nucleotide contains cytosineAll four of these nucleobases are relatively complex molecules, with the unifying feature that they all tend to have multiple nitrogen atoms in their structures. For this reason, nucleobases are often also called nitrogenous bases.
The nucleotide monomers in a DNA polymer are connected by strong electromagnetic attractions called phosphodiester bonds . Phosphodiester bonds are part of a larger class of electromagnetic attractions between atoms that chemists refer to as covalent bonds.
In order to keep things organized, biochemists have developed a numbering system for talking about the molecular structure of nucleotides. These numbers are applied to the carbon atoms in the sugar, starting at the carbon immediately to the right of the oxygen in the deoxyribose ring, and continuing in a clockwise fashion: the numbers range from 1’ (“one prime”), identifying the carbon immediately to the right of the oxygen) all the way to 5’ (“five prime”), identifying the carbon that sticks off the fourth and final carbon in the deoxyribose ring.
A diagram showing the carbons on the ribose ring numbered. The phosphate group is attached to the 5' carbon. The -OH group is attached to the 3' carbon and the base is attached to the 1' carbon.
The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide. This forms a covalent bond between the oxygen sticking off the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide, and the phosphorous atom in the phosphate group that sticks off the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide. These bonds are called 3’-5’ phosphodiester bonds. Each time nucleotides are bound together, a water molecule is removed (or “lost”) through a process called dehydration synthesis. Many molecules rely on dehydration synthesis to assist with forming polymers.
A diagram showing how dehydration synthesis is used to make a string of DNA.
Chromosomal DNA consists of two DNA polymers that make up a 3-dimensional (3D) structure called a double helix. In a double helix structure, the strands of DNA run antiparallel , meaning the 5’ end of one DNA strand is parallel with the 3’ end of the other DNA strand.
Diagram showing how the two strands of double stranded DNA runs anti-parallel to each other. One strand runs in a 3' to 5' direction while the other runs in a 5' to 3' direction.
The nucleotides forming each DNA strand are connected by noncovalent bonds, called hydrogen bonds . Considered individually, hydrogen bonds are much weaker than a single covalent bond, such as a phosphodiester bond. But, there are so many of them that the two DNA polymers are very strongly connected to each other.
The hydrogen bonds that join DNA polymers happen between certain hydrogen atoms on one base (called hydrogen bond donors) and certain oxygen or nitrogen atoms on the base across from it (called hydrogen bond acceptors). Adenine (“A”) and Thymine (“T”) each have one donor and one acceptor, whereas Cytosine (“C”) has one donor and two acceptors, and Guanine (“G”) has one acceptor and two donors.
The A nucleotides are always hydrogen bonded to T nucleotides, and C nucleotides are always hydrogen bonded to G nucleotides. This selective binding is called complementary base pairing , and creates consistency in the nucleotide sequences of the two DNA polymers that join together to make a chromosome. This was first observed by Erwin Chargaff, who developed methods for counting nucleotides in DNA samples, and found that the percent of A nucleotides always equaled the percent of T nucleotides, and the percent of G nucleotides always equaled the percent of C nucleotides (within a margin of error). Now, we know that complementary base pairing can be explained by reference to hydrogen bonding between the donors and acceptors on the bases of each nucleotide: A nucleotides and T nucleotides have a match (one donor and one acceptor each), and C nucleotides and G nucleotides have a match (the former has one donor and two acceptors, while the latter has one acceptor and two donors).
Diagram showing how adenine and thymine base pair while guanine and cytosine base pair. Adenine and thymine are bound to one another via two hydrogen bonds while guanine and cytosine are bound to one another via three hydrogen bonds.
A protein is one or more polymers of monomers called amino acids. Proteins are the workhorse molecules in your cells. They act as enzymes, structural support, hormones, and a whole host of other functional molecules. All traits derive from the interactions of proteins with each other and the surrounding environments.
Chromosomes are very long structures consisting of two DNA polymers, joined together by hydrogen bonds connecting complementary base pairs. A chromosome is divided into segments of double-stranded DNA called genes.
Image showing how a chromosome is made up of DNA which contains genes.
A codon is a segment (or piece) of double stranded DNA that is three nucleotides long. A gene can be thought of as many three-nucleotide codons strung together.
Image showing how each gene is made up codons (aka the A, T, G, and C bases).
Earlier, we compared a DNA polymer to a sentence, and the nucleotide monomers that make up a polymer to the letters of the alphabet that are used to write sentences down. Now that we know what genes are, and what codons are, we can extend this analogy a bit further, and begin to get an insight into how DNA stores biological information.
If nucleotides are like letters, then codons are like words. Unlike English, where we use 26 letters to make words of all different lengths and meanings, your cells use the four DNA nucleotide monomers to make “words”—codons—of just one length: three nucleotides long. If you do the math, you’ll see that this means that there are just 64 possible “words” in the DNA language—64 different ways of arranging the four DNA nucleotides into three-nucleotide-long combinations.
Just like in English, where each word is associated with a dictionary definition, the codons of the DNA language are each associated with specific amino acids. During translation on the ribosomes, each codon from the original DNA gene is matched with its corresponding amino acid (with the help of tRNA molecules). Just like a human reader puts the definitions of words together to arrive at the meaning of a sentence, a ribosome puts the amino acids referred to by each codon in a gene together, creating covalent bonds between them to make a protein.
Imagine a basic sort of organism that only makes four proteins, each of which consists of four amino acid monomers. The traits of such an organism—how it eats, how it looks like, how it moves, etc.—are fully determined by the actions of these proteins.
The genes that specify how to make each of the four proteins are split across two chromosomes. This means that each chromosome consists of two genes. Since the proteins specified by the genes all have four amino acid monomers, each gene must have four codons. And, since a codon always consists of three nucleotides, each gene contains 12 nucleotide monomers, and, therefore, each chromosome is 24 nucleotides long.
The genome of the organism in our simplified example, purely imaginary as it is, doesn’t match up perfectly to how actual genomes are structured. Chromosomes do consist of only nucleotides (plus some proteins). But, they don’t consist of just genes, and genes don’t consist of only codons.
In fact, under ten percent of the nucleotides in your chromosomes are part of genes. The rest are filler nucleotides between genes—like if each sentence in this paragraph had a bunch of random letters inserted in between them. Scientists call these non-gene nucleotides junk DNA.
Junk DNA exists not just between your genes, but also inside of them. Codons are often separated by regions of nucleotides called introns, which don’t code for amino acids, like the blank space used to separate each paragraph on a page. Cells have developed a fascinating type of enzyme, called a spliceosome, that is able to locate and remove introns from genes as they are transferred to ribosomes. You can learn more about this process in our articles on DNA transcription and translation.
DNA gibberish, in the form of junk DNA and introns, didn’t need to be mentioned when we were coming to terms with how DNA is structured and how it works inside cells because it isn’t essential to the story. It’s just an interesting complication to the more fundamental concepts. Unfortunately, there is another sort of complication to the DNA story that scientists and the media often leave out of the discussion that is essential to the story of how DNA works.
If you’ve read or heard someone say that the gene “for” a particular human trait has just been discovered, then you are already familiar with the complication I am talking about. Just like your DNA is filled with junk nucleotides, many newspapers, TV news broadcasts, and websites are filled with junk reporting on DNA and its role in producing human traits.
What genes are “for” is proteins: as we’ve seen, they provide the instructions a ribosome needs to assemble the amino acid monomers that protein polymers consist of. Traits—everything from eye color, on the simple side, to complex things like autism or the ability to run extremely fast—arise from complicated interactions between proteins, the cells that make them, and the surrounding environment. These interactions vary across time and space, and are further modulated by non-biological factors like diet (relatively simple to understand) to socio-economic status and parenting (extremely hard to quantify and map on to biological processes). It’s almost always a gross simplification to refer to any one gene as being “for” a particular human trait.
Next time you see or hear a news reports of an exciting and potentially lucrative discovery of a gene “for” a particular trait, try translating it into something like this: “a purely statistical scientific study has produced some evidence that a correlation may exist between the presence or absence of a gene and the appearance of a particular trait in a limited sample of a larger population of humans—but more research is needed.” I’ll bet that this way of framing the story will get you closer to the truth—always a better place to be!
- In the "nucleotide structure" diagram, deoxyribose is drawn but it says "ribose".
It says "The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 5’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 3’ carbon of the second nucleotide... These bonds are called 5’-3’ phosphodiester bonds." but DNA is synthesized from 5' to 3' direction according to the "How DNA is replicated" video where the 5'C of the second nucleotide is always linked to the 3'C of the first nucleotide. So shouldn't it say "The phosphodiester bonds that join one DNA nucleotide to another always link the 3’ carbon of the first nucleotide to the 5’ carbon of the second nucleotide... These bonds are called 3’-5’ phosphodiester bonds"?
Ribose instead of deoxyribose is drawn in the dehydration synthesis diagram.
It says "The nucleotides forming each DNA strand are connected by noncovalent bonds, called hydrogen bonds." but those are covalent peptide bonds. It should say the bonds holding the two DNA strands together are noncovalent hydrogen bonds.
Are introns also considered junk DNA?•(8 votes)more
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- I can think of one consequence: In DNA replication, you could get two completely different strands of DNA than what you started with. So, as your cells divide, they would have a different DNA. For example, say you had a portion of your genome that read: 3' ATC 5'. The complementary strand would be 5' TAG 3'. But after replication, you would end up with 3' ATC 5' and 5' GAG 3' for the first strand, and 3' ACC 5' and 5' TAG 3' for the other. Notice how you retain the two original strands, but you now have two new complementary strands that don't match the original complementary strands. So DNA replication would not be reliable.(3 votes)more
- Just out of curiosity, why does the second double bonded Oxygen on Thymine not function as an acceptor? Are the Oxygens considered as on acceptor because they are essentially the same atom and their bonding to the main molecule is the same (not like NH and NH2 considered 2 different donors)?•(3 votes)more | https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biomolecules/dna/a/dna-structure-and-function | 26 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) | 00:00
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA) is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism. DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder — a shape known as a double helix. Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) or thymine (T). The two strands are connected by chemical bonds between the bases: adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds with guanine. The sequence of the bases along DNA’s backbone encodes biological information, such as the instructions for making a protein or RNA molecule.
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Is there a more amazing molecule than DNA? It makes each of us who we are. The more scientists understand it, the more we all understand ourselves, one another, and the world around us. For example, did you know that we are all far more alike than we are different? In fact, the DNA from any two people is 99.9% identical, with that shared blueprint guiding our development and forming a common thread across the world. The differing 0.1% contains variations that influence our uniqueness, which when combined with our environmental and social contexts give us our abilities, our health, our behavior. How can one, single molecule contain so much mystery and wonder? We are only beginning to understand the answer to that question, which is what makes the study of DNA so exciting. | https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Deoxyribonucleic-Acid | 26 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | The Structure and Function of DNA - Molecular Biology of the Cell | Biologists in the 1940s had difficulty in accepting DNA as the genetic material because of the apparent simplicity of its chemistry. DNA was known to be a long polymer composed of only four types of subunits, which resemble one another chemically. Early in the 1950s, DNA was first examined by x-ray diffraction analysis, a technique for determining the three-dimensional atomic structure of a molecule (discussed in Chapter 8). The early x-ray diffraction results indicated that DNA was composed of two strands of the polymer wound into a helix. The observation that DNA was double-stranded was of crucial significance and provided one of the major clues that led to the Watson-Crick structure of DNA. Only when this model was proposed did DNA's potential for replication and information encoding become apparent. In this section we examine the structure of the DNA molecule and explain in general terms how it is able to store hereditary information.
A DNA molecule consists of two long polynucleotide chains composed of four types of nucleotide subunits. Each of these chains is known as a DNA chain , or a DNA strand . Hydrogen bonds between the base portions of the nucleotides hold the two chains together ( Figure 4-3 ). As we saw in Chapter 2 ( Panel 2-6 , pp. 120-121), nucleotides are composed of a five-carbon sugar to which are attached one or more phosphate groups and a nitrogen-containing base. In the case of the nucleotides in DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose attached to a single phosphate group (hence the name deoxyribonucleic acid ), and the base may be either adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine ( G ), or thymine (T) . The nucleotides are covalently linked together in a chain through the sugars and phosphates, which thus form a “backbone” of alternating sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate (see Figure 4-3 ). Because only the base differs in each of the four types of subunits, each polynucleotide chain in DNA is analogous to a necklace (the backbone) strung with four types of beads (the four bases A, C, G, and T). These same symbols (A, C, G, and T) are also commonly used to denote the four different nucleotides—that is, the bases with their attached sugar and phosphate groups.
The way in which the nucleotide subunits are lined together gives a DNA strand a chemical polarity. If we think of each sugar as a block with a protruding knob (the 5′ phosphate) on one side and a hole (the 3′ hydroxyl ) on the other (see Figure 4-3 ), each completed chain, formed by interlocking knobs with holes, will have all of its subunits lined up in the same orientation. Moreover, the two ends of the chain will be easily distinguishable, as one has a hole (the 3′ hydroxyl) and the other a knob (the 5′ phosphate) at its terminus. This polarity in a DNA chain is indicated by referring to one end as the 3 ′ end and the other as the 5 ′ end .
The three-dimensional structure of DNA — the double helix —arises from the chemical and structural features of its two polynucleotide chains. Because these two chains are held together by hydrogen bonding between the bases on the different strands, all the bases are on the inside of the double helix, and the sugar -phosphate backbones are on the outside (see Figure 4-3 ). In each case, a bulkier two-ring base (a purine ; see Panel 2-6 , pp. 120–121) is paired with a single-ring base (a pyrimidine ); A always pairs with T, and G with C ( Figure 4-4 ). This complementary base-pairing enables the base pairs to be packed in the energetically most favorable arrangement in the interior of the double helix. In this arrangement, each base pair is of similar width, thus holding the sugar-phosphate backbones an equal distance apart along the DNA molecule . To maximize the efficiency of base-pair packing, the two sugar-phosphate backbones wind around each other to form a double helix, with one complete turn every ten base pairs ( Figure 4-5 ).
The members of each base pair can fit together within the double helix only if the two strands of the helix are antiparallel —that is, only if the polarity of one strand is oriented opposite to that of the other strand (see Figures 4-3 and 4-4 ). A consequence of these base-pairing requirements is that each strand of a DNA molecule contains a sequence of nucleotides that is exactly complementary to the nucleotide sequence of its partner strand.
Genes carry biological information that must be copied accurately for transmission to the next generation each time a cell divides to form two daughter cells. Two central biological questions arise from these requirements: how can the information for specifying an organism be carried in chemical form, and how is it accurately copied? The discovery of the structure of the DNA double helix was a landmark in twentieth-century biology because it immediately suggested answers to both questions, thereby resolving at the molecular level the problem of heredity. We discuss briefly the answers to these questions in this section , and we shall examine them in more detail in subsequent chapters.
DNA encodes information through the order, or sequence, of the nucleotides along each strand. Each base —A, C, T, or G —can be considered as a letter in a four-letter alphabet that spells out biological messages in the chemical structure of the DNA. As we saw in Chapter 1, organisms differ from one another because their respective DNA molecules have different nucleotide sequences and, consequently, carry different biological messages. But how is the nucleotide alphabet used to make messages, and what do they spell out?
As discussed above, it was known well before the structure of DNA was determined that genes contain the instructions for producing proteins. The DNA messages must therefore somehow encode proteins ( Figure 4-6 ). This relationship immediately makes the problem easier to understand, because of the chemical character of proteins. As discussed in Chapter 3, the properties of a protein , which are responsible for its biological function, are determined by its three-dimensional structure, and its structure is determined in turn by the linear sequence of the amino acids of which it is composed. The linear sequence of nucleotides in a gene must therefore somehow spell out the linear sequence of amino acids in a protein. The exact correspondence between the four-letter nucleotide alphabet of DNA and the twenty-letter amino acid alphabet of proteins—the genetic code —is not obvious from the DNA structure, and it took over a decade after the discovery of the double helix before it was worked out. In Chapter 6 we describe this code in detail in the course of elaborating the process, known as gene expression , through which a cell translates the nucleotide sequence of a gene into the amino acid sequence of a protein.
The complete set of information in an organism's DNA is called its genome , and it carries the information for all the proteins the organism will ever synthesize. (The term genome is also used to describe the DNA that carries this information.) The amount of information contained in genomes is staggering: for example, a typical human cell contains 2 meters of DNA. Written out in the four-letter nucleotide alphabet, the nucleotide sequence of a very small human gene occupies a quarter of a page of text ( Figure 4-7 ), while the complete sequence of nucleotides in the human genome would fill more than a thousand books the size of this one. In addition to other critical information, it carries the instructions for about 30,000 distinct proteins.
At each cell division , the cell must copy its genome to pass it to both daughter cells. The discovery of the structure of DNA also revealed the principle that makes this copying possible: because each strand of DNA contains a sequence of nucleotides that is exactly complementary to the nucleotide sequence of its partner strand, each strand can act as a template , or mold, for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. In other words, if we designate the two DNA strands as S and S′, strand S can serve as a template for making a new strand S′, while strand S′ can serve as a template for making a new strand S ( Figure 4-8 ). Thus, the genetic information in DNA can be accurately copied by the beautifully simple process in which strand S separates from strand S′, and each separated strand then serves as a template for the production of a new complementary partner strand that is identical to its former partner.
The ability of each strand of a DNA molecule to act as a template for producing a complementary strand enables a cell to copy, or replicate , its genes before passing them on to its descendants. In the next chapter we describe the elegant machinery the cell uses to perform this enormous task.
Nearly all the DNA in a eucaryotic cell is sequestered in a nucleus , which occupies about 10% of the total cell volume. This compartment is delimited by a nuclear envelope formed by two concentric lipid bilayer membranes that are punctured at intervals by large nuclear pores, which transport molecules between the nucleus and the cytosol . The nuclear envelope is directly connected to the extensive membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum . It is mechanically supported by two networks of intermediate filaments: one, called the nuclear lamina , forms a thin sheetlike meshwork inside the nucleus, just beneath the inner nuclear membrane ; the other surrounds the outer nuclear membrane and is less regularly organized ( Figure 4-9 ).
The nuclear envelope allows the many proteins that act on DNA to be concentrated where they are needed in the cell, and, as we see in subsequent chapters, it also keeps nuclear and cytosolic enzymes separate, a feature that is crucial for the proper functioning of eucaryotic cells. Compartmentalization, of which the nucleus is an example, is an important principle of biology; it serves to establish an environment in which biochemical reactions are facilitated by the high concentration of both substrates and the enzymes that act on them. | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26821/ | 26 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | Single-stranded DNA - Definition and Examples - Biology Online Dictionary | Dictionary > Single-stranded DNA
Single-stranded DNA
n., Definition: DNA of only one strand.
Credit: Microvirus diagram (Fdardel, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Table of Contents
DNA is the material that living organisms possess that carries their genetic make-up. DNA and RNA are sometimes confused with each other. DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid whereas RNA stands for ribonucleic acid . DNA is found in every organism and in every cell of an organism . It is what makes the organism unique since no two organisms contain the same DNA.
Even twins , who genetically share the same DNA coding, as not exactly genetically identical. RNA on the other hand a nucleic acid present in organisms that help with cellular, genetic processes . They help with code and decoding as well as the regulation and expression of genetic material .
DNA and RNA have their similarities and differences, especially in structure.
Is RNA single-stranded? Is DNA single-stranded?
Both molecules can be single-stranded nucleic acids. Which molecule is always single-stranded? RNA is always single-stranded and is often referred to as single-stranded ribonucleic acid. This can be seen in Figure 1 below. However, DNA can be either double-stranded or a single strand of DNA (ssDNA).
What is ssDNA ? The ssDNA definition is as follows:
Single-stranded DNA is the single DNA strand that is created during the replication process of DNA. The replication of single-stranded DNA forms two separate single-stranded chromosomes that join together to form double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). Single-stranded DNA genome also exists in class II of viruses known as the Parvoviridae and bacteriophages called microviridae.
When DNA is heated artificially, it can also cause the double-stranded helix to separate and break, forming single-stranded DNA as well.
How long is a strand of DNA? DNA is a very compact molecule and so it fits into cells with no issues. However, if a strand of DNA was to be expanded to its full length, it would be almost 2 meters long.
Biology definition:
Single-stranded DNA is a DNA molecule that consists of only a single strand contrary to the typical two strands of nucleotides in helical form. In nature, a single-stranded DNA genome can be found in Parvoviridae (class II viruses). Single-stranded DNA can also be produced artificially by rapidly cooling heat-denatured DNA . Heating causes the strands to separate while rapid cooling prevents them from renaturation. See also: DNA
Single-stranded DNA is a DNA molecule that consists of only a single strand contrary to the typical two strands of nucleotides in helical form. In nature, a single-stranded DNA genome can be found in Parvoviridae (class II viruses). Single-stranded DNA can also be produced artificially by rapidly cooling heat-denatured DNA . Heating causes the strands to separate while rapid cooling prevents them from renaturation. See also: DNA
As mentioned previously, single-stranded DNA can be found in three ways: (1) during the replication of dsDNA, (2) as the ssDNA genome in parvoviridae and microviridae, and (3) when dsDNA is artificially separated using heat. An image of ssDNA vs dsDNA can be seen in Figure 2 below:
- During the replication of dsDNA – DNA polymerase is responsible for the replication of dsDNA. When the DNA splits, creating the DNA replication fork, it will replicate each side of the dsDNA, creating two single-stranded DNA. These two single strands will then be bound together by single-stranded DNA binding proteins and create more copies of the dsDNA. ( READ: DNA Replication ) However, when the cell is in distress, it can cause the single-stranded chromosomes to not bind together, creating many ssDNAs in the cell. This creates genome instability and is a potential site for mutations and recombination issues in the cell. The accumulation of the ssDNA in the DNA is usually caused by the uncoupling of helicase units and replication fork polymerase . This issue can lead to problems within the organism if they usually have dsDNA present in their nucleus . These problems can be those such as genetic diseases and cancer .
- As the ssDNA genome in parvoviridae and microviridae – Some viruses that are members of the family microviridae have genomes that contain single-stranded DNA. This is present as simple — just a strand of nucleotides that is very long. These viruses have DNA that does not need or have two strands that will complement each other and so bind together, leaving them as single-stranded DNA genome viruses. Seawater, marine microbial mats, extreme environments , freshwater , terrestrial environments, metazoan-associated mats and sediments are all places where these viruses that contain single-stranded DNA can be found. Some examples of these kinds of viruses are Canine parvovirus – a contagious parvoviridae virus that affects dogs and Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus – a microviridae that is a host-dependent bacterium.
- When dsDNA is artificially separated and forms ssDNA – There are numerous artificial methods used to separate dsDNA to form ssDNA. These can range from treatment with salt or NaOH as well as direct heating methods. These are called the denaturation of DNA. This is also the best way to split DNA as it usually results in two, whole single-stranded DNA chromosomes. When the strands are separated, the heat is removed or the mixture is neutralized in order to prevent the strands from rejoining together. Heat denaturing is the most simple and the easiest way to undergo the splitting of the dsDNA. However, it is not the most accurate method and the use of DNA sequencing might be a better substitute for it. Denaturing with NaOH can take great amounts of time depending on the concentration of the chemical. The benefit of using NaOH to denature DNA is that it can be renatured by the addition of phosphate buffer. On the other hand, generally other salt denaturing methods cannot be reversed. Once the bonds between the dsDNA strands are broken they will not be able to be reformed. Sometimes, the denaturing with salt works better when it is accompanied by heat. It is also usually assisted by some kind of chemical like ethanol. This process is highly specific and accurate and so can be used on large quantities of DNA.
Try to answer the quiz below to check what you have learned so far about single-stranded DNA.
Choose the best answer.
- Cotmore, S. F., Agbandje-McKenna, M., Canuti, M., Chiorini, J. A., Eis-Hubinger, A.-M., Hughes, J., Mietzsch, M., Modha, S., Ogliastro, M., Pénzes, J. J., Pintel, D. J., Qiu, J., Soderlund-Venermo, M., Tattersall, P., Tijssen, P., & ICTV Report Consortium. (2019). ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Parvoviridae. Journal of General Virology , 100(3), 367–368. https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.001212
- Difference Between ssDNA and dsDNA. (n.d.). Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms. Retrieved December 22, 2021, from https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-ssdna-and-dsdna/
- How long is your DNA? – BBC Science Focus Magazine. (n.d.). Retrieved December 22, 2021, from https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/how-long-is-your-dna/
- Liautard, J. P. (1984). Rapid separation of single-stranded DNA from double-stranded DNA by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A , 285, 221–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(01)87756-6
- Maffeo, C., & Aksimentiev, A. (2017). Molecular mechanism of DNA association with single-stranded DNA binding protein. Nucleic Acids Research , 45(21), 12125–12139. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkx917
- Maier, B., Bensimon, D., & Croquette, V. (2000). Replication by a single DNA polymerase of a stretched single-stranded DNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 97(22), 12002–12007. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.22.12002
- Man, T. P. (n.d.). The Top Methods for DNA Denaturation. Retrieved December 22, 2021, from https://info.gbiosciences.com/blog/the-top-methods-for-dna-denaturation
- Sabatinos, S. A., & Forsburg, S. L. (2015). Managing Single-Stranded DNA during Replication Stress in Fission Yeast. Biomolecules, 5(3), 2123–2139. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom5032123
- Single-Stranded DNA – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved December 22, 2021, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/single-stranded-dna
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Last updated on February 16th, 2022 | https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/single-stranded-dna | 26 |
describe the structure of a single strand of dna | DNA - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to genetics . For other uses, see DNA (disambiguation) .
Deoxyribonucleic acid ( / d iː ˈ ɒ k s ɪ ˌ r aɪ b oʊ nj uː ˌ k l iː ɪ k , - ˌ k l eɪ -/ (
listen ) ; [1] DNA ) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix . The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses . DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids . Alongside proteins , lipids and complex carbohydrates ( polysaccharides ), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life .
The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides . [2] [3] Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases ( cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose , and a phosphate group . The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds (known as the phosphodiester linkage ) between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone . The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, pyrimidines and purines . In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine.
Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological information . This information is replicated when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding , meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences . The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel . Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (or bases ). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription , where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U). [4] Under the genetic code , these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation .
Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes . Before typical cell division , these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Eukaryotic organisms ( animals , plants , fungi and protists ) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus as nuclear DNA , and some in the mitochondria as mitochondrial DNA or in chloroplasts as chloroplast DNA . [5] In contrast, prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm , in circular chromosomes . Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones , compact and organize DNA. These compacting structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides . [6] [7] The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes. [8] In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds . Both chains are coiled around the same axis, and have the same pitch of 34 ångströms (3.4 nm ). The pair of chains have a radius of 10 Å (1.0 nm). [9] According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured 22–26 Å (2.2–2.6 nm) wide, and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long. [10]
DNA does not usually exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly together. [9] [11] These two long strands coil around each other, in the shape of a double helix . The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside , and a base linked to a sugar and to one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide . A biopolymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA) is called a polynucleotide . [12]
The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar groups. [13] The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose , which is a pentose (five- carbon ) sugar. The sugars are joined by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These are known as the 3′-end (three prime end), and 5′-end (five prime end) carbons, the prime symbol being used to distinguish these carbon atoms from those of the base to which the deoxyribose forms a glycosidic bond . [11]
Therefore, any DNA strand normally has one end at which there is a phosphate group attached to the 5′ carbon of a ribose (the 5′ phosphoryl) and another end at which there is a free hydroxyl group attached to the 3′ carbon of a ribose (the 3′ hydroxyl). The orientation of the 3′ and 5′ carbons along the sugar-phosphate backbone confers directionality (sometimes called polarity) to each DNA strand. In a nucleic acid double helix , the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel . The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are said to have a directionality of five prime end (5′ ), and three prime end (3′), with the 5′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3′ end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the related pentose sugar ribose in RNA. [11]
The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base-stacking interactions among aromatic nucleobases. [15] The four bases found in DNA are adenine ( A ), cytosine ( C ), guanine ( G ) and thymine ( T ). These four bases are attached to the sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate . Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming A-T and G-C base pairs . [16] [17]
The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines , A and G , which are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds , and the pyrimidines , the six-membered rings C and T . [11] A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase, uracil ( U ), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. In addition to RNA and DNA, many artificial nucleic acid analogues have been created to study the properties of nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology. [18]
Modified bases occur in DNA. The first of these recognized was 5-methylcytosine , which was found in the genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1925. [19] The reason for the presence of these noncanonical bases in bacterial viruses ( bacteriophages ) is to avoid the restriction enzymes present in bacteria. This enzyme system acts at least in part as a molecular immune system protecting bacteria from infection by viruses. [20] Modifications of the bases cytosine and adenine, the more common and modified DNA bases, play vital roles in the epigenetic control of gene expression in plants and animals. [21]
A number of noncanonical bases are known to occur in DNA. [22] Most of these are modifications of the canonical bases plus uracil.
- Modified Adenine
Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site . As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized. The major groove is 22 ångströms (2.2 nm) wide, while the minor groove is 12 Å (1.2 nm) in width. [23] Due to the larger width of the major groove, the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove. As a result, proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. [24] This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell (see below) , but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in width that would be seen if the DNA was twisted back into the ordinary B form .
Further information: Base pair
In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing . Purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix (from six-carbon ring to six-carbon ring) is called a Watson-Crick base pair. DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC -content. A Hoogsteen base pair (hydrogen bonding the 6-carbon ring to the 5-carbon ring) is a rare variation of base-pairing. [25] As hydrogen bonds are not covalent , they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in a double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature . [26] As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in organisms. [7]
As noted above, most DNA molecules are actually two polymer strands, bound together in a helical fashion by noncovalent bonds; this double-stranded (dsDNA) structure is maintained largely by the intrastrand base stacking interactions, which are strongest for G,C stacks. The two strands can come apart—a process known as melting—to form two single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules. Melting occurs at high temperatures, low salt and high pH (low pH also melts DNA, but since DNA is unstable due to acid depurination, low pH is rarely used).
The stability of the dsDNA form depends not only on the GC -content (% G,C basepairs) but also on sequence (since stacking is sequence specific) and also length (longer molecules are more stable). The stability can be measured in various ways; a common way is the melting temperature (also called T m value), which is the temperature at which 50% of the double-strand molecules are converted to single-strand molecules; melting temperature is dependent on ionic strength and the concentration of DNA. As a result, it is both the percentage of GC base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determines the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA. Long DNA helices with a high GC -content have more strongly interacting strands, while short helices with high AT content have more weakly interacting strands. [27] In biology, parts of the DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the TATAAT Pribnow box in some promoters , tend to have a high AT content, making the strands easier to pull apart. [28]
In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the melting temperature T m necessary to break half of the hydrogen bonds. When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt, the strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules. These single-stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others. [29]
In humans, the total female diploid nuclear genome per cell extends for 6.37 Gigabase pairs (Gbp), is 208.23 cm long and weighs 6.51 picograms (pg). [30] Male values are 6.27 Gbp, 205.00 cm, 6.41 pg. [30] Each DNA polymer can contain hundreds of millions of nucleotides, such as in chromosome 1 . Chromosome 1 is the largest human chromosome with approximately 220 million base pairs , and would be 85 mm long if straightened. [31]
In eukaryotes , in addition to nuclear DNA , there is also mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which encodes certain proteins used by the mitochondria. The mtDNA is usually relatively small in comparison to the nuclear DNA. For example, the human mitochondrial DNA forms closed circular molecules, each of which contains 16,569 [32] [33] DNA base pairs, [34] with each such molecule normally containing a full set of the mitochondrial genes. Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules. [34] Each human cell contains approximately 100 mitochondria, giving a total number of mtDNA molecules per human cell of approximately 500. [34] However, the amount of mitochondria per cell also varies by cell type, and an egg cell can contain 100,000 mitochondria, corresponding to up to 1,500,000 copies of the mitochondrial genome (constituting up to 90% of the DNA of the cell). [35]
A DNA sequence is called a "sense" sequence if it is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein. [36] The sequence on the opposite strand is called the "antisense" sequence. Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear. [37] One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA-RNA base pairing. [38]
A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in plasmids and viruses , blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes . [39] In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand. In bacteria , this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, [40] while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome. [41]
Further information: DNA supercoil
DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling . With DNA in its "relaxed" state, a strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound. [42] If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases . [43] These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication . [44]
DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA , B-DNA , and Z-DNA forms, although only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. [13] The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal ions , and the presence of polyamines in solution. [45]
The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns —and also B-DNA—used analyses based on Patterson functions that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. [46] [47] An alternative analysis was proposed by Wilkins et al. in 1953 for the in vivo B-DNA X-ray diffraction-scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions . [48] In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double helix. [9]
Although the B-DNA form is most common under the conditions found in cells, [49] it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations [50] that occur at the high hydration levels present in cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder. [51] [52]
Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes. [53] [54] Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form . Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. [55] These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription. [56]
For many years, exobiologists have proposed the existence of a shadow biosphere , a postulated microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. One of the proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA . A report in 2010 of the possibility in the bacterium GFAJ-1 was announced, [57] [58] though the research was disputed, [58] [59] and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules. [60]
Further information: G-quadruplex
At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres . The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase , as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes. [62] These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected. [63] In human cells , telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence. [64]
These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases, known as a guanine tetrad , form a flat plate. These flat four-base units then stack on top of each other to form a stable G-quadruplex structure. [65] These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit. [66] Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure.
In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops. Here, the single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins. [67] At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D-loop . [65]
In DNA, fraying occurs when non-complementary regions exist at the end of an otherwise complementary double-strand of DNA. However, branched DNA can occur if a third strand of DNA is introduced and contains adjoining regions able to hybridize with the frayed regions of the pre-existing double-strand. Although the simplest example of branched DNA involves only three strands of DNA, complexes involving additional strands and multiple branches are also possible. [68] Branched DNA can be used in nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes, see the section on uses in technology below.
Several artificial nucleobases have been synthesized, and successfully incorporated in the eight-base DNA analogue named Hachimoji DNA . Dubbed S, B, P, and Z, these artificial bases are capable of bonding with each other in a predictable way (S–B and P–Z), maintain the double helix structure of DNA, and be transcribed to RNA. Their existence could be seen as an indication that there is nothing special about the four natural nucleobases that evolved on Earth. [69] [70] On the other hand, DNA is tightly related to RNA which does not only act as a transcript of DNA but also performs as molecular machines many tasks in cells. For this purpose it has to fold into a structure. It has been shown that to allow to create all possible structures at least four bases are required for the corresponding RNA , [71] while a higher number is also possible but this would be against the natural principle of least effort .
The phosphate groups of DNA give it similar acidic properties to phosphoric acid and it can be considered as a strong acid . It will be fully ionized at a normal cellular pH, releasing protons which leave behind negative charges on the phosphate groups. These negative charges protect DNA from breakdown by hydrolysis by repelling nucleophiles which could hydrolyze it. [72]
Pure DNA extracted from cells forms white, stringy clumps. [73]
The expression of genes is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called chromatin . Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases. DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the histone protein core around which DNA is wrapped in the chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see Chromatin remodeling ). There is, further, crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression. [74]
For one example, cytosine methylation produces 5-methylcytosine , which is important for X-inactivation of chromosomes. [75] The average level of methylation varies between organisms—the worm Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation, while vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine. [76] Despite the importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can deaminate to leave a thymine base, so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to mutations . [77] Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain , [78] and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the "J-base" in kinetoplastids . [79] [80]
DNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens , which change the DNA sequence . Mutagens include oxidizing agents , alkylating agents and also high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays . The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers , which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. [82] On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks. [83] A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. [84] Of these oxidative lesions, the most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations , insertions , deletions from the DNA sequence, and chromosomal translocations . [85] These mutations can cause cancer . Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. [86] [87] DNA damages that are naturally occurring , due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging. [88] [89] [90]
Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called intercalation . Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules; examples include ethidium bromide , acridines , daunomycin , and doxorubicin . For an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix. This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations. [91] As a result, DNA intercalators may be carcinogens , and in the case of thalidomide, a teratogen . [92] Others such as benzo[ a ]pyrene diol epoxide and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication. [93] Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells. [94]
DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes , and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes . The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome ; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. [95] The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes . Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation , which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In an alternative fashion, a cell may copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication . The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome.
Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation , to fit the small available volumes of the cell. In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the cell nucleus , with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts . In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid . [96] The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype . A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers , which control transcription of the open reading frame.
In many species , only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons , with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences . [97] The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size , or C-value , among species, represent a long-standing puzzle known as the " C-value enigma ". [98] However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression . [99]
Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. [63] [101] An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes , which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. [102] These sequences are usually just molecular fossils , although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence . [103]
A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation , known collectively as the genetic code . The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT).
In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase . This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA , which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (4 3 combinations). These encode the twenty standard amino acids , giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are the TAG, TAA, and TGA codons, (UAG, UAA, and UGA on the mRNA).
Further information: DNA replication
Cell division is essential for an organism to grow, but, when a cell divides, it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent. The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication . Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase . This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the original strand. As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5′ to 3′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix. [104] In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA.
Naked extracellular DNA (eDNA), most of it released by cell death, is nearly ubiquitous in the environment. Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg/L, and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg/L. [105] Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer ; [106] it may provide nutrients; [107] and it may act as a buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics. [108] Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of several bacterial species. It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm; [109] it may contribute to biofilm formation; [110] and it may contribute to the biofilm's physical strength and resistance to biological stress. [111]
Cell-free fetal DNA is found in the blood of the mother, and can be sequenced to determine a great deal of information about the developing fetus. [112]
Under the name of environmental DNA eDNA has seen increased use in the natural sciences as a survey tool for ecology , monitoring the movements and presence of species in water, air, or on land, and assessing an area's biodiversity. [113] [114]
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of extracellular fibers, primarily composed of DNA, which allow neutrophils , a type of white blood cell, to kill extracellular pathogens while minimizing damage to the host cells.
All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins. These protein interactions can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence. Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these, the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important.
Further information: DNA-binding protein
Structural proteins that bind DNA are well-understood examples of non-specific DNA-protein interactions. Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins. These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin . In eukaryotes, this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones , while in prokaryotes multiple types of proteins are involved. [115] [116] The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a nucleosome , which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones, making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are thus largely independent of the base sequence. [117] Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation , phosphorylation , and acetylation . [118] These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription. [119] Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA. [120] These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up chromosomes. [121]
A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins is the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA. In humans, replication protein A is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination, and DNA repair. [122] These binding proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem-loops or being degraded by nucleases .
In contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences. The most intensively studied of these are the various transcription factors , which are proteins that regulate transcription. Each transcription factor binds to one particular set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences close to their promoters. The transcription factors do this in two ways. Firstly, they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription. [124] Alternatively, transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter. This changes the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase. [125]
As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes. [126] Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development. The specificity of these transcription factors' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to "read" the DNA sequence. Most of these base-interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible. [24]
Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds . Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases , while endonucleases cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases , which cut DNA at specific sequences. For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6-base sequence 5′-GATATC-3′ and makes a cut at the horizontal line. In nature, these enzymes protect bacteria against phage infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell, acting as part of the restriction modification system . [128] In technology, these sequence-specific nucleases are used in molecular cloning and DNA fingerprinting .
Enzymes called DNA ligases can rejoin cut or broken DNA strands. [129] Ligases are particularly important in lagging strand DNA replication, as they join the short segments of DNA produced at the replication fork into a complete copy of the DNA template. They are also used in DNA repair and genetic recombination . [129]
Topoisomerases are enzymes with both nuclease and ligase activity. These proteins change the amount of supercoiling in DNA. Some of these enzymes work by cutting the DNA helix and allowing one section to rotate, thereby reducing its level of supercoiling; the enzyme then seals the DNA break. [43] Other types of these enzymes are capable of cutting one DNA helix and then passing a second strand of DNA through this break, before rejoining the helix. [130] Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription. [44]
Helicases are proteins that are a type of molecular motor . They use the chemical energy in nucleoside triphosphates , predominantly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands. [131] These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases.
Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates . The sequence of their products is created based on existing polynucleotide chains—which are called templates . These enzymes function by repeatedly adding a nucleotide to the 3′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing polynucleotide chain. As a consequence, all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction. [132] In the active site of these enzymes, the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base-pairs to the template: this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template. Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use.
In DNA replication, DNA-dependent DNA polymerases make copies of DNA polynucleotide chains. To preserve biological information, it is essential that the sequence of bases in each copy are precisely complementary to the sequence of bases in the template strand. Many DNA polymerases have a proofreading activity. Here, the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides. If a mismatch is detected, a 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed. [133] In most organisms, DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the DNA clamp or helicases . [134]
RNA-dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA. They include reverse transcriptase , which is a viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by retroviruses , and telomerase , which is required for the replication of telomeres. [62] [135] For example, HIV reverse transcriptase is an enzyme for AIDS virus replication. [135] Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure. It synthesizes telomeres at the ends of chromosomes. Telomeres prevent fusion of the ends of neighboring chromosomes and protect chromosome ends from damage. [63]
Transcription is carried out by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA. To begin transcribing a gene, the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands. It then copies the gene sequence into a messenger RNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the terminator , where it halts and detaches from the DNA. As with human DNA-dependent DNA polymerases, RNA polymerase II , the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits. [136]
Further information: Genetic recombination
A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA, and in human cells, the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called " chromosome territories ". [138] This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information, as one of the few times chromosomes interact is in chromosomal crossover which occurs during sexual reproduction , when genetic recombination occurs. Chromosomal crossover is when two DNA helices break, swap a section and then rejoin.
Recombination allows chromosomes to exchange genetic information and produces new combinations of genes, which increases the efficiency of natural selection and can be important in the rapid evolution of new proteins. [139] Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair, particularly in the cell's response to double-strand breaks. [140]
The most common form of chromosomal crossover is homologous recombination , where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences. Non-homologous recombination can be damaging to cells, as it can produce chromosomal translocations and genetic abnormalities. The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as recombinases , such as RAD51 . [141] The first step in recombination is a double-stranded break caused by either an endonuclease or damage to the DNA. [142] A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one Holliday junction , in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure that can be moved along the pair of chromosomes, swapping one strand for another. The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re-ligation of the released DNA. [143] Only strands of like polarity exchange DNA during recombination. There are two types of cleavage: east-west cleavage and north–south cleavage. The north–south cleavage nicks both strands of DNA, while the east–west cleavage has one strand of DNA intact. The formation of a Holliday junction during recombination makes it possible for genetic diversity, genes to exchange on chromosomes, and expression of wild-type viral genomes.
DNA contains the genetic information that allows all forms of life to function, grow and reproduce. However, it is unclear how long in the 4-billion-year history of life DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material. [144] [145] RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes . [146] This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. [147] However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. [148] Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old, [149] but these claims are controversial. [150] [151]
Building blocks of DNA ( adenine , guanine , and related organic molecules ) may have been formed extraterrestrially in outer space . [152] [153] [154] Complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life , including uracil , cytosine , and thymine , have also been formed in the laboratory under conditions mimicking those found in outer space , using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine , found in meteorites . Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the universe , may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar cosmic dust and gas clouds. [155]
In February 2021, scientists reported, for the first time, the sequencing of DNA from animal remains , a mammoth in this instance over a million years old, the oldest DNA sequenced to date. [156] [157]
Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as phenol-chloroform extraction , and to manipulate it in the laboratory, such as restriction digests and the polymerase chain reaction . Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is a man-made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be transformed into organisms in the form of plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a viral vector . [158] The genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins , used in medical research , [159] or be grown in agriculture . [160] [161]
Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood , semen , skin , saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator. [162] This process is formally termed DNA profiling , also called DNA fingerprinting . In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as short tandem repeats and minisatellites , are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA. [163] However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people. [164] DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys , [165] and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case. [166]
The development of forensic science and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood, skin, saliva, or hair has led to re-examining many cases. Evidence can now be uncovered that was scientifically impossible at the time of the original examination. Combined with the removal of the double jeopardy law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where prior trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury. People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes. The most obvious defense to DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that cross-contamination of evidence has occurred. This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime.
DNA profiling is also used successfully to positively identify victims of mass casualty incidents, [167] bodies or body parts in serious accidents, and individual victims in mass war graves, via matching to family members.
DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant. [168]
Further information: Deoxyribozyme
Deoxyribozymes , also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA, were first discovered in 1994. [169] They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called in vitro selection or systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA-DNA cleavage, RNA-DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, carbon-carbon bond formation, etc. DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction. [170] The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes is RNA-cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents. Several metal-specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR-5 DNAzyme (lead-specific), [169] the CA1-3 DNAzymes (copper-specific), [171] the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl-specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium-specific). [172] The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real-time sodium sensor in cells.
Further information: Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics involves the development of techniques to store, data mine , search and manipulate biological data, including DNA nucleic acid sequence data. These have led to widely applied advances in computer science , especially string searching algorithms , machine learning , and database theory . [173] String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides. [174] The DNA sequence may be aligned with other DNA sequences to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment , are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function. [175] Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project , are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome. Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally. [176] Entire genomes may also be compared, which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events.
Further information: DNA nanotechnology
DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. [178] DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based and using the DNA origami method) and three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra . [179] Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated, [180] and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins. [181] DNA and other nucleic acids are the basis of aptamers , synthetic oligonucleotide ligands for specific target molecules used in a range of biotechnology and biomedical applications. [182]
Further information: Phylogenetics and Genetic genealogy
Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny . [183] This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology . If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology .
DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein". [186] [187] In 1878, Albrecht Kossel isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein", nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases . [188] [189]
In 1909, Phoebus Levene identified the base, sugar, and phosphate nucleotide unit of RNA (then named "yeast nucleic acid"). [190] [191] [192] In 1929, Levene identified deoxyribose sugar in "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA). [193] Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of four nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups ("tetranucleotide hypothesis"). Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order. In 1927, Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template". [194] [195] In 1928, Frederick Griffith in his experiment discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. [196] [197] This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information.
In 1933, while studying virgin sea urchin eggs, Jean Brachet suggested that DNA is found in the cell nucleus and that RNA is present exclusively in the cytoplasm . At the time, "yeast nucleic acid" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA) only in animals. The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH. [198] [199]
In 1937, William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure. [200]
In 1943, Oswald Avery , along with co-workers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty , identified DNA as the transforming principle , supporting Griffith's suggestion ( Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment ). [201] Erwin Chargaff developed and published observations now known as Chargaff's rules , stating that in DNA from any species of any organism, the amount of guanine should be equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine should be equal to thymine . [202] [203] Late in 1951, Francis Crick started working with James Watson at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge . DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952 when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the enterobacteria phage T2 . [204]
In May 1952, Raymond Gosling , a graduate student working under the supervision of Rosalind Franklin , took an X-ray diffraction image, labeled as " Photo 51 ", [205] at high hydration levels of DNA. This photo was given to Watson and Crick by Maurice Wilkins and was critical to their obtaining the correct structure of DNA. Franklin told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside. Before then, Linus Pauling, and Watson and Crick, had erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards. Franklin's identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel . [206] In February 1953, Linus Pauling and Robert Corey proposed a model for nucleic acids containing three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the axis, and the bases on the outside. [207] Watson and Crick completed their model, which is now accepted as the first correct model of the double helix of DNA . On 28 February 1953 Crick interrupted patrons' lunchtime at The Eagle pub in Cambridge to announce that he and Watson had "discovered the secret of life". [208]
The 25 April 1953 issue of the journal Nature published a series of five articles giving the Watson and Crick double-helix structure DNA and evidence supporting it. [209] The structure was reported in a letter titled " MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid " , in which they said, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material." [9] This letter was followed by a letter from Franklin and Gosling, which was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and of their original analysis method. [47] [210] Then followed a letter by Wilkins and two of his colleagues, which contained an analysis of in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns, and which supported the presence in vivo of the Watson and Crick structure. [48]
In April 2023, scientists, based on new evidence, concluded that Rosalind Franklin was a contributor and "equal player" in the discovery process of DNA, rather than otherwise, as may have been presented subsequently after the time of the discovery. [211] [212] [213]
In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . [214] Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery. [215]
In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the central dogma of molecular biology , which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "adaptor hypothesis". [216] Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment . [217] Further work by Crick and co-workers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons , allowing Har Gobind Khorana , Robert W. Holley , and Marshall Warren Nirenberg to decipher the genetic code. [218] These findings represent the birth of molecular biology . [219]
- Autosome – Any chromosome other than a sex chromosome
- Crystallography – Scientific study of crystal structures
- DNA Day – Holiday celebrated on April 25
- DNA microarray – Collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface
- DNA sequencing – Process of determining the nucleic acid sequence
- Genetic disorder – Health problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome
- Genetic genealogy – DNA testing to infer relationships
- Haplotype – Group of genes from one parent
- Meiosis – Cell division producing haploid gametes
- Nucleic acid notation – Universal notation using the Roman characters A, C, G, and T to call the four DNA nucleotides
- Nucleic acid sequence – Succession of nucleotides in a nucleic acid
- Ribosomal DNA – specific region of DNA that that codes for ribosomal RNA
- Southern blot – DNA analysis technique
- X-ray scattering techniques – family of non-destructive analytical techniques
- Xeno nucleic acid – group of compounds | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA | 26 |
where was honey i blew up the kid filmed | Scene In Nevada: Honey I Blew Up the Kid | Honey, I Blew Up the Kid is the 1992 sequel to the Honey, I Shrunk the Kids movie that was released in 1989.
In the original Honey, I Shrunk the Kids film ( watch the trailer on YouTube ), a scientist father accidentally shrinks his kids and his neighbor’s kids with his electromagnetic shrinking machine.
In the Honey, I Blew Up the Kid sequel, the same father has moved to Nevada and has a new baby who accidentally gets blown up in size due to the father’s new growth machine. Attracted to the bright lights of the Las Vegas Strip, the oversized 112-foot baby makes his way to what he thinks is a neon playground and his family must quickly figure out how to shrink him back down to a normal size.
Watch the trailer below:
Honey, I Blew Up the Kid was filmed at Fremont Street (featured in the movie trailer above), the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino and the Mirage Hotel .
Some scenes were also filmed at the old Wet ‘n Wild Water Park which operated from 1985-2004.
Although the film project finished under budget, much of it went towards the blue-screen compositing process. More than a hundred blue-screen composite-image shots were taken with the twin actors who played baby Adam Szalinski, which were used to create the illusion of a giant-sized baby stomping around Las Vegas and among its normal-sized residents and visitors.
The Nevada Film Office decided to play with some leftover photos from a recent photo shoot. This is our rendition of the NFO team running into baby Adam Szalinski on Fremont Street.
Advertisement
Disclaimer: The information contained in this article is deemed to be accurate and true to the best of our knowledge. All data and information provided on this site is for informational/entertainment purposes only. If there are any inaccuracies, you may submit corrections and sources by visiting our Contact page . Nevada Film Office makes no representations as to accuracy, completeness, currentness, suitability, or validity of any information on this site & will not be liable for any errors, omissions, or delays in this information or any losses, injuries, or damages arising from its display or use. All information is provided on an as-is basis. We do not sponsor or endorse anyone in our posts nor do we receive compensation of any kind in exchange for providing information about specific websites or resources unless otherwise noted, so please check for references, business licenses or credentials as you feel necessary.
This entry was posted in Nevada Productions . Bookmark the permalink .
Permit Information
Everything you need to know about permits, fees and filming on the Las Vegas Strip along with a complete list of statewide contact information.
Why Nevada
From our diverse locations and beautiful year round weather, to our rich arts and culture and so much more, why wouldn’t you film in Nevada?
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Get your business or service in front of the many industry professionals that use our directory to find and recruit local crew and services for their projects. | https://nevadafilm.com/scene-in-nevada-honey-i-blew-up-the-kid/ | 27 |
where was honey i blew up the kid filmed | Scene In Nevada: Honey I Blew Up the Kid | Honey, I Blew Up the Kid is the 1992 sequel to the Honey, I Shrunk the Kids movie that was released in 1989.
In the original Honey, I Shrunk the Kids film ( watch the trailer on YouTube ), a scientist father accidentally shrinks his kids and his neighbor’s kids with his electromagnetic shrinking machine.
In the Honey, I Blew Up the Kid sequel, the same father has moved to Nevada and has a new baby who accidentally gets blown up in size due to the father’s new growth machine. Attracted to the bright lights of the Las Vegas Strip, the oversized 112-foot baby makes his way to what he thinks is a neon playground and his family must quickly figure out how to shrink him back down to a normal size.
Watch the trailer below:
Honey, I Blew Up the Kid was filmed at Fremont Street (featured in the movie trailer above), the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino and the Mirage Hotel .
Some scenes were also filmed at the old Wet ‘n Wild Water Park which operated from 1985-2004.
Although the film project finished under budget, much of it went towards the blue-screen compositing process. More than a hundred blue-screen composite-image shots were taken with the twin actors who played baby Adam Szalinski, which were used to create the illusion of a giant-sized baby stomping around Las Vegas and among its normal-sized residents and visitors.
The Nevada Film Office decided to play with some leftover photos from a recent photo shoot. This is our rendition of the NFO team running into baby Adam Szalinski on Fremont Street.
Advertisement
Disclaimer: The information contained in this article is deemed to be accurate and true to the best of our knowledge. All data and information provided on this site is for informational/entertainment purposes only. If there are any inaccuracies, you may submit corrections and sources by visiting our Contact page . Nevada Film Office makes no representations as to accuracy, completeness, currentness, suitability, or validity of any information on this site & will not be liable for any errors, omissions, or delays in this information or any losses, injuries, or damages arising from its display or use. All information is provided on an as-is basis. We do not sponsor or endorse anyone in our posts nor do we receive compensation of any kind in exchange for providing information about specific websites or resources unless otherwise noted, so please check for references, business licenses or credentials as you feel necessary.
This entry was posted in Nevada Productions . Bookmark the permalink .
Permit Information
Everything you need to know about permits, fees and filming on the Las Vegas Strip along with a complete list of statewide contact information.
Why Nevada
From our diverse locations and beautiful year round weather, to our rich arts and culture and so much more, why wouldn’t you film in Nevada?
Submit Location Photos
Whether you have a ranch, a bar, a casino or even your own private residence, send us your photos and your location might end up in Hollywood’s next big blockbuster!
Sign Up For The Directory
Get your business or service in front of the many industry professionals that use our directory to find and recruit local crew and services for their projects. | https://nevadafilm.com/scene-in-nevada-honey-i-blew-up-the-kid/ | 27 |
where was honey i blew up the kid filmed | Scene In Nevada: Honey I Blew Up the Kid | Honey, I Blew Up the Kid is the 1992 sequel to the Honey, I Shrunk the Kids movie that was released in 1989.
In the original Honey, I Shrunk the Kids film ( watch the trailer on YouTube ), a scientist father accidentally shrinks his kids and his neighbor’s kids with his electromagnetic shrinking machine.
In the Honey, I Blew Up the Kid sequel, the same father has moved to Nevada and has a new baby who accidentally gets blown up in size due to the father’s new growth machine. Attracted to the bright lights of the Las Vegas Strip, the oversized 112-foot baby makes his way to what he thinks is a neon playground and his family must quickly figure out how to shrink him back down to a normal size.
Watch the trailer below:
Honey, I Blew Up the Kid was filmed at Fremont Street (featured in the movie trailer above), the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino and the Mirage Hotel .
Some scenes were also filmed at the old Wet ‘n Wild Water Park which operated from 1985-2004.
Although the film project finished under budget, much of it went towards the blue-screen compositing process. More than a hundred blue-screen composite-image shots were taken with the twin actors who played baby Adam Szalinski, which were used to create the illusion of a giant-sized baby stomping around Las Vegas and among its normal-sized residents and visitors.
The Nevada Film Office decided to play with some leftover photos from a recent photo shoot. This is our rendition of the NFO team running into baby Adam Szalinski on Fremont Street.
Advertisement
Disclaimer: The information contained in this article is deemed to be accurate and true to the best of our knowledge. All data and information provided on this site is for informational/entertainment purposes only. If there are any inaccuracies, you may submit corrections and sources by visiting our Contact page . Nevada Film Office makes no representations as to accuracy, completeness, currentness, suitability, or validity of any information on this site & will not be liable for any errors, omissions, or delays in this information or any losses, injuries, or damages arising from its display or use. All information is provided on an as-is basis. We do not sponsor or endorse anyone in our posts nor do we receive compensation of any kind in exchange for providing information about specific websites or resources unless otherwise noted, so please check for references, business licenses or credentials as you feel necessary.
This entry was posted in Nevada Productions . Bookmark the permalink .
Permit Information
Everything you need to know about permits, fees and filming on the Las Vegas Strip along with a complete list of statewide contact information.
Why Nevada
From our diverse locations and beautiful year round weather, to our rich arts and culture and so much more, why wouldn’t you film in Nevada?
Submit Location Photos
Whether you have a ranch, a bar, a casino or even your own private residence, send us your photos and your location might end up in Hollywood’s next big blockbuster!
Sign Up For The Directory
Get your business or service in front of the many industry professionals that use our directory to find and recruit local crew and services for their projects. | https://nevadafilm.com/scene-in-nevada-honey-i-blew-up-the-kid/ | 27 |
where was honey i blew up the kid filmed | Honey, I Blew Up the Kid | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
|Honey, I Blew Up the Kid|
|Directed by||Randal Kleiser|
|Screenplay by|| Garry Goodrow |
Thom Eberhardt
Peter Elbling
|Story by||Garry Goodrow|
|Based on|
Characters
by
|Produced by|| Dawn Steel |
Edward S. Feldman
|Starring|
|Cinematography||John Hora|
|Edited by|| Michael A. Stevenson |
Harry Hitner
|Music by||Bruce Broughton|
Production
companies
|Distributed by||Buena Vista Pictures Distribution|
Release date
Running time
|89 minutes|
|Country||United States|
|Language||English|
|Budget||$32 million [2]|
|Box office||$96 million|
Honey, I Blew Up the Kid is a 1992 American science fiction comedy family film sequel to Honey, I Shrunk the Kids , and the second installment of the Honey, I Shrunk the Kids film series . Directed by Randal Kleiser and released by Walt Disney Pictures , it stars Rick Moranis , Marcia Strassman , Amy O'Neill , and Robert Oliveri reprising their roles as the Szalinski family, as well as newcomer Keri Russell in her film debut. In the film, Adam Szalinski, the youngest addition to the family, is accidentally exposed to Wayne's new industrial-sized growth machine, which causes him to gradually grow to enormous size. Wayne's coworker, Dr. Charles Hendrickson, wants the giant Adam stopped at all costs, and would like to take over Wayne's invention, which is now owned by the large coorporation belonging to the kindly Clifford Sterling.
The franchise continued with a direct-to-home video sequel , a television series , and theme-park attractions .
Three years after the events of the first film , inventor Wayne Szalinski and his family have moved to Nevada and have welcomed a new son, mischievous two-year-old Adam. One day, Wayne's wife, Diane, leaves with their daughter, Amy, to help her settle in her dorm at college, leaving Wayne to look after Adam and their now teenage son, Nick. Nick has developed a crush on Mandy Park, whom Wayne later arranges to babysit Adam. The next day, Wayne takes Nick and Adam to Sterling Labs, where he has constructed an advanced derivative of his shrink ray which enlarges objects. He tests it out on Adam's favorite toy, Big Bunny. However, when his and Nick's backs are turned, Adam attempts to retrieve it and is zapped by the machine, which appears to short circuit and not enlarge the targeted object.
Back home, Adam and Big Bunny are exposed to electrical waves from the microwave oven and grow in size, now 7 feet tall. Wayne and Nick try to take him back to the lab to reverse the process, but are caught and kicked out by Wayne's coworker, Dr. Charles Hendrickson, who wants to take over Wayne's invention for himself. Diane returns home early and discovers what happened, and she, Wayne, and Nick have a hard time trying to take care of the large Adam. Later, Wayne and Diane drive to a warehouse and retrieve Wayne's first shrink ray prototype to turn Adam back to normal. When Mandy arrives to babysit Adam, she panics and faints, forcing Nick to bind her. As he explains the situation to her, Adam is exposed to the television's electrical waves and grows to 14 feet before escaping through a wall.
Nick and Mandy search for him, but are taken into custody, with Adam placed into a truck. Wayne and Diane return home, finding Dr. Hendrickson and a U.S. Marshal waiting for them. He has summoned Clifford Sterling, the company chairman, with the plan to fire Wayne, have him and Diane arrested, and experiment on Adam. Sterling arrives and instead praises Wayne when he admits his mistake, and pledges to help Adam while firing Dr. Hendrickson for trying to smear Wayne. At the same time, the truck carrying Adam passes by high voltage lines, exposing him to more electrical waves and causing him to grow to 50 feet, escaping confinement. He mistakes Nick and Mandy for toys and puts them in his overalls pocket before heading for Las Vegas , pursued by his parents and the authorities. Wayne and Sterling figure out the cause of his growth and realize that exposure to Las Vegas' neon lights will make him grow bigger than ever. Dr. Hendrickson conspires with board director Terrence Wheeler to start a boardroom coup to take Sterling out of power. Dr. Hendrickson forcefully boards a military helicopter to attempt to tranquilize Adam.
Wayne is determined to use his shrink ray to shrink Adam back to normal but requires that Adam stand still for twelve seconds. Adam grows to 112 feet, wanders through Fremont Street , Las Vegas, causing mass panic. Dr. Hendrickson arrives by helicopter and starts shooting tranquilizer cartridges at Adam, but is stopped by Diane, deliberately made giant by Wayne's machine. She then comforts Adam and makes him stand still while Wayne powers the shrinking machine. The shrinking is successful, and both return to normal size. Dr. Hendrickson arrives to reluctantly congratulate Wayne but is knocked out with a punch by Diane.
Wayne and Diane then realize that Nick and Mandy were still in Adam's pocket and have been shrunk. Wayne quickly finds them, but decides to give them a few minutes of privacy before returning them to normal size as the two appear to have become romantically attached. The police officer asks the Szalinskis what what are they going to do with bunny who is still 112 feet tall, Adam decides for them all by playing with it.
- Rick Moranis as Wayne Szalinski, a wacky inventor.
- Marcia Strassman as Diane Szalinski, Wayne's wife.
- Robert Oliveri as Nick Szalinski, Wayne and Diane's teenage son and middle child.
- Daniel & Joshua Shalikar as Adam Szalinski, Wayne and Diane's two-year-old son and youngest child.
- Lloyd Bridges as Clifford Sterling, the president of Sterling Labs.
- John Shea as Dr. Charles Hendrickson, Wayne's insolent coworker.
- Keri Russell as Mandy Park, Adam's babysitter and Nick's love interest.
- Ron Canada as U. S. Marshal Preston Brooks
- Amy O'Neill as Amy Szalinski, Wayne and Diane's daughter and oldest child.
- Michael Milhoan as Captain Ed Myerson, a military pilot who reluctantly pilots Dr. Hendrickson to confront Adam.
- Gregory Sierra as Terence Wheeler, a board member at Sterling Labs who is allied with Dr. Hendrickson.
- Leslie Neale as Constance Winters
- Linda Carlson as nosy neighbor
- Julia Sweeney as nosy neighbor
The film was not originally written as a sequel to Honey, I Shrunk the Kids . [ citation needed ] Originally titled Big Baby , it was about a toddler who grew to giant size by a freak accident involving a growth ray and eventually terrorized Las Vegas in a non-violent, yet Godzillaesque way. Disney saw the possibilities of making this into a sequel to the first film and rewrote the script. [ citation needed ] The main characters from Big Baby became the Szalinski family, but there was no character in the original that Amy Szalinski could replace, so she leaves for college at the beginning of the film and is not seen again. [ citation needed ]
Prior to this, sequel development was offered to screenwriter and teacher David Trottier . [3]
Rick Moranis , Marcia Strassman , Amy O'Neill , and Robert Oliveri all return as their respective characters: Wayne, Diane, Amy, and Nick Szalinski. Amy, now a young woman, leaves for her first year of college at the beginning of the film. Nick, while still considered "nerdy", has matured in his personality and takes more interest in girls and guitars.
Casting director Renee Rousselot searched over 1,000 small children for someone to portray Adam, the newest addition to the Szalinski clan. She searched for mostly three- to four-year-old boys because a younger child was thought to be problematic. She came across twins Daniel and Joshua Shalikar from New Jersey and immediately cast them in December 1990. One would act in the morning while the other was eating lunch or taking a nap. Baby consultant Elaine Hall Katz and director Randal Kleiser would plan the twins' scenes a week in advance. Tom Smith reported that, "On his own, Dan was almost too adventuresome to repeat one move, and Josh seemed very cautious. Put them together and they could do anything." However, the film did have difficulties in working with such small children, and one crew member later remarked it was "like playing hopscotch on hot coals". [4] At the time, the twins were scheduled to appear in two more Honey films. [ citation needed ] They did appear once, but were recast in Honey, We Shrunk Ourselves .
In the film, Nick has a crush on a girl named Mandy Park, played by Keri Russell in her first feature film. John Shea portrays Dr. Charles Hendrickson, who is scheming to get Wayne's control of the project, while Lloyd Bridges portrays Clifford Sterling, the owner of Sterling Labs. [ citation needed ]
Fred Rogers and Richard Simmons are also seen in videos in TV scenes in the film. [ citation needed ]
Randal Kleiser , of Grease and White Fang fame, was chosen to direct the film, replacing Joe Johnston . He would return to film with the cast in the 3D show Honey, I Shrunk the Audience , which was presented at several Disney parks until 2010. Like the first film, it had animated opening credits, produced in a different art style by Kurtz & Friends .
Production began on June 17, 1991. Filming took place in Simi Valley, California , for the parts involving the Szalinskis' house. [ citation needed ] Filming locations in Las Vegas included the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino , the Mirage hotel-casino , and Fremont Street . [5] Scenes involving a water park, where Nick worked and where Mandy is first introduced, were filmed at Wet 'n Wild in Las Vegas.
While post-production special effects were used heavily throughout the film, some effects were practical (shot on-set). When Adam knocks down his bedroom door, production designer Leslie Dilley created a set with miniature furniture about four feet away from the camera, while the adult actors would be about fifteen feet away. Kleiser recalled, "Danny was generally better at improvising and fresh reactions. Josh was better at following directions, so we would alternate." [6]
Disney would later find itself the subject of a lawsuit as a result of the film. The suit was filed in 1991 by Mark Goodson Productions director Paul Alter , who claimed to have come up with the idea of an oversized toddler after babysitting his granddaughter and watching her topple over building blocks. He wrote a screenplay titled "Now, That's a Baby!", which had not been made into a film but had received some sort of treatment beforehand. [7] Alter claimed there were several similarities between the film and his script, which consisted of the baby daughter of two scientists falling victim to a genetic experiment gone wrong instead of an enlarging ray. The case went to trial in 1993, with the jury finding in Alter's favor. Disney was forced to pay $300,000 in damages. [8]
The film was first released on VHS and LaserDisc on January 6, 1993. It was released on a bare-bones DVD in 2002. While the VHS release contained no bonus material besides a music video, the LaserDisc release contains the 1992 animated short film, Off His Rockers directed by Barry Cook , which accompanied the theatrical release. To date, Off His Rockers has only appeared on the Laserdisc release, making its availability rare, although the short can be viewed on YouTube .
The film was released on VHS in 1997, alongside its predecessor to coincide with the release of the third film in the series, Honey, We Shrunk Ourselves .
The film opened on July 17, 1992 in 2,492 theaters in the United States and Canada, almost twice as many as the first film. It opened at number one on opening weekend with $11 million and grossed $58.7 million in the United States and Canada. [9] Internationally it grossed $37 million for a worldwide total of $96 million. [10]
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 40% based on reviews from 20 critics, with an average rating of 4.85/10. [11] On Metacritic the film has a score of 50 based on reviews from 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". [12] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. [13]
Desson Howe of The Washington Post claimed that the film "feels narratively limited. It's a one-joke movie: Adam just gets bigger and bigger. All Moranis needs to do is get the shrinker from the last movie and turn it on Adam." [14] Also from The Washington Post , Hal Hinson agreed that it was "a one-joke film" while also adding the film "squanders most of the comic opportunities its premise offers. As one-joke movies go, it's fairly inoffensive but also never better than mildly diverting. [15] Roger Ebert , reviewing for the Chicago Sun-Times , criticized the weak story writing that there "may be, for all I know, comic possibilities in a giant kid, but this movie doesn't find them." He further concluded that the "special effects, on the other hand, are terrific, as they were in the first movie. The filmmakers are able to combine the giant baby and the "real world" in shots that seem convincing, and the image of the toddler walking down Glitter Gulch is state-of-the-art. Too bad the movie relies on special effects to carry the show, and doesn't bring much else to the party." [16]
|Honey, I Blew Up the Kid|
|Soundtrack album by|
|Released||1992, 2017 (expansion)|
|Genre||Soundtrack|
|Length||39 : 57 (original) 69:34 (expansion)|
|Label||Intrada Records|
|Producer||Bruce Broughton|
Intrada Records released the record in 1992, in time for the film's release. The score was composed and conducted by Bruce Broughton , who would return to provide the score for Honey, I Shrunk the Audience . " Stayin Alive " by the Bee Gees appears in it. So does " Loco-Motion " by Carole King , Gerry Goffin , and "Ours If We Want It" written by Tom Snow and Mark Mueller . The soundtrack album consists of just the score. In 2017, the label released an expanded edition included Broughton's score for Off His Rockers , the animated short that preceded the film in cinemas.
All music is composed by Bruce Broughton.
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Main Title"||3:03|
|2.||"To the Lab"||1:53|
|3.||"Adam Gets Zapped"||0:53|
|4.||"Putting on Weight?"||1:19|
|5.||"Macrowaved"||3:15|
|6.||"How'd She Take It?"||3:11|
|7.||"Sneaking Out"||1:12|
|8.||"Don't Touch That Switch!"||0:26|
|9.||"The Bunny Trick"||2:14|
|10.||"Get Big Bunny"||4:11|
|11.||"Clean the Streets"||3:00|
|12.||"Car Flight"||4:38|
|13.||"Ice Cream!"||3:47|
|14.||"Look at That Mother!"||2:26|
|15.||"That's All Folks!"||4:20|
|Total length:||39:57|
|No.||Title||Length|
|1.||"Off His Rockers: Music From The Cartoon Short"||4:27|
|2.||"Main Title"||3:10|
|3.||"Meet The Szalinskis"||1:04|
|4.||"Just Like Your Dad"||1:36|
|5.||"To The Lab"||1:58|
|6.||"Us Guys"||1:02|
|7.||"Back To The Lab"||1:14|
|8.||"Adam Gets Zapped"||0:35|
|9.||"Putting On Weight?"||1:24|
|10.||"Macrowaved"||3:20|
|11.||"Hi Guys, I'm Home"||0:57|
|12.||"How'd She Take It?"||3:17|
|13.||"The Playpen"||1:10|
|14.||"Sneaking Out"||1:17|
|15.||"The Warehouse"||2:07|
|16.||"Don't Touch That Switch!"||0:26|
|17.||"He's Out And He's Bigger"||0:34|
|18.||"The Bunny Trick"||2:55|
|19.||"Truck Ride"||0:35|
|20.||"Hendrickson Gets Sacked"||0:46|
|21.||"Get Big Bunny"||4:18|
|22.||"No Naaap"||1:47|
|23.||"Clear The Streets!"||3:01|
|24.||"Car Flight"||4:43|
|25.||"Ice Cream!"||3:53|
|26.||"Look At That Mother!"||2:30|
|27.||"Diane Decks Hendrickson"||0:51|
|28.||"End Credits – That's All, Folks!"||4:25|
|29.||"Mandy?"||0:38|
|30.||"How Was Your Flight?"||0:14|
|31.||"Starting To Get Big"||0:17|
|32.||"Wayne Gets Fired"||0:22|
|33.||"It's Not A Morphis"||0:09|
|34.||"The Crate"||0:15|
|35.||"He's Headed For Vegas"||0:10|
|36.||"Adam Catches The Car"||0:20|
|37.||"Can't We Go Faster?"||0:20|
|38.||"Adam Cries"||0:15|
|39.||"Mandy's Room (Rock Source #2)"||1:36|
|40.||"T.V. Commercial Source"||0:17|
|41.||"End Credits – That's All, Folks! (Alternate)"||4:44|
|Total length:||69:34| | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey,_I_Blew_Up_the_Kid | 27 |
where was honey i blew up the kid filmed | Scene In Nevada: Honey I Blew Up the Kid | Honey, I Blew Up the Kid is the 1992 sequel to the Honey, I Shrunk the Kids movie that was released in 1989.
In the original Honey, I Shrunk the Kids film ( watch the trailer on YouTube ), a scientist father accidentally shrinks his kids and his neighbor’s kids with his electromagnetic shrinking machine.
In the Honey, I Blew Up the Kid sequel, the same father has moved to Nevada and has a new baby who accidentally gets blown up in size due to the father’s new growth machine. Attracted to the bright lights of the Las Vegas Strip, the oversized 112-foot baby makes his way to what he thinks is a neon playground and his family must quickly figure out how to shrink him back down to a normal size.
Watch the trailer below:
Honey, I Blew Up the Kid was filmed at Fremont Street (featured in the movie trailer above), the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino and the Mirage Hotel .
Some scenes were also filmed at the old Wet ‘n Wild Water Park which operated from 1985-2004.
Although the film project finished under budget, much of it went towards the blue-screen compositing process. More than a hundred blue-screen composite-image shots were taken with the twin actors who played baby Adam Szalinski, which were used to create the illusion of a giant-sized baby stomping around Las Vegas and among its normal-sized residents and visitors.
The Nevada Film Office decided to play with some leftover photos from a recent photo shoot. This is our rendition of the NFO team running into baby Adam Szalinski on Fremont Street.
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Disclaimer: The information contained in this article is deemed to be accurate and true to the best of our knowledge. All data and information provided on this site is for informational/entertainment purposes only. If there are any inaccuracies, you may submit corrections and sources by visiting our Contact page . Nevada Film Office makes no representations as to accuracy, completeness, currentness, suitability, or validity of any information on this site & will not be liable for any errors, omissions, or delays in this information or any losses, injuries, or damages arising from its display or use. All information is provided on an as-is basis. We do not sponsor or endorse anyone in our posts nor do we receive compensation of any kind in exchange for providing information about specific websites or resources unless otherwise noted, so please check for references, business licenses or credentials as you feel necessary.
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where was honey i blew up the kid filmed | Honey, I Blew Up The Kid (1992) | The house from the 1992 comedy sequel, “Honey, I Blew Up The Kid,” can be found in Simi Valley, California.
LOCATION: 676 Coldbrook Pl, Simi Valley, CA 93065 | https://filmoblivion.com/2021/08/14/honey-i-blew-up-the-kid-1992/ | 27 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | Judge John Deed - Full Cast & Crew | 2001 -2005 6 Seasons BBC One Drama | https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/judge-john-deed/cast/1000013482/ | 28 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | Judge John Deed - Wikipedia | For the cricketer John Deed, see Jack Deed .
|Judge John Deed|
|Genre||Legal drama|
|Written by||G.F. Newman|
|Starring|| Martin Shaw |
Jenny Seagrove
Barbara Thorn
Louisa Clein
Simon Ward
|Theme music composer||Debbie Wiseman|
|Country of origin||United Kingdom|
|Original language||English|
|No. of series||6|
|No. of episodes||29 ( list of episodes )|
|Production|
|Executive producers|| Mal Young |
Ruth Caleb
|Producer||G.F. Newman|
|Release|
|Original network|| BBC One |
BBC HD (2007)
|Picture format|| PAL ( 576i ) (2001–2006) |
1080i HDTV (2007)
|Audio format|| Dolby Surround (2001-2002) |
Dolby Digital (2003-2007)
|Original release|| 9 January 2001 – |
18 January 2007
Judge John Deed is a British legal drama television series produced by the BBC in association with One-Eyed Dog for BBC One . It was created by G.F. Newman and stars Martin Shaw as Mr Justice Deed, a High Court judge who tries to seek real justice in the cases before him. It also stars Jenny Seagrove as the barrister Jo Mills QC , frequently the object of Deed's desire. A pilot episode was broadcast on 9 January 2001, followed by the first full series on 26 November 2001. The sixth and last series concluded on 18 January 2007. The programme then went on an indefinite break after Shaw became involved in another television programme ( Inspector George Gently ), and he and Seagrove expressed a wish for the format of the series to change before they filmed new episodes. By 2009, the series had officially been cancelled.
The factual accuracy of the series is often criticised by legal professionals and journalists; many of the decisions taken by Deed are unlikely to happen in a real court. The romanticised vision of the court system created by Newman caused a judge to issue a warning to a jury not to let the series influence their view of trials—referring to an episode where Deed flouts rules when called up for jury service. A complaint was made by a viewer about one episode claiming biased and incorrect information about the MMR vaccine , leading the BBC to unilaterally ban repeats of it in its original form. [1] All six series (with the exception of the two banned episodes from Series Five) have been released on DVD in the UK.
Sir John Deed (played by Martin Shaw ) is a recently appointed High Court judge who actively seeks justice in the cases before him, while at the same time trying to rekindle an old romance with former pupil Jo Mills QC (played by Jenny Seagrove ), who regularly appears in his court. Deed is described by creator and writer G.F. Newman as a character who "speaks out against all the petty rules and bureaucracy that frustrates us all but that most of us don't speak out against". [2] Because of Deed's unorthodox actions, he is often hampered in his pursuit of justice by several more conventional-minded characters, including his ex-wife, barrister Georgina "George" Channing QC (played by Caroline Langrishe ); her father Appeals Court Judge, Lord Justice (Sir Joseph) Channing (played by Sir Donald Sinden ), fellow High Court Judges Mr Justice (Sir Monty) Everard (played by Simon Ward ) and Mr Justice (Sir Michael) Nivan (spelt as Niven in later series credits - played by Trevor Bowen ), the Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Department (LCD, later Department of Constitutional Affairs ) Sir Ian Rochester (played by Simon Chandler ); and later the Home Secretary Neil Haughton MP (played by Nick Reding and later Aneirin Hughes ).
Other recurring characters include Deed's rebellious, animal rights activist daughter Charlie (played by Louisa Clein ), who is initially a law student but later progresses to the courts; Deed's police friend, deputy assistant commissioner Row Colemore (played by Christopher Cazenove ); and his clerk, Rita "Coop" Cooper (played by Barbara Thorn ), who is often on hand to temper some of his more radical ideas. Rita "Coop" was involved in many scenes of the show and was shown frequently in Judge John Deed advertisements. The first three series of the programme have a self-contained structure, with a trial reaching its conclusion by the end of an episode. In later years, the series added a serialised format, with stories running over a number of episodes and a greater focus on the personal lives of characters other than Deed, with the main case concluding in each episode. [3]
Newman devised his new series to highlight what he believed to be an out-of-touch judiciary and show "solutions" (a style that is different from, yet paradoxically similar to his previous work, such as his 1970s series Law and Order , which was heavily critical of the police, with Judge John Deed being heavily critical of the corrupt Establishment). [4] [5] Newman wrote the series intending to give the audience an exploration of the law without patronising them or getting caught up in an explanation of legal proceedings. [2] A full series was commissioned before the pilot was broadcast. [5] The series has been credited with renewing the " cop genre " by moving the story from a "maverick detective" to a high court judge, [6] though as a comparison to Newman's previous work, a Guardian writer called it "rather soft" and doubted, from seeing the pilot, whether it would provoke questions in the House of Commons like Law and Order did, [5] while the show went on to provoke much hostility from many groups which it portrayed as corrupt or negligent.
Sets were constructed on the soundstages at Bushey , Hertfordshire for the courtroom, Deed's chambers and the main characters' houses. [7] Exterior court scenes were filmed at the Crown Court in Aylesbury . [8] Location filming was also done at West Herts College for scenes in " My Daughter, Right or Wrong " (2006) [9] and at various locations, including The Hague City Hall, (as film location for the International Criminal Court building in The Hague ) for " War Crimes " (2007). [10] The robes worn by Deed in the sixth series were authentic ones from Stanley Ley, a specialist legal outfitters, and cost £7,600. [11] Theme music was composed for the series by Debbie Wiseman . The music, entitled "Judge John Deed", was performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and is described as a "stunning march-like theme that echoed throughout each of the programmes supplying pageantry to the Judge's sometimes-nefarious activities". [12] It was released commercially on Wiseman's compilation album, Something Here , and as a single piece on online music retailers. From 2005 to 2007, television promotions for the series have been accompanied by the piano hook from " Sinnerman " by Nina Simone .
29 episodes were produced; the pilot, three series of four episodes, two series of six episodes and one series of two two-part serials. All episodes were written and produced, and occasionally directed, by Newman. At the time the sixth series concluded, the future of the series was in doubt; the BBC had announced an intention to use Martin Shaw in a range of new projects and it was apparent that the one-off adaption of Alan Hunter 's Inspector Gently novels (starring Shaw as the eponymous inspector) would be commissioned for a full series . [13] Jenny Seagrove clarified the situation, stating that the producers wanted to continue but she and Shaw were "taking a sabbatical" until the formula of the series was changed, implying that its future lay in the multi-part format introduced in series six. [14] In April 2009, Shaw told BBC Breakfast that the series had been officially cancelled by the BBC because of financial cutbacks across the corporation. [15] [16] The six years the series was broadcast makes it the longest-running BBC legal drama. [3]
Judge John Deed regularly formed the backbone of the BBC One winter schedule. The pilot and first series were broadcast on Tuesday evenings at 8 p.m., with the second, third and fourth series moving to Thursday evenings (8:30 p.m. for the first two and 8 p.m. for the latter, though one episode in series three was postponed for over a month). The fifth series moved to Friday nights, and the sixth was shown two nights a week, with the first part of the story on Tuesday nights and concluding the following Thursday. This series was also the first to be simulcast on BBC HD . [17] Occasionally, due to a clash with regional programming, it has aired at different times on BBC One Scotland ; series two was delayed for sometimes over a week while series three began a half-hour earlier. Series five had a six-day delay.
Ratings for the series peaked with its first episode at 9.1 million [18] but it continued to regularly draw in around 6 million viewers for later episodes. The series has been shown internationally by, amongst others, Canvas (Belgium) , BBC Canada and BBC Prime . In 2004, Variety reported an American remake was set to be produced for NBC ; Michael Chernuchin was to produce the series, which would follow a federal court judge in Washington, D.C. who would preside over terrorism and civil rights cases. [19] There have been no further developments since the announcement was made in 2004.
Judge John Deed presents a fictionalised version of the English legal system. The British Film Institute 's Screenonline notes that "Almost every week, Deed is seen presiding over cases being prosecuted by his ex-wife or defended by his on-off girlfriend (with occasionally help from his daughter)", highlighting how unlikely it would be for a real judge to have so many conflicts of interest in his court. It also notes that Deed's faults, such as his affairs with his therapist and with Francesca Rochester, prevent him from being "a completely idealised heroic figure", and the fact that because all of his family and friends practise law, he is firmly entrenched in the legal system that he is constantly fighting against. [3] Deed has been accused of hypocrisy, particularly for using his connections to bail Charlie after she destroyed GM crops in " Exacting Justice ". [20] There is a belief in some legal circles that, although Judge John Deed is arguably the most unrealistic of contemporary legal dramas, viewers see Deed as an aspirational character taking on a corrupt establishment. [21] Despite being picked apart by legal professionals, the cast and Newman were invited to the annual dinner of the Association of Women Barristers in 2006 as part of a drive to raise the profile and attract new members to the group. [22]
The series' creative interpretation of the law has led to a misconception by the public of what real law is like ( cf . CSI effect ); in the second Damilola Taylor trial, the presiding judge warned the jury that if they copied Deed's actions in the then-recent episode " One Angry Man " (2006), in which Deed investigated a case and interviewed witnesses while sitting on a jury, they would "simply derail the whole process". [23]
The 2006 series caused controversy for the misguided information presented in " Silent Killer " (2006), which suggested a link between TETRA radio emissions and motor neurone disease. Statements were released by the TETRA Industry Group and the MND Association , the latter emphasising that while there is some evidence to suggest a link, it is not a single contributory factor. [24] [25] " Heart of Darkness " (2006) was criticised for portraying a causal link between the MMR vaccine and autism , and the BBC received complaints on the matter. The Editorial Complaints Unit ruled that the episode had contravened the BBC's "obligation of due impartiality on matters of public controversy" and that the episode would not be repeated in its original form. [1] The episode was cited in From Seesaw to Wagon Wheel , an internal BBC report on impartiality in its output that was published in June 2007, a section of which highlighted that the name of the Westwake character bore more than a passing resemblance to that of Dr Andrew Wakefield . [26] [27]
"It would be all right if there was a programme about a maverick judge and how awful that is and why he's a twat and it shouldn't be allowed. But it's not about that, it's about how brilliant he is and how all judges, by implication, should be like that."
David Mitchell 's rant about the programme's "maverick judge" premise. [28]
Television pundits have criticised the writing of the programme; Robert Hanks of The Independent calls the scripts "often corny, even painfully so", using Monty Everard's line "You'll come to regret crossing swords with me, sir!" from " Health Hazard " (2003) as an example. [29] Hanks also wrote about what he called "moral oversimplification" of the storylines; the same episode featured "a wealthy and self-important businessman—who had already been banned from talking on a mobile phone while driving—ran over and killed a mother and her two small children while talking on his mobile phone to his mistress, to whom he was explaining that he had to take his wife to a function at—the icing on this shabby cake—Downing Street. He then legged it and subsequently faked mental illness to avoid a trial; a gambit that might have worked had Deed not cunningly threatened to send him to Broadmoor , at which point the man stood up and started protesting vociferously". [29] The series is frequently lampooned for its dialogue and unlikely scenarios. Andy Hamilton called the dialogue "the funniest on TV" [30] and David Mitchell selected it as his "TV hell" in the series TV Heaven, Telly Hell . [28] Deed's " swashbuckling " persona has been satirised on the sketch series Dead Ringers . [31] Despite the criticism given to the programme, the series is praised as being at its best when tackling topical issues, such as reality television, human exposure to telephone masts and incestuous relationships. [3]
The production style also rates highly; writing in The Guardian , Mark Lawson called the pilot "glossier and more populist than Newman's earlier work". Wry reference is made to Deed and Jo's relationship, with Lawson writing that Deed "is desperate to conduct his own forensic investigation of the body fluids of the attractive defence QC". [6] Writing on the programme's accessibility to an audience, Nancy Banks-Smith of The Guardian calls it "talkative in the way television plays used to be when they had something to say. But it is notable that, in a profession famous for obfuscation, Deed uses only the most pellucid English". [32] Banks-Smith has also drawn attention to the masculine skew the programme has; "Judge John Deed […] is catnip to the ladies. These are chappishly called Georgie, Charlie, Jo and—when Rita defies abbreviation—Coop". [33]
Stephen Roach received the Award of Merit at the 2005 Guild of Television Cameramen Awards for his work on the series. [34] The series was nominated in the Diversity in Drama Production category at the 2006 Screen Nation Awards, though lost to an episode of Doctors . [35]
The first series was released as a 3-disc set on 8 May 2006 and the second series as a 2-disc set on 12 February 2007. [36] [37] The third and fourth series were released on 14 January 2008 in a 5-disc set. [38] All the DVDs were published by 2 Entertain Video. A series 5 DVD was released on 8 February 2010, omitting the controversial fifth and sixth episodes. [39] A Series 6 DVD was released on 21 February 2011, which contained two double length episodes.
The pilot and first series received a North American release on 9 March 2010. [40]
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judge_John_Deed | 28 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | List of Judge John Deed episodes | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The British courtroom drama television series Judge John Deed , starring Martin Shaw as a maverick High Court judge , began with a pilot episode called "Exacting Justice", which was first broadcast on BBC One on 9 January 2001. The series proper began on 26 November 2001. The first to third series contained four 90-minute episodes, the fourth and fifth were extended to a six-episode run and the latest series comprised two 120-minute episodes split into two parts on broadcast. When it began, the programme followed an episodic format, though later series have developed a serialised format, with plots developing over a number of stories.
As of the end of the sixth series in 2007, the number of episodes is 29. The possibility of more episodes was in doubt after Shaw became involved in other projects, [1] and the series had been officially cancelled by the BBC by 2009. [2] [3] The pilot and all 6 series have been released on DVD in the UK (minus episodes 24 & 25). The pilot and first series were released in North America in March 2010.
|Series||Episodes||Originally aired|
|First aired||Last aired|
|1||5||9 January 2001||17 December 2001|
|2||4||21 November 2002||19 December 2002|
|3||4||27 November 2003||26 January 2004|
|4||6||13 January 2005||17 February 2005|
|5||6||6 January 2006||10 February 2006|
|6||4||9 January 2007||18 January 2007|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|1||1||" Exacting Justice "||Alrick Riley||G.F. Newman||9 January 2001||6.6 [4]|
|Judge John Deed takes the case of Maurice Haart, a father accused of murdering the man who killed his daughter. Haart tells his barrister, Jo Mills, that he shot the man because he saw him driving the same lorry that he hit his daughter with, but he refuses to plead provocation . Deed's daughter Charlie introduces him to Rory, an environmental activist, and they are later arrested when they destroy GM crops.|
|2||2||" Rough Justice "||Mary McMurray||G.F. Newman||26 November 2001||9.1 [5]|
|An MI5 informant is on trial for causing grievous bodily harm to his wife and Deed is pressured by the Lord Chancellor's Department and Police Commissioner Row Colemore to release the man, but Deed refuses without investigating the matter further. He conducts a Newton hearing , hearing evidence and acting as his own jury. This causes a clash with Sir Ian Rochester of the LCD (with whose wife Deed is having an affair). Deed also sits on the case of date rape against three men.|
|3||3||" Duty of Care "||Jonny Campbell||G.F. Newman||3 December 2001||7.4 [6]|
|Corporate manslaughter charges are brought against the managing director of a construction company whose health and safety breaches result in a worker being killed on a building site. Charlie steals a dog from an animal testing laboratory and leaves her with Deed for safety, but there is trouble when it is found. Deed has to contend with Rochester's urges for him to drop the manslaughter case because of the defendant's political affiliations, as well as with George's contempt in the courtroom.|
|4||4||" Appropriate Response "||Jane Powell||G.F. Newman||10 December 2001||7.1 [7]|
|Romero, a serial rapist and former defendant in Deed's court, is released from prison and seeks revenge on the judge. Deed makes an enemy of the police when he tries two police officers for GBH and refuses bail when he suspects tampering with the main witness . Romero poisons Rosie and leads Deed to an abandoned warehouse, under the pretence he has kidnapped Charlie, enraging the judge. Deed's actions force him to reassess the actions of a boxer on trial for GBH, and his relationship with Jo is strained at a reception.|
|5||5||" Hidden Agenda "||Jane Powell||G.F. Newman||17 December 2001||7.1 [8]|
|A GP stands trial for the murder of a patient when it is revealed he left everything to her in his will. Though the jury finds her not guilty, the doctor insists to Deed that she did kill her patient, despite an expert witness stating that was not possible. The Lord Chancellor's Department continues surveillance of Deed when it suspects he is having an affair with the doctor. Meanwhile, Charlie becomes involved in the case of an HIV -positive mother who refuses to have her child tested, and seeks her father's help in the matter.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|6||1||" Political Expediency "||Jonny Campbell||G.F. Newman||21 November 2002||5.7 [9]|
|Deed is forced to negotiate a political crisis when the driver of an Arab sheikh, in Britain with a £ 10 billion aeroplane contract, is charged with the murder of a prostitute. Prosecution counsel is murdered, witnesses and the jury are tampered with, and Deed suspects the Sheikh's involvement in the crime is greater than previously assumed. He discovers that George is marrying the Trade Secretary , and Rochester offers him a seat on the Appellate Bench in an effort to exonerate the British government. Meanwhile Deed enrages Jo Mills by ignoring her arguments and giving a star footballer she is defending a prison sentence.|
|7||2||" Abuse of Power "||David Kew||G.F. Newman||28 November 2002||6.2 [10]|
|A mentally disabled man confesses to the murder of a young woman, but retracts his confession, leaving Deed perplexed. When Robert Hume takes a fraud case from Deed, Deed suspects his peer is involved and, despite the efforts of Channing and Rochester to dissuade him, decides to investigate further. As Deed's investigations run deeper, people close to him are drawn in, and even when his suspicions are confirmed, there is nothing Rochester is willing to do. Meanwhile, Jo begins a romantic relationship with Row Colemore.|
|8||3||" Nobody's Fool "||Jonny Campbell||G.F. Newman||12 December 2002||6 [11]|
|Francesca Rochester returns to Deed's life, asking for his help in getting her Aunt sectioned so she can take over her successful publishing company. Charlie reveals to her father that she is pregnant, though Deed is oblivious to his daughter's feelings and she later terminates the pregnancy after talking to George. After a talk with Jo, Deed realises what he is getting himself into and discovers the truth behind Francesca's new business venture. Meanwhile, a promising young lawyer represents himself in a trial over the murder of his parents. During this episode, Deed refers to "Wellington's famous dictum" presumably "Publish and be damned".|
|9||4||" Everyone's Child "||Andy Hay||G.F. Newman||19 December 2002||5.2 [12]|
|Jo defends a young boy who wants attempts to give him a heart transplant blocked and Deed puts an injunction on the operation. After a plea from the boy's parents he lifts it, but the boy dies during surgery. Jo is furious at Deed and they argue, but later spend the night at his lodgings. Rochester uses this to try to dismantle Deed's career through Jo. Elsewhere Deed is trying the case of two drug addicts charged with murder and Charlie is involved in a protest in support of a hunger striker appealing against his conviction.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|10||1||" Health Hazard "||Andy Hay||G.F. Newman||27 November 2003||6.6 [13]|
|Deed is given a high-profile case in which a woman takes action against a mobile phone company for causing her brain tumour, angering Ian Rochester. Rochester attempts to take the case away from Deed, but is unable to. Instead he brings Jo up for a disciplinary after her affair with Deed. Deed arrives at her hearing, chaired by Sir Monty Everard, and has the charges dropped. Meanwhile, a man involved in a hit and run incident might be unfit to stand trial.|
|11||2||" Judicial Review "||Andy Hay||G.F. Newman||4 December 2003||6.5 [14]|
|Deed accuses Everard of corruption when he grants a non-custodial sentence to a defendant with political ties (the hit and run driver in "Health Hazard"), at the same time putting Jo's career on the line. She convinces Deed to see a therapist and he meets with Rachel Crawcheck. However, he continues to seek real justice until the sentence is appealed. Deed also hears a mysterious case involving a woman who claims she killed her husband in self defence.|
|12||3||" Conspiracy "||David Kerr||G.F. Newman||11 December 2003||6.6 [14]|
|An MP stands accused of attempted murder but there is a belief by Colemore that the charge has been contrived to silence his investigation into deaths in the arms industry. Deed discovers that Colemore is involved in a plot to acquit the MP for commercial reasons, leading Deed to charge him for perverting the course of justice . Deed and Rachel take his therapy to the bedroom.|
|13||4||" Economic Imperative "||David Kerr||G.F. Newman||26 January 2004 [15]||6.2 [16]|
|Diana Hulsey (from "Health Hazard") takes her case against the mobile phone company forwards and asks Jo to adopt her son when she dies. Rochester and the Trade Secretary try to derail the case by planting child pornography on Deed's computer, leading the phone company not to settle after Diana dies and leaving Deed with a race to save his name.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|14||1||" Lost and Found "||G.F. Newman||G.F. Newman||13 January 2005||5.5 [17]|
|A man accused of participating in an armed robbery is re-apprehended after 16 years on the run. The case against him is weakened by evidence of corruption in the arresting squad, and an unreliable and anonymous professional informant. Jo's first meetings with Michael get off to a shaky start as she tries to juggle her career and her commitments to the boy.|
|15||2||" Above the Law "||Deborah Paige||G.F. Newman||20 January 2005||5.8 [18]|
|Friends and family of three gang members accused of murdering a rival drug dealer terrorise jurors and kill witnesses. As the case nears abandonment, Deed is forced to consider the heretofore unconstitutional option of a juryless trial. After an initial refusal, Jo fights for, and wins, a second chance to adopt Michael.|
|16||3||" In Defence of Others "||Tristram Powell||G.F. Newman||27 January 2005||6.4|
|A never-successfully-convicted child sex abuser is killed while in prison, and the accused claims a defence of preventing future abuses. Jo meets Michael's real father, who wants to return to South Africa with her. Everard hears the case of an adopted child who raped his teacher. Deed risks his career by sleeping with a claimant.|
|17||4||" Defence of the Realm "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||3 February 2005||5.8 [19]|
|Deed's affair comes back to bite him as the Home Office pressures for his resignation or impeachment; he is temporarily exiled to lecture at a university. Jo sits as a Recorder in a fraud case concerning a defence contractor, and, facing threats against herself and Michael, finds a trail of corruption leading to the higher echelons of government.|
|18||5||" Separation of Powers "||Deborah Paige||G.F. Newman||10 February 2005||7.4 [20]|
|Deed hears the case (pretrialed in "Defence of the Realm") of birth defects near a waste disposal plant. A PR company spinning the reports from the waste disposal company has connections with both the defence contractor and the Home Secretary, and the defendant from the fraud case provides compelling – and disastrous – evidence.|
|19||6||" Popular Appeal "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||17 February 2005||6.1 [21]|
|A desirable case concerning an on-screen death on a reality television series is mysteriously allocated to Deed, which leads to a clash with the press. Haughton faces a select committee to answer charges of corruption, and Jo pays the price for Deed's crusade. Deed finally confronts the man behind Jo's kidnapping.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|20||1||" Hard-Gating "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||6 January 2006||6.8 [22]|
|A black prisoner is killed by his white cellmate, who is a known racist and although the Prison Service claims they shared as a result of overcrowding, Deed suspects that they simply weren't up to the task. Jo's relationship with Deed grows further apart when Marc returns.|
|21||2||" My Daughter, Right or Wrong "||Tristram Powell||G.F. Newman||13 January 2006||6.3 [23]|
|An animal rights activist stands trial for the murder of a scientist when his organisation firebombs Sussex University . He sacks his QC and asks Charlie, the junior, to represent him. She takes the case despite her father's objections, which is good news for Rochester. Jo resumes her relationship with Marc.|
|22||3||" Lost Youth "||Tristram Powell||G.F. Newman||20 January 2006||6.2 [24]|
|Deed sits on a case after Marc tells two parents that it would be in their son's best interests if they did not resuscitate him again, due to his comatose state. Marc's recommendation is challenged by the boy's God-fearing parents, who believe it is not for them to decide whether he lives or dies. Deed learns that Jo and Marc intend to marry. Meanwhile, Deed has to live with the consequences after a boy commits suicide less than 48 hours after he is sentenced by Deed to a two year custodial sentence under the Home Secretary's automatic custodial sentencing guidelines.|
|23||4||" Silent Killer "||Darcia Martin||G.F. Newman||27 January 2006||5.8 [25]|
|A couple suffering from motor-neuron disease and cancer sue their local council, believing their condition has been caused by a communications antenna, used by the police, on the roof of their flat. The wife of an Iraqi minister approaches Deed, wishing to sue the British government because the use of depleted uranium by the army in Iraq has caused the deaths of members of her family. Meanwhile, Jo and Marc have set a date for their wedding, adding to the tension between Jo and John.|
|24||5||" One Angry Man "||Darcia Martin||G.F. Newman||3 February 2006||7.3 [26]|
|Rochester sees to it that Deed is brought up for jury service, and he is called to a murder trial in which a Ukrainian nanny is suspected of shaking a baby in her care to death. Deed learns that the baby's death might have been caused by complications with the MMR vaccine . Jo has doubts about marrying Marc when he is asked to return to South Africa, and she falls back into Deed's arms. This episode, along with "Heart of Darkness", was excluded from the recent DVD release due to subsequent revelations casting doubt on the dangers of MMR vaccines, making the episodes appear unreliable. [ citation needed ]|
|25||6||" Heart of Darkness "||G.F. Newman||G.F. Newman||10 February 2006||6.5|
|Deed hears a case that could have potentially disastrous effects for the government's support of the MMR vaccine. Jo forgets to go to her wedding rehearsal and is furious when Deed schedules a meeting on the morning of the ceremony.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|26||1||" War Crimes - Part 1 "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||9 January 2007||6.2 [27]|
|Deed sits in The Hague to hear the case of a British soldier who killed 11 Iraqi civilians and is being accused of war crimes. A previous ruling Deed made against a British National Party councillor angers Muslim extremists, and a female assassin is sent to kill Deed.|
|27||2||" War Crimes - Part 2 "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||11 January 2007||5.8 [28]|
|During the War Crimes case in The Hague, Deed learns that the British Soldier on trial is being sacrificed as part of the government's overall exit strategy. Deed's dilemma is one possible miscarriage of justice to save the lives of many soldiers.|
|28||3||" Evidence of Harm - Part 1 "||Darcia Martin||G.F. Newman||16 January 2007||6.2 [27]|
|Jo asks Deed to review the withdrawal of legal aid for a soldier who was damaged by vaccines given to him by the army and who later committed suicide. Deed is reluctant since the case has been heard and closed by another judge. He accuses the judge of bias and risks causing a constitutional crisis in order to get justice for the soldier's family.|
|29||4||" Evidence of Harm - Part 2 "||Darcia Martin||G.F. Newman||18 January 2007||6.3 [29]|
|As Deed delves deeper and deeper into why funding for the soldier to sue the pharmaceutical company was withdrawn, he makes more and more sinister discoveries. It is then that the forces of reaction move against him to stop him any way they can.|
|Series||Day||Timeslot||Additional broadcast information|
|Pilot||Tuesday||8–9.30 p.m.||None|
|1||Tuesday||8–9.30 p.m.||None|
|2||Thursday||8.30–10 p.m.||"Everyone's Child" aired from 8 p.m.|
|3||Thursday||8.30–10 p.m.||"Economic Imperative" aired on a Monday|
|4||Thursday||8–9.30 p.m.||None|
|5||Friday||8.30–10 p.m.||None|
|6||Tuesday and Thursday||9–10 p.m.||None|
- ^ Thomas, Liz (27 February 2007). "Sentence hangs over Judge John Deed" . The Stage . Retrieved 27 April 2007 .
- ^ Jeffries, Mark (30 April 2009). "Martin's TV judge Deed and buried" . Daily Mirror . MGN . Retrieved 1 May 2009 .
- ^ Shaw, Martin (29 April 2009). "BBC Breakfast". BBC One (Interview). Interviewed by Bill Turnbull. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Judge_John_Deed_episodes | 28 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | Judge John Deed - Wikipedia | For the cricketer John Deed, see Jack Deed .
|Judge John Deed|
|Genre||Legal drama|
|Written by||G.F. Newman|
|Starring|| Martin Shaw |
Jenny Seagrove
Barbara Thorn
Louisa Clein
Simon Ward
|Theme music composer||Debbie Wiseman|
|Country of origin||United Kingdom|
|Original language||English|
|No. of series||6|
|No. of episodes||29 ( list of episodes )|
|Production|
|Executive producers|| Mal Young |
Ruth Caleb
|Producer||G.F. Newman|
|Release|
|Original network|| BBC One |
BBC HD (2007)
|Picture format|| PAL ( 576i ) (2001–2006) |
1080i HDTV (2007)
|Audio format|| Dolby Surround (2001-2002) |
Dolby Digital (2003-2007)
|Original release|| 9 January 2001 – |
18 January 2007
Judge John Deed is a British legal drama television series produced by the BBC in association with One-Eyed Dog for BBC One . It was created by G.F. Newman and stars Martin Shaw as Mr Justice Deed, a High Court judge who tries to seek real justice in the cases before him. It also stars Jenny Seagrove as the barrister Jo Mills QC , frequently the object of Deed's desire. A pilot episode was broadcast on 9 January 2001, followed by the first full series on 26 November 2001. The sixth and last series concluded on 18 January 2007. The programme then went on an indefinite break after Shaw became involved in another television programme ( Inspector George Gently ), and he and Seagrove expressed a wish for the format of the series to change before they filmed new episodes. By 2009, the series had officially been cancelled.
The factual accuracy of the series is often criticised by legal professionals and journalists; many of the decisions taken by Deed are unlikely to happen in a real court. The romanticised vision of the court system created by Newman caused a judge to issue a warning to a jury not to let the series influence their view of trials—referring to an episode where Deed flouts rules when called up for jury service. A complaint was made by a viewer about one episode claiming biased and incorrect information about the MMR vaccine , leading the BBC to unilaterally ban repeats of it in its original form. [1] All six series (with the exception of the two banned episodes from Series Five) have been released on DVD in the UK.
Sir John Deed (played by Martin Shaw ) is a recently appointed High Court judge who actively seeks justice in the cases before him, while at the same time trying to rekindle an old romance with former pupil Jo Mills QC (played by Jenny Seagrove ), who regularly appears in his court. Deed is described by creator and writer G.F. Newman as a character who "speaks out against all the petty rules and bureaucracy that frustrates us all but that most of us don't speak out against". [2] Because of Deed's unorthodox actions, he is often hampered in his pursuit of justice by several more conventional-minded characters, including his ex-wife, barrister Georgina "George" Channing QC (played by Caroline Langrishe ); her father Appeals Court Judge, Lord Justice (Sir Joseph) Channing (played by Sir Donald Sinden ), fellow High Court Judges Mr Justice (Sir Monty) Everard (played by Simon Ward ) and Mr Justice (Sir Michael) Nivan (spelt as Niven in later series credits - played by Trevor Bowen ), the Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Department (LCD, later Department of Constitutional Affairs ) Sir Ian Rochester (played by Simon Chandler ); and later the Home Secretary Neil Haughton MP (played by Nick Reding and later Aneirin Hughes ).
Other recurring characters include Deed's rebellious, animal rights activist daughter Charlie (played by Louisa Clein ), who is initially a law student but later progresses to the courts; Deed's police friend, deputy assistant commissioner Row Colemore (played by Christopher Cazenove ); and his clerk, Rita "Coop" Cooper (played by Barbara Thorn ), who is often on hand to temper some of his more radical ideas. Rita "Coop" was involved in many scenes of the show and was shown frequently in Judge John Deed advertisements. The first three series of the programme have a self-contained structure, with a trial reaching its conclusion by the end of an episode. In later years, the series added a serialised format, with stories running over a number of episodes and a greater focus on the personal lives of characters other than Deed, with the main case concluding in each episode. [3]
Newman devised his new series to highlight what he believed to be an out-of-touch judiciary and show "solutions" (a style that is different from, yet paradoxically similar to his previous work, such as his 1970s series Law and Order , which was heavily critical of the police, with Judge John Deed being heavily critical of the corrupt Establishment). [4] [5] Newman wrote the series intending to give the audience an exploration of the law without patronising them or getting caught up in an explanation of legal proceedings. [2] A full series was commissioned before the pilot was broadcast. [5] The series has been credited with renewing the " cop genre " by moving the story from a "maverick detective" to a high court judge, [6] though as a comparison to Newman's previous work, a Guardian writer called it "rather soft" and doubted, from seeing the pilot, whether it would provoke questions in the House of Commons like Law and Order did, [5] while the show went on to provoke much hostility from many groups which it portrayed as corrupt or negligent.
Sets were constructed on the soundstages at Bushey , Hertfordshire for the courtroom, Deed's chambers and the main characters' houses. [7] Exterior court scenes were filmed at the Crown Court in Aylesbury . [8] Location filming was also done at West Herts College for scenes in " My Daughter, Right or Wrong " (2006) [9] and at various locations, including The Hague City Hall, (as film location for the International Criminal Court building in The Hague ) for " War Crimes " (2007). [10] The robes worn by Deed in the sixth series were authentic ones from Stanley Ley, a specialist legal outfitters, and cost £7,600. [11] Theme music was composed for the series by Debbie Wiseman . The music, entitled "Judge John Deed", was performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and is described as a "stunning march-like theme that echoed throughout each of the programmes supplying pageantry to the Judge's sometimes-nefarious activities". [12] It was released commercially on Wiseman's compilation album, Something Here , and as a single piece on online music retailers. From 2005 to 2007, television promotions for the series have been accompanied by the piano hook from " Sinnerman " by Nina Simone .
29 episodes were produced; the pilot, three series of four episodes, two series of six episodes and one series of two two-part serials. All episodes were written and produced, and occasionally directed, by Newman. At the time the sixth series concluded, the future of the series was in doubt; the BBC had announced an intention to use Martin Shaw in a range of new projects and it was apparent that the one-off adaption of Alan Hunter 's Inspector Gently novels (starring Shaw as the eponymous inspector) would be commissioned for a full series . [13] Jenny Seagrove clarified the situation, stating that the producers wanted to continue but she and Shaw were "taking a sabbatical" until the formula of the series was changed, implying that its future lay in the multi-part format introduced in series six. [14] In April 2009, Shaw told BBC Breakfast that the series had been officially cancelled by the BBC because of financial cutbacks across the corporation. [15] [16] The six years the series was broadcast makes it the longest-running BBC legal drama. [3]
Judge John Deed regularly formed the backbone of the BBC One winter schedule. The pilot and first series were broadcast on Tuesday evenings at 8 p.m., with the second, third and fourth series moving to Thursday evenings (8:30 p.m. for the first two and 8 p.m. for the latter, though one episode in series three was postponed for over a month). The fifth series moved to Friday nights, and the sixth was shown two nights a week, with the first part of the story on Tuesday nights and concluding the following Thursday. This series was also the first to be simulcast on BBC HD . [17] Occasionally, due to a clash with regional programming, it has aired at different times on BBC One Scotland ; series two was delayed for sometimes over a week while series three began a half-hour earlier. Series five had a six-day delay.
Ratings for the series peaked with its first episode at 9.1 million [18] but it continued to regularly draw in around 6 million viewers for later episodes. The series has been shown internationally by, amongst others, Canvas (Belgium) , BBC Canada and BBC Prime . In 2004, Variety reported an American remake was set to be produced for NBC ; Michael Chernuchin was to produce the series, which would follow a federal court judge in Washington, D.C. who would preside over terrorism and civil rights cases. [19] There have been no further developments since the announcement was made in 2004.
Judge John Deed presents a fictionalised version of the English legal system. The British Film Institute 's Screenonline notes that "Almost every week, Deed is seen presiding over cases being prosecuted by his ex-wife or defended by his on-off girlfriend (with occasionally help from his daughter)", highlighting how unlikely it would be for a real judge to have so many conflicts of interest in his court. It also notes that Deed's faults, such as his affairs with his therapist and with Francesca Rochester, prevent him from being "a completely idealised heroic figure", and the fact that because all of his family and friends practise law, he is firmly entrenched in the legal system that he is constantly fighting against. [3] Deed has been accused of hypocrisy, particularly for using his connections to bail Charlie after she destroyed GM crops in " Exacting Justice ". [20] There is a belief in some legal circles that, although Judge John Deed is arguably the most unrealistic of contemporary legal dramas, viewers see Deed as an aspirational character taking on a corrupt establishment. [21] Despite being picked apart by legal professionals, the cast and Newman were invited to the annual dinner of the Association of Women Barristers in 2006 as part of a drive to raise the profile and attract new members to the group. [22]
The series' creative interpretation of the law has led to a misconception by the public of what real law is like ( cf . CSI effect ); in the second Damilola Taylor trial, the presiding judge warned the jury that if they copied Deed's actions in the then-recent episode " One Angry Man " (2006), in which Deed investigated a case and interviewed witnesses while sitting on a jury, they would "simply derail the whole process". [23]
The 2006 series caused controversy for the misguided information presented in " Silent Killer " (2006), which suggested a link between TETRA radio emissions and motor neurone disease. Statements were released by the TETRA Industry Group and the MND Association , the latter emphasising that while there is some evidence to suggest a link, it is not a single contributory factor. [24] [25] " Heart of Darkness " (2006) was criticised for portraying a causal link between the MMR vaccine and autism , and the BBC received complaints on the matter. The Editorial Complaints Unit ruled that the episode had contravened the BBC's "obligation of due impartiality on matters of public controversy" and that the episode would not be repeated in its original form. [1] The episode was cited in From Seesaw to Wagon Wheel , an internal BBC report on impartiality in its output that was published in June 2007, a section of which highlighted that the name of the Westwake character bore more than a passing resemblance to that of Dr Andrew Wakefield . [26] [27]
"It would be all right if there was a programme about a maverick judge and how awful that is and why he's a twat and it shouldn't be allowed. But it's not about that, it's about how brilliant he is and how all judges, by implication, should be like that."
David Mitchell 's rant about the programme's "maverick judge" premise. [28]
Television pundits have criticised the writing of the programme; Robert Hanks of The Independent calls the scripts "often corny, even painfully so", using Monty Everard's line "You'll come to regret crossing swords with me, sir!" from " Health Hazard " (2003) as an example. [29] Hanks also wrote about what he called "moral oversimplification" of the storylines; the same episode featured "a wealthy and self-important businessman—who had already been banned from talking on a mobile phone while driving—ran over and killed a mother and her two small children while talking on his mobile phone to his mistress, to whom he was explaining that he had to take his wife to a function at—the icing on this shabby cake—Downing Street. He then legged it and subsequently faked mental illness to avoid a trial; a gambit that might have worked had Deed not cunningly threatened to send him to Broadmoor , at which point the man stood up and started protesting vociferously". [29] The series is frequently lampooned for its dialogue and unlikely scenarios. Andy Hamilton called the dialogue "the funniest on TV" [30] and David Mitchell selected it as his "TV hell" in the series TV Heaven, Telly Hell . [28] Deed's " swashbuckling " persona has been satirised on the sketch series Dead Ringers . [31] Despite the criticism given to the programme, the series is praised as being at its best when tackling topical issues, such as reality television, human exposure to telephone masts and incestuous relationships. [3]
The production style also rates highly; writing in The Guardian , Mark Lawson called the pilot "glossier and more populist than Newman's earlier work". Wry reference is made to Deed and Jo's relationship, with Lawson writing that Deed "is desperate to conduct his own forensic investigation of the body fluids of the attractive defence QC". [6] Writing on the programme's accessibility to an audience, Nancy Banks-Smith of The Guardian calls it "talkative in the way television plays used to be when they had something to say. But it is notable that, in a profession famous for obfuscation, Deed uses only the most pellucid English". [32] Banks-Smith has also drawn attention to the masculine skew the programme has; "Judge John Deed […] is catnip to the ladies. These are chappishly called Georgie, Charlie, Jo and—when Rita defies abbreviation—Coop". [33]
Stephen Roach received the Award of Merit at the 2005 Guild of Television Cameramen Awards for his work on the series. [34] The series was nominated in the Diversity in Drama Production category at the 2006 Screen Nation Awards, though lost to an episode of Doctors . [35]
The first series was released as a 3-disc set on 8 May 2006 and the second series as a 2-disc set on 12 February 2007. [36] [37] The third and fourth series were released on 14 January 2008 in a 5-disc set. [38] All the DVDs were published by 2 Entertain Video. A series 5 DVD was released on 8 February 2010, omitting the controversial fifth and sixth episodes. [39] A Series 6 DVD was released on 21 February 2011, which contained two double length episodes.
The pilot and first series received a North American release on 9 March 2010. [40]
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judge_John_Deed | 28 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | Judge John Deed - Wikipedia | For the cricketer John Deed, see Jack Deed .
|Judge John Deed|
|Genre||Legal drama|
|Written by||G.F. Newman|
|Starring|| Martin Shaw |
Jenny Seagrove
Barbara Thorn
Louisa Clein
Simon Ward
|Theme music composer||Debbie Wiseman|
|Country of origin||United Kingdom|
|Original language||English|
|No. of series||6|
|No. of episodes||29 ( list of episodes )|
|Production|
|Executive producers|| Mal Young |
Ruth Caleb
|Producer||G.F. Newman|
|Release|
|Original network|| BBC One |
BBC HD (2007)
|Picture format|| PAL ( 576i ) (2001–2006) |
1080i HDTV (2007)
|Audio format|| Dolby Surround (2001-2002) |
Dolby Digital (2003-2007)
|Original release|| 9 January 2001 – |
18 January 2007
Judge John Deed is a British legal drama television series produced by the BBC in association with One-Eyed Dog for BBC One . It was created by G.F. Newman and stars Martin Shaw as Mr Justice Deed, a High Court judge who tries to seek real justice in the cases before him. It also stars Jenny Seagrove as the barrister Jo Mills QC , frequently the object of Deed's desire. A pilot episode was broadcast on 9 January 2001, followed by the first full series on 26 November 2001. The sixth and last series concluded on 18 January 2007. The programme then went on an indefinite break after Shaw became involved in another television programme ( Inspector George Gently ), and he and Seagrove expressed a wish for the format of the series to change before they filmed new episodes. By 2009, the series had officially been cancelled.
The factual accuracy of the series is often criticised by legal professionals and journalists; many of the decisions taken by Deed are unlikely to happen in a real court. The romanticised vision of the court system created by Newman caused a judge to issue a warning to a jury not to let the series influence their view of trials—referring to an episode where Deed flouts rules when called up for jury service. A complaint was made by a viewer about one episode claiming biased and incorrect information about the MMR vaccine , leading the BBC to unilaterally ban repeats of it in its original form. [1] All six series (with the exception of the two banned episodes from Series Five) have been released on DVD in the UK.
Sir John Deed (played by Martin Shaw ) is a recently appointed High Court judge who actively seeks justice in the cases before him, while at the same time trying to rekindle an old romance with former pupil Jo Mills QC (played by Jenny Seagrove ), who regularly appears in his court. Deed is described by creator and writer G.F. Newman as a character who "speaks out against all the petty rules and bureaucracy that frustrates us all but that most of us don't speak out against". [2] Because of Deed's unorthodox actions, he is often hampered in his pursuit of justice by several more conventional-minded characters, including his ex-wife, barrister Georgina "George" Channing QC (played by Caroline Langrishe ); her father Appeals Court Judge, Lord Justice (Sir Joseph) Channing (played by Sir Donald Sinden ), fellow High Court Judges Mr Justice (Sir Monty) Everard (played by Simon Ward ) and Mr Justice (Sir Michael) Nivan (spelt as Niven in later series credits - played by Trevor Bowen ), the Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Department (LCD, later Department of Constitutional Affairs ) Sir Ian Rochester (played by Simon Chandler ); and later the Home Secretary Neil Haughton MP (played by Nick Reding and later Aneirin Hughes ).
Other recurring characters include Deed's rebellious, animal rights activist daughter Charlie (played by Louisa Clein ), who is initially a law student but later progresses to the courts; Deed's police friend, deputy assistant commissioner Row Colemore (played by Christopher Cazenove ); and his clerk, Rita "Coop" Cooper (played by Barbara Thorn ), who is often on hand to temper some of his more radical ideas. Rita "Coop" was involved in many scenes of the show and was shown frequently in Judge John Deed advertisements. The first three series of the programme have a self-contained structure, with a trial reaching its conclusion by the end of an episode. In later years, the series added a serialised format, with stories running over a number of episodes and a greater focus on the personal lives of characters other than Deed, with the main case concluding in each episode. [3]
Newman devised his new series to highlight what he believed to be an out-of-touch judiciary and show "solutions" (a style that is different from, yet paradoxically similar to his previous work, such as his 1970s series Law and Order , which was heavily critical of the police, with Judge John Deed being heavily critical of the corrupt Establishment). [4] [5] Newman wrote the series intending to give the audience an exploration of the law without patronising them or getting caught up in an explanation of legal proceedings. [2] A full series was commissioned before the pilot was broadcast. [5] The series has been credited with renewing the " cop genre " by moving the story from a "maverick detective" to a high court judge, [6] though as a comparison to Newman's previous work, a Guardian writer called it "rather soft" and doubted, from seeing the pilot, whether it would provoke questions in the House of Commons like Law and Order did, [5] while the show went on to provoke much hostility from many groups which it portrayed as corrupt or negligent.
Sets were constructed on the soundstages at Bushey , Hertfordshire for the courtroom, Deed's chambers and the main characters' houses. [7] Exterior court scenes were filmed at the Crown Court in Aylesbury . [8] Location filming was also done at West Herts College for scenes in " My Daughter, Right or Wrong " (2006) [9] and at various locations, including The Hague City Hall, (as film location for the International Criminal Court building in The Hague ) for " War Crimes " (2007). [10] The robes worn by Deed in the sixth series were authentic ones from Stanley Ley, a specialist legal outfitters, and cost £7,600. [11] Theme music was composed for the series by Debbie Wiseman . The music, entitled "Judge John Deed", was performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and is described as a "stunning march-like theme that echoed throughout each of the programmes supplying pageantry to the Judge's sometimes-nefarious activities". [12] It was released commercially on Wiseman's compilation album, Something Here , and as a single piece on online music retailers. From 2005 to 2007, television promotions for the series have been accompanied by the piano hook from " Sinnerman " by Nina Simone .
29 episodes were produced; the pilot, three series of four episodes, two series of six episodes and one series of two two-part serials. All episodes were written and produced, and occasionally directed, by Newman. At the time the sixth series concluded, the future of the series was in doubt; the BBC had announced an intention to use Martin Shaw in a range of new projects and it was apparent that the one-off adaption of Alan Hunter 's Inspector Gently novels (starring Shaw as the eponymous inspector) would be commissioned for a full series . [13] Jenny Seagrove clarified the situation, stating that the producers wanted to continue but she and Shaw were "taking a sabbatical" until the formula of the series was changed, implying that its future lay in the multi-part format introduced in series six. [14] In April 2009, Shaw told BBC Breakfast that the series had been officially cancelled by the BBC because of financial cutbacks across the corporation. [15] [16] The six years the series was broadcast makes it the longest-running BBC legal drama. [3]
Judge John Deed regularly formed the backbone of the BBC One winter schedule. The pilot and first series were broadcast on Tuesday evenings at 8 p.m., with the second, third and fourth series moving to Thursday evenings (8:30 p.m. for the first two and 8 p.m. for the latter, though one episode in series three was postponed for over a month). The fifth series moved to Friday nights, and the sixth was shown two nights a week, with the first part of the story on Tuesday nights and concluding the following Thursday. This series was also the first to be simulcast on BBC HD . [17] Occasionally, due to a clash with regional programming, it has aired at different times on BBC One Scotland ; series two was delayed for sometimes over a week while series three began a half-hour earlier. Series five had a six-day delay.
Ratings for the series peaked with its first episode at 9.1 million [18] but it continued to regularly draw in around 6 million viewers for later episodes. The series has been shown internationally by, amongst others, Canvas (Belgium) , BBC Canada and BBC Prime . In 2004, Variety reported an American remake was set to be produced for NBC ; Michael Chernuchin was to produce the series, which would follow a federal court judge in Washington, D.C. who would preside over terrorism and civil rights cases. [19] There have been no further developments since the announcement was made in 2004.
Judge John Deed presents a fictionalised version of the English legal system. The British Film Institute 's Screenonline notes that "Almost every week, Deed is seen presiding over cases being prosecuted by his ex-wife or defended by his on-off girlfriend (with occasionally help from his daughter)", highlighting how unlikely it would be for a real judge to have so many conflicts of interest in his court. It also notes that Deed's faults, such as his affairs with his therapist and with Francesca Rochester, prevent him from being "a completely idealised heroic figure", and the fact that because all of his family and friends practise law, he is firmly entrenched in the legal system that he is constantly fighting against. [3] Deed has been accused of hypocrisy, particularly for using his connections to bail Charlie after she destroyed GM crops in " Exacting Justice ". [20] There is a belief in some legal circles that, although Judge John Deed is arguably the most unrealistic of contemporary legal dramas, viewers see Deed as an aspirational character taking on a corrupt establishment. [21] Despite being picked apart by legal professionals, the cast and Newman were invited to the annual dinner of the Association of Women Barristers in 2006 as part of a drive to raise the profile and attract new members to the group. [22]
The series' creative interpretation of the law has led to a misconception by the public of what real law is like ( cf . CSI effect ); in the second Damilola Taylor trial, the presiding judge warned the jury that if they copied Deed's actions in the then-recent episode " One Angry Man " (2006), in which Deed investigated a case and interviewed witnesses while sitting on a jury, they would "simply derail the whole process". [23]
The 2006 series caused controversy for the misguided information presented in " Silent Killer " (2006), which suggested a link between TETRA radio emissions and motor neurone disease. Statements were released by the TETRA Industry Group and the MND Association , the latter emphasising that while there is some evidence to suggest a link, it is not a single contributory factor. [24] [25] " Heart of Darkness " (2006) was criticised for portraying a causal link between the MMR vaccine and autism , and the BBC received complaints on the matter. The Editorial Complaints Unit ruled that the episode had contravened the BBC's "obligation of due impartiality on matters of public controversy" and that the episode would not be repeated in its original form. [1] The episode was cited in From Seesaw to Wagon Wheel , an internal BBC report on impartiality in its output that was published in June 2007, a section of which highlighted that the name of the Westwake character bore more than a passing resemblance to that of Dr Andrew Wakefield . [26] [27]
"It would be all right if there was a programme about a maverick judge and how awful that is and why he's a twat and it shouldn't be allowed. But it's not about that, it's about how brilliant he is and how all judges, by implication, should be like that."
David Mitchell 's rant about the programme's "maverick judge" premise. [28]
Television pundits have criticised the writing of the programme; Robert Hanks of The Independent calls the scripts "often corny, even painfully so", using Monty Everard's line "You'll come to regret crossing swords with me, sir!" from " Health Hazard " (2003) as an example. [29] Hanks also wrote about what he called "moral oversimplification" of the storylines; the same episode featured "a wealthy and self-important businessman—who had already been banned from talking on a mobile phone while driving—ran over and killed a mother and her two small children while talking on his mobile phone to his mistress, to whom he was explaining that he had to take his wife to a function at—the icing on this shabby cake—Downing Street. He then legged it and subsequently faked mental illness to avoid a trial; a gambit that might have worked had Deed not cunningly threatened to send him to Broadmoor , at which point the man stood up and started protesting vociferously". [29] The series is frequently lampooned for its dialogue and unlikely scenarios. Andy Hamilton called the dialogue "the funniest on TV" [30] and David Mitchell selected it as his "TV hell" in the series TV Heaven, Telly Hell . [28] Deed's " swashbuckling " persona has been satirised on the sketch series Dead Ringers . [31] Despite the criticism given to the programme, the series is praised as being at its best when tackling topical issues, such as reality television, human exposure to telephone masts and incestuous relationships. [3]
The production style also rates highly; writing in The Guardian , Mark Lawson called the pilot "glossier and more populist than Newman's earlier work". Wry reference is made to Deed and Jo's relationship, with Lawson writing that Deed "is desperate to conduct his own forensic investigation of the body fluids of the attractive defence QC". [6] Writing on the programme's accessibility to an audience, Nancy Banks-Smith of The Guardian calls it "talkative in the way television plays used to be when they had something to say. But it is notable that, in a profession famous for obfuscation, Deed uses only the most pellucid English". [32] Banks-Smith has also drawn attention to the masculine skew the programme has; "Judge John Deed […] is catnip to the ladies. These are chappishly called Georgie, Charlie, Jo and—when Rita defies abbreviation—Coop". [33]
Stephen Roach received the Award of Merit at the 2005 Guild of Television Cameramen Awards for his work on the series. [34] The series was nominated in the Diversity in Drama Production category at the 2006 Screen Nation Awards, though lost to an episode of Doctors . [35]
The first series was released as a 3-disc set on 8 May 2006 and the second series as a 2-disc set on 12 February 2007. [36] [37] The third and fourth series were released on 14 January 2008 in a 5-disc set. [38] All the DVDs were published by 2 Entertain Video. A series 5 DVD was released on 8 February 2010, omitting the controversial fifth and sixth episodes. [39] A Series 6 DVD was released on 21 February 2011, which contained two double length episodes.
The pilot and first series received a North American release on 9 March 2010. [40]
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judge_John_Deed | 28 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | List of Judge John Deed episodes | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The British courtroom drama television series Judge John Deed , starring Martin Shaw as a maverick High Court judge , began with a pilot episode called "Exacting Justice", which was first broadcast on BBC One on 9 January 2001. The series proper began on 26 November 2001. The first to third series contained four 90-minute episodes, the fourth and fifth were extended to a six-episode run and the latest series comprised two 120-minute episodes split into two parts on broadcast. When it began, the programme followed an episodic format, though later series have developed a serialised format, with plots developing over a number of stories.
As of the end of the sixth series in 2007, the number of episodes is 29. The possibility of more episodes was in doubt after Shaw became involved in other projects, [1] and the series had been officially cancelled by the BBC by 2009. [2] [3] The pilot and all 6 series have been released on DVD in the UK (minus episodes 24 & 25). The pilot and first series were released in North America in March 2010.
|Series||Episodes||Originally aired|
|First aired||Last aired|
|1||5||9 January 2001||17 December 2001|
|2||4||21 November 2002||19 December 2002|
|3||4||27 November 2003||26 January 2004|
|4||6||13 January 2005||17 February 2005|
|5||6||6 January 2006||10 February 2006|
|6||4||9 January 2007||18 January 2007|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|1||1||" Exacting Justice "||Alrick Riley||G.F. Newman||9 January 2001||6.6 [4]|
|Judge John Deed takes the case of Maurice Haart, a father accused of murdering the man who killed his daughter. Haart tells his barrister, Jo Mills, that he shot the man because he saw him driving the same lorry that he hit his daughter with, but he refuses to plead provocation . Deed's daughter Charlie introduces him to Rory, an environmental activist, and they are later arrested when they destroy GM crops.|
|2||2||" Rough Justice "||Mary McMurray||G.F. Newman||26 November 2001||9.1 [5]|
|An MI5 informant is on trial for causing grievous bodily harm to his wife and Deed is pressured by the Lord Chancellor's Department and Police Commissioner Row Colemore to release the man, but Deed refuses without investigating the matter further. He conducts a Newton hearing , hearing evidence and acting as his own jury. This causes a clash with Sir Ian Rochester of the LCD (with whose wife Deed is having an affair). Deed also sits on the case of date rape against three men.|
|3||3||" Duty of Care "||Jonny Campbell||G.F. Newman||3 December 2001||7.4 [6]|
|Corporate manslaughter charges are brought against the managing director of a construction company whose health and safety breaches result in a worker being killed on a building site. Charlie steals a dog from an animal testing laboratory and leaves her with Deed for safety, but there is trouble when it is found. Deed has to contend with Rochester's urges for him to drop the manslaughter case because of the defendant's political affiliations, as well as with George's contempt in the courtroom.|
|4||4||" Appropriate Response "||Jane Powell||G.F. Newman||10 December 2001||7.1 [7]|
|Romero, a serial rapist and former defendant in Deed's court, is released from prison and seeks revenge on the judge. Deed makes an enemy of the police when he tries two police officers for GBH and refuses bail when he suspects tampering with the main witness . Romero poisons Rosie and leads Deed to an abandoned warehouse, under the pretence he has kidnapped Charlie, enraging the judge. Deed's actions force him to reassess the actions of a boxer on trial for GBH, and his relationship with Jo is strained at a reception.|
|5||5||" Hidden Agenda "||Jane Powell||G.F. Newman||17 December 2001||7.1 [8]|
|A GP stands trial for the murder of a patient when it is revealed he left everything to her in his will. Though the jury finds her not guilty, the doctor insists to Deed that she did kill her patient, despite an expert witness stating that was not possible. The Lord Chancellor's Department continues surveillance of Deed when it suspects he is having an affair with the doctor. Meanwhile, Charlie becomes involved in the case of an HIV -positive mother who refuses to have her child tested, and seeks her father's help in the matter.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|6||1||" Political Expediency "||Jonny Campbell||G.F. Newman||21 November 2002||5.7 [9]|
|Deed is forced to negotiate a political crisis when the driver of an Arab sheikh, in Britain with a £ 10 billion aeroplane contract, is charged with the murder of a prostitute. Prosecution counsel is murdered, witnesses and the jury are tampered with, and Deed suspects the Sheikh's involvement in the crime is greater than previously assumed. He discovers that George is marrying the Trade Secretary , and Rochester offers him a seat on the Appellate Bench in an effort to exonerate the British government. Meanwhile Deed enrages Jo Mills by ignoring her arguments and giving a star footballer she is defending a prison sentence.|
|7||2||" Abuse of Power "||David Kew||G.F. Newman||28 November 2002||6.2 [10]|
|A mentally disabled man confesses to the murder of a young woman, but retracts his confession, leaving Deed perplexed. When Robert Hume takes a fraud case from Deed, Deed suspects his peer is involved and, despite the efforts of Channing and Rochester to dissuade him, decides to investigate further. As Deed's investigations run deeper, people close to him are drawn in, and even when his suspicions are confirmed, there is nothing Rochester is willing to do. Meanwhile, Jo begins a romantic relationship with Row Colemore.|
|8||3||" Nobody's Fool "||Jonny Campbell||G.F. Newman||12 December 2002||6 [11]|
|Francesca Rochester returns to Deed's life, asking for his help in getting her Aunt sectioned so she can take over her successful publishing company. Charlie reveals to her father that she is pregnant, though Deed is oblivious to his daughter's feelings and she later terminates the pregnancy after talking to George. After a talk with Jo, Deed realises what he is getting himself into and discovers the truth behind Francesca's new business venture. Meanwhile, a promising young lawyer represents himself in a trial over the murder of his parents. During this episode, Deed refers to "Wellington's famous dictum" presumably "Publish and be damned".|
|9||4||" Everyone's Child "||Andy Hay||G.F. Newman||19 December 2002||5.2 [12]|
|Jo defends a young boy who wants attempts to give him a heart transplant blocked and Deed puts an injunction on the operation. After a plea from the boy's parents he lifts it, but the boy dies during surgery. Jo is furious at Deed and they argue, but later spend the night at his lodgings. Rochester uses this to try to dismantle Deed's career through Jo. Elsewhere Deed is trying the case of two drug addicts charged with murder and Charlie is involved in a protest in support of a hunger striker appealing against his conviction.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|10||1||" Health Hazard "||Andy Hay||G.F. Newman||27 November 2003||6.6 [13]|
|Deed is given a high-profile case in which a woman takes action against a mobile phone company for causing her brain tumour, angering Ian Rochester. Rochester attempts to take the case away from Deed, but is unable to. Instead he brings Jo up for a disciplinary after her affair with Deed. Deed arrives at her hearing, chaired by Sir Monty Everard, and has the charges dropped. Meanwhile, a man involved in a hit and run incident might be unfit to stand trial.|
|11||2||" Judicial Review "||Andy Hay||G.F. Newman||4 December 2003||6.5 [14]|
|Deed accuses Everard of corruption when he grants a non-custodial sentence to a defendant with political ties (the hit and run driver in "Health Hazard"), at the same time putting Jo's career on the line. She convinces Deed to see a therapist and he meets with Rachel Crawcheck. However, he continues to seek real justice until the sentence is appealed. Deed also hears a mysterious case involving a woman who claims she killed her husband in self defence.|
|12||3||" Conspiracy "||David Kerr||G.F. Newman||11 December 2003||6.6 [14]|
|An MP stands accused of attempted murder but there is a belief by Colemore that the charge has been contrived to silence his investigation into deaths in the arms industry. Deed discovers that Colemore is involved in a plot to acquit the MP for commercial reasons, leading Deed to charge him for perverting the course of justice . Deed and Rachel take his therapy to the bedroom.|
|13||4||" Economic Imperative "||David Kerr||G.F. Newman||26 January 2004 [15]||6.2 [16]|
|Diana Hulsey (from "Health Hazard") takes her case against the mobile phone company forwards and asks Jo to adopt her son when she dies. Rochester and the Trade Secretary try to derail the case by planting child pornography on Deed's computer, leading the phone company not to settle after Diana dies and leaving Deed with a race to save his name.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|14||1||" Lost and Found "||G.F. Newman||G.F. Newman||13 January 2005||5.5 [17]|
|A man accused of participating in an armed robbery is re-apprehended after 16 years on the run. The case against him is weakened by evidence of corruption in the arresting squad, and an unreliable and anonymous professional informant. Jo's first meetings with Michael get off to a shaky start as she tries to juggle her career and her commitments to the boy.|
|15||2||" Above the Law "||Deborah Paige||G.F. Newman||20 January 2005||5.8 [18]|
|Friends and family of three gang members accused of murdering a rival drug dealer terrorise jurors and kill witnesses. As the case nears abandonment, Deed is forced to consider the heretofore unconstitutional option of a juryless trial. After an initial refusal, Jo fights for, and wins, a second chance to adopt Michael.|
|16||3||" In Defence of Others "||Tristram Powell||G.F. Newman||27 January 2005||6.4|
|A never-successfully-convicted child sex abuser is killed while in prison, and the accused claims a defence of preventing future abuses. Jo meets Michael's real father, who wants to return to South Africa with her. Everard hears the case of an adopted child who raped his teacher. Deed risks his career by sleeping with a claimant.|
|17||4||" Defence of the Realm "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||3 February 2005||5.8 [19]|
|Deed's affair comes back to bite him as the Home Office pressures for his resignation or impeachment; he is temporarily exiled to lecture at a university. Jo sits as a Recorder in a fraud case concerning a defence contractor, and, facing threats against herself and Michael, finds a trail of corruption leading to the higher echelons of government.|
|18||5||" Separation of Powers "||Deborah Paige||G.F. Newman||10 February 2005||7.4 [20]|
|Deed hears the case (pretrialed in "Defence of the Realm") of birth defects near a waste disposal plant. A PR company spinning the reports from the waste disposal company has connections with both the defence contractor and the Home Secretary, and the defendant from the fraud case provides compelling – and disastrous – evidence.|
|19||6||" Popular Appeal "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||17 February 2005||6.1 [21]|
|A desirable case concerning an on-screen death on a reality television series is mysteriously allocated to Deed, which leads to a clash with the press. Haughton faces a select committee to answer charges of corruption, and Jo pays the price for Deed's crusade. Deed finally confronts the man behind Jo's kidnapping.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|20||1||" Hard-Gating "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||6 January 2006||6.8 [22]|
|A black prisoner is killed by his white cellmate, who is a known racist and although the Prison Service claims they shared as a result of overcrowding, Deed suspects that they simply weren't up to the task. Jo's relationship with Deed grows further apart when Marc returns.|
|21||2||" My Daughter, Right or Wrong "||Tristram Powell||G.F. Newman||13 January 2006||6.3 [23]|
|An animal rights activist stands trial for the murder of a scientist when his organisation firebombs Sussex University . He sacks his QC and asks Charlie, the junior, to represent him. She takes the case despite her father's objections, which is good news for Rochester. Jo resumes her relationship with Marc.|
|22||3||" Lost Youth "||Tristram Powell||G.F. Newman||20 January 2006||6.2 [24]|
|Deed sits on a case after Marc tells two parents that it would be in their son's best interests if they did not resuscitate him again, due to his comatose state. Marc's recommendation is challenged by the boy's God-fearing parents, who believe it is not for them to decide whether he lives or dies. Deed learns that Jo and Marc intend to marry. Meanwhile, Deed has to live with the consequences after a boy commits suicide less than 48 hours after he is sentenced by Deed to a two year custodial sentence under the Home Secretary's automatic custodial sentencing guidelines.|
|23||4||" Silent Killer "||Darcia Martin||G.F. Newman||27 January 2006||5.8 [25]|
|A couple suffering from motor-neuron disease and cancer sue their local council, believing their condition has been caused by a communications antenna, used by the police, on the roof of their flat. The wife of an Iraqi minister approaches Deed, wishing to sue the British government because the use of depleted uranium by the army in Iraq has caused the deaths of members of her family. Meanwhile, Jo and Marc have set a date for their wedding, adding to the tension between Jo and John.|
|24||5||" One Angry Man "||Darcia Martin||G.F. Newman||3 February 2006||7.3 [26]|
|Rochester sees to it that Deed is brought up for jury service, and he is called to a murder trial in which a Ukrainian nanny is suspected of shaking a baby in her care to death. Deed learns that the baby's death might have been caused by complications with the MMR vaccine . Jo has doubts about marrying Marc when he is asked to return to South Africa, and she falls back into Deed's arms. This episode, along with "Heart of Darkness", was excluded from the recent DVD release due to subsequent revelations casting doubt on the dangers of MMR vaccines, making the episodes appear unreliable. [ citation needed ]|
|25||6||" Heart of Darkness "||G.F. Newman||G.F. Newman||10 February 2006||6.5|
|Deed hears a case that could have potentially disastrous effects for the government's support of the MMR vaccine. Jo forgets to go to her wedding rehearsal and is furious when Deed schedules a meeting on the morning of the ceremony.|
| No. |
overall
| No. in |
series
|Title||Directed by||Written by||Original air date|| UK viewers |
(millions)
|26||1||" War Crimes - Part 1 "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||9 January 2007||6.2 [27]|
|Deed sits in The Hague to hear the case of a British soldier who killed 11 Iraqi civilians and is being accused of war crimes. A previous ruling Deed made against a British National Party councillor angers Muslim extremists, and a female assassin is sent to kill Deed.|
|27||2||" War Crimes - Part 2 "||Steve Kelly||G.F. Newman||11 January 2007||5.8 [28]|
|During the War Crimes case in The Hague, Deed learns that the British Soldier on trial is being sacrificed as part of the government's overall exit strategy. Deed's dilemma is one possible miscarriage of justice to save the lives of many soldiers.|
|28||3||" Evidence of Harm - Part 1 "||Darcia Martin||G.F. Newman||16 January 2007||6.2 [27]|
|Jo asks Deed to review the withdrawal of legal aid for a soldier who was damaged by vaccines given to him by the army and who later committed suicide. Deed is reluctant since the case has been heard and closed by another judge. He accuses the judge of bias and risks causing a constitutional crisis in order to get justice for the soldier's family.|
|29||4||" Evidence of Harm - Part 2 "||Darcia Martin||G.F. Newman||18 January 2007||6.3 [29]|
|As Deed delves deeper and deeper into why funding for the soldier to sue the pharmaceutical company was withdrawn, he makes more and more sinister discoveries. It is then that the forces of reaction move against him to stop him any way they can.|
|Series||Day||Timeslot||Additional broadcast information|
|Pilot||Tuesday||8–9.30 p.m.||None|
|1||Tuesday||8–9.30 p.m.||None|
|2||Thursday||8.30–10 p.m.||"Everyone's Child" aired from 8 p.m.|
|3||Thursday||8.30–10 p.m.||"Economic Imperative" aired on a Monday|
|4||Thursday||8–9.30 p.m.||None|
|5||Friday||8.30–10 p.m.||None|
|6||Tuesday and Thursday||9–10 p.m.||None|
- ^ Thomas, Liz (27 February 2007). "Sentence hangs over Judge John Deed" . The Stage . Retrieved 27 April 2007 .
- ^ Jeffries, Mark (30 April 2009). "Martin's TV judge Deed and buried" . Daily Mirror . MGN . Retrieved 1 May 2009 .
- ^ Shaw, Martin (29 April 2009). "BBC Breakfast". BBC One (Interview). Interviewed by Bill Turnbull. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Judge_John_Deed_episodes | 28 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | Full List of Judge John Deed Episodes | 30 items
Below is a complete Judge John Deed episode list that spans the show's entire TV run. Photos from the individual Judge John Deed episodes are listed along with the Judge John Deed episode names when available, as are the dates of the original airing of the episode. Judge John Deed episodes from every season can be seen below, along with fun facts about who directed the episodes, the stars of the and sometimes even information like shooting locations and original air dates. This poll contains items like “Duty of Care” and “Nobody's Fool.” Are you remembering a funny scene but can't think of the name that the Judge John Deed episode is from? Scroll below and you'll find what you're looking for.
Exacting JusticeJanuary 09, 2001Deed presides over the murder trial of Maurice Hart, a black defendant who shot and killed the driver of a van which ran over and killed Hart's daughter in a hit and run accident. At the same time, ...more
Above the LawJanuary 20, 2005Deed has three drug-dealers in his court accused of a vicious gang killing, and he comes under pressure from government law officers to hear the case without a jury. A witness is killed, and the jury ...more
Defence of the RealmFebruary 03, 2005Deed's fling with a woman claimant in his court gets him into hot water. His brother judges are appalled, and Deed finds himself exiled to Warwick.Meanwhile, Jo is sitting as a judge in a trial in ...more
Separation of PowersFebruary 10, 2005Deed has an environmental case before him, in which a company operating a large-scale waste incinerator is accused of damaging people's health by air pollution. Jo Mills represents the parents of a ...more
Popular AppealFebruary 17, 2005An angry contestant in a TV show kills another competitor on camera, and the show's producers face charges of manslaughter in Deed's court. Meanwhile, Deed is pressing for an inquiry into the death ...more
In Defence of OthersJanuary 27, 2005Deed has the case before him of a man charged with killing a paedophile, but the jury find the defendant not guilty. After his acquittal, the man calls a press conference and sends out a message ...more | https://www.ranker.com/list/full-list-of-judge-john-deed-episodes/reference | 28 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | Amazon.com: Judge John Deed: Season 6 : Various, Various: Movies & TV | Judge John Deed: Season Six
Can Judge John Deed's unrelenting idealism lead to ultimate justice? Or is his rebellious nature doing more harm than good? In two nail-biting double episodes, the eponymous judge is sent to the Hague as the British representative at the International Criminal Court, where he must try a young soldier for war crimes in Iraq. Instead he uncovers nefarious reasons for bringing him to trial, meanwhile, back in the UK, a scandal involving pharmaceutical companies and withdrawn legal aid leads right to the heart of the Government.
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In the sixth and final season of the BBC series, Judge John Deed ( George Gently 's Martin Shaw) takes on complementary cases involving Iraq War veterans. For the first two-part episode, "War Crimes," he travels to the Hague's International Criminal Court to decide the fate of Private Clark (Neil Grainger), whose attempt to stop a terrorist caused the deaths of 11 civilians (away from the United Kingdom, Deed gets to ditch the woolly white wig). The judge's girlfriend, barrister Jo Mills (Jenny Seagrove), defends Clark, while Deed stays in a hotel with police protection. Both Mills and the sexually aggressive prosecuting attorney, Marie (Kim Thomson), try to get him to recuse himself, but he refuses (and it's hard to believe a woman in Marie's position could be so unprofessional as to proposition a judge). Trouble, however, awaits when an attractive hotel guest (Juliet Aubrey) does her best to catch Deed's eye. A more cautious justice might put on the brakes, but Deed gets close to her just as the case takes a critical turn, a decision that could prove deadly since she has ties to a radical Islamic group. In the second episode, "Evidence of Harm," Deed returns home for a case concerning a soldier suffering neurological damage after a regimen of required vaccinations contributed to two deaths, including his own. With the assistance of his daughter, Charlie (Louisa Clein), and his trusty assistant, Coop (Barbara Thorn), Deed sets out to find why his legal aid ended just as the man was about to go public. Both episodes raise important questions about the way governments and corporations treat those who put themselves in harm's way for the greater good, but the judge's roving eye and overactive libido make him look foolish at times, even if Shaw's distinctive characterization remains engaging. --Kathleen C. Fennessy
- Is Discontinued By Manufacturer : No
- Product Dimensions : 7.5 x 0.7 x 5.4 inches; 2.88 Ounces
- Director : Various
- Media Format : NTSC
- Run time : 4 hours
- Release date : August 14, 2012
- Actors : Various
- Studio : BBC Home Entertainment
- ASIN : B00860YI40
- Number of discs : 2 | https://www.amazon.com/Judge-John-Deed-Season-6/dp/B00860YI40 | 28 |
how many series of judge john deed are there | Judge John Deed (TV Series 2001–2007) - IMDb | A complaint was made by a viewer about one episode claiming biased and incorrect information about the MMR vaccine, leading the BBC to unilaterally ban repeats of it in its original form.
The factual accuracy of the series is often criticised by legal professionals and journalists; many of the decisions taken by Deed (Martin Shaw) are unlikely to happen in a real court. The romanticised vision of the court system created by GF Newman caused a judge to issue a warning to a jury not to let the series influence their view of trials-referring to an episode where Deed flouts rules when called up for jury service.
Episode 5.4, Judge John Deed: Silent Killer (2006), caused controversy for the misguided information presented within it, which suggested a link between TETRA radio emissions and motor neurone disease. Statements were released by the TETRA Industry Group and the MND Association, the latter emphasising that while there is some evidence to suggest a link, it is not a single contributory factor.
The sixth and last series concluded on 18 January 2007. The programme then went on an indefinite break after Martin Shaw became involved in another television programme (Inspector George Gently (2007)), and he and Seagrove expressed a wish for the format of the series to change before they filmed new episodes. By 2009, the series had officially been cancelled.
Episode 5.6, Judge John Deed: Heart of Darkness (2006), was criticised for portraying a causal link between the MMR vaccine and autism, and the BBC received complaints on the matter. The Editorial Complaints Unit ruled that the episode had contravened the BBC's "obligation of due impartiality on matters of public controversy" and that the episode would not be repeated in its original form. The episode was cited in From Seesaw to Wagon Wheel, an internal BBC report on impartiality in its output that was published in June 2007, a section of which highlighted that the name of the Westwake character bore more than a passing resemblance to that of Dr Andrew Wakefield.
Stephen Roach received the Award of Merit at the 2005 Guild of Television Cameramen Awards for his work on the series.
Ratings for the series peaked with its first episode at 9.1 million, but it continued to regularly draw in around 6 million viewers for later episodes.
High Court Judges in England and Wales can be referred to in one of a number of ways: Judge John Deed (as per the title of the show, although few High Court Judges are actually go by the title of 'Judge') The Honourable Mr Justice Deed (as his name would appear on official court documentation) Mr Justice Deed (the correct way to refer to a Judge in conversation) Sir John Deed (this is the correct way to refer to Judge in his presence as all High Court Judges are Knights and Dames of the Realm) Deed J ('J' meaning 'Justice', the appropriate legal abbreviation for Judges' titles in all English law reports)
Jonathan Coy, who appeared in three episodes as prosecutor David Stafford-Clark QC, also starred in the entire 14 year run of Rumpole Of The Bailey as Barrister's Clerk, Henry.
Judge John Deed is a British legal drama television series produced by the BBC in association with One-Eyed Dog for BBC One. It was created by GF Newman.
A pilot episode was broadcast on 9 January 2001, followed by the first full series on 26 November 2001.
All six series (with the exception of the two banned episodes from Series Five) have been released on DVD in the UK.
The series has been shown internationally by, amongst others, Canvas (Belgium), ABC Australia, BBC Canada and BBC Prime.
In 2004, Variety reported an American remake was set to be produced for NBC; Michael S. Chernuchin was to produce the series, which would follow a federal court judge in Washington, D.C. who would preside over terrorism and civil rights cases. There have been no further developments since the announcement was made in 2004.
The series was nominated in the Diversity in Drama Production category at the 2006 Screen Nation Awards, though lost to an episode of Doctors (2000). | https://m.imdb.com/title/tt0302128/trivia/?ref_=tt_ql_trv | 28 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court of India- Power, Functions - Entri Blog | POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF SUPREME COURT : The Supreme Court is the highest judicial Court in India. It upholds the rule of law and also guarantees and protects citizens’ rights and liberties as given in the constitution. Therefore, the supreme court is also known as the Guardian of the Constitution. The first Supreme Court started its function as a court of record at Calcutta, and the first Chief Justice Sir Elijah impey was appointed. The court was established to resolve the disputes in Bengal, Orissa and Patna.
The supreme court, the apex court is at the top of our judicial system. It is within the power of the supreme Court to supervise and control the entire judicial system.
- Original jurisdiction
- Appellate jurisdiction
- Advisory jurisdiction
- Revisory jurisdiction
- A court of record
Original jurisdiction of the supreme court is purely federal in character, and it has the exclusive authority to decide any dispute involving a question of law or fact.
DISPUTE BETWEEN:
- Government of India and one or more states
- Between the government of India and any state
- States on one side and one or more states on the other
- Between two or more states
SUBJECT MATTER OF DISPUTE:
Any question of law or fact on which existence or extent of legal right depends
EXCEPTIONS:
There are various Articles in the Indian Constitution under which the appeals may lie to the Supreme Court. Some of the Articles are as follows – Articles 132 – In both, civil as well as in criminal matters an appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgement of the High Court if the High Court certifies that there is a substantial question of law as regards the Constitution. The High Court would issue a certificate under Article 134A .
- The Supreme Court hears appeals against the judgement of a High Court:
- In civil cases
When in the opinion of the High Court the said question needs to be decided by the Supreme Court.
- In criminal cases
Where the High Court has convicted the accused and sentenced him to death and where the High Court certifies that the case is a fit one for appeal to the Supreme Court.
- If the President seeks advice from the Supreme Court on any issue related to public interest, the Supreme Court gives such advice.
- This advice of the Court is binding neither on the President nor on the parties affected by the opinion.
- The Supreme Court is empowered to review any judgement or order made by it with a view of removing any mistake or error that might have crept in the judgement or order. This power of the Supreme Court is called Revisory Jurisdiction.
- This is done because the Supreme Court is a Court of record, its decisions have special importance and can’t be questioned in any other court.
- A Court of record is a Court where records are admitted with evidentiary value and they are not to be questioned when they are produced before the court.
- Power to punish for contempt of itself.
- The Supreme Court gives the final verdict against an appeal from the other subsidiary court that is High Courts.
- It acts as an institution where issues from the different governmental bodies, central government, and the state government matters are resolved.
- As per Article 141 of the Constitution, laws passed by the Supreme Court, apply to all courts within the Indian Territory.
- In some matters, the Supreme Court also on its own and can pass Suo moto.
The Supreme Court is the Highest appealing body in our jurisdiction. With its establishment, justice is being proclaimed by the citizens of India. The power that are vested upon the Supreme Court are to ensure the fair trial in matters that are about the constitution of India; hence it also protects the world’s largest democratic states.
Entri is an excellent online platform for all the Competitive Exams and provides updated materials created by the Entri Experts. Entri provides an best platform with full- length mock tests including previous year question papers. You can download the app for free and join the required classes. | https://entri.app/blog/supreme-court-of-india-power-functions/ | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court in India: Importance, Functions, and Powers | Wed - 13 May, 2020
Introduction
The Supreme Court in India was established through an enactment passed in pre-independent India, with the introduction of the Regulating Act, 1773. The 1st Supreme Court started its function as a court of record at Calcutta, and the 1st Chief Justice Sir Elijah Impey was appointed. The court was established to resolve the disputes in Bengal, Orissa, and Patna. Consequently, in 1800 and 1834, the King Gorge-III established the other two Supreme Courts in Bombay and Madras.
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However, soon after the enactment of the Indian High Court Act, 1861, the Supreme Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were consequently abolished and the courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras resumed its functioning as High Court. In 1935, the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act, 1935, after a resolution was passed by the Joint Select Committee, which was headed by Lord Linlithgow.
The Government of India Act, 1935, led to the establishment of the Federal Court in India, which has vested more judicial power than the High court with original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction. After independence, the Constitution of India was adopted on 26th January 1950, and the Federal Court of India resumed functioning as the Supreme Court of India on 28th January 1950, which was presided by Hon’ble Mr. Justice Harilal Jekisundas Kania.
As per article 124(1) of the Constitution, there should be a Supreme Court in India that will be presided by the Chief Justice of India with additional seven Judges until the parliament passes precedent for increasing the number of Judges. However, currently, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court, and the current Chief Justice of India is Mr. Justice Sharad Arvind Bodbe.
Indian Legal System Overview
Importance of the Supreme Court in India
In the Constitution of India, part 5, chapter 6 deals with the power, function, appointment, retirement, jurisdiction, etc. from Article 124 to Article 147 of the Supreme Court. The followings are the importance of the establishment of the Supreme Court:
1) The Supreme Court is the highest appeal court that is also known as the apex court of India and even the last resort, where the citizens of India can seek justice if they are not satisfied with the judgment of the High court.
2) The citizens of India, as per Article 32 of the Constitution, can even directly sort for remedy through writs if their fundamental rights are violated.
3) The Supreme Court has Judicial Review power that is being vested through Article 13 of the Constitution, which means the Supreme Court has the power to strike down any legislation and executive action if such acts are found to be inconsistent with the Constitution of India.
What are the functions of the Supreme Court?
The following are the Supreme Court functions:
a) The SC gives the final verdict against an appeal from the other subsidiary courts i.e., High courts.
b) It acts as an institution where issues from the different governmental bodies, central government, and the state government matters are resolved.
c) As per Article 141 of the Constitution, laws passed by the SC, apply to all courts within the Indian Territory.
d) In some matters, the Supreme Court also acts on its own and can pass suo moto.
What are the powers of the SC?
The Supreme Court has the following powers that are jurisdiction:
A) Original Jurisdiction: The following are the original jurisdiction of the SC:
I) As per article 131 of the Constitution, the SC functions as original jurisdiction over matters where the disputes are either between the Central government and the state government or between two or more state governments.
II) As per article 139 of the Constitution, the SC have the power to issue writs, order, or direction.
III) As per section 32 of the Constitution, the SC also has the authority to enforce Fundamental Rights.
IV) As per Article 139A of the Constitution, the SC on its discretion or at the advice of the Attorney General of India can take up the cases during the pendency of the matter from the high courts if the same issue is to be disposed of by the SC that is related to the question of law. And it can also transfer the pending cases, appeal or other proceedings to give justice from one HC to another HC.
B) Appellate Jurisdiction: As per article 132, 133, 134 of the Constitution, the SC has appellate jurisdiction in matters that are related to civil, criminal, or Constitution. Also, as per article 136, the SC has the power to issue special leave that is being by any tribunal courts in India but this does not apply to Army courts.
C) Advisory Jurisdiction: As per article 143 of the Constitution, the SC can advise the President of India that is related to the question of law, and the nature of the matter is associated with the public importance. And the President can also seek opinion in the matters that are related to Article 131 of the Constitution.
D) Review Jurisdiction: As per article 137 of the Constitution, the SC has the power to review any laws that are being passed by the legislature.
Conclusion
The Supreme Court is the highest appealing body in our jurisdiction. With its establishment, justice is being proclaimed by the citizens of India. The powers that are vested upon the SC are to ensure the fair trial in matters that are about the Constitution of India; hence it also protects the world’s largest democratic state.
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Author
Samridhi Srivastava | https://lloydlawcollege.edu.in/blog/supreme-court-india.html | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court of India - History, Functions, Composition, Jurisdiction | The Supreme Court of India is the country’s highest judicial court. It is the final court of appeal in the country. It is hence, an extremely important topic in the UPSC exam polity and governance sections. In this article, you can read all about the Supreme Court of India for the IAS exam .
Latest Updates related to the Indian Supreme Court:
- On November 9, 2022, Justice D.Y. Chandrachud will take oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India.
- 15th February 2021: Former Supreme Court Judge, Justice PB Sawant Passed Away on this day.
- The Supreme Court is examining a petition relating to the Social Media Firm Facebook and its Messaging Application WhatsApp over their terms of service and privacy policy that were to be out on February 8th, 2021.
- 13th February 2021: Statement from Supreme Court while dismissing a review petition on the anti-citizenship law protests held in Delhi’s Shaheen Bagh in 2019 – “Right To Protest Cannot Be Anytime, Everywhere.”
Learn about major 25 Important Supreme Court Judgements for UPSC and related notes in the linked article.
- The Federal Court of India was created as per the Government of India Act 1935 .
- This court settled disputes between provinces and federal states and heard appeals against judgements of the high courts.
- After independence, the Federal Court and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced by the Supreme Court of India, which came into being in January 1950.
- The Constitution of 1950 envisaged a Supreme Court with one Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges.
- The number of SC judges was increased by the Parliament and currently, there are 34 judges including the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
- It takes up appeals against the verdicts of the High Courts, other courts and tribunals.
- It settles disputes between various government authorities, between state governments, and between the centre and any state government.
- It also hears matters which the President refers to it, in its advisory role.
- The SC can also take up cases suo moto (on its own).
- The law that SC declares is binding on all the courts in India and on the Union as well as the state governments.
The jurisdiction of the SC is of three types:
- Original – Read in detail about Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the linked article.
- Advisory – Notes on Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court are given in the linked article.
- Appellate
- Including the CJI, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court.
- The judges sit in benches of 2 or 3 (called a Division Bench) or in benches of 5 or more (called a Constitutional Bench) when there are matters of fundamental questions of the law is to be decided.
Read about Indian Judiciary in detail in the linked article.
The Supreme Court of India has powers to consult the President to regulate the practice and procedure of the Court.
The Constitutional Cases are usually decided by a bench consisting of five judges whereas other cases are decided by a bench of at least three judges.
The seat of Supreme Court
As per the Constitution of India, Delhi is declared as the seat of the Supreme Court of India. However, the Chief Justice of India has the power to assign another place (s) as the seat of the Supreme Court. This is only an optional provision and not mandatory.
As per Article 124, an Indian citizen who is below 65 years of age is eligible to be recommended for appointment as a judge of the SC if:
- he/she has been a judge of one or more High Courts, for at least 5 years, or
- he/she has been an advocate in one or more High Courts for at least 10 years, or
- he/she is in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.
Independence of Judiciary
The Constitution has many provisions to ensure the judiciary’s independence. They are discussed below:
- Security of tenure: The judges of the SC are given security of tenure. Once appointed, they will retain their office until the age of 65 years. They can be removed only by a presidential order on grounds of proven misbehaviour and/or incapacity. This requires a Special Majority according to Article 368. Read more about the types of majorities in Parliament in the linked article .
- Salaries and allowances: The judges of the SC enjoy good salaries and allowances and these cannot be decreased except in the case of a financial emergency. The expenses of the High Court are charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State, which is not subject to vote in the state legislature.
- Powers and Jurisdiction: The SC’s powers and jurisdiction can only be added by the Parliament and not be curtailed.
- The conduct of any judge of the Supreme Court in the discharge of his/her duties cannot be discussed in the legislature.
- The SC has the power to punish any person for its contempt, as per Article 129. (Read about Contempt of Court in India in the linked article.)
- Separation of the Judiciary from the Executive: A Directive Principle of State Policy says that the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the state. According to Article 50, there shall be a separate judicial service free from executive control.
Kickstart your UPSC 2023 Preparation today!
Supreme Court of India – Indian Polity:- Download PDF Here
Q1
The current Chief Justice of India is Justice Uday Umesh Lalit. He will demit office on attaining the age of 65. Justice Chandrachud will take oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India on November 9, 2022.
Q2
There is only 1 Supreme Court in India. And, there are 25 High Courts.
Q3
SC is the highest judicial court in India. It upholds the rule of law and also guarantees and protects citizens’ rights and liberties as given in the Constitution. Therefore, the Supreme Court is also known as the Guardian of the Constitution.
Q4
At present, there are 34 judges in the SC including the CJI.
Q5
Technically, the President cannot override a SC ruling. Only the Parliament can amend any law to overturn the decision of the SC. The President has the pardoning power, which he can exercise on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Even here, the President does not overrule the Supreme Court’s decision. The judgement of the Court remains, only, the President can “pardon” the punishment.
|Related Links|
|Polity Notes for UPSC||Polity MCQs|
|NCERT Notes for UPSC||PIB Summary|
|UPSC Current Affairs||Previous Years’ Indian Polity Questions from UPSC Mains GS 2| | https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/supreme-court-of-india/#:~:text=What%20are%20the%20powers%20and%20functions%20of%20the,also%20known%20as%20the%20Guardian%20of%20the%20Constitution. | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court in India: Importance, Functions, and Powers | Wed - 13 May, 2020
Introduction
The Supreme Court in India was established through an enactment passed in pre-independent India, with the introduction of the Regulating Act, 1773. The 1st Supreme Court started its function as a court of record at Calcutta, and the 1st Chief Justice Sir Elijah Impey was appointed. The court was established to resolve the disputes in Bengal, Orissa, and Patna. Consequently, in 1800 and 1834, the King Gorge-III established the other two Supreme Courts in Bombay and Madras.
Read Also - CLAT application form 2020, Exam Date, Syllabus, Pattern
However, soon after the enactment of the Indian High Court Act, 1861, the Supreme Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were consequently abolished and the courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras resumed its functioning as High Court. In 1935, the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act, 1935, after a resolution was passed by the Joint Select Committee, which was headed by Lord Linlithgow.
The Government of India Act, 1935, led to the establishment of the Federal Court in India, which has vested more judicial power than the High court with original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction. After independence, the Constitution of India was adopted on 26th January 1950, and the Federal Court of India resumed functioning as the Supreme Court of India on 28th January 1950, which was presided by Hon’ble Mr. Justice Harilal Jekisundas Kania.
As per article 124(1) of the Constitution, there should be a Supreme Court in India that will be presided by the Chief Justice of India with additional seven Judges until the parliament passes precedent for increasing the number of Judges. However, currently, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court, and the current Chief Justice of India is Mr. Justice Sharad Arvind Bodbe.
Indian Legal System Overview
Importance of the Supreme Court in India
In the Constitution of India, part 5, chapter 6 deals with the power, function, appointment, retirement, jurisdiction, etc. from Article 124 to Article 147 of the Supreme Court. The followings are the importance of the establishment of the Supreme Court:
1) The Supreme Court is the highest appeal court that is also known as the apex court of India and even the last resort, where the citizens of India can seek justice if they are not satisfied with the judgment of the High court.
2) The citizens of India, as per Article 32 of the Constitution, can even directly sort for remedy through writs if their fundamental rights are violated.
3) The Supreme Court has Judicial Review power that is being vested through Article 13 of the Constitution, which means the Supreme Court has the power to strike down any legislation and executive action if such acts are found to be inconsistent with the Constitution of India.
What are the functions of the Supreme Court?
The following are the Supreme Court functions:
a) The SC gives the final verdict against an appeal from the other subsidiary courts i.e., High courts.
b) It acts as an institution where issues from the different governmental bodies, central government, and the state government matters are resolved.
c) As per Article 141 of the Constitution, laws passed by the SC, apply to all courts within the Indian Territory.
d) In some matters, the Supreme Court also acts on its own and can pass suo moto.
What are the powers of the SC?
The Supreme Court has the following powers that are jurisdiction:
A) Original Jurisdiction: The following are the original jurisdiction of the SC:
I) As per article 131 of the Constitution, the SC functions as original jurisdiction over matters where the disputes are either between the Central government and the state government or between two or more state governments.
II) As per article 139 of the Constitution, the SC have the power to issue writs, order, or direction.
III) As per section 32 of the Constitution, the SC also has the authority to enforce Fundamental Rights.
IV) As per Article 139A of the Constitution, the SC on its discretion or at the advice of the Attorney General of India can take up the cases during the pendency of the matter from the high courts if the same issue is to be disposed of by the SC that is related to the question of law. And it can also transfer the pending cases, appeal or other proceedings to give justice from one HC to another HC.
B) Appellate Jurisdiction: As per article 132, 133, 134 of the Constitution, the SC has appellate jurisdiction in matters that are related to civil, criminal, or Constitution. Also, as per article 136, the SC has the power to issue special leave that is being by any tribunal courts in India but this does not apply to Army courts.
C) Advisory Jurisdiction: As per article 143 of the Constitution, the SC can advise the President of India that is related to the question of law, and the nature of the matter is associated with the public importance. And the President can also seek opinion in the matters that are related to Article 131 of the Constitution.
D) Review Jurisdiction: As per article 137 of the Constitution, the SC has the power to review any laws that are being passed by the legislature.
Conclusion
The Supreme Court is the highest appealing body in our jurisdiction. With its establishment, justice is being proclaimed by the citizens of India. The powers that are vested upon the SC are to ensure the fair trial in matters that are about the Constitution of India; hence it also protects the world’s largest democratic state.
Read - All about Cyber Law
Author
Samridhi Srivastava | https://lloydlawcollege.edu.in/blog/supreme-court-india.html | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Powers and Functions of Supreme Court - GeeksforGeeks | uppalasrik9mg
The highest judicial court of India is the Supreme Court of India and is also the final court of appeal in the country. It is the most senior constitutional court, and also has the final decision to make when it comes to all legal matters except in case of personal laws and interstate river disputes, and the power of judicial review also lies with them.
The Chief Justice of India is the Head and also Chief Judge of the Supreme Court, which includes a maximum of around 34 judges, and has enormous powers in terms and form of original, advisory, and appellate jurisdictions. On, November 9, 2022, Justice D.Y.Chandrachud took oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India.
|Established|
1 October 1937 ( as Federal Court of India)
28 January 1950 (as Supreme Court of India)
|Location||Tilak Marg, New Delhi|
|Motto||Yato Dharmastato Jayah|
|Composition Method||Collegium of Supreme Court of India|
|Authorized by||Constitution of India|
|Judge termed Length||Mandatory retirement at 65 years of age|
|Chief Justice of India||D.Y.Chandrachud|
According to the Indian Constitution , the Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial court in India and the ultimate court of appeal. It is also the highest constitutional court with judicial review authority. The first Supreme Court was established in Calcutta as a superior court, and the first Chief Justice, Sir Elijah Impey, was appointed. The court was formed to settle disputes in Bengal, Orissa, and Patna. As a result, King George III founded the other two Supreme Courts in Bombay and Madras in 1800 and 1834, respectively.
The Supreme Court is our country’s highest appeals court. The people of India are announcing justice with its establishment. It requires safeguarding the fundamental rights of the Citizens and also settles disputes between various government authorities as well between different levels of the government in the country. The Supreme Court’s authority is to provide a proper hearing in cases involving the Indian Constitution. This court can also override the legislature in the favour of basic structures of the Indian Constitution.
Law which is declared by the Supreme Court is binding for all the courts present at all levels within India and also for Union and State Governments. As per, Article 142 of the Indian Constitution, it is the duty of the President of India to enforce decrees of the Supreme Court, and the court is conferred with inherent jurisdiction.
The Federal Court of India was established as per the Government of India Act in 1935. This Court is important as it settles the disputes between the provinces and the federal states and also hears appeals against the judgments of the high courts.
After Independence, the Federal Court and also the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was replaced by what came to be known as the Supreme Court of India, which came to be on January 1950. The Constitution of 1950 envisaged Supreme Court with one Chief Justice and around 7 other Judges. The count of Judges in the Supreme Court was increased by the Parliament and is around 34 judges now including the Chief Justice of India.
The Indian Constitution deals with the Supreme Court’s power, function, nomination, retirement, jurisdiction, and so on, from Article 124 to Article 147. The following are the reasons why the Supreme Court was established:
- The Supreme Court possesses Judicial Review power under Article 13 of the Constitution, which means it has the authority to reject any law or executive action that is determined to be incompatible with the Indian Constitution.
- The Supreme Court is India’s highest court ruling, commonly referred to as the country’s top court or even the final chance, where people can seek justice if they are dissatisfied with a High Court decision.
- If certain fundamental rights are violated, Indian individuals can claim compensation immediately through writs under Article 32 of the Constitution.
- It functions as a medium for settling disputes between various governmental entities, the federal government, and state governments.
- In accordance with Article 141 of the Constitution, all courts in the Indian Territory must obey legislation made by the Supreme court.
- In response to an appeal from one of the High courts or another subordinate court, the Supreme court gives the final decision.
- The Supreme Court can make decisions and act independently in specific cases.
- It is the highest court of appeals in civil and criminal cases.
Along with the Chief Justice of India, there are around 34 judges in the Supreme Court. The judges sit in benches of 2 or 3, which is known as the Division Bench, or in benches of 5 or more, known as the Constitutional Bench when there are some matters which include the fundamental questions of the law which are to be decided.
The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court are of three types mostly and each of them is discussed in detail below:
- Original Jurisdiction
- Advisory Jurisdiction
- Appellate Jurisdiction
The Supreme Court has the following judicial powers:
- Original Jurisdiction
- Appellate Jurisdiction
- Advisory Jurisdiction
- Review Jurisdiction
- In cases when there are disagreements between the Central government and the state government or between two or more state governments, the Supreme Court serves as the original jurisdiction authority under Article 131 of the Constitution.
- According to Article 139A of the Constitution, the Supreme Court may, at its judgment or on the advice of the Attorney General of India, accept matters from the high courts while they are still pending if they involve the same legal problem that has to be decided by the Supreme Court.
- Additionally, it has the power to transfer cases that are still ongoing, appeals, or other legal actions from one High Court to another High Court.
- The Supreme Court has the authority to issue writs, orders, or directions under Article 139 of the Constitution.
- The Supreme Court is also able to uphold fundamental rights, according to section 32 of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court has administrative authority in cases involving civil, criminal, or constitutional law, according to articles 132, 133, and 134 of the Constitution. Additionally, under article 136, the Supreme Court has the authority to grant exceptional leave requested by any Indian judicial court, but not by Army courts.
According to article 143 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court may provide the President of India with legal advice where the basis of the issue is related to the public interest. Additionally, the President has the right to consult others on problems relating to Article 131 of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court has the authority to examine any laws that are being approved by the legislature under article 137 of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court is a Court of Record whose judgments are recorded as evidence and testimony.
The Constitution of India provides the provision of the Supreme Court under Part V (The Union) and Chapter 6 ( The Union Judiciary). Articles 124 to 147 in Part V of the Constitution deals with the organization, independence, jurisdiction, powers as well as procedures of the Supreme Court. Indian Constitution in Article 124(1) states there will be a Supreme Court of India constituting Chief Justice of India and until Parliament by the law prescribes a large number of around 7 judges.
The independence of the Supreme Court judges is sought by the Constitution. According to Article 50 of the Directive Principles of the State policy, State will be taking steps to separate the judiciary from the executive. Some of the basic structures of the Constitution include the independence of the Judiciary, supremacy of the Constitution, and the rule of law.
Supreme court and also the high courts are empowered to frame what is called “suo moto” cases without receiving formal petitions on any suspected injustice including in contempt of court. It is considered to be one of the most known independent courts in South-East Asia. The main purpose of the Supreme Court is to decide constitutional issues. Some important aspects are discussed below:
Judges of the Supreme Court retire at the age of 65. But there have been some suggestions from the judges of the Supreme Court of India for providing fixed terms for judges including the Chief Justice of India.
According to Article 125, Indian Constitution leaves it to the Indian Parliament to determine the salary, allowances, leaves, etc. of the Supreme Court Judges. A Judge of the Supreme Court draws around Rs 2.5 lakhs per month, which is almost equivalent to the most senior civil servant of the Indian Government, while a Chief Justice earns around 2.8 lakhs per month.
As per Article 124 and the third Schedule of the Constitution, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of India is to make and also subscribe in the presence of the President’s Oath or Affirmation.
Article 124(4) of the constitution subscribe that the President can remove a judge on proof to the points of misbehavior or incapacity when the Parliament approves with the majority of the total membership of each house in favor of the impeachment and not less than 2/3rd of members of each house present.
A person after retiring as a judge of the Supreme Court is debarred from the practice of any court of law or before any other authority of India. However, many times the Supreme Court and High Court judges are appointed to various positions in tribunals and commissions. after their retirement.
The Supreme Court of India is one of the most important bodies of Judicial authority in India. Of the three tiers of the judiciary, the Supreme Court of India is the highest level and also holds the highest decision-making power of all the other courts of India. Fair trials in all matters related to the Constitution of India are ensured through the Supreme Court and hence it is accorded the position of the top court of India protecting one of the largest democracies in the world.
Answer:
The President.
Answer:
Comprises the Chief Justice and 30 other judges appointed by President.
Answer:
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud is appointed as the new chief Justice of India.
Answer:
Supreme Court refers to the apex body of the Indian Judiciary, the highest authority to interpret and uphold the Constitution of India, to protect the rights and liberties of the citizens, and also to abide by the rules.
Last Updated : 24 Feb, 2023 | https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/powers-and-functions-of-supreme-court/ | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court of India - History, Functions, Composition, Jurisdiction | The Supreme Court of India is the country’s highest judicial court. It is the final court of appeal in the country. It is hence, an extremely important topic in the UPSC exam polity and governance sections. In this article, you can read all about the Supreme Court of India for the IAS exam .
Latest Updates related to the Indian Supreme Court:
- On November 9, 2022, Justice D.Y. Chandrachud will take oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India.
- 15th February 2021: Former Supreme Court Judge, Justice PB Sawant Passed Away on this day.
- The Supreme Court is examining a petition relating to the Social Media Firm Facebook and its Messaging Application WhatsApp over their terms of service and privacy policy that were to be out on February 8th, 2021.
- 13th February 2021: Statement from Supreme Court while dismissing a review petition on the anti-citizenship law protests held in Delhi’s Shaheen Bagh in 2019 – “Right To Protest Cannot Be Anytime, Everywhere.”
Learn about major 25 Important Supreme Court Judgements for UPSC and related notes in the linked article.
- The Federal Court of India was created as per the Government of India Act 1935 .
- This court settled disputes between provinces and federal states and heard appeals against judgements of the high courts.
- After independence, the Federal Court and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced by the Supreme Court of India, which came into being in January 1950.
- The Constitution of 1950 envisaged a Supreme Court with one Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges.
- The number of SC judges was increased by the Parliament and currently, there are 34 judges including the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
- It takes up appeals against the verdicts of the High Courts, other courts and tribunals.
- It settles disputes between various government authorities, between state governments, and between the centre and any state government.
- It also hears matters which the President refers to it, in its advisory role.
- The SC can also take up cases suo moto (on its own).
- The law that SC declares is binding on all the courts in India and on the Union as well as the state governments.
The jurisdiction of the SC is of three types:
- Original – Read in detail about Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the linked article.
- Advisory – Notes on Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court are given in the linked article.
- Appellate
- Including the CJI, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court.
- The judges sit in benches of 2 or 3 (called a Division Bench) or in benches of 5 or more (called a Constitutional Bench) when there are matters of fundamental questions of the law is to be decided.
Read about Indian Judiciary in detail in the linked article.
The Supreme Court of India has powers to consult the President to regulate the practice and procedure of the Court.
The Constitutional Cases are usually decided by a bench consisting of five judges whereas other cases are decided by a bench of at least three judges.
The seat of Supreme Court
As per the Constitution of India, Delhi is declared as the seat of the Supreme Court of India. However, the Chief Justice of India has the power to assign another place (s) as the seat of the Supreme Court. This is only an optional provision and not mandatory.
As per Article 124, an Indian citizen who is below 65 years of age is eligible to be recommended for appointment as a judge of the SC if:
- he/she has been a judge of one or more High Courts, for at least 5 years, or
- he/she has been an advocate in one or more High Courts for at least 10 years, or
- he/she is in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.
Independence of Judiciary
The Constitution has many provisions to ensure the judiciary’s independence. They are discussed below:
- Security of tenure: The judges of the SC are given security of tenure. Once appointed, they will retain their office until the age of 65 years. They can be removed only by a presidential order on grounds of proven misbehaviour and/or incapacity. This requires a Special Majority according to Article 368. Read more about the types of majorities in Parliament in the linked article .
- Salaries and allowances: The judges of the SC enjoy good salaries and allowances and these cannot be decreased except in the case of a financial emergency. The expenses of the High Court are charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State, which is not subject to vote in the state legislature.
- Powers and Jurisdiction: The SC’s powers and jurisdiction can only be added by the Parliament and not be curtailed.
- The conduct of any judge of the Supreme Court in the discharge of his/her duties cannot be discussed in the legislature.
- The SC has the power to punish any person for its contempt, as per Article 129. (Read about Contempt of Court in India in the linked article.)
- Separation of the Judiciary from the Executive: A Directive Principle of State Policy says that the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the state. According to Article 50, there shall be a separate judicial service free from executive control.
Kickstart your UPSC 2023 Preparation today!
Supreme Court of India – Indian Polity:- Download PDF Here
Q1
The current Chief Justice of India is Justice Uday Umesh Lalit. He will demit office on attaining the age of 65. Justice Chandrachud will take oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India on November 9, 2022.
Q2
There is only 1 Supreme Court in India. And, there are 25 High Courts.
Q3
SC is the highest judicial court in India. It upholds the rule of law and also guarantees and protects citizens’ rights and liberties as given in the Constitution. Therefore, the Supreme Court is also known as the Guardian of the Constitution.
Q4
At present, there are 34 judges in the SC including the CJI.
Q5
Technically, the President cannot override a SC ruling. Only the Parliament can amend any law to overturn the decision of the SC. The President has the pardoning power, which he can exercise on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Even here, the President does not overrule the Supreme Court’s decision. The judgement of the Court remains, only, the President can “pardon” the punishment.
|Related Links|
|Polity Notes for UPSC||Polity MCQs|
|NCERT Notes for UPSC||PIB Summary|
|UPSC Current Affairs||Previous Years’ Indian Polity Questions from UPSC Mains GS 2| | https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/supreme-court-of-india/ | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court in India: Importance, Functions, and Powers | Wed - 13 May, 2020
Introduction
The Supreme Court in India was established through an enactment passed in pre-independent India, with the introduction of the Regulating Act, 1773. The 1st Supreme Court started its function as a court of record at Calcutta, and the 1st Chief Justice Sir Elijah Impey was appointed. The court was established to resolve the disputes in Bengal, Orissa, and Patna. Consequently, in 1800 and 1834, the King Gorge-III established the other two Supreme Courts in Bombay and Madras.
Read Also - CLAT application form 2020, Exam Date, Syllabus, Pattern
However, soon after the enactment of the Indian High Court Act, 1861, the Supreme Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were consequently abolished and the courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras resumed its functioning as High Court. In 1935, the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act, 1935, after a resolution was passed by the Joint Select Committee, which was headed by Lord Linlithgow.
The Government of India Act, 1935, led to the establishment of the Federal Court in India, which has vested more judicial power than the High court with original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction. After independence, the Constitution of India was adopted on 26th January 1950, and the Federal Court of India resumed functioning as the Supreme Court of India on 28th January 1950, which was presided by Hon’ble Mr. Justice Harilal Jekisundas Kania.
As per article 124(1) of the Constitution, there should be a Supreme Court in India that will be presided by the Chief Justice of India with additional seven Judges until the parliament passes precedent for increasing the number of Judges. However, currently, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court, and the current Chief Justice of India is Mr. Justice Sharad Arvind Bodbe.
Indian Legal System Overview
Importance of the Supreme Court in India
In the Constitution of India, part 5, chapter 6 deals with the power, function, appointment, retirement, jurisdiction, etc. from Article 124 to Article 147 of the Supreme Court. The followings are the importance of the establishment of the Supreme Court:
1) The Supreme Court is the highest appeal court that is also known as the apex court of India and even the last resort, where the citizens of India can seek justice if they are not satisfied with the judgment of the High court.
2) The citizens of India, as per Article 32 of the Constitution, can even directly sort for remedy through writs if their fundamental rights are violated.
3) The Supreme Court has Judicial Review power that is being vested through Article 13 of the Constitution, which means the Supreme Court has the power to strike down any legislation and executive action if such acts are found to be inconsistent with the Constitution of India.
What are the functions of the Supreme Court?
The following are the Supreme Court functions:
a) The SC gives the final verdict against an appeal from the other subsidiary courts i.e., High courts.
b) It acts as an institution where issues from the different governmental bodies, central government, and the state government matters are resolved.
c) As per Article 141 of the Constitution, laws passed by the SC, apply to all courts within the Indian Territory.
d) In some matters, the Supreme Court also acts on its own and can pass suo moto.
What are the powers of the SC?
The Supreme Court has the following powers that are jurisdiction:
A) Original Jurisdiction: The following are the original jurisdiction of the SC:
I) As per article 131 of the Constitution, the SC functions as original jurisdiction over matters where the disputes are either between the Central government and the state government or between two or more state governments.
II) As per article 139 of the Constitution, the SC have the power to issue writs, order, or direction.
III) As per section 32 of the Constitution, the SC also has the authority to enforce Fundamental Rights.
IV) As per Article 139A of the Constitution, the SC on its discretion or at the advice of the Attorney General of India can take up the cases during the pendency of the matter from the high courts if the same issue is to be disposed of by the SC that is related to the question of law. And it can also transfer the pending cases, appeal or other proceedings to give justice from one HC to another HC.
B) Appellate Jurisdiction: As per article 132, 133, 134 of the Constitution, the SC has appellate jurisdiction in matters that are related to civil, criminal, or Constitution. Also, as per article 136, the SC has the power to issue special leave that is being by any tribunal courts in India but this does not apply to Army courts.
C) Advisory Jurisdiction: As per article 143 of the Constitution, the SC can advise the President of India that is related to the question of law, and the nature of the matter is associated with the public importance. And the President can also seek opinion in the matters that are related to Article 131 of the Constitution.
D) Review Jurisdiction: As per article 137 of the Constitution, the SC has the power to review any laws that are being passed by the legislature.
Conclusion
The Supreme Court is the highest appealing body in our jurisdiction. With its establishment, justice is being proclaimed by the citizens of India. The powers that are vested upon the SC are to ensure the fair trial in matters that are about the Constitution of India; hence it also protects the world’s largest democratic state.
Read - All about Cyber Law
Author
Samridhi Srivastava | https://www.lloydlawcollege.edu.in/blog/supreme-court-india.html | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court of India - History, Functions, Composition, Jurisdiction | The Supreme Court of India is the country’s highest judicial court. It is the final court of appeal in the country. It is hence, an extremely important topic in the UPSC exam polity and governance sections. In this article, you can read all about the Supreme Court of India for the IAS exam .
Latest Updates related to the Indian Supreme Court:
- On November 9, 2022, Justice D.Y. Chandrachud will take oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India.
- 15th February 2021: Former Supreme Court Judge, Justice PB Sawant Passed Away on this day.
- The Supreme Court is examining a petition relating to the Social Media Firm Facebook and its Messaging Application WhatsApp over their terms of service and privacy policy that were to be out on February 8th, 2021.
- 13th February 2021: Statement from Supreme Court while dismissing a review petition on the anti-citizenship law protests held in Delhi’s Shaheen Bagh in 2019 – “Right To Protest Cannot Be Anytime, Everywhere.”
Learn about major 25 Important Supreme Court Judgements for UPSC and related notes in the linked article.
- The Federal Court of India was created as per the Government of India Act 1935 .
- This court settled disputes between provinces and federal states and heard appeals against judgements of the high courts.
- After independence, the Federal Court and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced by the Supreme Court of India, which came into being in January 1950.
- The Constitution of 1950 envisaged a Supreme Court with one Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges.
- The number of SC judges was increased by the Parliament and currently, there are 34 judges including the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
- It takes up appeals against the verdicts of the High Courts, other courts and tribunals.
- It settles disputes between various government authorities, between state governments, and between the centre and any state government.
- It also hears matters which the President refers to it, in its advisory role.
- The SC can also take up cases suo moto (on its own).
- The law that SC declares is binding on all the courts in India and on the Union as well as the state governments.
The jurisdiction of the SC is of three types:
- Original – Read in detail about Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the linked article.
- Advisory – Notes on Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court are given in the linked article.
- Appellate
- Including the CJI, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court.
- The judges sit in benches of 2 or 3 (called a Division Bench) or in benches of 5 or more (called a Constitutional Bench) when there are matters of fundamental questions of the law is to be decided.
Read about Indian Judiciary in detail in the linked article.
The Supreme Court of India has powers to consult the President to regulate the practice and procedure of the Court.
The Constitutional Cases are usually decided by a bench consisting of five judges whereas other cases are decided by a bench of at least three judges.
The seat of Supreme Court
As per the Constitution of India, Delhi is declared as the seat of the Supreme Court of India. However, the Chief Justice of India has the power to assign another place (s) as the seat of the Supreme Court. This is only an optional provision and not mandatory.
As per Article 124, an Indian citizen who is below 65 years of age is eligible to be recommended for appointment as a judge of the SC if:
- he/she has been a judge of one or more High Courts, for at least 5 years, or
- he/she has been an advocate in one or more High Courts for at least 10 years, or
- he/she is in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.
Independence of Judiciary
The Constitution has many provisions to ensure the judiciary’s independence. They are discussed below:
- Security of tenure: The judges of the SC are given security of tenure. Once appointed, they will retain their office until the age of 65 years. They can be removed only by a presidential order on grounds of proven misbehaviour and/or incapacity. This requires a Special Majority according to Article 368. Read more about the types of majorities in Parliament in the linked article .
- Salaries and allowances: The judges of the SC enjoy good salaries and allowances and these cannot be decreased except in the case of a financial emergency. The expenses of the High Court are charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State, which is not subject to vote in the state legislature.
- Powers and Jurisdiction: The SC’s powers and jurisdiction can only be added by the Parliament and not be curtailed.
- The conduct of any judge of the Supreme Court in the discharge of his/her duties cannot be discussed in the legislature.
- The SC has the power to punish any person for its contempt, as per Article 129. (Read about Contempt of Court in India in the linked article.)
- Separation of the Judiciary from the Executive: A Directive Principle of State Policy says that the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the state. According to Article 50, there shall be a separate judicial service free from executive control.
Kickstart your UPSC 2023 Preparation today!
Supreme Court of India – Indian Polity:- Download PDF Here
Q1
The current Chief Justice of India is Justice Uday Umesh Lalit. He will demit office on attaining the age of 65. Justice Chandrachud will take oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India on November 9, 2022.
Q2
There is only 1 Supreme Court in India. And, there are 25 High Courts.
Q3
SC is the highest judicial court in India. It upholds the rule of law and also guarantees and protects citizens’ rights and liberties as given in the Constitution. Therefore, the Supreme Court is also known as the Guardian of the Constitution.
Q4
At present, there are 34 judges in the SC including the CJI.
Q5
Technically, the President cannot override a SC ruling. Only the Parliament can amend any law to overturn the decision of the SC. The President has the pardoning power, which he can exercise on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Even here, the President does not overrule the Supreme Court’s decision. The judgement of the Court remains, only, the President can “pardon” the punishment.
|Related Links|
|Polity Notes for UPSC||Polity MCQs|
|NCERT Notes for UPSC||PIB Summary|
|UPSC Current Affairs||Previous Years’ Indian Polity Questions from UPSC Mains GS 2| | https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/supreme-court-of-india/ | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Explain the Power and Functions of the Supreme Court | By Balaji
Updated on: April 10th, 2023
Power and Functions of the Supreme Court : The Supreme Court has the power to take a final decision in all legal matters. Its power and function can be imagined to know that it is the highest court in India, as authorized by the Indian Constitution. The Supreme Court of India has supreme authority over all judicial courts in India. It has many functions and powers to protect Indian citizens’ interests.
Table of content
- 1. Power of the Supreme Court
- 2. Functions of the Supreme Court
Since it is the highest court in India, the Supreme Court has the authority to overrule the lower court’s judgments . Also, it has the power to do self-cognizance on any matter and ask for a report on it by a related person or authority.
- It has the authority to exercise original, appellate, and advisory jurisdictions.
- It has judicial review authority.
- It hears appeals from various Indian High Court verdicts.
- It adjudicates disputes between government authorities , such as the federal government versus state governments or state governments versus other state governments.
- Suo moto cases can be heard by the Supreme Court .
On 28 January 1950, the Supreme Court of India was established, replacing both the Federal Court of India and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , which were the two apexes of the Indian court at the time.
- As the highest court in India, any verdict issued by the Supreme Court is binding on all other courts and governments (union or state).
- The President of India is in charge of carrying out Supreme Court orders.
- Once the regional and high courts have rendered their decisions on a particular issue, the person may file a petition with the Supreme Court of India .
Related Questions: | https://byjusexamprep.com/upsc-exam/explain-the-power-and-functions-of-the-supreme-court | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court in India: Importance, Functions, and Powers | Wed - 13 May, 2020
Introduction
The Supreme Court in India was established through an enactment passed in pre-independent India, with the introduction of the Regulating Act, 1773. The 1st Supreme Court started its function as a court of record at Calcutta, and the 1st Chief Justice Sir Elijah Impey was appointed. The court was established to resolve the disputes in Bengal, Orissa, and Patna. Consequently, in 1800 and 1834, the King Gorge-III established the other two Supreme Courts in Bombay and Madras.
Read Also - CLAT application form 2020, Exam Date, Syllabus, Pattern
However, soon after the enactment of the Indian High Court Act, 1861, the Supreme Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were consequently abolished and the courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras resumed its functioning as High Court. In 1935, the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act, 1935, after a resolution was passed by the Joint Select Committee, which was headed by Lord Linlithgow.
The Government of India Act, 1935, led to the establishment of the Federal Court in India, which has vested more judicial power than the High court with original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction. After independence, the Constitution of India was adopted on 26th January 1950, and the Federal Court of India resumed functioning as the Supreme Court of India on 28th January 1950, which was presided by Hon’ble Mr. Justice Harilal Jekisundas Kania.
As per article 124(1) of the Constitution, there should be a Supreme Court in India that will be presided by the Chief Justice of India with additional seven Judges until the parliament passes precedent for increasing the number of Judges. However, currently, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court, and the current Chief Justice of India is Mr. Justice Sharad Arvind Bodbe.
Indian Legal System Overview
Importance of the Supreme Court in India
In the Constitution of India, part 5, chapter 6 deals with the power, function, appointment, retirement, jurisdiction, etc. from Article 124 to Article 147 of the Supreme Court. The followings are the importance of the establishment of the Supreme Court:
1) The Supreme Court is the highest appeal court that is also known as the apex court of India and even the last resort, where the citizens of India can seek justice if they are not satisfied with the judgment of the High court.
2) The citizens of India, as per Article 32 of the Constitution, can even directly sort for remedy through writs if their fundamental rights are violated.
3) The Supreme Court has Judicial Review power that is being vested through Article 13 of the Constitution, which means the Supreme Court has the power to strike down any legislation and executive action if such acts are found to be inconsistent with the Constitution of India.
What are the functions of the Supreme Court?
The following are the Supreme Court functions:
a) The SC gives the final verdict against an appeal from the other subsidiary courts i.e., High courts.
b) It acts as an institution where issues from the different governmental bodies, central government, and the state government matters are resolved.
c) As per Article 141 of the Constitution, laws passed by the SC, apply to all courts within the Indian Territory.
d) In some matters, the Supreme Court also acts on its own and can pass suo moto.
What are the powers of the SC?
The Supreme Court has the following powers that are jurisdiction:
A) Original Jurisdiction: The following are the original jurisdiction of the SC:
I) As per article 131 of the Constitution, the SC functions as original jurisdiction over matters where the disputes are either between the Central government and the state government or between two or more state governments.
II) As per article 139 of the Constitution, the SC have the power to issue writs, order, or direction.
III) As per section 32 of the Constitution, the SC also has the authority to enforce Fundamental Rights.
IV) As per Article 139A of the Constitution, the SC on its discretion or at the advice of the Attorney General of India can take up the cases during the pendency of the matter from the high courts if the same issue is to be disposed of by the SC that is related to the question of law. And it can also transfer the pending cases, appeal or other proceedings to give justice from one HC to another HC.
B) Appellate Jurisdiction: As per article 132, 133, 134 of the Constitution, the SC has appellate jurisdiction in matters that are related to civil, criminal, or Constitution. Also, as per article 136, the SC has the power to issue special leave that is being by any tribunal courts in India but this does not apply to Army courts.
C) Advisory Jurisdiction: As per article 143 of the Constitution, the SC can advise the President of India that is related to the question of law, and the nature of the matter is associated with the public importance. And the President can also seek opinion in the matters that are related to Article 131 of the Constitution.
D) Review Jurisdiction: As per article 137 of the Constitution, the SC has the power to review any laws that are being passed by the legislature.
Conclusion
The Supreme Court is the highest appealing body in our jurisdiction. With its establishment, justice is being proclaimed by the citizens of India. The powers that are vested upon the SC are to ensure the fair trial in matters that are about the Constitution of India; hence it also protects the world’s largest democratic state.
Read - All about Cyber Law
Author
Samridhi Srivastava | https://www.lloydlawcollege.edu.in/blog/supreme-court-india.html | 29 |
describe power and function of the supreme court of india | Supreme Court of India - History, Functions, Composition, Jurisdiction | The Supreme Court of India is the country’s highest judicial court. It is the final court of appeal in the country. It is hence, an extremely important topic in the UPSC exam polity and governance sections. In this article, you can read all about the Supreme Court of India for the IAS exam .
Latest Updates related to the Indian Supreme Court:
- On November 9, 2022, Justice D.Y. Chandrachud will take oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India.
- 15th February 2021: Former Supreme Court Judge, Justice PB Sawant Passed Away on this day.
- The Supreme Court is examining a petition relating to the Social Media Firm Facebook and its Messaging Application WhatsApp over their terms of service and privacy policy that were to be out on February 8th, 2021.
- 13th February 2021: Statement from Supreme Court while dismissing a review petition on the anti-citizenship law protests held in Delhi’s Shaheen Bagh in 2019 – “Right To Protest Cannot Be Anytime, Everywhere.”
Learn about major 25 Important Supreme Court Judgements for UPSC and related notes in the linked article.
- The Federal Court of India was created as per the Government of India Act 1935 .
- This court settled disputes between provinces and federal states and heard appeals against judgements of the high courts.
- After independence, the Federal Court and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced by the Supreme Court of India, which came into being in January 1950.
- The Constitution of 1950 envisaged a Supreme Court with one Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges.
- The number of SC judges was increased by the Parliament and currently, there are 34 judges including the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
- It takes up appeals against the verdicts of the High Courts, other courts and tribunals.
- It settles disputes between various government authorities, between state governments, and between the centre and any state government.
- It also hears matters which the President refers to it, in its advisory role.
- The SC can also take up cases suo moto (on its own).
- The law that SC declares is binding on all the courts in India and on the Union as well as the state governments.
The jurisdiction of the SC is of three types:
- Original – Read in detail about Original Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the linked article.
- Advisory – Notes on Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court are given in the linked article.
- Appellate
- Including the CJI, there are 34 judges in the Supreme Court.
- The judges sit in benches of 2 or 3 (called a Division Bench) or in benches of 5 or more (called a Constitutional Bench) when there are matters of fundamental questions of the law is to be decided.
Read about Indian Judiciary in detail in the linked article.
The Supreme Court of India has powers to consult the President to regulate the practice and procedure of the Court.
The Constitutional Cases are usually decided by a bench consisting of five judges whereas other cases are decided by a bench of at least three judges.
The seat of Supreme Court
As per the Constitution of India, Delhi is declared as the seat of the Supreme Court of India. However, the Chief Justice of India has the power to assign another place (s) as the seat of the Supreme Court. This is only an optional provision and not mandatory.
As per Article 124, an Indian citizen who is below 65 years of age is eligible to be recommended for appointment as a judge of the SC if:
- he/she has been a judge of one or more High Courts, for at least 5 years, or
- he/she has been an advocate in one or more High Courts for at least 10 years, or
- he/she is in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.
Independence of Judiciary
The Constitution has many provisions to ensure the judiciary’s independence. They are discussed below:
- Security of tenure: The judges of the SC are given security of tenure. Once appointed, they will retain their office until the age of 65 years. They can be removed only by a presidential order on grounds of proven misbehaviour and/or incapacity. This requires a Special Majority according to Article 368. Read more about the types of majorities in Parliament in the linked article .
- Salaries and allowances: The judges of the SC enjoy good salaries and allowances and these cannot be decreased except in the case of a financial emergency. The expenses of the High Court are charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State, which is not subject to vote in the state legislature.
- Powers and Jurisdiction: The SC’s powers and jurisdiction can only be added by the Parliament and not be curtailed.
- The conduct of any judge of the Supreme Court in the discharge of his/her duties cannot be discussed in the legislature.
- The SC has the power to punish any person for its contempt, as per Article 129. (Read about Contempt of Court in India in the linked article.)
- Separation of the Judiciary from the Executive: A Directive Principle of State Policy says that the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the state. According to Article 50, there shall be a separate judicial service free from executive control.
Kickstart your UPSC 2023 Preparation today!
Supreme Court of India – Indian Polity:- Download PDF Here
Q1
The current Chief Justice of India is Justice Uday Umesh Lalit. He will demit office on attaining the age of 65. Justice Chandrachud will take oath as the 50th Chief Justice of India on November 9, 2022.
Q2
There is only 1 Supreme Court in India. And, there are 25 High Courts.
Q3
SC is the highest judicial court in India. It upholds the rule of law and also guarantees and protects citizens’ rights and liberties as given in the Constitution. Therefore, the Supreme Court is also known as the Guardian of the Constitution.
Q4
At present, there are 34 judges in the SC including the CJI.
Q5
Technically, the President cannot override a SC ruling. Only the Parliament can amend any law to overturn the decision of the SC. The President has the pardoning power, which he can exercise on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Even here, the President does not overrule the Supreme Court’s decision. The judgement of the Court remains, only, the President can “pardon” the punishment.
|Related Links|
|Polity Notes for UPSC||Polity MCQs|
|NCERT Notes for UPSC||PIB Summary|
|UPSC Current Affairs||Previous Years’ Indian Polity Questions from UPSC Mains GS 2| | https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/supreme-court-of-india/ | 29 |
when is the rainy season in vancouver bc | Climate and average monthly weather in Vancouver (British Columbia), Canada | Did you know that you can find palm trees in Vancouver? It's true! The climate is very moderate in Vancouver and you will hardly experience severe frost in this part of Canada. However it does rain a lot during winter. On average, the winter daytime is between 5 and 9 degrees Celsius (41 to 48 degrees Fahrenheit). Summer is from June till September and it's the best period to visit Vancouver.
During the months of July, August and September you are most likely to experience good weather with pleasant average temperatures that fall between 20 degrees Celsius (68°F) and 26 degrees Celsius (79°F).
Other facts from our historical climate data:
Rainy season in Vancouver occurs in the months of January, February, March, October, November and December.
August has an average maximum temperature of 23°C (74°F) and is the warmest month of the year.
The coldest month is December with an average maximum temperature of 6°C (43°F).
November tops the wettest month list with 285mm (11.2in) of rainfall.
July is the driest month with 52mm (2.0in) of precipitation.
July is the sunniest month with an average of 289 hours of sunshine.
No idea where to travel to this year? We now have a tool which suggests which destination suits your ideal climate conditions. Find out where to go with our weather planner. | https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,vancouver,Canada | 30 |
when is the rainy season in vancouver bc | The Weather and Climate in Vancouver, British Columbia | This bustling urban port city on British Columbia's Pacific Coast has a reputation for being a chilly, rainy place to visit, but in fact, it is one of the warmest cities in Canada. Vancouver's weather is moderate because it's protected by mountain ranges and warmed by Pacific Ocean currents.
The weather in Vancouver is variable, with November typically being the rainiest month. Temperatures in the city can range from average highs around 61 degrees Fahrenheit to lows hovering in the mid-30s Fahrenheit.
Contrary to what many people think, Vancouver experiences a mild winter and is the only major Canadian city to not regularly drop below freezing. While the rare snowfall does occur, it's even rarer for it to linger. Vancouver experiences an average of 290 days a year with measurable sunshine, most of it in spring and summer. During winter, days are short, with the sun setting around 4:30 p.m.
If you're planning a trip, the best time to visit Vancouver is typically late May through September, especially in July and August when conditions are both dry and warm.
Fast Climate Facts 1
- Warmest Month: August (65 F/18 C)
- Coldest Month: December (39 F/4 C)
- Wettest Month: November (5.4 inches)
Despite experiencing mild winters and only receiving around 3 inches of snow annually, Vancouver is a great base for snow sports. The city is a reasonable drive from several world-class ski resorts with the closest, Grouse Mountain, being just 15 minutes north of the city while Whistler Blackcomb is a few hours away by car.
Ski season typically starts in November and ends in late April, depending on the resort. When in the city, expect average temperatures to hover in the low 40s and mid-to-high 30s F. However, up on a mountain temperatures will be much lower; expect freezing temps and colder.
December is the coldest month while January typically gets the most snow, but you'll find great skiing from December through February.
Vancouver's spring is cool and rainy, with March being the wettest month of the season. Snow will sometimes fall at the higher elevations. Temperatures start to warm up in April and you'll expect to see more people spending time outdoors. In May, the night markets open up in Richmond.
What to pack: Bring layers that you can put on or take off depending on how warm it is. Overall, you'll still need to bundle up a bit, especially if you're visiting early on in the season. Sweaters, jeans, and closed-toe shoes like booties or loafers are a good idea.
Rain continues to taper off and temperatures continue to rise from June onward. Vancouver never gets too hot, which makes it a great place to enjoy outdoor activities. Considering that high temperatures are in the low 70s F, Vancouver's summers are among the coolest throughout the entire country. It is also the sunniest city during the summer months. Periods of clouds and rain are quite rare.
What to pack: Summer is warm in Vancouver, but not hot. During the day, you can wear T-shirts and long pants or shorts, depending on your preference, but at night you'll want to cover up a bit more. Pack a sweater or light jacket for those chilly evenings.
September is mild and pleasant, but temperatures gradually begin to drop and the chance of rain increases, from an inch in September to more than 5 inches in November. Days also get shorter during this month, dropping from more than 12 hours of daylight in September to nine hours by the time November rolls around.
What to pack: Fall in Vancouver is cool, but not cold. Pack jeans, long-sleeved T-shirts, cozy sweaters, and a light jacket. If you visit in November, when rainfall peaks, bring an umbrella and a waterproof jacket, preferably one with a hood.
Vancouver has surprisingly mild winters compared to many other cities in Canada. Temperatures don't often drop below freezing and you can still enjoy being outdoors on many of the warmer days. The city does receive significant amounts of rain during the winter and snowfall is not uncommon either. On average, 4 inches of snow falls during all of winter.
What to pack: You'll never be too cold in Vancouver, but you should still pack warm layers that you can remove or put on as you go from indoors to outdoors. Given the high likelihood of precipitation, don't forget an umbrella, waterproof shoes, and other rain gear.
|Month||Avg. Temp.||Precipitation||Daylight Hours|
|January||40 F||5.1 inches||8.8 hours|
|February||41 F||2.7 inches||10.2 hours|
|March||44 F||3.5 inches||12 hours|
|April||49 F||2.2 inches||13.8 hours|
|May||55 F||1.6 inches||15.4 hours|
|June||60 F||1.1 inches||16.2 hours|
|July||65 F||0.5 inches||15.8 hours|
|August||65 F||0.5 inches||14.3 hours|
|September||59 F||1 inch||12.6 hours|
|October||51 F||3.2 inches||10.7 hours|
|November||44 F||5.4 inches||9.1 hours|
|December||39 F||5 inches||8.3 hours|
Article Sources | https://www.tripsavvy.com/vancouver-average-monthly-temperatures-3371376 | 30 |
when is the rainy season in vancouver bc | Climate and average monthly weather in Vancouver (British Columbia), Canada | Did you know that you can find palm trees in Vancouver? It's true! The climate is very moderate in Vancouver and you will hardly experience severe frost in this part of Canada. However it does rain a lot during winter. On average, the winter daytime is between 5 and 9 degrees Celsius (41 to 48 degrees Fahrenheit). Summer is from June till September and it's the best period to visit Vancouver.
During the months of July, August and September you are most likely to experience good weather with pleasant average temperatures that fall between 20 degrees Celsius (68°F) and 26 degrees Celsius (79°F).
Other facts from our historical climate data:
Rainy season in Vancouver occurs in the months of January, February, March, October, November and December.
August has an average maximum temperature of 23°C (74°F) and is the warmest month of the year.
The coldest month is December with an average maximum temperature of 6°C (43°F).
November tops the wettest month list with 285mm (11.2in) of rainfall.
July is the driest month with 52mm (2.0in) of precipitation.
July is the sunniest month with an average of 289 hours of sunshine.
No idea where to travel to this year? We now have a tool which suggests which destination suits your ideal climate conditions. Find out where to go with our weather planner. | https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,vancouver,Canada | 30 |
when is the rainy season in vancouver bc | The Weather and Climate in Vancouver, British Columbia | This bustling urban port city on British Columbia's Pacific Coast has a reputation for being a chilly, rainy place to visit, but in fact, it is one of the warmest cities in Canada. Vancouver's weather is moderate because it's protected by mountain ranges and warmed by Pacific Ocean currents.
The weather in Vancouver is variable, with November typically being the rainiest month. Temperatures in the city can range from average highs around 61 degrees Fahrenheit to lows hovering in the mid-30s Fahrenheit.
Contrary to what many people think, Vancouver experiences a mild winter and is the only major Canadian city to not regularly drop below freezing. While the rare snowfall does occur, it's even rarer for it to linger. Vancouver experiences an average of 290 days a year with measurable sunshine, most of it in spring and summer. During winter, days are short, with the sun setting around 4:30 p.m.
If you're planning a trip, the best time to visit Vancouver is typically late May through September, especially in July and August when conditions are both dry and warm.
Fast Climate Facts 1
- Warmest Month: August (65 F/18 C)
- Coldest Month: December (39 F/4 C)
- Wettest Month: November (5.4 inches)
Despite experiencing mild winters and only receiving around 3 inches of snow annually, Vancouver is a great base for snow sports. The city is a reasonable drive from several world-class ski resorts with the closest, Grouse Mountain, being just 15 minutes north of the city while Whistler Blackcomb is a few hours away by car.
Ski season typically starts in November and ends in late April, depending on the resort. When in the city, expect average temperatures to hover in the low 40s and mid-to-high 30s F. However, up on a mountain temperatures will be much lower; expect freezing temps and colder.
December is the coldest month while January typically gets the most snow, but you'll find great skiing from December through February.
Vancouver's spring is cool and rainy, with March being the wettest month of the season. Snow will sometimes fall at the higher elevations. Temperatures start to warm up in April and you'll expect to see more people spending time outdoors. In May, the night markets open up in Richmond.
What to pack: Bring layers that you can put on or take off depending on how warm it is. Overall, you'll still need to bundle up a bit, especially if you're visiting early on in the season. Sweaters, jeans, and closed-toe shoes like booties or loafers are a good idea.
Rain continues to taper off and temperatures continue to rise from June onward. Vancouver never gets too hot, which makes it a great place to enjoy outdoor activities. Considering that high temperatures are in the low 70s F, Vancouver's summers are among the coolest throughout the entire country. It is also the sunniest city during the summer months. Periods of clouds and rain are quite rare.
What to pack: Summer is warm in Vancouver, but not hot. During the day, you can wear T-shirts and long pants or shorts, depending on your preference, but at night you'll want to cover up a bit more. Pack a sweater or light jacket for those chilly evenings.
September is mild and pleasant, but temperatures gradually begin to drop and the chance of rain increases, from an inch in September to more than 5 inches in November. Days also get shorter during this month, dropping from more than 12 hours of daylight in September to nine hours by the time November rolls around.
What to pack: Fall in Vancouver is cool, but not cold. Pack jeans, long-sleeved T-shirts, cozy sweaters, and a light jacket. If you visit in November, when rainfall peaks, bring an umbrella and a waterproof jacket, preferably one with a hood.
Vancouver has surprisingly mild winters compared to many other cities in Canada. Temperatures don't often drop below freezing and you can still enjoy being outdoors on many of the warmer days. The city does receive significant amounts of rain during the winter and snowfall is not uncommon either. On average, 4 inches of snow falls during all of winter.
What to pack: You'll never be too cold in Vancouver, but you should still pack warm layers that you can remove or put on as you go from indoors to outdoors. Given the high likelihood of precipitation, don't forget an umbrella, waterproof shoes, and other rain gear.
|Month||Avg. Temp.||Precipitation||Daylight Hours|
|January||40 F||5.1 inches||8.8 hours|
|February||41 F||2.7 inches||10.2 hours|
|March||44 F||3.5 inches||12 hours|
|April||49 F||2.2 inches||13.8 hours|
|May||55 F||1.6 inches||15.4 hours|
|June||60 F||1.1 inches||16.2 hours|
|July||65 F||0.5 inches||15.8 hours|
|August||65 F||0.5 inches||14.3 hours|
|September||59 F||1 inch||12.6 hours|
|October||51 F||3.2 inches||10.7 hours|
|November||44 F||5.4 inches||9.1 hours|
|December||39 F||5 inches||8.3 hours|
Article Sources | https://www.tripsavvy.com/vancouver-average-monthly-temperatures-3371376 | 30 |
when is the rainy season in vancouver bc | Climate of Vancouver - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The city of Vancouver , located in British Columbia , Canada, has a moderate oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) that borders on a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ). Its summer months are typically dry, often resulting in moderate drought conditions, usually in July and August. In contrast, the rest of the year is rainy , especially between October and March.
Like the rest of the British Columbia Coast , the city is tempered by the North Pacific Current , which has its origins in the milder Kuroshio Current and is also, to an extent, sheltered by the mountains of Vancouver Island to the west.
The climatology of Vancouver applies to the entire Greater Vancouver region and not just to the City of Vancouver itself. While Vancouver's coastal location serves to moderate its temperatures, sea breezes and mountainous terrain make Greater Vancouver a region of microclimates , with local variations in weather sometimes being more exaggerated than those experienced in other coastal areas.
Predicting precipitation in the Greater Vancouver area is particularly complex. It is a rule of thumb that for every rise of 100 m (330 ft) in elevation, there is an additional 100 mm (3.9 in) (30 mm [1.2 in] per 30 m [100 ft]) of precipitation, so places such as the District of North Vancouver on the North Shore Mountains get more rain. Snow is problematic for meteorologists to predict due to temperatures remaining close to freezing during snow events.
The average annual temperature in Vancouver is 11.0 °C (51.8 °F) downtown and 10.4 °C (50.7 °F) at Vancouver International Airport in Richmond . This is one of the warmest in Canada. Greater Vancouver is in USDA plant hardiness zone 8, [2] similar to other coastal or near-coastal cities such as Seattle , Portland , Amsterdam , and London , as well as places such as Atlanta, Georgia and Raleigh, North Carolina , far to the south (though these locations have far more growing degree days due to their much warmer summers). The semi-mild climate sustains plants such as the Windmill Palm . Vancouver's growing season averages 221 days, from March 29 until November 5. This is 72 days longer than Toronto 's, and longer than any other major urban centre in Canada. [3]
Despite normally semi-mild winters due to the onshore air flow over the North Pacific Current, occasional cold squamish or Arctic outflow (sinking cold continental air that flows down through the Fraser Valley coastward) in winter can sometimes last a week or more. These Arctic outflows occur on average one to three times per winter. The coldest month on record at Vancouver International Airport was January 1950 when an Arctic air inflow moved in from the Fraser Valley and remained locked over the city, with an average low of −9.7 °C (14.5 °F) and an average high of only −2.9 °C (26.8 °F), making for a daily average of −6.3 °C (20.7 °F), 10 °C (18 °F) colder than normal. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the city was −18.3 °C (−0.9 °F) on December 29, 1968. [4] The coldest temperature across Metro Vancouver , however, is −23.3 °C (−10 °F) recorded in Pitt Meadows on January 23, 1969. [5]
With snow being an infrequent occurrence over a typically mild winter, many cold hardy flowers remain in bloom and are common in gardens and office exteriors throughout the winter. The arrival of spring is often first noticed in February with slightly milder temperatures and the return of flowering perennials. It's also not uncommon for cherry trees to begin blooming later in the month, as was seen prominently during the 2010 Winter Olympics .
The Greater Vancouver region is also subject to significant variations in summer temperatures, which can differ by as much as 5–10 °C (9–18 °F) between inland areas of the Fraser Valley and the ocean-tempered coastal regions when localized on-shore breezes are in effect. Conversely, winter temperatures tend to be cooler inland by a couple of degrees.
The relatively high latitude of 49° 15′ 0″ N (similar to Paris , France, at 48° 85′ 66″) means sunsets as early as 4:15 pm and sunrises as late as 8:10 am. From November to February, at the sunshine measuring station at the airport in Richmond, on average more than 70% of the already short daytime is completely cloudy. The percentage of cloudiness is higher in Vancouver and especially the North Shore because upslope winds going up the mountainsides lead to the development of clouds.
Summers, in contrast, are characterized by a nearly opposite weather pattern, with consistent high pressure and sunshine. July and August are the sunniest months. Near the summer solstice , there are less than 8 hours between sunset and sunrise, with twilight lasting past 10 pm.
| Climate data for Richmond ( Vancouver International Airport ) |
Climate ID: 1108447; coordinates 49°11′42″N 123°10′55″W ; elevation: 4.3 m (14 ft); 1981-2010 normals, extremes 1898–present [a]
|Month||Jan||Feb||Mar||Apr||May||Jun||Jul||Aug||Sep||Oct||Nov||Dec||Year|
|Record high humidex||17.2||18.0||20.3||23.9||33.7||38.4||38.3||35.9||33.0||27.2||21.1||16.1||38.4|
|Record high °C (°F)|| 15.3 |
(59.5)
| 18.4 |
(65.1)
| 20.0 |
(68.0)
| 26.1 |
(79.0)
| 30.4 |
(86.7)
| 33.3 |
(91.9)
| 34.4 |
(93.9)
| 33.3 |
(91.9)
| 30.0 |
(86.0)
| 25.0 |
(77.0)
| 23.3 |
(73.9)
| 15.0 |
(59.0)
| 34.4 |
(93.9)
|Average high °C (°F)|| 6.9 |
(44.4)
| 8.2 |
(46.8)
| 10.3 |
(50.5)
| 13.2 |
(55.8)
| 16.7 |
(62.1)
| 19.6 |
(67.3)
| 22.2 |
(72.0)
| 22.2 |
(72.0)
| 18.9 |
(66.0)
| 13.5 |
(56.3)
| 9.2 |
(48.6)
| 6.3 |
(43.3)
| 13.9 |
(57.0)
|Daily mean °C (°F)|| 4.1 |
(39.4)
| 4.9 |
(40.8)
| 6.9 |
(44.4)
| 9.4 |
(48.9)
| 12.8 |
(55.0)
| 15.7 |
(60.3)
| 18.0 |
(64.4)
| 18.0 |
(64.4)
| 14.9 |
(58.8)
| 10.3 |
(50.5)
| 6.3 |
(43.3)
| 3.6 |
(38.5)
| 10.4 |
(50.7)
|Average low °C (°F)|| 1.4 |
(34.5)
| 1.6 |
(34.9)
| 3.4 |
(38.1)
| 5.6 |
(42.1)
| 8.8 |
(47.8)
| 11.7 |
(53.1)
| 13.7 |
(56.7)
| 13.8 |
(56.8)
| 10.8 |
(51.4)
| 7.0 |
(44.6)
| 3.5 |
(38.3)
| 0.8 |
(33.4)
| 6.8 |
(44.2)
|Record low °C (°F)|| −17.8 |
(0.0)
| −16.1 |
(3.0)
| −9.4 |
(15.1)
| −3.3 |
(26.1)
| 0.6 |
(33.1)
| 3.9 |
(39.0)
| 6.1 |
(43.0)
| 3.9 |
(39.0)
| −1.1 |
(30.0)
| −6.1 |
(21.0)
| −14.3 |
(6.3)
| −17.8 |
(0.0)
| −17.8 |
(0.0)
|Record low wind chill||−22.6||−21.2||−14.5||−5.4||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||−11.4||−21.3||−27.8||−27.8|
|Average precipitation mm (inches)|| 168.4 |
(6.63)
| 104.6 |
(4.12)
| 113.9 |
(4.48)
| 88.5 |
(3.48)
| 65.0 |
(2.56)
| 53.8 |
(2.12)
| 35.6 |
(1.40)
| 36.7 |
(1.44)
| 50.9 |
(2.00)
| 120.8 |
(4.76)
| 188.9 |
(7.44)
| 161.9 |
(6.37)
| 1,189 |
(46.81)
|Average rainfall mm (inches)|| 157.5 |
(6.20)
| 98.9 |
(3.89)
| 111.8 |
(4.40)
| 88.1 |
(3.47)
| 65.0 |
(2.56)
| 53.8 |
(2.12)
| 35.6 |
(1.40)
| 36.7 |
(1.44)
| 50.9 |
(2.00)
| 120.7 |
(4.75)
| 185.8 |
(7.31)
| 148.3 |
(5.84)
| 1,153.1 |
(45.38)
|Average snowfall cm (inches)|| 11.1 |
(4.4)
| 6.3 |
(2.5)
| 2.3 |
(0.9)
| 0.3 |
(0.1)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.1 |
(0.0)
| 3.2 |
(1.3)
| 14.8 |
(5.8)
| 38.1 |
(15.0)
|Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)||19.5||15.4||17.7||14.8||13.2||11.5||6.3||6.7||8.3||15.4||20.4||19.7||168.9|
|Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm)||18.4||14.7||17.5||14.8||13.2||11.5||6.3||6.8||8.3||15.4||19.9||18.4||165.2|
|Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm)||2.6||1.4||0.9||0.2||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.03||0.8||2.8||8.73|
|Average relative humidity (%)||81.2||74.5||70.1||65.4||63.5||62.2||61.4||61.8||67.2||75.6||79.5||80.9||70.3|
|Mean monthly sunshine hours||60.2||91.0||134.8||185.0||222.5||226.9||289.8||277.1||212.8||120.7||60.4||56.5||1,937.5|
|Percent possible sunshine||22.3||31.8||36.6||45.0||46.9||46.8||59.3||62.1||56.1||36.0||21.9||22.0||40.6|
|Average ultraviolet index||1||1||3||4||6||6||7||6||4||2||1||1||4|
|Source 1: Environment and Climate Change Canada [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20]|
|Source 2: Weather Atlas(UV) [21]|
|Climate data for Vancouver International Airport ( Sea Island , Richmond ) (1971–2000)|
|Month||Jan||Feb||Mar||Apr||May||Jun||Jul||Aug||Sep||Oct||Nov||Dec||Year|
|Average high °C (°F)|| 6.1 |
(43.0)
| 8.0 |
(46.4)
| 10.1 |
(50.2)
| 13.1 |
(55.6)
| 16.5 |
(61.7)
| 19.2 |
(66.6)
| 21.7 |
(71.1)
| 21.9 |
(71.4)
| 18.7 |
(65.7)
| 13.5 |
(56.3)
| 9.0 |
(48.2)
| 6.2 |
(43.2)
| 13.7 |
(56.7)
|Daily mean °C (°F)|| 3.3 |
(37.9)
| 4.8 |
(40.6)
| 6.6 |
(43.9)
| 9.2 |
(48.6)
| 12.5 |
(54.5)
| 15.2 |
(59.4)
| 17.5 |
(63.5)
| 17.6 |
(63.7)
| 14.6 |
(58.3)
| 10.1 |
(50.2)
| 6.0 |
(42.8)
| 3.5 |
(38.3)
| 10.1 |
(50.2)
|Average low °C (°F)|| 0.5 |
(32.9)
| 1.5 |
(34.7)
| 3.1 |
(37.6)
| 5.3 |
(41.5)
| 8.4 |
(47.1)
| 11.2 |
(52.2)
| 13.2 |
(55.8)
| 13.4 |
(56.1)
| 10.5 |
(50.9)
| 6.6 |
(43.9)
| 3.1 |
(37.6)
| 0.8 |
(33.4)
| 6.5 |
(43.7)
|Average precipitation mm (inches)|| 153.6 |
(6.05)
| 123.1 |
(4.85)
| 114.3 |
(4.50)
| 84.0 |
(3.31)
| 67.9 |
(2.67)
| 54.8 |
(2.16)
| 39.6 |
(1.56)
| 39.1 |
(1.54)
| 53.5 |
(2.11)
| 112.6 |
(4.43)
| 181.0 |
(7.13)
| 175.7 |
(6.92)
| 1,199 |
(47.20)
|Average rainfall mm (inches)|| 139.1 |
(5.48)
| 113.8 |
(4.48)
| 111.8 |
(4.40)
| 83.5 |
(3.29)
| 67.9 |
(2.67)
| 54.8 |
(2.16)
| 39.6 |
(1.56)
| 39.1 |
(1.54)
| 53.5 |
(2.11)
| 112.5 |
(4.43)
| 178.5 |
(7.03)
| 160.6 |
(6.32)
| 1,154.7 |
(45.46)
|Average snowfall cm (inches)|| 16.6 |
(6.5)
| 9.6 |
(3.8)
| 2.6 |
(1.0)
| 0.4 |
(0.2)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.1 |
(0.0)
| 2.5 |
(1.0)
| 16.3 |
(6.4)
| 48.2 |
(19.0)
|Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)||18.5||16.3||17.0||13.9||13.0||11.2||6.9||6.8||8.6||14.3||19.7||19.8||166.1|
|Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm)||16.9||15.4||16.7||13.9||13.0||11.2||6.9||6.8||8.6||14.2||19.5||18.2||161.3|
|Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm)||3.7||1.9||0.9||0.2||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.1||0.8||3.3||10.9|
|Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada [22]|
|Climate data for Vancouver International Airport ( Sea Island , Richmond ) (1961–1990)|
|Month||Jan||Feb||Mar||Apr||May||Jun||Jul||Aug||Sep||Oct||Nov||Dec||Year|
|Average high °C (°F)|| 5.7 |
(42.3)
| 8.0 |
(46.4)
| 9.9 |
(49.8)
| 12.7 |
(54.9)
| 16.3 |
(61.3)
| 19.3 |
(66.7)
| 21.7 |
(71.1)
| 21.7 |
(71.1)
| 18.4 |
(65.1)
| 13.5 |
(56.3)
| 9.0 |
(48.2)
| 6.1 |
(43.0)
| 13.5 |
(56.3)
|Daily mean °C (°F)|| 3.0 |
(37.4)
| 4.7 |
(40.5)
| 6.3 |
(43.3)
| 8.8 |
(47.8)
| 12.1 |
(53.8)
| 15.2 |
(59.4)
| 17.2 |
(63.0)
| 17.4 |
(63.3)
| 14.3 |
(57.7)
| 10.0 |
(50.0)
| 6.0 |
(42.8)
| 3.5 |
(38.3)
| 9.9 |
(49.8)
|Average low °C (°F)|| 0.1 |
(32.2)
| 1.4 |
(34.5)
| 2.6 |
(36.7)
| 4.9 |
(40.8)
| 7.9 |
(46.2)
| 11.0 |
(51.8)
| 12.7 |
(54.9)
| 12.9 |
(55.2)
| 10.1 |
(50.2)
| 6.4 |
(43.5)
| 3.0 |
(37.4)
| 0.8 |
(33.4)
| 6.1 |
(43.0)
|Average precipitation mm (inches)|| 149.8 |
(5.90)
| 123.6 |
(4.87)
| 108.8 |
(4.28)
| 75.4 |
(2.97)
| 61.7 |
(2.43)
| 45.7 |
(1.80)
| 36.1 |
(1.42)
| 38.1 |
(1.50)
| 64.4 |
(2.54)
| 115.3 |
(4.54)
| 169.9 |
(6.69)
| 178.5 |
(7.03)
| 1,167.4 |
(45.96)
|Average rainfall mm (inches)|| 131.6 |
(5.18)
| 115.6 |
(4.55)
| 105.4 |
(4.15)
| 74.9 |
(2.95)
| 61.7 |
(2.43)
| 45.7 |
(1.80)
| 36.1 |
(1.42)
| 38.1 |
(1.50)
| 64.4 |
(2.54)
| 115.3 |
(4.54)
| 167.2 |
(6.58)
| 161.2 |
(6.35)
| 1,117.2 |
(43.98)
|Average snowfall cm (inches)|| 20.6 |
(8.1)
| 8.6 |
(3.4)
| 4.1 |
(1.6)
| 0.5 |
(0.2)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 2.6 |
(1.0)
| 18.6 |
(7.3)
| 54.9 |
(21.6)
|Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada [23]|
|Climate data for Vancouver International Airport ( Sea Island , Richmond ) (1951–1980)|
|Month||Jan||Feb||Mar||Apr||May||Jun||Jul||Aug||Sep||Oct||Nov||Dec||Year|
|Average high °C (°F)|| 5.2 |
(41.4)
| 7.8 |
(46.0)
| 9.4 |
(48.9)
| 12.8 |
(55.0)
| 16.5 |
(61.7)
| 19.2 |
(66.6)
| 21.9 |
(71.4)
| 21.5 |
(70.7)
| 18.3 |
(64.9)
| 13.6 |
(56.5)
| 9.0 |
(48.2)
| 6.5 |
(43.7)
| 13.5 |
(56.3)
|Daily mean °C (°F)|| 2.5 |
(36.5)
| 4.6 |
(40.3)
| 5.8 |
(42.4)
| 8.8 |
(47.8)
| 12.2 |
(54.0)
| 15.1 |
(59.2)
| 17.3 |
(63.1)
| 17.1 |
(62.8)
| 14.2 |
(57.6)
| 10.0 |
(50.0)
| 5.9 |
(42.6)
| 3.9 |
(39.0)
| 9.8 |
(49.6)
|Average low °C (°F)|| −0.2 |
(31.6)
| 1.4 |
(34.5)
| 2.1 |
(35.8)
| 4.7 |
(40.5)
| 7.9 |
(46.2)
| 10.9 |
(51.6)
| 12.6 |
(54.7)
| 12.6 |
(54.7)
| 10.1 |
(50.2)
| 6.4 |
(43.5)
| 2.8 |
(37.0)
| 1.2 |
(34.2)
| 6.0 |
(42.8)
|Average precipitation mm (inches)|| 153.8 |
(6.06)
| 114.7 |
(4.52)
| 101 |
(4.0)
| 59.6 |
(2.35)
| 51.5 |
(2.03)
| 45.2 |
(1.78)
| 32 |
(1.3)
| 41.1 |
(1.62)
| 67.1 |
(2.64)
| 114 |
(4.5)
| 150.1 |
(5.91)
| 182.4 |
(7.18)
| 1,112.6 |
(43.80)
|Average rainfall mm (inches)|| 130.7 |
(5.15)
| 107.1 |
(4.22)
| 95.1 |
(3.74)
| 59.3 |
(2.33)
| 51.6 |
(2.03)
| 45.2 |
(1.78)
| 32 |
(1.3)
| 41.1 |
(1.62)
| 67.1 |
(2.64)
| 114 |
(4.5)
| 147 |
(5.8)
| 165.2 |
(6.50)
| 1,055.4 |
(41.55)
|Average snowfall cm (inches)|| 25.7 |
(10.1)
| 7.5 |
(3.0)
| 6.6 |
(2.6)
| 0.3 |
(0.1)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 2.8 |
(1.1)
| 17.5 |
(6.9)
| 60.4 |
(23.8)
|Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada [24] [25] [26]|
|Climate data for Vancouver International Airport ( Sea Island , Richmond ) (1941–1970)|
|Month||Jan||Feb||Mar||Apr||May||Jun||Jul||Aug||Sep||Oct||Nov||Dec||Year|
|Average high °C (°F)|| 5.2 |
(41.4)
| 7.7 |
(45.9)
| 9.6 |
(49.3)
| 12.9 |
(55.2)
| 16.8 |
(62.2)
| 19.6 |
(67.3)
| 22.2 |
(72.0)
| 21.6 |
(70.9)
| 18.5 |
(65.3)
| 13.7 |
(56.7)
| 9.2 |
(48.6)
| 6.6 |
(43.9)
| 13.6 |
(56.5)
|Daily mean °C (°F)|| 2.4 |
(36.3)
| 4.4 |
(39.9)
| 5.8 |
(42.4)
| 8.9 |
(48.0)
| 12.4 |
(54.3)
| 15.3 |
(59.5)
| 17.4 |
(63.3)
| 17.1 |
(62.8)
| 14.2 |
(57.6)
| 10.1 |
(50.2)
| 6.1 |
(43.0)
| 3.8 |
(38.8)
| 9.8 |
(49.6)
|Average low °C (°F)|| −0.4 |
(31.3)
| 1.1 |
(34.0)
| 2.1 |
(35.8)
| 4.9 |
(40.8)
| 7.9 |
(46.2)
| 10.9 |
(51.6)
| 12.7 |
(54.9)
| 12.5 |
(54.5)
| 9.9 |
(49.8)
| 6.4 |
(43.5)
| 2.9 |
(37.2)
| 1.1 |
(34.0)
| 6.0 |
(42.8)
|Average precipitation mm (inches)|| 147.3 |
(5.80)
| 116.6 |
(4.59)
| 93.7 |
(3.69)
| 61.0 |
(2.40)
| 47.5 |
(1.87)
| 45.2 |
(1.78)
| 29.7 |
(1.17)
| 37.1 |
(1.46)
| 61.2 |
(2.41)
| 122.2 |
(4.81)
| 141.2 |
(5.56)
| 165.4 |
(6.51)
| 1,068.1 |
(42.05)
|Average rainfall mm (inches)|| 125.7 |
(4.95)
| 109.0 |
(4.29)
| 89.2 |
(3.51)
| 60.7 |
(2.39)
| 47.5 |
(1.87)
| 45.2 |
(1.78)
| 29.7 |
(1.17)
| 37.1 |
(1.46)
| 61.2 |
(2.41)
| 122.2 |
(4.81)
| 138.9 |
(5.47)
| 151.4 |
(5.96)
| 1,017.8 |
(40.07)
|Average snowfall cm (inches)|| 22.4 |
(8.8)
| 7.9 |
(3.1)
| 5.3 |
(2.1)
| 0.1 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 2.3 |
(0.9)
| 14.5 |
(5.7)
| 52.3 |
(20.6)
|Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada [27] [28] [26]|
|Climate data for Vancouver Harbour CS (1971–2000)|
|Month||Jan||Feb||Mar||Apr||May||Jun||Jul||Aug||Sep||Oct||Nov||Dec||Year|
|Record high °C (°F)|| 15.6 |
(60.1)
| 16.4 |
(61.5)
| 19.1 |
(66.4)
| 23.9 |
(75.0)
| 32.7 |
(90.9)
| 30.0 |
(86.0)
| 31.7 |
(89.1)
| 31.7 |
(89.1)
| 28.5 |
(83.3)
| 24.2 |
(75.6)
| 17.0 |
(62.6)
| 15.0 |
(59.0)
| 32.7 |
(90.9)
|Average high °C (°F)|| 6.8 |
(44.2)
| 8.4 |
(47.1)
| 10.6 |
(51.1)
| 13.5 |
(56.3)
| 16.8 |
(62.2)
| 19.6 |
(67.3)
| 22.0 |
(71.6)
| 22.3 |
(72.1)
| 19.0 |
(66.2)
| 13.9 |
(57.0)
| 9.3 |
(48.7)
| 6.8 |
(44.2)
| 14.1 |
(57.4)
|Daily mean °C (°F)|| 4.8 |
(40.6)
| 5.9 |
(42.6)
| 7.6 |
(45.7)
| 10.0 |
(50.0)
| 13.2 |
(55.8)
| 15.9 |
(60.6)
| 18.1 |
(64.6)
| 18.3 |
(64.9)
| 15.4 |
(59.7)
| 11.1 |
(52.0)
| 7.1 |
(44.8)
| 4.8 |
(40.6)
| 11.0 |
(51.8)
|Average low °C (°F)|| 2.7 |
(36.9)
| 3.4 |
(38.1)
| 4.6 |
(40.3)
| 6.5 |
(43.7)
| 9.5 |
(49.1)
| 12.2 |
(54.0)
| 14.1 |
(57.4)
| 14.4 |
(57.9)
| 11.6 |
(52.9)
| 8.2 |
(46.8)
| 4.8 |
(40.6)
| 2.8 |
(37.0)
| 7.9 |
(46.2)
|Record low °C (°F)|| −13.3 |
(8.1)
| −6.7 |
(19.9)
| −5 |
(23)
| −1.1 |
(30.0)
| 1.1 |
(34.0)
| 2.8 |
(37.0)
| 2.8 |
(37.0)
| 5.0 |
(41.0)
| 1.7 |
(35.1)
| −3.2 |
(26.2)
| −9.9 |
(14.2)
| −15.6 |
(3.9)
| −15.6 |
(3.9)
|Average precipitation mm (inches)|| 178.8 |
(7.04)
| 183.8 |
(7.24)
| 155.8 |
(6.13)
| 117.9 |
(4.64)
| 86.7 |
(3.41)
| 69.9 |
(2.75)
| 53.4 |
(2.10)
| 50.8 |
(2.00)
| 73.3 |
(2.89)
| 147.8 |
(5.82)
| 239.2 |
(9.42)
| 231.3 |
(9.11)
| 1,588.6 |
(62.54)
|Average rainfall mm (inches)|| 143.6 |
(5.65)
| 173.5 |
(6.83)
| 153.1 |
(6.03)
| 117.0 |
(4.61)
| 86.7 |
(3.41)
| 69.9 |
(2.75)
| 49.1 |
(1.93)
| 48.3 |
(1.90)
| 71.0 |
(2.80)
| 131.9 |
(5.19)
| 219.5 |
(8.64)
| 211.5 |
(8.33)
| 1,474.9 |
(58.07)
|Average snowfall cm (inches)|| 15.3 |
(6.0)
| 10.2 |
(4.0)
| 2.7 |
(1.1)
| 0.9 |
(0.4)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 2.7 |
(1.1)
| 11.8 |
(4.6)
| 43.6 |
(17.2)
|Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)||18.3||16.4||16.6||14.9||12.9||11.6||7.6||7.7||9.4||14.9||19.8||19.1||169.1|
|Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm)||14.8||16.3||15.9||14.2||13.2||10.7||7.6||7.7||9.8||12.0||16.8||16.2||154.5|
|Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm)||2.8||1.9||0.89||0.24||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.05||0.88||2.9||9.6|
|Mean monthly sunshine hours||51.1||79.6||124.7||161.3||222.8||223.5||276.8||256.6||178.3||127.3||66.9||49.6||1,818.4|
|Source 1: Environment and Climate Change Canada [1]|
|Source 2: Environment and Climate Change Canada (sun, 1961–1990) [29]|
|Climate data for Vancouver Harbour CS (1951–1980)|
|Month||Jan||Feb||Mar||Apr||May||Jun||Jul||Aug||Sep||Oct||Nov||Dec||Year|
|Average high °C (°F)|| 5.1 |
(41.2)
| 7.7 |
(45.9)
| 9.3 |
(48.7)
| 13.0 |
(55.4)
| 15.9 |
(60.6)
| 19.0 |
(66.2)
| 21.9 |
(71.4)
| 21.6 |
(70.9)
| 18.3 |
(64.9)
| 13.7 |
(56.7)
| 8.9 |
(48.0)
| 6.8 |
(44.2)
| 13.4 |
(56.1)
|Daily mean °C (°F)|| 3.4 |
(38.1)
| 5.2 |
(41.4)
| 6.1 |
(43.0)
| 9.3 |
(48.7)
| 12.5 |
(54.5)
| 15.3 |
(59.5)
| 17.6 |
(63.7)
| 17.2 |
(63.0)
| 14.6 |
(58.3)
| 10.7 |
(51.3)
| 6.8 |
(44.2)
| 4.7 |
(40.5)
| 10.3 |
(50.5)
|Average low °C (°F)|| 1.2 |
(34.2)
| 2.8 |
(37.0)
| 3.6 |
(38.5)
| 5.9 |
(42.6)
| 8.5 |
(47.3)
| 11.1 |
(52.0)
| 13.3 |
(55.9)
| 13.6 |
(56.5)
| 11.0 |
(51.8)
| 7.7 |
(45.9)
| 4.2 |
(39.6)
| 2.4 |
(36.3)
| 7.1 |
(44.8)
|Average precipitation mm (inches)|| 217.8 |
(8.57)
| 155.7 |
(6.13)
| 152.8 |
(6.02)
| 91.2 |
(3.59)
| 68.4 |
(2.69)
| 62.7 |
(2.47)
| 42.7 |
(1.68)
| 54.5 |
(2.15)
| 78.9 |
(3.11)
| 159.3 |
(6.27)
| 213.7 |
(8.41)
| 242.6 |
(9.55)
| 1,540.3 |
(60.64)
|Average rainfall mm (inches)|| 193.1 |
(7.60)
| 146.7 |
(5.78)
| 146.2 |
(5.76)
| 91 |
(3.6)
| 68.4 |
(2.69)
| 62.7 |
(2.47)
| 42.7 |
(1.68)
| 54.5 |
(2.15)
| 78.9 |
(3.11)
| 159.3 |
(6.27)
| 210.9 |
(8.30)
| 227.9 |
(8.97)
| 1,482.3 |
(58.36)
|Average snowfall cm (inches)|| 26.5 |
(10.4)
| 9.5 |
(3.7)
| 6.4 |
(2.5)
| 0.2 |
(0.1)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 2.6 |
(1.0)
| 14.8 |
(5.8)
| 60.0 |
(23.6)
|Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada [24] [25] [26]|
|Climate data for Oakridge, Vancouver (1981–2010)|
|Month||Jan||Feb||Mar||Apr||May||Jun||Jul||Aug||Sep||Oct||Nov||Dec||Year|
|Average precipitation mm (inches)|| 222.7 |
(8.77)
| 111.4 |
(4.39)
| 125.0 |
(4.92)
| 101.7 |
(4.00)
| 75.3 |
(2.96)
| 67.8 |
(2.67)
| 42.6 |
(1.68)
| 48.4 |
(1.91)
| 59.1 |
(2.33)
| 156.8 |
(6.17)
| 238.5 |
(9.39)
| 207.3 |
(8.16)
| 1,456.6 |
(57.35)
|Average rainfall mm (inches)|| 207.0 |
(8.15)
| 106.8 |
(4.20)
| 122.5 |
(4.82)
| 101.7 |
(4.00)
| 75.1 |
(2.96)
| 67.8 |
(2.67)
| 42.6 |
(1.68)
| 48.4 |
(1.91)
| 59.1 |
(2.33)
| 156.7 |
(6.17)
| 233.5 |
(9.19)
| 190.9 |
(7.52)
| 1,412 |
(55.59)
|Average snowfall cm (inches)|| 15.7 |
(6.2)
| 4.5 |
(1.8)
| 2.6 |
(1.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.2 |
(0.1)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.0 |
(0.0)
| 0.1 |
(0.0)
| 5.0 |
(2.0)
| 16.4 |
(6.5)
| 44.6 |
(17.6)
|Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)||19.9||14.5||17.3||15.8||12.7||10.9||7.0||7.1||7.6||15.6||19.6||20.2||168.2|
|Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm)||18.4||13.9||16.9||15.8||12.7||10.9||7.0||7.1||7.6||15.6||19.1||18.8||163.7|
|Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm)||3.1||0.9||0.6||0.0||0.07||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.0||0.06||0.8||3.1||8.6|
|Source: Environment and Climate Change Canada [30]|
Vancouver is Canada's third most rainy city, with over 161 rainy days per year. As measured at Vancouver Airport in Richmond, Vancouver receives 1,189 mm (46.8 in) of rain per year. [1] In North Vancouver, about 20 km (12 mi) away from the Vancouver airport, the amount of rain received doubles to 2,477 mm (97.5 in) per year as measured at the base of Grouse Mountain . [31]
Thunderstorms are rare, with an average of 6.1 thunderstorm days per year. [32] The weather in spring and autumn is usually showery and cool.
The grass-cutting season often begins in March and continues through October. Summers can be quite dry, and, as such, grass that has not been watered may not need to be cut for a month or even longer. Some summers may have no rain for five weeks or more, while others might have several very wet days in a row. In addition, Vancouver is one of the driest cities in Canada during the summer season, but the rest of the year the high pressure that locks in during the summer moves out and is replaced by the usual low pressure systems (rainy weather) by fall through to mid-spring.
July is historically the driest month in Vancouver and, in fact, Vancouver International Airport recorded no rainfall at all during the whole month of July 2013; [33] the first time ever in recorded history. Many other Julys have recorded less than 1 mm (0.04 in) of rain in Vancouver.
Snow falls in the higher-lying areas of Greater Vancouver, such as Burnaby Mountain , Coquitlam , and North and West Vancouver , every winter. It is also common in places close to or at sea level , however in lesser amounts. There is a general misconception among visitors and residents of other parts of Canada that Vancouver does not receive any snow at all, but in fact there has never been a year in which traceable snow has not been observed at Vancouver International Airport . The year 2015 marked an entire year of no measurable snow; only a trace was recorded on December 17, 2015. Environment Canada has ranked Vancouver in 3rd place under the category of "lowest snowfall" among 100 major Canadian cities as the annual average of days with snowfall above 0.2 cm (0.08 in) is only at 8.7 days. [34] Vancouver's coastal climate has nonetheless allowed it to be ranked in 59th place under the category of "Most huge snowfall days (25 cm or more)", placing it above cities like Calgary and Toronto as Vancouver averages 0.13 days annually with snowfall accumulations above 25 cm (9.8 in) (within a calendar day). [34] [32] [ dead link ]
Snow in Vancouver tends to be quite wet, which, combined with typical winter temperatures rising above and falling below 0 °C (32 °F) throughout the course of the day, can make for icy road conditions.
Years or months with snowfall surpassing 100 cm (39 in) are not completely exceptional. Snowfall exceeding 100 cm (39 in) occurred twice during the 1990s, and, in January 1971 alone, there was more than 120 cm (47 in) of snow. [35] The snowiest year on record at Vancouver International Airport was 1971, which received a total of 242.6 cm (95.5 in), [36] and the greatest snow depth reported was 61 cm (24 in) on January 15 of that year.
Although the 30–60 cm (12–24 in) which fell across Greater Vancouver and the Lower Mainland in a 24‑hour period in November 2006 [37] was out of the ordinary, snow has in fact accumulated at sea level in all months except for June, July, and August. However, even small amounts of snow in the Vancouver area can cause school closures , as well as produce traffic problems. The low frequency of snowfall makes it hard to justify the public works infrastructure necessary for more effective snow removal , as the city is usually in a thaw situation long before plowing of streets are completed. The City budgets $400,000 per year for the maintenance of snow removal equipment, for the purchasing of de-icing salt, and for the training of staff, but the costs of actual snow removal are funded separately from contingency reserve funds, and vary widely from season to season. For example, $1.1 million was spent in 1998, compared to $0 in 2001. [38] Blizzards are extremely rare, but heavy snowfall events are more common. One such event in 1996 resulted in over 60 cm (24 in) of snow in Vancouver and was responsible for millions of dollars in damage.
According to Environment and Climate Change Canada (2011), Vancouver now has a 20% chance of a White Christmas (up from 11%). [39] Vancouver experienced a White Christmas in 2008 after weeks of record breaking cold temperatures and four consecutive snow storms, leaving over 60 cm (24 in) of snow on the ground across Metro Vancouver. New snow also accumulated on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day giving it the title for Canada's whitest Christmas in 2008 with 41 cm (16 in) on ground (48 cm (19 in) at one point on Christmas Eve). Snow was also present for Christmas 2007, when 1 cm (0.39 in) was measured at the Vancouver International Airport. The previous official White Christmas occurred in 1998 when 20 cm (7.9 in) of snow was on the ground on Christmas Day following 31 cm (12 in) of snow and 20 mm (0.79 in) of rain. Despite higher frequency of snow during certain periods of the season (pattern unknown), generally, annual winter snowfall has decreased over the last 20 years. [40]
Gales are unlikely during the autumn months in Greater Vancouver. Three wind storms in the city's history have knocked down large swathes of trees in the forest of Stanley Park , the first having occurred in October 1934, with a blizzard the following January compounding its impact. [41] The second wind storm to hit Stanley Park was the remnant of Typhoon Freda in 1962 that levelled a 2.4-hectare (6-acre) tract of forest. This is now site of the park's miniature railroad. [42]
In November 2006, the Greater Vancouver region experienced above-average levels of rainfall and snowfall, breaking the previously established record of 18.1 cm (7.1 in) when 25.5 cm (10.0 in) of rain fell within the first 16 days of the month. [43] The heavy rain washed sediment into the city's reservoirs , and, as result, many businesses were advised to stop serving beverages prepared from tap water due to water contamination .
At Vancouver International Airport, 28 cm (11 in) of snow was recorded from the night of November 25 to the morning of November 27. The temperature dropped to −12 °C (10 °F) on November 28, 1.8 °C (3.2 °F) higher than the record low for the day, which was set in November 1985. On November 29, 10 cm (3.9 in) more snow fell on the city. The snowfall resulted in the closure of a number of public institutions and caused power outages throughout Surrey and Langley .
The Hanukkah Eve windstorm of 2006 swept through Greater Vancouver on December 15, 2006, with winds reaching from 70 to 125 km/h (43 to 78 mph). In Stanley Park, it damaged or uprooted over 5,000 trees, and caused mudslides , one of which destroyed a section of the seawall . [44] [45] Insured damages throughout the province were expected to reach CA$40 million and repairs to Stanley Park were expected to cost $9 million. [46] [47]
- ^ 1981–2010 normals are for Vancouver International Airport, while extreme high and low temperatures are from Vancouver PMO (October 1898 to May 1945), [6] and Vancouver International Airport (January 1937 to present). [7] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Vancouver | 30 |
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