query
stringclasses 153
values | title
stringlengths 4
262
| document
stringlengths 34
126k
| source_url
stringlengths 24
289
| query_id
int64 0
152
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
when did hawaii become the 50th state of america | The last time Congress created a new state | On March 12, 1959, Congress approved Hawaii for admission to the union as the 50th state, marking the last time statehood was subject to votes in the House and Senate.
President Dwight Eisenhower signed the Hawaii Admissions Act a week later on March 18, 1959, and Hawaii officially became the 50th state on August 21, 1959, after Hawaiians voted to become a state in June 1959 under terms specified in the Admissions Act.
The Constitution grants general state-creation powers to Congress in Article IV, Section 3, under the Admissions Clause, which reads: “New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.”
Since 1789, states have joined the union in various ways. The usual process has been for Congress to grant territorial status as a precursor, with a territory creating a local constitution for its citizens that conforms to the federal Constitution and the Declaration of Independence. In other cases, such as Texas, West Virginia, Vermont and Kentucky, the admission process differed. But since West Virginia’s admission to the union in 1863, the state admission process has been restricted to territories.
On the Interactive Constitution, Eric Biber and Thomas B. Colby describe the general evolution of the statehood process in recent times:
“The Admissions Clause provides that admission of a state requires at least one Act of Congress. However, Congress has often followed a more complicated process. For many admitted states, Congress first passed an Enabling Act, which authorized the population of a territory to convene a constitutional convention to draft a constitution for the new proposed state, and to apply for admission to Congress,” they explain.
“Often in the Enabling Act, Congress specified a range of conditions that the proposed state had to meet in order for admission to occur. … Once the proposed state constitution was drafted, it was sent to Congress, which then decided whether to pass an additional act or resolution admitting the state. One variation in the Enabling Act process involved Congress delegating the final approval process to the President.”
Efforts to add Alaska and Hawaii as states with “an equal footing with the other States” had picked up in their intensity after World War II when the strategic importance of both territories became more urgent. However, politics played a role in the statehood process in a divided Washington.
The admission of a state brings with it new electoral votes and new representatives in Congress. The Democrats during the 1950s favored Alaska as the 49th state, while the Republicans wanted Hawaii admitted by itself, with both sides believing there was a political benefit to the admissions process.
President Eisenhower had publicly supported Hawaiian statehood, but he had not supported Alaskan statehood until 1958 when it became clear that both territories would need to be admitted as states to keep a political balance in Washington.
In January 1959, Alaska became the 49th state, which accelerated the Hawaii statehood process. On March 11, 1959: the Senate voted 75-15 in favor of the Admissions Act, with the House approving the same bill in a 323 to 89 vote on March 12, 1959.
During the 1940s and 1950s, there was also a serious debate about the status of Puerto Rico as a potential state, or as an independent nation. Today, the statehood debate for Puerto Rico remains controversial. There is also a statehood movement in the District of Columbia. | https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-last-time-congress-created-a-new-state-hawaii | 40 |
how many 5 star general in us history | 5 Star Generals Don’t Come Around Often, And Maybe That's a Good Thing | Technically, becoming a 5 Star General can be done during peacetime, but let’s face it, the few men that have become 5 Star Generals have all been involved in numerous, ferocious conflicts. Not only were they a part of them, but they proved themselves capable and worthy through victory in extreme conditions. Thankfully, the leadership of these men helped to shape the course of history positively for the United States and its allies. Learn more about their impact and legacies.
There have been five 5 Star Generals in the history of the United States. They are George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Henry H. Arnold, and Omar Bradley. This rare designation comes only out of some of the worst conflicts mankind has ever known.
Note: while these are examples of Five Star Officers in the U.S. Army, there have also been four others that have achieved this feat in the U.S. Navy. The four Five Star Fleet Admirals are William D. Leahy, Ernest King, Chester W. Nimitz, and William Halsey Jr.
With all due respect to those that have served and are serving, while aspiring to be all that you can be for your country is admirable, having someone become a 5 Star General means a lot of war and tragedy has to go down.
In fact, of the five 5 Star Generals, all of them served in the greatest conflict known to mankind, World War II:
George C. Marshall
General Marshall fought successfully in World War I and WWII. In the latter, he would help bring Allied victories both directly and through his appointment and recommendations of several notable leaders including George S. Patton, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Omar Bradley to name a few.
Douglas MacArthur
From serving in World War I to helping lead an American victory in the Pacific Theatre of World War II, General MacArthur’s service is duly noted in the pages of history. But that wasn’t the end of his career as he would go on to lead the occupation of Japan post-WWII and lead U.N. forces in Korea.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
After serving in WWI, Eisenhower would earn the title of Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in WWII . He would also become a 5 Star General. Seeing a pattern yet? Ironically, while his service was instrumental in defining an important portion of the military history of the United States, these titles were not the highest rank Eisenhower would obtain. He would go on to become the 34th President of the United States.
Henry H. Arnold
Stop me if you’ve heard this before, but this 5 Star General served in both World War I and World War II. What is especially unique about General Arnold, however, is that he was not only a 5 Star General in the U.S. Army but also the only man to hold the rank in the U.S. Air Force as well.
Omar Bradley
General Bradley helped guard copper mines in Butte, Montana, during World War I. In World War II, Bradley would assist in commanding troops during D-Day as well as pushing through Europe to drive back the advances of Nazi Germany. During the Korean War, he would help develop policies for the U.S. military.
As you can see, there is a trend among these men and it all involves terrible battles in heinous conditions. Their leadership and tactics are largely responsible for how the world is shaped today, primarily in Europe and the United States. We are thankful for their service, but we must also recognize that the achievement of this rank is wrought with tragic circumstances.
Let’s be clear, the rank of Six Star General doesn’t officially exist, and yet, some argue that there have been three throughout the history of the United States: George Washington, Ulysses S. Grant, and John J. Pershing.
The discrepancy comes from the title of General of the Armies, which has been applied once during a conflict (Pershing), and twice posthumously to both Washington and Grant as commemorative honors.
Because the person who holds the title of General of the Armies is elevated to a higher rank than US 5 Star Generals, some make the argument that these positions are actually Six Star Generals.
As of this writing, the highest ranking starred General in the U.S. Army remains at 5 stars. Of course, this could change in the future due to legislation and organization within the American Armed Forces.
For now, there’s still some debate, including some who take things a step even further to claim that despite Pershing officially only having a theoretical six stars, he was actually, in fact, a 7-Star General.
Omar Bradley was the last 5 Star General appointed by the U.S. military. His appointment occurred on September 22, 1950. Since this time, no other 5 Star U.S. Generals have been appointed.
Again, this may not be a bad thing as a whole lot of war is the main requirement for the promotion, and that’s something that everyone can mostly do without. Either way, should others reach the status of becoming the next 5 Star Generals to serve our nation, it’s nothing short of an amazing feat that should be celebrated due to its historic circumstances. | https://veteranlife.com/military-history/5-star-generals/ | 41 |
how many 5 star general in us history | Five Star Officers | On December 14, 1944, Congress passed Public Law 482, authorizing the temporary establishment of a five-star rank: General of the Army and, for the U.S. Navy, Fleet Admiral. This aligned the United States' military ranks with those of its World War II allies, thus eliminating the problem of U.S. officers commanding Allied officers of technically higher rank. In December 1944, the Army promoted four general officers to General of the Army: Generals George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower and Henry H. "Hap" Arnold. The Navy, meanwhile, promoted three admirals to Fleet Admiral — Admirals William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King and Chester Nimitz — and a fourth, Admiral William F. Halsey, in December 1945. After the establishment of the Air Force as a separate service branch in 1947, General Arnold also became General of the Air Force. In September 1950, Omar N. Bradley became the fifth Army general to be promoted to five-star rank.
The five-star rank still exists, although no U.S. officers have held it since the death of General Bradley in 1981. The president may promote a general or admiral to five-star rank at any time, with Senate approval. However, U.S. military policy has been to award five-star rank only when the rank of an American commander must be equal to or higher than that of officers from other nations under his or her control (as was the case in World War II).
Five of the nine five-star officers are buried at Arlington National Cemetery: Generals Marshall, Arnold and Bradley, and Admirals Leahy and Halsey.
|Name||Date of Rank||Gravesite Location|
|Admiral William D. Leahy||Dec. 15, 1944||Section 2, Grave 932|
|General George C. Marshall||Dec. 16, 1944||Section 7, Grave 8198|
|General Henry H. Arnold||Dec. 21, 1944||Section 34, Grave 44-A|
|Admiral William F. Halsey||Dec. 11, 1945||Section 2, Grave 1184|
|General Omar N. Bradley||Sept. 20, 1950||Section 30, Grave 428-1-2|
Only two U.S. officers have held a rank higher than General of the Army or Fleet Admiral: John J. Pershing and George Washington, who hold the rank of General of the Armies. Pershing was promoted to General of the Armies in 1919, and Washington received a posthumous promotion in 1976, as part of the United States' bicentennial celebration. The Army has never officially adopted six stars to correspond with this rank, however.
General Pershing is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Section 34, Grave S-19. | https://www.arlingtoncemetery.mil/Explore/Notable-Graves/Prominent-Military-Figures/Five-Star-Officers | 41 |
how many 5 star general in us history | The Commanders: Admirals and Generals in the United States Military, 1940-- • | On October 25, 1940, Benjamin O. Davis Sr. was appointed Brigadier General in the United States Army by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, becoming the first African American general in the history of the United States Military. Since then nearly 400 other African American women and men have been appointed to that rank. The highest rank in the Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps is General (four star), followed by Lieutenant General (three star), Major General (two star) and Brigadier General (one star). Five men have held the rank of General of the Army (five star), George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, and Henry H. Arnold, who later became the only five-star general in the Air Force. The five-star rank is no longer attainable. In the Navy the top rank is “Admiral” (four star) followed by Vice Admiral (three star), and Rear Admiral (two star). In the Navy the rank of Fleet Admiral is rarely given. Only four men, William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King, Chester W. Nimitz, and William F. Halsey, Jr. have been named Fleet Admiral.
Listed below are African American men and women who have attained the rank of Admiral in the Navy or General in the Army or Air Force. No African American has yet attained the rank of General in the Marine Corps.
Additionally there are profiles of other significant African generals and admirals along with the black generals and admirals who have served in the military in other nations. As with all BlackPast.org compilations, this is a work in progress. If there are other commanders who have achieved the rank of admiral or general and you feel should be listed here, please send their names to [email protected] , or better still volunteer to write entries on them.
The United States: | https://www.blackpast.org/special-features/the-commanders-admirals-and-generals/ | 41 |
how many 5 star general in us history | Five Star Officers | On December 14, 1944, Congress passed Public Law 482, authorizing the temporary establishment of a five-star rank: General of the Army and, for the U.S. Navy, Fleet Admiral. This aligned the United States' military ranks with those of its World War II allies, thus eliminating the problem of U.S. officers commanding Allied officers of technically higher rank. In December 1944, the Army promoted four general officers to General of the Army: Generals George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower and Henry H. "Hap" Arnold. The Navy, meanwhile, promoted three admirals to Fleet Admiral — Admirals William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King and Chester Nimitz — and a fourth, Admiral William F. Halsey, in December 1945. After the establishment of the Air Force as a separate service branch in 1947, General Arnold also became General of the Air Force. In September 1950, Omar N. Bradley became the fifth Army general to be promoted to five-star rank.
The five-star rank still exists, although no U.S. officers have held it since the death of General Bradley in 1981. The president may promote a general or admiral to five-star rank at any time, with Senate approval. However, U.S. military policy has been to award five-star rank only when the rank of an American commander must be equal to or higher than that of officers from other nations under his or her control (as was the case in World War II).
Five of the nine five-star officers are buried at Arlington National Cemetery: Generals Marshall, Arnold and Bradley, and Admirals Leahy and Halsey.
|Name||Date of Rank||Gravesite Location|
|Admiral William D. Leahy||Dec. 15, 1944||Section 2, Grave 932|
|General George C. Marshall||Dec. 16, 1944||Section 7, Grave 8198|
|General Henry H. Arnold||Dec. 21, 1944||Section 34, Grave 44-A|
|Admiral William F. Halsey||Dec. 11, 1945||Section 2, Grave 1184|
|General Omar N. Bradley||Sept. 20, 1950||Section 30, Grave 428-1-2|
Only two U.S. officers have held a rank higher than General of the Army or Fleet Admiral: John J. Pershing and George Washington, who hold the rank of General of the Armies. Pershing was promoted to General of the Armies in 1919, and Washington received a posthumous promotion in 1976, as part of the United States' bicentennial celebration. The Army has never officially adopted six stars to correspond with this rank, however.
General Pershing is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Section 34, Grave S-19. | https://www.arlingtoncemetery.mil/Explore/Notable-Graves/Prominent-Military-Figures/Five-Star-Officers | 41 |
how many 5 star general in us history | Five-star rank - Wikipedia | This article needs additional citations for verification . ( February 2022 )
This article possibly contains original research . Many nations have no sources mentioning their adherence to the ranking system ( February 2022 )
A five-star rank is the highest military rank in many countries. [1] The rank is that of the most senior operational military commanders, and within NATO 's standard rank scale it is designated by the code OF-10 . Not all armed forces have such a rank, and in those that do the actual insignia of the five-star ranks may not contain five stars. For example: the insignia for the French OF-10 rank maréchal de France contains seven stars; the insignia for the Portuguese marechal contains four gold stars. The stars used on the rank insignias of various Commonwealth of Nations are sometimes referred to colloquially as pips, but are stars of the orders of the Garter , Thistle or Bath or Eversleigh stars depending on the wearer's original regiment or corps, [2] and are used in combination with other heraldic items, such as batons, crowns, swords or maple leaves.
Typically, five-star officers hold the rank of general of the army , admiral of the fleet , field marshal , marshal or general of the air force , and several other similarly named ranks. As an active rank, the position exists only in a minority of countries and is usually held by only a very few officers during wartime . In times of peace, it is usually held only as an honorary rank . Traditionally, five-star ranks are granted to distinguished military commanders for notable wartime victories and/or in recognition of a record of achievement during the officer's career, whether in peace or in war. Alternatively, a five-star rank (or even higher ranks) may be assumed by heads of state in their capacities as commanders-in-chief of their nation's armed forces.
Despite the rarity and seniority of five-star officers, an even more-senior rank of general of the armies was adopted in the United States. Other names for highly senior ranks from the twentieth century include généralissime (France), generalísimo (Spain) and generalissimus (USSR).
Only one Australian-born officer, Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey , has held a substantive Australian five-star rank. Lord Birdwood , who commanded the Australian Imperial Force in the First World War , was appointed to honorary five-star rank in the Australian Military Forces on his promotion to field marshal in the British Army in 1925. [3] [4] King George VI and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh , have held all three Australian five-star ranks in an honorary capacity, and have been the only holders of the Australian ranks of admiral of the fleet and marshal of the RAAF.
Australian Army field marshal
shoulder board
Marshal of the RAAF
sleeve/shoulder insignia
Five-star ranks in Brazil are only used in wartime.
Almirante
Marechal
Marechal-do-Ar
General of the army
- Stožerni general (lit. "staff general", usually translated as general of the army) awarded to six men, none of whom are in active duty.
- Admiral flote (admiral of the fleet). The rank was called stožerni admiral (lit. "staff admiral") until 1999; only Sveto Letica was awarded this rank—in March 1996, three months before his retirement.
It is also worth noting that this was not the apex and there was a six-star rank also present in the Wehrmacht known as Reichsmarschall , however it was only ever present in the Luftwaffe and only ever held by one man: Hermann Göring , arguably the second most powerful man in Nazi Germany . [5]
Field marshal epaulette
Flag of a field marshal
Star insignia of a field marshal
Marshal of the Indian Air Force rank insignia
Flag of the marshal of the Indian Air Force
Flag of the marshal of the Indian Air Force (1950–1980)
Marshal of the Indian Air Force sleeve insignia
Marshal of the Indian Air Force sleeve insignia
Admiral of the fleet sleeve insignia
Flag of the admiral of the fleet (2001–2004)
General Sam Manekshaw was the first officer to be promoted to five-star rank. He was promoted to the rank of field marshal on 1 January 1973 after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 . General K. M. Cariappa , the first Indian commander-in-chief of the Indian Army was promoted to the rank of field marshal in 1986. In 2001, Air Chief Marshal Arjan Singh was promoted to the rank of marshal of the Indian Air Force (MIAF). Around 1998, the Indian Air Force introduced gorget patches (or collar tabs) for its air officers . The MIAF's patches display five stars. [6]
According to Government Regulation No. 32/1997, [7] the Indonesian five-star ranks are:
- Jenderal besar (grand general) – only awarded to three people:
- Soedirman , the rank was granted posthumously.
- Abdul Haris Nasution , the rank was granted 26-years after his retirement.
- Soeharto (second president of Indonesia ), his rank was granted during his own rule.
The five-star ranks above are honorary rank and does not provide additional authority or responsibility.
However, Government Regulation No. 32/1997 has been revoked and replaced by Government Regulation No. 39/2010, [8] and the latest regulation does not mention a five-star rank. Therefore, it is unlikely that there will be any Indonesian military personnel awarded five-star rank in the future.
Jenderal besar (grand general) rank insignia
Laksamana besar (grand admiral) rank insignia
Marsekal besar (grand marshal) rank insignia
These ranks are used by the Italian chief of the general staff only.
Senior general ( Burmese : ဗိုလ်ချုပ်မှူးကြီး ) is the highest rank in Myanmar Armed Forces . It is the single rank for all three branches, and held by the commander-in-chief of Defence Services (CinCDS). It was created during the expansion of Armed Forces structure in 1990, and the first person to hold is Saw Maung promoted by himself directly from general to senior general on 18 March 1990. [9]
|Burmese title||English title||Rank insignia|| Golden strap |
[10]
| Rank medal |
[10] [11]
| Car insignia |
[12] [13]
|ဗိုလ်ချုပ်မှူးကြီး||Senior general|
| Insignia on |
regular uniform
|Myanmar Army|| Myanmar Navy |
[14]
| Myanmar Air Force |
[15]
Admiral ( Dutch : Admiraal ) is theoretically the highest possible military rank in the Royal Netherlands Navy , although this five-star rank is no longer awarded.
Under Article VII, Section 18 of the constitution, the president holds the position of commander-in-chief, which is not considered and recognized to be a five-star rank. [16] Emilio Aguinaldo , the first president of the Philippines, held the title generalissimo and Ministro Mariskal and is considered as the first commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines .
Historically, five-star ranks were held by field marshals . US Army General Douglas MacArthur was the first and only field marshal in the history of the Philippine Army, a position he held while also acting as the military advisor to the commonwealth government of the Philippines with a rank of major general. President Quezon conferred the rank of field marshal on 24 August 1936 and MacArthur's duty included the supervision of the creation of the Philippines nation-state.
- Ministro Mariskal insignia
Philippine Revolutionary Army
General Emilio Aguinaldo, the first holder of five-star rank as the first president and commander-in-chief of the Philippines
General Douglas MacArthur, the first and currently the only field marshal in Philippine history
Marshal of Poland ( Marszałek Polski ) is a Polish Army five-star rank. There are today no living marshals of Poland, since this rank is bestowed only on military commanders who have achieved victory in war. The last appointment was in 1963 to Marian Spychalski .
Marshal of Poland cap insignia
Marshal of Poland shoulder-strap insignia
Different from most other countries, the marshals ( Army and Air Force ) and admirals of the fleet ( Navy ) of Portugal are not identified by five stars, but by four golden stars, in comparison with generals and admirals who are also identified by four stars, but in silver.
Five-star appointments—and not ranks—were however foreseen in the armed forces of Portugal, at different times in the past, for the officers exercising the several government posts related with defense (minister of national defense, minister for the army, secretary of state for the army, etc.).
Mareșal al Armatei Române (marshal of the Romanian Army) is the highest military rank in the Romanian military forces. This rank can be bestowed to persons from the royal family or to four-star generals or admirals during wartime only. After World War II, the latest surviving marshal of Romania was King Michael I , who was bestowed this rank on May 10, 1941 (the national day of Romania). He died in December 2017.
The epaulettes insignia of a Romanian marshal
- General of the army ( Thống tướng ), Army -held by one officer
- Admiral of the fleet ( Thủy sư Đô đốc ), Navy
- General of the air force ( Thống tướng ), Air Force
Five-star ranks were used by the former Republic of Vietnam Military Forces during the Vietnam War , from 1955 to 1975. The ranks were changed in 1964 to resemble US ranks more closely. The rank only bestowed to Lê Văn Tỵ
Ty's shoulder insignia (1955–1963)
General of the army ( Thống tướng ; 1964–1975)
Admiral of the fleet ( Thủy sư Đô đốc ; 1964–1975)
General of the air force ( Thống tướng ; 1964–1975)
Since 1922 it is not properly a rank but a "military dignity". The only full capitán general is currently His Majesty the King of Spain, the last not-royal appointment (honorary) was in 1994 to Manuel Gutiérrez Mellado. The rank of capitán general is currently bestowed also to several images of the Virgin Mary , among them la Virgen de Butarque, la Virgen del Pilar, la Virgen de Guadalupe, Nuestra Señora de los Reyes, la Virgen de los Desamparados (this one properly capitana generalísima ), la Virgen de la Serra, la Virgen del Canto y la Virgen de los Remedios. The latest appointment was to Nuestra Señora de los Dolores, April 2011.
Capitán general ("captain general") shoulder board
Capitán general de la Armada ("captain general of the navy") shoulder board and sleeve
Capitán general del Aire ("air captain general") shoulder board
Field Marshal
Chom Phon (field marshal)
Chom Phon Ruea (admiral of the fleet)
Chom Phon Akat (marshal of the Royal Thai Air Force)
The monarch of Thailand is appointed to the three ranks automatically upon accession as he is the constitutional head of the Royal Thai Armed Forces . Since 1973 the three ranks have been reserved for members of the royal family .
The worn insignia of British five-star commanders do not contain stars; the vehicle star plate, mounted on the front of a staff car, does display five stars. [17]
- Admiral of the fleet (awarded to 121 men to date)
- Field marshal (awarded to 140 men to date)
- Marshal of the Royal Air Force (awarded to 27 men to date)
Royal Navy admiral of the fleet (shoulder board)
Royal Navy admiral of the fleet (sleeve lace)
Field marshal of the British Army epaulette
Marshal of the Royal Air Force (shoulder board)
Marshal of the Royal Air Force (sleeve insignia)
Promotion to the ranks of admiral of the fleet and marshal of the Royal Air Force is now generally held in abeyance in peacetime with exceptions for special circumstances. Promotion to the rank of field marshal was generally stopped in 1995 as a cost-cutting measure but is still made in some cases. [18] [19] The most recent appointments to five-star ranks are the promotions in 2012 of the Prince of Wales to honorary five-star rank in all three services, and of former Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Guthrie of Craigiebank to the honorary rank of field marshal. [19] [20] In 2014 the former Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Stirrup was promoted to the honorary rank of marshal of the Royal Air Force. [21]
During World War II and after, serving NATO , a small number of British five-star commanders have held the additional title Supreme Allied Commander , given operational control over all air, land, and sea units led by the four-star commanders of multi-national forces.
Before the five-star ranks were established in 1944, [1] two officers had previously been promoted from their four-star ranks to the superior and unique ranks of Admiral of the Navy and General of the Armies : Admiral George Dewey (appointment 1903 retroactive to 1899, died 1917) and General John J. Pershing (appointed 1919, died 1948). In 1944 the Navy and Army specified that these officers were considered senior to any officers promoted to the five-star ranks within their services (but it was not clear if they were senior by rank or by seniority due to an earlier date of rank).
Five-star ranks were created in the U.S. military during World War II because of the awkward situation created when some American senior commanders were placed in positions commanding allied officers of higher rank. [22] U.S. officers holding five-star rank draw full active duty pay for life, both before and after retiring from active duty. [23] The five-star ranks were retired in 1981 on the death of General of the Army Omar Bradley . [22]
Nine Americans have been promoted to five-star rank, one of them, Henry H. Arnold , in two services (U.S. Army then later in the U.S. Air Force). As part of the bicentennial celebration, George Washington was, 177 years after his death, permanently made senior to all other U.S. generals and admirals with the title General of the Armies effective on 4 July 1976. The appointment stated he was to have "rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present". [nb 2]
During World War II and (later) serving NATO , a small number of American five-star commanders have also held the additional title of Supreme Allied Commander , given operational control over all air, land, and sea units led by the four-star commanders of multi-national forces.
Fleet admiral collar device, sleeve stripes and shoulder board
General of the Army shoulder epaulet
General of the Air Force shoulder epaulet
In various law enforcement agencies, such as the Detroit Police Department and Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department , their respective heads wear five-star ranks. [24]
- a b c The Australian insignia for admiral of the fleet , field marshal and marshal of the Royal Australian Air Force , depending on the era, are either identical to, or very similar to, the British insignia. Prince Philip was the most recent holder of these Australian ranks. Although the highest active New Zealand rank is three-star, (there are no New Zealand four-star rank holders), Prince Philip held five-star ranks in the New Zealand Armed Forces.
- ^ The following Americans have been promoted to five-star rank:
• Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy 15 December 1944 • General of the Army George Marshall 16 December 1944 • Fleet Admiral Ernest King 17 December 1944 • General of the Army Douglas MacArthur 18 December 1944 • Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz 19 December 1944 • General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower 20 December 1944 • General of the Army & Air Force Henry H. Arnold 21 December 1944 & 7 May 1949 • Fleet Admiral William Halsey, Jr. 11 December 1945 • General of the Army Omar Bradley 20 September 1950 • General of the Armies George Washington 4 July 1976, with an effective appointment date of 4 July 1776 a
The timing of the first seven appointments was to establish both a clear order of seniority and a near-equivalence between the Army and Navy services. In 1949, Arnold was honored by being made the first, and to date only, General of the Air Force. He is the only American to serve in a five-star rank in two of its military services.
By a Congressional Act of 24 March 1903, Admiral George Dewey 's rank was established as admiral of the Navy , a rank which was specified to be senior to the four-star rank of admiral and was equal to admiral of the fleet in the British Royal Navy . Admiral Dewey was the only individual ever appointed to this rank, which lapsed with his death on 16 January 1917. Admiral of the Navy was considered superior to fleet admiral during World War II. On 3 September 1919, John Pershing was promoted to the rank of General of the Armies (officially General of the Armies of the United States) in recognition of his service during World War I . He is the only person promoted to this rank during their lifetime.
- ^a During the United States Bicentennial year, George Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on 19 January 1976, with an effective appointment date of 4 July 1976 but having rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present. This restored Washington's position as the most senior U.S. military officer. Between the joint resolution concerning Washington's rank, the fact that Omar Bradley was still alive, and thus still considered to be on active duty, and statements made and actions taken during and after World War II about the relationship between General of the Armies and General of the Army, it appears General of the Armies is superior in rank to General of the Army.
- ^b No official law or regulation established exact seniority or reciprocity between Admiral of the Navy Dewey, and Generals of the Armies Washington and Pershing. While Congress clearly indicated that Washington was senior to Pershing, and also all other "officers of the United States Army," and by decades of custom Pershing was considered senior to all five-star and other four-star generals of the U.S. Army, nowhere is Dewey's exact seniority established. As Washington was explicitly made senior only to Pershing and other officers of the U.S. Army, ambiguity remains whether Admiral Dewey, with a date of rank as early as 1899 above a four-star, and senior to all later five-stars, is not actually senior to Washington by date of rank, and by operation of naval custom making Dewey senior to all five-stars. As Dewey died (and his rank died with him) before Pershing was appointed to his final rank, and the Army and Navy were far more independent before the creation of the Department of Defense unified them, this could indicate Admiral of the Navy Dewey, not General of the Armies Washington, is actually the most senior ranking U.S. military officer in U.S. history. By definition, officers of each Armed Force rank amongst themselves by seniority. And when they serve with other Armed Services (Army and Navy, for example), they rank amongst themselves by date of rank notwithstanding their parent Service. In the case of Dewey, he is undisputedly the seniormost Navy officer ever to have served in the U.S. Navy, and he had nearly 20 years of seniority over Pershing as a "special rank, above 4-star." Washington's own, revised, date of rank in 1976 does not precede Dewey's date of rank nearly 75 years before, nor did Congress describe in unambiguous wording that Washington was – in fact – senior to all officers of the U.S. Army, as well as all other U.S. Armed Forces including the U.S. Navy. Had Congress chosen to explicitly so state, there would be no ambiguity, but it remains unsettled if – in spite of the desired outcome that Washington be the senior U.S. military officer to have ever served – Congress' ways and means achieved their object. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-star_rank | 41 |
how many 5 star general in us history | 5-Star Generals | Advertisements
Advertisements
George C. Marshall
(16 Dec 1944)
Douglas MacArthur
(18 Dec 1944)
Dwight D. Eisenhower
(20 Dec 1944)
Henry H. Arnold
(21 Dec 1944)
Omar Bradley
(20 Dec 1950)
Additionally, the U.S. Navy maintains its own "Five Star" status in the form of the rank "Fleet Admiral". This rank was awarded to the following men (their awarding date follows their name):
William D. Leahy
(15 Dec 1944)
Ernest J. King
(17 Dec 1944)
Chester W. Nimitz
(19 Dec 1944)
William F. Halsey, Jr
(11 Dec 1945)
Only one member of the United States Air Force (then as the "United States Army Air Force") has ever held the rank of 5-star general as "General of the Air Force". Henry H. Arnold also holds the distinction as the only person to ever achieve the 5-star rank in two branches of the U.S. Armed Forces:
Of note is the grade of "General of the Armies of the United States", a position held by only two persons in American history - George Washington and John J. Pershing . Of the two, only General Pershing held the title while still alive, Washington being posthumously bestowed the honor by President Gerald Ford in 1976. Pershing earned the title in 1919 after his service in World War 1 and held it until his death on July 15th, 1948.
It also bears mention that, on March 24th, 1903, Admiral George Dewey (1837-1917) was honored with the special grade of "Admiral of the Navy" (retroactive to March 2nd, 1899) which was intended to be senior to the four-star admiral rank. Dewey remains the only US naval service member ever awarded this title. In 1944 (during World War 2), Admiral of the Navy was formally recognized as senior to the 5 star rank of Fleet Admiral.
General Ulysses S. Grant (of American Civil War fame) was given the rank of "General of the Army of the United States" by the U.S. Congress on July 25th, 1866. He wore the rank insignia with four stars and was reportedly never addressed by this title. Upon becoming President of the United States of America, the position fell to William T. Sherman on March 4th, 1869. Under Sherman's direction, the rank insignia was revised to showcase just two stars. On June 1st, 1888, the rank was passed to Philip Sheridan and its tenure ended with his death on August 5th, 1888.
Advertisements
Disclaimer | Privacy Policy | Cookies
2023 Military Pay Chart Military Ranks DoD Dictionary Conversion Calculators Military Alphabet Code Military Map Symbols
The "Military Factory" name and MilitaryFactory.com logo are registered ® U.S. trademarks protected by all applicable domestic and international intellectual property laws. All written content, illustrations, and photography are unique to this website (unless where indicated) and not for reuse/reproduction in any form. Material presented throughout this website is for historical and entertainment value only and should not to be construed as usable for hardware restoration, maintenance, or general operation. We do not sell any of the items showcased on this site. Please direct all other inquiries to militaryfactory AT gmail.com.
Part of a network of sites that includes GlobalFirepower, a data-driven property used in ranking the top military powers of the world , WDMMA.org (World Directory of Modern Military Aircraft) , WDMMW.org (World Directory of Modern Military Warships) , SR71blackbird.org, detailing the history of the world's most iconic spyplane , and MilitaryRibbons.info, cataloguing military medals and ribbons .
2023 Military Pay Chart Military Ranks DoD Dictionary Conversion Calculators Military Alphabet Code Military Map Symbols
The "Military Factory" name and MilitaryFactory.com logo are registered ® U.S. trademarks protected by all applicable domestic and international intellectual property laws. All written content, illustrations, and photography are unique to this website (unless where indicated) and not for reuse/reproduction in any form. Material presented throughout this website is for historical and entertainment value only and should not to be construed as usable for hardware restoration, maintenance, or general operation. We do not sell any of the items showcased on this site. Please direct all other inquiries to militaryfactory AT gmail.com.
Part of a network of sites that includes GlobalFirepower, a data-driven property used in ranking the top military powers of the world , WDMMA.org (World Directory of Modern Military Aircraft) , WDMMW.org (World Directory of Modern Military Warships) , SR71blackbird.org, detailing the history of the world's most iconic spyplane , and MilitaryRibbons.info, cataloguing military medals and ribbons . | https://www.militaryfactory.com/5-star-generals.php | 41 |
how many 5 star general in us history | 5-Star Generals - Officer Assignments | 5-star general or five-star ranks were first established by the U.S. military in 1944. The 5-star rank was created during World War II in order to address American generals that were in command above allied officers yet had a lower rank. There were seven 5-star appointments in 1944, another in 1950, General Omar Bradley, and then one posthumous appointment (General George Washington) in 1776.
0 of 30 seconds Volume 0%
00:01
00:30
The following 9 Americans have been promoted to five-star rank:
General of The Army
- General of the Army George Marshall: December 16, 1944
- General of the Army Douglas MacArthur: December 18, 1944
- General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower: December 20, 1944
- General of the Army Henry H. Arnold: December 21, 1944
- General of the Army Omar Bradley: September 20, 1950
- General of the Armies George Washington: July 4, 1976 (effective appointment date of July 4, 1776)
Fleet Admiral
- Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy: December 15, 1944
- Fleet Admiral Ernest King: December 17, 1944
- Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz: December 19, 1944
- Fleet Admiral William Halsey, Jr.: December 11, 1945
General of the Air Force
- General of the Air Force Henry H. Arnold: December 21, 1944 (also General of the Army)
Is There Six Star General?
General of the Armies (GAS) is informally considered to be a six-star rank (note the plural use of “armies”). There have been two General of the Armies. In 1919, General John J. Pershing was promoted to General of the Armies, a rank especially created for him. He is not listed as a five-star general because at the time a 5-star rank did not exist and he wore four gold stars. In 1976, George Washington was posthumously promoted to this rank as well as part of the U.S. Bicentennial. Washington received this rank in order to rectify that he had become outranked by four-and five-star ranks that were created in future wars. The appointment stated he was to have “rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present”.
Is There Seven Star General?
No, Five Star General is the highest rank in the U.S. military.
Who was the last 5 star General?
General of the Army Omar Bradley was the last general to achieve 5 stars and the 5-stars were retired in 1981 upon his death.
General Petraeus
For a short time there was a push to make General Petraeus a 5-star general, the first in more than 50 years. That sentiment appears to have dissipated now that he has retired and has not been without controversy since.
Did you know?
5-star generals never retire and continue to draw full active duty pay for life.
What are each general stars Called?
A 1 star general is known as a Brigadier General.
A 2 star general is known as a Major General.
A 3 star general is known as a Lieutenant General.
A 4 star general is known as a General.
A 5 star general is known as a General of the Army or Air Force or Fleet Admiral for the Navy.
A 6 star general is known as the General of the Armies.
Shape of Water Movie Goof
A 5-star general would not have existed in the Shape of Water which takes place in 1962. In the movie The Shape of Water there is a 5-star General played by Nick Searcy, who is in charge of the Baltimore government research facility. However, the last 5-star general was Omar Bradley who was retired by 1962 and since the U.S. military has only used 5-star generals during times of war there would have been no 5-star general at that time. | https://officerassignments.com/5-star-generals/ | 41 |
how many 5 star general in us history | The Commanders: Admirals and Generals in the United States Military, 1940-- • | On October 25, 1940, Benjamin O. Davis Sr. was appointed Brigadier General in the United States Army by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, becoming the first African American general in the history of the United States Military. Since then nearly 400 other African American women and men have been appointed to that rank. The highest rank in the Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps is General (four star), followed by Lieutenant General (three star), Major General (two star) and Brigadier General (one star). Five men have held the rank of General of the Army (five star), George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, and Henry H. Arnold, who later became the only five-star general in the Air Force. The five-star rank is no longer attainable. In the Navy the top rank is “Admiral” (four star) followed by Vice Admiral (three star), and Rear Admiral (two star). In the Navy the rank of Fleet Admiral is rarely given. Only four men, William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King, Chester W. Nimitz, and William F. Halsey, Jr. have been named Fleet Admiral.
Listed below are African American men and women who have attained the rank of Admiral in the Navy or General in the Army or Air Force. No African American has yet attained the rank of General in the Marine Corps.
Additionally there are profiles of other significant African generals and admirals along with the black generals and admirals who have served in the military in other nations. As with all BlackPast.org compilations, this is a work in progress. If there are other commanders who have achieved the rank of admiral or general and you feel should be listed here, please send their names to [email protected] , or better still volunteer to write entries on them.
The United States: | https://www.blackpast.org/special-features/the-commanders-admirals-and-generals/ | 41 |
how many 5 star general in us history | 5 Star Generals in U.S. History - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com | There is no official "6-star" general, however there is a "General of the Armies of the United States". This rank, which has been awarded to two generals, is not officially recognized as 6-stars. The two generals to be honored with this designation were General John Jay Pershing and General George Washington.
There have been five 5-star generals: George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Henry H. Arnold, and Omar Bradley.
During World War II, officers of the United States of America found themselves in an unusual situation: they were commanding Allied officers of a higher rank. This problem was solved with the creation of the five-star rank . Congress passed Public Law 482 on December 14, 1944, creating the titles General of the Army and Fleet Admiral , the five-star ranks for the army and navy respectively. In short, American 5-star generals are the top U.S. generals. Since its creation, there have been five 5-star generals and four 5-star admirals.
Surprisingly, 5-Star Generals are not the highest rank in the U.S. armed forces. Two men have achieved the rank of General of the Armies of the United States, the highest-ranking general. General John Jay Pershing was named General of the Armies of the United States in recognition of his command during World War I. General George Washington was awarded this rank posthumously in 1976.
To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Create your account
Normal
The 5-star general is the highest star general possible. The President of the United States can promote an officer to the 5-star rank; however, the policy is that this may only occur when the general must command officers from other nations that are of a higher rank. How many 5-star generals are there? There have been five 5-star generals, one of whom, Henry H. Arnold, has earned 5-star ranks in two divisions. Below is a list of U.S. 5-star generals.
5-Star General George C. Marshall
The first 5-star general was George C. Marshall (1880-1959). Born in Uniontown, PA, he began his career serving in the 30th Infantry unit in the Philippines as a second lieutenant after graduating from Virginia Military Institute in 1901. During World War I, he was an aide to General John J. Pershing. He served as the Chief of Staff for the United States Army from 1939 to 1945 when he was the mastermind behind the strategy of the United States and Allied forces in World War II. Later he developed what is known as the "Marshall Plan" in order to provide aid to Europe post-WWII. He was promoted to the 5-star general rank on December 16, 1944.
To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Create your account
Are you a student or a teacher? | https://study.com/learn/lesson/5-star-generals-in-us-history.html | 41 |
what is the video this is america about | The Real Meaning Of The "This Is America" Video | On May 5, 2018, Donald Glover, aka Childish Gambino, released a music video for his song "This Is America." The video depicts many issues within the nation in addition to how American culture views black culture.
In my opinion, the video is a cinematic masterpiece; the dancing and images can easily distract one from seeing what Glover really means, which is exactly his point.
Glover's video parallels America in several ways, here's how.
Throughout the video, guns are shot numerous times. After each shot and death, the gun is removed from the scene with care while the black body is dragged away.
In my opinion, this is a reference to many Americans' attachment to their guns. Guns are dangerous to every member of the human race, but in recent years most of the stories we hear about gun violence involve blacks.
This could also be a reference to the numerous times police officers have been acquitted of murder charges.
At one point in the video, a church choir is seen singing, only to be silenced by Glover shooting the members of the choir with an assault rifle.
This is an allusion to a hate crime, more specifically the Charleston Church shooting of 2015.
At the start of the video, Glover takes a stance similar to the pose of the fictional character, Jim Crow, who is representative of the white man's view of black people. Glover then proceeds to shoot a masked, unarmed black man in the back, a boo.
Black people in America are at the bottom. We are far less tolerated and accepted than any other race. It is my opinion that our hardships and exploitation are what this country thrives off of economically. All the while we are also viewed as a form of entertainment and are often the victims of cultural appropriation.
In each scene the dance moves distract from the chaos in the background. Much like how we are often distracted from tragedies by pop culture and the newest trends.
As chaos ensues in the background, many of us fail to notice as we are only focused on the main attraction and unable to process what is going on behind. | https://www.theodysseyonline.com/this-america | 42 |
what is the video this is america about | An Expert's Take on the Symbolism in Childish Gambino’s Viral ‘This Is America’ Video | 0 seconds of 1 minute, 31 seconds Volume 0%
D onald Glover released a new song and music video “This Is America” under his musical moniker Childish Gambino on Saturday Night Live this weekend — and the four-minute, single-take music video is laden with metaphors about race and gun violence in America.
The “This Is America” video, which has already racked up more than 20 million views on YouTube, reveals provocative imagery of the rapper as he guns down a choir at one point and dances while violence breaks out all around him. Childish Gambino/Glover ‘s decision to wear just a pair of gray pants without a shirt in the video, allows viewers to identify with “his humanness,” as he raps about the violent contradictions that come with being black in America, says Guthrie Ramsey, a professor of music history at the University of Pennsylvania.
Biden's Visit to Northern Ireland Highlights the Complicated Legacy of the Good Friday Agreement
Posted 22 Days Ago
Warning: Graphic violence
“The central message is about guns and violence in America and the fact that we deal with them and consume them as part of entertainment on one hand, and on the other hand, is a part of our national conversation,” Ramsey tells TIME. “You’re not supposed to feel as if this is the standard fare opulence of the music industry. It’s about a counter-narrative and it really leaves you with chills.”
Here’s Ramsay’s take on four key moments from “This Is America.”
YouTube
The opening moments of “This Is America” show a man strumming a guitar alone to choral sounds. Within the first minute, Gambino shoots the man, who has been tied up with a head cover. Childish Gambino hands the gun to another man, who safely wraps it in a red cloth as the obscured man is dragged away. The moment goes right into the first rapped chorus: “This is America / Don’t catch you slippin’ up.”
Ramsay says the timing — that this happens during the song’s move from choral tones to a trap sound — allows Gambino to straddle contradictions and also allows the viewer to identify with his humanness.
“He’s talking about the contradictions of trying to get money, the idea of being a black man in America,” Ramsey says. “It comes out of two different sound worlds. Part of the brilliance of the presentation is that you go from this happy major mode of choral singing that we associate with South African choral singing, and then after the first gunshot it moves right into the trap sound.”
The early moment shows, too, that Gambino “could be anyone,” according to Ramsey. “You have him almost unadorned, as if he were totally without all the accoutrements of stardom,” he says, noting that Gambino dances in neutral colored pants, dark skin and with textured hair. “It’s just him, and therefore, it could be us.”
YouTube
Gambino and a group of kids clad in school uniforms dance throughout much of the “This Is America” video, smiling through impeccable moves as violence erupts behind them. The moment could be open to numerous interpretations — for example, Ramsey says, the dancers could be there to distract viewers in the same way black art is used to distract people from real problems plaguing America. But, Ramsey says, it’s better to absorb the video as a whole because America itself is a country of “very strange juxtapositions.”
“Even though we think of popular culture a a space where we escape, he’s forcing us to understand that there’s actually nowhere to run,” he says. “We have to deal with the cultural violence that we have created and continue to sustain.”
The style of dancing by Gambino in the video also calls out the way we consume culture. Gambino samples at least 10 popular dance moves derived from hip hop and African moves, including the South African Gwara Gwara dance, according to Forbes . Ramsey says the use of so many famous dance moves show how ultra-popular pieces of culture lose their specificity over time as they become more ubiquitous.
“It’s really a commentary on how much violence and contradictions there are in the consuming of pop culture, particularly in the violent elements of it,” he says. “With all the conspicuous consumption that global capitalism inspires, part of what we are consuming is this appetite for violence.”
YouTube
Toward the middle of the video, a choir sings enthusiastically in a happy tone before Gambino shoots them all. The massacre and its quickness recall the 2015 Charleston shooting in which white supremacist Dylann Roof killed nine black people in a church basement , Ramsey says. The image and what it evokes shows how people struggle to reconcile with and separate different instances of violence, according to Ramsey. As we consume violence on all sorts of platforms, be it in the news, through music videos or television shows, it becomes difficult to absorb very real instances of mass murders.
“You can’t escape the violence,” Ramsey says. “But you’re being forced to separate how you feel about it in our digitized world. The virtual violence, the real violence, it’s all confused.”
YouTube
The final moments of the video show Gambino running, terrified, down a long dark hallway away from a group of people as Young Thug sings “You just a Black man in this world / You just a barcode, ayy.” Gambino’s sprint goes back to a long tradition of black Americans having to run to save their lives, according to Ramsey, who says one song dating back to slavery in the 19th century was called “Run N— Run.”
“A black person running for his or her life has just been a part of American culture dating back to slavery,” he says.
More Must-Reads From TIME | https://time.com/5267890/childish-gambino-this-is-america-meaning/#:~:text=D%20onald%20Glover%20released%20a%20new%20song%20and,metaphors%20about%20race%20and%20gun%20violence%20in%20America. | 42 |
what is the video this is america about | Childish Gambino's 'This Is America' Video, Explained | Childish Gambino took the internet by storm this weekend with the release of his new single “ This Is America ” and its accompanying music video loaded with haunting images of black oppression and gun violence.
Advertisement
Childish Gambino took the internet by storm this weekend with the release of his new single “ This Is America ” and its accompanying music video loaded with haunting images of black oppression and gun violence.
Fans unpacked the subtle references on Twitter, with many proclaiming the rapper, whose real name is Donald Glover , one of the most important voices of this generation.
ICYMI, below are some of the most talked-about references in “This Is America,” in order of appearance in the video.
Viewers initially confused actor and musician Calvin The Second, who plays the guitarist in the video’s opening shot, for the father of Trayvon Martin, the unarmed black teenager shot to death in Florida in 2012 by George Zimmerman.
Calvin The Second confirmed his appearance in the video Sunday on Instagram: “Got the call from one of my agents while up at Coachella that they wanted me for the shoot on Sunday, drove down and got to be a part of history.”
“This Is America” is set entirely in a drab warehouse, which some viewers interpreted as the country’s foundation, built on systemic white supremacy and oppression.
“Much of this seems to take place in a building/warehouse where the foundation and support systems (the beams) are mostly white,” tweeted @JarridGreen .
Some veteran Childish Gambino fans pointed out similarities to his 2011 “Freaks and Geeks” music video, which also takes place in a warehouse.
The video features a shirtless Childish Gambino donning a gold chain necklace and trousers that give off a ’70s vibe. His look appears to be inspired by the late Fela Kuti, a Nigerian musician dubbed “ Africa’s answer to Handel ” by one arts critic.
“Fela Kuti reverberates in Childish Gambino’s body,” civil rights activist Michael Skolnik wrote of the video on Twitter. “It is art at its highest form. Still in awe.”
Some suggested Childish Gambino’s look was a nod to the late Richard Pryor , the legendary comedian and social critic. Others noted the similarities between his pants and a Confederate soldier’s uniform.
Fans were obsessed with Childish Gambino’s nod to African dances, including Shoki and Gwara Gwara , a style of dance popularized in South Africa (and featured in Rihanna’s 2018 Grammys performance ).
“Childish Gambino reeks of talent,” tweeted @muchman16 . “I loved the part where those kids danced shoki and gwara gwara.”
Others pointed out how dance trends can distract from the life-or-death situations affecting black communities.
“Childish Gambino’s #ThisIsAmerica spoke to me as a black South African women,” tweeted @Cpaw2 . “Women being hunted and killed while society does the gwara gwara.”
Justin Simien , the filmmaker behind “Dear White People,” tweeted a “love letter” to the video on Sunday, breaking down its searing use of Jim Crow imagery.
“Jim Crow began as one of the first fits of white American culture to address it’s former African slaves (and their descendants) at all,” Simien wrote. “A minstrelsy mainstay played by white men in black face, and sometimes by black men in black face.”
“Jim Crow began as mere pop culture entertainment at the expense of America’s freed slaves and became the means of their oppression,” he continued, noting that the character’s name was eventually lent to laws enforcing racial segregation in the U.S.
Each time Childish Gambino fires a gun in “This Is America,” he hands it off to someone who whisks it away in a red cloth. Viewers interpreted these scenes as a reference to Americans’ willingness to protect gun rights over people, despite the country’s alarmingly high rates of gun violence.
“Because this is America,” tweeted @Shugah . “We shoot up schools, churches, each other and then we place the guns tenderly in a cloth to protect them. And then we dance.”
One viewer suggested the apparent suicide scene points to a pervasive mental illness stigma plaguing the African-American community.
“Does the man jumping to his death that goes largely unnoticed because of Gambino’s dancing serve as a reminder that suicide & poor mental health in the African American community is being ignored,” asked @JuelzKojoey on Twitter.
One of the most disturbing scenes in “This Is America” features an all-black church choir getting shot up with an assault-style rifle. The massacre appears to be a reference to the 2015 mass shooting at a church in Charleston, South Carolina, in which a white gunman killed nine black churchgoers.
“Childish Gambino really made a reference to the Charleston church shooting that happened in 2015,” tweeted @EmanThatKid . “He shows how mass shootings are normalized in America, even if you shooting up a place of worship.”
In one scene, black teenagers use their phones to record the chaos unfolding below, as their mouths appear to be covered by a white material.
Some viewers believed this to be a reference to the rise of viral videos of police brutality and racist encounters to overcome the metaphorical muzzling of black people in a white supremacist system.
“Kids are seen recording everything on their phones, referencing the use of livestreams in police shootings as a means of documenting and sharing the truth,” tweeted @thelocalemo . “Gambino’s lyrics state, ‘this is a celly, that’s a tool.’”
It’s easy to miss the white stallion galloping by in the background on the first viewing of “This Is America.” Upon closer look, viewers pointed to biblical references of a “pale horse” heralding the apocalypse, which largely goes unnoticed by the characters dancing in the foreground of the video.
Karen Civil, a social media and marketing guru, pointed out the specific passage from the Bible’s Book of Revelation: “And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him.”
Toward the end of the video, Childish Gambino dances atop a red car surrounded by other decades-old cars with their hazard lights flashing and doors open.
Viewers drew connections to the black men routinely killed by police during traffic stops, including Philando Castile in Minnesota in 2016.
“Do a lot of those cars ... have their drivers side doors open and hazards on cause they’re symbolic of the cars of all the people pulled over and killed by the police?” wondered Twitter user @giddy_pony .
Others found economic symbolism within the sea of beat-up cars.
“I’m having a 4 am finals procrastination epiphany that the mostly parked, vacant cars in #ThisIsAmerica reference to the stalled socioeconomic and political mobility of Black people in America,” tweeted @izaynab .
R&B singer SZA made an appearance in “This Is America,” sending her fans into a frenzy. Viewers noted the similarities between her hairstyle and the Statue of Liberty’s crown.
SZA appeared to confirm the Lady Liberty theories Sunday on Instagram .
Anyone who has seen the film “Get Out” likely picked up on the eerie vibes at the end of the video as Childish Gambino attempts to escape the warehouse. It reminded many of “the Sunken Place ” seen in the 2017 film, the mental space where the main character Chris goes after he’s been brainwashed, unable to control his body.
“The Sunken Place means we’re marginalized,” Jordan Peele, the movie’s director, explained on Twitter in March 2017. “No matter how hard we scream, the system silences us.”
Daniel Kaluuya, who played Chris in “Get Out,” introduced Childish Gambino’s performance of “This Is America” on “Saturday Night Live.”
Twitter user @_mikepearson suggested “This Is America” features over a dozen improvised lines from mostly black artists, including Kendrick Lamar and Offset.
However, Complex pointed out that the streaming music service Tidal only lists Young Thug, 21 Savage, Quavo, Slim Jxmmi and BlocBoy JB as contributors on the song. | https://www.huffpost.com/entry/childish-gambino-this-is-america_n_5af05c12e4b041fd2d28d8e9 | 42 |
what is the video this is america about | An Expert's Take on the Symbolism in Childish Gambino’s Viral ‘This Is America’ Video | 0 seconds of 1 minute, 31 seconds Volume 0%
D onald Glover released a new song and music video “This Is America” under his musical moniker Childish Gambino on Saturday Night Live this weekend — and the four-minute, single-take music video is laden with metaphors about race and gun violence in America.
The “This Is America” video, which has already racked up more than 20 million views on YouTube, reveals provocative imagery of the rapper as he guns down a choir at one point and dances while violence breaks out all around him. Childish Gambino/Glover ‘s decision to wear just a pair of gray pants without a shirt in the video, allows viewers to identify with “his humanness,” as he raps about the violent contradictions that come with being black in America, says Guthrie Ramsey, a professor of music history at the University of Pennsylvania.
Biden's Visit to Northern Ireland Highlights the Complicated Legacy of the Good Friday Agreement
Posted 22 Days Ago
Warning: Graphic violence
“The central message is about guns and violence in America and the fact that we deal with them and consume them as part of entertainment on one hand, and on the other hand, is a part of our national conversation,” Ramsey tells TIME. “You’re not supposed to feel as if this is the standard fare opulence of the music industry. It’s about a counter-narrative and it really leaves you with chills.”
Here’s Ramsay’s take on four key moments from “This Is America.”
YouTube
The opening moments of “This Is America” show a man strumming a guitar alone to choral sounds. Within the first minute, Gambino shoots the man, who has been tied up with a head cover. Childish Gambino hands the gun to another man, who safely wraps it in a red cloth as the obscured man is dragged away. The moment goes right into the first rapped chorus: “This is America / Don’t catch you slippin’ up.”
Ramsay says the timing — that this happens during the song’s move from choral tones to a trap sound — allows Gambino to straddle contradictions and also allows the viewer to identify with his humanness.
“He’s talking about the contradictions of trying to get money, the idea of being a black man in America,” Ramsey says. “It comes out of two different sound worlds. Part of the brilliance of the presentation is that you go from this happy major mode of choral singing that we associate with South African choral singing, and then after the first gunshot it moves right into the trap sound.”
The early moment shows, too, that Gambino “could be anyone,” according to Ramsey. “You have him almost unadorned, as if he were totally without all the accoutrements of stardom,” he says, noting that Gambino dances in neutral colored pants, dark skin and with textured hair. “It’s just him, and therefore, it could be us.”
YouTube
Gambino and a group of kids clad in school uniforms dance throughout much of the “This Is America” video, smiling through impeccable moves as violence erupts behind them. The moment could be open to numerous interpretations — for example, Ramsey says, the dancers could be there to distract viewers in the same way black art is used to distract people from real problems plaguing America. But, Ramsey says, it’s better to absorb the video as a whole because America itself is a country of “very strange juxtapositions.”
“Even though we think of popular culture a a space where we escape, he’s forcing us to understand that there’s actually nowhere to run,” he says. “We have to deal with the cultural violence that we have created and continue to sustain.”
The style of dancing by Gambino in the video also calls out the way we consume culture. Gambino samples at least 10 popular dance moves derived from hip hop and African moves, including the South African Gwara Gwara dance, according to Forbes . Ramsey says the use of so many famous dance moves show how ultra-popular pieces of culture lose their specificity over time as they become more ubiquitous.
“It’s really a commentary on how much violence and contradictions there are in the consuming of pop culture, particularly in the violent elements of it,” he says. “With all the conspicuous consumption that global capitalism inspires, part of what we are consuming is this appetite for violence.”
YouTube
Toward the middle of the video, a choir sings enthusiastically in a happy tone before Gambino shoots them all. The massacre and its quickness recall the 2015 Charleston shooting in which white supremacist Dylann Roof killed nine black people in a church basement , Ramsey says. The image and what it evokes shows how people struggle to reconcile with and separate different instances of violence, according to Ramsey. As we consume violence on all sorts of platforms, be it in the news, through music videos or television shows, it becomes difficult to absorb very real instances of mass murders.
“You can’t escape the violence,” Ramsey says. “But you’re being forced to separate how you feel about it in our digitized world. The virtual violence, the real violence, it’s all confused.”
YouTube
The final moments of the video show Gambino running, terrified, down a long dark hallway away from a group of people as Young Thug sings “You just a Black man in this world / You just a barcode, ayy.” Gambino’s sprint goes back to a long tradition of black Americans having to run to save their lives, according to Ramsey, who says one song dating back to slavery in the 19th century was called “Run N— Run.”
“A black person running for his or her life has just been a part of American culture dating back to slavery,” he says.
More Must-Reads From TIME | https://time.com/5267890/childish-gambino-this-is-america-meaning/#:~:text=D%20onald%20Glover%20released%20a%20new%20song%20and,metaphors%20about%20race%20and%20gun%20violence%20in%20America. | 42 |
what is the video this is america about | This Is America (song) - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the 2018 Childish Gambino song. For other uses, see This Is America (disambiguation) .
" This Is America " is a song by American rapper Donald Glover , under his musical stage name Childish Gambino. Written and produced by Glover and Ludwig Göransson , with additional writing credits going to American rapper Young Thug , [5] it was released on May 6, 2018 at the same time that Gambino was hosting an episode of Saturday Night Live . The song features background vocals from Young Thug alongside fellow American rappers Slim Jxmmi of Rae Sremmurd , BlocBoy JB , Quavo of Migos , and Atlanta-based rapper 21 Savage . [6] [7] The lyrics and accompanying music video , reflecting the core of the Black Lives Matter movement, confront issues of ongoing systemic racism , including prejudice , racial violence , the ghetto , and law enforcement in the United States , as well as the wider issues of mass shootings and gun violence in the United States . Originally, Gambino intended it to be a diss record towards fellow rapper Drake . [8]
The song's accompanying music video was directed by filmmaker Hiro Murai , a frequent Gambino collaborator. [9] [10] "This Is America" became the 31st song to debut at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming both Gambino's first number one and top ten single in the country. It has also topped the charts in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. The song won in all four of its nominated categories at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards : Record of the Year , Song of the Year , Best Rap/Sung Performance and Best Music Video . This made Gambino the first hip-hop artist to win Record of the Year and Song of the Year, and "This Is America" the first rap song to win these awards. [11]
The song features a gospel -style choir and background contributions from various American rappers. Young Thug , Slim Jxmmi , BlocBoy JB , 21 Savage and Quavo each deliver an ad-lib . [10] [12] Young Thug returns to supply the song's outro . [7] The lyrics primarily address black culture in the United States and gun violence in the country . [13] It also touches on the subject of police brutality and misconduct. [14] [15] Pitchfork 's Stephen Kearse described the song as a representation of the "tightrope of being black", with the song "built on the sharp contrast between jolly, syncretic melodies and menacing trap cadences". [16] Bryan Rolli of Forbes calls it "a vicious, urgent take on modern trap music , as Glover adopts the clipped, percussive flow of his contemporaries atop crackling 808s and rumbling bass ." [3]
Media outlets reported that a number of listeners accused Gambino of plagiarism over "This Is America", pointing out the similarities between the song and "American Pharaoh" by Jase Harley . [17] [18] CBS News stated, "The tracks have a similar sound, and share similar themes in the lyrics." Harley stated that he felt "This Is America" was influenced by his song. At the time, he did not have an issue with this. [19] However, when Gambino did not acknowledge him at the Grammys, Harley was upset and called Gambino a " house slave ". [20] [21] Glover's manager, Fam Rothstein, denied any plagiarism. [22]
The music video was directed by Hiro Murai and released on YouTube simultaneously with Gambino's performance of the song on Saturday Night Live . The video received about 12.9 million views in 24 hours, [23] and has over 850+ million views as of September 2022. [24] In an interview with the New York Times , Murai discussed his upcoming season for Atlanta , a show created by and starring Glover. He stated: "There's sort of a world-weariness in both this season and the music video. They're both reactions to what's happening in the world." [25]
The video contains many scenes involving violence. It starts off with a shirtless Gambino dancing through a warehouse, interacting with a series of chaotic scenes. According to Murai, the video was inspired by the films Mother! and City of God . Prettyman states "The video tests us, taunting us to keep pace as we try to decode every gesture and calculation". [26] Choreographed by Sherrie Silver, Gambino and his entourage of young dancers perform several viral dance moves including the South African Gwara gwara and "Shoot" popularized by BlocBoy JB , who is one of the ad-lib contributors on the song. Gambino's dancing is contrasted against moments of violence. Only 53 seconds into the video, Gambino shoots a man in the back of the head with a handgun , while assuming a comical stance similar to a Jim Crow caricature. The first person depicted as being shot in the video, a guitarist who had been accompanying Gambino's singing up to that point, was musician Calvin the Second, but was initially mistaken by many viewers to be the father of 17-year-old gun violence victim Trayvon Martin . This first shooting also marks a transition in the music, from an African "folk-inspired melody" to "dark, pulsing trap ". [27]
At a later point, Childish Gambino uses a Kalashnikov patterned automatic weapon to gun down a church choir, which viewers have interpreted [ by whom? ] as a reference to the 2015 Charleston church shooting . This may also be his commentary on acculturation, the toxic embrace of capitalism and consumerism, both at the expense of spirituality, where one's history and community are gunned down in pursuit of a toxic American dream.
In both scenes a child appears from off-screen holding a red cloth, on which Gambino gently lays the weapon used, while the bodies are simply dragged away, which viewers have interpreted "as a reference to Americans' willingness to protect gun rights over people". A group of children in school uniforms join Gambino in dancing, only to panic and scatter when the music imitates the sound of gunfire and Gambino positions his arms as if firing a gun, after which he lights a joint; this has been interpreted as a reference to school shootings , as well as a possible comparison of the demonization of marijuana users compared to the celebration of gun owners. Other schoolchildren are seen on a catwalk above, using their cell phones to record the chaos happening in the video as Gambino sings the lyrics "This a celly / That's a tool". Martha Tesema, writer for website Mashable , stated that "cell phones have been used as tools to broadcast police shooting, rioting against, or choking black people in this country". The line serves as a double entendre , also referring to the use of mass incarceration as a tool of the police state. Throughout the video, numerous vehicles from several decades ago are featured, many of them with their hazard lights flashing and the driver's side door ajar, which critics interpreted as representing fatal police shootings during traffic stops, particularly the shooting of Philando Castile , who was shot while in a 1997 Oldsmobile; others have interpreted that the older model cars represent the relative lack of upward mobility of African Americans. American singer SZA makes a cameo appearance towards the end of the video, seated atop one of these vehicles. The video ends with Gambino in a darkened portion of the warehouse, fearfully running towards the camera while being chased by several white people. Viewers have said this resembles scenes from the 2017 film Get Out .
The dance moves were choreographed by Rwandan -born Sherrie Silver based on various African dances such as the Ghanaian Azonto , Nigerian Shoki, and the South African Gwara gwara , as well as gyration or walking moves from Angola and Ivory Coast . [28]
The music video received widespread critical acclaim. Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic described the initial reaction on Twitter as "a gushing river of well-deserved praise" and the video as "the most talked-about music video of recent memory." [10] Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone commented that the video "is a surreal, visceral statement about gun violence in America". [29] Pitchfork awarded the song the distinction of "Best New Track". [16] Billboard critics ranked it 10th among the "greatest music videos of the 21st century." [30] Mahita Gajanan of Time quoted music history professor Guthrie Ramsey at the University of Pennsylvania:
He's talking about the contradictions of trying to get money, the idea of being a black man in America. It comes out of two different sound worlds. Part of the brilliance of the presentation is that you go from this happy major mode of choral singing that we associate with South African choral singing, and then after the first gunshot it moves right into the trap sound. [31]
Will Gompertz , arts editor of the BBC , asserted that "This Is America" was a "powerful and poignant allegorical portrait of 21st Century America, which warrants a place among the canonical depictions of the USA from Grant Wood 's American Gothic to Edward Hopper 's Nighthawks , from Emanuel Leutze 's Washington Crossing the Delaware to America the Beautiful by Norman Lewis ". [32]
In December 2018, Billboard ranked "This Is America" as the 6th best song of the year. [33]
The music video won the International Film Festival of the Art of Cinematography Camerimage Award for Best Cinematography in a Music Video, [34] as well as the Grammy Award for Best Music Video at the 61st Grammy Awards .
Glover hosted the May 5 episode of the 43rd season of Saturday Night Live , and performed two new songs as Childish Gambino on the same episode, the second of which was "This Is America". Daniel Kaluuya , best known as the star of the film Get Out which the music video reportedly references, introduced the song's performance. [35] [36]
Several artists attracted attention and millions of views for creating covers of the song and music video with altered lyrics and themes, retaining the song's instrumental and the general structure of its music video. [37] [38]
Bay Area rapper Lil B featured a remix of his own on his Options mixtape entitled "This Is the BasedGod" in October 2018. [39] [40] [41]
The music video also spawned popular Internet memes , particularly those in which the audio was replaced so that Childish Gambino appeared to be dancing in time to another song. Versions using Carly Rae Jepsen 's " Call Me Maybe ", Earth, Wind & Fire 's " September " and Banda Blanca 's " Sopa de Caracol " were some of the most viewed. [42] [43] [44]
The song is interpolated into a scene in the film Guava Island (released 2019), which features Glover and Rihanna . [45]
Covers and parodies of the song were generated around the world, including:
- " This Is Nigeria " was released by Nigerian rapper Falz released on May 25, 2018, highlighting the nation's issues with corruption and organized crime in Nigeria , among other themes. [46] [47]
- "This Is Sierra Leone" (June 2018). [48]
- "This Is Barbados" (June 2018) [49]
- "This Is Malaysia" (June 2018). [50]
- "This Is Iraq" (January 2019) parodies the US-led invasion of Iraq . [51]
- "This Is Australia" (January 2023), by Australian dance company Marrugeku , with vocals led by Noongar rapper Beni Bjah , features many local references, and criticises Australia's treatment of refugees, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and migrants. [52]
"This Is America" debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the 31st song to do so in the chart's history. It debuted with 78,000 downloads sold and 65.3 million US streams in the first week. Its music video accounted for 68% of the song's streaming total. "This Is America" is also Gambino's first top 10; he previously reached number 12 in August 2017 with " Redbone ". "This Is America" overtook Drake 's " Nice for What " from the top position for two weeks. Gambino is also the second Emmy Award -winning actor to reach number one on the Hot 100, the first being Justin Timberlake , who topped the chart with " Can't Stop the Feeling! " in 2016. [53] It topped the Hot 100 for two weeks, and left the top ten after five weeks.
Credits are adapted from Tidal . [4]
- Donald Glover – lead vocals (as Childish Gambino), production, composition
- Jeffery Lamar Williams – composition, backing vocals (as Young Thug)
- Quavo – background vocals
- 21 Savage – backing vocals
- Slim Jxmmi – backing vocals
- BlocBoy JB – backing vocals
- Ludwig Göransson – production, composition, recording engineer
- Alex Tumay – recording engineer
- Riley Mackin – recording engineer
- Kesha "K.Lee" Lee – recording engineer
- Dru Castro – recording engineer
- Dacota G. Fresilli – recording engineer
- Zak Menebhi – recording engineer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_America_(song) | 42 |
what is the video this is america about | An Expert's Take on the Symbolism in Childish Gambino’s Viral ‘This Is America’ Video | 0 seconds of 1 minute, 31 seconds Volume 0%
D onald Glover released a new song and music video “This Is America” under his musical moniker Childish Gambino on Saturday Night Live this weekend — and the four-minute, single-take music video is laden with metaphors about race and gun violence in America.
The “This Is America” video, which has already racked up more than 20 million views on YouTube, reveals provocative imagery of the rapper as he guns down a choir at one point and dances while violence breaks out all around him. Childish Gambino/Glover ‘s decision to wear just a pair of gray pants without a shirt in the video, allows viewers to identify with “his humanness,” as he raps about the violent contradictions that come with being black in America, says Guthrie Ramsey, a professor of music history at the University of Pennsylvania.
Biden's Visit to Northern Ireland Highlights the Complicated Legacy of the Good Friday Agreement
Posted 23 Days Ago
Warning: Graphic violence
“The central message is about guns and violence in America and the fact that we deal with them and consume them as part of entertainment on one hand, and on the other hand, is a part of our national conversation,” Ramsey tells TIME. “You’re not supposed to feel as if this is the standard fare opulence of the music industry. It’s about a counter-narrative and it really leaves you with chills.”
Here’s Ramsay’s take on four key moments from “This Is America.”
YouTube
The opening moments of “This Is America” show a man strumming a guitar alone to choral sounds. Within the first minute, Gambino shoots the man, who has been tied up with a head cover. Childish Gambino hands the gun to another man, who safely wraps it in a red cloth as the obscured man is dragged away. The moment goes right into the first rapped chorus: “This is America / Don’t catch you slippin’ up.”
Ramsay says the timing — that this happens during the song’s move from choral tones to a trap sound — allows Gambino to straddle contradictions and also allows the viewer to identify with his humanness.
“He’s talking about the contradictions of trying to get money, the idea of being a black man in America,” Ramsey says. “It comes out of two different sound worlds. Part of the brilliance of the presentation is that you go from this happy major mode of choral singing that we associate with South African choral singing, and then after the first gunshot it moves right into the trap sound.”
The early moment shows, too, that Gambino “could be anyone,” according to Ramsey. “You have him almost unadorned, as if he were totally without all the accoutrements of stardom,” he says, noting that Gambino dances in neutral colored pants, dark skin and with textured hair. “It’s just him, and therefore, it could be us.”
YouTube
Gambino and a group of kids clad in school uniforms dance throughout much of the “This Is America” video, smiling through impeccable moves as violence erupts behind them. The moment could be open to numerous interpretations — for example, Ramsey says, the dancers could be there to distract viewers in the same way black art is used to distract people from real problems plaguing America. But, Ramsey says, it’s better to absorb the video as a whole because America itself is a country of “very strange juxtapositions.”
“Even though we think of popular culture a a space where we escape, he’s forcing us to understand that there’s actually nowhere to run,” he says. “We have to deal with the cultural violence that we have created and continue to sustain.”
The style of dancing by Gambino in the video also calls out the way we consume culture. Gambino samples at least 10 popular dance moves derived from hip hop and African moves, including the South African Gwara Gwara dance, according to Forbes . Ramsey says the use of so many famous dance moves show how ultra-popular pieces of culture lose their specificity over time as they become more ubiquitous.
“It’s really a commentary on how much violence and contradictions there are in the consuming of pop culture, particularly in the violent elements of it,” he says. “With all the conspicuous consumption that global capitalism inspires, part of what we are consuming is this appetite for violence.”
YouTube
Toward the middle of the video, a choir sings enthusiastically in a happy tone before Gambino shoots them all. The massacre and its quickness recall the 2015 Charleston shooting in which white supremacist Dylann Roof killed nine black people in a church basement , Ramsey says. The image and what it evokes shows how people struggle to reconcile with and separate different instances of violence, according to Ramsey. As we consume violence on all sorts of platforms, be it in the news, through music videos or television shows, it becomes difficult to absorb very real instances of mass murders.
“You can’t escape the violence,” Ramsey says. “But you’re being forced to separate how you feel about it in our digitized world. The virtual violence, the real violence, it’s all confused.”
YouTube
The final moments of the video show Gambino running, terrified, down a long dark hallway away from a group of people as Young Thug sings “You just a Black man in this world / You just a barcode, ayy.” Gambino’s sprint goes back to a long tradition of black Americans having to run to save their lives, according to Ramsey, who says one song dating back to slavery in the 19th century was called “Run N— Run.”
“A black person running for his or her life has just been a part of American culture dating back to slavery,” he says.
More Must-Reads From TIME | https://time.com/5267890/childish-gambino-this-is-america-meaning/ | 42 |
what is the video this is america about | Childish Gambino's 'This Is America' Video, Explained | Childish Gambino took the internet by storm this weekend with the release of his new single “ This Is America ” and its accompanying music video loaded with haunting images of black oppression and gun violence.
Advertisement
Childish Gambino took the internet by storm this weekend with the release of his new single “ This Is America ” and its accompanying music video loaded with haunting images of black oppression and gun violence.
Fans unpacked the subtle references on Twitter, with many proclaiming the rapper, whose real name is Donald Glover , one of the most important voices of this generation.
ICYMI, below are some of the most talked-about references in “This Is America,” in order of appearance in the video.
Viewers initially confused actor and musician Calvin The Second, who plays the guitarist in the video’s opening shot, for the father of Trayvon Martin, the unarmed black teenager shot to death in Florida in 2012 by George Zimmerman.
Calvin The Second confirmed his appearance in the video Sunday on Instagram: “Got the call from one of my agents while up at Coachella that they wanted me for the shoot on Sunday, drove down and got to be a part of history.”
“This Is America” is set entirely in a drab warehouse, which some viewers interpreted as the country’s foundation, built on systemic white supremacy and oppression.
“Much of this seems to take place in a building/warehouse where the foundation and support systems (the beams) are mostly white,” tweeted @JarridGreen .
Some veteran Childish Gambino fans pointed out similarities to his 2011 “Freaks and Geeks” music video, which also takes place in a warehouse.
The video features a shirtless Childish Gambino donning a gold chain necklace and trousers that give off a ’70s vibe. His look appears to be inspired by the late Fela Kuti, a Nigerian musician dubbed “ Africa’s answer to Handel ” by one arts critic.
“Fela Kuti reverberates in Childish Gambino’s body,” civil rights activist Michael Skolnik wrote of the video on Twitter. “It is art at its highest form. Still in awe.”
Some suggested Childish Gambino’s look was a nod to the late Richard Pryor , the legendary comedian and social critic. Others noted the similarities between his pants and a Confederate soldier’s uniform.
Fans were obsessed with Childish Gambino’s nod to African dances, including Shoki and Gwara Gwara , a style of dance popularized in South Africa (and featured in Rihanna’s 2018 Grammys performance ).
“Childish Gambino reeks of talent,” tweeted @muchman16 . “I loved the part where those kids danced shoki and gwara gwara.”
Others pointed out how dance trends can distract from the life-or-death situations affecting black communities.
“Childish Gambino’s #ThisIsAmerica spoke to me as a black South African women,” tweeted @Cpaw2 . “Women being hunted and killed while society does the gwara gwara.”
Justin Simien , the filmmaker behind “Dear White People,” tweeted a “love letter” to the video on Sunday, breaking down its searing use of Jim Crow imagery.
“Jim Crow began as one of the first fits of white American culture to address it’s former African slaves (and their descendants) at all,” Simien wrote. “A minstrelsy mainstay played by white men in black face, and sometimes by black men in black face.”
“Jim Crow began as mere pop culture entertainment at the expense of America’s freed slaves and became the means of their oppression,” he continued, noting that the character’s name was eventually lent to laws enforcing racial segregation in the U.S.
Each time Childish Gambino fires a gun in “This Is America,” he hands it off to someone who whisks it away in a red cloth. Viewers interpreted these scenes as a reference to Americans’ willingness to protect gun rights over people, despite the country’s alarmingly high rates of gun violence.
“Because this is America,” tweeted @Shugah . “We shoot up schools, churches, each other and then we place the guns tenderly in a cloth to protect them. And then we dance.”
One viewer suggested the apparent suicide scene points to a pervasive mental illness stigma plaguing the African-American community.
“Does the man jumping to his death that goes largely unnoticed because of Gambino’s dancing serve as a reminder that suicide & poor mental health in the African American community is being ignored,” asked @JuelzKojoey on Twitter.
One of the most disturbing scenes in “This Is America” features an all-black church choir getting shot up with an assault-style rifle. The massacre appears to be a reference to the 2015 mass shooting at a church in Charleston, South Carolina, in which a white gunman killed nine black churchgoers.
“Childish Gambino really made a reference to the Charleston church shooting that happened in 2015,” tweeted @EmanThatKid . “He shows how mass shootings are normalized in America, even if you shooting up a place of worship.”
In one scene, black teenagers use their phones to record the chaos unfolding below, as their mouths appear to be covered by a white material.
Some viewers believed this to be a reference to the rise of viral videos of police brutality and racist encounters to overcome the metaphorical muzzling of black people in a white supremacist system.
“Kids are seen recording everything on their phones, referencing the use of livestreams in police shootings as a means of documenting and sharing the truth,” tweeted @thelocalemo . “Gambino’s lyrics state, ‘this is a celly, that’s a tool.’”
It’s easy to miss the white stallion galloping by in the background on the first viewing of “This Is America.” Upon closer look, viewers pointed to biblical references of a “pale horse” heralding the apocalypse, which largely goes unnoticed by the characters dancing in the foreground of the video.
Karen Civil, a social media and marketing guru, pointed out the specific passage from the Bible’s Book of Revelation: “And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him.”
Toward the end of the video, Childish Gambino dances atop a red car surrounded by other decades-old cars with their hazard lights flashing and doors open.
Viewers drew connections to the black men routinely killed by police during traffic stops, including Philando Castile in Minnesota in 2016.
“Do a lot of those cars ... have their drivers side doors open and hazards on cause they’re symbolic of the cars of all the people pulled over and killed by the police?” wondered Twitter user @giddy_pony .
Others found economic symbolism within the sea of beat-up cars.
“I’m having a 4 am finals procrastination epiphany that the mostly parked, vacant cars in #ThisIsAmerica reference to the stalled socioeconomic and political mobility of Black people in America,” tweeted @izaynab .
R&B singer SZA made an appearance in “This Is America,” sending her fans into a frenzy. Viewers noted the similarities between her hairstyle and the Statue of Liberty’s crown.
SZA appeared to confirm the Lady Liberty theories Sunday on Instagram .
Anyone who has seen the film “Get Out” likely picked up on the eerie vibes at the end of the video as Childish Gambino attempts to escape the warehouse. It reminded many of “the Sunken Place ” seen in the 2017 film, the mental space where the main character Chris goes after he’s been brainwashed, unable to control his body.
“The Sunken Place means we’re marginalized,” Jordan Peele, the movie’s director, explained on Twitter in March 2017. “No matter how hard we scream, the system silences us.”
Daniel Kaluuya, who played Chris in “Get Out,” introduced Childish Gambino’s performance of “This Is America” on “Saturday Night Live.”
Twitter user @_mikepearson suggested “This Is America” features over a dozen improvised lines from mostly black artists, including Kendrick Lamar and Offset.
However, Complex pointed out that the streaming music service Tidal only lists Young Thug, 21 Savage, Quavo, Slim Jxmmi and BlocBoy JB as contributors on the song. | https://www.huffpost.com/entry/childish-gambino-this-is-america_n_5af05c12e4b041fd2d28d8e9 | 42 |
what is the video this is america about | 'This Is America': The Childish Gambino video explained | CNN | Childish Gambino debuted new music this weekend
His "This Is America" video went viral
CNN
—
Donald Glover had quite the weekend.
The actor, who has been riding high these days with both his series “Atlanta” and his role as young Lando Calrissian in the forthcoming “Solo: A Star Wars Story,” both hosted “Saturday Night Live” and was the musical guest as his rap/R&B alter ego, Childish Gambino.
Glover as Gambino won a Grammy this year for best traditional R&B performance for his song “Redbone” and premiered two new songs on “SNL,” titled “Saturday” and “This Is America.”
But it was the video he released for the latter after his “SNL” performance that created a major buzz.
Here’s what you need to know about the music video that has many hailing Glover/Gambino as a genius:
Directed by “Atlanta” director Hiro Murai, the video is pretty surreal and packed full of messages.
It’s expansive and filmed in a warehouse, which allows for a lot of action.
As much as your eye will be drawn to Glover as a shirtless Gambino, pay close attention also to what is happening in the background.
Murders occur, but the guns are treated more delicately than human lives in the video – a strong statement given the current debate over gun control.
The imagery also has sparked conversation about several other themes, including police brutality, social media habits and what people are really paying attention to in the United States.
“The fact that Childish Gambino’s ‘This is America’ tackles police brutality, gun violence, media misdirection, and the use of African Americans as a brand shield, all while dancing in Jim Crow-style caricature, shows a transcendence or mere performance and demands attention,” one person tweeted.
Fans have been dissecting the various dance moves in the video, with many determining they represent an overall distraction from the chaos that is happening in the background.
Yes, that was singer SZA sitting on a car toward the end of the video.
On Sunday, the singer Instagrammed some photos of herself on set.
Her guest appearance could be a clue for the pair working together. | https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/07/entertainment/childish-gambino-this-america-video/index.html | 42 |
what is the video this is america about | This Is America (song) - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the 2018 Childish Gambino song. For other uses, see This Is America (disambiguation) .
" This Is America " is a song by American rapper Donald Glover , under his musical stage name Childish Gambino. Written and produced by Glover and Ludwig Göransson , with additional writing credits going to American rapper Young Thug , [5] it was released on May 6, 2018 at the same time that Gambino was hosting an episode of Saturday Night Live . The song features background vocals from Young Thug alongside fellow American rappers Slim Jxmmi of Rae Sremmurd , BlocBoy JB , Quavo of Migos , and Atlanta-based rapper 21 Savage . [6] [7] The lyrics and accompanying music video , reflecting the core of the Black Lives Matter movement, confront issues of ongoing systemic racism , including prejudice , racial violence , the ghetto , and law enforcement in the United States , as well as the wider issues of mass shootings and gun violence in the United States . Originally, Gambino intended it to be a diss record towards fellow rapper Drake . [8]
The song's accompanying music video was directed by filmmaker Hiro Murai , a frequent Gambino collaborator. [9] [10] "This Is America" became the 31st song to debut at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming both Gambino's first number one and top ten single in the country. It has also topped the charts in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. The song won in all four of its nominated categories at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards : Record of the Year , Song of the Year , Best Rap/Sung Performance and Best Music Video . This made Gambino the first hip-hop artist to win Record of the Year and Song of the Year, and "This Is America" the first rap song to win these awards. [11]
The song features a gospel -style choir and background contributions from various American rappers. Young Thug , Slim Jxmmi , BlocBoy JB , 21 Savage and Quavo each deliver an ad-lib . [10] [12] Young Thug returns to supply the song's outro . [7] The lyrics primarily address black culture in the United States and gun violence in the country . [13] It also touches on the subject of police brutality and misconduct. [14] [15] Pitchfork 's Stephen Kearse described the song as a representation of the "tightrope of being black", with the song "built on the sharp contrast between jolly, syncretic melodies and menacing trap cadences". [16] Bryan Rolli of Forbes calls it "a vicious, urgent take on modern trap music , as Glover adopts the clipped, percussive flow of his contemporaries atop crackling 808s and rumbling bass ." [3]
Media outlets reported that a number of listeners accused Gambino of plagiarism over "This Is America", pointing out the similarities between the song and "American Pharaoh" by Jase Harley . [17] [18] CBS News stated, "The tracks have a similar sound, and share similar themes in the lyrics." Harley stated that he felt "This Is America" was influenced by his song. At the time, he did not have an issue with this. [19] However, when Gambino did not acknowledge him at the Grammys, Harley was upset and called Gambino a " house slave ". [20] [21] Glover's manager, Fam Rothstein, denied any plagiarism. [22]
The music video was directed by Hiro Murai and released on YouTube simultaneously with Gambino's performance of the song on Saturday Night Live . The video received about 12.9 million views in 24 hours, [23] and has over 850+ million views as of September 2022. [24] In an interview with the New York Times , Murai discussed his upcoming season for Atlanta , a show created by and starring Glover. He stated: "There's sort of a world-weariness in both this season and the music video. They're both reactions to what's happening in the world." [25]
The video contains many scenes involving violence. It starts off with a shirtless Gambino dancing through a warehouse, interacting with a series of chaotic scenes. According to Murai, the video was inspired by the films Mother! and City of God . Prettyman states "The video tests us, taunting us to keep pace as we try to decode every gesture and calculation". [26] Choreographed by Sherrie Silver, Gambino and his entourage of young dancers perform several viral dance moves including the South African Gwara gwara and "Shoot" popularized by BlocBoy JB , who is one of the ad-lib contributors on the song. Gambino's dancing is contrasted against moments of violence. Only 53 seconds into the video, Gambino shoots a man in the back of the head with a handgun , while assuming a comical stance similar to a Jim Crow caricature. The first person depicted as being shot in the video, a guitarist who had been accompanying Gambino's singing up to that point, was musician Calvin the Second, but was initially mistaken by many viewers to be the father of 17-year-old gun violence victim Trayvon Martin . This first shooting also marks a transition in the music, from an African "folk-inspired melody" to "dark, pulsing trap ". [27]
At a later point, Childish Gambino uses a Kalashnikov patterned automatic weapon to gun down a church choir, which viewers have interpreted [ by whom? ] as a reference to the 2015 Charleston church shooting . This may also be his commentary on acculturation, the toxic embrace of capitalism and consumerism, both at the expense of spirituality, where one's history and community are gunned down in pursuit of a toxic American dream.
In both scenes a child appears from off-screen holding a red cloth, on which Gambino gently lays the weapon used, while the bodies are simply dragged away, which viewers have interpreted "as a reference to Americans' willingness to protect gun rights over people". A group of children in school uniforms join Gambino in dancing, only to panic and scatter when the music imitates the sound of gunfire and Gambino positions his arms as if firing a gun, after which he lights a joint; this has been interpreted as a reference to school shootings , as well as a possible comparison of the demonization of marijuana users compared to the celebration of gun owners. Other schoolchildren are seen on a catwalk above, using their cell phones to record the chaos happening in the video as Gambino sings the lyrics "This a celly / That's a tool". Martha Tesema, writer for website Mashable , stated that "cell phones have been used as tools to broadcast police shooting, rioting against, or choking black people in this country". The line serves as a double entendre , also referring to the use of mass incarceration as a tool of the police state. Throughout the video, numerous vehicles from several decades ago are featured, many of them with their hazard lights flashing and the driver's side door ajar, which critics interpreted as representing fatal police shootings during traffic stops, particularly the shooting of Philando Castile , who was shot while in a 1997 Oldsmobile; others have interpreted that the older model cars represent the relative lack of upward mobility of African Americans. American singer SZA makes a cameo appearance towards the end of the video, seated atop one of these vehicles. The video ends with Gambino in a darkened portion of the warehouse, fearfully running towards the camera while being chased by several white people. Viewers have said this resembles scenes from the 2017 film Get Out .
The dance moves were choreographed by Rwandan -born Sherrie Silver based on various African dances such as the Ghanaian Azonto , Nigerian Shoki, and the South African Gwara gwara , as well as gyration or walking moves from Angola and Ivory Coast . [28]
The music video received widespread critical acclaim. Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic described the initial reaction on Twitter as "a gushing river of well-deserved praise" and the video as "the most talked-about music video of recent memory." [10] Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone commented that the video "is a surreal, visceral statement about gun violence in America". [29] Pitchfork awarded the song the distinction of "Best New Track". [16] Billboard critics ranked it 10th among the "greatest music videos of the 21st century." [30] Mahita Gajanan of Time quoted music history professor Guthrie Ramsey at the University of Pennsylvania:
He's talking about the contradictions of trying to get money, the idea of being a black man in America. It comes out of two different sound worlds. Part of the brilliance of the presentation is that you go from this happy major mode of choral singing that we associate with South African choral singing, and then after the first gunshot it moves right into the trap sound. [31]
Will Gompertz , arts editor of the BBC , asserted that "This Is America" was a "powerful and poignant allegorical portrait of 21st Century America, which warrants a place among the canonical depictions of the USA from Grant Wood 's American Gothic to Edward Hopper 's Nighthawks , from Emanuel Leutze 's Washington Crossing the Delaware to America the Beautiful by Norman Lewis ". [32]
In December 2018, Billboard ranked "This Is America" as the 6th best song of the year. [33]
The music video won the International Film Festival of the Art of Cinematography Camerimage Award for Best Cinematography in a Music Video, [34] as well as the Grammy Award for Best Music Video at the 61st Grammy Awards .
Glover hosted the May 5 episode of the 43rd season of Saturday Night Live , and performed two new songs as Childish Gambino on the same episode, the second of which was "This Is America". Daniel Kaluuya , best known as the star of the film Get Out which the music video reportedly references, introduced the song's performance. [35] [36]
Several artists attracted attention and millions of views for creating covers of the song and music video with altered lyrics and themes, retaining the song's instrumental and the general structure of its music video. [37] [38]
Bay Area rapper Lil B featured a remix of his own on his Options mixtape entitled "This Is the BasedGod" in October 2018. [39] [40] [41]
The music video also spawned popular Internet memes , particularly those in which the audio was replaced so that Childish Gambino appeared to be dancing in time to another song. Versions using Carly Rae Jepsen 's " Call Me Maybe ", Earth, Wind & Fire 's " September " and Banda Blanca 's " Sopa de Caracol " were some of the most viewed. [42] [43] [44]
The song is interpolated into a scene in the film Guava Island (released 2019), which features Glover and Rihanna . [45]
Covers and parodies of the song were generated around the world, including:
- " This Is Nigeria " was released by Nigerian rapper Falz released on May 25, 2018, highlighting the nation's issues with corruption and organized crime in Nigeria , among other themes. [46] [47]
- "This Is Sierra Leone" (June 2018). [48]
- "This Is Barbados" (June 2018) [49]
- "This Is Malaysia" (June 2018). [50]
- "This Is Iraq" (January 2019) parodies the US-led invasion of Iraq . [51]
- "This Is Australia" (January 2023), by Australian dance company Marrugeku , with vocals led by Noongar rapper Beni Bjah , features many local references, and criticises Australia's treatment of refugees, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and migrants. [52]
"This Is America" debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the 31st song to do so in the chart's history. It debuted with 78,000 downloads sold and 65.3 million US streams in the first week. Its music video accounted for 68% of the song's streaming total. "This Is America" is also Gambino's first top 10; he previously reached number 12 in August 2017 with " Redbone ". "This Is America" overtook Drake 's " Nice for What " from the top position for two weeks. Gambino is also the second Emmy Award -winning actor to reach number one on the Hot 100, the first being Justin Timberlake , who topped the chart with " Can't Stop the Feeling! " in 2016. [53] It topped the Hot 100 for two weeks, and left the top ten after five weeks.
Credits are adapted from Tidal . [4]
- Donald Glover – lead vocals (as Childish Gambino), production, composition
- Jeffery Lamar Williams – composition, backing vocals (as Young Thug)
- Quavo – background vocals
- 21 Savage – backing vocals
- Slim Jxmmi – backing vocals
- BlocBoy JB – backing vocals
- Ludwig Göransson – production, composition, recording engineer
- Alex Tumay – recording engineer
- Riley Mackin – recording engineer
- Kesha "K.Lee" Lee – recording engineer
- Dru Castro – recording engineer
- Dacota G. Fresilli – recording engineer
- Zak Menebhi – recording engineer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_America_(song) | 42 |
what does kaos stand for in get smart | KAOS | KAOS is an international organization of evil (as it is repeatedly called) bent on world domination. KAOS was founded in 1904 in Bucharest [Episode #38: " Hoo Done It "] but is a Delaware corporation for tax purposes [Episode #59: " A Man Called Smart, Part 2 "]. By 1923 it had grown large enough to hold a convention in Atlantic City [Episode #22: " Smart the Assassin "].
"KAOS" is a play on the word "chaos" , but is not an acronym. [At least, not in English; the cover of the Spanish-language edition of Comic #7 renders the name of the organization as C.A.O.S., standing for Corporacion Activa Opuesta a la Seguridad, which translates as Corporation Actively Opposed to Security.]
Their leader is known as Mr. Big , although this appears to be a descriptive term rather than an actual title, and at least two different men have been referred to as such [Episodes #1: " Mr. Big " and #26: " Hubert's Unfinished Symphony "].
Only once has an individual been seen identified as Chief of KAOS , equivalent to the Chief of CONTROL . This was when the two chiefs attended the funeral of Yohan , a double agent who worked for both KAOS and CONTROL [Episode #85: " Die, Spy "].
Vice President of Public Relations and Terror is Ludwig Siegfried .
Their top financial genius is known as " Mr. K " [Episode #35: " Maxwell Smart, Alias Jimmy Ballantine "].
There are also a number of specialist departments including the League of Impostors [Episode #63: " The Spy Who Met Himself "], the Contrived Accident Division [Episode #83: " Run, Robot, Run "], and smuggling unit the League of Bald-Headed Men [Episode #91: " Diamonds Are a Spy's Best Friend "]. As well there are the elite ice-skating troops known as the KAOS Capades [Episode #125: " Ice Station Siegfried "].
For the most part, however, KAOS appears to operate as a series of autonomous cells, each with its own leader and agenda. Even as one cell is destroyed, another is ready to carry out its plan, making the organization very resilient. (Privately, Maxwell Smart is grateful for this state of affairs, noting that if KAOS was ever destroyed there would be no need for CONTROL, thus putting him out of a job [Episode #35: " Maxwell Smart, Alias Jimmy Ballantine "].
Although not spelled out there are clear parallels between KAOS and the communist bogey of the 1960s, with many KAOS agents hailing from Eastern Europe, or, as Max calls it, "the not-so-free world" [Episode #82: " Spy, Spy, Birdie "]. As with their real-world counterparts there is a rift between the European and Asian branches. This is graphically demonstrated when a KAOS agent posing as the beauty contestant Miss Formosa shoots dead two agents from Transmania . When one of the Transmanians, Dimitri Sokolov , protests that they are all members of KAOS, she declares, "Your brand of KAOS is weak and confused; only in my country is there pure KAOS" [Episode #50: " The Girls from KAOS "].
As time passes, KAOS organises itself in a more business-like fashion, even making a profit on its operations [Episode #54: " The Expendable Agent "], and eventually becomes a takeover target; first in 1969 by business mogul Ironhand [Episode #114: " Ironhand "] then sometime between 1974 and 1980 by scientists Nino Salvatori Sebastiani & fashion designer-scientist Norman Saint Sauvage [Movie: " The Nude Bomb "], and then years later in 1989 by publisher Nicholas Dimente [TV Movie " Get Smart, Again!"].
In the nineties, the mysterious KAOS Chairwoman takes this to its logical conclusion and acknowledges the end of the Cold War by refocussing KAOS's goal of world domination on economic rather than political means [" Get Smart (1995 series) "], going so far as to rebrand the organization "Kaos Incorporated" (aka "Kaos Corporation" or simply "Kaos, Inc.") with its headquarters in KAOS Tower . | https://getsmart.fandom.com/wiki/KAOS | 43 |
what does kaos stand for in get smart | KAOS | KAOS is an international organization of evil (as it is repeatedly called) bent on world domination. KAOS was founded in 1904 in Bucharest [Episode #38: " Hoo Done It "] but is a Delaware corporation for tax purposes [Episode #59: " A Man Called Smart, Part 2 "]. By 1923 it had grown large enough to hold a convention in Atlantic City [Episode #22: " Smart the Assassin "].
"KAOS" is a play on the word "chaos" , but is not an acronym. [At least, not in English; the cover of the Spanish-language edition of Comic #7 renders the name of the organization as C.A.O.S., standing for Corporacion Activa Opuesta a la Seguridad, which translates as Corporation Actively Opposed to Security.]
Their leader is known as Mr. Big , although this appears to be a descriptive term rather than an actual title, and at least two different men have been referred to as such [Episodes #1: " Mr. Big " and #26: " Hubert's Unfinished Symphony "].
Only once has an individual been seen identified as Chief of KAOS , equivalent to the Chief of CONTROL . This was when the two chiefs attended the funeral of Yohan , a double agent who worked for both KAOS and CONTROL [Episode #85: " Die, Spy "].
Vice President of Public Relations and Terror is Ludwig Siegfried .
Their top financial genius is known as " Mr. K " [Episode #35: " Maxwell Smart, Alias Jimmy Ballantine "].
There are also a number of specialist departments including the League of Impostors [Episode #63: " The Spy Who Met Himself "], the Contrived Accident Division [Episode #83: " Run, Robot, Run "], and smuggling unit the League of Bald-Headed Men [Episode #91: " Diamonds Are a Spy's Best Friend "]. As well there are the elite ice-skating troops known as the KAOS Capades [Episode #125: " Ice Station Siegfried "].
For the most part, however, KAOS appears to operate as a series of autonomous cells, each with its own leader and agenda. Even as one cell is destroyed, another is ready to carry out its plan, making the organization very resilient. (Privately, Maxwell Smart is grateful for this state of affairs, noting that if KAOS was ever destroyed there would be no need for CONTROL, thus putting him out of a job [Episode #35: " Maxwell Smart, Alias Jimmy Ballantine "].
Although not spelled out there are clear parallels between KAOS and the communist bogey of the 1960s, with many KAOS agents hailing from Eastern Europe, or, as Max calls it, "the not-so-free world" [Episode #82: " Spy, Spy, Birdie "]. As with their real-world counterparts there is a rift between the European and Asian branches. This is graphically demonstrated when a KAOS agent posing as the beauty contestant Miss Formosa shoots dead two agents from Transmania . When one of the Transmanians, Dimitri Sokolov , protests that they are all members of KAOS, she declares, "Your brand of KAOS is weak and confused; only in my country is there pure KAOS" [Episode #50: " The Girls from KAOS "].
As time passes, KAOS organises itself in a more business-like fashion, even making a profit on its operations [Episode #54: " The Expendable Agent "], and eventually becomes a takeover target; first in 1969 by business mogul Ironhand [Episode #114: " Ironhand "] then sometime between 1974 and 1980 by scientists Nino Salvatori Sebastiani & fashion designer-scientist Norman Saint Sauvage [Movie: " The Nude Bomb "], and then years later in 1989 by publisher Nicholas Dimente [TV Movie " Get Smart, Again!"].
In the nineties, the mysterious KAOS Chairwoman takes this to its logical conclusion and acknowledges the end of the Cold War by refocussing KAOS's goal of world domination on economic rather than political means [" Get Smart (1995 series) "], going so far as to rebrand the organization "Kaos Incorporated" (aka "Kaos Corporation" or simply "Kaos, Inc.") with its headquarters in KAOS Tower . | https://getsmart.fandom.com/wiki/KAOS | 43 |
what does kaos stand for in get smart | KAOS - [not an acronym] International Organization of Evil (Get Smart TV series) | What does KAOS stand for? KAOS stands for [not an acronym] International Organization of Evil (Get Smart TV series) This definition appears very rarely and is found in the following Acronym Finder categories: Slang/chat, popular culture | https://www.acronymfinder.com/%5bnot-an-acronym%5d-International-Organization-of-Evil-(Get-Smart-TV-series)-(KAOS).html#:~:text=What%20does%20KAOS%20stand%20for%3F%20KAOS%20stands%20for,the%20following%20Acronym%20Finder%20categories%3A%20Slang%2Fchat%2C%20popular%20culture | 43 |
what does kaos stand for in get smart | KAOS | KAOS is an international organization of evil (as it is repeatedly called) bent on world domination. KAOS was founded in 1904 in Bucharest [Episode #38: " Hoo Done It "] but is a Delaware corporation for tax purposes [Episode #59: " A Man Called Smart, Part 2 "]. By 1923 it had grown large enough to hold a convention in Atlantic City [Episode #22: " Smart the Assassin "].
"KAOS" is a play on the word "chaos" , but is not an acronym. [At least, not in English; the cover of the Spanish-language edition of Comic #7 renders the name of the organization as C.A.O.S., standing for Corporacion Activa Opuesta a la Seguridad, which translates as Corporation Actively Opposed to Security.]
Their leader is known as Mr. Big , although this appears to be a descriptive term rather than an actual title, and at least two different men have been referred to as such [Episodes #1: " Mr. Big " and #26: " Hubert's Unfinished Symphony "].
Only once has an individual been seen identified as Chief of KAOS , equivalent to the Chief of CONTROL . This was when the two chiefs attended the funeral of Yohan , a double agent who worked for both KAOS and CONTROL [Episode #85: " Die, Spy "].
Vice President of Public Relations and Terror is Ludwig Siegfried .
Their top financial genius is known as " Mr. K " [Episode #35: " Maxwell Smart, Alias Jimmy Ballantine "].
There are also a number of specialist departments including the League of Impostors [Episode #63: " The Spy Who Met Himself "], the Contrived Accident Division [Episode #83: " Run, Robot, Run "], and smuggling unit the League of Bald-Headed Men [Episode #91: " Diamonds Are a Spy's Best Friend "]. As well there are the elite ice-skating troops known as the KAOS Capades [Episode #125: " Ice Station Siegfried "].
For the most part, however, KAOS appears to operate as a series of autonomous cells, each with its own leader and agenda. Even as one cell is destroyed, another is ready to carry out its plan, making the organization very resilient. (Privately, Maxwell Smart is grateful for this state of affairs, noting that if KAOS was ever destroyed there would be no need for CONTROL, thus putting him out of a job [Episode #35: " Maxwell Smart, Alias Jimmy Ballantine "].
Although not spelled out there are clear parallels between KAOS and the communist bogey of the 1960s, with many KAOS agents hailing from Eastern Europe, or, as Max calls it, "the not-so-free world" [Episode #82: " Spy, Spy, Birdie "]. As with their real-world counterparts there is a rift between the European and Asian branches. This is graphically demonstrated when a KAOS agent posing as the beauty contestant Miss Formosa shoots dead two agents from Transmania . When one of the Transmanians, Dimitri Sokolov , protests that they are all members of KAOS, she declares, "Your brand of KAOS is weak and confused; only in my country is there pure KAOS" [Episode #50: " The Girls from KAOS "].
As time passes, KAOS organises itself in a more business-like fashion, even making a profit on its operations [Episode #54: " The Expendable Agent "], and eventually becomes a takeover target; first in 1969 by business mogul Ironhand [Episode #114: " Ironhand "] then sometime between 1974 and 1980 by scientists Nino Salvatori Sebastiani & fashion designer-scientist Norman Saint Sauvage [Movie: " The Nude Bomb "], and then years later in 1989 by publisher Nicholas Dimente [TV Movie " Get Smart, Again!"].
In the nineties, the mysterious KAOS Chairwoman takes this to its logical conclusion and acknowledges the end of the Cold War by refocussing KAOS's goal of world domination on economic rather than political means [" Get Smart (1995 series) "], going so far as to rebrand the organization "Kaos Incorporated" (aka "Kaos Corporation" or simply "Kaos, Inc.") with its headquarters in KAOS Tower . | https://getsmart.fandom.com/wiki/KAOS | 43 |
what does kaos stand for in get smart | Get Smart - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Get Smart is an American comedy television series parodying the secret agent genre that had become widely popular in the first half of the 1960s, with the release of the James Bond films. It was created by Mel Brooks and Buck Henry , and had its television premiere on NBC on September 18, 1965. It stars Don Adams (who was also a director on the series) as agent Maxwell Smart (Agent 86), Barbara Feldon as Agent 99, and Edward Platt as The Chief. Henry said that they created the show at the request of Daniel Melnick [1] to capitalize on James Bond and Inspector Clouseau , "the two biggest things in the entertainment world today". [2] Brooks described it as "an insane combination of James Bond and Mel Brooks comedy". [3]
The show generated a number of popular catchphrases during its run, including "would you believe...", "missed it by that much ", "sorry about that, Chief", "...and loving it". [4] [5] The show was followed by the films The Nude Bomb (a 1980 theatrical film made without the involvement of Brooks and Henry) and Get Smart, Again! (a 1989 made-for-TV sequel to the series), as well as a 1995 revival series and a 2008 film remake . In 2010, TV Guide ranked Get Smart ' s opening title sequence at number two on its list of TV's top 10 credits sequences as selected by readers. [6]
The show switched networks in 1969 to CBS . It ended its five-season run on May 15, 1970, with a total of 138 episodes. The Museum of Broadcast Communications finds the show notable for "broadening the parameters for the presentation of comedy on television". [7]
The series centers on bumbling secret agent Maxwell Smart (Adams)- Agent 86, and his unnamed female partner, Agent 99 (Feldon). [8] They work for CONTROL, a secret U.S. government counterintelligence agency based in Washington, DC , fighting against KAOS, "the international organization of evil". While Smart always succeeds in thwarting KAOS, his incompetent nature and insistence on doing things "by the book" invariably cause complications.
The enemies, world-takeover plots, and gadgets seen in Get Smart were a parody of the James Bond film franchise. "Do what they did except just stretch it half an inch", Mel Brooks said of the methods of this TV series. [9]
Talent Associates commissioned Mel Brooks and Buck Henry to write a script about a bungling James Bond-like hero. [10] Brooks described the premise for the show that they created in an October 1965 Time magazine article:
I was sick of looking at all those nice, sensible situation comedies. They were such distortions of life. If a maid ever took over my house like Hazel , I'd set her hair on fire. I wanted to do a crazy, unreal, comic-strip kind of thing about something besides a family. No one had ever done a show about an idiot before. I decided to be the first. [10]
Brooks and Henry proposed the show to ABC, where network executives called it "un-American" and demanded a "lovable dog to give the show more heart", as well as scenes showing Maxwell Smart's mother. [10] Brooks strongly objected to the second suggestion:
They wanted to put a print housecoat on the show. Max was to come home to his mother and explain everything. I hate mothers on shows. Max has no mother. He never had one. [10]
The cast and crew contributed joke and gadget ideas, especially Don Adams, but dialogue was rarely ad-libbed. An exception is the third-season episode "The Little Black Book". Don Rickles encouraged Adams to misbehave, and he ad-libbed. The result was so successful that the single episode was turned into two parts. [11]
The first four seasons on NBC were filmed at Sunset Bronson Studios , while the final season, shown on CBS, was filmed at CBS Studio Center .
Brooks had little involvement with the series after the first season, but Henry served as story editor through 1967. The crew of the show included:
- Leonard B. Stern – executive producer for the entire run of the series
- Irving Szathmary – music and theme composer and conductor for the entire run
- Don Adams – director of 13 episodes and writer of two episodes
- David Davis – associate producer
- Gary Nelson – director of the most episodes
- Bruce Bilson – director of the second-most episodes
- Gerald C. Gardner and Dee Caruso – head writers for the series [12]
- Reza Badiyi – occasional director
- Allan Burns and Chris Hayward – frequent writers and producers
- Stan Burns and Mike Marmer – frequent writers
- Richard Donner – occasional director
- James Komack – writer and director
- Arne Sultan – frequent writer and producer
- Lloyd Turner and Whitey Mitchell – frequent writers and producers of season five
Maxwell "Max" Smart , Agent 86 , ( Don Adams ) is the central character of the series. [13] Despite being a top-secret government agent, he is absurdly clumsy. Yet Smart is also resourceful, skilled in hand-to-hand combat, a proficient marksman, and incredibly lucky; all of this makes him one of CONTROL's top agents.
Brooks decided on Smart's code number, 86, as a reference to the slang term , meaning to forcibly eject someone, such as a patron from a bar or casino.
In 1999, TV Guide ranked Maxwell Smart number 19 on its 50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time list. [14] The character appears in every episode (though only briefly in "Ice Station Siegfried", as Don Adams was performing in Las Vegas for two weeks to settle gambling debts). [15]
Agent 99 ( Barbara Feldon ) works alongside 86 and is another one of the top agents at CONTROL. Her actual name is never revealed. In the episode "A Man Called Smart Part 3," (S2 E30), Max calls her Ernestine and she says, "Too bad that's not my name." In another episode, "99 Loses CONTROL" (S3 E19), she uses the name Susan Hilton, but later in the same episode tells Max that it is not her real name. When 99 marries Max in Season 4, Admiral Hargrade snores when the minister says her name, making it inaudible.
Several instances refer to her high level of professionalism; in one episode the Chief says an assignment requires extreme bravery and competence but since 99 isn't available, Max could do it. According to Feldon, 99 is deeply in love with Max and either overlooks or understands his quirks, while he is clueless about her affection yet often demonstrates his care through his concern for her well being.
The Chief ( Edward Platt ) is the head of CONTROL. His first name is revealed to be Thaddeus but his surname is never revealed. On some occasions he uses the "code name" "Howard Clark" for outsiders, but this is understood among CONTROL agents not to be his real name. He is supportive of Agents 86 and 99 and considers them to be his two closest friends, but he is often frustrated with Smart. When he was a field agent, his code name was "Q."
Agent Larabee ( Robert Karvelas , Don Adams' cousin) is the Chief's assistant, even more slow-witted and incompetent than Max.
Ludwig Von Siegfried ( Bernie Kopell ) is a recurring villain, and the vice president in charge of public relations and terror at KAOS, [16] though his title does vary. Despite his gruff and proper demeanor, he is as incompetent as Max.
Shtarker (or Starker) ( King Moody ) is Siegfried's equally ruthless but often inept chief henchman, prone to silly behaviors which annoy his boss as unbecoming of KAOS.
Hymie the Robot ( Dick Gautier ) is a humanoid robot built by KAOS, but in his first mission, Smart manages to turn him to the side of CONTROL. Hymie had a tendency to take instructions too literally.
Agent 13 ( David Ketchum ) is an agent who is usually stationed inside unlikely, sometimes impossibly small or unlucky places, such as cigarette machines , washing machines, lockers, trash cans, or fire hydrants. He tends to resent his assignments.
Agent 44 ( Victor French ) Six episodes (1965–66). French's first role was the insurance man in "Too Many Chiefs", and subsequent episodes as Agent 44. He is the predecessor to Agent 13 in season 1. Agent 13 takes over the function of Agent 44 for seasons 2 to 4, but Agent 44, now played by Al Molinaro , returns in season 5.
Carlson ( Stacy Keach Sr. ) is a CONTROL scientist and inventor of such gadgets as an umbrella rifle (with a high-speed camera in the handle) and edible buttons.
Dr. Steele ( Ellen Weston ) is a beautiful, sexy, and brilliant CONTROL scientist who develops formulas while undercover as a dancer and strip-tease artist. She remains oblivious to Smart's clearly discomfited attraction to her. The character appeared in three episodes in season 3, replaced the next season by Dr. Simon who has the same cover (played by different actresses in two episodes).
In Get Smart , telephones are concealed in over 50 objects, including a necktie, comb, watch, and a clock. A recurring gag is Max's shoe phone (an idea from Brooks). To use or answer it, he has to take off his shoe. Several variations on the shoe phone were used. In "I Shot 86 Today" (season four), his shoe phone is disguised as a golf shoe, complete with cleats, developed by the attractive armorer Dr. Simon. Smart's shoes sometimes contain other devices housed in the heels: an explosive pellet, a smoke bomb, compressed air capsules that propelled the wearer off the ground, and a suicide pill (which Max believes is for the enemy).
Agent 99 had her concealed telephones, as well. She had one in her makeup compact, and also one in her fingernail. To use this last device, she would pretend to bite her nail nervously, while actually talking on her "nail phone".
On February 17, 2002, the prop shoe phone was included in a display titled "Spies: Secrets from the CIA, KGB, and Hollywood", a collection of real and fictional spy gear that exhibited at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California . Flinders University in South Australia has researched medical applications for shoe phone technology after being inspired by the show. [17]
Gag phones also appear in other guises. In the episode "Too Many Chiefs" (season one), Max tells Tanya, the KAOS informer whom he is protecting, that if anyone breaks in, to pick up the house phone, dial 1-1-7, and press the trigger on the handset, which converts it to a gun. The phone-gun is only used that once, but Max once carried a gun-phone, a revolver with a rotary dial built into the cylinder. In the episode "Satan Place", Max simultaneously holds conversations on seven different phones: the shoe, his tie, his belt, his wallet, a garter, a handkerchief, and a pair of eyeglasses. Other unusual locations include a garden hose, a car cigarette lighter (with the lighter being hidden in the car phone), a bottle of perfume (Max complains of smelling like a woman), the steering wheel of his car, a painting of Agent 99, the headboard of his bed, a cheese sandwich, lab test tubes (Max grabs the wrong one and splashes himself), a Bunsen burner (Max puts out the flame anytime he pronounces a "p"), a plant in a planter beside the real working phone (operated by the dial of the working phone), and inside another full-sized working phone.
Other gadgets include a bullet-proof invisible wall in Max's apartment that lowers from the ceiling, into which Max and others often walk; a camera hidden in a bowl of soup (cream of Technicolor ) that takes a picture (with a conspicuous flash) of the person eating the soup with each spoonful; a mini magnet on a belt, which turns out to be stronger than KAOS's maxi magnet; and a powerful miniature laser weapon in the button of a sports jacket (the "laser blazer").
Another of the show's recurring gags is the " Cone of Silence ". Smart would pedantically insist on following CONTROL's security protocols; when in the chief's office, he would insist on speaking under the Cone of Silence—two transparent plastic hemispheres which are electrically lowered on top of Max and Chief—which invariably malfunction, requiring the characters to shout loudly to even have a chance of being understood by each other. Bystanders in the room could often hear them better, and sometimes relay messages back and forth. The Cone of Silence was the idea of Buck Henry, though it was preceded in an episode of the syndicated television show Science Fiction Theatre titled "Barrier of Silence", written by Lou Huston, that first aired on September 3, 1955, 10 years ahead of Get Smart . [18]
The car that Smart is seen driving most frequently is a red 1965 Sunbeam Tiger two-seat roadster. [19] This car had various custom features, such as a machine gun, smoke screen, radar tracking, and an ejection seat . The Sunbeam Alpine , upon which the Tiger was based, was used by customizer Gene Winfield because the Alpine's four-cylinder engine afforded more room under the hood than the V8 in the Tiger. [20] [21] AMT , Winfield's employer, made a model kit of the Tiger, complete with hidden weapons. It is the only kit of the Tiger, and has been reissued multiple times as a stock Tiger.
Adams received the Sunbeam and drove it for 10 years after the end of the show. It was wrecked and repaired several times, and its current whereabouts are unknown. [22]
In the black-and-white pilot episode only, Smart drives a 1961 Ferrari 250 GT PF Spider Cabriolet. [23]
In the opening credits, the Tiger was used for seasons one and two. In seasons three and four, Smart drives a light blue Volkswagen Karmann Ghia , because Volkswagen had become a sponsor of the show. [8] The Volkswagen was never used in the body of the show. [24] In season five (1969–1970), Buick became a show sponsor, [8] so the Tiger was replaced with a gold 1969 Opel GT , which also appears in the body of the show.
In season four (1968–1969), Adams uses a yellow Citroën 2CV in the wedding episode "With Love and Twitches", and a blue 1968 Ford Shelby Mustang GT500 convertible with a tan interior and four seats (as required by the plot) in the episodes "A Tale of Two Tails" and "The Laser Blazer".
In the short-lived 1995 TV series , Smart is trying to sell the Karmann Ghia through the classified ads.
In Get Smart, Again! , Smart is seen driving a red 1986 Alfa Romeo Spider Veloce .
The Sunbeam Tiger, the Karmann Ghia, and the Opel GT all make brief appearances in the 2008 film. The Sunbeam Tiger is seen in the CONTROL Museum, along with the original shoe phone, which Smart also briefly uses. The Opel GT is driven by Bernie Kopell and is rear-ended by a truck. Smart steals the Karmann Ghia to continue his escape.
Get Smart used several familiar character actors and celebrities, and some future stars, in guest roles , including:
Both Bill Dana and Jonathan Harris , with whom Adams appeared on The Bill Dana Show , also appeared, as did Adams' father, William Yarmy, brother, Dick Yarmy, and daughter, Caroline Adams.
The series featured several cameo appearances by famous actors and comedians, sometimes uncredited and often comedian friends of Adams. Johnny Carson appeared, credited as "special guest conductor", in "Aboard the Orient Express". Carson returned for an uncredited cameo as a royal footman in the third-season episode "The King Lives?" Other performers to make cameo appearances included Steve Allen , Milton Berle , Ernest Borgnine , Wally Cox , Robert Culp (as a waiter in an episode sending up Culp's I Spy ), Phyllis Diller , Buddy Hackett , Bob Hope , and Martin Landau .
Actress Rose Michtom (the real-life aunt of the show's executive producer Leonard Stern) appeared in at least 44 episodes—usually as a background extra with no speaking role. In the season-one episode "Too Many Chiefs", when she is shown in a photograph, Max refers to her as "my Aunt Rose", but the Chief corrects Max by saying that she is actually KAOS agent Alexi Sebastian disguised as Max's Aunt Rose. [26] Fans refer to her as "Aunt Rose" in all of her dozens of appearances, though her character is never actually named in most of them. [27]
The series was broadcast on NBC -TV from September 18, 1965, to September 13, 1969, after which it moved to the CBS network for its final season, running from September 26, 1969, to September 11, 1970, with 138 total episodes produced. During its five-season run, Get Smart broke the Nielsen Top 30 twice. It ranked at number 12 during its first season, and at number 22 during its second season, before falling out of the top 30 for its last three seasons. The series won seven Emmy Awards , and it was nominated for another 14 Emmys and two Golden Globe Awards . In 1995, the series was briefly resurrected starring Adams and Feldon with Andy Dick as Max's and 99's son Zack Smart and Elaine Hendrix as 66.
|Season||Episodes||Originally aired|
|First aired||Last aired||Network|
|1||30||September 18, 1965||May 7, 1966||NBC|
|2||30||September 17, 1966||April 22, 1967|
|3||26||September 16, 1967||April 6, 1968|
|4||26||September 21, 1968||March 29, 1969|
|5||26||September 26, 1969||May 15, 1970||CBS|
|Year||Category||Recipient|
|1967||Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Comedy||Don Adams|
|1967||Outstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy||Buck Henry , Leonard Stern|
|1968||Outstanding Comedy Series||Burt Nodella , producer|
|1968||Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Comedy||Don Adams|
|1968||Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy||Bruce Bilson|
|1969||Outstanding Comedy Series||Burt Nodella|
|1969||Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Comedy||Don Adams|
Four feature-length films have been produced following the end of the NBC/CBS run of the TV series:
- 1980: The Nude Bomb (dir. Clive Donner )—also known as The Return of Maxwell Smart or Maxwell Smart and the Nude Bomb —was theatrically released. It was panned by critics and barely returned its budget at the box office.
In October 2008, [ needs update ] it was reported that Warner Bros., Village Roadshow Pictures and Mosaic Media Group were producing a sequel . Carell and Hathaway were set to return, but the status of other cast members had not been announced. As of 2019, Get Smart 2 is no longer in development [29] [30]
Get Smart, Again! eventually prompted the development of a short-lived 1995 weekly series on Fox also titled Get Smart , with Adams and Feldon reprising their characters with Maxwell Smart now being the Chief of Control as their bumbling son, Zach ( Andy Dick ), becomes Control's star agent (Zach's twin sister is never seen nor mentioned – though the new leader of KAOS, a hidden female figure, would have been revealed as the other twin if the show had continued). And 99 is now a congresswoman. The beginning teaser shows Maxwell Smart and Zach driving to Control headquarters in a car wash separately; Smart, Zach and their secretary cram themselves into a secret elevator: a soda machine which "disappears". (A cleaning lady sits down in the open space when all of a sudden the machine pops up and knocks the woman into the ceiling.) A late episode of the 1995 series shows that just as Siegfried is leaving a room, Maxwell Smart accidentally activates an atomic bomb just before the end of the show. (The teaser for the episode shows an atomic bomb going off.) This ending is similar to a device used by the Get Smart -inspired series Sledge Hammer! at the end of its first season. Hopes for the series were not high, as Andy Dick had already moved on to NewsRadio , which premiered weeks later in 1995.
With the revival series on Fox, Get Smart became the first television franchise to air new episodes (or made-for-TV films) on each of the aforementioned current four major American television networks, although several TV shows in the 1940s and 1950s aired on NBC, CBS, ABC and DuMont . The different versions of Get Smart did not all feature the original lead cast.
Get Smart was parodied on a sketch in the Mexican comedy show De Nuez en Cuando called "Super Agente 3.1486" , [31] making fun of the Spanish title of the series ( Super Agente 86 ) and the way the series is dubbed.
An early MadTV sketch titled "Get Smarty" placed the Maxwell Smart character in situations from the film Get Shorty .
An episode of F Troop called "Spy, Counterspy, Counter–counterspy" featured Pat Harrington Jr. imitating Don Adams as secret agent "B. Wise".
The Simpsons episode " Bart vs. Lisa vs. the Third Grade " parodies the opening of Get Smart in the couch gag. Homer goes through many futuristic doors and passageways until he reaches the phone booth, falls through the floor, and lands on the couch, with the rest of the family already seated. This couch gag was later repeated in two other The Simpsons episodes: " The Fat and the Furriest " and " A Star is Torn ".
In the 1960s, Adams had a supporting role on the sitcom The Bill Dana Show (1963–1965) as the hopelessly inept hotel detective Byron Glick. His speech mannerisms, catchphrases ("Would you believe...?"), and other comedy bits were adapted for his "Maxwell Smart" role in Get Smart .
When WCGV-TV , a new independent station in Milwaukee, Wisconsin , signed on the air in 1980, Adams did in-house promos as Agent 86 to let viewers know when the reruns of Get Smart aired on the station by using his shoephone.
In one of Adams' five appearances as a guest passenger in the series The Love Boat , his character, even when he thought he had been shot, makes no attempt to visit the ship's doctor. The role of the doctor in The Love Boat was played by Bernie Kopell , who played Siegfried in Get Smart .
In 1982, Adams starred as Maxwell Smart in a series of local commercials for New York City electronics chain Savemart. The slogan was "Get Smart. Get SaveMart Smart." [32] In addition, Adams starred in a series of commercials for White Castle in 1992, paying homage to his Get Smart character with his catchphrase "Would you believe...?"
In the 1980s, Adams provided the (similar) voice of the titular bungling cyborg secret agent in the animated series Inspector Gadget . This later became a feature film in 1999 starring Matthew Broderick in the title role of Inspector John Brown Gadget (in which Adams had a cameo), and its prequel series Gadget Boy and Heather . Neither was directly related to Get Smart .
In the mid-1980s, Adams reprised his role of Maxwell Smart for a series of telephone banking commercials for Empire of America Federal Savings Bank in Buffalo, New York . The telephone banking service was called SmartLine, and Sherwin Greenberg Productions (a video production company and bank subsidiary) produced radio and television ads, as well as a series of still photos for use in promotional flyers that featured Adams' Maxwell Smart character wearing the familiar trenchcoat and holding a shoe phone to his ear. The television commercials were videotaped in Sherwin Greenberg Productions' studio on a set that resembled an old alleyway which utilized fog-making machinery for special effect. The production company even secured a lookalike of the red Alpine that Adams used in the television series, making it a memorable promotion for those familiar with the series of nearly 20 years earlier.
In the late 1980s, Adams portrayed Smart in a series of TV commercials for Toyota New Zealand, for the 1990 model Toyota Starlet. While it is customary for the actor to go to the foreign location for shooting, Adams' apparent intense dislike of long-distance flying meant that the New Zealand specification car had to be shipped to the US for filming. He also appeared in another series of Canadian commercials in the late 1990s for a dial-around long-distance carrier . In the movie Back to the Beach (1987), Adams played the Harbor Master, who used several of Maxwell Smart's catchphrases (including an exchange in which Frankie Avalon 's character did a vague impression of Siegfried).
Adams played Smart in a 1989 TV commercial for Kmart . He was seen talking on his trademark shoe phone, telling the Chief about the great selection of electronics available at Kmart. An exact replica of himself approaches him, and Smart says, "Don't tell me you're a double agent." (This was a reference to a running gag on the original series, in which Max detected some sort of setback or danger, and would say to 99, "Don't tell me..." and then 99 replied by stating a confirmation of whatever Max was afraid to hear, to which Max would always respond, "I asked you not to tell me that!")
Adams also appeared in a number of McDonald's Hamburger Restaurant television commercials, which also featured numerous stars of TV series viewed as classic or with nostalgia, such as Barbara Billingsley from Leave It to Beaver , Buddy Ebsen from The Beverly Hillbillies , Bob Denver from Gilligan's Island and Al Lewis from The Munsters .
Adams also starred in a Canadian sitcom titled Check It Out in which he played a supermarket manager. Adams' running jokes in Get Smart , such as "the old [something something] trick" and "I told you not to tell me that!" were used in the show but in a supermarket setting.
A series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the late 1960s. Dell Comics published a comic book for eight issues during 1966 and 1967, drawn in part by Steve Ditko .
The 1966 Batman movie, made during that TV show's original run, prompted other television shows to propose similar films. The only one completed was Munster Go Home (1966), which was a box office flop, causing the cancellation of other projects, including the Get Smart movie. The script for that movie was turned into a three-part episode, "A Man Called Smart", which aired on April 8, 15 and 22, 1967. [33]
Christopher Sergel adapted a play in 1967, Get Smart , based on Brooks's and Henry's pilot episode. [34]
All five seasons are available as box sets in region 1 (USA, Canada, and others) and Region 4 (Australia, New Zealand, and others). The region 1 discs are published by HBO Home Video , and region 4 by Time Life Video . Each region 1 box contains 4 discs, while region 4 editions have a 5th disc with bonus material. Region 4 editions are also available as individual discs with four to five episodes per disc. The season 1 set was released in both regions in 2008. Seasons 2 and 3 box sets were released in region 4 on July 23, 2008. Seasons 4 and 5 were released in region 4 on November 5, 2008. Seasons 2, 3, 4 and 5 in region 1 were released throughout 2009.
Another box set of the complete series is available in both regions, first published in 2006 by Time Life Video. In 2009 the region 1 edition was replaced by an HBO edition, and became more widely available. [35] All editions contain a 5th disc for each season, with bonus material. The set has 25 discs altogether.
The first four seasons were produced for NBC by Talent Associates. When it moved to CBS at the start of season five, it became an in-house production, with Talent Associates as a silent partner. The series was sold to NBC Films for syndication.
Over decades, US distribution has changed from National Telefilm Associates to Republic Pictures , to Worldvision Enterprises , to Paramount Domestic Television , to CBS Paramount Domestic Television , to CBS Television Distribution , to the current distributor, CBS Media Ventures . For decades, the syndication rights of all but a handful of the fifth-season episodes (that season being originally co-owned by Talent Associates and CBS) were encumbered with restrictions and reporting requirements; [ specify ] as a result, most of that season was rarely seen in syndication (though they were shown with more regularity on Nick at Nite and TV Land ). The distribution changes (including the loosening of restrictions on the fifth season) were the result of corporate changes, especially the 2006 split of Viacom (owners of Paramount Pictures) into two companies.
HBO owns the copyrights to the series itself, due to Time-Life Films' 1977 acquisition of Talent Associates. Home videos are distributed by HBO Home Video. For a time the DVD release was only available through Time-Life (a former Time Warner division). Warner Bros. Television owns international distribution rights.
On August 10, 2015, the entire series was officially released on digital streaming platforms for the first time in preparation for its 50th anniversary. [36] [37]
- ^ Melnick was a partner of the show's production company Talent Associates , along with Leonard Stern and David Susskind .
- ^ Get Smart Buck Henry Season 1 commentary
- ^ Day, Patrick Henry (May 19, 2008). "Q&A with Mel Brooks" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved May 3, 2010 .
- ^ Robins, Mikey (August 5, 2020). Reprehensible . Simon & Schuster . p. 247. ISBN 9781760852993 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Smart | 43 |
what does kaos stand for in get smart | KAOS | KAOS is an international organization of evil (as it is repeatedly called) bent on world domination. KAOS was founded in 1904 in Bucharest [Episode #38: " Hoo Done It "] but is a Delaware corporation for tax purposes [Episode #59: " A Man Called Smart, Part 2 "]. By 1923 it had grown large enough to hold a convention in Atlantic City [Episode #22: " Smart the Assassin "].
"KAOS" is a play on the word "chaos" , but is not an acronym. [At least, not in English; the cover of the Spanish-language edition of Comic #7 renders the name of the organization as C.A.O.S., standing for Corporacion Activa Opuesta a la Seguridad, which translates as Corporation Actively Opposed to Security.]
Their leader is known as Mr. Big , although this appears to be a descriptive term rather than an actual title, and at least two different men have been referred to as such [Episodes #1: " Mr. Big " and #26: " Hubert's Unfinished Symphony "].
Only once has an individual been seen identified as Chief of KAOS , equivalent to the Chief of CONTROL . This was when the two chiefs attended the funeral of Yohan , a double agent who worked for both KAOS and CONTROL [Episode #85: " Die, Spy "].
Vice President of Public Relations and Terror is Ludwig Siegfried .
Their top financial genius is known as " Mr. K " [Episode #35: " Maxwell Smart, Alias Jimmy Ballantine "].
There are also a number of specialist departments including the League of Impostors [Episode #63: " The Spy Who Met Himself "], the Contrived Accident Division [Episode #83: " Run, Robot, Run "], and smuggling unit the League of Bald-Headed Men [Episode #91: " Diamonds Are a Spy's Best Friend "]. As well there are the elite ice-skating troops known as the KAOS Capades [Episode #125: " Ice Station Siegfried "].
For the most part, however, KAOS appears to operate as a series of autonomous cells, each with its own leader and agenda. Even as one cell is destroyed, another is ready to carry out its plan, making the organization very resilient. (Privately, Maxwell Smart is grateful for this state of affairs, noting that if KAOS was ever destroyed there would be no need for CONTROL, thus putting him out of a job [Episode #35: " Maxwell Smart, Alias Jimmy Ballantine "].
Although not spelled out there are clear parallels between KAOS and the communist bogey of the 1960s, with many KAOS agents hailing from Eastern Europe, or, as Max calls it, "the not-so-free world" [Episode #82: " Spy, Spy, Birdie "]. As with their real-world counterparts there is a rift between the European and Asian branches. This is graphically demonstrated when a KAOS agent posing as the beauty contestant Miss Formosa shoots dead two agents from Transmania . When one of the Transmanians, Dimitri Sokolov , protests that they are all members of KAOS, she declares, "Your brand of KAOS is weak and confused; only in my country is there pure KAOS" [Episode #50: " The Girls from KAOS "].
As time passes, KAOS organises itself in a more business-like fashion, even making a profit on its operations [Episode #54: " The Expendable Agent "], and eventually becomes a takeover target; first in 1969 by business mogul Ironhand [Episode #114: " Ironhand "] then sometime between 1974 and 1980 by scientists Nino Salvatori Sebastiani & fashion designer-scientist Norman Saint Sauvage [Movie: " The Nude Bomb "], and then years later in 1989 by publisher Nicholas Dimente [TV Movie " Get Smart, Again!"].
In the nineties, the mysterious KAOS Chairwoman takes this to its logical conclusion and acknowledges the end of the Cold War by refocussing KAOS's goal of world domination on economic rather than political means [" Get Smart (1995 series) "], going so far as to rebrand the organization "Kaos Incorporated" (aka "Kaos Corporation" or simply "Kaos, Inc.") with its headquarters in KAOS Tower . | https://getsmart.fandom.com/wiki/KAOS | 43 |
what does kaos stand for in get smart | KAOS (Get Smart) | KAOS is the international organization of evil and the main enemy of CONTROL from Get Smart .
Formed in Bucharest, Romania, in 1904; like "CONTROL", "KAOS" is not an acronym. In an episode of the series, after making a series of demands in a recording, the speaker mentions the demands are from "KAOS, a Delaware Corporation". When Smart asks the chief about this, he mentions they did it for tax reasons.
Most of the members are claimed to have come from the former Axis Nations and the USSR, but there have been doubts and jokes throughout the series that some of these KAOS agents are not what they claim to be. | https://villains.fandom.com/wiki/KAOS_(Get_Smart) | 43 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | Vegas Implosions - Implosions in Las Vegas - Las Vegas Implosions | When: Hotel closed midnight, July 15, 2007. Imploded Nov. 13, 2007.
Replaced by: Multi-billion-dollar Plaza-branded resort, opening date not yet announced
With thundering crash, the New Frontier came down on Nov. 13, 2007, closing the door on the second oldest hotel on the Las Vegas Strip.
While the New Frontier never had the romantic Rat Pack era associations that other imploded hotels (Sands, Dunes) had, it did have its share of historic Vegas moments. This was the hotel that Elvis Presley made his Vegas debut at in 1956. (Presley received a cool reception and was panned by Vegas entertainment critics.) The New Frontier was also the starting place for Vegas headliners, Siegfried & Roy. The hotel was, until its implosion, the last operating hotel that was once owned by Howard Hughes and was also the site of one of the longest-running labor strikes in U.S. history (six years and four months).
Plans for The New Frontier land are currently on hold.
Read more about the New Frontier's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
When: Hotel closed Oct. 31, 2006. Imploded March 13, 2007.
Replaced by: Echelon Place, currently on hold
With its explosive implosion on March 13, 2007, the final chapter of the iconic Stardust resort was written.
Boyd Gaming closed the doors on the 48-year-old casino and hotel Nov. 1, 2006 in anticipation of the implosion that cleared the way for Echelon Place, Boyd's planned complex of resort hotels and convention facilities.
The implosion of the Stardust was one of the more emotional for locals and long-time visitors alike. Its colorful past, most notably its mob ties, was a major source for the movie "Casino." Though there have been a number of significant implosions over the last decade, the Stardust's erasure was the largest since the Sands disappeared into a cloud of dust in 1996.
Read more about the Stardust's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
Replaced by: MGM Mirage CityCenter project (under construction)
It would be an understatement to say that the Boardwalk hotel was an anomaly on the south end of the Strip. Its faux-Ferris wheel façade, replete with dummy passengers, was looking more than just out-of-place surrounded by such newer neighbors as the MGM Grand, New York-New York and Monte Carlo resorts. So when MGM Grand acquired it in 2000, its death certificate was effectively signed.
The aging and inefficient Boardwalk provided more entertainment value in its explosion than perhaps at any point during its operation. At least its clearing was not in vain. Its footprint is a key part of MGM Mirage's $7 billion CityCenter project, a mixed-use resort and entertainment complex combining gaming, shopping, state-of-the-art architecture, upscale hotels and hi-rise condominiums.
Read more about the Boardwalk's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
Replaced by: Nothing at this time (property owned by Harrah's).
The Shendandoah, as it was first known, opened in 1980 with several owners including Wayne Newton. After just four years, the property filed for bankruptcy. This without the casino ever opening.
In 1985 a Canadian based company would become the first foreign company to obtain a license to operate a casino in Nevada as they reopened the property with the New Orleans theme of Bourbon Street.
In March 2005, Harrah's purchased the property and several surrounding properties to acquire an 8 acre land parcel just off the strip and adjacent to the Las Vegas Monorail. The casino was closed in October of 2005 with demolition work beginning on the property the following January.
Replaced by: Nothing at this time (property owned by Station Casinos).
The property originally opened as the Showboat in 1954, taking advantage of a Mississippi riverboat theme. Originally built by the ownership of the Desert Inn, the Showboat received numerous upgrades over the years, including bowling lanes in 1959 and several hotel towers that eventually amounted to 500 rooms. The bowling center became so popular that it grew to 106 lanes in the 1980s and held a number of professional televised events. The sports pavilion also achieved notoriety by showcasing boxing, wrestling and roller derby.
Harrah's Entertainment bought the property in 1998 and opened other Showboat properties in Atlantic City, New Orleans, Illinois and Australia. Harrah's only ran the casino for two years before selling it to a group of investors. It was after this sale that the Showboat was renamed the Castaways and rebranded in a tropical island feel. Three years later the property was in bankruptcy, finally closing in January 2004.
Station Casinos bought the site late in 2004.
Replaced by: Wynn Las Vegas
The implosion of the Desert Inn might be somewhat of an anomaly. The famous resort was purchased in 2000 by visionary developer Steve Wynn, who closed it several months later with plans to build a mega-resort. But the D.I. - as referred to affectionately by locals - was not aging, in disrepair or suffering great losses.
Opening as Wilbur Clark's Desert Inn in 1950, the D.I. was the fifth resort to appear on what would become the Las Vegas Strip. The popular resort - which featured an 18-hole golf course and a showroom that hosted the biggest names in entertainment, including Frank Sinatra, Tony Bennett, Tina Turner and more - was purchased by billionaire Howard Hughes in 1967 after the hotel's management unsuccessfully tried to eject him from their penthouse suites.
It changed owners throughout the next 30 years, but in 1997, the D.I. underwent major renovations, giving it a completely fresh, upscale appearance more in line with the cosmopolitan direction of newer mega-resorts. Nonetheless, Wynn had a vision and that vision required the leveling of the resort's Augusta Tower in 2001. The remaining smaller towers of the D.I. were used as offices for Wynn Resorts and housed Wynn's art collection before finally being imploded with little fanfare on an early autumn morning in 2004.
Wynn Las Vegas, a $2.7 billion mega-resort centered around a gleaming, amber, 60-story tower, opened on April 28, 2005. The footprint of the towers from the second implosion yielded Encore, an adjacent resort, which opened in late 2008.
Read more about the Desert Inn's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
Replaced by: Fontainebleau Las Vegas (under construction).
Though it cribbed its name from the first major hotel on the Las Vegas Strip, the El Rancho hotel and casino just couldn't find its place in an ever-changing Vegas. It started life as the Thunderbird in 1948 (not to be confused with the hotel of the same name a mile north on the Strip), was sold and renamed as the Silverbird in 1976, and then in 1982, former Aladdin owner Ed Torres re-imagined the property as the Western-themed El Rancho.
The property enjoyed a successful re-opening, but never really caught on. After 10 years of financial struggles, Torres shut down the El Rancho, and it sat empty, like a towering ghost town, for eight years before its 13-story tower was imploded by new owners Turnberry Associates, who wanted to ensure a clear view for owners of their adjacent hi-rise condominium project, Turnberry Place.
Read more about the El Rancho's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
Replaced by: Aladdin
The Aladdin hotel and casino may be the most perplexing of Vegas' infamous implosions, even more so than the replacing of the unique Landmark casino with a parking lot. Instead of simply remodeling or upgrading facilities in waves, the Aladdin started over completely.
Itself a reinvention of a property formerly known as King's Resort (and before that, the Tally-Ho), the Aladdin opened in 1966, eventually encompassing 36 acres, with a 17-story tower, 1,100 rooms and a checkered past full of financial troubles, legal problems and mob involvement. Not even Wayne Newton's early-1980s co-ownership could fully save this seemingly-cursed resort.
The only part of the resort to remain standing after the implosion was the Aladdin Theatre for the Performing Arts, which became a centerpiece of the new Aladdin that opened in August 2000, a $1.4 billion, "1001 Arabian Nights"-themed resort featuring 2,600 rooms, Desert Passage, a 500,000-square-foot shopping center, a 100,000-square-foot casino, 21 restaurants and 75,000 square feet of meeting rooms.
The hotel eventually went on to become Planet Hollywood , sans implosion.
Read more about the Aladdin's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
Replaced by: Mandalay Bay
Before the 40-year-old Hacienda was taken down on New Year's 1997, its planned replacement was a secret project known only as "Project Paradise." Nearly 10 years later, that South Strip property is home to one of Las Vegas' most successful resorts, Mandalay Bay, which also comprises THEhotel and a Four Seasons within its expansive acreage.
The Hacienda started as a 256-room motor lodge on the outskirts of town and grew to a 1,200-room resort. It was among the first properties to offer family-friendly recreation, including a miniature golf course and a go-kart track. In its later years, the resort succumbed to age and a loss in traffic to the new, gleaming mega-resorts popping up further north on the Strip.
Read more about the Hacienda's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
Replaced by: Venetian
When you think of classic Las Vegas, it's possible you conjure the iconic image of "The Rat Pack" - Frank Sinatra, Sammy Davis, Jr., Joey Bishop, Dean Martin and Peter Lawford - standing in front of the Sands marquee, the wide-open blue sky of Vegas spread out behind them. There's a good reason: The Sands' Copa Room was the birthplace of this creative collaboration in 1960.
Sadly, those glory days of the circular Sands hotel-casino were 30 years past when owner Sheldon Adelson imploded the 44-year-old resort in 1996 to clear space for the Venetian resort, the $1.8 billion hotel-casino which - with its reproduction of Venice's canals and streets - now occupies most of the former Sands' property. An adjacent Adelson property, The Palazzo, opened in 2007.
The Sands lives on, however, both visually in the original "Ocean's Eleven" film and on musical albums recorded live at the hotel by the likes of Sinatra, Davis, Jr. and others.
Read more about the Sands' implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
Replaced by: Parking lot
Few things are more cinematic than Vegas hotel implosions, and the Landmark Hotel and Casino's explosive demolition will forever be immortalized as the Martian-destroyed Galaxy Hotel in Tim Burton's "Mars Attacks!"
Before being cleared away to accommodate 2,000 new parking spaces for the neighboring Las Vegas Convention Center, the Landmark - with its unique, flying saucer-shaped tower - lived up to its name. The futuristic-themed hotel, which opened Fourth of July weekend in 1969 with Danny Thomas playing the showroom, was built by Frank Carroll but purchased by eccentric developer Howard Hughes in 1968. In its heyday, the Landmark played host to other celebrities such as Elvis Presley and Frank Sinatra.
The hotel starred in a few other movies prior to its implosion, most notably "Diamonds Are Forever" and "Casino."
Read more about the Landmark's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun.
Replaced by: Bellagio
If there is such a thing as an "implosion craze" in Las Vegas, then the demolition of the Dunes was the hotel ending that started the trend. One of Vegas' most classic establishments, the Dunes opened in 1955, heralded by a 35-foot-tall sultan that straddled its main entrance. By the time of its closing in 1993, the sultan was long gone, as were the glory days of the Dunes, its significance dwindling as new mega-resorts like the Mirage and Treasure Island opened.
The implosion of the Dunes demarcated the end of an era as much as the opening of its replacement, the $1.6 billion Bellagio resort, at its time the world's costliest hotel. Bellagio opened with more than 3,000 rooms on an 11-acre site, featuring a 22-million-gallon lake, the Bellagio Gallery of Fine Art and a spectacular Cirque du Soleil production show, "O."
Read more about the Dune's implosion in the Las Vegas Sun. | https://www.vegas.com/lounge/las-vegas-hotel-implosions/ | 44 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | Remembering The Frontier, the Las Vegas Strip’s second resort | SHARE
LAS VEGAS (KLAS) — On this day in 1942, the Las Vegas Strip’s second resort opened: The New Frontier Hotel and Casino, which eventually became The Frontier.
The resort was the first themed casino in Vegas, sporting a western face. And talk about service, a stagecoach would pick guests up at the airport.
One of its shining moments was when it hosted Elvis Presley’s first Las Vegas appearance in 1956, and Diana Ross’ final performance as the lead singer of The Supremes in 1970.
The property was imploded after closing in 2007. Wynn Resorts purchased the land in 2017.
Copyright 2023 Nexstar Media Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed. | https://www.8newsnow.com/news/local-news/remembering-the-frontier-the-las-vegas-strips-second-resort/ | 44 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | Wynn Resorts buying former site of New Frontier on Las Vegas Strip | The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown in the foreground on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. The Encore hotel-casino, which is across the boulevard from the site, is shown in the background. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
A for sale sign is seen at the site of the never-built Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, at the corner of Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive in Las Vegas, Thursday, June 22, 2017. (Gabriella Angotti-Jones/Las Vegas Review-Journal) @gabriellaangojo
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. The Trump Hotel is shown in the background. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown in the foreground on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. The Encore hotel-casino, which is across the boulevard from the site, is shown in the background. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown in the foreground on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. The Trump Hotel is shown in the background. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is seen in Las Vegas on Monday, Sept. 26, 2016. Brett Le Blanc/Las Vegas Review-Journal Follow @bleblancphoto
The Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is seen in Las Vegas on Monday, Sept. 26, 2016. Brett Le Blanc/Las Vegas Review-Journal Follow @bleblancphoto
More Stories | https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/the-strip/wynn-resorts-buying-former-site-of-new-frontier-on-las-vegas-strip/ | 44 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | New Frontier Hotel and Casino | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| New Frontier Hotel and Casino |
|Location||Paradise, Nevada|
|Address||3120 South Las Vegas Boulevard|
|Opening date|| October 30, 1942 (Hotel Last Frontier) |
April 4, 1955 (New Frontier)
July 29, 1967 (The Frontier)
|Closing date||July 16, 2007|
|Theme||Western|
|No. of rooms|| 105 (as of 1942) |
650 (as of 1967)
984 (as of 2007)
|Total gaming space||41,325 sq ft (3,839.2 m 2 ) (as of 1998)|
|Signature attractions||Gilley's Saloon|
|Casino type||Land-based|
|Owner|| R.E. Griffith (original owner) |
William J. Moore (1943–51)
Various groups (1951–67)
Hughes Tool Company (1967–73)
Summa Corporation (1973–88)
Elardi family (1988–98)
Phil Ruffin (1998–2007)
El Ad Properties (2007)
|Previous names|| Hotel Last Frontier (1942–65) |
New Frontier (1955–65)
The Frontier (1967–98)
|Renovated in||1948, 1954–55, 1978, 1989–90, 1998|
|Coordinates||36°7′46″N 115°10′6″W Coordinates : 36°7′46″N 115°10′6″W|
The New Frontier (formerly Hotel Last Frontier and The Frontier ) was a hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada . The property began as a casino and dance club known as Pair O' Dice , opened in 1931. It was sold in 1941, and incorporated into the Hotel Last Frontier, which began construction at the end of the year. The Hotel Last Frontier opened on October 30, 1942, as the second resort on the Las Vegas Strip. The western-themed property included 105 rooms, as well as the Little Church of the West . The resort was devised by R.E. Griffith and designed by his nephew, William J. Moore. Following Griffith's death in 1943, Moore took over ownership and added a western village in 1948. The village consisted of authentic Old West buildings from a collector, and would also feature the newly built Silver Slipper casino, added in 1950.
Resort ownership changed several times between different groups, beginning in 1951. A modernized expansion opened on April 4, 1955, as the New Frontier. It operated concurrently with the Last Frontier. Both were closed in 1965, and demolished a year later to make way for a new resort, which opened as the Frontier on July 29, 1967. Future casino mogul Steve Wynn was among investors in the ownership group, marking his entry into the Las Vegas gaming industry. The ownership group also included several individuals who had difficulty gaining approval from Nevada gaming regulators.
Businessman Howard Hughes bought out the group at the end of 1967. Like his other casino properties, he owned the Frontier through Hughes Tool Company , and later through Summa Corporation . In 1988, Summa sold the Frontier to Margaret Elardi, and her two sons became co-owners a year later. A 16-story hotel tower was added in 1990. The Elardi family declined to renew a contract with the Culinary Workers Union , and 550 workers went on strike on September 21, 1991. It became one of the longest strikes in U.S. history. Businessman Phil Ruffin eventually purchased the Frontier for $167 million. The sale was finalized on February 1, 1998, when Ruffin renamed the property back to the New Frontier. The strike ended on the same day, as Ruffin agreed to a union contract. Ruffin launched a $20 million renovation to update the aging property. His changes included the addition of a new restaurant, Gilley's Saloon .
Over the next decade, Ruffin considered several redevelopment projects for the site, but lack of financing hindered these plans. In May 2007, he agreed to sell the New Frontier to El Ad Properties for more than $1.2 billion. The resort closed on July 16, 2007, and demolition began later that year. The 16-story tower was imploded on November 13, 2007. It was the last of the Hughes-era casinos to be demolished. The 984-room property had been popular as a low-budget alternative to the larger resorts on the Strip. El Ad owned the Plaza Hotel in New York City, and planned to replace the New Frontier with a Plaza-branded resort , but the project was canceled due to the Great Recession . Crown Resorts also scrapped plans to build the Alon Las Vegas resort. The site was purchased by Wynn Resorts in 2018, although plans to build the Wynn West resort were also shelved, and the land remains vacant.
The property hosted numerous entertainers throughout its operation, including Wayne Newton and Robert Goulet . It hosted the Las Vegas debuts of Liberace in 1944, and Elvis Presley in 1956, and also hosted the final performance of Diana Ross & The Supremes in 1970.
A portion of the property began as a casino and dance club known as Pair O' Dice. It opened on July 4, 1931, [1] and was remodeled and enlarged during its first year. [2] [3] It was originally owned by casino dealer Frank Detra. [4] Businessman Guy McAfee took over club operations in 1939. He remodeled the property and renamed it the 91 Club, after its location on Highway 91, which would later become the Las Vegas Strip . [5] He purchased the club later in 1939, for $10,000. [6] [7]
McAfee sold the 91 Club in late 1941, to a group based in Arizona. [8] R.E. Griffith, owner of a movie theater chain in the southwestern U.S., paid $1,000 per acre for the 35-acre site. [9] [10] In addition to theaters, Griffith also owned the Hotel El Rancho in Gallup, New Mexico , and planned to expand it into a hotel chain. [11] Griffith had originally planned to build his next hotel in Deming, New Mexico , before traveling to Las Vegas and realizing that it presented better opportunities. [11] [10] [12] He intended to construct a western-themed hotel-casino resort on the newly purchased land. [9] [10] However, his initial name for the project was already in use by the El Rancho Vegas , which opened in 1941 as the first resort on the Las Vegas Strip. Instead, Griffith named his property the Hotel Last Frontier, while maintaining the western theme. [11]
Griffith hired architect William J. Moore, his nephew, to design the project, with emphasis on an authentic recreation of the Old West. [9] [10] Construction began on December 8, 1941, [13] taking place around the 91 Club, which was incorporated into the new project as the Leo Carrillo Bar. It was named after Griffith's friend, entertainer Leo Carrillo . [11] Building materials were difficult to acquire, due to a supply shortage caused by World War II . Moore purchased one or two abandoned mines in Pioche, Nevada , and sent crews to strip the sites of any usable materials. [9] [10] Moore also purchased two ranches in Moapa, Nevada , to supply meat and dairy for the resort. [11]
The Hotel Last Frontier opened on October 30, 1942. [14] [15] [16] It was the second hotel-casino resort to open on the Las Vegas Strip. [17] The motel was mostly two stories, with some rooms on a third floor. It included 105 rooms at its opening, and an additional 100 would be added later. [11] To maintain cool temperatures, cold water was carried through pipes in the walls of each room, originating from tunnels beneath the property. [10] [11]
Because Griffith and Moore were inexperienced in the gaming industry, they had the casino built at the rear of the property, not realizing that it should have been presented as the main attraction. [10] The property included the Gay Nineties Bar, which had sat in the Arizona Club in Las Vegas, before being reassembled at the Last Frontier. [9] [10] [18] The Frontier added the Little Church of the West in May 1943. [19] The resort also included the El Corral Arena, used for rodeo events. [20] [21]
Griffith died of a heart attack in November 1943, and Moore took over the property. [22] [23] Moore conceived an idea to add the western-themed Last Frontier Village. [11] It opened in November 1948, initially with three buildings while others would be added later. [24] The village ultimately included restaurants, bars, and shops. The Little Church of the West was also incorporated into the village. [9] [11] [25] Located at the property's northern end, [9] the village included authentic Old West buildings saved by Doby Doc, a collector in Elko, Nevada . [11] [26] He served as curator of the attraction. [27] The village also featured some newly built replicas created by the resort, including a Texaco gas station designed by Zick & Sharp . It offered free showers and restrooms to attract motorists to the resort. [11] The Silver Slipper casino was added to the village in 1950. [11]
The Last Frontier was sold in 1951, to a group led by McAfee. [28] The new ownership included Jake Kozloff and Beldon Katleman , the latter of whom also owned the El Rancho Vegas. [29] [30] By 1954, Kozloff was the primary stockholder, [31] and the ownership group now included Murray Randolph. [32]
In June 1954, construction began on a $2 million expansion known as the New Frontier. The project included more rooms, new restaurants, and additional casino space. The Little Church of the West was relocated elsewhere on the property to make room for the new facilities. [33] Later that year, Katleman sued several resort executives, including Kozloff, his brother William Kozloff, and Randolph. Katleman alleged that the trio had undisclosed partners invested in the resort, going against state law. He also alleged that the men began expansion of the resort without first obtaining a loan to cover the costs. [34] [35] The Nevada Tax Commission launched an investigation into the resort's hidden ownership. [36] [37]
An opening celebration for the New Frontier was held on April 4, 1955. [38] [39] [12] It served as a modernized expansion of the Hotel Last Frontier, [40] which continued to operate under its original name. [41] [42] Singer Mario Lanza was scheduled to perform for the opening, but canceled at the last minute due to laryngitis , forcing the property to refund $20,000 in tickets. [43] [44] [45]
Jake Kozloff resigned as president and general manager a few weeks after the opening. He and Randolph sold their interest to a new investor group, [46] [47] [48] which finalized their purchase in May 1955, after paying more than $1 million to creditors . Katleman had sought to prevent the sale, [49] [50] as the resort was heavily mortgaged under the new group's financial setup. [51] Katleman had also gotten into a fist fight with Maury Friedman, a member of the group who was denied ownership by the tax commission. [52] Friedman was approved for an ownership stake later in 1955, along with seven other new partners in the group. [53] Katleman's 1954 suit against Kozloff and Randolph was settled a few months later. [54]
An expansion project was announced later in 1955. [55] [56] The adjacent Royal Nevada hotel-casino, located north of the Frontier, was taken over by the latter's ownership group in 1956. The Royal Nevada then briefly served as an annex to the New Frontier. [57] [58] [59] [60] Later that year, a new group took over operations and invested $301,000 into the New Frontier, which was struggling financially. The group included Vera Krupp, the estranged wife of Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach . [60] [61] Krupp oversaw operations with Louis Manchon, a swimming pool contractor. [62] [63] The previous group, including Friedman, returned to take over operations in early March 1957, after Krupp declined to invest any further in the struggling resort. [64] Krupp alleged that stockholders had misled her on the monetary potential of the New Frontier. [65] [66] The property owed approximately $100,000 to creditors, not including back taxes sought by the U.S. government. [63] Federal agents seized more than $1 million in assets from the property, [67] which closed its facilities on March 18, 1957, with the exception of the hotel. [68] [69] [70] The New Frontier later went into bankruptcy. [71] Restaurant and bar operations eventually resumed. [72]
In mid-1958, a new operating group – led by Los Angeles shirt manufacturer Jack Barenfield – proposed a $400,000 investment to reopen the casino and operate it on a limited basis. The Nevada Gaming Control Board was skeptical that the group would have enough funds to keep the casino operational for long. [72]
Warren Bayley, one of the primary owners of the Hacienda resort, reached a deal to take over the New Frontier from Katleman and Friedman. The $6.5 million deal was finalized on October 1, 1958. [73] [74] The property was leased to Bayley, [75] who agreed to pay off its debts. [76] Actor Preston Foster served as vice president for Frontier Properties, Inc. [77] The casino area reopened in April 1959. [78] Two years later, Idaho banker and construction company owner Frank Wester sought to take over the property. [79] Wester was approved by state gaming regulators, but failed to follow through on the deal. [80]
Bayley became the primary owner of the New Frontier Hotel in November 1964. [81] He died a month later, and the casino was closed on New Year's Eve, in preparation for an expansion. The hotel and other facilities closed a few days later, [82] [83] and the property never reopened. Bankers Life purchased Frontier Properties Inc. in August 1965, and leased it to a new company, Vegas Frontier Inc., overseen by Friedman. Six months later, Friedman announced plans to demolish the existing facilities entirely for a larger Frontier resort to be built on the site. [40] [84] The demolition process reached its final stage in May 1966. [85] [86] The western village was included in the demolition, [87] although the Little Church of the West and the Silver Slipper casino were kept. [88] [89]
Groundbreaking for a new Frontier hotel-casino took place on September 26, 1966, with Friedman set to oversee casino operations. [90] [91] The new project had more than a dozen investors, [92] including future casino mogul Steve Wynn , who purchased a three-percent stake. The Frontier marked Wynn's entry into the Las Vegas gaming industry. [93] [94] It was later discovered that the Frontier project was financed with Detroit mob money, from a group led by Anthony Joseph Zerilli . [93] [95] [96] [97]
The $25 million Frontier opened on July 29, 1967, with a four-day celebration. It included 650 hotel rooms, [98] [99] [100] entertainment venues, several restaurants, and convention space. [42] The Frontier's roadside sign had a height of 184 feet, making it the tallest in Las Vegas. The sign, along with the Frontier's new "F" logo, was designed by Bill Clark of Ad Art. The sign featured 16-foot-tall letters, with the giant "F" logo resting at the top. [101] [102]
Several individuals in the new property, including Friedman, had difficulty gaining approval of state gaming regulators. [40] [103] Businessman Howard Hughes bought out the group in December 1967, paying $23 million for the Frontier. Like his other casino properties, it was originally operated through Hughes Tool Company , [104] [105] [106] until Hughes' Summa Corporation took over in 1973. [107] Hughes died three years later. [108] A $5 million renovation concluded in 1978. [109] Later that year, the Little Church of the West was relocated to the Hacienda resort, making room for the Fashion Show Mall to be built just south of the Frontier. [88]
In December 1987, Summa agreed to sell the Frontier and Silver Slipper – the last of Hughes' Las Vegas gaming properties – to casino owner Margaret Elardi. [110] [111] [112] She took over ownership of the Frontier on June 30, 1988, and acquired the Silver Slipper later that year, [113] [114] demolishing the latter to add a Frontier parking lot. [89] [115] In December 1989, Elardi's two sons, John and Tom, became part-owners with her in the Frontier. [116] The 16-story Atrium Tower, [117] consisting of 400 suites, was opened a month later. [118]
Under the Elardis' ownership, the Frontier focused primarily on a low-budget clientele of slot players. It offered few amenities, at a time when new megaresorts were becoming popular on the Las Vegas Strip. [119]
The Frontier had a labor agreement with the Culinary Workers Union that expired on July 1, 1989. Upon its expiration, general manager Tom Elardi said that the union presented the Frontier with two contract renewal choices, with no option to negotiate; he said the family would not have purchased the Frontier if they had known this would happen. [120] Citing a reduction in salaries and worker benefits, [119] [121] [122] 550 workers went on strike on September 21, 1991. [123] [124] [125] Politicians such as Jesse Jackson expressed support for the strikers, [126] [127] who represented four unions, including Culinary. [128]
The strike ran continuously on the sidewalk in front of the resort, and striking workers were occasionally violent towards patrons who crossed the picket line. [120] [129] In April 1993, California tourist Sean White and his family were verbally and physically assaulted by the strikers. Seven union workers were charged in the incident, and the union itself settled with the Whites after they filed a lawsuit. Sean White also sued the Frontier, seeking damages for his injuries and alleging inadequate security at the resort. He claimed that the property was aware of the strikers being particularly agitated on the night of the incident, yet did nothing to resolve the situation. [130] [131] [132] The Frontier countered that the Whites provoked the strikers. [133] Furthermore, Tom Elardi said that guests were always warned about possible verbal abuse from the strikers when making hotel reservations. He also said that, according to the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), it would be illegal to label the strikers as "violent". [132] In addition, Elardi said that Frontier security did not have the authority to help guests on public property, where the incident took place. [132] [133] A jury eventually ruled in the Frontier's favor, finding it not liable for events that take place on public property. [134] [135]
In late 1991, the Frontier ran controversial ads in the Los Angeles Times implying that the entire Strip was being targeted by the strike. The property eventually stopped running the ads after protests from other resorts. [119] [136] Business at the Frontier saw a 40-percent decrease during the first year of the strike. [119] In 1993, Nevada governor Bob Miller appointed a fact finder to help resolve the strike, although these efforts failed after 28 meetings. [137] Miller later called the Frontier an embarrassment to the state for its refusal to end the strike. [124] Margaret Elardi wanted to settle with the union and end the strike, but her sons opposed the idea. [138]
Numerous complaints against the Frontier were filed with the NLRB. [119] In 1995, [120] [139] a federal court ruled that the resort had to pay back work-related benefits that it had cut off to striking workers. [123] [140] The NLRB later ruled in favor of the union, agreeing with the 1995 ruling and calling the dispute an unfair labor practice strike. [141] Negotiations between the Culinary union and the Elardis took place in July 1996, [142] [143] but ended without a resolution, in part because Tom Elardi refused a Culinary mandate to rehire all of the striking workers: "I believe the ones who've been violent or who participated in major picket line misconduct shouldn't come back. The union says that's the only way they will settle, but I absolutely refuse to take them back". [120]
Arthur Goldberg, chairman of Bally Entertainment , announced in July 1996 that there was interest in purchasing the Frontier and ending the strike. At the time, Hilton Hotels Corporation was in the process of acquiring Bally. Goldberg was willing to purchase the Frontier himself if Hilton should pass on it. His plan would potentially include demolishing all or part of the Frontier to make way for a 3,000-room resort. [142] [143] Wynn and casino rival Donald Trump were also rumored to have an interest in buying the Frontier. [143] Trump passed on the property, as he found Elardi's $208 million asking price too high. Hilton and Goldberg also did not proceed with a purchase, and the strike continued. [144]
In late 1996, a former Frontier worker alleged that the Elardis ran a technologically advanced spy operation to monitor the strike. It was also used to monitor Frontier security guards, as well as officers of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department whenever they came to view video footage of the strike. The operation allegedly included security cameras and listening devices, operated from a second-floor headquarters known as the 900 Room that was overseen by 15 people. The worker also said that the resort routinely sabotaged the strike, for instance by turning on nearby sprinklers or placing manure bags near a catering truck. Tom Elardi called the worker disgruntled. He said the 900 Room functioned only to monitor and maintain the exterior during the strike, denying that any sabotage had taken place. [145] [146]
Other former workers came forward to confirm the spying allegation, stating that there was a high level of paranoia relating to the strike. [146] [147] [148] Some workers said that the Frontier had tapped its office phones to monitor conversations, [146] allegations which led to an FBI investigation. [148] [149] Concerned that strikers might stay at the hotel to gain information, Frontier officials also had recording devices planted in certain guest rooms which were to be occupied only by confirmed members of the strike, allowing the hotel to spy on them. [148] The spying operation allegedly went beyond the resort, as some workers said they were tasked with following strikers around. Others collected garbage from the Culinary headquarters in hopes of gaining incriminating information. [150]
After the allegations came to light, strikers filed 75 criminal complaints against the Frontier, [151] and the Nevada Gaming Control Board opened an investigation. Meanwhile, the AFL–CIO launched a campaign to raise awareness about the strike, [152] [153] with president John Sweeney calling the Frontier "one of the biggest corporate criminals" in American history. [154] The AFL-CIO also opened a committee investigation into the strike. [155] John Elardi later admitted that the 900 Room was used for spying, stating that he created it in 1992, without first consulting Margaret or Tom Elardi. He also acknowledged using sprinklers on the strikers, after police stopped responding to the resort's calls about trespassing picketers. [156] [157]
In October 1997, businessman Phil Ruffin reached an agreement to buy the Frontier from the Elardis for $167 million. [158] He also agreed to sign a contract with the union, putting an end to the strike. Ruffin's application for a gaming license was fast-tracked to expedite the sale and end the strike sooner. Prior to the announcement of Ruffin's purchase, the Nevada Gaming Control Board was prepared to file a complaint revoking the Frontier's gaming license, due to the property's conduct during the strike. [159] [160]
Ruffin completed his purchase on February 1, 1998, ending the 2,325-day strike. [158] It was among the longest strikes in U.S. history, and the Culinary union had spent $26 million on it. [161] Approximately 300 of the 550 striking workers returned to their jobs. [162] Striking employees received a total of nearly $5 million in back-pay and trust fund contributions. [163] On the day of the purchase, a celebration event was held at the resort, and was attended by 3,000 people. [158] [164]
Upon taking ownership, Ruffin renamed the property back to the New Frontier. It had 986 rooms and a 41,325 sq ft (3,839.2 m 2 ) casino, [165] and catered to a middle-class clientele. [166] [167] The resort had become outdated during the strike, and lacked basic features such as fulltime room service and a 24-hour coffee shop. [158] [167] Profits improved following a $20 million renovation project, which included new restaurants and a remodeled sportsbook. [168] [169]
Gilley's Saloon , a country western restaurant, was among the additions. It included a mechanical bull, a dance hall, and live music. The 10,000 sq ft (930 m 2 ) saloon opened in December 1998. Ruffin got the idea for the restaurant after seeing the 1980 film Urban Cowboy , which had featured the Gilley's Club in Texas, along with its mechanical bull. Ruffin subsequently partnered with country singer Mickey Gilley to open the saloon, inspired by the original club. [170] Gilley's later offered bikini bull-riding and mud wrestling. [171]
Ruffin intended to rebrand the hotel as a Radisson , and renovated the guest rooms to bring them up to standard. However, in 1999, he decided against this idea as he now had other plans for the property. [172] In January 2000, Ruffin announced plans to demolish the New Frontier in five or six months to make way for a new casino resort, scheduled to open in 2002. The new project, known as City by the Bay , would include a San Francisco theme and more than 2,500 rooms. Ruffin said the new resort was necessary to stay competitive on the Las Vegas Strip. The project would cost up to $700 million. [173] He put his redevelopment plans on hold in May 2000, because of difficulty raising the necessary funds. Ruffin said the project would eventually proceed. The New Frontier continued operations in the meantime, [174] [175] and remained profitable. [176] [177]
In 2002, Ruffin partnered with Trump to build Trump International Hotel Las Vegas . [178] It was constructed on the Frontier property's southwest corner, taking up part of a rear parking lot. [179] Meanwhile, Ruffin still had difficulty acquiring funds to build City by the Bay, [180] and his plans evolved several times over the years. [181] At one point, Ruffin considered a Trump-branded resort to replace the New Frontier. [182] In 2003, Ruffin was in discussions with several casino operators about a possible joint venture for a new resort on the Frontier site. [183] [184] At the end of 2004, he said he would redevelop the New Frontier site on his own, stating that he had turned down a dozen offers from potential partners. [185] By 2006, Ruffin's unnamed resort project was planned to include a 485-foot Ferris wheel. [186] Later that year, Ruffin announced that the new casino resort would be named Montreux , after the Swiss town of the same name . The $2 billion resort would include 2,750 rooms. [182] [187]
However, by March 2007, Ruffin was in negotiations to sell the New Frontier to El Ad Properties , which owned the Plaza Hotel in New York City. [188] [189] A sale agreement was announced two months later, with El Ad paying approximately $35 million per acre for the 35-acre site. At more than $1.2 billion, it was the most expensive real estate transaction on the Strip. El Ad planned to demolish the New Frontier and build a $5 billion Plaza-branded resort in its place. [190] [171] [191] [192]
The New Frontier closed on July 16, 2007, at 12:01 a.m. [193] [194] The closing was a low-key event. [17] At the time, the New Frontier operated the last remaining bingo room on the Strip, and was one of the few remaining casinos to still use coin-operated slot machines. [195] El Ad completed its purchase three weeks after the closure. [196]
The 984-room New Frontier had remained popular as a low-budget alternative to larger resorts nearby. [17] [197] However, it lacked the same popularity as previous resorts such as the Sands , Stardust , and Desert Inn . [198] In 2006, readers of the Las Vegas Review-Journal voted it "Hotel Most Deserving of Being Imploded". [199] Wynn, who now owned the Wynn Las Vegas resort across the street, called the aging Frontier "the single biggest toilet in Las Vegas". [200]
The New Frontier was the last of the Hughes-era casinos to be demolished. [198] After a five-minute fireworks show, the 16-story Atrium Tower was imploded on November 13, 2007, at 2:37 a.m. Thousands of spectators turned out to view the demolition. [198] [117] The tower was imploded by Controlled Demolition, Inc. , which had worked on other Las Vegas hotel implosions. The interior was stripped down allowing for the insertion of dynamite, totaling 1,040 pounds and spread across 6,200 different areas of the tower. [200] [117] The implosion left a four-story pile of concrete, glass and steel remains. [117] Two low-rise hotel wings were demolished with the use of an excavator , although the discovery of asbestos slowed the process down. [201]
The roadside sign was left up until December 2008, when Wynn requested that it be taken down ahead of the opening for Encore Las Vegas , an addition to his Wynn property. The city's Neon Museum sought to save portions of the sign. [202]
The Plaza project failed to materialize, due to financial problems brought on by the Great Recession . Wynn offered to beautify the vacant site with landscaping, and was also approached by El Ad several times to take over the land and develop it. However, he declined as he considered such a project too much of a financial risk. [203] Wynn blamed what he saw as anti-business policies of U.S. president Barack Obama , and a challenging level of debt as a consequence of El Ad having paid what proved too high a price for the property. [204]
In 2014, Crown Resorts purchased the property for $280 million and partnered with Oaktree Capital Management . [205] [206] [207] A year later, they announced plans to build a casino resort known as Alon Las Vegas . [208] However, Crown Resorts pulled out of the project in 2016, [209] and it was eventually canceled. [210]
Wynn Resorts bought the land and four adjacent acres in early 2018, for $336 million. [211] [212] [213] The company announced plans to build Wynn West , a new casino resort to complement the existing Wynn and Encore properties. [214] Steve Wynn, amid sexual assault allegations against him, resigned from his company shortly after the announcement. Matt Maddox took over as CEO, and plans for Wynn West were shelved. [215]
The Hotel Last Frontier opened with an entertainment venue known as the Ramona Room. [13] Liberace made his Las Vegas debut at the showroom in 1944. [216] [217] The Mary Kaye Trio performed at the Hotel Last Frontier for approximately three years, starting in 1950. The Ramona Room had already been booked by other acts over the next six months, so a stage was added to a bar area for the trio to perform. They became the first lounge act to perform in Las Vegas, popularizing the concept. [218] [219]
The New Frontier addition in 1955 included a restaurant and showroom known as the Venus Room. [220] A new Venus Room, with seating for 800, opened with the rebuilt Frontier in 1967. The new resort also included the 400-seat Post Time Theater. [98] [221] Elvis Presley made his Las Vegas debut at the New Frontier in 1956, but was poorly received. [222] [223] In the late 1950s, the New Frontier offered Holiday in Japan , a variety show featuring 60 performers from Tokyo. [224] [225] [226] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Frontier_Hotel_and_Casino | 44 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | New Frontier Hotel and Casino | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| New Frontier Hotel and Casino |
|Location||Paradise, Nevada|
|Address||3120 South Las Vegas Boulevard|
|Opening date|| October 30, 1942 (Hotel Last Frontier) |
April 4, 1955 (New Frontier)
July 29, 1967 (The Frontier)
|Closing date||July 16, 2007|
|Theme||Western|
|No. of rooms|| 105 (as of 1942) |
650 (as of 1967)
984 (as of 2007)
|Total gaming space||41,325 sq ft (3,839.2 m 2 ) (as of 1998)|
|Signature attractions||Gilley's Saloon|
|Casino type||Land-based|
|Owner|| R.E. Griffith (original owner) |
William J. Moore (1943–51)
Various groups (1951–67)
Hughes Tool Company (1967–73)
Summa Corporation (1973–88)
Elardi family (1988–98)
Phil Ruffin (1998–2007)
El Ad Properties (2007)
|Previous names|| Hotel Last Frontier (1942–65) |
New Frontier (1955–65)
The Frontier (1967–98)
|Renovated in||1948, 1954–55, 1978, 1989–90, 1998|
|Coordinates||36°7′46″N 115°10′6″W Coordinates : 36°7′46″N 115°10′6″W|
The New Frontier (formerly Hotel Last Frontier and The Frontier ) was a hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada . The property began as a casino and dance club known as Pair O' Dice , opened in 1931. It was sold in 1941, and incorporated into the Hotel Last Frontier, which began construction at the end of the year. The Hotel Last Frontier opened on October 30, 1942, as the second resort on the Las Vegas Strip. The western-themed property included 105 rooms, as well as the Little Church of the West . The resort was devised by R.E. Griffith and designed by his nephew, William J. Moore. Following Griffith's death in 1943, Moore took over ownership and added a western village in 1948. The village consisted of authentic Old West buildings from a collector, and would also feature the newly built Silver Slipper casino, added in 1950.
Resort ownership changed several times between different groups, beginning in 1951. A modernized expansion opened on April 4, 1955, as the New Frontier. It operated concurrently with the Last Frontier. Both were closed in 1965, and demolished a year later to make way for a new resort, which opened as the Frontier on July 29, 1967. Future casino mogul Steve Wynn was among investors in the ownership group, marking his entry into the Las Vegas gaming industry. The ownership group also included several individuals who had difficulty gaining approval from Nevada gaming regulators.
Businessman Howard Hughes bought out the group at the end of 1967. Like his other casino properties, he owned the Frontier through Hughes Tool Company , and later through Summa Corporation . In 1988, Summa sold the Frontier to Margaret Elardi, and her two sons became co-owners a year later. A 16-story hotel tower was added in 1990. The Elardi family declined to renew a contract with the Culinary Workers Union , and 550 workers went on strike on September 21, 1991. It became one of the longest strikes in U.S. history. Businessman Phil Ruffin eventually purchased the Frontier for $167 million. The sale was finalized on February 1, 1998, when Ruffin renamed the property back to the New Frontier. The strike ended on the same day, as Ruffin agreed to a union contract. Ruffin launched a $20 million renovation to update the aging property. His changes included the addition of a new restaurant, Gilley's Saloon .
Over the next decade, Ruffin considered several redevelopment projects for the site, but lack of financing hindered these plans. In May 2007, he agreed to sell the New Frontier to El Ad Properties for more than $1.2 billion. The resort closed on July 16, 2007, and demolition began later that year. The 16-story tower was imploded on November 13, 2007. It was the last of the Hughes-era casinos to be demolished. The 984-room property had been popular as a low-budget alternative to the larger resorts on the Strip. El Ad owned the Plaza Hotel in New York City, and planned to replace the New Frontier with a Plaza-branded resort , but the project was canceled due to the Great Recession . Crown Resorts also scrapped plans to build the Alon Las Vegas resort. The site was purchased by Wynn Resorts in 2018, although plans to build the Wynn West resort were also shelved, and the land remains vacant.
The property hosted numerous entertainers throughout its operation, including Wayne Newton and Robert Goulet . It hosted the Las Vegas debuts of Liberace in 1944, and Elvis Presley in 1956, and also hosted the final performance of Diana Ross & The Supremes in 1970.
A portion of the property began as a casino and dance club known as Pair O' Dice. It opened on July 4, 1931, [1] and was remodeled and enlarged during its first year. [2] [3] It was originally owned by casino dealer Frank Detra. [4] Businessman Guy McAfee took over club operations in 1939. He remodeled the property and renamed it the 91 Club, after its location on Highway 91, which would later become the Las Vegas Strip . [5] He purchased the club later in 1939, for $10,000. [6] [7]
McAfee sold the 91 Club in late 1941, to a group based in Arizona. [8] R.E. Griffith, owner of a movie theater chain in the southwestern U.S., paid $1,000 per acre for the 35-acre site. [9] [10] In addition to theaters, Griffith also owned the Hotel El Rancho in Gallup, New Mexico , and planned to expand it into a hotel chain. [11] Griffith had originally planned to build his next hotel in Deming, New Mexico , before traveling to Las Vegas and realizing that it presented better opportunities. [11] [10] [12] He intended to construct a western-themed hotel-casino resort on the newly purchased land. [9] [10] However, his initial name for the project was already in use by the El Rancho Vegas , which opened in 1941 as the first resort on the Las Vegas Strip. Instead, Griffith named his property the Hotel Last Frontier, while maintaining the western theme. [11]
Griffith hired architect William J. Moore, his nephew, to design the project, with emphasis on an authentic recreation of the Old West. [9] [10] Construction began on December 8, 1941, [13] taking place around the 91 Club, which was incorporated into the new project as the Leo Carrillo Bar. It was named after Griffith's friend, entertainer Leo Carrillo . [11] Building materials were difficult to acquire, due to a supply shortage caused by World War II . Moore purchased one or two abandoned mines in Pioche, Nevada , and sent crews to strip the sites of any usable materials. [9] [10] Moore also purchased two ranches in Moapa, Nevada , to supply meat and dairy for the resort. [11]
The Hotel Last Frontier opened on October 30, 1942. [14] [15] [16] It was the second hotel-casino resort to open on the Las Vegas Strip. [17] The motel was mostly two stories, with some rooms on a third floor. It included 105 rooms at its opening, and an additional 100 would be added later. [11] To maintain cool temperatures, cold water was carried through pipes in the walls of each room, originating from tunnels beneath the property. [10] [11]
Because Griffith and Moore were inexperienced in the gaming industry, they had the casino built at the rear of the property, not realizing that it should have been presented as the main attraction. [10] The property included the Gay Nineties Bar, which had sat in the Arizona Club in Las Vegas, before being reassembled at the Last Frontier. [9] [10] [18] The Frontier added the Little Church of the West in May 1943. [19] The resort also included the El Corral Arena, used for rodeo events. [20] [21]
Griffith died of a heart attack in November 1943, and Moore took over the property. [22] [23] Moore conceived an idea to add the western-themed Last Frontier Village. [11] It opened in November 1948, initially with three buildings while others would be added later. [24] The village ultimately included restaurants, bars, and shops. The Little Church of the West was also incorporated into the village. [9] [11] [25] Located at the property's northern end, [9] the village included authentic Old West buildings saved by Doby Doc, a collector in Elko, Nevada . [11] [26] He served as curator of the attraction. [27] The village also featured some newly built replicas created by the resort, including a Texaco gas station designed by Zick & Sharp . It offered free showers and restrooms to attract motorists to the resort. [11] The Silver Slipper casino was added to the village in 1950. [11]
The Last Frontier was sold in 1951, to a group led by McAfee. [28] The new ownership included Jake Kozloff and Beldon Katleman , the latter of whom also owned the El Rancho Vegas. [29] [30] By 1954, Kozloff was the primary stockholder, [31] and the ownership group now included Murray Randolph. [32]
In June 1954, construction began on a $2 million expansion known as the New Frontier. The project included more rooms, new restaurants, and additional casino space. The Little Church of the West was relocated elsewhere on the property to make room for the new facilities. [33] Later that year, Katleman sued several resort executives, including Kozloff, his brother William Kozloff, and Randolph. Katleman alleged that the trio had undisclosed partners invested in the resort, going against state law. He also alleged that the men began expansion of the resort without first obtaining a loan to cover the costs. [34] [35] The Nevada Tax Commission launched an investigation into the resort's hidden ownership. [36] [37]
An opening celebration for the New Frontier was held on April 4, 1955. [38] [39] [12] It served as a modernized expansion of the Hotel Last Frontier, [40] which continued to operate under its original name. [41] [42] Singer Mario Lanza was scheduled to perform for the opening, but canceled at the last minute due to laryngitis , forcing the property to refund $20,000 in tickets. [43] [44] [45]
Jake Kozloff resigned as president and general manager a few weeks after the opening. He and Randolph sold their interest to a new investor group, [46] [47] [48] which finalized their purchase in May 1955, after paying more than $1 million to creditors . Katleman had sought to prevent the sale, [49] [50] as the resort was heavily mortgaged under the new group's financial setup. [51] Katleman had also gotten into a fist fight with Maury Friedman, a member of the group who was denied ownership by the tax commission. [52] Friedman was approved for an ownership stake later in 1955, along with seven other new partners in the group. [53] Katleman's 1954 suit against Kozloff and Randolph was settled a few months later. [54]
An expansion project was announced later in 1955. [55] [56] The adjacent Royal Nevada hotel-casino, located north of the Frontier, was taken over by the latter's ownership group in 1956. The Royal Nevada then briefly served as an annex to the New Frontier. [57] [58] [59] [60] Later that year, a new group took over operations and invested $301,000 into the New Frontier, which was struggling financially. The group included Vera Krupp, the estranged wife of Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach . [60] [61] Krupp oversaw operations with Louis Manchon, a swimming pool contractor. [62] [63] The previous group, including Friedman, returned to take over operations in early March 1957, after Krupp declined to invest any further in the struggling resort. [64] Krupp alleged that stockholders had misled her on the monetary potential of the New Frontier. [65] [66] The property owed approximately $100,000 to creditors, not including back taxes sought by the U.S. government. [63] Federal agents seized more than $1 million in assets from the property, [67] which closed its facilities on March 18, 1957, with the exception of the hotel. [68] [69] [70] The New Frontier later went into bankruptcy. [71] Restaurant and bar operations eventually resumed. [72]
In mid-1958, a new operating group – led by Los Angeles shirt manufacturer Jack Barenfield – proposed a $400,000 investment to reopen the casino and operate it on a limited basis. The Nevada Gaming Control Board was skeptical that the group would have enough funds to keep the casino operational for long. [72]
Warren Bayley, one of the primary owners of the Hacienda resort, reached a deal to take over the New Frontier from Katleman and Friedman. The $6.5 million deal was finalized on October 1, 1958. [73] [74] The property was leased to Bayley, [75] who agreed to pay off its debts. [76] Actor Preston Foster served as vice president for Frontier Properties, Inc. [77] The casino area reopened in April 1959. [78] Two years later, Idaho banker and construction company owner Frank Wester sought to take over the property. [79] Wester was approved by state gaming regulators, but failed to follow through on the deal. [80]
Bayley became the primary owner of the New Frontier Hotel in November 1964. [81] He died a month later, and the casino was closed on New Year's Eve, in preparation for an expansion. The hotel and other facilities closed a few days later, [82] [83] and the property never reopened. Bankers Life purchased Frontier Properties Inc. in August 1965, and leased it to a new company, Vegas Frontier Inc., overseen by Friedman. Six months later, Friedman announced plans to demolish the existing facilities entirely for a larger Frontier resort to be built on the site. [40] [84] The demolition process reached its final stage in May 1966. [85] [86] The western village was included in the demolition, [87] although the Little Church of the West and the Silver Slipper casino were kept. [88] [89]
Groundbreaking for a new Frontier hotel-casino took place on September 26, 1966, with Friedman set to oversee casino operations. [90] [91] The new project had more than a dozen investors, [92] including future casino mogul Steve Wynn , who purchased a three-percent stake. The Frontier marked Wynn's entry into the Las Vegas gaming industry. [93] [94] It was later discovered that the Frontier project was financed with Detroit mob money, from a group led by Anthony Joseph Zerilli . [93] [95] [96] [97]
The $25 million Frontier opened on July 29, 1967, with a four-day celebration. It included 650 hotel rooms, [98] [99] [100] entertainment venues, several restaurants, and convention space. [42] The Frontier's roadside sign had a height of 184 feet, making it the tallest in Las Vegas. The sign, along with the Frontier's new "F" logo, was designed by Bill Clark of Ad Art. The sign featured 16-foot-tall letters, with the giant "F" logo resting at the top. [101] [102]
Several individuals in the new property, including Friedman, had difficulty gaining approval of state gaming regulators. [40] [103] Businessman Howard Hughes bought out the group in December 1967, paying $23 million for the Frontier. Like his other casino properties, it was originally operated through Hughes Tool Company , [104] [105] [106] until Hughes' Summa Corporation took over in 1973. [107] Hughes died three years later. [108] A $5 million renovation concluded in 1978. [109] Later that year, the Little Church of the West was relocated to the Hacienda resort, making room for the Fashion Show Mall to be built just south of the Frontier. [88]
In December 1987, Summa agreed to sell the Frontier and Silver Slipper – the last of Hughes' Las Vegas gaming properties – to casino owner Margaret Elardi. [110] [111] [112] She took over ownership of the Frontier on June 30, 1988, and acquired the Silver Slipper later that year, [113] [114] demolishing the latter to add a Frontier parking lot. [89] [115] In December 1989, Elardi's two sons, John and Tom, became part-owners with her in the Frontier. [116] The 16-story Atrium Tower, [117] consisting of 400 suites, was opened a month later. [118]
Under the Elardis' ownership, the Frontier focused primarily on a low-budget clientele of slot players. It offered few amenities, at a time when new megaresorts were becoming popular on the Las Vegas Strip. [119]
The Frontier had a labor agreement with the Culinary Workers Union that expired on July 1, 1989. Upon its expiration, general manager Tom Elardi said that the union presented the Frontier with two contract renewal choices, with no option to negotiate; he said the family would not have purchased the Frontier if they had known this would happen. [120] Citing a reduction in salaries and worker benefits, [119] [121] [122] 550 workers went on strike on September 21, 1991. [123] [124] [125] Politicians such as Jesse Jackson expressed support for the strikers, [126] [127] who represented four unions, including Culinary. [128]
The strike ran continuously on the sidewalk in front of the resort, and striking workers were occasionally violent towards patrons who crossed the picket line. [120] [129] In April 1993, California tourist Sean White and his family were verbally and physically assaulted by the strikers. Seven union workers were charged in the incident, and the union itself settled with the Whites after they filed a lawsuit. Sean White also sued the Frontier, seeking damages for his injuries and alleging inadequate security at the resort. He claimed that the property was aware of the strikers being particularly agitated on the night of the incident, yet did nothing to resolve the situation. [130] [131] [132] The Frontier countered that the Whites provoked the strikers. [133] Furthermore, Tom Elardi said that guests were always warned about possible verbal abuse from the strikers when making hotel reservations. He also said that, according to the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), it would be illegal to label the strikers as "violent". [132] In addition, Elardi said that Frontier security did not have the authority to help guests on public property, where the incident took place. [132] [133] A jury eventually ruled in the Frontier's favor, finding it not liable for events that take place on public property. [134] [135]
In late 1991, the Frontier ran controversial ads in the Los Angeles Times implying that the entire Strip was being targeted by the strike. The property eventually stopped running the ads after protests from other resorts. [119] [136] Business at the Frontier saw a 40-percent decrease during the first year of the strike. [119] In 1993, Nevada governor Bob Miller appointed a fact finder to help resolve the strike, although these efforts failed after 28 meetings. [137] Miller later called the Frontier an embarrassment to the state for its refusal to end the strike. [124] Margaret Elardi wanted to settle with the union and end the strike, but her sons opposed the idea. [138]
Numerous complaints against the Frontier were filed with the NLRB. [119] In 1995, [120] [139] a federal court ruled that the resort had to pay back work-related benefits that it had cut off to striking workers. [123] [140] The NLRB later ruled in favor of the union, agreeing with the 1995 ruling and calling the dispute an unfair labor practice strike. [141] Negotiations between the Culinary union and the Elardis took place in July 1996, [142] [143] but ended without a resolution, in part because Tom Elardi refused a Culinary mandate to rehire all of the striking workers: "I believe the ones who've been violent or who participated in major picket line misconduct shouldn't come back. The union says that's the only way they will settle, but I absolutely refuse to take them back". [120]
Arthur Goldberg, chairman of Bally Entertainment , announced in July 1996 that there was interest in purchasing the Frontier and ending the strike. At the time, Hilton Hotels Corporation was in the process of acquiring Bally. Goldberg was willing to purchase the Frontier himself if Hilton should pass on it. His plan would potentially include demolishing all or part of the Frontier to make way for a 3,000-room resort. [142] [143] Wynn and casino rival Donald Trump were also rumored to have an interest in buying the Frontier. [143] Trump passed on the property, as he found Elardi's $208 million asking price too high. Hilton and Goldberg also did not proceed with a purchase, and the strike continued. [144]
In late 1996, a former Frontier worker alleged that the Elardis ran a technologically advanced spy operation to monitor the strike. It was also used to monitor Frontier security guards, as well as officers of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department whenever they came to view video footage of the strike. The operation allegedly included security cameras and listening devices, operated from a second-floor headquarters known as the 900 Room that was overseen by 15 people. The worker also said that the resort routinely sabotaged the strike, for instance by turning on nearby sprinklers or placing manure bags near a catering truck. Tom Elardi called the worker disgruntled. He said the 900 Room functioned only to monitor and maintain the exterior during the strike, denying that any sabotage had taken place. [145] [146]
Other former workers came forward to confirm the spying allegation, stating that there was a high level of paranoia relating to the strike. [146] [147] [148] Some workers said that the Frontier had tapped its office phones to monitor conversations, [146] allegations which led to an FBI investigation. [148] [149] Concerned that strikers might stay at the hotel to gain information, Frontier officials also had recording devices planted in certain guest rooms which were to be occupied only by confirmed members of the strike, allowing the hotel to spy on them. [148] The spying operation allegedly went beyond the resort, as some workers said they were tasked with following strikers around. Others collected garbage from the Culinary headquarters in hopes of gaining incriminating information. [150]
After the allegations came to light, strikers filed 75 criminal complaints against the Frontier, [151] and the Nevada Gaming Control Board opened an investigation. Meanwhile, the AFL–CIO launched a campaign to raise awareness about the strike, [152] [153] with president John Sweeney calling the Frontier "one of the biggest corporate criminals" in American history. [154] The AFL-CIO also opened a committee investigation into the strike. [155] John Elardi later admitted that the 900 Room was used for spying, stating that he created it in 1992, without first consulting Margaret or Tom Elardi. He also acknowledged using sprinklers on the strikers, after police stopped responding to the resort's calls about trespassing picketers. [156] [157]
In October 1997, businessman Phil Ruffin reached an agreement to buy the Frontier from the Elardis for $167 million. [158] He also agreed to sign a contract with the union, putting an end to the strike. Ruffin's application for a gaming license was fast-tracked to expedite the sale and end the strike sooner. Prior to the announcement of Ruffin's purchase, the Nevada Gaming Control Board was prepared to file a complaint revoking the Frontier's gaming license, due to the property's conduct during the strike. [159] [160]
Ruffin completed his purchase on February 1, 1998, ending the 2,325-day strike. [158] It was among the longest strikes in U.S. history, and the Culinary union had spent $26 million on it. [161] Approximately 300 of the 550 striking workers returned to their jobs. [162] Striking employees received a total of nearly $5 million in back-pay and trust fund contributions. [163] On the day of the purchase, a celebration event was held at the resort, and was attended by 3,000 people. [158] [164]
Upon taking ownership, Ruffin renamed the property back to the New Frontier. It had 986 rooms and a 41,325 sq ft (3,839.2 m 2 ) casino, [165] and catered to a middle-class clientele. [166] [167] The resort had become outdated during the strike, and lacked basic features such as fulltime room service and a 24-hour coffee shop. [158] [167] Profits improved following a $20 million renovation project, which included new restaurants and a remodeled sportsbook. [168] [169]
Gilley's Saloon , a country western restaurant, was among the additions. It included a mechanical bull, a dance hall, and live music. The 10,000 sq ft (930 m 2 ) saloon opened in December 1998. Ruffin got the idea for the restaurant after seeing the 1980 film Urban Cowboy , which had featured the Gilley's Club in Texas, along with its mechanical bull. Ruffin subsequently partnered with country singer Mickey Gilley to open the saloon, inspired by the original club. [170] Gilley's later offered bikini bull-riding and mud wrestling. [171]
Ruffin intended to rebrand the hotel as a Radisson , and renovated the guest rooms to bring them up to standard. However, in 1999, he decided against this idea as he now had other plans for the property. [172] In January 2000, Ruffin announced plans to demolish the New Frontier in five or six months to make way for a new casino resort, scheduled to open in 2002. The new project, known as City by the Bay , would include a San Francisco theme and more than 2,500 rooms. Ruffin said the new resort was necessary to stay competitive on the Las Vegas Strip. The project would cost up to $700 million. [173] He put his redevelopment plans on hold in May 2000, because of difficulty raising the necessary funds. Ruffin said the project would eventually proceed. The New Frontier continued operations in the meantime, [174] [175] and remained profitable. [176] [177]
In 2002, Ruffin partnered with Trump to build Trump International Hotel Las Vegas . [178] It was constructed on the Frontier property's southwest corner, taking up part of a rear parking lot. [179] Meanwhile, Ruffin still had difficulty acquiring funds to build City by the Bay, [180] and his plans evolved several times over the years. [181] At one point, Ruffin considered a Trump-branded resort to replace the New Frontier. [182] In 2003, Ruffin was in discussions with several casino operators about a possible joint venture for a new resort on the Frontier site. [183] [184] At the end of 2004, he said he would redevelop the New Frontier site on his own, stating that he had turned down a dozen offers from potential partners. [185] By 2006, Ruffin's unnamed resort project was planned to include a 485-foot Ferris wheel. [186] Later that year, Ruffin announced that the new casino resort would be named Montreux , after the Swiss town of the same name . The $2 billion resort would include 2,750 rooms. [182] [187]
However, by March 2007, Ruffin was in negotiations to sell the New Frontier to El Ad Properties , which owned the Plaza Hotel in New York City. [188] [189] A sale agreement was announced two months later, with El Ad paying approximately $35 million per acre for the 35-acre site. At more than $1.2 billion, it was the most expensive real estate transaction on the Strip. El Ad planned to demolish the New Frontier and build a $5 billion Plaza-branded resort in its place. [190] [171] [191] [192]
The New Frontier closed on July 16, 2007, at 12:01 a.m. [193] [194] The closing was a low-key event. [17] At the time, the New Frontier operated the last remaining bingo room on the Strip, and was one of the few remaining casinos to still use coin-operated slot machines. [195] El Ad completed its purchase three weeks after the closure. [196]
The 984-room New Frontier had remained popular as a low-budget alternative to larger resorts nearby. [17] [197] However, it lacked the same popularity as previous resorts such as the Sands , Stardust , and Desert Inn . [198] In 2006, readers of the Las Vegas Review-Journal voted it "Hotel Most Deserving of Being Imploded". [199] Wynn, who now owned the Wynn Las Vegas resort across the street, called the aging Frontier "the single biggest toilet in Las Vegas". [200]
The New Frontier was the last of the Hughes-era casinos to be demolished. [198] After a five-minute fireworks show, the 16-story Atrium Tower was imploded on November 13, 2007, at 2:37 a.m. Thousands of spectators turned out to view the demolition. [198] [117] The tower was imploded by Controlled Demolition, Inc. , which had worked on other Las Vegas hotel implosions. The interior was stripped down allowing for the insertion of dynamite, totaling 1,040 pounds and spread across 6,200 different areas of the tower. [200] [117] The implosion left a four-story pile of concrete, glass and steel remains. [117] Two low-rise hotel wings were demolished with the use of an excavator , although the discovery of asbestos slowed the process down. [201]
The roadside sign was left up until December 2008, when Wynn requested that it be taken down ahead of the opening for Encore Las Vegas , an addition to his Wynn property. The city's Neon Museum sought to save portions of the sign. [202]
The Plaza project failed to materialize, due to financial problems brought on by the Great Recession . Wynn offered to beautify the vacant site with landscaping, and was also approached by El Ad several times to take over the land and develop it. However, he declined as he considered such a project too much of a financial risk. [203] Wynn blamed what he saw as anti-business policies of U.S. president Barack Obama , and a challenging level of debt as a consequence of El Ad having paid what proved too high a price for the property. [204]
In 2014, Crown Resorts purchased the property for $280 million and partnered with Oaktree Capital Management . [205] [206] [207] A year later, they announced plans to build a casino resort known as Alon Las Vegas . [208] However, Crown Resorts pulled out of the project in 2016, [209] and it was eventually canceled. [210]
Wynn Resorts bought the land and four adjacent acres in early 2018, for $336 million. [211] [212] [213] The company announced plans to build Wynn West , a new casino resort to complement the existing Wynn and Encore properties. [214] Steve Wynn, amid sexual assault allegations against him, resigned from his company shortly after the announcement. Matt Maddox took over as CEO, and plans for Wynn West were shelved. [215]
The Hotel Last Frontier opened with an entertainment venue known as the Ramona Room. [13] Liberace made his Las Vegas debut at the showroom in 1944. [216] [217] The Mary Kaye Trio performed at the Hotel Last Frontier for approximately three years, starting in 1950. The Ramona Room had already been booked by other acts over the next six months, so a stage was added to a bar area for the trio to perform. They became the first lounge act to perform in Las Vegas, popularizing the concept. [218] [219]
The New Frontier addition in 1955 included a restaurant and showroom known as the Venus Room. [220] A new Venus Room, with seating for 800, opened with the rebuilt Frontier in 1967. The new resort also included the 400-seat Post Time Theater. [98] [221] Elvis Presley made his Las Vegas debut at the New Frontier in 1956, but was poorly received. [222] [223] In the late 1950s, the New Frontier offered Holiday in Japan , a variety show featuring 60 performers from Tokyo. [224] [225] [226] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Frontier_Hotel_and_Casino | 44 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | New Frontier Hotel and Casino | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| New Frontier Hotel and Casino |
|Location||Paradise, Nevada|
|Address||3120 South Las Vegas Boulevard|
|Opening date|| October 30, 1942 (Hotel Last Frontier) |
April 4, 1955 (New Frontier)
July 29, 1967 (The Frontier)
|Closing date||July 16, 2007|
|Theme||Western|
|No. of rooms|| 105 (as of 1942) |
650 (as of 1967)
984 (as of 2007)
|Total gaming space||41,325 sq ft (3,839.2 m 2 ) (as of 1998)|
|Signature attractions||Gilley's Saloon|
|Casino type||Land-based|
|Owner|| R.E. Griffith (original owner) |
William J. Moore (1943–51)
Various groups (1951–67)
Hughes Tool Company (1967–73)
Summa Corporation (1973–88)
Elardi family (1988–98)
Phil Ruffin (1998–2007)
El Ad Properties (2007)
|Previous names|| Hotel Last Frontier (1942–65) |
New Frontier (1955–65)
The Frontier (1967–98)
|Renovated in||1948, 1954–55, 1978, 1989–90, 1998|
|Coordinates||36°7′46″N 115°10′6″W Coordinates : 36°7′46″N 115°10′6″W|
The New Frontier (formerly Hotel Last Frontier and The Frontier ) was a hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada . The property began as a casino and dance club known as Pair O' Dice , opened in 1931. It was sold in 1941, and incorporated into the Hotel Last Frontier, which began construction at the end of the year. The Hotel Last Frontier opened on October 30, 1942, as the second resort on the Las Vegas Strip. The western-themed property included 105 rooms, as well as the Little Church of the West . The resort was devised by R.E. Griffith and designed by his nephew, William J. Moore. Following Griffith's death in 1943, Moore took over ownership and added a western village in 1948. The village consisted of authentic Old West buildings from a collector, and would also feature the newly built Silver Slipper casino, added in 1950.
Resort ownership changed several times between different groups, beginning in 1951. A modernized expansion opened on April 4, 1955, as the New Frontier. It operated concurrently with the Last Frontier. Both were closed in 1965, and demolished a year later to make way for a new resort, which opened as the Frontier on July 29, 1967. Future casino mogul Steve Wynn was among investors in the ownership group, marking his entry into the Las Vegas gaming industry. The ownership group also included several individuals who had difficulty gaining approval from Nevada gaming regulators.
Businessman Howard Hughes bought out the group at the end of 1967. Like his other casino properties, he owned the Frontier through Hughes Tool Company , and later through Summa Corporation . In 1988, Summa sold the Frontier to Margaret Elardi, and her two sons became co-owners a year later. A 16-story hotel tower was added in 1990. The Elardi family declined to renew a contract with the Culinary Workers Union , and 550 workers went on strike on September 21, 1991. It became one of the longest strikes in U.S. history. Businessman Phil Ruffin eventually purchased the Frontier for $167 million. The sale was finalized on February 1, 1998, when Ruffin renamed the property back to the New Frontier. The strike ended on the same day, as Ruffin agreed to a union contract. Ruffin launched a $20 million renovation to update the aging property. His changes included the addition of a new restaurant, Gilley's Saloon .
Over the next decade, Ruffin considered several redevelopment projects for the site, but lack of financing hindered these plans. In May 2007, he agreed to sell the New Frontier to El Ad Properties for more than $1.2 billion. The resort closed on July 16, 2007, and demolition began later that year. The 16-story tower was imploded on November 13, 2007. It was the last of the Hughes-era casinos to be demolished. The 984-room property had been popular as a low-budget alternative to the larger resorts on the Strip. El Ad owned the Plaza Hotel in New York City, and planned to replace the New Frontier with a Plaza-branded resort , but the project was canceled due to the Great Recession . Crown Resorts also scrapped plans to build the Alon Las Vegas resort. The site was purchased by Wynn Resorts in 2018, although plans to build the Wynn West resort were also shelved, and the land remains vacant.
The property hosted numerous entertainers throughout its operation, including Wayne Newton and Robert Goulet . It hosted the Las Vegas debuts of Liberace in 1944, and Elvis Presley in 1956, and also hosted the final performance of Diana Ross & The Supremes in 1970.
A portion of the property began as a casino and dance club known as Pair O' Dice. It opened on July 4, 1931, [1] and was remodeled and enlarged during its first year. [2] [3] It was originally owned by casino dealer Frank Detra. [4] Businessman Guy McAfee took over club operations in 1939. He remodeled the property and renamed it the 91 Club, after its location on Highway 91, which would later become the Las Vegas Strip . [5] He purchased the club later in 1939, for $10,000. [6] [7]
McAfee sold the 91 Club in late 1941, to a group based in Arizona. [8] R.E. Griffith, owner of a movie theater chain in the southwestern U.S., paid $1,000 per acre for the 35-acre site. [9] [10] In addition to theaters, Griffith also owned the Hotel El Rancho in Gallup, New Mexico , and planned to expand it into a hotel chain. [11] Griffith had originally planned to build his next hotel in Deming, New Mexico , before traveling to Las Vegas and realizing that it presented better opportunities. [11] [10] [12] He intended to construct a western-themed hotel-casino resort on the newly purchased land. [9] [10] However, his initial name for the project was already in use by the El Rancho Vegas , which opened in 1941 as the first resort on the Las Vegas Strip. Instead, Griffith named his property the Hotel Last Frontier, while maintaining the western theme. [11]
Griffith hired architect William J. Moore, his nephew, to design the project, with emphasis on an authentic recreation of the Old West. [9] [10] Construction began on December 8, 1941, [13] taking place around the 91 Club, which was incorporated into the new project as the Leo Carrillo Bar. It was named after Griffith's friend, entertainer Leo Carrillo . [11] Building materials were difficult to acquire, due to a supply shortage caused by World War II . Moore purchased one or two abandoned mines in Pioche, Nevada , and sent crews to strip the sites of any usable materials. [9] [10] Moore also purchased two ranches in Moapa, Nevada , to supply meat and dairy for the resort. [11]
The Hotel Last Frontier opened on October 30, 1942. [14] [15] [16] It was the second hotel-casino resort to open on the Las Vegas Strip. [17] The motel was mostly two stories, with some rooms on a third floor. It included 105 rooms at its opening, and an additional 100 would be added later. [11] To maintain cool temperatures, cold water was carried through pipes in the walls of each room, originating from tunnels beneath the property. [10] [11]
Because Griffith and Moore were inexperienced in the gaming industry, they had the casino built at the rear of the property, not realizing that it should have been presented as the main attraction. [10] The property included the Gay Nineties Bar, which had sat in the Arizona Club in Las Vegas, before being reassembled at the Last Frontier. [9] [10] [18] The Frontier added the Little Church of the West in May 1943. [19] The resort also included the El Corral Arena, used for rodeo events. [20] [21]
Griffith died of a heart attack in November 1943, and Moore took over the property. [22] [23] Moore conceived an idea to add the western-themed Last Frontier Village. [11] It opened in November 1948, initially with three buildings while others would be added later. [24] The village ultimately included restaurants, bars, and shops. The Little Church of the West was also incorporated into the village. [9] [11] [25] Located at the property's northern end, [9] the village included authentic Old West buildings saved by Doby Doc, a collector in Elko, Nevada . [11] [26] He served as curator of the attraction. [27] The village also featured some newly built replicas created by the resort, including a Texaco gas station designed by Zick & Sharp . It offered free showers and restrooms to attract motorists to the resort. [11] The Silver Slipper casino was added to the village in 1950. [11]
The Last Frontier was sold in 1951, to a group led by McAfee. [28] The new ownership included Jake Kozloff and Beldon Katleman , the latter of whom also owned the El Rancho Vegas. [29] [30] By 1954, Kozloff was the primary stockholder, [31] and the ownership group now included Murray Randolph. [32]
In June 1954, construction began on a $2 million expansion known as the New Frontier. The project included more rooms, new restaurants, and additional casino space. The Little Church of the West was relocated elsewhere on the property to make room for the new facilities. [33] Later that year, Katleman sued several resort executives, including Kozloff, his brother William Kozloff, and Randolph. Katleman alleged that the trio had undisclosed partners invested in the resort, going against state law. He also alleged that the men began expansion of the resort without first obtaining a loan to cover the costs. [34] [35] The Nevada Tax Commission launched an investigation into the resort's hidden ownership. [36] [37]
An opening celebration for the New Frontier was held on April 4, 1955. [38] [39] [12] It served as a modernized expansion of the Hotel Last Frontier, [40] which continued to operate under its original name. [41] [42] Singer Mario Lanza was scheduled to perform for the opening, but canceled at the last minute due to laryngitis , forcing the property to refund $20,000 in tickets. [43] [44] [45]
Jake Kozloff resigned as president and general manager a few weeks after the opening. He and Randolph sold their interest to a new investor group, [46] [47] [48] which finalized their purchase in May 1955, after paying more than $1 million to creditors . Katleman had sought to prevent the sale, [49] [50] as the resort was heavily mortgaged under the new group's financial setup. [51] Katleman had also gotten into a fist fight with Maury Friedman, a member of the group who was denied ownership by the tax commission. [52] Friedman was approved for an ownership stake later in 1955, along with seven other new partners in the group. [53] Katleman's 1954 suit against Kozloff and Randolph was settled a few months later. [54]
An expansion project was announced later in 1955. [55] [56] The adjacent Royal Nevada hotel-casino, located north of the Frontier, was taken over by the latter's ownership group in 1956. The Royal Nevada then briefly served as an annex to the New Frontier. [57] [58] [59] [60] Later that year, a new group took over operations and invested $301,000 into the New Frontier, which was struggling financially. The group included Vera Krupp, the estranged wife of Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach . [60] [61] Krupp oversaw operations with Louis Manchon, a swimming pool contractor. [62] [63] The previous group, including Friedman, returned to take over operations in early March 1957, after Krupp declined to invest any further in the struggling resort. [64] Krupp alleged that stockholders had misled her on the monetary potential of the New Frontier. [65] [66] The property owed approximately $100,000 to creditors, not including back taxes sought by the U.S. government. [63] Federal agents seized more than $1 million in assets from the property, [67] which closed its facilities on March 18, 1957, with the exception of the hotel. [68] [69] [70] The New Frontier later went into bankruptcy. [71] Restaurant and bar operations eventually resumed. [72]
In mid-1958, a new operating group – led by Los Angeles shirt manufacturer Jack Barenfield – proposed a $400,000 investment to reopen the casino and operate it on a limited basis. The Nevada Gaming Control Board was skeptical that the group would have enough funds to keep the casino operational for long. [72]
Warren Bayley, one of the primary owners of the Hacienda resort, reached a deal to take over the New Frontier from Katleman and Friedman. The $6.5 million deal was finalized on October 1, 1958. [73] [74] The property was leased to Bayley, [75] who agreed to pay off its debts. [76] Actor Preston Foster served as vice president for Frontier Properties, Inc. [77] The casino area reopened in April 1959. [78] Two years later, Idaho banker and construction company owner Frank Wester sought to take over the property. [79] Wester was approved by state gaming regulators, but failed to follow through on the deal. [80]
Bayley became the primary owner of the New Frontier Hotel in November 1964. [81] He died a month later, and the casino was closed on New Year's Eve, in preparation for an expansion. The hotel and other facilities closed a few days later, [82] [83] and the property never reopened. Bankers Life purchased Frontier Properties Inc. in August 1965, and leased it to a new company, Vegas Frontier Inc., overseen by Friedman. Six months later, Friedman announced plans to demolish the existing facilities entirely for a larger Frontier resort to be built on the site. [40] [84] The demolition process reached its final stage in May 1966. [85] [86] The western village was included in the demolition, [87] although the Little Church of the West and the Silver Slipper casino were kept. [88] [89]
Groundbreaking for a new Frontier hotel-casino took place on September 26, 1966, with Friedman set to oversee casino operations. [90] [91] The new project had more than a dozen investors, [92] including future casino mogul Steve Wynn , who purchased a three-percent stake. The Frontier marked Wynn's entry into the Las Vegas gaming industry. [93] [94] It was later discovered that the Frontier project was financed with Detroit mob money, from a group led by Anthony Joseph Zerilli . [93] [95] [96] [97]
The $25 million Frontier opened on July 29, 1967, with a four-day celebration. It included 650 hotel rooms, [98] [99] [100] entertainment venues, several restaurants, and convention space. [42] The Frontier's roadside sign had a height of 184 feet, making it the tallest in Las Vegas. The sign, along with the Frontier's new "F" logo, was designed by Bill Clark of Ad Art. The sign featured 16-foot-tall letters, with the giant "F" logo resting at the top. [101] [102]
Several individuals in the new property, including Friedman, had difficulty gaining approval of state gaming regulators. [40] [103] Businessman Howard Hughes bought out the group in December 1967, paying $23 million for the Frontier. Like his other casino properties, it was originally operated through Hughes Tool Company , [104] [105] [106] until Hughes' Summa Corporation took over in 1973. [107] Hughes died three years later. [108] A $5 million renovation concluded in 1978. [109] Later that year, the Little Church of the West was relocated to the Hacienda resort, making room for the Fashion Show Mall to be built just south of the Frontier. [88]
In December 1987, Summa agreed to sell the Frontier and Silver Slipper – the last of Hughes' Las Vegas gaming properties – to casino owner Margaret Elardi. [110] [111] [112] She took over ownership of the Frontier on June 30, 1988, and acquired the Silver Slipper later that year, [113] [114] demolishing the latter to add a Frontier parking lot. [89] [115] In December 1989, Elardi's two sons, John and Tom, became part-owners with her in the Frontier. [116] The 16-story Atrium Tower, [117] consisting of 400 suites, was opened a month later. [118]
Under the Elardis' ownership, the Frontier focused primarily on a low-budget clientele of slot players. It offered few amenities, at a time when new megaresorts were becoming popular on the Las Vegas Strip. [119]
The Frontier had a labor agreement with the Culinary Workers Union that expired on July 1, 1989. Upon its expiration, general manager Tom Elardi said that the union presented the Frontier with two contract renewal choices, with no option to negotiate; he said the family would not have purchased the Frontier if they had known this would happen. [120] Citing a reduction in salaries and worker benefits, [119] [121] [122] 550 workers went on strike on September 21, 1991. [123] [124] [125] Politicians such as Jesse Jackson expressed support for the strikers, [126] [127] who represented four unions, including Culinary. [128]
The strike ran continuously on the sidewalk in front of the resort, and striking workers were occasionally violent towards patrons who crossed the picket line. [120] [129] In April 1993, California tourist Sean White and his family were verbally and physically assaulted by the strikers. Seven union workers were charged in the incident, and the union itself settled with the Whites after they filed a lawsuit. Sean White also sued the Frontier, seeking damages for his injuries and alleging inadequate security at the resort. He claimed that the property was aware of the strikers being particularly agitated on the night of the incident, yet did nothing to resolve the situation. [130] [131] [132] The Frontier countered that the Whites provoked the strikers. [133] Furthermore, Tom Elardi said that guests were always warned about possible verbal abuse from the strikers when making hotel reservations. He also said that, according to the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), it would be illegal to label the strikers as "violent". [132] In addition, Elardi said that Frontier security did not have the authority to help guests on public property, where the incident took place. [132] [133] A jury eventually ruled in the Frontier's favor, finding it not liable for events that take place on public property. [134] [135]
In late 1991, the Frontier ran controversial ads in the Los Angeles Times implying that the entire Strip was being targeted by the strike. The property eventually stopped running the ads after protests from other resorts. [119] [136] Business at the Frontier saw a 40-percent decrease during the first year of the strike. [119] In 1993, Nevada governor Bob Miller appointed a fact finder to help resolve the strike, although these efforts failed after 28 meetings. [137] Miller later called the Frontier an embarrassment to the state for its refusal to end the strike. [124] Margaret Elardi wanted to settle with the union and end the strike, but her sons opposed the idea. [138]
Numerous complaints against the Frontier were filed with the NLRB. [119] In 1995, [120] [139] a federal court ruled that the resort had to pay back work-related benefits that it had cut off to striking workers. [123] [140] The NLRB later ruled in favor of the union, agreeing with the 1995 ruling and calling the dispute an unfair labor practice strike. [141] Negotiations between the Culinary union and the Elardis took place in July 1996, [142] [143] but ended without a resolution, in part because Tom Elardi refused a Culinary mandate to rehire all of the striking workers: "I believe the ones who've been violent or who participated in major picket line misconduct shouldn't come back. The union says that's the only way they will settle, but I absolutely refuse to take them back". [120]
Arthur Goldberg, chairman of Bally Entertainment , announced in July 1996 that there was interest in purchasing the Frontier and ending the strike. At the time, Hilton Hotels Corporation was in the process of acquiring Bally. Goldberg was willing to purchase the Frontier himself if Hilton should pass on it. His plan would potentially include demolishing all or part of the Frontier to make way for a 3,000-room resort. [142] [143] Wynn and casino rival Donald Trump were also rumored to have an interest in buying the Frontier. [143] Trump passed on the property, as he found Elardi's $208 million asking price too high. Hilton and Goldberg also did not proceed with a purchase, and the strike continued. [144]
In late 1996, a former Frontier worker alleged that the Elardis ran a technologically advanced spy operation to monitor the strike. It was also used to monitor Frontier security guards, as well as officers of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department whenever they came to view video footage of the strike. The operation allegedly included security cameras and listening devices, operated from a second-floor headquarters known as the 900 Room that was overseen by 15 people. The worker also said that the resort routinely sabotaged the strike, for instance by turning on nearby sprinklers or placing manure bags near a catering truck. Tom Elardi called the worker disgruntled. He said the 900 Room functioned only to monitor and maintain the exterior during the strike, denying that any sabotage had taken place. [145] [146]
Other former workers came forward to confirm the spying allegation, stating that there was a high level of paranoia relating to the strike. [146] [147] [148] Some workers said that the Frontier had tapped its office phones to monitor conversations, [146] allegations which led to an FBI investigation. [148] [149] Concerned that strikers might stay at the hotel to gain information, Frontier officials also had recording devices planted in certain guest rooms which were to be occupied only by confirmed members of the strike, allowing the hotel to spy on them. [148] The spying operation allegedly went beyond the resort, as some workers said they were tasked with following strikers around. Others collected garbage from the Culinary headquarters in hopes of gaining incriminating information. [150]
After the allegations came to light, strikers filed 75 criminal complaints against the Frontier, [151] and the Nevada Gaming Control Board opened an investigation. Meanwhile, the AFL–CIO launched a campaign to raise awareness about the strike, [152] [153] with president John Sweeney calling the Frontier "one of the biggest corporate criminals" in American history. [154] The AFL-CIO also opened a committee investigation into the strike. [155] John Elardi later admitted that the 900 Room was used for spying, stating that he created it in 1992, without first consulting Margaret or Tom Elardi. He also acknowledged using sprinklers on the strikers, after police stopped responding to the resort's calls about trespassing picketers. [156] [157]
In October 1997, businessman Phil Ruffin reached an agreement to buy the Frontier from the Elardis for $167 million. [158] He also agreed to sign a contract with the union, putting an end to the strike. Ruffin's application for a gaming license was fast-tracked to expedite the sale and end the strike sooner. Prior to the announcement of Ruffin's purchase, the Nevada Gaming Control Board was prepared to file a complaint revoking the Frontier's gaming license, due to the property's conduct during the strike. [159] [160]
Ruffin completed his purchase on February 1, 1998, ending the 2,325-day strike. [158] It was among the longest strikes in U.S. history, and the Culinary union had spent $26 million on it. [161] Approximately 300 of the 550 striking workers returned to their jobs. [162] Striking employees received a total of nearly $5 million in back-pay and trust fund contributions. [163] On the day of the purchase, a celebration event was held at the resort, and was attended by 3,000 people. [158] [164]
Upon taking ownership, Ruffin renamed the property back to the New Frontier. It had 986 rooms and a 41,325 sq ft (3,839.2 m 2 ) casino, [165] and catered to a middle-class clientele. [166] [167] The resort had become outdated during the strike, and lacked basic features such as fulltime room service and a 24-hour coffee shop. [158] [167] Profits improved following a $20 million renovation project, which included new restaurants and a remodeled sportsbook. [168] [169]
Gilley's Saloon , a country western restaurant, was among the additions. It included a mechanical bull, a dance hall, and live music. The 10,000 sq ft (930 m 2 ) saloon opened in December 1998. Ruffin got the idea for the restaurant after seeing the 1980 film Urban Cowboy , which had featured the Gilley's Club in Texas, along with its mechanical bull. Ruffin subsequently partnered with country singer Mickey Gilley to open the saloon, inspired by the original club. [170] Gilley's later offered bikini bull-riding and mud wrestling. [171]
Ruffin intended to rebrand the hotel as a Radisson , and renovated the guest rooms to bring them up to standard. However, in 1999, he decided against this idea as he now had other plans for the property. [172] In January 2000, Ruffin announced plans to demolish the New Frontier in five or six months to make way for a new casino resort, scheduled to open in 2002. The new project, known as City by the Bay , would include a San Francisco theme and more than 2,500 rooms. Ruffin said the new resort was necessary to stay competitive on the Las Vegas Strip. The project would cost up to $700 million. [173] He put his redevelopment plans on hold in May 2000, because of difficulty raising the necessary funds. Ruffin said the project would eventually proceed. The New Frontier continued operations in the meantime, [174] [175] and remained profitable. [176] [177]
In 2002, Ruffin partnered with Trump to build Trump International Hotel Las Vegas . [178] It was constructed on the Frontier property's southwest corner, taking up part of a rear parking lot. [179] Meanwhile, Ruffin still had difficulty acquiring funds to build City by the Bay, [180] and his plans evolved several times over the years. [181] At one point, Ruffin considered a Trump-branded resort to replace the New Frontier. [182] In 2003, Ruffin was in discussions with several casino operators about a possible joint venture for a new resort on the Frontier site. [183] [184] At the end of 2004, he said he would redevelop the New Frontier site on his own, stating that he had turned down a dozen offers from potential partners. [185] By 2006, Ruffin's unnamed resort project was planned to include a 485-foot Ferris wheel. [186] Later that year, Ruffin announced that the new casino resort would be named Montreux , after the Swiss town of the same name . The $2 billion resort would include 2,750 rooms. [182] [187]
However, by March 2007, Ruffin was in negotiations to sell the New Frontier to El Ad Properties , which owned the Plaza Hotel in New York City. [188] [189] A sale agreement was announced two months later, with El Ad paying approximately $35 million per acre for the 35-acre site. At more than $1.2 billion, it was the most expensive real estate transaction on the Strip. El Ad planned to demolish the New Frontier and build a $5 billion Plaza-branded resort in its place. [190] [171] [191] [192]
The New Frontier closed on July 16, 2007, at 12:01 a.m. [193] [194] The closing was a low-key event. [17] At the time, the New Frontier operated the last remaining bingo room on the Strip, and was one of the few remaining casinos to still use coin-operated slot machines. [195] El Ad completed its purchase three weeks after the closure. [196]
The 984-room New Frontier had remained popular as a low-budget alternative to larger resorts nearby. [17] [197] However, it lacked the same popularity as previous resorts such as the Sands , Stardust , and Desert Inn . [198] In 2006, readers of the Las Vegas Review-Journal voted it "Hotel Most Deserving of Being Imploded". [199] Wynn, who now owned the Wynn Las Vegas resort across the street, called the aging Frontier "the single biggest toilet in Las Vegas". [200]
The New Frontier was the last of the Hughes-era casinos to be demolished. [198] After a five-minute fireworks show, the 16-story Atrium Tower was imploded on November 13, 2007, at 2:37 a.m. Thousands of spectators turned out to view the demolition. [198] [117] The tower was imploded by Controlled Demolition, Inc. , which had worked on other Las Vegas hotel implosions. The interior was stripped down allowing for the insertion of dynamite, totaling 1,040 pounds and spread across 6,200 different areas of the tower. [200] [117] The implosion left a four-story pile of concrete, glass and steel remains. [117] Two low-rise hotel wings were demolished with the use of an excavator , although the discovery of asbestos slowed the process down. [201]
The roadside sign was left up until December 2008, when Wynn requested that it be taken down ahead of the opening for Encore Las Vegas , an addition to his Wynn property. The city's Neon Museum sought to save portions of the sign. [202]
The Plaza project failed to materialize, due to financial problems brought on by the Great Recession . Wynn offered to beautify the vacant site with landscaping, and was also approached by El Ad several times to take over the land and develop it. However, he declined as he considered such a project too much of a financial risk. [203] Wynn blamed what he saw as anti-business policies of U.S. president Barack Obama , and a challenging level of debt as a consequence of El Ad having paid what proved too high a price for the property. [204]
In 2014, Crown Resorts purchased the property for $280 million and partnered with Oaktree Capital Management . [205] [206] [207] A year later, they announced plans to build a casino resort known as Alon Las Vegas . [208] However, Crown Resorts pulled out of the project in 2016, [209] and it was eventually canceled. [210]
Wynn Resorts bought the land and four adjacent acres in early 2018, for $336 million. [211] [212] [213] The company announced plans to build Wynn West , a new casino resort to complement the existing Wynn and Encore properties. [214] Steve Wynn, amid sexual assault allegations against him, resigned from his company shortly after the announcement. Matt Maddox took over as CEO, and plans for Wynn West were shelved. [215]
The Hotel Last Frontier opened with an entertainment venue known as the Ramona Room. [13] Liberace made his Las Vegas debut at the showroom in 1944. [216] [217] The Mary Kaye Trio performed at the Hotel Last Frontier for approximately three years, starting in 1950. The Ramona Room had already been booked by other acts over the next six months, so a stage was added to a bar area for the trio to perform. They became the first lounge act to perform in Las Vegas, popularizing the concept. [218] [219]
The New Frontier addition in 1955 included a restaurant and showroom known as the Venus Room. [220] A new Venus Room, with seating for 800, opened with the rebuilt Frontier in 1967. The new resort also included the 400-seat Post Time Theater. [98] [221] Elvis Presley made his Las Vegas debut at the New Frontier in 1956, but was poorly received. [222] [223] In the late 1950s, the New Frontier offered Holiday in Japan , a variety show featuring 60 performers from Tokyo. [224] [225] [226] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Frontier_Hotel_and_Casino | 44 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | New Frontier Hotel and Casino | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| New Frontier Hotel and Casino |
|Location||Paradise, Nevada|
|Address||3120 South Las Vegas Boulevard|
|Opening date|| October 30, 1942 (Hotel Last Frontier) |
April 4, 1955 (New Frontier)
July 29, 1967 (The Frontier)
|Closing date||July 16, 2007|
|Theme||Western|
|No. of rooms|| 105 (as of 1942) |
650 (as of 1967)
984 (as of 2007)
|Total gaming space||41,325 sq ft (3,839.2 m 2 ) (as of 1998)|
|Signature attractions||Gilley's Saloon|
|Casino type||Land-based|
|Owner|| R.E. Griffith (original owner) |
William J. Moore (1943–51)
Various groups (1951–67)
Hughes Tool Company (1967–73)
Summa Corporation (1973–88)
Elardi family (1988–98)
Phil Ruffin (1998–2007)
El Ad Properties (2007)
|Previous names|| Hotel Last Frontier (1942–65) |
New Frontier (1955–65)
The Frontier (1967–98)
|Renovated in||1948, 1954–55, 1978, 1989–90, 1998|
|Coordinates||36°7′46″N 115°10′6″W Coordinates : 36°7′46″N 115°10′6″W|
The New Frontier (formerly Hotel Last Frontier and The Frontier ) was a hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada . The property began as a casino and dance club known as Pair O' Dice , opened in 1931. It was sold in 1941, and incorporated into the Hotel Last Frontier, which began construction at the end of the year. The Hotel Last Frontier opened on October 30, 1942, as the second resort on the Las Vegas Strip. The western-themed property included 105 rooms, as well as the Little Church of the West . The resort was devised by R.E. Griffith and designed by his nephew, William J. Moore. Following Griffith's death in 1943, Moore took over ownership and added a western village in 1948. The village consisted of authentic Old West buildings from a collector, and would also feature the newly built Silver Slipper casino, added in 1950.
Resort ownership changed several times between different groups, beginning in 1951. A modernized expansion opened on April 4, 1955, as the New Frontier. It operated concurrently with the Last Frontier. Both were closed in 1965, and demolished a year later to make way for a new resort, which opened as the Frontier on July 29, 1967. Future casino mogul Steve Wynn was among investors in the ownership group, marking his entry into the Las Vegas gaming industry. The ownership group also included several individuals who had difficulty gaining approval from Nevada gaming regulators.
Businessman Howard Hughes bought out the group at the end of 1967. Like his other casino properties, he owned the Frontier through Hughes Tool Company , and later through Summa Corporation . In 1988, Summa sold the Frontier to Margaret Elardi, and her two sons became co-owners a year later. A 16-story hotel tower was added in 1990. The Elardi family declined to renew a contract with the Culinary Workers Union , and 550 workers went on strike on September 21, 1991. It became one of the longest strikes in U.S. history. Businessman Phil Ruffin eventually purchased the Frontier for $167 million. The sale was finalized on February 1, 1998, when Ruffin renamed the property back to the New Frontier. The strike ended on the same day, as Ruffin agreed to a union contract. Ruffin launched a $20 million renovation to update the aging property. His changes included the addition of a new restaurant, Gilley's Saloon .
Over the next decade, Ruffin considered several redevelopment projects for the site, but lack of financing hindered these plans. In May 2007, he agreed to sell the New Frontier to El Ad Properties for more than $1.2 billion. The resort closed on July 16, 2007, and demolition began later that year. The 16-story tower was imploded on November 13, 2007. It was the last of the Hughes-era casinos to be demolished. The 984-room property had been popular as a low-budget alternative to the larger resorts on the Strip. El Ad owned the Plaza Hotel in New York City, and planned to replace the New Frontier with a Plaza-branded resort , but the project was canceled due to the Great Recession . Crown Resorts also scrapped plans to build the Alon Las Vegas resort. The site was purchased by Wynn Resorts in 2018, although plans to build the Wynn West resort were also shelved, and the land remains vacant.
The property hosted numerous entertainers throughout its operation, including Wayne Newton and Robert Goulet . It hosted the Las Vegas debuts of Liberace in 1944, and Elvis Presley in 1956, and also hosted the final performance of Diana Ross & The Supremes in 1970.
A portion of the property began as a casino and dance club known as Pair O' Dice. It opened on July 4, 1931, [1] and was remodeled and enlarged during its first year. [2] [3] It was originally owned by casino dealer Frank Detra. [4] Businessman Guy McAfee took over club operations in 1939. He remodeled the property and renamed it the 91 Club, after its location on Highway 91, which would later become the Las Vegas Strip . [5] He purchased the club later in 1939, for $10,000. [6] [7]
McAfee sold the 91 Club in late 1941, to a group based in Arizona. [8] R.E. Griffith, owner of a movie theater chain in the southwestern U.S., paid $1,000 per acre for the 35-acre site. [9] [10] In addition to theaters, Griffith also owned the Hotel El Rancho in Gallup, New Mexico , and planned to expand it into a hotel chain. [11] Griffith had originally planned to build his next hotel in Deming, New Mexico , before traveling to Las Vegas and realizing that it presented better opportunities. [11] [10] [12] He intended to construct a western-themed hotel-casino resort on the newly purchased land. [9] [10] However, his initial name for the project was already in use by the El Rancho Vegas , which opened in 1941 as the first resort on the Las Vegas Strip. Instead, Griffith named his property the Hotel Last Frontier, while maintaining the western theme. [11]
Griffith hired architect William J. Moore, his nephew, to design the project, with emphasis on an authentic recreation of the Old West. [9] [10] Construction began on December 8, 1941, [13] taking place around the 91 Club, which was incorporated into the new project as the Leo Carrillo Bar. It was named after Griffith's friend, entertainer Leo Carrillo . [11] Building materials were difficult to acquire, due to a supply shortage caused by World War II . Moore purchased one or two abandoned mines in Pioche, Nevada , and sent crews to strip the sites of any usable materials. [9] [10] Moore also purchased two ranches in Moapa, Nevada , to supply meat and dairy for the resort. [11]
The Hotel Last Frontier opened on October 30, 1942. [14] [15] [16] It was the second hotel-casino resort to open on the Las Vegas Strip. [17] The motel was mostly two stories, with some rooms on a third floor. It included 105 rooms at its opening, and an additional 100 would be added later. [11] To maintain cool temperatures, cold water was carried through pipes in the walls of each room, originating from tunnels beneath the property. [10] [11]
Because Griffith and Moore were inexperienced in the gaming industry, they had the casino built at the rear of the property, not realizing that it should have been presented as the main attraction. [10] The property included the Gay Nineties Bar, which had sat in the Arizona Club in Las Vegas, before being reassembled at the Last Frontier. [9] [10] [18] The Frontier added the Little Church of the West in May 1943. [19] The resort also included the El Corral Arena, used for rodeo events. [20] [21]
Griffith died of a heart attack in November 1943, and Moore took over the property. [22] [23] Moore conceived an idea to add the western-themed Last Frontier Village. [11] It opened in November 1948, initially with three buildings while others would be added later. [24] The village ultimately included restaurants, bars, and shops. The Little Church of the West was also incorporated into the village. [9] [11] [25] Located at the property's northern end, [9] the village included authentic Old West buildings saved by Doby Doc, a collector in Elko, Nevada . [11] [26] He served as curator of the attraction. [27] The village also featured some newly built replicas created by the resort, including a Texaco gas station designed by Zick & Sharp . It offered free showers and restrooms to attract motorists to the resort. [11] The Silver Slipper casino was added to the village in 1950. [11]
The Last Frontier was sold in 1951, to a group led by McAfee. [28] The new ownership included Jake Kozloff and Beldon Katleman , the latter of whom also owned the El Rancho Vegas. [29] [30] By 1954, Kozloff was the primary stockholder, [31] and the ownership group now included Murray Randolph. [32]
In June 1954, construction began on a $2 million expansion known as the New Frontier. The project included more rooms, new restaurants, and additional casino space. The Little Church of the West was relocated elsewhere on the property to make room for the new facilities. [33] Later that year, Katleman sued several resort executives, including Kozloff, his brother William Kozloff, and Randolph. Katleman alleged that the trio had undisclosed partners invested in the resort, going against state law. He also alleged that the men began expansion of the resort without first obtaining a loan to cover the costs. [34] [35] The Nevada Tax Commission launched an investigation into the resort's hidden ownership. [36] [37]
An opening celebration for the New Frontier was held on April 4, 1955. [38] [39] [12] It served as a modernized expansion of the Hotel Last Frontier, [40] which continued to operate under its original name. [41] [42] Singer Mario Lanza was scheduled to perform for the opening, but canceled at the last minute due to laryngitis , forcing the property to refund $20,000 in tickets. [43] [44] [45]
Jake Kozloff resigned as president and general manager a few weeks after the opening. He and Randolph sold their interest to a new investor group, [46] [47] [48] which finalized their purchase in May 1955, after paying more than $1 million to creditors . Katleman had sought to prevent the sale, [49] [50] as the resort was heavily mortgaged under the new group's financial setup. [51] Katleman had also gotten into a fist fight with Maury Friedman, a member of the group who was denied ownership by the tax commission. [52] Friedman was approved for an ownership stake later in 1955, along with seven other new partners in the group. [53] Katleman's 1954 suit against Kozloff and Randolph was settled a few months later. [54]
An expansion project was announced later in 1955. [55] [56] The adjacent Royal Nevada hotel-casino, located north of the Frontier, was taken over by the latter's ownership group in 1956. The Royal Nevada then briefly served as an annex to the New Frontier. [57] [58] [59] [60] Later that year, a new group took over operations and invested $301,000 into the New Frontier, which was struggling financially. The group included Vera Krupp, the estranged wife of Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach . [60] [61] Krupp oversaw operations with Louis Manchon, a swimming pool contractor. [62] [63] The previous group, including Friedman, returned to take over operations in early March 1957, after Krupp declined to invest any further in the struggling resort. [64] Krupp alleged that stockholders had misled her on the monetary potential of the New Frontier. [65] [66] The property owed approximately $100,000 to creditors, not including back taxes sought by the U.S. government. [63] Federal agents seized more than $1 million in assets from the property, [67] which closed its facilities on March 18, 1957, with the exception of the hotel. [68] [69] [70] The New Frontier later went into bankruptcy. [71] Restaurant and bar operations eventually resumed. [72]
In mid-1958, a new operating group – led by Los Angeles shirt manufacturer Jack Barenfield – proposed a $400,000 investment to reopen the casino and operate it on a limited basis. The Nevada Gaming Control Board was skeptical that the group would have enough funds to keep the casino operational for long. [72]
Warren Bayley, one of the primary owners of the Hacienda resort, reached a deal to take over the New Frontier from Katleman and Friedman. The $6.5 million deal was finalized on October 1, 1958. [73] [74] The property was leased to Bayley, [75] who agreed to pay off its debts. [76] Actor Preston Foster served as vice president for Frontier Properties, Inc. [77] The casino area reopened in April 1959. [78] Two years later, Idaho banker and construction company owner Frank Wester sought to take over the property. [79] Wester was approved by state gaming regulators, but failed to follow through on the deal. [80]
Bayley became the primary owner of the New Frontier Hotel in November 1964. [81] He died a month later, and the casino was closed on New Year's Eve, in preparation for an expansion. The hotel and other facilities closed a few days later, [82] [83] and the property never reopened. Bankers Life purchased Frontier Properties Inc. in August 1965, and leased it to a new company, Vegas Frontier Inc., overseen by Friedman. Six months later, Friedman announced plans to demolish the existing facilities entirely for a larger Frontier resort to be built on the site. [40] [84] The demolition process reached its final stage in May 1966. [85] [86] The western village was included in the demolition, [87] although the Little Church of the West and the Silver Slipper casino were kept. [88] [89]
Groundbreaking for a new Frontier hotel-casino took place on September 26, 1966, with Friedman set to oversee casino operations. [90] [91] The new project had more than a dozen investors, [92] including future casino mogul Steve Wynn , who purchased a three-percent stake. The Frontier marked Wynn's entry into the Las Vegas gaming industry. [93] [94] It was later discovered that the Frontier project was financed with Detroit mob money, from a group led by Anthony Joseph Zerilli . [93] [95] [96] [97]
The $25 million Frontier opened on July 29, 1967, with a four-day celebration. It included 650 hotel rooms, [98] [99] [100] entertainment venues, several restaurants, and convention space. [42] The Frontier's roadside sign had a height of 184 feet, making it the tallest in Las Vegas. The sign, along with the Frontier's new "F" logo, was designed by Bill Clark of Ad Art. The sign featured 16-foot-tall letters, with the giant "F" logo resting at the top. [101] [102]
Several individuals in the new property, including Friedman, had difficulty gaining approval of state gaming regulators. [40] [103] Businessman Howard Hughes bought out the group in December 1967, paying $23 million for the Frontier. Like his other casino properties, it was originally operated through Hughes Tool Company , [104] [105] [106] until Hughes' Summa Corporation took over in 1973. [107] Hughes died three years later. [108] A $5 million renovation concluded in 1978. [109] Later that year, the Little Church of the West was relocated to the Hacienda resort, making room for the Fashion Show Mall to be built just south of the Frontier. [88]
In December 1987, Summa agreed to sell the Frontier and Silver Slipper – the last of Hughes' Las Vegas gaming properties – to casino owner Margaret Elardi. [110] [111] [112] She took over ownership of the Frontier on June 30, 1988, and acquired the Silver Slipper later that year, [113] [114] demolishing the latter to add a Frontier parking lot. [89] [115] In December 1989, Elardi's two sons, John and Tom, became part-owners with her in the Frontier. [116] The 16-story Atrium Tower, [117] consisting of 400 suites, was opened a month later. [118]
Under the Elardis' ownership, the Frontier focused primarily on a low-budget clientele of slot players. It offered few amenities, at a time when new megaresorts were becoming popular on the Las Vegas Strip. [119]
The Frontier had a labor agreement with the Culinary Workers Union that expired on July 1, 1989. Upon its expiration, general manager Tom Elardi said that the union presented the Frontier with two contract renewal choices, with no option to negotiate; he said the family would not have purchased the Frontier if they had known this would happen. [120] Citing a reduction in salaries and worker benefits, [119] [121] [122] 550 workers went on strike on September 21, 1991. [123] [124] [125] Politicians such as Jesse Jackson expressed support for the strikers, [126] [127] who represented four unions, including Culinary. [128]
The strike ran continuously on the sidewalk in front of the resort, and striking workers were occasionally violent towards patrons who crossed the picket line. [120] [129] In April 1993, California tourist Sean White and his family were verbally and physically assaulted by the strikers. Seven union workers were charged in the incident, and the union itself settled with the Whites after they filed a lawsuit. Sean White also sued the Frontier, seeking damages for his injuries and alleging inadequate security at the resort. He claimed that the property was aware of the strikers being particularly agitated on the night of the incident, yet did nothing to resolve the situation. [130] [131] [132] The Frontier countered that the Whites provoked the strikers. [133] Furthermore, Tom Elardi said that guests were always warned about possible verbal abuse from the strikers when making hotel reservations. He also said that, according to the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), it would be illegal to label the strikers as "violent". [132] In addition, Elardi said that Frontier security did not have the authority to help guests on public property, where the incident took place. [132] [133] A jury eventually ruled in the Frontier's favor, finding it not liable for events that take place on public property. [134] [135]
In late 1991, the Frontier ran controversial ads in the Los Angeles Times implying that the entire Strip was being targeted by the strike. The property eventually stopped running the ads after protests from other resorts. [119] [136] Business at the Frontier saw a 40-percent decrease during the first year of the strike. [119] In 1993, Nevada governor Bob Miller appointed a fact finder to help resolve the strike, although these efforts failed after 28 meetings. [137] Miller later called the Frontier an embarrassment to the state for its refusal to end the strike. [124] Margaret Elardi wanted to settle with the union and end the strike, but her sons opposed the idea. [138]
Numerous complaints against the Frontier were filed with the NLRB. [119] In 1995, [120] [139] a federal court ruled that the resort had to pay back work-related benefits that it had cut off to striking workers. [123] [140] The NLRB later ruled in favor of the union, agreeing with the 1995 ruling and calling the dispute an unfair labor practice strike. [141] Negotiations between the Culinary union and the Elardis took place in July 1996, [142] [143] but ended without a resolution, in part because Tom Elardi refused a Culinary mandate to rehire all of the striking workers: "I believe the ones who've been violent or who participated in major picket line misconduct shouldn't come back. The union says that's the only way they will settle, but I absolutely refuse to take them back". [120]
Arthur Goldberg, chairman of Bally Entertainment , announced in July 1996 that there was interest in purchasing the Frontier and ending the strike. At the time, Hilton Hotels Corporation was in the process of acquiring Bally. Goldberg was willing to purchase the Frontier himself if Hilton should pass on it. His plan would potentially include demolishing all or part of the Frontier to make way for a 3,000-room resort. [142] [143] Wynn and casino rival Donald Trump were also rumored to have an interest in buying the Frontier. [143] Trump passed on the property, as he found Elardi's $208 million asking price too high. Hilton and Goldberg also did not proceed with a purchase, and the strike continued. [144]
In late 1996, a former Frontier worker alleged that the Elardis ran a technologically advanced spy operation to monitor the strike. It was also used to monitor Frontier security guards, as well as officers of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department whenever they came to view video footage of the strike. The operation allegedly included security cameras and listening devices, operated from a second-floor headquarters known as the 900 Room that was overseen by 15 people. The worker also said that the resort routinely sabotaged the strike, for instance by turning on nearby sprinklers or placing manure bags near a catering truck. Tom Elardi called the worker disgruntled. He said the 900 Room functioned only to monitor and maintain the exterior during the strike, denying that any sabotage had taken place. [145] [146]
Other former workers came forward to confirm the spying allegation, stating that there was a high level of paranoia relating to the strike. [146] [147] [148] Some workers said that the Frontier had tapped its office phones to monitor conversations, [146] allegations which led to an FBI investigation. [148] [149] Concerned that strikers might stay at the hotel to gain information, Frontier officials also had recording devices planted in certain guest rooms which were to be occupied only by confirmed members of the strike, allowing the hotel to spy on them. [148] The spying operation allegedly went beyond the resort, as some workers said they were tasked with following strikers around. Others collected garbage from the Culinary headquarters in hopes of gaining incriminating information. [150]
After the allegations came to light, strikers filed 75 criminal complaints against the Frontier, [151] and the Nevada Gaming Control Board opened an investigation. Meanwhile, the AFL–CIO launched a campaign to raise awareness about the strike, [152] [153] with president John Sweeney calling the Frontier "one of the biggest corporate criminals" in American history. [154] The AFL-CIO also opened a committee investigation into the strike. [155] John Elardi later admitted that the 900 Room was used for spying, stating that he created it in 1992, without first consulting Margaret or Tom Elardi. He also acknowledged using sprinklers on the strikers, after police stopped responding to the resort's calls about trespassing picketers. [156] [157]
In October 1997, businessman Phil Ruffin reached an agreement to buy the Frontier from the Elardis for $167 million. [158] He also agreed to sign a contract with the union, putting an end to the strike. Ruffin's application for a gaming license was fast-tracked to expedite the sale and end the strike sooner. Prior to the announcement of Ruffin's purchase, the Nevada Gaming Control Board was prepared to file a complaint revoking the Frontier's gaming license, due to the property's conduct during the strike. [159] [160]
Ruffin completed his purchase on February 1, 1998, ending the 2,325-day strike. [158] It was among the longest strikes in U.S. history, and the Culinary union had spent $26 million on it. [161] Approximately 300 of the 550 striking workers returned to their jobs. [162] Striking employees received a total of nearly $5 million in back-pay and trust fund contributions. [163] On the day of the purchase, a celebration event was held at the resort, and was attended by 3,000 people. [158] [164]
Upon taking ownership, Ruffin renamed the property back to the New Frontier. It had 986 rooms and a 41,325 sq ft (3,839.2 m 2 ) casino, [165] and catered to a middle-class clientele. [166] [167] The resort had become outdated during the strike, and lacked basic features such as fulltime room service and a 24-hour coffee shop. [158] [167] Profits improved following a $20 million renovation project, which included new restaurants and a remodeled sportsbook. [168] [169]
Gilley's Saloon , a country western restaurant, was among the additions. It included a mechanical bull, a dance hall, and live music. The 10,000 sq ft (930 m 2 ) saloon opened in December 1998. Ruffin got the idea for the restaurant after seeing the 1980 film Urban Cowboy , which had featured the Gilley's Club in Texas, along with its mechanical bull. Ruffin subsequently partnered with country singer Mickey Gilley to open the saloon, inspired by the original club. [170] Gilley's later offered bikini bull-riding and mud wrestling. [171]
Ruffin intended to rebrand the hotel as a Radisson , and renovated the guest rooms to bring them up to standard. However, in 1999, he decided against this idea as he now had other plans for the property. [172] In January 2000, Ruffin announced plans to demolish the New Frontier in five or six months to make way for a new casino resort, scheduled to open in 2002. The new project, known as City by the Bay , would include a San Francisco theme and more than 2,500 rooms. Ruffin said the new resort was necessary to stay competitive on the Las Vegas Strip. The project would cost up to $700 million. [173] He put his redevelopment plans on hold in May 2000, because of difficulty raising the necessary funds. Ruffin said the project would eventually proceed. The New Frontier continued operations in the meantime, [174] [175] and remained profitable. [176] [177]
In 2002, Ruffin partnered with Trump to build Trump International Hotel Las Vegas . [178] It was constructed on the Frontier property's southwest corner, taking up part of a rear parking lot. [179] Meanwhile, Ruffin still had difficulty acquiring funds to build City by the Bay, [180] and his plans evolved several times over the years. [181] At one point, Ruffin considered a Trump-branded resort to replace the New Frontier. [182] In 2003, Ruffin was in discussions with several casino operators about a possible joint venture for a new resort on the Frontier site. [183] [184] At the end of 2004, he said he would redevelop the New Frontier site on his own, stating that he had turned down a dozen offers from potential partners. [185] By 2006, Ruffin's unnamed resort project was planned to include a 485-foot Ferris wheel. [186] Later that year, Ruffin announced that the new casino resort would be named Montreux , after the Swiss town of the same name . The $2 billion resort would include 2,750 rooms. [182] [187]
However, by March 2007, Ruffin was in negotiations to sell the New Frontier to El Ad Properties , which owned the Plaza Hotel in New York City. [188] [189] A sale agreement was announced two months later, with El Ad paying approximately $35 million per acre for the 35-acre site. At more than $1.2 billion, it was the most expensive real estate transaction on the Strip. El Ad planned to demolish the New Frontier and build a $5 billion Plaza-branded resort in its place. [190] [171] [191] [192]
The New Frontier closed on July 16, 2007, at 12:01 a.m. [193] [194] The closing was a low-key event. [17] At the time, the New Frontier operated the last remaining bingo room on the Strip, and was one of the few remaining casinos to still use coin-operated slot machines. [195] El Ad completed its purchase three weeks after the closure. [196]
The 984-room New Frontier had remained popular as a low-budget alternative to larger resorts nearby. [17] [197] However, it lacked the same popularity as previous resorts such as the Sands , Stardust , and Desert Inn . [198] In 2006, readers of the Las Vegas Review-Journal voted it "Hotel Most Deserving of Being Imploded". [199] Wynn, who now owned the Wynn Las Vegas resort across the street, called the aging Frontier "the single biggest toilet in Las Vegas". [200]
The New Frontier was the last of the Hughes-era casinos to be demolished. [198] After a five-minute fireworks show, the 16-story Atrium Tower was imploded on November 13, 2007, at 2:37 a.m. Thousands of spectators turned out to view the demolition. [198] [117] The tower was imploded by Controlled Demolition, Inc. , which had worked on other Las Vegas hotel implosions. The interior was stripped down allowing for the insertion of dynamite, totaling 1,040 pounds and spread across 6,200 different areas of the tower. [200] [117] The implosion left a four-story pile of concrete, glass and steel remains. [117] Two low-rise hotel wings were demolished with the use of an excavator , although the discovery of asbestos slowed the process down. [201]
The roadside sign was left up until December 2008, when Wynn requested that it be taken down ahead of the opening for Encore Las Vegas , an addition to his Wynn property. The city's Neon Museum sought to save portions of the sign. [202]
The Plaza project failed to materialize, due to financial problems brought on by the Great Recession . Wynn offered to beautify the vacant site with landscaping, and was also approached by El Ad several times to take over the land and develop it. However, he declined as he considered such a project too much of a financial risk. [203] Wynn blamed what he saw as anti-business policies of U.S. president Barack Obama , and a challenging level of debt as a consequence of El Ad having paid what proved too high a price for the property. [204]
In 2014, Crown Resorts purchased the property for $280 million and partnered with Oaktree Capital Management . [205] [206] [207] A year later, they announced plans to build a casino resort known as Alon Las Vegas . [208] However, Crown Resorts pulled out of the project in 2016, [209] and it was eventually canceled. [210]
Wynn Resorts bought the land and four adjacent acres in early 2018, for $336 million. [211] [212] [213] The company announced plans to build Wynn West , a new casino resort to complement the existing Wynn and Encore properties. [214] Steve Wynn, amid sexual assault allegations against him, resigned from his company shortly after the announcement. Matt Maddox took over as CEO, and plans for Wynn West were shelved. [215]
The Hotel Last Frontier opened with an entertainment venue known as the Ramona Room. [13] Liberace made his Las Vegas debut at the showroom in 1944. [216] [217] The Mary Kaye Trio performed at the Hotel Last Frontier for approximately three years, starting in 1950. The Ramona Room had already been booked by other acts over the next six months, so a stage was added to a bar area for the trio to perform. They became the first lounge act to perform in Las Vegas, popularizing the concept. [218] [219]
The New Frontier addition in 1955 included a restaurant and showroom known as the Venus Room. [220] A new Venus Room, with seating for 800, opened with the rebuilt Frontier in 1967. The new resort also included the 400-seat Post Time Theater. [98] [221] Elvis Presley made his Las Vegas debut at the New Frontier in 1956, but was poorly received. [222] [223] In the late 1950s, the New Frontier offered Holiday in Japan , a variety show featuring 60 performers from Tokyo. [224] [225] [226] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Frontier_Hotel_and_Casino | 44 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | Frontier Hotel and Casino - Abandoned On The Las Vegas Strip | The New Frontier Hotel and Casino was located in Las Vegas , Nevada, USA but was demolished in 2007 after lying abandoned for 6 months.
Opened in 1942, the Hotel Last Frontier, as it was originally called, was the second resort built on the Las Vegas Strip . It had started life as the Pair-O-Dice nightclub in the 1930s before becoming The Ambassador Night Club and the 91 Club. The original club was demolished for the construction of the hotel. In 1955, it was renamed the New Frontier after work was done to modernise.
The resort famously held Elvis Presley ’s first Vegas appearance in 1956 and Diana Ross & The Supremes in 1970. There was another name change after this time to become just The Frontier. Gilley’s Saloon, Dancehall and Bar-B-Que was a popular attraction at the resort and has since reopened at Treasure Island , also on the Las Vegas Strip.
Ownership of The Frontier changed a number of times over the years. In 1971, a federal trial in Los Angeles charged Anthony Joseph Zerilli and Michael Polizzi, two members of the Detroit Mafia Family, of concealing an ownership stake in The Frontier. It was bought by Howard Hughes, the American business magnate who was once one of the richest people in the world. He died in 1976.
In 1988, the resort was bought from the company created to manage the Hughes Corporation assets by Margaret Elardi. She began downscaling as it became no longer financially viable. In 1991, the Culinary Workers Union went on strike which didn’t end until 1997 when the resort was bought by Phil Ruffin. He immediately changed the name back to the New Frontier.
Ruffin had plans to demolish the resort and build a new one in its place but the downturn following the September 11th attacks stymied the plans. He teamed up with Donald Trump to build the Trump Hotel Las Vegas on some of the property. In May 2007, The New Frontier Hotel and Casino was purchased by El Ad Properties and demolished just 2 months later. Various plans surfaced thereafter but none came to fruition. The site was purchased by Wynn Resorts in 2017 although no further plans were announced at the time.
The following are reviews from TripAdvisor –
“The New Frontier is anything but new. And oddly enough, that brought a lot of charm to the place. It felt like old Vegas. But, the oldness also brought a lack of amenities and treatment that you expect with a Vegas hotel. The showiness was missing. The old slots and carpets made it feel dirty, even though it was cleaned often, as witnessed by seeing the cleaning staff running around. If you are looking for a time machine trip, this is your place. Otherwise, get somewhere more modern.”
“I have stayed in a lot of hotels and have never paid so much for so little and I didn’t pay very much. It was the nastiest place, they should charge by the hour. Rooms were filthy, had to pay extra for utilities, our door wouldn’t close, no non-smoking rooms and they smell smoking, furnishings out of my great grandmother’s nursing home, all the facilities were outdated and unusual…several haven’t been used in years, gross bathroom with a faulty shower and no warm water, I got the flu after staying there…99% sure it came from there. I had no choice but to stay here as I was in Vegas for a conference and all the hotels on the strip were booked except for this dump, now I know why.”
Location: Las Vegas, Nevada 🇺🇸
Abandoned: 2007
Abandoned: 2007 | https://www.worldabandoned.com/frontier-hotel-and-casino | 44 |
what hotel replaced the new frontier in las vegas | Wynn Resorts buying former site of New Frontier on Las Vegas Strip | The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown in the foreground on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. The Encore hotel-casino, which is across the boulevard from the site, is shown in the background. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
A for sale sign is seen at the site of the never-built Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, at the corner of Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive in Las Vegas, Thursday, June 22, 2017. (Gabriella Angotti-Jones/Las Vegas Review-Journal) @gabriellaangojo
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. The Trump Hotel is shown in the background. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown in the foreground on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. The Encore hotel-casino, which is across the boulevard from the site, is shown in the background. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown in the foreground on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. The Trump Hotel is shown in the background. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The site of the Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is shown on the northwest corner of South Las Vegas Boulevard and Fashion Show Drive on Wednesday, March 2, 2016. Bill Hughes/Las Vegas Review-Journal
The Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is seen in Las Vegas on Monday, Sept. 26, 2016. Brett Le Blanc/Las Vegas Review-Journal Follow @bleblancphoto
The Alon hotel-casino project, on the former site of the New Frontier, is seen in Las Vegas on Monday, Sept. 26, 2016. Brett Le Blanc/Las Vegas Review-Journal Follow @bleblancphoto
More Stories | https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/the-strip/wynn-resorts-buying-former-site-of-new-frontier-on-las-vegas-strip/ | 44 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | kiwi fruit name origin - Bing | https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/fruit-names
Web Jun 19, 2019 · They both come from Asia, and they’re both citrus fruit . They both can be traced back to limun, a Persian word that could be applied to any citrus fruit . It’s likely that the word stretches back even further to an …
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/271232
Web Dec 5, 2019 · The kiwifruit , or Chinese gooseberry, originally grew wild in China. Kiwis are a nutrient-dense food — they are rich in in nutrients and low in calories. A schoolteacher introduced the fruit to... | https://bing.com/search?q=kiwi+fruit+name+origin | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | Kiwifruit - Wikipedia | For the TV series, see Kiwifruit (TV series) .
Kiwifruit (often shortened to kiwi in North American , British and continental European English) or Chinese gooseberry is the edible berry of several species of woody vines in the genus Actinidia . [1] [2] The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit ( Actinidia deliciosa 'Hayward') [3] is oval, about the size of a large hen's egg : 5–8 centimetres (2–3 inches) in length and 4.5–5.5 cm ( 1
+
3 ⁄ 4 – 2
+
1 ⁄ 4 in) in diameter. It has a thin, fuzzy, fibrous, tart but edible light brown skin and light green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture with a sweet and unique flavour.
Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China . [1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to the 12th century during the Song dynasty . [4] In the early 20th century, cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. [1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II , and later became commonly exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s. [1] [5]
Early varieties were described in a 1904 nursery catalogue as having "...edible fruits the size of walnuts , and the flavour of ripe gooseberries ", [6] leading to the name Chinese gooseberry . [1] In 1962, New Zealand growers began calling it "kiwifruit" ( Māori : huakiwi ) [7] due to its fuzzy appearance similar to the kiwi bird [8] for export marketing, and the name was first registered by Turners & Growers on 15 June 1959 [8] and later commercially adopted in 1974. [1] In New Zealand and Australia, the word "kiwi" alone either refers solely to the bird or is used as a nickname for New Zealanders ; it is almost never used to refer to the fruit. [5] [9] Kiwifruit has since become a common name for all commercially grown green kiwifruit from the genus Actinidia . [1] In the United States and Canada, the shortened name kiwi is commonly used when referring to the fruit. [10] [11]
Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China. [1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the Song dynasty . [4] As it was usually collected from the wild and consumed for medicinal purposes, the plant was rarely cultivated or bred . [12] Cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. [1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II, and was later exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s. [1] [5]
In New Zealand during the 1940s and 1950s, the fruit became an agricultural commodity through the development of commercially viable cultivars, agricultural practices, shipping, storage, and marketing. [13]
The genus Actinidia comprises around 60 species. Their fruits are quite variable, although most are easily recognised as kiwifruit because of their appearance and shape. The skin of the fruit varies in size, hairiness and colour. The flesh varies in colour, juiciness, texture and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable, while others taste considerably better than the majority of commercial cultivars. [1] [14]
The most commonly sold kiwifruit is derived from A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit). Other species that are commonly eaten include A. chinensis (golden kiwifruit), A. coriacea (Chinese egg gooseberry), A. arguta (hardy kiwifruit), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit), A. melanandra (purple kiwifruit), A. polygama (silver vine) and A. purpurea (hearty red kiwifruit). [14]
Most kiwifruit sold belongs to a few cultivars of A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit): 'Hayward', 'Blake' and 'Saanichton 12'. [2] They have a fuzzy, dull brown skin and bright green flesh. The familiar cultivar 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale , New Zealand, around 1924. [14] It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s.
'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavour. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but it has a smaller, more oval fruit and the flavour is considered inferior. [2] [14]
Kiwi berries are edible fruits the size of a large grape, similar to fuzzy kiwifruit in taste and internal appearance but with a thin, smooth green skin. They are primarily produced by three species: Actinidia arguta (hardy kiwi), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit) and A. polygama (silver vine). They are fast-growing, climbing vines, durable over their growing season . They are referred to as "kiwi berry, baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, or cocktail kiwi". [15]
The cultivar 'Issai' is a hybrid of hardy kiwi and silver vine which can self-pollinate. Grown commercially because of its relatively large fruit, 'Issai' is less hardy than most hardy kiwi. [16] [17]
Main article: Yellow kiwi
Actinidia chinensis (yellow kiwi or golden kiwifruit) has a smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is 'sweeter and more aromatic' in flavour compared to A. deliciosa , similar to some subtropical fruits. [18] One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the centre of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit obtains a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, is more palatable for consumption without peeling. [14]
A commercially viable [19] variety of this red-ringed kiwifruit, patented as EnzaRed, is a cultivar of the Chinese hong yang variety. [20] [21]
'Hort16A' is a golden kiwifruit cultivar marketed worldwide as Zespri Gold . This cultivar suffered significant losses in New Zealand in 2010–2013 due to the PSA bacterium. [22] A new cultivar of golden kiwifruit, Gold3 , was found to be more disease-resistant and most growers have now changed to this cultivar. [23] 'Gold3', marketed by Zespri as SunGold is not quite as sweet as 'Hort16A', [24] and lacks its usually slightly pointed tip.
Clones of the new variety SunGold have been used to develop orchards in China, resulting in partially successful legal efforts in China by Zespri to protect their intellectual property . [25] In 2021, Zespri estimated that around 5,000 hectares of Sungold orchards were being cultivated in China, mainly in the Sichuan province . [26]
Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit ( A. deliciosa ) is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes.
Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for rootstock , fruit bearing plants and pollinators . [1] Therefore, the seeds produced are crossbreeds of their parents. Even if the same breeds are used for pollinators and fruit bearing plants, there is no guarantee that the fruit will have the same quality as the parent. Additionally, seedlings take seven years before they flower, so determining whether the kiwi is fruit bearing or a pollinator is time-consuming. [27] Therefore, most kiwifruits, with the exception of rootstock and new cultivars , are propagated asexually . [27] This is done by grafting the fruit producing plant onto rootstock grown from seedlings or, if the plant is desired to be a true cultivar, rootstock grown from cuttings of a mature plant. [27]
Kiwifruit plants generally are dioecious , meaning a plant is either male or female. The male plants have flowers that produce pollen, the females receive the pollen to fertilise their ovules and grow fruit; most kiwifruit requires a male plant to pollinate the female plant. For a good yield of fruit, one male vine for every three to eight female vines is considered adequate. [1] Some varieties can self pollinate, but even they produce a greater and more reliable yield when pollinated by male kiwifruit. [1] Cross-species pollination is often (but not always) successful as long as bloom times are synchronised.
In nature, the species are pollinated by birds and native bumblebees, which visit the flowers for pollen, not nectar. The female flowers produce fake anthers with what appears to be pollen on the tips in order to attract the pollinators, although these fake anthers lack the DNA and food value of the male anthers. [28]
Kiwifruit growers rely on honey bees , the principal ‘for-hire’ pollinator, but commercially grown kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate. The flowers are not very attractive to honey bees, in part because the flowers do not produce nectar and bees quickly learn to prefer flowers with nectar.
Honey bees are inefficient cross-pollinators for kiwifruit because they practice “floral fidelity”. Each honey bee visits only a single type of flower in any foray and maybe only a few branches of a single plant. The pollen needed from a different plant (such as a male for a female kiwifruit) might never reach it were it not for the cross-pollination that principally occurs in the crowded colony; it is in the colonies that bees laden with different pollen literally cross paths. [29]
To deal with these pollination challenges, some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers. [28] Most common, though, is saturation pollination , in which the honey bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards at a concentration of about 8 hives per hectare) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance. [1]
Kiwifruit is picked by hand and commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring.
Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on 'one-year-old and older' canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. In the northern hemisphere the fruit ripens in November, while in the southern it ripens in May. Four year-old plants can produce up to 14,000 lb (6,400 kg) per acre while eight year-old plants can produce 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) per acre. The plants produce their maximum at eight to ten years old. The seasonal yields are variable; a heavy crop on a vine one season generally comes with a light crop the following season. [1]
Fruits harvested when firm will ripen when stored properly for long periods. This allows fruit to be sent to market up to 8 weeks after harvest. [1]
Firm kiwifruit ripen after a few days to a week when stored at room temperature, but should not be kept in direct sunlight. Faster ripening occurs when placed in a paper bag with an apple, pear, or banana. [30] Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is very sensitive to the ethylene gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator. [30] If stored appropriately, ripe kiwifruit normally keep for about one to two weeks. [30]
Pseudomonas syringae actinidiae (PSA) was first identified in Japan in the 1980s. This bacterial strain has been controlled and managed successfully in orchards in Asia. In 1992, it was found in northern Italy. In 2007/2008, economic losses were observed, as a more virulent strain became more dominant (PSA V). [31] [32] [33] In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty Region kiwifruit orchards in the North Island. [34] The yellow-fleshed cultivars were particularly susceptible. New, resistant varieties were selected in research funded by the government and fruit growers so that the industry could continue. [35]
Scientists reported they had worked out the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy and Chile originated in China. [36]
|Rank||Country||Production ( t )|
|1||China||2,230,065|
|2||New Zealand||624,940|
|3||Italy||521,530|
|4||Greece||307,440|
|5||Iran||289,608|
|6||Chile||158,919|
|7||Turkey||73,745|
|8||France||49,770|
|9||Portugal||45,820|
|10||United States||36,290|
|World||4,407,407|
|Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations (2020) [37]|
In 2020, global production of kiwifruit was 4 million tonnes , led by China with slightly more than half of the world total. New Zealand, Italy, Greece, Iran and Chile were other significant producers. [37] In China, kiwifruit is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River , as well as Sichuan . [38]
Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late '1960s to early 1970s' in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically. [39] Outside of Australasia , New Zealand kiwifruit are marketed under the brand-name label, Zespri . [40] The general name, "Zespri", has been used for marketing of all cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012. [13] [18]
In the 1980s, many countries outside New Zealand began to grow and export kiwifruit. [41] In Italy, the infrastructure and techniques required to support grape production were adapted to the kiwifruit. This, coupled with being close to the European kiwifruit market, led to Italians becoming the leading producer of kiwifruit 'in 1989'. The growing season of Italian kiwifruit does not overlap much with the New Zealand or the Chilean growing seasons, therefore direct competition between New Zealand or Chile was not a significant factor. [42]
Much of the breeding to refine the green kiwifruit was undertaken by the Plant & Food Research Institute (formerly HortResearch) during the decades of '1970–1999'. [13] In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in Antwerp , Belgium . [13]
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)|
|Energy||262 kJ (63 kcal)|
15.8 g
|Sugars||12.3 g|
|Dietary fiber||1.4 g|
0.28 g
1.02 g
|Vitamins|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Vitamin A equiv.|
24 μg
|Thiamine (B 1 )|
0%0 mg
|Riboflavin (B 2 )|
6%0.074 mg
|Niacin (B 3 )|
2%0.231 mg
|Pantothenic acid (B 5 )|
2%0.12 mg
|Vitamin B 6|
6%0.079 mg
|Folate (B 9 )|
8%31 μg
|Vitamin B 12|
3%0.08 μg
|Choline|
0%1.9 mg
|Vitamin C|
194%161.3 mg
|Vitamin E|
9%1.4 mg
|Vitamin K|
6%6.1 μg
|Minerals|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Calcium|
2%17 mg
|Copper|
8%0.151 mg
|Iron|
2%0.21 mg
|Magnesium|
3%12 mg
|Manganese|
2%0.048 mg
|Phosphorus|
4%25 mg
|Potassium|
7%315 mg
|Selenium|
1%0.4 μg
|Sodium|
0%3 mg
|Zinc|
1%0.08 mg
|Other constituents||Quantity|
|Water||82 g|
| † Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. |
Source: USDA FoodData Central
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)|
|Energy||255 kJ (61 kcal)|
14.66 g
|Sugars||8.99 g|
|Dietary fiber||3 g|
0.52 g
1.14 g
|Vitamins|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Vitamin A equiv.|
122 μg
|Thiamine (B 1 )|
2%0.027 mg
|Riboflavin (B 2 )|
2%0.025 mg
|Niacin (B 3 )|
2%0.341 mg
|Pantothenic acid (B 5 )|
4%0.183 mg
|Vitamin B 6|
5%0.063 mg
|Folate (B 9 )|
6%25 μg
|Vitamin B 12|
0%0 μg
|Choline|
2%7.8 mg
|Vitamin C|
112%92.7 mg
|Vitamin E|
10%1.46 mg
|Vitamin K|
38%40.3 μg
|Minerals|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Calcium|
3%34 mg
|Copper|
7%0.13 mg
|Iron|
2%0.31 mg
|Magnesium|
5%17 mg
|Manganese|
5%0.098 mg
|Phosphorus|
5%34 mg
|Potassium|
7%312 mg
|Selenium|
0%0.2 μg
|Sodium|
0%3 mg
|Zinc|
1%0.14 mg
|Other constituents||Quantity|
|Water||83 g|
| † Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. |
Source: USDA FoodData Central
Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat or used as a garnish. [1] The whole fruit, including the skin, is suitable for human consumption; however, the skin of the fuzzy varieties is often discarded due to its texture. [43] Sliced kiwifruit has long been used as a garnish atop whipped cream on pavlova , a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure, but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who have given birth to help them recover. [1]
Raw kiwifruit contains actinidain (also spelled actinidin ) which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer [44] and possibly as a digestive aid . [45] Actinidain also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products because the enzyme digests milk proteins. This applies to gelatin -based desserts, due to the fact that the actinidain will dissolve the proteins in gelatin, causing the dessert to either liquefy or prevent it from solidifying.
In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) amount, green kiwifruit provides 255 kilojoules (61 kilocalories) of food energy , is 83% water and 15% carbohydrates , with negligible protein and fat (table). It is particularly rich in vitamin C (112% DV) and vitamin K (38% DV), has a moderate content of vitamin E (10% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content. Gold kiwifruit has similar nutritional value to green kiwifruit, but contains higher vitamin C content (194% DV) and insignificant vitamin K content (table).
Kiwifruit seed oil contains on average 62% alpha-linolenic acid , an omega-3 fatty acid . [46] Kiwifruit pulp contains carotenoids , such as provitamin A beta-carotene , [47] lutein and zeaxanthin . [48]
Allergy to kiwifruit was first described in 1981, and there have since been reports of the allergy presenting with numerous symptoms from localized oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylaxis. [49]
The actinidain found in kiwifruit can be an allergen for some individuals, including children. [50] [51] [52] The most common symptoms are unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth, with wheezing as the most common severe symptom; anaphylaxis may occur. [50] [51] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | Kiwifruit - Wikipedia | For the TV series, see Kiwifruit (TV series) .
Kiwifruit (often shortened to kiwi in North American , British and continental European English) or Chinese gooseberry is the edible berry of several species of woody vines in the genus Actinidia . [1] [2] The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit ( Actinidia deliciosa 'Hayward') [3] is oval, about the size of a large hen's egg : 5–8 centimetres (2–3 inches) in length and 4.5–5.5 cm ( 1
+
3 ⁄ 4 – 2
+
1 ⁄ 4 in) in diameter. It has a thin, fuzzy, fibrous, tart but edible light brown skin and light green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture with a sweet and unique flavour.
Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China . [1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to the 12th century during the Song dynasty . [4] In the early 20th century, cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. [1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II , and later became commonly exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s. [1] [5]
Early varieties were described in a 1904 nursery catalogue as having "...edible fruits the size of walnuts , and the flavour of ripe gooseberries ", [6] leading to the name Chinese gooseberry . [1] In 1962, New Zealand growers began calling it "kiwifruit" ( Māori : huakiwi ) [7] due to its fuzzy appearance similar to the kiwi bird [8] for export marketing, and the name was first registered by Turners & Growers on 15 June 1959 [8] and later commercially adopted in 1974. [1] In New Zealand and Australia, the word "kiwi" alone either refers solely to the bird or is used as a nickname for New Zealanders ; it is almost never used to refer to the fruit. [5] [9] Kiwifruit has since become a common name for all commercially grown green kiwifruit from the genus Actinidia . [1] In the United States and Canada, the shortened name kiwi is commonly used when referring to the fruit. [10] [11]
Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China. [1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the Song dynasty . [4] As it was usually collected from the wild and consumed for medicinal purposes, the plant was rarely cultivated or bred . [12] Cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. [1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II, and was later exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s. [1] [5]
In New Zealand during the 1940s and 1950s, the fruit became an agricultural commodity through the development of commercially viable cultivars, agricultural practices, shipping, storage, and marketing. [13]
The genus Actinidia comprises around 60 species. Their fruits are quite variable, although most are easily recognised as kiwifruit because of their appearance and shape. The skin of the fruit varies in size, hairiness and colour. The flesh varies in colour, juiciness, texture and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable, while others taste considerably better than the majority of commercial cultivars. [1] [14]
The most commonly sold kiwifruit is derived from A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit). Other species that are commonly eaten include A. chinensis (golden kiwifruit), A. coriacea (Chinese egg gooseberry), A. arguta (hardy kiwifruit), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit), A. melanandra (purple kiwifruit), A. polygama (silver vine) and A. purpurea (hearty red kiwifruit). [14]
Most kiwifruit sold belongs to a few cultivars of A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit): 'Hayward', 'Blake' and 'Saanichton 12'. [2] They have a fuzzy, dull brown skin and bright green flesh. The familiar cultivar 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale , New Zealand, around 1924. [14] It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s.
'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavour. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but it has a smaller, more oval fruit and the flavour is considered inferior. [2] [14]
Kiwi berries are edible fruits the size of a large grape, similar to fuzzy kiwifruit in taste and internal appearance but with a thin, smooth green skin. They are primarily produced by three species: Actinidia arguta (hardy kiwi), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit) and A. polygama (silver vine). They are fast-growing, climbing vines, durable over their growing season . They are referred to as "kiwi berry, baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, or cocktail kiwi". [15]
The cultivar 'Issai' is a hybrid of hardy kiwi and silver vine which can self-pollinate. Grown commercially because of its relatively large fruit, 'Issai' is less hardy than most hardy kiwi. [16] [17]
Main article: Yellow kiwi
Actinidia chinensis (yellow kiwi or golden kiwifruit) has a smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is 'sweeter and more aromatic' in flavour compared to A. deliciosa , similar to some subtropical fruits. [18] One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the centre of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit obtains a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, is more palatable for consumption without peeling. [14]
A commercially viable [19] variety of this red-ringed kiwifruit, patented as EnzaRed, is a cultivar of the Chinese hong yang variety. [20] [21]
'Hort16A' is a golden kiwifruit cultivar marketed worldwide as Zespri Gold . This cultivar suffered significant losses in New Zealand in 2010–2013 due to the PSA bacterium. [22] A new cultivar of golden kiwifruit, Gold3 , was found to be more disease-resistant and most growers have now changed to this cultivar. [23] 'Gold3', marketed by Zespri as SunGold is not quite as sweet as 'Hort16A', [24] and lacks its usually slightly pointed tip.
Clones of the new variety SunGold have been used to develop orchards in China, resulting in partially successful legal efforts in China by Zespri to protect their intellectual property . [25] In 2021, Zespri estimated that around 5,000 hectares of Sungold orchards were being cultivated in China, mainly in the Sichuan province . [26]
Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit ( A. deliciosa ) is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes.
Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for rootstock , fruit bearing plants and pollinators . [1] Therefore, the seeds produced are crossbreeds of their parents. Even if the same breeds are used for pollinators and fruit bearing plants, there is no guarantee that the fruit will have the same quality as the parent. Additionally, seedlings take seven years before they flower, so determining whether the kiwi is fruit bearing or a pollinator is time-consuming. [27] Therefore, most kiwifruits, with the exception of rootstock and new cultivars , are propagated asexually . [27] This is done by grafting the fruit producing plant onto rootstock grown from seedlings or, if the plant is desired to be a true cultivar, rootstock grown from cuttings of a mature plant. [27]
Kiwifruit plants generally are dioecious , meaning a plant is either male or female. The male plants have flowers that produce pollen, the females receive the pollen to fertilise their ovules and grow fruit; most kiwifruit requires a male plant to pollinate the female plant. For a good yield of fruit, one male vine for every three to eight female vines is considered adequate. [1] Some varieties can self pollinate, but even they produce a greater and more reliable yield when pollinated by male kiwifruit. [1] Cross-species pollination is often (but not always) successful as long as bloom times are synchronised.
In nature, the species are pollinated by birds and native bumblebees, which visit the flowers for pollen, not nectar. The female flowers produce fake anthers with what appears to be pollen on the tips in order to attract the pollinators, although these fake anthers lack the DNA and food value of the male anthers. [28]
Kiwifruit growers rely on honey bees , the principal ‘for-hire’ pollinator, but commercially grown kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate. The flowers are not very attractive to honey bees, in part because the flowers do not produce nectar and bees quickly learn to prefer flowers with nectar.
Honey bees are inefficient cross-pollinators for kiwifruit because they practice “floral fidelity”. Each honey bee visits only a single type of flower in any foray and maybe only a few branches of a single plant. The pollen needed from a different plant (such as a male for a female kiwifruit) might never reach it were it not for the cross-pollination that principally occurs in the crowded colony; it is in the colonies that bees laden with different pollen literally cross paths. [29]
To deal with these pollination challenges, some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers. [28] Most common, though, is saturation pollination , in which the honey bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards at a concentration of about 8 hives per hectare) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance. [1]
Kiwifruit is picked by hand and commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring.
Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on 'one-year-old and older' canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. In the northern hemisphere the fruit ripens in November, while in the southern it ripens in May. Four year-old plants can produce up to 14,000 lb (6,400 kg) per acre while eight year-old plants can produce 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) per acre. The plants produce their maximum at eight to ten years old. The seasonal yields are variable; a heavy crop on a vine one season generally comes with a light crop the following season. [1]
Fruits harvested when firm will ripen when stored properly for long periods. This allows fruit to be sent to market up to 8 weeks after harvest. [1]
Firm kiwifruit ripen after a few days to a week when stored at room temperature, but should not be kept in direct sunlight. Faster ripening occurs when placed in a paper bag with an apple, pear, or banana. [30] Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is very sensitive to the ethylene gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator. [30] If stored appropriately, ripe kiwifruit normally keep for about one to two weeks. [30]
Pseudomonas syringae actinidiae (PSA) was first identified in Japan in the 1980s. This bacterial strain has been controlled and managed successfully in orchards in Asia. In 1992, it was found in northern Italy. In 2007/2008, economic losses were observed, as a more virulent strain became more dominant (PSA V). [31] [32] [33] In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty Region kiwifruit orchards in the North Island. [34] The yellow-fleshed cultivars were particularly susceptible. New, resistant varieties were selected in research funded by the government and fruit growers so that the industry could continue. [35]
Scientists reported they had worked out the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy and Chile originated in China. [36]
|Rank||Country||Production ( t )|
|1||China||2,230,065|
|2||New Zealand||624,940|
|3||Italy||521,530|
|4||Greece||307,440|
|5||Iran||289,608|
|6||Chile||158,919|
|7||Turkey||73,745|
|8||France||49,770|
|9||Portugal||45,820|
|10||United States||36,290|
|World||4,407,407|
|Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations (2020) [37]|
In 2020, global production of kiwifruit was 4 million tonnes , led by China with slightly more than half of the world total. New Zealand, Italy, Greece, Iran and Chile were other significant producers. [37] In China, kiwifruit is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River , as well as Sichuan . [38]
Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late '1960s to early 1970s' in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically. [39] Outside of Australasia , New Zealand kiwifruit are marketed under the brand-name label, Zespri . [40] The general name, "Zespri", has been used for marketing of all cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012. [13] [18]
In the 1980s, many countries outside New Zealand began to grow and export kiwifruit. [41] In Italy, the infrastructure and techniques required to support grape production were adapted to the kiwifruit. This, coupled with being close to the European kiwifruit market, led to Italians becoming the leading producer of kiwifruit 'in 1989'. The growing season of Italian kiwifruit does not overlap much with the New Zealand or the Chilean growing seasons, therefore direct competition between New Zealand or Chile was not a significant factor. [42]
Much of the breeding to refine the green kiwifruit was undertaken by the Plant & Food Research Institute (formerly HortResearch) during the decades of '1970–1999'. [13] In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in Antwerp , Belgium . [13]
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)|
|Energy||262 kJ (63 kcal)|
15.8 g
|Sugars||12.3 g|
|Dietary fiber||1.4 g|
0.28 g
1.02 g
|Vitamins|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Vitamin A equiv.|
24 μg
|Thiamine (B 1 )|
0%0 mg
|Riboflavin (B 2 )|
6%0.074 mg
|Niacin (B 3 )|
2%0.231 mg
|Pantothenic acid (B 5 )|
2%0.12 mg
|Vitamin B 6|
6%0.079 mg
|Folate (B 9 )|
8%31 μg
|Vitamin B 12|
3%0.08 μg
|Choline|
0%1.9 mg
|Vitamin C|
194%161.3 mg
|Vitamin E|
9%1.4 mg
|Vitamin K|
6%6.1 μg
|Minerals|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Calcium|
2%17 mg
|Copper|
8%0.151 mg
|Iron|
2%0.21 mg
|Magnesium|
3%12 mg
|Manganese|
2%0.048 mg
|Phosphorus|
4%25 mg
|Potassium|
7%315 mg
|Selenium|
1%0.4 μg
|Sodium|
0%3 mg
|Zinc|
1%0.08 mg
|Other constituents||Quantity|
|Water||82 g|
| † Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. |
Source: USDA FoodData Central
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)|
|Energy||255 kJ (61 kcal)|
14.66 g
|Sugars||8.99 g|
|Dietary fiber||3 g|
0.52 g
1.14 g
|Vitamins|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Vitamin A equiv.|
122 μg
|Thiamine (B 1 )|
2%0.027 mg
|Riboflavin (B 2 )|
2%0.025 mg
|Niacin (B 3 )|
2%0.341 mg
|Pantothenic acid (B 5 )|
4%0.183 mg
|Vitamin B 6|
5%0.063 mg
|Folate (B 9 )|
6%25 μg
|Vitamin B 12|
0%0 μg
|Choline|
2%7.8 mg
|Vitamin C|
112%92.7 mg
|Vitamin E|
10%1.46 mg
|Vitamin K|
38%40.3 μg
|Minerals|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Calcium|
3%34 mg
|Copper|
7%0.13 mg
|Iron|
2%0.31 mg
|Magnesium|
5%17 mg
|Manganese|
5%0.098 mg
|Phosphorus|
5%34 mg
|Potassium|
7%312 mg
|Selenium|
0%0.2 μg
|Sodium|
0%3 mg
|Zinc|
1%0.14 mg
|Other constituents||Quantity|
|Water||83 g|
| † Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. |
Source: USDA FoodData Central
Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat or used as a garnish. [1] The whole fruit, including the skin, is suitable for human consumption; however, the skin of the fuzzy varieties is often discarded due to its texture. [43] Sliced kiwifruit has long been used as a garnish atop whipped cream on pavlova , a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure, but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who have given birth to help them recover. [1]
Raw kiwifruit contains actinidain (also spelled actinidin ) which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer [44] and possibly as a digestive aid . [45] Actinidain also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products because the enzyme digests milk proteins. This applies to gelatin -based desserts, due to the fact that the actinidain will dissolve the proteins in gelatin, causing the dessert to either liquefy or prevent it from solidifying.
In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) amount, green kiwifruit provides 255 kilojoules (61 kilocalories) of food energy , is 83% water and 15% carbohydrates , with negligible protein and fat (table). It is particularly rich in vitamin C (112% DV) and vitamin K (38% DV), has a moderate content of vitamin E (10% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content. Gold kiwifruit has similar nutritional value to green kiwifruit, but contains higher vitamin C content (194% DV) and insignificant vitamin K content (table).
Kiwifruit seed oil contains on average 62% alpha-linolenic acid , an omega-3 fatty acid . [46] Kiwifruit pulp contains carotenoids , such as provitamin A beta-carotene , [47] lutein and zeaxanthin . [48]
Allergy to kiwifruit was first described in 1981, and there have since been reports of the allergy presenting with numerous symptoms from localized oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylaxis. [49]
The actinidain found in kiwifruit can be an allergen for some individuals, including children. [50] [51] [52] The most common symptoms are unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth, with wheezing as the most common severe symptom; anaphylaxis may occur. [50] [51] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | Chinese gooseberry becomes kiwifruit | Kiwifruit promotional card, 1980s (Tauranga City Libraries)
The prominent produce company Turners and Growers announced that it would from now on export Chinese gooseberries as ‘kiwifruit’. Introduced to this country in 1904, kiwifruit are now cultivated worldwide, with New Zealand-grown fruit marketed as ‘Zespri’.
Despite the name, kiwifruit are not native to New Zealand. Seeds were brought to New Zealand in 1904 by Mary Isabel Fraser, the principal of Wanganui Girls’ College, who had been visiting mission schools in China. They were planted in 1906 by a Whanganui nurseryman, Alexander Allison, and the vines first fruited in 1910. People thought the fruit had a gooseberry flavour and began to call it the Chinese gooseberry. It is not related to the Grossulariaceae family to which gooseberries belong.
New Zealand began exporting the fruit to the US in the 1950s. This was the height of the Cold War and the term Chinese gooseberry was a marketing nightmare for Turners and Growers. Their first idea, ‘melonettes’, was equally unpopular with US importers because melons and berries were subject to high import tariffs. In June 1959, Jack Turner suggested the name kiwifruit during a Turners and Growers management meeting in Auckland. His idea was adopted and this later became the industry-wide name.
The Bay of Plenty town of Te Puke, where New Zealand’s kiwifruit industry began, markets itself as the ‘Kiwifruit Capital of the World’. In 2017 China was the world’s leading producer of kiwifruit, followed by Italy, New Zealand, Iran and Chile. Most New Zealand kiwifruit is now marketed under the brand-name Zespri, partly as a way to distinguish ‘Kiwi’ kiwifruit from the produce of other countries. | https://nzhistory.govt.nz/the-chinese-gooseberry-becomes-the-kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | What is the origin of kiwifruit? | - Vitamin C
- Potassium
- Fibre
- Zespri Green kiwifruit
- Folic Acid
- pregnancy
Fans of epic adventure stories full of discovery and excitement, listen up! Today kiwifruit is a regular feature of supermarket shelves, but it wasn’t always that way. The original fruit is from the Far East, having been grown in what is now modern-day China for many centuries. It was only at the turn of the 20th Century, in 1904, that it arrived on New Zealand shores, when New Zealand school principal Isabel Fraser brought some kiwifruit seeds back from her travels.
Being of Chinese origin, kiwifruit originally had a Chinese name, yang tao. But when the fruit was first grown in New Zealand, their sweet/sharp flavour and green colour quickly earned them the nickname ‘ Chinese Gooseberries .’ Gooseberries not being the most popular fruit, in 1959 it was decided to change the name to kiwifruit , after New Zealand’s national bird. Not many fruits are named after animals but, setting them side by side, they are both small, brown and fuzzy!
The name of kiwifruit may have changed, but their nutritious deliciousness hasn’t! With Zespri Green kiwifruit, also known as Hayward, you are always guaranteed taste and freshness. Not only is the fruit high in vitamin C and antioxidants , but it is also a source of potassium and folate.
The kiwifruit might have been around for centuries, but we’re still inventing new ways to enjoy it. One popular recipe at the moment is for a Kiwifruit Chicken Burger . A combination of Zespri Green kiwifruit and chicken, it is a delicious way to kick-start a new health regime. And once you’ve mastered that recipe, why not get creative and invent your own? Kiwifruit tastes great blended with a whole range of ingredients – the only limitation is your imagination! | https://www.zespri.com/en-UK/blogdetail/what-is-the-origin-of-kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | Kiwifruit - Wikipedia | For the TV series, see Kiwifruit (TV series) .
Kiwifruit (often shortened to kiwi in North American , British and continental European English) or Chinese gooseberry is the edible berry of several species of woody vines in the genus Actinidia . [1] [2] The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit ( Actinidia deliciosa 'Hayward') [3] is oval, about the size of a large hen's egg : 5–8 centimetres (2–3 inches) in length and 4.5–5.5 cm ( 1
+
3 ⁄ 4 – 2
+
1 ⁄ 4 in) in diameter. It has a thin, fuzzy, fibrous, tart but edible light brown skin and light green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture with a sweet and unique flavour.
Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China . [1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to the 12th century during the Song dynasty . [4] In the early 20th century, cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. [1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II , and later became commonly exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s. [1] [5]
Early varieties were described in a 1904 nursery catalogue as having "...edible fruits the size of walnuts , and the flavour of ripe gooseberries ", [6] leading to the name Chinese gooseberry . [1] In 1962, New Zealand growers began calling it "kiwifruit" ( Māori : huakiwi ) [7] due to its fuzzy appearance similar to the kiwi bird [8] for export marketing, and the name was first registered by Turners & Growers on 15 June 1959 [8] and later commercially adopted in 1974. [1] In New Zealand and Australia, the word "kiwi" alone either refers solely to the bird or is used as a nickname for New Zealanders ; it is almost never used to refer to the fruit. [5] [9] Kiwifruit has since become a common name for all commercially grown green kiwifruit from the genus Actinidia . [1] In the United States and Canada, the shortened name kiwi is commonly used when referring to the fruit. [10] [11]
Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China. [1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the Song dynasty . [4] As it was usually collected from the wild and consumed for medicinal purposes, the plant was rarely cultivated or bred . [12] Cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. [1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II, and was later exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s. [1] [5]
In New Zealand during the 1940s and 1950s, the fruit became an agricultural commodity through the development of commercially viable cultivars, agricultural practices, shipping, storage, and marketing. [13]
The genus Actinidia comprises around 60 species. Their fruits are quite variable, although most are easily recognised as kiwifruit because of their appearance and shape. The skin of the fruit varies in size, hairiness and colour. The flesh varies in colour, juiciness, texture and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable, while others taste considerably better than the majority of commercial cultivars. [1] [14]
The most commonly sold kiwifruit is derived from A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit). Other species that are commonly eaten include A. chinensis (golden kiwifruit), A. coriacea (Chinese egg gooseberry), A. arguta (hardy kiwifruit), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit), A. melanandra (purple kiwifruit), A. polygama (silver vine) and A. purpurea (hearty red kiwifruit). [14]
Most kiwifruit sold belongs to a few cultivars of A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit): 'Hayward', 'Blake' and 'Saanichton 12'. [2] They have a fuzzy, dull brown skin and bright green flesh. The familiar cultivar 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale , New Zealand, around 1924. [14] It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s.
'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavour. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but it has a smaller, more oval fruit and the flavour is considered inferior. [2] [14]
Kiwi berries are edible fruits the size of a large grape, similar to fuzzy kiwifruit in taste and internal appearance but with a thin, smooth green skin. They are primarily produced by three species: Actinidia arguta (hardy kiwi), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit) and A. polygama (silver vine). They are fast-growing, climbing vines, durable over their growing season . They are referred to as "kiwi berry, baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, or cocktail kiwi". [15]
The cultivar 'Issai' is a hybrid of hardy kiwi and silver vine which can self-pollinate. Grown commercially because of its relatively large fruit, 'Issai' is less hardy than most hardy kiwi. [16] [17]
Main article: Yellow kiwi
Actinidia chinensis (yellow kiwi or golden kiwifruit) has a smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is 'sweeter and more aromatic' in flavour compared to A. deliciosa , similar to some subtropical fruits. [18] One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the centre of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit obtains a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, is more palatable for consumption without peeling. [14]
A commercially viable [19] variety of this red-ringed kiwifruit, patented as EnzaRed, is a cultivar of the Chinese hong yang variety. [20] [21]
'Hort16A' is a golden kiwifruit cultivar marketed worldwide as Zespri Gold . This cultivar suffered significant losses in New Zealand in 2010–2013 due to the PSA bacterium. [22] A new cultivar of golden kiwifruit, Gold3 , was found to be more disease-resistant and most growers have now changed to this cultivar. [23] 'Gold3', marketed by Zespri as SunGold is not quite as sweet as 'Hort16A', [24] and lacks its usually slightly pointed tip.
Clones of the new variety SunGold have been used to develop orchards in China, resulting in partially successful legal efforts in China by Zespri to protect their intellectual property . [25] In 2021, Zespri estimated that around 5,000 hectares of Sungold orchards were being cultivated in China, mainly in the Sichuan province . [26]
Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit ( A. deliciosa ) is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes.
Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for rootstock , fruit bearing plants and pollinators . [1] Therefore, the seeds produced are crossbreeds of their parents. Even if the same breeds are used for pollinators and fruit bearing plants, there is no guarantee that the fruit will have the same quality as the parent. Additionally, seedlings take seven years before they flower, so determining whether the kiwi is fruit bearing or a pollinator is time-consuming. [27] Therefore, most kiwifruits, with the exception of rootstock and new cultivars , are propagated asexually . [27] This is done by grafting the fruit producing plant onto rootstock grown from seedlings or, if the plant is desired to be a true cultivar, rootstock grown from cuttings of a mature plant. [27]
Kiwifruit plants generally are dioecious , meaning a plant is either male or female. The male plants have flowers that produce pollen, the females receive the pollen to fertilise their ovules and grow fruit; most kiwifruit requires a male plant to pollinate the female plant. For a good yield of fruit, one male vine for every three to eight female vines is considered adequate. [1] Some varieties can self pollinate, but even they produce a greater and more reliable yield when pollinated by male kiwifruit. [1] Cross-species pollination is often (but not always) successful as long as bloom times are synchronised.
In nature, the species are pollinated by birds and native bumblebees, which visit the flowers for pollen, not nectar. The female flowers produce fake anthers with what appears to be pollen on the tips in order to attract the pollinators, although these fake anthers lack the DNA and food value of the male anthers. [28]
Kiwifruit growers rely on honey bees , the principal ‘for-hire’ pollinator, but commercially grown kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate. The flowers are not very attractive to honey bees, in part because the flowers do not produce nectar and bees quickly learn to prefer flowers with nectar.
Honey bees are inefficient cross-pollinators for kiwifruit because they practice “floral fidelity”. Each honey bee visits only a single type of flower in any foray and maybe only a few branches of a single plant. The pollen needed from a different plant (such as a male for a female kiwifruit) might never reach it were it not for the cross-pollination that principally occurs in the crowded colony; it is in the colonies that bees laden with different pollen literally cross paths. [29]
To deal with these pollination challenges, some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers. [28] Most common, though, is saturation pollination , in which the honey bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards at a concentration of about 8 hives per hectare) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance. [1]
Kiwifruit is picked by hand and commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring.
Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on 'one-year-old and older' canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. In the northern hemisphere the fruit ripens in November, while in the southern it ripens in May. Four year-old plants can produce up to 14,000 lb (6,400 kg) per acre while eight year-old plants can produce 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) per acre. The plants produce their maximum at eight to ten years old. The seasonal yields are variable; a heavy crop on a vine one season generally comes with a light crop the following season. [1]
Fruits harvested when firm will ripen when stored properly for long periods. This allows fruit to be sent to market up to 8 weeks after harvest. [1]
Firm kiwifruit ripen after a few days to a week when stored at room temperature, but should not be kept in direct sunlight. Faster ripening occurs when placed in a paper bag with an apple, pear, or banana. [30] Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is very sensitive to the ethylene gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator. [30] If stored appropriately, ripe kiwifruit normally keep for about one to two weeks. [30]
Pseudomonas syringae actinidiae (PSA) was first identified in Japan in the 1980s. This bacterial strain has been controlled and managed successfully in orchards in Asia. In 1992, it was found in northern Italy. In 2007/2008, economic losses were observed, as a more virulent strain became more dominant (PSA V). [31] [32] [33] In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty Region kiwifruit orchards in the North Island. [34] The yellow-fleshed cultivars were particularly susceptible. New, resistant varieties were selected in research funded by the government and fruit growers so that the industry could continue. [35]
Scientists reported they had worked out the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy and Chile originated in China. [36]
|Rank||Country||Production ( t )|
|1||China||2,230,065|
|2||New Zealand||624,940|
|3||Italy||521,530|
|4||Greece||307,440|
|5||Iran||289,608|
|6||Chile||158,919|
|7||Turkey||73,745|
|8||France||49,770|
|9||Portugal||45,820|
|10||United States||36,290|
|World||4,407,407|
|Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations (2020) [37]|
In 2020, global production of kiwifruit was 4 million tonnes , led by China with slightly more than half of the world total. New Zealand, Italy, Greece, Iran and Chile were other significant producers. [37] In China, kiwifruit is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River , as well as Sichuan . [38]
Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late '1960s to early 1970s' in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically. [39] Outside of Australasia , New Zealand kiwifruit are marketed under the brand-name label, Zespri . [40] The general name, "Zespri", has been used for marketing of all cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012. [13] [18]
In the 1980s, many countries outside New Zealand began to grow and export kiwifruit. [41] In Italy, the infrastructure and techniques required to support grape production were adapted to the kiwifruit. This, coupled with being close to the European kiwifruit market, led to Italians becoming the leading producer of kiwifruit 'in 1989'. The growing season of Italian kiwifruit does not overlap much with the New Zealand or the Chilean growing seasons, therefore direct competition between New Zealand or Chile was not a significant factor. [42]
Much of the breeding to refine the green kiwifruit was undertaken by the Plant & Food Research Institute (formerly HortResearch) during the decades of '1970–1999'. [13] In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in Antwerp , Belgium . [13]
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)|
|Energy||262 kJ (63 kcal)|
15.8 g
|Sugars||12.3 g|
|Dietary fiber||1.4 g|
0.28 g
1.02 g
|Vitamins|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Vitamin A equiv.|
24 μg
|Thiamine (B 1 )|
0%0 mg
|Riboflavin (B 2 )|
6%0.074 mg
|Niacin (B 3 )|
2%0.231 mg
|Pantothenic acid (B 5 )|
2%0.12 mg
|Vitamin B 6|
6%0.079 mg
|Folate (B 9 )|
8%31 μg
|Vitamin B 12|
3%0.08 μg
|Choline|
0%1.9 mg
|Vitamin C|
194%161.3 mg
|Vitamin E|
9%1.4 mg
|Vitamin K|
6%6.1 μg
|Minerals|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Calcium|
2%17 mg
|Copper|
8%0.151 mg
|Iron|
2%0.21 mg
|Magnesium|
3%12 mg
|Manganese|
2%0.048 mg
|Phosphorus|
4%25 mg
|Potassium|
7%315 mg
|Selenium|
1%0.4 μg
|Sodium|
0%3 mg
|Zinc|
1%0.08 mg
|Other constituents||Quantity|
|Water||82 g|
| † Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. |
Source: USDA FoodData Central
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)|
|Energy||255 kJ (61 kcal)|
14.66 g
|Sugars||8.99 g|
|Dietary fiber||3 g|
0.52 g
1.14 g
|Vitamins|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Vitamin A equiv.|
122 μg
|Thiamine (B 1 )|
2%0.027 mg
|Riboflavin (B 2 )|
2%0.025 mg
|Niacin (B 3 )|
2%0.341 mg
|Pantothenic acid (B 5 )|
4%0.183 mg
|Vitamin B 6|
5%0.063 mg
|Folate (B 9 )|
6%25 μg
|Vitamin B 12|
0%0 μg
|Choline|
2%7.8 mg
|Vitamin C|
112%92.7 mg
|Vitamin E|
10%1.46 mg
|Vitamin K|
38%40.3 μg
|Minerals|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Calcium|
3%34 mg
|Copper|
7%0.13 mg
|Iron|
2%0.31 mg
|Magnesium|
5%17 mg
|Manganese|
5%0.098 mg
|Phosphorus|
5%34 mg
|Potassium|
7%312 mg
|Selenium|
0%0.2 μg
|Sodium|
0%3 mg
|Zinc|
1%0.14 mg
|Other constituents||Quantity|
|Water||83 g|
| † Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. |
Source: USDA FoodData Central
Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat or used as a garnish. [1] The whole fruit, including the skin, is suitable for human consumption; however, the skin of the fuzzy varieties is often discarded due to its texture. [43] Sliced kiwifruit has long been used as a garnish atop whipped cream on pavlova , a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure, but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who have given birth to help them recover. [1]
Raw kiwifruit contains actinidain (also spelled actinidin ) which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer [44] and possibly as a digestive aid . [45] Actinidain also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products because the enzyme digests milk proteins. This applies to gelatin -based desserts, due to the fact that the actinidain will dissolve the proteins in gelatin, causing the dessert to either liquefy or prevent it from solidifying.
In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) amount, green kiwifruit provides 255 kilojoules (61 kilocalories) of food energy , is 83% water and 15% carbohydrates , with negligible protein and fat (table). It is particularly rich in vitamin C (112% DV) and vitamin K (38% DV), has a moderate content of vitamin E (10% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content. Gold kiwifruit has similar nutritional value to green kiwifruit, but contains higher vitamin C content (194% DV) and insignificant vitamin K content (table).
Kiwifruit seed oil contains on average 62% alpha-linolenic acid , an omega-3 fatty acid . [46] Kiwifruit pulp contains carotenoids , such as provitamin A beta-carotene , [47] lutein and zeaxanthin . [48]
Allergy to kiwifruit was first described in 1981, and there have since been reports of the allergy presenting with numerous symptoms from localized oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylaxis. [49]
The actinidain found in kiwifruit can be an allergen for some individuals, including children. [50] [51] [52] The most common symptoms are unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth, with wheezing as the most common severe symptom; anaphylaxis may occur. [50] [51] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | What is the origin of kiwifruit? | - Vitamin C
- Potassium
- Fibre
- Zespri Green kiwifruit
- Folic Acid
- pregnancy
Fans of epic adventure stories full of discovery and excitement, listen up! Today kiwifruit is a regular feature of supermarket shelves, but it wasn’t always that way. The original fruit is from the Far East, having been grown in what is now modern-day China for many centuries. It was only at the turn of the 20th Century, in 1904, that it arrived on New Zealand shores, when New Zealand school principal Isabel Fraser brought some kiwifruit seeds back from her travels.
Being of Chinese origin, kiwifruit originally had a Chinese name, yang tao. But when the fruit was first grown in New Zealand, their sweet/sharp flavour and green colour quickly earned them the nickname ‘ Chinese Gooseberries .’ Gooseberries not being the most popular fruit, in 1959 it was decided to change the name to kiwifruit , after New Zealand’s national bird. Not many fruits are named after animals but, setting them side by side, they are both small, brown and fuzzy!
The name of kiwifruit may have changed, but their nutritious deliciousness hasn’t! With Zespri Green kiwifruit, also known as Hayward, you are always guaranteed taste and freshness. Not only is the fruit high in vitamin C and antioxidants , but it is also a source of potassium and folate.
The kiwifruit might have been around for centuries, but we’re still inventing new ways to enjoy it. One popular recipe at the moment is for a Kiwifruit Chicken Burger . A combination of Zespri Green kiwifruit and chicken, it is a delicious way to kick-start a new health regime. And once you’ve mastered that recipe, why not get creative and invent your own? Kiwifruit tastes great blended with a whole range of ingredients – the only limitation is your imagination! | https://www.zespri.com/en-UK/blogdetail/what-is-the-origin-of-kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | What is the origin of kiwifruit? | - Vitamin C
- Potassium
- Fibre
- Zespri Green kiwifruit
- Folic Acid
- pregnancy
Fans of epic adventure stories full of discovery and excitement, listen up! Today kiwifruit is a regular feature of supermarket shelves, but it wasn’t always that way. The original fruit is from the Far East, having been grown in what is now modern-day China for many centuries. It was only at the turn of the 20th Century, in 1904, that it arrived on New Zealand shores, when New Zealand school principal Isabel Fraser brought some kiwifruit seeds back from her travels.
Being of Chinese origin, kiwifruit originally had a Chinese name, yang tao. But when the fruit was first grown in New Zealand, their sweet/sharp flavour and green colour quickly earned them the nickname ‘ Chinese Gooseberries .’ Gooseberries not being the most popular fruit, in 1959 it was decided to change the name to kiwifruit , after New Zealand’s national bird. Not many fruits are named after animals but, setting them side by side, they are both small, brown and fuzzy!
The name of kiwifruit may have changed, but their nutritious deliciousness hasn’t! With Zespri Green kiwifruit, also known as Hayward, you are always guaranteed taste and freshness. Not only is the fruit high in vitamin C and antioxidants , but it is also a source of potassium and folate.
The kiwifruit might have been around for centuries, but we’re still inventing new ways to enjoy it. One popular recipe at the moment is for a Kiwifruit Chicken Burger . A combination of Zespri Green kiwifruit and chicken, it is a delicious way to kick-start a new health regime. And once you’ve mastered that recipe, why not get creative and invent your own? Kiwifruit tastes great blended with a whole range of ingredients – the only limitation is your imagination! | https://www.zespri.com/en-UK/blogdetail/what-is-the-origin-of-kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | Chinese gooseberry becomes kiwifruit | Kiwifruit promotional card, 1980s (Tauranga City Libraries)
The prominent produce company Turners and Growers announced that it would from now on export Chinese gooseberries as ‘kiwifruit’. Introduced to this country in 1904, kiwifruit are now cultivated worldwide, with New Zealand-grown fruit marketed as ‘Zespri’.
Despite the name, kiwifruit are not native to New Zealand. Seeds were brought to New Zealand in 1904 by Mary Isabel Fraser, the principal of Wanganui Girls’ College, who had been visiting mission schools in China. They were planted in 1906 by a Whanganui nurseryman, Alexander Allison, and the vines first fruited in 1910. People thought the fruit had a gooseberry flavour and began to call it the Chinese gooseberry. It is not related to the Grossulariaceae family to which gooseberries belong.
New Zealand began exporting the fruit to the US in the 1950s. This was the height of the Cold War and the term Chinese gooseberry was a marketing nightmare for Turners and Growers. Their first idea, ‘melonettes’, was equally unpopular with US importers because melons and berries were subject to high import tariffs. In June 1959, Jack Turner suggested the name kiwifruit during a Turners and Growers management meeting in Auckland. His idea was adopted and this later became the industry-wide name.
The Bay of Plenty town of Te Puke, where New Zealand’s kiwifruit industry began, markets itself as the ‘Kiwifruit Capital of the World’. In 2017 China was the world’s leading producer of kiwifruit, followed by Italy, New Zealand, Iran and Chile. Most New Zealand kiwifruit is now marketed under the brand-name Zespri, partly as a way to distinguish ‘Kiwi’ kiwifruit from the produce of other countries. | https://nzhistory.govt.nz/the-chinese-gooseberry-becomes-the-kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | Kiwifruit - Wikipedia | For the TV series, see Kiwifruit (TV series) .
Kiwifruit (often shortened to kiwi in North American , British and continental European English) or Chinese gooseberry is the edible berry of several species of woody vines in the genus Actinidia . [1] [2] The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit ( Actinidia deliciosa 'Hayward') [3] is oval, about the size of a large hen's egg : 5–8 centimetres (2–3 inches) in length and 4.5–5.5 cm ( 1
+
3 ⁄ 4 – 2
+
1 ⁄ 4 in) in diameter. It has a thin, fuzzy, fibrous, tart but edible light brown skin and light green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture with a sweet and unique flavour.
Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China . [1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to the 12th century during the Song dynasty . [4] In the early 20th century, cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. [1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II , and later became commonly exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s. [1] [5]
Early varieties were described in a 1904 nursery catalogue as having "...edible fruits the size of walnuts , and the flavour of ripe gooseberries ", [6] leading to the name Chinese gooseberry . [1] In 1962, New Zealand growers began calling it "kiwifruit" ( Māori : huakiwi ) [7] due to its fuzzy appearance similar to the kiwi bird [8] for export marketing, and the name was first registered by Turners & Growers on 15 June 1959 [8] and later commercially adopted in 1974. [1] In New Zealand and Australia, the word "kiwi" alone either refers solely to the bird or is used as a nickname for New Zealanders ; it is almost never used to refer to the fruit. [5] [9] Kiwifruit has since become a common name for all commercially grown green kiwifruit from the genus Actinidia . [1] In the United States and Canada, the shortened name kiwi is commonly used when referring to the fruit. [10] [11]
Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China. [1] The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the Song dynasty . [4] As it was usually collected from the wild and consumed for medicinal purposes, the plant was rarely cultivated or bred . [12] Cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred. [1] The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II, and was later exported, first to Great Britain and then to California in the 1960s. [1] [5]
In New Zealand during the 1940s and 1950s, the fruit became an agricultural commodity through the development of commercially viable cultivars, agricultural practices, shipping, storage, and marketing. [13]
The genus Actinidia comprises around 60 species. Their fruits are quite variable, although most are easily recognised as kiwifruit because of their appearance and shape. The skin of the fruit varies in size, hairiness and colour. The flesh varies in colour, juiciness, texture and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable, while others taste considerably better than the majority of commercial cultivars. [1] [14]
The most commonly sold kiwifruit is derived from A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit). Other species that are commonly eaten include A. chinensis (golden kiwifruit), A. coriacea (Chinese egg gooseberry), A. arguta (hardy kiwifruit), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit), A. melanandra (purple kiwifruit), A. polygama (silver vine) and A. purpurea (hearty red kiwifruit). [14]
Most kiwifruit sold belongs to a few cultivars of A. deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit): 'Hayward', 'Blake' and 'Saanichton 12'. [2] They have a fuzzy, dull brown skin and bright green flesh. The familiar cultivar 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in Avondale , New Zealand, around 1924. [14] It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s.
'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavour. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but it has a smaller, more oval fruit and the flavour is considered inferior. [2] [14]
Kiwi berries are edible fruits the size of a large grape, similar to fuzzy kiwifruit in taste and internal appearance but with a thin, smooth green skin. They are primarily produced by three species: Actinidia arguta (hardy kiwi), A. kolomikta (Arctic kiwifruit) and A. polygama (silver vine). They are fast-growing, climbing vines, durable over their growing season . They are referred to as "kiwi berry, baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, or cocktail kiwi". [15]
The cultivar 'Issai' is a hybrid of hardy kiwi and silver vine which can self-pollinate. Grown commercially because of its relatively large fruit, 'Issai' is less hardy than most hardy kiwi. [16] [17]
Main article: Yellow kiwi
Actinidia chinensis (yellow kiwi or golden kiwifruit) has a smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is 'sweeter and more aromatic' in flavour compared to A. deliciosa , similar to some subtropical fruits. [18] One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the centre of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit obtains a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, is more palatable for consumption without peeling. [14]
A commercially viable [19] variety of this red-ringed kiwifruit, patented as EnzaRed, is a cultivar of the Chinese hong yang variety. [20] [21]
'Hort16A' is a golden kiwifruit cultivar marketed worldwide as Zespri Gold . This cultivar suffered significant losses in New Zealand in 2010–2013 due to the PSA bacterium. [22] A new cultivar of golden kiwifruit, Gold3 , was found to be more disease-resistant and most growers have now changed to this cultivar. [23] 'Gold3', marketed by Zespri as SunGold is not quite as sweet as 'Hort16A', [24] and lacks its usually slightly pointed tip.
Clones of the new variety SunGold have been used to develop orchards in China, resulting in partially successful legal efforts in China by Zespri to protect their intellectual property . [25] In 2021, Zespri estimated that around 5,000 hectares of Sungold orchards were being cultivated in China, mainly in the Sichuan province . [26]
Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit ( A. deliciosa ) is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes.
Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for rootstock , fruit bearing plants and pollinators . [1] Therefore, the seeds produced are crossbreeds of their parents. Even if the same breeds are used for pollinators and fruit bearing plants, there is no guarantee that the fruit will have the same quality as the parent. Additionally, seedlings take seven years before they flower, so determining whether the kiwi is fruit bearing or a pollinator is time-consuming. [27] Therefore, most kiwifruits, with the exception of rootstock and new cultivars , are propagated asexually . [27] This is done by grafting the fruit producing plant onto rootstock grown from seedlings or, if the plant is desired to be a true cultivar, rootstock grown from cuttings of a mature plant. [27]
Kiwifruit plants generally are dioecious , meaning a plant is either male or female. The male plants have flowers that produce pollen, the females receive the pollen to fertilise their ovules and grow fruit; most kiwifruit requires a male plant to pollinate the female plant. For a good yield of fruit, one male vine for every three to eight female vines is considered adequate. [1] Some varieties can self pollinate, but even they produce a greater and more reliable yield when pollinated by male kiwifruit. [1] Cross-species pollination is often (but not always) successful as long as bloom times are synchronised.
In nature, the species are pollinated by birds and native bumblebees, which visit the flowers for pollen, not nectar. The female flowers produce fake anthers with what appears to be pollen on the tips in order to attract the pollinators, although these fake anthers lack the DNA and food value of the male anthers. [28]
Kiwifruit growers rely on honey bees , the principal ‘for-hire’ pollinator, but commercially grown kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate. The flowers are not very attractive to honey bees, in part because the flowers do not produce nectar and bees quickly learn to prefer flowers with nectar.
Honey bees are inefficient cross-pollinators for kiwifruit because they practice “floral fidelity”. Each honey bee visits only a single type of flower in any foray and maybe only a few branches of a single plant. The pollen needed from a different plant (such as a male for a female kiwifruit) might never reach it were it not for the cross-pollination that principally occurs in the crowded colony; it is in the colonies that bees laden with different pollen literally cross paths. [29]
To deal with these pollination challenges, some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers. [28] Most common, though, is saturation pollination , in which the honey bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards at a concentration of about 8 hives per hectare) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance. [1]
Kiwifruit is picked by hand and commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring.
Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on 'one-year-old and older' canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. In the northern hemisphere the fruit ripens in November, while in the southern it ripens in May. Four year-old plants can produce up to 14,000 lb (6,400 kg) per acre while eight year-old plants can produce 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) per acre. The plants produce their maximum at eight to ten years old. The seasonal yields are variable; a heavy crop on a vine one season generally comes with a light crop the following season. [1]
Fruits harvested when firm will ripen when stored properly for long periods. This allows fruit to be sent to market up to 8 weeks after harvest. [1]
Firm kiwifruit ripen after a few days to a week when stored at room temperature, but should not be kept in direct sunlight. Faster ripening occurs when placed in a paper bag with an apple, pear, or banana. [30] Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is very sensitive to the ethylene gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator. [30] If stored appropriately, ripe kiwifruit normally keep for about one to two weeks. [30]
Pseudomonas syringae actinidiae (PSA) was first identified in Japan in the 1980s. This bacterial strain has been controlled and managed successfully in orchards in Asia. In 1992, it was found in northern Italy. In 2007/2008, economic losses were observed, as a more virulent strain became more dominant (PSA V). [31] [32] [33] In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty Region kiwifruit orchards in the North Island. [34] The yellow-fleshed cultivars were particularly susceptible. New, resistant varieties were selected in research funded by the government and fruit growers so that the industry could continue. [35]
Scientists reported they had worked out the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy and Chile originated in China. [36]
|Rank||Country||Production ( t )|
|1||China||2,230,065|
|2||New Zealand||624,940|
|3||Italy||521,530|
|4||Greece||307,440|
|5||Iran||289,608|
|6||Chile||158,919|
|7||Turkey||73,745|
|8||France||49,770|
|9||Portugal||45,820|
|10||United States||36,290|
|World||4,407,407|
|Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations (2020) [37]|
In 2020, global production of kiwifruit was 4 million tonnes , led by China with slightly more than half of the world total. New Zealand, Italy, Greece, Iran and Chile were other significant producers. [37] In China, kiwifruit is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the Yangtze River , as well as Sichuan . [38]
Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late '1960s to early 1970s' in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically. [39] Outside of Australasia , New Zealand kiwifruit are marketed under the brand-name label, Zespri . [40] The general name, "Zespri", has been used for marketing of all cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012. [13] [18]
In the 1980s, many countries outside New Zealand began to grow and export kiwifruit. [41] In Italy, the infrastructure and techniques required to support grape production were adapted to the kiwifruit. This, coupled with being close to the European kiwifruit market, led to Italians becoming the leading producer of kiwifruit 'in 1989'. The growing season of Italian kiwifruit does not overlap much with the New Zealand or the Chilean growing seasons, therefore direct competition between New Zealand or Chile was not a significant factor. [42]
Much of the breeding to refine the green kiwifruit was undertaken by the Plant & Food Research Institute (formerly HortResearch) during the decades of '1970–1999'. [13] In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in Antwerp , Belgium . [13]
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)|
|Energy||262 kJ (63 kcal)|
15.8 g
|Sugars||12.3 g|
|Dietary fiber||1.4 g|
0.28 g
1.02 g
|Vitamins|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Vitamin A equiv.|
24 μg
|Thiamine (B 1 )|
0%0 mg
|Riboflavin (B 2 )|
6%0.074 mg
|Niacin (B 3 )|
2%0.231 mg
|Pantothenic acid (B 5 )|
2%0.12 mg
|Vitamin B 6|
6%0.079 mg
|Folate (B 9 )|
8%31 μg
|Vitamin B 12|
3%0.08 μg
|Choline|
0%1.9 mg
|Vitamin C|
194%161.3 mg
|Vitamin E|
9%1.4 mg
|Vitamin K|
6%6.1 μg
|Minerals|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Calcium|
2%17 mg
|Copper|
8%0.151 mg
|Iron|
2%0.21 mg
|Magnesium|
3%12 mg
|Manganese|
2%0.048 mg
|Phosphorus|
4%25 mg
|Potassium|
7%315 mg
|Selenium|
1%0.4 μg
|Sodium|
0%3 mg
|Zinc|
1%0.08 mg
|Other constituents||Quantity|
|Water||82 g|
| † Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. |
Source: USDA FoodData Central
|Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)|
|Energy||255 kJ (61 kcal)|
14.66 g
|Sugars||8.99 g|
|Dietary fiber||3 g|
0.52 g
1.14 g
|Vitamins|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Vitamin A equiv.|
122 μg
|Thiamine (B 1 )|
2%0.027 mg
|Riboflavin (B 2 )|
2%0.025 mg
|Niacin (B 3 )|
2%0.341 mg
|Pantothenic acid (B 5 )|
4%0.183 mg
|Vitamin B 6|
5%0.063 mg
|Folate (B 9 )|
6%25 μg
|Vitamin B 12|
0%0 μg
|Choline|
2%7.8 mg
|Vitamin C|
112%92.7 mg
|Vitamin E|
10%1.46 mg
|Vitamin K|
38%40.3 μg
|Minerals|| Quantity |
%DV †
|Calcium|
3%34 mg
|Copper|
7%0.13 mg
|Iron|
2%0.31 mg
|Magnesium|
5%17 mg
|Manganese|
5%0.098 mg
|Phosphorus|
5%34 mg
|Potassium|
7%312 mg
|Selenium|
0%0.2 μg
|Sodium|
0%3 mg
|Zinc|
1%0.14 mg
|Other constituents||Quantity|
|Water||83 g|
| † Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. |
Source: USDA FoodData Central
Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat or used as a garnish. [1] The whole fruit, including the skin, is suitable for human consumption; however, the skin of the fuzzy varieties is often discarded due to its texture. [43] Sliced kiwifruit has long been used as a garnish atop whipped cream on pavlova , a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure, but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who have given birth to help them recover. [1]
Raw kiwifruit contains actinidain (also spelled actinidin ) which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer [44] and possibly as a digestive aid . [45] Actinidain also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products because the enzyme digests milk proteins. This applies to gelatin -based desserts, due to the fact that the actinidain will dissolve the proteins in gelatin, causing the dessert to either liquefy or prevent it from solidifying.
In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) amount, green kiwifruit provides 255 kilojoules (61 kilocalories) of food energy , is 83% water and 15% carbohydrates , with negligible protein and fat (table). It is particularly rich in vitamin C (112% DV) and vitamin K (38% DV), has a moderate content of vitamin E (10% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content. Gold kiwifruit has similar nutritional value to green kiwifruit, but contains higher vitamin C content (194% DV) and insignificant vitamin K content (table).
Kiwifruit seed oil contains on average 62% alpha-linolenic acid , an omega-3 fatty acid . [46] Kiwifruit pulp contains carotenoids , such as provitamin A beta-carotene , [47] lutein and zeaxanthin . [48]
Allergy to kiwifruit was first described in 1981, and there have since been reports of the allergy presenting with numerous symptoms from localized oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylaxis. [49]
The actinidain found in kiwifruit can be an allergen for some individuals, including children. [50] [51] [52] The most common symptoms are unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth, with wheezing as the most common severe symptom; anaphylaxis may occur. [50] [51] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiwifruit | 45 |
where did the name kiwi fruit come from | Chinese gooseberry becomes kiwifruit | Kiwifruit promotional card, 1980s (Tauranga City Libraries)
The prominent produce company Turners and Growers announced that it would from now on export Chinese gooseberries as ‘kiwifruit’. Introduced to this country in 1904, kiwifruit are now cultivated worldwide, with New Zealand-grown fruit marketed as ‘Zespri’.
Despite the name, kiwifruit are not native to New Zealand. Seeds were brought to New Zealand in 1904 by Mary Isabel Fraser, the principal of Wanganui Girls’ College, who had been visiting mission schools in China. They were planted in 1906 by a Whanganui nurseryman, Alexander Allison, and the vines first fruited in 1910. People thought the fruit had a gooseberry flavour and began to call it the Chinese gooseberry. It is not related to the Grossulariaceae family to which gooseberries belong.
New Zealand began exporting the fruit to the US in the 1950s. This was the height of the Cold War and the term Chinese gooseberry was a marketing nightmare for Turners and Growers. Their first idea, ‘melonettes’, was equally unpopular with US importers because melons and berries were subject to high import tariffs. In June 1959, Jack Turner suggested the name kiwifruit during a Turners and Growers management meeting in Auckland. His idea was adopted and this later became the industry-wide name.
The Bay of Plenty town of Te Puke, where New Zealand’s kiwifruit industry began, markets itself as the ‘Kiwifruit Capital of the World’. In 2017 China was the world’s leading producer of kiwifruit, followed by Italy, New Zealand, Iran and Chile. Most New Zealand kiwifruit is now marketed under the brand-name Zespri, partly as a way to distinguish ‘Kiwi’ kiwifruit from the produce of other countries. | https://nzhistory.govt.nz/the-chinese-gooseberry-becomes-the-kiwifruit | 45 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | This is the history of trick or treating at Halloween - and it's pretty creepy | OCTOBER 31, is known as one of the spookiest night of the year in America.
It is also the same time that many dress up in costumes and go trick or treating with friends and family to celebrate the holiday.
While many believe Halloween was originated in America, the holiday is said to be linked to Ireland , where the Celtics celebrated Samhain.
The spooky festival is said to have been one of four Gaelic seasonal festivals that were observed across Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.
On the holiday, it is not uncommon for children to go trick or treating throughout their neighborhood.
Trick or treating may seem like a modern event, but it can actually be traced back to Celtic Britain and Ireland in the 9th century.
The night of October 31 was known as Samhain, a Pagan festival which was later combined with Christian celebrations and renamed All Saints' Day by the Catholic church.
At Samhain, our Pagan ancestors believed the souls of our dead came into our world - and were appeased by offerings of food and drink.
It's believed that trick or treating evolved from a ritual where people dressed as ghosts and demons, performed dances around a bonfire and received treats to appease the evil spirits.
This practice, known as mumming, dates back to the Middle Ages.
By the time Christianity had spread into Britain, a new practice called souling had developed.
Poor people would visit the houses of the rich and receive pastries called soul cakes, in exchange for promises to pray for the homeowners' dead relatives.
In Scotland and Ireland, meanwhile, young people would visit their neighbors' houses and sing a song, recite a poem or perform another sort of 'trick' before receiving a treat of nuts, fruit or coins.
The term trick or treating wasn't used until the 1920s, when it was adopted in America.
The first mention of trick or treating in print was on November 4 1927, according to Today I Found Out .
Discussing the town's Halloween meeting, a Canadian journalist wrote: "The youthful tormentors were at back door and front demanding edible plunder by the word 'trick or treat,' to which the inmates gladly responded and sent the robbers away rejoicing."
But adults weren't too happy about being forced to hand out sweets, under the threat of a trick, when this first started - and saw it more as an offer they couldn't refuse.
Nowadays, it is one of America's biggest traditions, where people will go from door-to-door with Halloween buckets, asking for sweets from their neighbors between 5:30 and 9:30pm.
While Halloween may be associated with trick or treating, costumes and candy , the holiday is celebrated different around the world.
In Mexico , Halloween is celebrated with a three-day celebration that begins on October 31.
This celebration is called All Souls’ Day, and is known as a celebration to honor the dead, who are believed in their culture to return to their earthly homes during this time.
In honor of the celebration, they decorate their homes with candy, flowers, photographs and food.
They also light candles and incense to help their spirits find their way home.
In Europe , Halloween is typically celebrated on November 5, when bonfires are lit throughout the country.
Their Halloween is known as Guy Fawkes Day, also known as Bonfire Night and Fireworks Night.
Despite it being around the same time and having similar traditions, the night is not typically associated with Halloween because of Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation.
The festivities are designed to "commemorate the execution of a notorious English traitor, Guy Fawkes ," according to History.com .
In America , Halloween is known as one of the biggest nights of the year.
Across the country, people dress up in costumes and tell stories stories of ghosts and witches.
They also carve pumpkins into jack-o'-lanterns and go door to door trick or treating.
Topics | https://www.the-sun.com/lifestyle/3970456/halloween-trick-or-treat-origins/ | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | This is the history of trick or treating at Halloween - and it's pretty creepy | OCTOBER 31, is known as one of the spookiest night of the year in America.
It is also the same time that many dress up in costumes and go trick or treating with friends and family to celebrate the holiday.
While many believe Halloween was originated in America, the holiday is said to be linked to Ireland , where the Celtics celebrated Samhain.
The spooky festival is said to have been one of four Gaelic seasonal festivals that were observed across Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.
On the holiday, it is not uncommon for children to go trick or treating throughout their neighborhood.
Trick or treating may seem like a modern event, but it can actually be traced back to Celtic Britain and Ireland in the 9th century.
The night of October 31 was known as Samhain, a Pagan festival which was later combined with Christian celebrations and renamed All Saints' Day by the Catholic church.
At Samhain, our Pagan ancestors believed the souls of our dead came into our world - and were appeased by offerings of food and drink.
It's believed that trick or treating evolved from a ritual where people dressed as ghosts and demons, performed dances around a bonfire and received treats to appease the evil spirits.
This practice, known as mumming, dates back to the Middle Ages.
By the time Christianity had spread into Britain, a new practice called souling had developed.
Poor people would visit the houses of the rich and receive pastries called soul cakes, in exchange for promises to pray for the homeowners' dead relatives.
In Scotland and Ireland, meanwhile, young people would visit their neighbors' houses and sing a song, recite a poem or perform another sort of 'trick' before receiving a treat of nuts, fruit or coins.
The term trick or treating wasn't used until the 1920s, when it was adopted in America.
The first mention of trick or treating in print was on November 4 1927, according to Today I Found Out .
Discussing the town's Halloween meeting, a Canadian journalist wrote: "The youthful tormentors were at back door and front demanding edible plunder by the word 'trick or treat,' to which the inmates gladly responded and sent the robbers away rejoicing."
But adults weren't too happy about being forced to hand out sweets, under the threat of a trick, when this first started - and saw it more as an offer they couldn't refuse.
Nowadays, it is one of America's biggest traditions, where people will go from door-to-door with Halloween buckets, asking for sweets from their neighbors between 5:30 and 9:30pm.
While Halloween may be associated with trick or treating, costumes and candy , the holiday is celebrated different around the world.
In Mexico , Halloween is celebrated with a three-day celebration that begins on October 31.
This celebration is called All Souls’ Day, and is known as a celebration to honor the dead, who are believed in their culture to return to their earthly homes during this time.
In honor of the celebration, they decorate their homes with candy, flowers, photographs and food.
They also light candles and incense to help their spirits find their way home.
In Europe , Halloween is typically celebrated on November 5, when bonfires are lit throughout the country.
Their Halloween is known as Guy Fawkes Day, also known as Bonfire Night and Fireworks Night.
Despite it being around the same time and having similar traditions, the night is not typically associated with Halloween because of Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation.
The festivities are designed to "commemorate the execution of a notorious English traitor, Guy Fawkes ," according to History.com .
In America , Halloween is known as one of the biggest nights of the year.
Across the country, people dress up in costumes and tell stories stories of ghosts and witches.
They also carve pumpkins into jack-o'-lanterns and go door to door trick or treating.
Topics | https://www.the-sun.com/lifestyle/3970456/halloween-trick-or-treat-origins/ | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | Trick-or-treating - Wikipedia | "Trick or treat" redirects here. For other uses, see Trick or treat (disambiguation) .
Trick-or-treating is a traditional Halloween custom for children and adults in some countries. During the evening of Halloween, on October 31, people in costumes travel from house to house, asking for treats with the phrase "trick or treat". The "treat" is some form of confectionery , usually candy /sweets, although in some cultures money is given instead. The "trick" refers to a threat, usually idle, to perform mischief on the resident(s) or their property if no treat is given. Some people signal that they are willing to hand out treats by putting up Halloween decorations outside their doors; houses may also leave their porch lights on as a universal indicator that they have candy; some simply leave treats available on their porches for the children to take freely, on the honor system .
The history of trick-or-treating traces back to Scotland and Ireland, where the tradition of guising , going house to house at Halloween and putting on a small performance to be rewarded with food or treats, goes back at least as far as the 16th century, as does the tradition of people wearing costumes at Halloween. There are many accounts from 19th-century Scotland and Ireland of people going house to house in costume at Halloween, reciting verses in exchange for food, and sometimes warning of misfortune if they were not welcomed. [1] [2] In North America, the earliest known occurrence of guising – children going from house to house for food or money while disguised in costume [2] – is from 1911, when children were recorded as having done this in the province of Ontario , Canada. [3] The interjection "trick or treat!" was then first recorded in the same Canadian province of Ontario in 1917. While going house to house in costume has long been popular among the Scots and Irish, it is only in the 2000s that saying "trick or treat" has become common in Scotland and Ireland. [4] Prior to this, children in Ireland would commonly say " help the Halloween party " at the doors of homeowners. [4]
The activity is prevalent in the Anglospheric countries of the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States, Canada, and Australia. It also has extended into Mexico. In northwestern and central Mexico, the practice is called calaverita (Spanish diminutive for calavera , "skull" in English), and instead of "trick or treat", the children ask, " ¿Me da mi calaverita? " ("[Can you] give me my little skull?"), where a calaverita is a small skull made of sugar or chocolate.
Traditions similar to the modern custom of trick-or-treating extend all the way back to classical antiquity , although it is extremely unlikely that any of them are directly related to the modern custom. The ancient Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis records in his book The Deipnosophists that, in ancient times, the Greek island of Rhodes had a custom in which children would go from door-to-door dressed as swallows, singing a song , which demanded the owners of the house to give them food and threatened to cause mischief if the owners of the house refused. [5] [6] [7] This tradition was claimed to have been started by the Rhodian lawgiver Cleobulus . [8]
Since the Middle Ages , a tradition of mumming on a certain holiday has existed in parts of Britain and Ireland. It involved going door-to-door in costume, performing short scenes or parts of plays in exchange for food or drink. The custom of trick-or-treating on Halloween may come from the belief that supernatural beings, or the souls of the dead, roamed the earth at this time and needed to be appeased.
It may otherwise have originated in a Celtic festival, Samhain , held on 31 October–1 November, to mark the beginning of winter, in Ireland , Scotland and the Isle of Man , and Calan Gaeaf in Wales , Cornwall , and Brittany . The festival is believed to have pre-Christian roots. In the 9th century, the Catholic Church made 1 November All Saints' Day . Among Celtic-speaking peoples, it was seen as a liminal time, when the spirits or fairies (the Aos Sí ), and the souls of the dead, came into our world and were appeased with offerings of food and drink. Similar beliefs and customs were found in other parts of Europe. It is suggested that trick-or-treating evolved from a tradition whereby people impersonated the spirits, or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf. S. V. Peddle suggests they "personify the old spirits of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune". [10] Impersonating these spirits or souls was also believed to protect oneself from them. [11]
Starting as far back as the 15th century, among Christians, there had been a custom of sharing soul-cakes at Allhallowtide (October 31 through November 2). [12] [13] People would visit houses and take soul-cakes, either as representatives of the dead, or in return for praying for their souls. [14] Later, people went "from parish to parish at Halloween, begging soul-cakes by singing under the windows some such verse as this: 'Soul, souls, for a soul-cake; Pray you good mistress, a soul-cake!'" [15] They typically asked for "mercy on all Christian souls for a soul-cake". [16] It was known as 'Souling' and was recorded in parts of Britain, Flanders, southern Germany, and Austria. [17] Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593), when Speed accuses his master of "puling [whimpering or whining] like a beggar at Hallowmas". [18] In western England, mostly in the counties bordering Wales, souling was common. [13] According to one 19th century English writer "parties of children, dressed up in fantastic costume […] went round to the farm houses and cottages, singing a song, and begging for cakes (spoken of as "soal-cakes"), apples, money, or anything that the goodwives would give them". [19]
"Guising" redirects here. For other uses, see Guising (disambiguation) .
In Scotland and Ireland, "guising" – children going from door to door in disguise – is traditional, and a gift in the form of food, coins or "apples or nuts for the Halloween party" (and in more recent times, chocolate) is given out to the children. [4] [20] [21] The tradition is called "guising" because of the disguises or costumes worn by the children. [2] [22] In the West Mid Scots dialect, guising is known as "galoshans". [23] In Scotland, youths went house to house in white with masked, painted or blackened faces, reciting rhymes and often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed. [24] [25]
Guising has been recorded in Scotland since the 16th century, often at New Year. The Kirk Session records of Elgin name men and women who danced at New Year 1623. Six men, described as guisers or "gwysseris" performed a sword dance wearing masks and visors covering their faces in the churchyard and in the courtyard of a house. They were each fined 40 shillings. [26]
A record of guising at Halloween in Scotland in 1895 describes masqueraders in disguise carrying lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be rewarded with cakes, fruit, and money. [27] In Ireland, children in costumes would commonly say " Help the Halloween Party " at the doors of homeowners. [4] [28]
Halloween masks are referred to as "false faces" in Ireland and Scotland. [29] [30] A writer using Scots language recorded guisers in Ayr, Scotland in 1890:
I had mind it was Halloween . . . the wee callans were at it already, rinning aboot wi’ their fause-faces (false faces) on and their bits o’ turnip lanthrons (lanterns) in their haun (hand). [30]
Guising also involved going to wealthy homes, and in the 1920s, boys went guising at Halloween up to the affluent Thorntonhall, South Lanarkshire . [31] An account of guising in the 1950s in Ardrossan, North Ayrshire , records a child receiving 12 shillings and sixpence, having knocked on doors throughout the neighbourhood and performed. [32] Growing up in Derry , Northern Ireland in the 1960s, The Guardian journalist Michael Bradley recalls children asking, “Any nuts or apples?”. [33] In Scotland and Ireland, the children are only supposed to receive treats if they perform a party trick for the households they go to. This normally takes the form of singing a song or reciting a joke or a funny poem which the child has memorised before setting out. [32] [20] While going from door to door in disguise has remained popular among Scots and Irish at Halloween, the North American saying "trick-or-treat" has become common in the 2000s. [4] [28]
The earliest known occurrence of the practice of guising at Halloween in North America is from 1911, when a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario , Canada reported on children going "guising" around the neighborhood. [3]
American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first book length history of the holiday in the US; The Book of Hallowe'en (1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en in America"; "The taste in Hallowe'en festivities now is to study old traditions, and hold a Scotch party, using Burn's poem Hallowe'en as a guide; or to go a-souling as the English used. In short, no custom that was once honored at Hallowe'en is out of fashion now." [34] Kelley lived in Lynn, Massachusetts , a town with 4,500 Irish immigrants, 1,900 English immigrants, and 700 Scottish immigrants in 1920. [35] In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; "Americans have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days overseas. All Hallowe'en customs in the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other countries". [36]
While the first reference to "guising" in North America occurs in 1911, another reference to ritual begging on Halloween appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920. [37]
The interjection "Trick or treat!" — a request for sweets or candy, originally and sometimes still with the implication that anyone who is asked and who does not provide sweets or other treats will be subjected to a prank or practical joke — seems to have arisen in central Canada, before spreading into the northern and western United States in the 1930s and across the rest of the United States through the 1940s and early 1950s. [38] Initially it was often found in variant forms, such as "tricks or treats," which was used in the earliest known case, a 1917 report in The Sault Daily Star in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario : [39]
Almost everywhere you went last night, particularly in the early part of the evening, you would meet gangs of youngsters out to celebrate. Some of them would have adopted various forms of "camouflage" such as masks, or would appear in long trousers and big hats or with long skirts. But others again didn't. . . . "Tricks or treats" you could hear the gangs call out, and if the householder passed out the "coin" for the "treats" his establishment would be immune from attack until another gang came along that knew not of or had no part in the agreement. [40]
As shown by word sleuth Barry Popik , [41] who also found the first use from 1917, [39] variant forms continued, with "trick or a treat" found in Chatsworth, Ontario in 1921, [42] "treat up or tricks" and "treat or tricks" found in Edmonton, Alberta in 1922, [43] and "treat or trick" in Penhold, Alberta in 1924. [44] The now canonical form of "trick or treat" was first seen in 1917 in Chatsworth, only one day after the Sault Ste. Marie use, [45] but "tricks or treats" was still in use in the 1966 television special, It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown . [41]
The thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the start of the 20th century and the 1920s commonly show children but do not depict trick-or-treating. [46] The editor of a collection of over 3,000 vintage Halloween postcards writes, "There are cards which mention the custom [of trick-or-treating] or show children in costumes at the doors, but as far as we can tell they were printed later than the 1920s and more than likely even the 1930s. Tricksters of various sorts are shown on the early postcards, but not the means of appeasing them". [47]
Trick-or-treating does not seem to have become a widespread practice until the 1930s, with the first U.S. appearance of the term in 1932, [48] and the first use in a national publication occurring in 1939. [49]
Behavior similar to trick-or-treating was more commonly associated with Thanksgiving from 1870 (shortly after that holiday's formalization) until the 1930s. In New York City, a Thanksgiving ritual known as Ragamuffin Day involved children dressing up as beggars and asking for treats, which later evolved into dressing up in more diverse costumes. [50] [51] Increasing hostility toward the practice in the 1930s eventually led to the begging aspects being dropped, and by the 1950s, the tradition as a whole had ceased.
Almost all pre-1940 uses of the term "trick-or-treat" are from the United States and Canada. Trick-or-treating spread throughout the United States, stalled only by World War II sugar rationing that began in April, 1942 and lasted until June, 1947. [52] [53]
Early national attention to trick-or-treating was given in October, 1947 issues of the children's magazines Jack and Jill and Children's Activities , [54] and by Halloween episodes of the network radio programs The Baby Snooks Show in 1946 and The Jack Benny Show and The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet in 1948. [55] Trick-or-treating was depicted in the Peanuts comic strip in 1951. [56] The custom had become firmly established in popular culture by 1952, when Walt Disney portrayed it in the cartoon Trick or Treat , and Ozzie and Harriet were besieged by trick-or-treaters on an episode of their television show. [57] In 1953 UNICEF first conducted a national campaign for children to raise funds for the charity while trick-or-treating. [58]
Although some popular histories of Halloween have characterized trick-or-treating as an adult invention to re-channel Halloween activities away from Mischief Night vandalism, there are very few records supporting this. Des Moines , Iowa is the only area known to have a record of trick-or-treating being used to deter crime. [59] Elsewhere, adults, as reported in newspapers from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, typically saw it as a form of extortion , with reactions ranging from bemused indulgence to anger. [60] Likewise, as portrayed on radio shows, children would have to explain what trick-or-treating was to puzzled adults, and not the other way around. Sometimes even the children protested: for Halloween 1948, members of the Madison Square Boys Club in New York City carried a parade banner that read " American Boys Don't Beg." [61] The National Confectioners Association reported in 2005 that 80 percent of adults in the United States planned to give out confectionery to trick-or-treaters, [62] and that 93 percent of children, teenagers, and young adults planned to go trick-or-treating or participating in other Halloween activities. [63]
Despite the concept of trick-or-treating originating in Britain and Ireland in the form of souling and guising, the use of the term "trick or treat" at the doors of homeowners was not common until the 1980s, with its popularisation in part through the release of the film E.T. [64] Guising requires those going door-to-door to perform a song or poem without any jocular threat, [32] and according to one BBC journalist, in the 1980s, "trick or treat" was still often viewed as an exotic and not particularly welcome import, with the BBC referring to it as "the Japanese knotweed of festivals" and "making demands with menaces" . [65] In Ireland before the phrase "trick or treat" became common in the 2000s, children would say " Help the Halloween Party ". [4] Very often, the phrase "trick or treat" is simply said and the revellers are given sweets, with the choice of a trick or a treat having been discarded.
Trick-or-treating typically begins at dusk on October 31. Some municipalities choose other dates. [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] Homeowners wishing to participate sometimes decorate their homes with artificial spider webs, plastic skeletons and jack-o-lanterns . Conversely, those who do not wish to participate may turn off outside lights for the evening or lock relevant gates and fences to keep people from coming onto their property.
In most areas where trick-or-treating is practiced, it is considered an activity for children. Some jurisdictions in the United States forbid the activity for anyone over the age of 12. [72] Dressing up is common at all ages; adults will often dress up to accompany their children, and young adults may dress up to go out and ask for gifts for a charity.
Children of the St. Louis, Missouri , area are expected to perform a joke, usually a simple Halloween-themed pun or riddle, before receiving any candy; this "trick" earns the "treat". [73] Children in Des Moines, Iowa also tell jokes or otherwise perform before receiving their treat.
In some parts of Canada, children sometimes say "Halloween apples" instead of "trick or treat". This probably originated when the toffee apple was a popular type of candy. Apple-giving in much of Canada, however, has been taboo since the 1960s when stories (of almost certainly questionable authenticity) appeared of razors hidden inside Halloween apples; parents began to check over their children's fruit for safety before allowing them to eat it. In Quebec , children also go door to door on Halloween . However, in French-speaking neighbourhoods, instead of "Trick or treat", they will simply say "Halloween", though it traditionally used to be " La charité, s'il-vous-plaît " ("Charity, please"). [74]
Some organizations around the United States and Canada sponsor a " trunk -or-treat" on Halloween night (or, on occasion, a day immediately preceding Halloween, or a few days from it, on a weekend, depending on what is convenient). Trunk-or-treating is done from parked car to parked car in a local parking lot, often at a school or church. The activity makes use of the open trunks of the cars, which display candy, and often games and decorations. Some parents regard trunk-or-treating as a safer alternative to trick-or-treating, [75] while other parents see it as an easier alternative to walking the neighborhood with their children.
This annual event began in the mid-1990s as a "fall festival" for an alternative to trick-or-treating, but became "trunk-or-treat" two decades later. Some have called for more city or community group-sponsored trunk-or-treats, so they can be more inclusive. [76] By 2006 these had become increasingly popular. [77]
In Portugal , children go from house to house in All Saints Day and All Souls Day, carrying pumpkin carved lanterns called coca , [78] asking everyone they see for Pão-por-Deus singing rhymes where they remind people why they are begging, saying "...It is for me and for you, and to give to the deceased who are dead and buried" [79] or "It is to share with your deceased" [80] In the Azores the bread given to the children takes the shape of the top of a skull. [81] The tradition of pão-por-Deus was already recorded in the 15th century. [82]
In Sweden , children dress up as witches and monsters when they go trick-or-treating on Maundy Thursday (the Thursday before Easter) while Danish children dress up in various attires and go trick-or-treating on Fastelavn (or the next day, Shrove Monday ). In Norway, the practice is quite common among children, who come dressed up to people's doors asking for, mainly, candy. The Easter witch tradition is done on Palm Sunday in Finland ( virvonta ).
In parts of Flanders , some parts of the Netherlands , and most areas of Germany , Switzerland , and Austria , children go to houses with home-made beet lanterns or with paper lanterns (which can hold a candle or electronic light), singing songs about St. Martin on St. Martin's Day (the 11th of November), in return for treats. [83] The equivalent of "trick-or-treat" in German language is "Süßes oder Saures", asking for sweeties or threatening something less pleasant.
In Northern Germany and Southern Denmark, children dress up in costumes and go trick-or-treating on New Year's Eve in a tradition called " Rummelpott [ de ] ". [84]
UNICEF started a program in 1950 called Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF in which trick-or-treaters ask people to give money for the organization, usually instead of collecting candy. Participating trick-or-treaters say when they knock at doors "Trick-or-treat for UNICEF!" [85] This program started as an alternative to candy. The organization has long produced disposable collection boxes that state on the back what the money can be used for in developing countries.
In Canada, students from the local high schools, colleges, and universities dress up to collect food donations for the local Food Banks as a form of trick-or-treating. This is sometimes called "Trick-or-Eat". [86]
- "Ancient Halloween Traditions" . Campbell House Museum . 27 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 May 2021 .
- "LOC Halloween: Chambers of Mystery Bibliography" (PDF) . loc.gov . loc . Retrieved 5 May 2021 .
The Library of Congress' autumn 2017 pop-up exhibit tells the intriguing tale of Halloween and Día de Muertos (Day of the Dead) through a dazzling range of treasures from across the collections. LOC Halloween: Chambers of Mystery covers the ancient and mysterious traditions behind these autumn holidays through a rich selection of books and archival special collections. Experience the spooky and solemn celebrations through sound and video recordings, prints and photographs, film scores and sheet music, chapbooks, and movie memorabilia.
- “Trick or Treat” ("Trick or Treat for UNICEF") . Web page from etymologist Barry Popik on the history of "trick or treat". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trick-or-treating | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | 'Trick or Treat': A History | A tale of candy, costumes, and divine mischief
The term trick or treat is closely associated with the holiday of Halloween, which has a name worthy of an article of its own . Go there if you want, but this article here is where the sweet stuff is.
Candy now, floss later.
The true origins of the whole "dressing up in a costume and going around to various houses to greet anyone who answers your knock with a friendly threat" thing is unknown. But according to Encyclopedia Britannica ( hi, mom ) the traditions of Halloween have their origins in Samhain , a festival celebrated by the Celts of ancient Britain and Ireland. Samhain marked the end of summer and the onset of winter, and occurred on a date that corresponds to our November 1st. It was believed that during the Samhain festival, the world of the gods was visible to humans, and the gods took advantage of this fact by playing tricks on their mortal worshippers. Those worshippers in turn responded with bonfires on hilltops and sometimes masks and other varied disguises to keep ghosts from being able to recognize them. Things tended to get spooky and dangerous around Samhain, with bloody sacrifices and supernatural phenomena abounding. Not quite the neighborhood haunted house, but maybe there's the faintest of echoes there.
Samhain chugged along for centuries, until Christianity poked its nose in: in the 8th century CE, All Saints' Day, a somewhat new Christian holiday, got moved from May 13th to November 1st. And the evening before All Saints' Day became a holy—that is, a hallowed—eve. Within a few centuries—my, how time flies—Samhain and the eve of All Saints' Day had been merged into a single holiday.
Protestants of the Reformation and all that came after largely rejected the whole thing, but the holiday persisted among some communities. 19th-century immigrants to the U.S., including many from Ireland, brought their Halloween customs with them and deserve no small amount of credit for the holiday as it's celebrated in the U.S. today.
Still, the trick-or-treating took some time to settle in. The authority on how that term first settled into the lexicon is Barry Popik , an independent etymologist who's also uncovered the mysteries behind such culturally important terms as hot dog and Big Apple . It is he who has found the earliest known examples of trick or treat in use.
Popik's research traces early iterations of the term to the northwestern part of North America, specifically the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan:
Hallowe’en passed off very quietly here. 'Treats' not 'tricks' were the order of the evening.
— The Leader-Post (Regina, Saskatchewan), 2 Nov. 1923
Hallowe'en night was observed in the usual manner by the young "bloods" in Penhold. "Fun is fun, and tricks are tricks," but when such public buildings as school and Memorial Hall are molested with no option for "Treat or Trick," we can not see where either fun or trick is enjoyed by the participants.
— Red Deer (Alberta) Advocate , 7 Nov. 1924
A few years later, the phrase is used in a more familiar way:
Hallowe’en came and went and was observed most circumspectly in town, without the usual depredations. The greatest activity was manifested by the very young, who wandered in droves from door to door, heavily disguised and demanding “trick or treat.” To treat was to be untricked, and the youthful hold-up men soon returned home bowed down with treats.
— T. D. Colcord, Calgary (Alberta) Daily Herald , 3 Nov. 1927
Hallowe’en provided an opportunity for real strenuous fun. No real damage was done except to the temper of some who had to hunt for wagon wheels, gates, wagons, barrels, etc., much of which decorated the front street. The youthful tormentors were at back door and front demanding edible plunder by the word “trick or treat” to which the inmates gladly responded and sent the robbers away rejoicing.
— Lethbridge (Alberta) Herald , 4 Nov. 1927
The first U.S. example Popik reports is from Michigan, and in the plural:
“Trick or Treats?” (headline) … the peaceful citizens lived in terror of the time each evening when they should be summoned to their front doors to hear the fatal ultimatum “Tricks or treats!” uttered in a merciless tone by some small child who clutched in one grubby fist a small chunk of soap capable of eliminating the transparency from any number of windows.
— Bay City (Michigan) Times , 1 Nov. 1928
The earliest example in Merriam-Webster's files is from 12 years after the Michigan example:
The local equivalent here (Decatur, Illinois) is "Trick or treat." The custom is the same: children masked and in costume knock at front doors and greet the host with "Trick or treat!" (in a somewhat disguised voice). The proposal is, obviously, a mild kind of blackmail in which—whatever the motives—the treats are always forthcoming.
— John Valentine, letter in American Notes and Queries , March 1942
The writer above was responding to an article entitled "Halloween: Shell Out," shell out being another phrase employed in the same context.
Trick or treat as a set phrase had yet to fully gel as late as 1965, when in a Peanuts cartoon Charles Schulz has Lucy engaged in the activity with the words "TRICKS OR TREATS..." in the speech bubble hovering above her.
And in 1972 a Merriam-Webster editor wrote a note objecting to the defining of trick or treat as " the Halloween practice" rather than " a Halloween practice" because "the beginning word 'the' makes it sound like a universal practice. But I never heard of it when I was a child in southern Illinois. Say 'a' instead?" The definition was so revised.
Share | https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/trick-or-treat-history | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | The History of Trick-or-Treating | Trick-or-treating—setting off on Halloween night in costume and ringing doorbells to demand treats—has been a tradition in the United States and other countries for more than a century. Its origins remain murky but traces can be identified in ancient Celtic festivals, early Roman Catholic holidays, medieval practices—and even British politics.
Halloween has its roots in the ancient, pre-Christian Celtic festival of Samhain , which was celebrated on the night of October 31. The Celts , who lived 2,000 years ago in the area that is now Ireland, the United Kingdom and northern France, believed that the dead returned to earth on Samhain. On the sacred night, people gathered to light bonfires, offer sacrifices and pay homage to the dead.
Did you know? Although it is unknown precisely where and when the phrase “trick or treat” was coined, the custom had been firmly established in American popular culture by 1951, when trick-or-treating was depicted in the Peanuts comic strip. In 1952, Disney produced a cartoon called “Trick or Treat” featuring Donald Duck and his nephews Huey, Dewey and Louie.
During some Celtic celebrations of Samhain, villagers disguised themselves in costumes made of animal skins to drive away phantom visitors; banquet tables were prepared and food was left out to placate unwelcome spirits.
In later centuries, people began dressing as ghosts, demons and other malevolent creatures, performing antics in exchange for food and drink. This custom, known as mumming, dates back to the Middle Ages and is thought to be an antecedent of trick-or-treating.
By the ninth century, Christianity had spread into Celtic lands, where it gradually blended with and supplanted older pagan rites. In 1000 A.D. the church designated November 2 as All Souls’ Day, a time for honoring the dead. Celebrations in England resembled Celtic commemorations of Samhain, complete with bonfires and masquerades.
Poor people would visit the houses of wealthier families and receive pastries called soul cakes in exchange for a promise to pray for the souls of the homeowners’ dead relatives. Known as "souling," the practice was later taken up by children, who would go from door to door asking for gifts such as food, money and ale.
In Scotland and Ireland, young people took part in a tradition called guising, dressing up in costume and accepting offerings from various households. Rather than pledging to pray for the dead, they would sing a song, recite a poem, tell a joke or perform another sort of “trick” before collecting their treat, which typically consisted of fruit, nuts or coins.
Modern-day trick-or-treating also has elements akin to annual celebrations of Guy Fawkes Night (also known as Bonfire Night). On this night, which commemorates the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot in 1605, British children wore masks and carry effigies while begging for pennies. On November 5, 1606, Fawkes was executed for his role in the Catholic-led conspiracy to blow up England’s parliament building and remove King James I, a Protestant, from power.
On the original Guy Fawkes Day, celebrated immediately after the famous plotter’s execution, communal bonfires, or “bone fires,” were lit to burn effigies and the symbolic “bones” of the Catholic pope. By the early 19th century, children bearing effigies of Fawkes were roaming the streets on the evening of November 5, asking for “a penny for the Guy.”
Some American colonists celebrated Guy Fawkes Day, and in the mid-19th century, large numbers of new immigrants, especially those fleeing the Irish Potato Famine in the 1840s, helped popularize Halloween.
In the early 20th century, Irish and Scottish communities revived the Old World traditions of souling and guising in the United States. By the 1920s, however, pranks had become the Halloween activity of choice for rowdy young people.
The Great Depression exacerbated the problem, with Halloween mischief often devolving into vandalism, physical assaults and sporadic acts of violence . One theory suggests that excessive pranks on Halloween led to the widespread adoption of an organized, community-based trick-or-treating tradition in the 1930s. This trend was abruptly curtailed, however, with the outbreak of World War II , when sugar rationing meant there were few treats to hand out. At the height of the postwar baby boom , trick-or-treating reclaimed its place among other Halloween customs. It quickly became standard practice for millions of children in America’s cities and newly built suburbs. No longer constrained by sugar rationing, candy companies capitalized on the lucrative ritual, launching national advertising campaigns specifically aimed at Halloween.
Today, Americans spend an estimated $3.1 billion on candy on Halloween, according to the National Retail Federation , and the day, itself, has become the nation’s second-largest commercial holiday. | https://www.history.com/news/halloween-trick-or-treating-origins | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | The history of trick-or-treating, and how it became a Halloween tradition | Children dressing in costumes and going door-to-door for treats is a relatively modern tradition—but its origins can be traced to the Celts and even a long-lost Christmas tradition.
By Emily Martin
Published October 24, 2022
• 7 min read
Every year on October 31, adults listen for the sound of a knock on their door from costumed children, arms outstretched with a bag open for candy. In modern times, trick-or-treating has become a nearly sacred Halloween tradition in the United States.
Yet historians say the origins of kids begging their neighbors for food may date back to ancient Celtic celebrations or even a long-lost Christmas custom. And the phrase itself dates back to the 1920s, when Halloween pranks once set entire cities on edge. Here’s how trick-or-treating evolved.
Halloween is thought to date back more than 2,000 years to Samhain, a Celtic New Year’s Day that fell on November 1. Demons, fairies, and spirits of the dead were thought to walk
Unlock this story for free
Create an account to read the full story and get unlimited access to hundreds of Nat Geo articles. | https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/the-history-of-trick-or-treating-and-how-it-became-a-halloween-tradition | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | Why Do We Say "Trick or Treat"? | - The Gory Meaning Behind The Word "Sarcophagus"
- How To Pronounce The Word "Niche"
- 3 Tips For Using "Have" vs. "Has" Correctly
- Why Dictionary.com Chose This Word To Describe 2020
- Who Invented The 7 Deadly Sins?
- What Is The Real Difference Between "Empathy" And "Sympathy"?
- Did You Know These Phrases Are Actually Repetitive?
- Where Does The Phrase "Thoughts And Prayers" Come From?
- How Did April Reign Create The Hashtag #OscarsSoWhite?
"Trick or Treat" is the quintessential Halloween greeting but why do we say it?
It’s many kids’ favorite part of Halloween . There’s no feeling quite like waiting for a stranger to open their door so you can scream the words “Trick or treat!” But, why do we say it? What does it actually mean?
While some identify precursors to trick-or-treating in ancient Celtic customs, modern trick-or-treating is thought to be a custom borrowed from guising or mumming in England, Scotland, and Ireland. These involve dressing in costume and singing a rhyme, doing a card trick, or telling a story in exchange for a sweet.
Some have traced the earliest print reference of the term trick or treat to 1927 in Canada. It appears that the practice didn’t really take hold in the US until the 1930s, where it wasn’t always well received. The demanding of a treat angered or puzzled some adults.
Supposedly, in a Halloween parade in 1948 in New York, the Madison Square Boys Club carried a banner sporting the message “American Boys Don’t Beg.” But by 1950s, the practice was widely accepted enough to be mentioned in popular media, like in the comic strip Peanuts .
If Halloween is your favorite holiday, we’re sure you already know what the – een in Halloween means … muahaha. | https://www.dictionary.com/e/trick-or-treat/ | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | Why Do We Say "Trick or Treat"? | - The Gory Meaning Behind The Word "Sarcophagus"
- How To Pronounce The Word "Niche"
- 3 Tips For Using "Have" vs. "Has" Correctly
- Why Dictionary.com Chose This Word To Describe 2020
- Who Invented The 7 Deadly Sins?
- What Is The Real Difference Between "Empathy" And "Sympathy"?
- Did You Know These Phrases Are Actually Repetitive?
- Where Does The Phrase "Thoughts And Prayers" Come From?
- How Did April Reign Create The Hashtag #OscarsSoWhite?
"Trick or Treat" is the quintessential Halloween greeting but why do we say it?
It’s many kids’ favorite part of Halloween . There’s no feeling quite like waiting for a stranger to open their door so you can scream the words “Trick or treat!” But, why do we say it? What does it actually mean?
While some identify precursors to trick-or-treating in ancient Celtic customs, modern trick-or-treating is thought to be a custom borrowed from guising or mumming in England, Scotland, and Ireland. These involve dressing in costume and singing a rhyme, doing a card trick, or telling a story in exchange for a sweet.
Some have traced the earliest print reference of the term trick or treat to 1927 in Canada. It appears that the practice didn’t really take hold in the US until the 1930s, where it wasn’t always well received. The demanding of a treat angered or puzzled some adults.
Supposedly, in a Halloween parade in 1948 in New York, the Madison Square Boys Club carried a banner sporting the message “American Boys Don’t Beg.” But by 1950s, the practice was widely accepted enough to be mentioned in popular media, like in the comic strip Peanuts .
If Halloween is your favorite holiday, we’re sure you already know what the – een in Halloween means … muahaha. | https://www.dictionary.com/e/trick-or-treat/ | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | Why Do You Say "Trick or Treat"? | Today’s Wonder of the Day was inspired by Ryan from WI. Ryan Wonders , “ Why do people trick or treat on Halloween? ” Thanks for WONDERing with us, Ryan!
I
f there are ghosts , goblins, witches, astronauts , cartoon characters, and a wild variety of oddly dressed creatures visiting your door asking for candy , chances are it's Halloween.
Before you shell out the sweets, most of these visitors probably shout “trick or treat!" But why do they do that?
In the United States and Canada, trick-or-treating has been a popular Halloween activity since the late 1950s. Children of all ages dress up in costumes and travel from house to house to receive treats in response to their call of “trick or treat!"
The phrase is a subtle suggestion that if a treat (like candy ) is given, then the child will not perform a “trick" ( mischief ) on the owner of the house. This popular Halloween custom has its origins in the ancient practices of “souling" and “guising."
In the Middle Ages, poor people in Ireland and Britain would go “souling" on Hallowmas (November 1). “Souling" consisted of going door to door asking for food in return for saying prayers for the dead on All Souls Day (November 2).
“Guising" — the custom of wearing costumes, masks, or other forms of disguise — began in Scotland in the late 19th century. Scottish children hoped to prevent evil spirits from doing harm by dressing like them. They carried lanterns made out of hollow turnips and at various homes asked for treats, such as cakes, fruit, and money.
Immigrants brought these local customs to North America in the early 20th century. The term “trick or treat" first appeared in print in 1927 in Canada. No one knows for sure how or why that particular term came to be.
The custom of trick-or-treating started in the western United States and Canada and slowly moved eastward. The custom stalled during World War II because sugar was rationed during that time.
From the 1950s onward, however, the custom picked up steam and has been the central focus of Halloween ever since. Today, Halloween trick-or-treating is big business.
The National Confectioners Association estimates that over 75 percent of U.S. adults give out candy every year to trick-or-treaters. They also believe 64 percent of Americans will go trick-or-treating or participate in some way in Halloween activities in 2015.
As recently as 2015, Halloween candy , costumes, and related products brought in almost $7 billion in revenue. | https://www.wonderopolis.org/wonder/Why-Do-You-Say-%22Trick-or-Treat%22 | 46 |
when did the term trick or treat first appear in print | Trick-or-treating - Wikipedia | "Trick or treat" redirects here. For other uses, see Trick or treat (disambiguation) .
Trick-or-treating is a traditional Halloween custom for children and adults in some countries. During the evening of Halloween, on October 31, people in costumes travel from house to house, asking for treats with the phrase "trick or treat". The "treat" is some form of confectionery , usually candy /sweets, although in some cultures money is given instead. The "trick" refers to a threat, usually idle, to perform mischief on the resident(s) or their property if no treat is given. Some people signal that they are willing to hand out treats by putting up Halloween decorations outside their doors; houses may also leave their porch lights on as a universal indicator that they have candy; some simply leave treats available on their porches for the children to take freely, on the honor system .
The history of trick-or-treating traces back to Scotland and Ireland, where the tradition of guising , going house to house at Halloween and putting on a small performance to be rewarded with food or treats, goes back at least as far as the 16th century, as does the tradition of people wearing costumes at Halloween. There are many accounts from 19th-century Scotland and Ireland of people going house to house in costume at Halloween, reciting verses in exchange for food, and sometimes warning of misfortune if they were not welcomed. [1] [2] In North America, the earliest known occurrence of guising – children going from house to house for food or money while disguised in costume [2] – is from 1911, when children were recorded as having done this in the province of Ontario , Canada. [3] The interjection "trick or treat!" was then first recorded in the same Canadian province of Ontario in 1917. While going house to house in costume has long been popular among the Scots and Irish, it is only in the 2000s that saying "trick or treat" has become common in Scotland and Ireland. [4] Prior to this, children in Ireland would commonly say " help the Halloween party " at the doors of homeowners. [4]
The activity is prevalent in the Anglospheric countries of the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States, Canada, and Australia. It also has extended into Mexico. In northwestern and central Mexico, the practice is called calaverita (Spanish diminutive for calavera , "skull" in English), and instead of "trick or treat", the children ask, " ¿Me da mi calaverita? " ("[Can you] give me my little skull?"), where a calaverita is a small skull made of sugar or chocolate.
Traditions similar to the modern custom of trick-or-treating extend all the way back to classical antiquity , although it is extremely unlikely that any of them are directly related to the modern custom. The ancient Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis records in his book The Deipnosophists that, in ancient times, the Greek island of Rhodes had a custom in which children would go from door-to-door dressed as swallows, singing a song , which demanded the owners of the house to give them food and threatened to cause mischief if the owners of the house refused. [5] [6] [7] This tradition was claimed to have been started by the Rhodian lawgiver Cleobulus . [8]
Since the Middle Ages , a tradition of mumming on a certain holiday has existed in parts of Britain and Ireland. It involved going door-to-door in costume, performing short scenes or parts of plays in exchange for food or drink. The custom of trick-or-treating on Halloween may come from the belief that supernatural beings, or the souls of the dead, roamed the earth at this time and needed to be appeased.
It may otherwise have originated in a Celtic festival, Samhain , held on 31 October–1 November, to mark the beginning of winter, in Ireland , Scotland and the Isle of Man , and Calan Gaeaf in Wales , Cornwall , and Brittany . The festival is believed to have pre-Christian roots. In the 9th century, the Catholic Church made 1 November All Saints' Day . Among Celtic-speaking peoples, it was seen as a liminal time, when the spirits or fairies (the Aos Sí ), and the souls of the dead, came into our world and were appeased with offerings of food and drink. Similar beliefs and customs were found in other parts of Europe. It is suggested that trick-or-treating evolved from a tradition whereby people impersonated the spirits, or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf. S. V. Peddle suggests they "personify the old spirits of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune". [10] Impersonating these spirits or souls was also believed to protect oneself from them. [11]
Starting as far back as the 15th century, among Christians, there had been a custom of sharing soul-cakes at Allhallowtide (October 31 through November 2). [12] [13] People would visit houses and take soul-cakes, either as representatives of the dead, or in return for praying for their souls. [14] Later, people went "from parish to parish at Halloween, begging soul-cakes by singing under the windows some such verse as this: 'Soul, souls, for a soul-cake; Pray you good mistress, a soul-cake!'" [15] They typically asked for "mercy on all Christian souls for a soul-cake". [16] It was known as 'Souling' and was recorded in parts of Britain, Flanders, southern Germany, and Austria. [17] Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593), when Speed accuses his master of "puling [whimpering or whining] like a beggar at Hallowmas". [18] In western England, mostly in the counties bordering Wales, souling was common. [13] According to one 19th century English writer "parties of children, dressed up in fantastic costume […] went round to the farm houses and cottages, singing a song, and begging for cakes (spoken of as "soal-cakes"), apples, money, or anything that the goodwives would give them". [19]
"Guising" redirects here. For other uses, see Guising (disambiguation) .
In Scotland and Ireland, "guising" – children going from door to door in disguise – is traditional, and a gift in the form of food, coins or "apples or nuts for the Halloween party" (and in more recent times, chocolate) is given out to the children. [4] [20] [21] The tradition is called "guising" because of the disguises or costumes worn by the children. [2] [22] In the West Mid Scots dialect, guising is known as "galoshans". [23] In Scotland, youths went house to house in white with masked, painted or blackened faces, reciting rhymes and often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed. [24] [25]
Guising has been recorded in Scotland since the 16th century, often at New Year. The Kirk Session records of Elgin name men and women who danced at New Year 1623. Six men, described as guisers or "gwysseris" performed a sword dance wearing masks and visors covering their faces in the churchyard and in the courtyard of a house. They were each fined 40 shillings. [26]
A record of guising at Halloween in Scotland in 1895 describes masqueraders in disguise carrying lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be rewarded with cakes, fruit, and money. [27] In Ireland, children in costumes would commonly say " Help the Halloween Party " at the doors of homeowners. [4] [28]
Halloween masks are referred to as "false faces" in Ireland and Scotland. [29] [30] A writer using Scots language recorded guisers in Ayr, Scotland in 1890:
I had mind it was Halloween . . . the wee callans were at it already, rinning aboot wi’ their fause-faces (false faces) on and their bits o’ turnip lanthrons (lanterns) in their haun (hand). [30]
Guising also involved going to wealthy homes, and in the 1920s, boys went guising at Halloween up to the affluent Thorntonhall, South Lanarkshire . [31] An account of guising in the 1950s in Ardrossan, North Ayrshire , records a child receiving 12 shillings and sixpence, having knocked on doors throughout the neighbourhood and performed. [32] Growing up in Derry , Northern Ireland in the 1960s, The Guardian journalist Michael Bradley recalls children asking, “Any nuts or apples?”. [33] In Scotland and Ireland, the children are only supposed to receive treats if they perform a party trick for the households they go to. This normally takes the form of singing a song or reciting a joke or a funny poem which the child has memorised before setting out. [32] [20] While going from door to door in disguise has remained popular among Scots and Irish at Halloween, the North American saying "trick-or-treat" has become common in the 2000s. [4] [28]
The earliest known occurrence of the practice of guising at Halloween in North America is from 1911, when a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario , Canada reported on children going "guising" around the neighborhood. [3]
American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first book length history of the holiday in the US; The Book of Hallowe'en (1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en in America"; "The taste in Hallowe'en festivities now is to study old traditions, and hold a Scotch party, using Burn's poem Hallowe'en as a guide; or to go a-souling as the English used. In short, no custom that was once honored at Hallowe'en is out of fashion now." [34] Kelley lived in Lynn, Massachusetts , a town with 4,500 Irish immigrants, 1,900 English immigrants, and 700 Scottish immigrants in 1920. [35] In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; "Americans have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days overseas. All Hallowe'en customs in the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other countries". [36]
While the first reference to "guising" in North America occurs in 1911, another reference to ritual begging on Halloween appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920. [37]
The interjection "Trick or treat!" — a request for sweets or candy, originally and sometimes still with the implication that anyone who is asked and who does not provide sweets or other treats will be subjected to a prank or practical joke — seems to have arisen in central Canada, before spreading into the northern and western United States in the 1930s and across the rest of the United States through the 1940s and early 1950s. [38] Initially it was often found in variant forms, such as "tricks or treats," which was used in the earliest known case, a 1917 report in The Sault Daily Star in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario : [39]
Almost everywhere you went last night, particularly in the early part of the evening, you would meet gangs of youngsters out to celebrate. Some of them would have adopted various forms of "camouflage" such as masks, or would appear in long trousers and big hats or with long skirts. But others again didn't. . . . "Tricks or treats" you could hear the gangs call out, and if the householder passed out the "coin" for the "treats" his establishment would be immune from attack until another gang came along that knew not of or had no part in the agreement. [40]
As shown by word sleuth Barry Popik , [41] who also found the first use from 1917, [39] variant forms continued, with "trick or a treat" found in Chatsworth, Ontario in 1921, [42] "treat up or tricks" and "treat or tricks" found in Edmonton, Alberta in 1922, [43] and "treat or trick" in Penhold, Alberta in 1924. [44] The now canonical form of "trick or treat" was first seen in 1917 in Chatsworth, only one day after the Sault Ste. Marie use, [45] but "tricks or treats" was still in use in the 1966 television special, It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown . [41]
The thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the start of the 20th century and the 1920s commonly show children but do not depict trick-or-treating. [46] The editor of a collection of over 3,000 vintage Halloween postcards writes, "There are cards which mention the custom [of trick-or-treating] or show children in costumes at the doors, but as far as we can tell they were printed later than the 1920s and more than likely even the 1930s. Tricksters of various sorts are shown on the early postcards, but not the means of appeasing them". [47]
Trick-or-treating does not seem to have become a widespread practice until the 1930s, with the first U.S. appearance of the term in 1932, [48] and the first use in a national publication occurring in 1939. [49]
Behavior similar to trick-or-treating was more commonly associated with Thanksgiving from 1870 (shortly after that holiday's formalization) until the 1930s. In New York City, a Thanksgiving ritual known as Ragamuffin Day involved children dressing up as beggars and asking for treats, which later evolved into dressing up in more diverse costumes. [50] [51] Increasing hostility toward the practice in the 1930s eventually led to the begging aspects being dropped, and by the 1950s, the tradition as a whole had ceased.
Almost all pre-1940 uses of the term "trick-or-treat" are from the United States and Canada. Trick-or-treating spread throughout the United States, stalled only by World War II sugar rationing that began in April, 1942 and lasted until June, 1947. [52] [53]
Early national attention to trick-or-treating was given in October, 1947 issues of the children's magazines Jack and Jill and Children's Activities , [54] and by Halloween episodes of the network radio programs The Baby Snooks Show in 1946 and The Jack Benny Show and The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet in 1948. [55] Trick-or-treating was depicted in the Peanuts comic strip in 1951. [56] The custom had become firmly established in popular culture by 1952, when Walt Disney portrayed it in the cartoon Trick or Treat , and Ozzie and Harriet were besieged by trick-or-treaters on an episode of their television show. [57] In 1953 UNICEF first conducted a national campaign for children to raise funds for the charity while trick-or-treating. [58]
Although some popular histories of Halloween have characterized trick-or-treating as an adult invention to re-channel Halloween activities away from Mischief Night vandalism, there are very few records supporting this. Des Moines , Iowa is the only area known to have a record of trick-or-treating being used to deter crime. [59] Elsewhere, adults, as reported in newspapers from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s, typically saw it as a form of extortion , with reactions ranging from bemused indulgence to anger. [60] Likewise, as portrayed on radio shows, children would have to explain what trick-or-treating was to puzzled adults, and not the other way around. Sometimes even the children protested: for Halloween 1948, members of the Madison Square Boys Club in New York City carried a parade banner that read " American Boys Don't Beg." [61] The National Confectioners Association reported in 2005 that 80 percent of adults in the United States planned to give out confectionery to trick-or-treaters, [62] and that 93 percent of children, teenagers, and young adults planned to go trick-or-treating or participating in other Halloween activities. [63]
Despite the concept of trick-or-treating originating in Britain and Ireland in the form of souling and guising, the use of the term "trick or treat" at the doors of homeowners was not common until the 1980s, with its popularisation in part through the release of the film E.T. [64] Guising requires those going door-to-door to perform a song or poem without any jocular threat, [32] and according to one BBC journalist, in the 1980s, "trick or treat" was still often viewed as an exotic and not particularly welcome import, with the BBC referring to it as "the Japanese knotweed of festivals" and "making demands with menaces" . [65] In Ireland before the phrase "trick or treat" became common in the 2000s, children would say " Help the Halloween Party ". [4] Very often, the phrase "trick or treat" is simply said and the revellers are given sweets, with the choice of a trick or a treat having been discarded.
Trick-or-treating typically begins at dusk on October 31. Some municipalities choose other dates. [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] Homeowners wishing to participate sometimes decorate their homes with artificial spider webs, plastic skeletons and jack-o-lanterns . Conversely, those who do not wish to participate may turn off outside lights for the evening or lock relevant gates and fences to keep people from coming onto their property.
In most areas where trick-or-treating is practiced, it is considered an activity for children. Some jurisdictions in the United States forbid the activity for anyone over the age of 12. [72] Dressing up is common at all ages; adults will often dress up to accompany their children, and young adults may dress up to go out and ask for gifts for a charity.
Children of the St. Louis, Missouri , area are expected to perform a joke, usually a simple Halloween-themed pun or riddle, before receiving any candy; this "trick" earns the "treat". [73] Children in Des Moines, Iowa also tell jokes or otherwise perform before receiving their treat.
In some parts of Canada, children sometimes say "Halloween apples" instead of "trick or treat". This probably originated when the toffee apple was a popular type of candy. Apple-giving in much of Canada, however, has been taboo since the 1960s when stories (of almost certainly questionable authenticity) appeared of razors hidden inside Halloween apples; parents began to check over their children's fruit for safety before allowing them to eat it. In Quebec , children also go door to door on Halloween . However, in French-speaking neighbourhoods, instead of "Trick or treat", they will simply say "Halloween", though it traditionally used to be " La charité, s'il-vous-plaît " ("Charity, please"). [74]
Some organizations around the United States and Canada sponsor a " trunk -or-treat" on Halloween night (or, on occasion, a day immediately preceding Halloween, or a few days from it, on a weekend, depending on what is convenient). Trunk-or-treating is done from parked car to parked car in a local parking lot, often at a school or church. The activity makes use of the open trunks of the cars, which display candy, and often games and decorations. Some parents regard trunk-or-treating as a safer alternative to trick-or-treating, [75] while other parents see it as an easier alternative to walking the neighborhood with their children.
This annual event began in the mid-1990s as a "fall festival" for an alternative to trick-or-treating, but became "trunk-or-treat" two decades later. Some have called for more city or community group-sponsored trunk-or-treats, so they can be more inclusive. [76] By 2006 these had become increasingly popular. [77]
In Portugal , children go from house to house in All Saints Day and All Souls Day, carrying pumpkin carved lanterns called coca , [78] asking everyone they see for Pão-por-Deus singing rhymes where they remind people why they are begging, saying "...It is for me and for you, and to give to the deceased who are dead and buried" [79] or "It is to share with your deceased" [80] In the Azores the bread given to the children takes the shape of the top of a skull. [81] The tradition of pão-por-Deus was already recorded in the 15th century. [82]
In Sweden , children dress up as witches and monsters when they go trick-or-treating on Maundy Thursday (the Thursday before Easter) while Danish children dress up in various attires and go trick-or-treating on Fastelavn (or the next day, Shrove Monday ). In Norway, the practice is quite common among children, who come dressed up to people's doors asking for, mainly, candy. The Easter witch tradition is done on Palm Sunday in Finland ( virvonta ).
In parts of Flanders , some parts of the Netherlands , and most areas of Germany , Switzerland , and Austria , children go to houses with home-made beet lanterns or with paper lanterns (which can hold a candle or electronic light), singing songs about St. Martin on St. Martin's Day (the 11th of November), in return for treats. [83] The equivalent of "trick-or-treat" in German language is "Süßes oder Saures", asking for sweeties or threatening something less pleasant.
In Northern Germany and Southern Denmark, children dress up in costumes and go trick-or-treating on New Year's Eve in a tradition called " Rummelpott [ de ] ". [84]
UNICEF started a program in 1950 called Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF in which trick-or-treaters ask people to give money for the organization, usually instead of collecting candy. Participating trick-or-treaters say when they knock at doors "Trick-or-treat for UNICEF!" [85] This program started as an alternative to candy. The organization has long produced disposable collection boxes that state on the back what the money can be used for in developing countries.
In Canada, students from the local high schools, colleges, and universities dress up to collect food donations for the local Food Banks as a form of trick-or-treating. This is sometimes called "Trick-or-Eat". [86]
- "Ancient Halloween Traditions" . Campbell House Museum . 27 October 2016 . Retrieved 5 May 2021 .
- "LOC Halloween: Chambers of Mystery Bibliography" (PDF) . loc.gov . loc . Retrieved 5 May 2021 .
The Library of Congress' autumn 2017 pop-up exhibit tells the intriguing tale of Halloween and Día de Muertos (Day of the Dead) through a dazzling range of treasures from across the collections. LOC Halloween: Chambers of Mystery covers the ancient and mysterious traditions behind these autumn holidays through a rich selection of books and archival special collections. Experience the spooky and solemn celebrations through sound and video recordings, prints and photographs, film scores and sheet music, chapbooks, and movie memorabilia.
- “Trick or Treat” ("Trick or Treat for UNICEF") . Web page from etymologist Barry Popik on the history of "trick or treat". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trick-or-treating | 46 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Sindhi language - Wikipedia | Not to be confused with Hindi .
|Sindhi|
|Sin-dheē|
|سنڌي|
|Native to||Pakistan and India|
|Region||Sindh and neighbouring regions (e.g. Kutch and Balochistan )|
|Ethnicity||Sindhis|
Native speakers
|c. 32 million (2017) [1]|
Indo-European
|Perso-Arabic ( Naskh ) , Devanagari ( India ) and others|
|Official status|
Official language in
|Pakistan India [a] [b]|
|Regulated by|
|Language codes|
|ISO 639-1|
|ISO 639-2|
|ISO 639-3|
|Glottolog|
|Linguasphere|
The proportion of people with Sindhi as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census
Sindhi is not in the category of endangered according to the classification system of the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains Sindhi text , written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support , you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Sindhi script .
Sindhi ( English pronunciation: / ˈ s ɪ n d i / ; [4] Sindhi: سنڌي , Sindhi pronunciation: [sɪndʱiː] ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh , where it has official status. It is also spoken by a further 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language , without any state-level official status. The main writing system is the Perso-Arabic script, which accounts for the majority of the Sindhi literature and is the only one currently used in Pakistan. In India, both the Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari are used.
Sindhi has an attested history from the 10th century CE. Sindhi was one of the first Indo-Aryan languages to encounter influence from Persian and Arabic following the Umayyad conquest in 712 CE. A substantial body of Sindhi literature developed during the Medieval period, the most famous of which is the religious and mystic poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai from the 18th century. Modern Sindhi was promoted under British rule beginning in 1843, which led to the current status of the language in independent Pakistan after 1947.
The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskrit síndhu , the original name of the Indus River , along whose delta Sindhi is spoken. [5]
Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is descended from Old Indo-Aryan ( Sanskrit ) via Middle Indo-Aryan ( Pali , secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha ). 20th century Western scholars such as George Abraham Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa , corresponding to modern Sindh) but later work has shown this to be unlikely. [6]
Sindhi entered the New Indo-Aryan stage around the 10th century CE. [ citation needed ] However, literary attestation of Sindhi from this period is sparse; early Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati . Much of this work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional hymn). [7] [8]
Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to be in close contact with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 CE. According to Sindhi tradition, the first translation of the Quran into Sindhi was initiated in 883 CE in Mansura, Sindh . This is corroborated by the accounts of Al-Ramhormuzi but it is unclear whether the language of translation was actually a predecessor to Sindhi, nor is the text preserved. [9]
Medieval Sindhi religious literature comprises a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The earliest known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi ( c. 1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period. [7]
Another famous part of Medieval Sindhi literature is a wealth of folktales, adapted and readapted into verse by many bards at various times. These include romantic epics such as Sassui Punnhun , Sohni Mahiwal , Momal Rano , Noori Jam Tamachi , Lilan Chanesar , and others. [10] The greatest poet of Sindhi was Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752), whose verses were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. He weaved Sindhi folktales with Sufi mysticism.
The first attested Sindhi translation of the Quran was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867. [11]
Sindh was occupied by the British army and was annexed with the Bombay Presidency in 1843. Soon after, in 1848, Governor George Clerk established Sindhi as the official language in the province, removing the literary dominance of Persian . Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29, 1857, advising civil servants in Sindh to pass an examination in Sindhi. He also ordered the use of Sindhi in official documents. [12] In 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi with the Khudabadi script . The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. The granting of official status of Sindhi along with script reforms ushered in the development of modern Sindhi literature.
The first printed works in Sindhi were produced at the Muhammadi Press in Bombay beginning in 1867. These included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim Thattvi , one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh. [10]
The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan , commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s. [13]
The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu, while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi. [14]
In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 30.26 million people, or 14.6% of the country's population as of the 2017 census. 29.5 million of these are found in Sindh , where they account for 62% of the total population of the province. There are 0.56 million speakers in the province of Balochistan , [15] especially in the Kacchi Plain that encompasses the districts of Lasbela , Hub , Kachhi , Sibi , Sohbatpur , Jafarabad , Jhal Magsi , Usta Muhammad and Nasirabad .
In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:
|State||Population|
|Gujarat||1,184,024|
|Maharashtra||723,748|
|Rajashtan||386,569|
|Madhya Pradesh||245,161|
|Chattisgarh||93,424|
|Delhi (NCT)||31,177|
|Uttar Pradesh||28,952|
|Assam||19,646|
|Karnataka||16,954|
|Andhra Pradesh||11,299|
|Tamil Nadu||8,448|
|West Bengal||7,828|
|Uttarakhand||2,863|
|Odisha||2,338|
|Bihar||2,227|
|Jharkhand||1,701|
|Haryana||1,658|
|Kerala||1,251|
|Punjab||754|
|Goa||656|
|Dadra and Nagar||894|
|Meghalaya||236|
|Chandigarh||134|
|Puducherry||94|
|Nagaland||82|
|Himachal Pradesh||62|
|Tripura||30|
|Jammu and Kashmir||19|
|Andaman and Nicobar Islands||14|
|Arunachal Pradesh||12|
|Lakshadweep||7|
|Sikkim||2|
Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh [2] [3] and one of the scheduled languages of India, where it does not have any state-level status. [17]
Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh. [18] [19] [20] [21] The Pakistan Sindh Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh. [22] According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language. [23] Sindh Education and Literacy Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah , and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely taught. [24] Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that follow the Cambridge system. [25]
At the occasion of 'Mother Language Day ' in 2023, the Sindh Assembly under Culture minister Sardar Ali Shah , passed a unanimous resolution to extend the use of language to primary level [26] and increase the status of Sindhi as the national language [27] [28] [29] of Pakistan .
The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India , making it an option for education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian state of Rajasthan . [30]
There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN, Sindh TV , Awaz Television Network , Mehran TV, and Dharti TV .
Sindhi has many dialects, and forms a dialect continuum at some places with neighboring languages such as Saraiki and Gujarati . Some of the dialects are: [31] [32] [33] [34]
- Vicholi : The prestige dialect spoken around Hyderabad and central Sindh (the Vicholo region). The literary standard of Sindhi is based on this dialect.
- Uttaradi: spoken in Uttar region meaning "north" in Sindhi, with small differences in Larkana , Shikarpur and in parts of Sukkur and Kandiaro. [35]
- Lari : The dialect of southern Sindh ( Lāṛu ) spoken around areas like Karachi , Thatta , Sujawal and Badin .
- Siroli or Siraiki : The dialect of northern most Sindh ( Siro ) means "head" in Sindhi. [36] Spoken in all over Sindh but majority is in Jacobabad and Kashmore, it has little similarity with the Saraiki language of South Punjab [37] and has variously been treated either as a dialect of Saraiki or as a dialect of Sindhi. [38]
- Lasi : The dialect of Lasbela and Hub districts in Balochistan, closely related to Lari and Vicholi, and in contact with Balochi .
- Firaqi Sindhi: spoken in Kachhi plains the north eastern districts of Balochistan, where it is referred to as Firaqi Sindhi or commonly just Sindhi. [39]
- Kutchi: is a dialect of Sindhi, spoken in Kutch district of Gujarat, [40] over time, Kutchi has borrowed vocabulary from Gujarati.
- Dhatki/Dhatti/Thareli: A dialect of Sindhi spoken in Tharparkar, Umerkot in Pakistan [41] and Jaisalmer and Barmer in India. [42] [34]
- Jadgali: is a dialect of Sindhi most closely related to Lasi, Jadgali is spoken in Balochistan and Iran. [43]
- Sindhi Bhil: It is a dialect spoken in Sindh by meghwars and bheels , [44] Sindhi Bhil is known to have many old Sindhi words, which were lost after Arabic, Persian, and Chaghatai influence. [45] [46]
Sindhi has a relatively large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other Indo-Aryan languages. [47] Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 10 vowels . [48] [ clarification needed ] The consonant to vowel ratio is around average for the world's languages at 2.8. [49] All plosives , affricates , nasals , the retroflex flap , and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four implosives .
|Labial|| Dental / |
alveolar
|Retroflex|| (Alveolo-) |
Palatal
|Velar||Glottal|
|Nasal||plain||m م||n ن||ɳ ڻ||ɲ ڃ||ŋ ڱ|
|breathy||mʱ مھ||nʱ نھ||ɳʱ ڻھ|
| Stop / |
Affricate
|plain||p پ||b ب||t̪ ت||d̪ د||ʈ ٽ||ɖ ڊ||tɕ چ||dʑ ج||k ڪ||ɡ گ|
|breathy||pʰ ڦ||bʱ ڀ||tʰ ٿ||dʱ ڌ||ʈʰ ٺ||ɖʱ ڍ||tɕʰ ڇ||dʑʱ جھ||kʰ ک||ɡʱ گھ|
|Implosive||ɓ ٻ||ɗ ڏ||ʄ ڄ||ɠ ڳ|
|Fricative||f ف||s س||z ز||ʂ ش||x خ||ɣ غ||h ھ|
|Approximant||plain||ʋ و||l ل||j ي|
|breathy||lʱ لھ|
|Rhotic||plain||r ر||ɽ ڙ|
|breathy||ɽʱ ڙھ|
The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue, [51] so they could be transcribed [t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ n̠ n̠ʱ ɾ̠ ɾ̠ʱ] in phonetic transcription. The affricates /tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, dʑʱ/ are laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if /ɲ/ is similar, or truly palatal. [52] /ʋ/ is realized as labiovelar [w] or labiodental [ʋ] in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.
|Front||Central||Back|
|Close||i||u|
|Near-close||ɪ||ʊ|
|Close-mid||e||o|
|Mid||ə|
|Open-mid||æ||ɔ|
|Open||ɑ|
The vowels are modal length /i e æ ɑ ɔ o u/ and short /ɪ ʊ ə/ . Consonants following short vowels are lengthened: /pət̪o/ [pət̪ˑoː] 'leaf' vs. /pɑt̪o/ [pɑːt̪oː] 'worn'.
According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch , most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit . However, owing to the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani . Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced by Urdu , with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi, with more borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements. [53] [54]
Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology, while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari , Khudabadi , Khojki , and Gurmukhi . [55] Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier. [56]
The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century. [14] Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script. [57] [58] During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari. [59]
Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi , Khojki , and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write Sindhi.
| Khudabadi |
or Sindhi
|ISO 15924|
|ISO 15924||Sind (318) , Khudawadi, Sindhi|
|Unicode|
Unicode alias
|Khudawadi|
|U+112B0–U+112FF|
The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script for official purposes was legislated.
The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the trader community until the Partition of India in 1947. [60]
|ə||a||ɪ||i||ʊ||uː||e||ɛ||o||ɔ|
|k||kʰ||ɡ||ɠ||ɡʱ||ŋ|
|c||cʰ||ɟ||ʄ||ɟʱ||ɲ|
|ʈ||ʈʰ||ɖ||ɗ||ɽ||ṛ||ɳ|
|t||tʰ||d||dʱ||n|
|p||pʰ||f||b||ɓ||bʱ||m|
|j||r||l||ʋ|
|ʂ||s||h|
Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few secret Shia Muslim sects. [61] [62]
The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus. [60] [61]
During British rule in India, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and eighteen new letters ( ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ ڪ ) for sounds particular to Sindhi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in Sindhi.
|جهہ||ڄ||ج||پ||ث||ٺ||ٽ||ٿ||ت||ڀ||ٻ||ب||ا|
|ɟʱ||ʄ||ɟ||p||s||ʈʰ||ʈ||tʰ||t||bʱ||ɓ||b||ɑː ʔ ∅|
|ڙ||ر||ذ||ڍ||ڊ||ڏ||ڌ||د||خ||ح||ڇ||چ||ڃ|
|ɽ||r||z||ɖʱ||ɖ||ɗ||dʱ||d||x||h||cʰ||c||ɲ|
|ڪ||ق||ڦ||ف||غ||ع||ظ||ط||ض||ص||ش||س||ز|
|k||q||pʰ||f||ɣ||ɑː oː eː ʔ ∅||z||t||z||s||ʂ||s||z|
|ي||ء||ھ||و||ڻ||ن||م||ل||ڱ||گهہ||ڳ||گ||ک|
|j iː||ʔ ∅||h||ʋ ʊ oː ɔː uː||ɳ||n||m||l||ŋ||ɡʱ||ɠ||ɡ||kʰ|
In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi. [61] A modern version was introduced by the government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services Examination in either script. [63] Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are used to form other additional consonants.
|अ||आ||इ||ई||उ||ऊ||ए||ऐ||ओ||औ|
|ə||a||ɪ||i||ʊ||uː||e||ɛ||o||ɔ|
|क||ख||ख़||ग||ॻ||ग़||घ||ङ|
|k||kʰ||x||ɡ||ɠ||ɣ||ɡʱ||ŋ|
|च||छ||ज||ॼ||ज़||झ||ञ|
|c||cʰ||ɟ||ʄ||z||ɟʱ||ɲ|
|ट||ठ||ड||ॾ||ड़||ढ||ढ़||ण|
|ʈ||ʈʰ||ɖ||ɗ||ɽ||ɖʱ||ɽʱ||ɳ|
|त||थ||द||ध||न|
|t||tʰ||d||dʱ||n|
|प||फ||फ़||ब||ॿ||भ||म|
|p||pʰ||f||b||ɓ||bʱ||m|
|य||र||ल||व|
|j||r||l||ʋ|
|श||ष||स||ह|
|ʂ||ʂ||s||h|
In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.
- Sindhi language was made the official language of Sindh according to Language Bill .
- All Educational institutes in Sindh are mandated to teach Sindhi as per the bill.
By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri [ failed verification ] had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi speakers around the world. [66] In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi language. [67] [68] later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google translate . [69] [70]
In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode , However as of now the script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.
- ^ Ghazi, Zain (2023-01-18). "Google Translate Sindhi Offline" . Pakistani Journal . Retrieved 2023-03-23 .
- Nihalani, Paroo (1974). "Lingual Articulation of Stops in Sindhi". Phonetica . 30 (4): 197–212. doi : 10.1159/000259489 . ISSN 1423-0321 . PMID 4424983 . S2CID 3325314 .
- Addleton and Brown (2010). Sindhi: An Introductory Course for English Speakers . South Hadley: Doorlight Publications. Archived from the original on 2010-08-28 . Retrieved 2010-03-18 .
- Bughio, M. Qasim (January–June 2006). Maniscalco, Fabio Maniscalco (ed.). "The Diachronic Sociolinguistic Situation in Sindh" . Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony . 1 .
- Cole, Jennifer S (2001). "Sindhi". In Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl (eds.). Facts About the World's Languages . H W Wilson. pp. 647–653. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2 .
- International Phonetic Association . 1999. ISBN 0-521-63751-1 .
- Khubchandani, Lachman M (2003). "Sindhi" . In Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages . Routledge. pp. 622–658. ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5 .
- Shackle, Christopher (2007). "Pakistan". In Simpson, Andrew (ed.). Language and national identity in Asia . Oxford linguistics Y. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922648-1 .
- Trumpp, Ernest (1872). Grammar of the Sindhi Language . London: Trübner and Co. ISBN 81-206-0100-9 .
- Chopra, R. M (2013). "Persian in Sindh". The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House. OCLC 909254259 .
Sindhi edition of Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Sindhi phrasebook .
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sindhi language .
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Sindhi language . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language | 47 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Sindhi language - Wikipedia | Not to be confused with Hindi .
|Sindhi|
|Sin-dheē|
|سنڌي|
|Native to||Pakistan and India|
|Region||Sindh and neighbouring regions (e.g. Kutch and Balochistan )|
|Ethnicity||Sindhis|
Native speakers
|c. 32 million (2017) [1]|
Indo-European
|Perso-Arabic ( Naskh ) , Devanagari ( India ) and others|
|Official status|
Official language in
|Pakistan India [a] [b]|
|Regulated by|
|Language codes|
|ISO 639-1|
|ISO 639-2|
|ISO 639-3|
|Glottolog|
|Linguasphere|
The proportion of people with Sindhi as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census
Sindhi is not in the category of endangered according to the classification system of the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains Sindhi text , written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support , you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Sindhi script .
Sindhi ( English pronunciation: / ˈ s ɪ n d i / ; [4] Sindhi: سنڌي , Sindhi pronunciation: [sɪndʱiː] ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh , where it has official status. It is also spoken by a further 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language , without any state-level official status. The main writing system is the Perso-Arabic script, which accounts for the majority of the Sindhi literature and is the only one currently used in Pakistan. In India, both the Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari are used.
Sindhi has an attested history from the 10th century CE. Sindhi was one of the first Indo-Aryan languages to encounter influence from Persian and Arabic following the Umayyad conquest in 712 CE. A substantial body of Sindhi literature developed during the Medieval period, the most famous of which is the religious and mystic poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai from the 18th century. Modern Sindhi was promoted under British rule beginning in 1843, which led to the current status of the language in independent Pakistan after 1947.
The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskrit síndhu , the original name of the Indus River , along whose delta Sindhi is spoken. [5]
Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is descended from Old Indo-Aryan ( Sanskrit ) via Middle Indo-Aryan ( Pali , secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha ). 20th century Western scholars such as George Abraham Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa , corresponding to modern Sindh) but later work has shown this to be unlikely. [6]
Sindhi entered the New Indo-Aryan stage around the 10th century CE. [ citation needed ] However, literary attestation of Sindhi from this period is sparse; early Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati . Much of this work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional hymn). [7] [8]
Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to be in close contact with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 CE. According to Sindhi tradition, the first translation of the Quran into Sindhi was initiated in 883 CE in Mansura, Sindh . This is corroborated by the accounts of Al-Ramhormuzi but it is unclear whether the language of translation was actually a predecessor to Sindhi, nor is the text preserved. [9]
Medieval Sindhi religious literature comprises a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The earliest known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi ( c. 1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period. [7]
Another famous part of Medieval Sindhi literature is a wealth of folktales, adapted and readapted into verse by many bards at various times. These include romantic epics such as Sassui Punnhun , Sohni Mahiwal , Momal Rano , Noori Jam Tamachi , Lilan Chanesar , and others. [10] The greatest poet of Sindhi was Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752), whose verses were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. He weaved Sindhi folktales with Sufi mysticism.
The first attested Sindhi translation of the Quran was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867. [11]
Sindh was occupied by the British army and was annexed with the Bombay Presidency in 1843. Soon after, in 1848, Governor George Clerk established Sindhi as the official language in the province, removing the literary dominance of Persian . Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29, 1857, advising civil servants in Sindh to pass an examination in Sindhi. He also ordered the use of Sindhi in official documents. [12] In 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi with the Khudabadi script . The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. The granting of official status of Sindhi along with script reforms ushered in the development of modern Sindhi literature.
The first printed works in Sindhi were produced at the Muhammadi Press in Bombay beginning in 1867. These included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim Thattvi , one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh. [10]
The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan , commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s. [13]
The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu, while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi. [14]
In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 30.26 million people, or 14.6% of the country's population as of the 2017 census. 29.5 million of these are found in Sindh , where they account for 62% of the total population of the province. There are 0.56 million speakers in the province of Balochistan , [15] especially in the Kacchi Plain that encompasses the districts of Lasbela , Hub , Kachhi , Sibi , Sohbatpur , Jafarabad , Jhal Magsi , Usta Muhammad and Nasirabad .
In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:
|State||Population|
|Gujarat||1,184,024|
|Maharashtra||723,748|
|Rajashtan||386,569|
|Madhya Pradesh||245,161|
|Chattisgarh||93,424|
|Delhi (NCT)||31,177|
|Uttar Pradesh||28,952|
|Assam||19,646|
|Karnataka||16,954|
|Andhra Pradesh||11,299|
|Tamil Nadu||8,448|
|West Bengal||7,828|
|Uttarakhand||2,863|
|Odisha||2,338|
|Bihar||2,227|
|Jharkhand||1,701|
|Haryana||1,658|
|Kerala||1,251|
|Punjab||754|
|Goa||656|
|Dadra and Nagar||894|
|Meghalaya||236|
|Chandigarh||134|
|Puducherry||94|
|Nagaland||82|
|Himachal Pradesh||62|
|Tripura||30|
|Jammu and Kashmir||19|
|Andaman and Nicobar Islands||14|
|Arunachal Pradesh||12|
|Lakshadweep||7|
|Sikkim||2|
Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh [2] [3] and one of the scheduled languages of India, where it does not have any state-level status. [17]
Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh. [18] [19] [20] [21] The Pakistan Sindh Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh. [22] According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language. [23] Sindh Education and Literacy Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah , and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely taught. [24] Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that follow the Cambridge system. [25]
At the occasion of 'Mother Language Day ' in 2023, the Sindh Assembly under Culture minister Sardar Ali Shah , passed a unanimous resolution to extend the use of language to primary level [26] and increase the status of Sindhi as the national language [27] [28] [29] of Pakistan .
The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India , making it an option for education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian state of Rajasthan . [30]
There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN, Sindh TV , Awaz Television Network , Mehran TV, and Dharti TV .
Sindhi has many dialects, and forms a dialect continuum at some places with neighboring languages such as Saraiki and Gujarati . Some of the dialects are: [31] [32] [33] [34]
- Vicholi : The prestige dialect spoken around Hyderabad and central Sindh (the Vicholo region). The literary standard of Sindhi is based on this dialect.
- Uttaradi: spoken in Uttar region meaning "north" in Sindhi, with small differences in Larkana , Shikarpur and in parts of Sukkur and Kandiaro. [35]
- Lari : The dialect of southern Sindh ( Lāṛu ) spoken around areas like Karachi , Thatta , Sujawal and Badin .
- Siroli or Siraiki : The dialect of northern most Sindh ( Siro ) means "head" in Sindhi. [36] Spoken in all over Sindh but majority is in Jacobabad and Kashmore, it has little similarity with the Saraiki language of South Punjab [37] and has variously been treated either as a dialect of Saraiki or as a dialect of Sindhi. [38]
- Lasi : The dialect of Lasbela and Hub districts in Balochistan, closely related to Lari and Vicholi, and in contact with Balochi .
- Firaqi Sindhi: spoken in Kachhi plains the north eastern districts of Balochistan, where it is referred to as Firaqi Sindhi or commonly just Sindhi. [39]
- Kutchi: is a dialect of Sindhi, spoken in Kutch district of Gujarat, [40] over time, Kutchi has borrowed vocabulary from Gujarati.
- Dhatki/Dhatti/Thareli: A dialect of Sindhi spoken in Tharparkar, Umerkot in Pakistan [41] and Jaisalmer and Barmer in India. [42] [34]
- Jadgali: is a dialect of Sindhi most closely related to Lasi, Jadgali is spoken in Balochistan and Iran. [43]
- Sindhi Bhil: It is a dialect spoken in Sindh by meghwars and bheels , [44] Sindhi Bhil is known to have many old Sindhi words, which were lost after Arabic, Persian, and Chaghatai influence. [45] [46]
Sindhi has a relatively large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other Indo-Aryan languages. [47] Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 10 vowels . [48] [ clarification needed ] The consonant to vowel ratio is around average for the world's languages at 2.8. [49] All plosives , affricates , nasals , the retroflex flap , and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four implosives .
|Labial|| Dental / |
alveolar
|Retroflex|| (Alveolo-) |
Palatal
|Velar||Glottal|
|Nasal||plain||m م||n ن||ɳ ڻ||ɲ ڃ||ŋ ڱ|
|breathy||mʱ مھ||nʱ نھ||ɳʱ ڻھ|
| Stop / |
Affricate
|plain||p پ||b ب||t̪ ت||d̪ د||ʈ ٽ||ɖ ڊ||tɕ چ||dʑ ج||k ڪ||ɡ گ|
|breathy||pʰ ڦ||bʱ ڀ||tʰ ٿ||dʱ ڌ||ʈʰ ٺ||ɖʱ ڍ||tɕʰ ڇ||dʑʱ جھ||kʰ ک||ɡʱ گھ|
|Implosive||ɓ ٻ||ɗ ڏ||ʄ ڄ||ɠ ڳ|
|Fricative||f ف||s س||z ز||ʂ ش||x خ||ɣ غ||h ھ|
|Approximant||plain||ʋ و||l ل||j ي|
|breathy||lʱ لھ|
|Rhotic||plain||r ر||ɽ ڙ|
|breathy||ɽʱ ڙھ|
The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue, [51] so they could be transcribed [t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ n̠ n̠ʱ ɾ̠ ɾ̠ʱ] in phonetic transcription. The affricates /tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, dʑʱ/ are laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if /ɲ/ is similar, or truly palatal. [52] /ʋ/ is realized as labiovelar [w] or labiodental [ʋ] in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.
|Front||Central||Back|
|Close||i||u|
|Near-close||ɪ||ʊ|
|Close-mid||e||o|
|Mid||ə|
|Open-mid||æ||ɔ|
|Open||ɑ|
The vowels are modal length /i e æ ɑ ɔ o u/ and short /ɪ ʊ ə/ . Consonants following short vowels are lengthened: /pət̪o/ [pət̪ˑoː] 'leaf' vs. /pɑt̪o/ [pɑːt̪oː] 'worn'.
According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch , most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit . However, owing to the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani . Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced by Urdu , with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi, with more borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements. [53] [54]
Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology, while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari , Khudabadi , Khojki , and Gurmukhi . [55] Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier. [56]
The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century. [14] Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script. [57] [58] During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari. [59]
Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi , Khojki , and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write Sindhi.
| Khudabadi |
or Sindhi
|ISO 15924|
|ISO 15924||Sind (318) , Khudawadi, Sindhi|
|Unicode|
Unicode alias
|Khudawadi|
|U+112B0–U+112FF|
The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script for official purposes was legislated.
The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the trader community until the Partition of India in 1947. [60]
|ə||a||ɪ||i||ʊ||uː||e||ɛ||o||ɔ|
|k||kʰ||ɡ||ɠ||ɡʱ||ŋ|
|c||cʰ||ɟ||ʄ||ɟʱ||ɲ|
|ʈ||ʈʰ||ɖ||ɗ||ɽ||ṛ||ɳ|
|t||tʰ||d||dʱ||n|
|p||pʰ||f||b||ɓ||bʱ||m|
|j||r||l||ʋ|
|ʂ||s||h|
Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few secret Shia Muslim sects. [61] [62]
The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus. [60] [61]
During British rule in India, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and eighteen new letters ( ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ ڪ ) for sounds particular to Sindhi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in Sindhi.
|جهہ||ڄ||ج||پ||ث||ٺ||ٽ||ٿ||ت||ڀ||ٻ||ب||ا|
|ɟʱ||ʄ||ɟ||p||s||ʈʰ||ʈ||tʰ||t||bʱ||ɓ||b||ɑː ʔ ∅|
|ڙ||ر||ذ||ڍ||ڊ||ڏ||ڌ||د||خ||ح||ڇ||چ||ڃ|
|ɽ||r||z||ɖʱ||ɖ||ɗ||dʱ||d||x||h||cʰ||c||ɲ|
|ڪ||ق||ڦ||ف||غ||ع||ظ||ط||ض||ص||ش||س||ز|
|k||q||pʰ||f||ɣ||ɑː oː eː ʔ ∅||z||t||z||s||ʂ||s||z|
|ي||ء||ھ||و||ڻ||ن||م||ل||ڱ||گهہ||ڳ||گ||ک|
|j iː||ʔ ∅||h||ʋ ʊ oː ɔː uː||ɳ||n||m||l||ŋ||ɡʱ||ɠ||ɡ||kʰ|
In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi. [61] A modern version was introduced by the government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services Examination in either script. [63] Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are used to form other additional consonants.
|अ||आ||इ||ई||उ||ऊ||ए||ऐ||ओ||औ|
|ə||a||ɪ||i||ʊ||uː||e||ɛ||o||ɔ|
|क||ख||ख़||ग||ॻ||ग़||घ||ङ|
|k||kʰ||x||ɡ||ɠ||ɣ||ɡʱ||ŋ|
|च||छ||ज||ॼ||ज़||झ||ञ|
|c||cʰ||ɟ||ʄ||z||ɟʱ||ɲ|
|ट||ठ||ड||ॾ||ड़||ढ||ढ़||ण|
|ʈ||ʈʰ||ɖ||ɗ||ɽ||ɖʱ||ɽʱ||ɳ|
|त||थ||द||ध||न|
|t||tʰ||d||dʱ||n|
|प||फ||फ़||ब||ॿ||भ||म|
|p||pʰ||f||b||ɓ||bʱ||m|
|य||र||ल||व|
|j||r||l||ʋ|
|श||ष||स||ह|
|ʂ||ʂ||s||h|
In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.
- Sindhi language was made the official language of Sindh according to Language Bill .
- All Educational institutes in Sindh are mandated to teach Sindhi as per the bill.
By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri [ failed verification ] had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi speakers around the world. [66] In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi language. [67] [68] later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google translate . [69] [70]
In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode , However as of now the script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.
- ^ Ghazi, Zain (2023-01-18). "Google Translate Sindhi Offline" . Pakistani Journal . Retrieved 2023-03-23 .
- Nihalani, Paroo (1974). "Lingual Articulation of Stops in Sindhi". Phonetica . 30 (4): 197–212. doi : 10.1159/000259489 . ISSN 1423-0321 . PMID 4424983 . S2CID 3325314 .
- Addleton and Brown (2010). Sindhi: An Introductory Course for English Speakers . South Hadley: Doorlight Publications. Archived from the original on 2010-08-28 . Retrieved 2010-03-18 .
- Bughio, M. Qasim (January–June 2006). Maniscalco, Fabio Maniscalco (ed.). "The Diachronic Sociolinguistic Situation in Sindh" . Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony . 1 .
- Cole, Jennifer S (2001). "Sindhi". In Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl (eds.). Facts About the World's Languages . H W Wilson. pp. 647–653. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2 .
- International Phonetic Association . 1999. ISBN 0-521-63751-1 .
- Khubchandani, Lachman M (2003). "Sindhi" . In Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages . Routledge. pp. 622–658. ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5 .
- Shackle, Christopher (2007). "Pakistan". In Simpson, Andrew (ed.). Language and national identity in Asia . Oxford linguistics Y. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922648-1 .
- Trumpp, Ernest (1872). Grammar of the Sindhi Language . London: Trübner and Co. ISBN 81-206-0100-9 .
- Chopra, R. M (2013). "Persian in Sindh". The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House. OCLC 909254259 .
Sindhi edition of Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Sindhi phrasebook .
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sindhi language .
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Sindhi language . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language#:~:text=The%20Indian%20Government%20has%20legislated%20Sindhi%20as%20a,Pakistan%2C%20Sindhi%20was%20the%20national%20language%20of%20Sindh. | 47 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Sindhi language - Wikipedia | Not to be confused with Hindi .
|Sindhi|
|Sin-dheē|
|سنڌي|
|Native to||Pakistan and India|
|Region||Sindh and neighbouring regions (e.g. Kutch and Balochistan )|
|Ethnicity||Sindhis|
Native speakers
|c. 32 million (2017) [1]|
Indo-European
|Perso-Arabic ( Naskh ) , Devanagari ( India ) and others|
|Official status|
Official language in
|Pakistan India [a] [b]|
|Regulated by|
|Language codes|
|ISO 639-1|
|ISO 639-2|
|ISO 639-3|
|Glottolog|
|Linguasphere|
The proportion of people with Sindhi as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census
Sindhi is not in the category of endangered according to the classification system of the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains Sindhi text , written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support , you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Sindhi script .
Sindhi ( English pronunciation: / ˈ s ɪ n d i / ; [4] Sindhi: سنڌي , Sindhi pronunciation: [sɪndʱiː] ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh , where it has official status. It is also spoken by a further 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language , without any state-level official status. The main writing system is the Perso-Arabic script, which accounts for the majority of the Sindhi literature and is the only one currently used in Pakistan. In India, both the Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari are used.
Sindhi has an attested history from the 10th century CE. Sindhi was one of the first Indo-Aryan languages to encounter influence from Persian and Arabic following the Umayyad conquest in 712 CE. A substantial body of Sindhi literature developed during the Medieval period, the most famous of which is the religious and mystic poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai from the 18th century. Modern Sindhi was promoted under British rule beginning in 1843, which led to the current status of the language in independent Pakistan after 1947.
The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskrit síndhu , the original name of the Indus River , along whose delta Sindhi is spoken. [5]
Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is descended from Old Indo-Aryan ( Sanskrit ) via Middle Indo-Aryan ( Pali , secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha ). 20th century Western scholars such as George Abraham Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa , corresponding to modern Sindh) but later work has shown this to be unlikely. [6]
Sindhi entered the New Indo-Aryan stage around the 10th century CE. [ citation needed ] However, literary attestation of Sindhi from this period is sparse; early Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati . Much of this work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional hymn). [7] [8]
Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to be in close contact with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 CE. According to Sindhi tradition, the first translation of the Quran into Sindhi was initiated in 883 CE in Mansura, Sindh . This is corroborated by the accounts of Al-Ramhormuzi but it is unclear whether the language of translation was actually a predecessor to Sindhi, nor is the text preserved. [9]
Medieval Sindhi religious literature comprises a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The earliest known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi ( c. 1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period. [7]
Another famous part of Medieval Sindhi literature is a wealth of folktales, adapted and readapted into verse by many bards at various times. These include romantic epics such as Sassui Punnhun , Sohni Mahiwal , Momal Rano , Noori Jam Tamachi , Lilan Chanesar , and others. [10] The greatest poet of Sindhi was Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752), whose verses were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. He weaved Sindhi folktales with Sufi mysticism.
The first attested Sindhi translation of the Quran was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867. [11]
Sindh was occupied by the British army and was annexed with the Bombay Presidency in 1843. Soon after, in 1848, Governor George Clerk established Sindhi as the official language in the province, removing the literary dominance of Persian . Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29, 1857, advising civil servants in Sindh to pass an examination in Sindhi. He also ordered the use of Sindhi in official documents. [12] In 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi with the Khudabadi script . The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. The granting of official status of Sindhi along with script reforms ushered in the development of modern Sindhi literature.
The first printed works in Sindhi were produced at the Muhammadi Press in Bombay beginning in 1867. These included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim Thattvi , one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh. [10]
The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan , commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s. [13]
The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu, while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi. [14]
In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 30.26 million people, or 14.6% of the country's population as of the 2017 census. 29.5 million of these are found in Sindh , where they account for 62% of the total population of the province. There are 0.56 million speakers in the province of Balochistan , [15] especially in the Kacchi Plain that encompasses the districts of Lasbela , Hub , Kachhi , Sibi , Sohbatpur , Jafarabad , Jhal Magsi , Usta Muhammad and Nasirabad .
In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:
|State||Population|
|Gujarat||1,184,024|
|Maharashtra||723,748|
|Rajashtan||386,569|
|Madhya Pradesh||245,161|
|Chattisgarh||93,424|
|Delhi (NCT)||31,177|
|Uttar Pradesh||28,952|
|Assam||19,646|
|Karnataka||16,954|
|Andhra Pradesh||11,299|
|Tamil Nadu||8,448|
|West Bengal||7,828|
|Uttarakhand||2,863|
|Odisha||2,338|
|Bihar||2,227|
|Jharkhand||1,701|
|Haryana||1,658|
|Kerala||1,251|
|Punjab||754|
|Goa||656|
|Dadra and Nagar||894|
|Meghalaya||236|
|Chandigarh||134|
|Puducherry||94|
|Nagaland||82|
|Himachal Pradesh||62|
|Tripura||30|
|Jammu and Kashmir||19|
|Andaman and Nicobar Islands||14|
|Arunachal Pradesh||12|
|Lakshadweep||7|
|Sikkim||2|
Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh [2] [3] and one of the scheduled languages of India, where it does not have any state-level status. [17]
Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh. [18] [19] [20] [21] The Pakistan Sindh Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh. [22] According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language. [23] Sindh Education and Literacy Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah , and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely taught. [24] Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that follow the Cambridge system. [25]
At the occasion of 'Mother Language Day ' in 2023, the Sindh Assembly under Culture minister Sardar Ali Shah , passed a unanimous resolution to extend the use of language to primary level [26] and increase the status of Sindhi as the national language [27] [28] [29] of Pakistan .
The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India , making it an option for education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian state of Rajasthan . [30]
There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN, Sindh TV , Awaz Television Network , Mehran TV, and Dharti TV .
Sindhi has many dialects, and forms a dialect continuum at some places with neighboring languages such as Saraiki and Gujarati . Some of the dialects are: [31] [32] [33] [34]
- Vicholi : The prestige dialect spoken around Hyderabad and central Sindh (the Vicholo region). The literary standard of Sindhi is based on this dialect.
- Uttaradi: spoken in Uttar region meaning "north" in Sindhi, with small differences in Larkana , Shikarpur and in parts of Sukkur and Kandiaro. [35]
- Lari : The dialect of southern Sindh ( Lāṛu ) spoken around areas like Karachi , Thatta , Sujawal and Badin .
- Siroli or Siraiki : The dialect of northern most Sindh ( Siro ) means "head" in Sindhi. [36] Spoken in all over Sindh but majority is in Jacobabad and Kashmore, it has little similarity with the Saraiki language of South Punjab [37] and has variously been treated either as a dialect of Saraiki or as a dialect of Sindhi. [38]
- Lasi : The dialect of Lasbela and Hub districts in Balochistan, closely related to Lari and Vicholi, and in contact with Balochi .
- Firaqi Sindhi: spoken in Kachhi plains the north eastern districts of Balochistan, where it is referred to as Firaqi Sindhi or commonly just Sindhi. [39]
- Kutchi: is a dialect of Sindhi, spoken in Kutch district of Gujarat, [40] over time, Kutchi has borrowed vocabulary from Gujarati.
- Dhatki/Dhatti/Thareli: A dialect of Sindhi spoken in Tharparkar, Umerkot in Pakistan [41] and Jaisalmer and Barmer in India. [42] [34]
- Jadgali: is a dialect of Sindhi most closely related to Lasi, Jadgali is spoken in Balochistan and Iran. [43]
- Sindhi Bhil: It is a dialect spoken in Sindh by meghwars and bheels , [44] Sindhi Bhil is known to have many old Sindhi words, which were lost after Arabic, Persian, and Chaghatai influence. [45] [46]
Sindhi has a relatively large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other Indo-Aryan languages. [47] Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 10 vowels . [48] [ clarification needed ] The consonant to vowel ratio is around average for the world's languages at 2.8. [49] All plosives , affricates , nasals , the retroflex flap , and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four implosives .
|Labial|| Dental / |
alveolar
|Retroflex|| (Alveolo-) |
Palatal
|Velar||Glottal|
|Nasal||plain||m م||n ن||ɳ ڻ||ɲ ڃ||ŋ ڱ|
|breathy||mʱ مھ||nʱ نھ||ɳʱ ڻھ|
| Stop / |
Affricate
|plain||p پ||b ب||t̪ ت||d̪ د||ʈ ٽ||ɖ ڊ||tɕ چ||dʑ ج||k ڪ||ɡ گ|
|breathy||pʰ ڦ||bʱ ڀ||tʰ ٿ||dʱ ڌ||ʈʰ ٺ||ɖʱ ڍ||tɕʰ ڇ||dʑʱ جھ||kʰ ک||ɡʱ گھ|
|Implosive||ɓ ٻ||ɗ ڏ||ʄ ڄ||ɠ ڳ|
|Fricative||f ف||s س||z ز||ʂ ش||x خ||ɣ غ||h ھ|
|Approximant||plain||ʋ و||l ل||j ي|
|breathy||lʱ لھ|
|Rhotic||plain||r ر||ɽ ڙ|
|breathy||ɽʱ ڙھ|
The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue, [51] so they could be transcribed [t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ n̠ n̠ʱ ɾ̠ ɾ̠ʱ] in phonetic transcription. The affricates /tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, dʑʱ/ are laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if /ɲ/ is similar, or truly palatal. [52] /ʋ/ is realized as labiovelar [w] or labiodental [ʋ] in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.
|Front||Central||Back|
|Close||i||u|
|Near-close||ɪ||ʊ|
|Close-mid||e||o|
|Mid||ə|
|Open-mid||æ||ɔ|
|Open||ɑ|
The vowels are modal length /i e æ ɑ ɔ o u/ and short /ɪ ʊ ə/ . Consonants following short vowels are lengthened: /pət̪o/ [pət̪ˑoː] 'leaf' vs. /pɑt̪o/ [pɑːt̪oː] 'worn'.
According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch , most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit . However, owing to the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani . Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced by Urdu , with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi, with more borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements. [53] [54]
Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology, while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari , Khudabadi , Khojki , and Gurmukhi . [55] Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier. [56]
The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century. [14] Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script. [57] [58] During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari. [59]
Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi , Khojki , and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write Sindhi.
| Khudabadi |
or Sindhi
|ISO 15924|
|ISO 15924||Sind (318) , Khudawadi, Sindhi|
|Unicode|
Unicode alias
|Khudawadi|
|U+112B0–U+112FF|
The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script for official purposes was legislated.
The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the trader community until the Partition of India in 1947. [60]
|ə||a||ɪ||i||ʊ||uː||e||ɛ||o||ɔ|
|k||kʰ||ɡ||ɠ||ɡʱ||ŋ|
|c||cʰ||ɟ||ʄ||ɟʱ||ɲ|
|ʈ||ʈʰ||ɖ||ɗ||ɽ||ṛ||ɳ|
|t||tʰ||d||dʱ||n|
|p||pʰ||f||b||ɓ||bʱ||m|
|j||r||l||ʋ|
|ʂ||s||h|
Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few secret Shia Muslim sects. [61] [62]
The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus. [60] [61]
During British rule in India, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and eighteen new letters ( ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ ڪ ) for sounds particular to Sindhi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in Sindhi.
|جهہ||ڄ||ج||پ||ث||ٺ||ٽ||ٿ||ت||ڀ||ٻ||ب||ا|
|ɟʱ||ʄ||ɟ||p||s||ʈʰ||ʈ||tʰ||t||bʱ||ɓ||b||ɑː ʔ ∅|
|ڙ||ر||ذ||ڍ||ڊ||ڏ||ڌ||د||خ||ح||ڇ||چ||ڃ|
|ɽ||r||z||ɖʱ||ɖ||ɗ||dʱ||d||x||h||cʰ||c||ɲ|
|ڪ||ق||ڦ||ف||غ||ع||ظ||ط||ض||ص||ش||س||ز|
|k||q||pʰ||f||ɣ||ɑː oː eː ʔ ∅||z||t||z||s||ʂ||s||z|
|ي||ء||ھ||و||ڻ||ن||م||ل||ڱ||گهہ||ڳ||گ||ک|
|j iː||ʔ ∅||h||ʋ ʊ oː ɔː uː||ɳ||n||m||l||ŋ||ɡʱ||ɠ||ɡ||kʰ|
In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi. [61] A modern version was introduced by the government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services Examination in either script. [63] Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are used to form other additional consonants.
|अ||आ||इ||ई||उ||ऊ||ए||ऐ||ओ||औ|
|ə||a||ɪ||i||ʊ||uː||e||ɛ||o||ɔ|
|क||ख||ख़||ग||ॻ||ग़||घ||ङ|
|k||kʰ||x||ɡ||ɠ||ɣ||ɡʱ||ŋ|
|च||छ||ज||ॼ||ज़||झ||ञ|
|c||cʰ||ɟ||ʄ||z||ɟʱ||ɲ|
|ट||ठ||ड||ॾ||ड़||ढ||ढ़||ण|
|ʈ||ʈʰ||ɖ||ɗ||ɽ||ɖʱ||ɽʱ||ɳ|
|त||थ||द||ध||न|
|t||tʰ||d||dʱ||n|
|प||फ||फ़||ब||ॿ||भ||म|
|p||pʰ||f||b||ɓ||bʱ||m|
|य||र||ल||व|
|j||r||l||ʋ|
|श||ष||स||ह|
|ʂ||ʂ||s||h|
In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.
- Sindhi language was made the official language of Sindh according to Language Bill .
- All Educational institutes in Sindh are mandated to teach Sindhi as per the bill.
By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri [ failed verification ] had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi speakers around the world. [66] In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi language. [67] [68] later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google translate . [69] [70]
In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode , However as of now the script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.
- ^ Ghazi, Zain (2023-01-18). "Google Translate Sindhi Offline" . Pakistani Journal . Retrieved 2023-03-23 .
- Nihalani, Paroo (1974). "Lingual Articulation of Stops in Sindhi". Phonetica . 30 (4): 197–212. doi : 10.1159/000259489 . ISSN 1423-0321 . PMID 4424983 . S2CID 3325314 .
- Addleton and Brown (2010). Sindhi: An Introductory Course for English Speakers . South Hadley: Doorlight Publications. Archived from the original on 2010-08-28 . Retrieved 2010-03-18 .
- Bughio, M. Qasim (January–June 2006). Maniscalco, Fabio Maniscalco (ed.). "The Diachronic Sociolinguistic Situation in Sindh" . Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony . 1 .
- Cole, Jennifer S (2001). "Sindhi". In Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl (eds.). Facts About the World's Languages . H W Wilson. pp. 647–653. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2 .
- International Phonetic Association . 1999. ISBN 0-521-63751-1 .
- Khubchandani, Lachman M (2003). "Sindhi" . In Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages . Routledge. pp. 622–658. ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5 .
- Shackle, Christopher (2007). "Pakistan". In Simpson, Andrew (ed.). Language and national identity in Asia . Oxford linguistics Y. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922648-1 .
- Trumpp, Ernest (1872). Grammar of the Sindhi Language . London: Trübner and Co. ISBN 81-206-0100-9 .
- Chopra, R. M (2013). "Persian in Sindh". The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House. OCLC 909254259 .
Sindhi edition of Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Sindhi phrasebook .
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sindhi language .
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Sindhi language . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language#:~:text=The%20Indian%20Government%20has%20legislated%20Sindhi%20as%20a,Pakistan%2C%20Sindhi%20was%20the%20national%20language%20of%20Sindh. | 47 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Languages with official status in India | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
There is no national language (Rashtra Bhasa) in the Republic of India . [4] [5] [6] However, article 343(1) of the Indian constitution specifically mentions that "The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals ," [6] while clause 3 of the Official Languages Act, 1963 mentions the "Continuation of English Language for official purposes of the Union and for use in Parliament", so English and Hindi are the Official Languages (Raj Bhasa) of the Government of India ( Union Government ). [7]
Business in the Indian parliament may only be conducted in Hindi or in English. However, according to Article 120, members of parliament are allowed to speak and present their views in any of the 22 scheduled languages recognized by the Constitution of India. English is allowed to be used in official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings, judiciary, communications between the Central Government and a State Government. There are various official languages in India at the state/territory level. States within India have the liberty and powers to specify their own official language(s) through legislation. In addition to the official languages, the constitution recognizes 22 regional languages, which include Hindi but not English, as scheduled languages (see below).
States can specify their own official language(s) through legislation. The section of the Constitution of India dealing with official languages, therefore, includes detailed provisions which deal not just with the languages used for the official purposes of the union, but also with the languages that are to be used for the official purposes of each state and union territory in the country, and the languages that are to be used for communication between the union and the states.
The official languages of India before independence were English, Urdu and later Hindi , with English being used for purposes at the central level. [8] The origins of official Hindi usage traces back to 1900, when MacDonnell issued an order, which allowed the “permissive — but not exclusive — use” of Devanagari for Hindustani in the courts of North-Western Provinces . [9] The Indian constitution , adopted in 1950, envisaged that English would be phased out in favour of Hindi, over a fifteen-year period, but gave Parliament the power to, by law, provide for the continued use of English even thereafter. [10] Plans to make Hindi the sole official language of the Republic were met with resistance in many parts of the country, especially in Tamil Nadu . English and Hindi continue to be used today, in combination with other (at the central level and in some states) official languages.
The legal framework governing the use of languages for official purpose currently is the Official Languages Act, 1963 , the Official Language Rules, 1976, and various state laws, as well as rules and regulations made by the central government and the states.
The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India contains a list of 22 Scheduled Languages (Official Languages) of the Republic of India , Assamese , Bengali , Bodo , Dogri , Gujarati , Hindi , Kannada , Kashmiri , Konkani , Maithili , Malayalam , Marathi , Meitei (Manipuri), Nepali , Odia , Punjabi , Sanskrit , Santali , Sindhi , Tamil , Telugu and Urdu . The table below lists the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India as set out in the Eighth Schedule as of May 2008, together with the regions where they are widely spoken and used as the state's official language. However, states are not mandated to choose their official languages from the scheduled languages. Sindhi is not official in any states or union territories even though it is listed in the Eighth Schedule.
|Sr. No.||Language [b]||Family|| Speakers |
(in millions, 2011) [11]
|Official recognition in State(s)||ISO 639 code|
|1.||Assamese||Indo-Aryan, Eastern||15.3||as|
|2.||Bengali||Indo-Aryan, Eastern||97.2||bn|
|3.||Bodo||Tibeto-Burman||1.48||brx|
|4.||Dogri||Indo-Aryan, Northwestern||2.6||doi|
|5.||Gujarati||Indo-Aryan, Western||55.5||gu|
|6.||Hindi||Indo-Aryan, Central||528||hi|
|7.||Kannada||Dravidian||43.7||kn|
|8.||Kashmiri||Indo-Aryan, Dardic||6.8||ks|
|9.||Konkani||Indo-Aryan, Southern||2.25||gom|
|10.||Maithili||Indo-Aryan, Eastern||13.6||mai|
|11.||Malayalam||Dravidian||34.8||ml|
|12.||Manipuri||Tibeto-Burman||1.8||mni|
|13.||Marathi||Indo-Aryan, Southern||83||mr|
|14.||Nepali||Indo-Aryan, Northern||2.9||ne|
|15.||Odia||Indo-Aryan, Eastern||37.5||or|
|16.||Punjabi||Indo-Aryan, Northwestern||33.1||pa|
|17.||Sanskrit||Indo-Aryan||0.02||sa|
|18.||Santali||Austroasiatic||7.3||sat|
|19.||Sindhi||Indo-Aryan , Northwestern||2.7||sd|
|20.||Tamil||Dravidian||69||ta|
|21.||Telugu||Dravidian||81.1||te|
|22.||Urdu||Indo-Aryan, Central||50.7||ur|
The scheduled languages have the following benefits:
- Best Feature Film in any of the scheduled languages are eligible for the National Film Awards . [c]
- Literary works in any of the scheduled languages are eligible for the Sahitya Akademi Awards , the Sahitya Akademi Translation Prizes and the Sahitya Akademi Yuva Puraskar . [28]
- Literary works in any of the scheduled languages are eligible for the Gyanpeeth Awards ( Jnanpith Awards ). [29]
- People who contribute to the literature of any of the scheduled languages are eligible for the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship , which is more honourable than even receiving the Sahitya Akademi Award . [28]
- Prose or poetry literary works in any of the scheduled languages are eligible for the Saraswati Samman , the highest among all the literary awards in India. [28]
- Writers who contribute to the literature of any of the scheduled languages are eligible for the Bhasha Samman Awards. [28]
- Candidates for Union Public Service Commission can appear examination for optional papers in any of the literature of the scheduled languages. [30]
- 11 out of the 22 scheduled languages are made available in the official website of the Indian Prime Minister's Office , namely Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada , Malayalam , Meitei ( Manipuri ), Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil and Telugu in addition to English and Hindi . [31]
- 14 out of the 22 scheduled languages are made available in the Press Information Bureau (PIB) by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting of the Government of India (GOI), namely Dogri , Punjabi, Bengali, Oriya, Gujarati, Marathi , Meitei ( Manipuri ), Tamil , Kannada , Telugu , Malayalam , Konkani and Urdu , in addition to Hindi and English. [32] [33]
- 13 out of the 22 scheduled languages are selected by the Staff Selection Commission (SSC) of the Government of India , to be made available in the conduction of the Multi-Tasking (Non-Technical) Staff examination across the country, namely Urdu , Tamil, Malayalam , Telugu, Kannada , Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Konkani, Meitei ( Manipuri ), Marathi, Odia and Punjabi , in addition to Hindi and English. [34] [35]
The Indian constitution , in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, that is, on 26 January 1965. The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non-Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially Dravidian -speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all. As a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963 , [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.
In late 1964, an attempt was made to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with protests from states and territories such as Maharashtra , Tamil Nadu , Punjab , West Bengal , Karnataka , Puducherry , Nagaland , Mizoram and Andhra Pradesh . Some of these protests also turned violent. [44] As a result, the proposal was dropped, [45] [46] and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament. [47]
The position was thus that the Union government continues to use English in addition to Hindi for its official purposes [48] as a "subsidiary official language", [49] but is also required to prepare and execute a program to progressively increase its use of Hindi. [50] The exact extent to which, and the areas in which, the Union government uses Hindi and English, respectively, is determined by the provisions of the Constitution, the Official Languages Act, 1963, the Official Languages Rules, 1976, and statutory instruments made by the Department of Official Language under these laws.
Department of Official Language was set up in June 1975 as an independent Department of the Ministry of Home Affairs . [51]
The Indian constitution distinguishes the language to be used in Parliamentary proceedings , and the language in which laws are to be made. Parliamentary business, according to the Constitution, may be conducted in either Hindi or English. The use of English in parliamentary proceedings was to be phased out at the end of fifteen years unless Parliament chose to extend its use, which Parliament did through the Official Languages Act, 1963. [52] Also, the constitution permits a person who is unable to express themselves in either Hindi or English to, with the permission of the Speaker of the relevant House, address the House in their mother tongue . [53]
In contrast, the constitution requires the authoritative text of all laws, including Parliamentary enactments and statutory instruments , to be in English, until Parliament decides otherwise. Parliament has not exercised its power to so decide, instead merely requiring that all such laws and instruments, and all bills brought before it, also be translated into Hindi, though the English text remains authoritative. [54] The Official Languages act, 1963 provides that the authoritative text of central acts, rules, regulations, etc., are published in Hindi as well in the official gazette by President of India. [55]
The constitution provides, and the Supreme Court of India has reiterated, that all proceedings in the Supreme Court (the country's highest court ) and the High Courts shall be in English. [56] Parliament has the power to alter this by law but has not done so. However, in many high courts, there is, with consent from the president, allowance of the optional use of Hindi. Such proposals have been successful in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. [57]
The Official Language Act provides that the Union government shall use both Hindi and English in most administrative documents that are intended for the public, though the Union government is required by law to promote the use of Hindi. [38] [58] The Official Languages Rules, in contrast, provide for a higher degree of use of Hindi in communications between offices of the central government (other than offices in Tamil Nadu , to which the rules do not apply). [59] Communications between different departments within the central government may be in English and Hindi (though the English text remains authoritative), although a translation into the other language must be provided if required. [60] Communications within offices of the same department, however, must be in Hindi if the offices are in Hindi-speaking states, [61] and in either Hindi or English otherwise with Hindi being used in proportion to the percentage of staff in the receiving office who have a working knowledge of Hindi. [62] Notes and memos in files may be in English and Hindi (though the English text remains authoritative), with the Government having a duty to provide a translation into the other language if required. [63]
Besides, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to a government officer or authority has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in India.
Various steps have been taken by the Indian government to implement the use and familiarisation of Hindi extensively. Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha headquartered at Chennai was formed to spread Hindi in South Indian states . Regional Hindi implementation offices at Bengaluru , Thiruvananthapuram , Mumbai , Kolkata , Guwahati , Bhopal , Delhi and Ghaziabad have been established to monitor the implementation of Hindi in Central government offices and PSUs.
Annual targets are set by the Department of Official Language regarding the amount of correspondence being carried out in Hindi. A Parliament Committee on Official Language constituted in 1976 periodically reviews the progress in the use of Hindi and submits a report to the President. The governmental body which makes policy decisions and established guidelines for the promotion of Hindi is the Kendriya Hindi Samiti (est. 1967). In every city that has more than ten central Government offices, a Town Official Language Implementation Committee is established and cash awards are given to government employees who write books in Hindi. All Central government offices and PSUs are to establish Hindi Cells for implementation of Hindi in their offices. [64]
In 2016, the government announced plans to promote Hindi in government offices in Southern and Northeast India . [65] [66]
The Indian constitution does not specify the official languages to be used by the states for the conduct of their official functions and leaves each state free to, through its legislature, adopt Hindi or any language used in its territory as its official language or languages. [67] The language need not be one of those listed in the Eighth Schedule , and several states have adopted official languages which are not so listed. Examples include Kokborok in Tripura and Mizo in Mizoram .
The constitutional provisions in relation to use of the official language in legislation at the State level largely mirror those relating to the official language at the central level, with minor variations. State legislatures may conduct their business in their official language , Hindi or (for a transitional period, which the legislature can extend if it so chooses) English, and members who cannot use any of these have the same rights to their mother tongue with the Speaker's permission. The authoritative text of all laws must be in English unless Parliament passes a law permitting a state to use another language, and if the original text of a law is in a different language, an authoritative English translation of all laws must be prepared.
The state has the right to regulate the use of its official language in public administration , and in general, neither the constitution nor any central enactment imposes any restriction on this right. However, every person submitting a petition for the redress of a grievance to any officer or authority of the state government has a constitutional right to submit it in any language used in that state, regardless of its official status.
Besides, the constitution grants the central government, acting through the President , the power to issue certain directives to the government of a state in relation to the use of minority languages for official purposes. The President may direct a State to officially recognize a language spoken in its territory for specified purposes and in specified regions if its speakers demand it and satisfy him that a substantial proportion of the State's population desires its use. Similarly, States and local authorities are required to endeavor to provide primary education in the mother tongue for all linguistic minorities , regardless of whether their language is official in that State, and the President has the power to issue directions he deems necessary to ensure that they are provided these facilities.
States have significantly less freedom in relation to determining the language in which judicial proceedings in their respective High Courts will be conducted. The constitution gives the power to authorize the use of Hindi, or the state's official language in proceedings of the High Court to the Governor , rather than the state legislature and requires the Governor to obtain the consent of the President of India , who in these matters acts on the advice of the Government of India . The Official Languages Act gives the Governor a similar power, subject to similar conditions, in relation to the language in which the High Court's judgments will be delivered. [68]
Four states— Bihar , Uttar Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan — [69] have been granted the right to conduct proceedings in their High Courts in their official language, which, for all of them, was Hindi. However, the only non-Hindi state to seek a similar power— Tamil Nadu , which sought the right to conduct proceedings in Tamil in its High Court —had its application rejected by the central government earlier, which said it was advised to do so by the Supreme Court. [70] In 2006, the law ministry said that it would not object to Tamil Nadu state's desire to conduct Madras High Court proceedings in Tamil . [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] In 2010, the Chief Justice of the Madras High Court allowed lawyers to argue cases in Tamil. [76]
List of official languages of states of India
|No.||State||Official language(s)||Additional official language(s)|
|1.||Andhra Pradesh||Telugu , [77] Urdu [26]||English [ citation needed ]|
|2.||Arunachal Pradesh||English [78]|
|3.||Assam||Assamese , [79] Bodo||Bengali in three districts of Barak Valley , [80]|
|4.||Bihar||Hindi [81]||Urdu [81]|
|5.||Chhattisgarh||Hindi [82]||Chhattisgarhi [83] [84]|
|6.||Goa||Konkani , English [85]||Marathi [86] : 27 [87]|
|7.||Gujarat||Gujarati [88]||Hindi [88]|
|8.||Haryana||Hindi [89]||English , [86] Punjabi [90]|
|9.||Himachal Pradesh||Hindi [91]||Sanskrit [92]|
|10.||Jharkhand||Hindi [78]||Angika , Bengali , Bhojpuri , Bhumij , Ho , Kharia , Khortha , Kurmali , Kurukh , Magahi , Maithili , Mundari , Nagpuri , Odia , Santali , Urdu [25] [93]|
|11.||Karnataka||Kannada||English|
|12.||Kerala||Malayalam||English|
|13.||Madhya Pradesh||Hindi [94]|
|14.||Maharashtra||Marathi [95]|
|15.||Manipur||Manipuri [96]||English|
|16.||Meghalaya||English [97]||Khasi and Garo [98]|
|17.||Mizoram||Mizo , English [99]|
|18.||Nagaland||English|
|19.||Odisha||Odia [100]||English|
|20.||Punjab||Punjabi [86]|
|21.||Rajasthan||Hindi|
|22.||Sikkim||English , Nepali , Sikkimese , Lepcha [86] [101]||Gurung , Limbu , Magar , Mukhia , Newari , Rai , Sherpa and Tamang [86]|
|23.||Tamil Nadu||Tamil||English|
|24.||Telangana||Telugu||Urdu [102] [103]|
|25.||Tripura||Bengali , English , Kokborok [104] [105] [106]|
|26.||Uttar Pradesh||Hindi||Urdu [107]|
|27.||Uttarakhand||Hindi||Sanskrit|
|28.||West Bengal||Bengali , English [86] [108]|| Nepali in Darjeeling and Kurseong sub-divisions; [86] |
Urdu, Hindi, Odia , Santali , Punjabi , Kamtapuri , Rajbanshi , Kurmali , Kurukh and Telugu in blocks, divisions or districts with population greater than 10 percent [17] [18] [109] [110]
Official languages of Union Territories [86]
|No.||Union territory||Official language(s)||Additional official language(s)|
|1.||Andaman and Nicobar Islands||Hindi, [111] English|
|2.||Chandigarh||English [112]|
|3.||Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu||Hindi, [113] [114] English||Gujarati|
|4.||Delhi||Hindi, English [78]||Urdu , Punjabi [115]|
|5.||Lakshadweep||English , Hindi [116] [117]|
|6.||Jammu and Kashmir||Kashmiri , Dogri , Hindi , Urdu , English [118]|
|7.||Ladakh||Hindi , English|
|8.||Puducherry||Tamil , English, French [119]||Telugu in Yanam , Malayalam in Mahe [d] [120] [121]|
The language in which communications between different states, or from the union government to a state or a person in a state, shall be sent is regulated by the Official Languages Act and, for states other than Tamil Nadu , by the Official Languages Rules. Communication between states which use Hindi as their official language is required to be in Hindi, whereas communication between a state whose official language is Hindi and one whose is not, is required to be in English, or, in Hindi with an accompanying English translation (unless the receiving state agrees to dispense with the translation). [48]
Communication between the union and states which use Hindi as their official language (classified by the Official Language Rules as "the states in Region A"), and with persons who live in those states, is generally in Hindi, except in certain cases. [122] Communication with a second category of states "Region B", which do not use Hindi as their official language but have elected to communicate with the union in Hindi (currently Gujarat , Maharashtra , and Punjab ) [123] is usually in Hindi, whilst communications sent to an individual in those states may be in Hindi and English. [124] Communication with all other states "Region C", and with people living in them, is in English. [125] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India | 47 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Sindhi language - Wikipedia | Not to be confused with Hindi .
|Sindhi|
|Sin-dheē|
|سنڌي|
|Native to||Pakistan and India|
|Region||Sindh and neighbouring regions (e.g. Kutch and Balochistan )|
|Ethnicity||Sindhis|
Native speakers
|c. 32 million (2017) [1]|
Indo-European
|Perso-Arabic ( Naskh ) , Devanagari ( India ) and others|
|Official status|
Official language in
|Pakistan India [a] [b]|
|Regulated by|
|Language codes|
|ISO 639-1|
|ISO 639-2|
|ISO 639-3|
|Glottolog|
|Linguasphere|
The proportion of people with Sindhi as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census
Sindhi is not in the category of endangered according to the classification system of the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains Sindhi text , written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support , you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Sindhi script .
Sindhi ( English pronunciation: / ˈ s ɪ n d i / ; [4] Sindhi: سنڌي , Sindhi pronunciation: [sɪndʱiː] ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh , where it has official status. It is also spoken by a further 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language , without any state-level official status. The main writing system is the Perso-Arabic script, which accounts for the majority of the Sindhi literature and is the only one currently used in Pakistan. In India, both the Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari are used.
Sindhi has an attested history from the 10th century CE. Sindhi was one of the first Indo-Aryan languages to encounter influence from Persian and Arabic following the Umayyad conquest in 712 CE. A substantial body of Sindhi literature developed during the Medieval period, the most famous of which is the religious and mystic poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai from the 18th century. Modern Sindhi was promoted under British rule beginning in 1843, which led to the current status of the language in independent Pakistan after 1947.
The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskrit síndhu , the original name of the Indus River , along whose delta Sindhi is spoken. [5]
Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is descended from Old Indo-Aryan ( Sanskrit ) via Middle Indo-Aryan ( Pali , secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha ). 20th century Western scholars such as George Abraham Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa , corresponding to modern Sindh) but later work has shown this to be unlikely. [6]
Sindhi entered the New Indo-Aryan stage around the 10th century CE. [ citation needed ] However, literary attestation of Sindhi from this period is sparse; early Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati . Much of this work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional hymn). [7] [8]
Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to be in close contact with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 CE. According to Sindhi tradition, the first translation of the Quran into Sindhi was initiated in 883 CE in Mansura, Sindh . This is corroborated by the accounts of Al-Ramhormuzi but it is unclear whether the language of translation was actually a predecessor to Sindhi, nor is the text preserved. [9]
Medieval Sindhi religious literature comprises a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The earliest known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi ( c. 1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period. [7]
Another famous part of Medieval Sindhi literature is a wealth of folktales, adapted and readapted into verse by many bards at various times. These include romantic epics such as Sassui Punnhun , Sohni Mahiwal , Momal Rano , Noori Jam Tamachi , Lilan Chanesar , and others. [10] The greatest poet of Sindhi was Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752), whose verses were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. He weaved Sindhi folktales with Sufi mysticism.
The first attested Sindhi translation of the Quran was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867. [11]
Sindh was occupied by the British army and was annexed with the Bombay Presidency in 1843. Soon after, in 1848, Governor George Clerk established Sindhi as the official language in the province, removing the literary dominance of Persian . Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29, 1857, advising civil servants in Sindh to pass an examination in Sindhi. He also ordered the use of Sindhi in official documents. [12] In 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi with the Khudabadi script . The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. The granting of official status of Sindhi along with script reforms ushered in the development of modern Sindhi literature.
The first printed works in Sindhi were produced at the Muhammadi Press in Bombay beginning in 1867. These included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim Thattvi , one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh. [10]
The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan , commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s. [13]
The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu, while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi. [14]
In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 30.26 million people, or 14.6% of the country's population as of the 2017 census. 29.5 million of these are found in Sindh , where they account for 62% of the total population of the province. There are 0.56 million speakers in the province of Balochistan , [15] especially in the Kacchi Plain that encompasses the districts of Lasbela , Hub , Kachhi , Sibi , Sohbatpur , Jafarabad , Jhal Magsi , Usta Muhammad and Nasirabad .
In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:
|State||Population|
|Gujarat||1,184,024|
|Maharashtra||723,748|
|Rajashtan||386,569|
|Madhya Pradesh||245,161|
|Chattisgarh||93,424|
|Delhi (NCT)||31,177|
|Uttar Pradesh||28,952|
|Assam||19,646|
|Karnataka||16,954|
|Andhra Pradesh||11,299|
|Tamil Nadu||8,448|
|West Bengal||7,828|
|Uttarakhand||2,863|
|Odisha||2,338|
|Bihar||2,227|
|Jharkhand||1,701|
|Haryana||1,658|
|Kerala||1,251|
|Punjab||754|
|Goa||656|
|Dadra and Nagar||894|
|Meghalaya||236|
|Chandigarh||134|
|Puducherry||94|
|Nagaland||82|
|Himachal Pradesh||62|
|Tripura||30|
|Jammu and Kashmir||19|
|Andaman and Nicobar Islands||14|
|Arunachal Pradesh||12|
|Lakshadweep||7|
|Sikkim||2|
Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh [2] [3] and one of the scheduled languages of India, where it does not have any state-level status. [17]
Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh. [18] [19] [20] [21] The Pakistan Sindh Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh. [22] According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language. [23] Sindh Education and Literacy Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah , and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely taught. [24] Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that follow the Cambridge system. [25]
At the occasion of 'Mother Language Day ' in 2023, the Sindh Assembly under Culture minister Sardar Ali Shah , passed a unanimous resolution to extend the use of language to primary level [26] and increase the status of Sindhi as the national language [27] [28] [29] of Pakistan .
The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India , making it an option for education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian state of Rajasthan . [30]
There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN, Sindh TV , Awaz Television Network , Mehran TV, and Dharti TV .
Sindhi has many dialects, and forms a dialect continuum at some places with neighboring languages such as Saraiki and Gujarati . Some of the dialects are: [31] [32] [33] [34]
- Vicholi : The prestige dialect spoken around Hyderabad and central Sindh (the Vicholo region). The literary standard of Sindhi is based on this dialect.
- Uttaradi: spoken in Uttar region meaning "north" in Sindhi, with small differences in Larkana , Shikarpur and in parts of Sukkur and Kandiaro. [35]
- Lari : The dialect of southern Sindh ( Lāṛu ) spoken around areas like Karachi , Thatta , Sujawal and Badin .
- Siroli or Siraiki : The dialect of northern most Sindh ( Siro ) means "head" in Sindhi. [36] Spoken in all over Sindh but majority is in Jacobabad and Kashmore, it has little similarity with the Saraiki language of South Punjab [37] and has variously been treated either as a dialect of Saraiki or as a dialect of Sindhi. [38]
- Lasi : The dialect of Lasbela and Hub districts in Balochistan, closely related to Lari and Vicholi, and in contact with Balochi .
- Firaqi Sindhi: spoken in Kachhi plains the north eastern districts of Balochistan, where it is referred to as Firaqi Sindhi or commonly just Sindhi. [39]
- Kutchi: is a dialect of Sindhi, spoken in Kutch district of Gujarat, [40] over time, Kutchi has borrowed vocabulary from Gujarati.
- Dhatki/Dhatti/Thareli: A dialect of Sindhi spoken in Tharparkar, Umerkot in Pakistan [41] and Jaisalmer and Barmer in India. [42] [34]
- Jadgali: is a dialect of Sindhi most closely related to Lasi, Jadgali is spoken in Balochistan and Iran. [43]
- Sindhi Bhil: It is a dialect spoken in Sindh by meghwars and bheels , [44] Sindhi Bhil is known to have many old Sindhi words, which were lost after Arabic, Persian, and Chaghatai influence. [45] [46]
Sindhi has a relatively large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other Indo-Aryan languages. [47] Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 10 vowels . [48] [ clarification needed ] The consonant to vowel ratio is around average for the world's languages at 2.8. [49] All plosives , affricates , nasals , the retroflex flap , and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four implosives .
|Labial|| Dental / |
alveolar
|Retroflex|| (Alveolo-) |
Palatal
|Velar||Glottal|
|Nasal||plain||m م||n ن||ɳ ڻ||ɲ ڃ||ŋ ڱ|
|breathy||mʱ مھ||nʱ نھ||ɳʱ ڻھ|
| Stop / |
Affricate
|plain||p پ||b ب||t̪ ت||d̪ د||ʈ ٽ||ɖ ڊ||tɕ چ||dʑ ج||k ڪ||ɡ گ|
|breathy||pʰ ڦ||bʱ ڀ||tʰ ٿ||dʱ ڌ||ʈʰ ٺ||ɖʱ ڍ||tɕʰ ڇ||dʑʱ جھ||kʰ ک||ɡʱ گھ|
|Implosive||ɓ ٻ||ɗ ڏ||ʄ ڄ||ɠ ڳ|
|Fricative||f ف||s س||z ز||ʂ ش||x خ||ɣ غ||h ھ|
|Approximant||plain||ʋ و||l ل||j ي|
|breathy||lʱ لھ|
|Rhotic||plain||r ر||ɽ ڙ|
|breathy||ɽʱ ڙھ|
The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue, [51] so they could be transcribed [t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ n̠ n̠ʱ ɾ̠ ɾ̠ʱ] in phonetic transcription. The affricates /tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, dʑʱ/ are laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if /ɲ/ is similar, or truly palatal. [52] /ʋ/ is realized as labiovelar [w] or labiodental [ʋ] in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.
|Front||Central||Back|
|Close||i||u|
|Near-close||ɪ||ʊ|
|Close-mid||e||o|
|Mid||ə|
|Open-mid||æ||ɔ|
|Open||ɑ|
The vowels are modal length /i e æ ɑ ɔ o u/ and short /ɪ ʊ ə/ . Consonants following short vowels are lengthened: /pət̪o/ [pət̪ˑoː] 'leaf' vs. /pɑt̪o/ [pɑːt̪oː] 'worn'.
According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch , most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit . However, owing to the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani . Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced by Urdu , with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi, with more borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements. [53] [54]
Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology, while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari , Khudabadi , Khojki , and Gurmukhi . [55] Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier. [56]
The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century. [14] Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script. [57] [58] During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari. [59]
Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi , Khojki , and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write Sindhi.
| Khudabadi |
or Sindhi
|ISO 15924|
|ISO 15924||Sind (318) , Khudawadi, Sindhi|
|Unicode|
Unicode alias
|Khudawadi|
|U+112B0–U+112FF|
The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script for official purposes was legislated.
The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the trader community until the Partition of India in 1947. [60]
|ə||a||ɪ||i||ʊ||uː||e||ɛ||o||ɔ|
|k||kʰ||ɡ||ɠ||ɡʱ||ŋ|
|c||cʰ||ɟ||ʄ||ɟʱ||ɲ|
|ʈ||ʈʰ||ɖ||ɗ||ɽ||ṛ||ɳ|
|t||tʰ||d||dʱ||n|
|p||pʰ||f||b||ɓ||bʱ||m|
|j||r||l||ʋ|
|ʂ||s||h|
Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few secret Shia Muslim sects. [61] [62]
The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus. [60] [61]
During British rule in India, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and eighteen new letters ( ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ ڪ ) for sounds particular to Sindhi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in Sindhi.
|جهہ||ڄ||ج||پ||ث||ٺ||ٽ||ٿ||ت||ڀ||ٻ||ب||ا|
|ɟʱ||ʄ||ɟ||p||s||ʈʰ||ʈ||tʰ||t||bʱ||ɓ||b||ɑː ʔ ∅|
|ڙ||ر||ذ||ڍ||ڊ||ڏ||ڌ||د||خ||ح||ڇ||چ||ڃ|
|ɽ||r||z||ɖʱ||ɖ||ɗ||dʱ||d||x||h||cʰ||c||ɲ|
|ڪ||ق||ڦ||ف||غ||ع||ظ||ط||ض||ص||ش||س||ز|
|k||q||pʰ||f||ɣ||ɑː oː eː ʔ ∅||z||t||z||s||ʂ||s||z|
|ي||ء||ھ||و||ڻ||ن||م||ل||ڱ||گهہ||ڳ||گ||ک|
|j iː||ʔ ∅||h||ʋ ʊ oː ɔː uː||ɳ||n||m||l||ŋ||ɡʱ||ɠ||ɡ||kʰ|
In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi. [61] A modern version was introduced by the government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services Examination in either script. [63] Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are used to form other additional consonants.
|अ||आ||इ||ई||उ||ऊ||ए||ऐ||ओ||औ|
|ə||a||ɪ||i||ʊ||uː||e||ɛ||o||ɔ|
|क||ख||ख़||ग||ॻ||ग़||घ||ङ|
|k||kʰ||x||ɡ||ɠ||ɣ||ɡʱ||ŋ|
|च||छ||ज||ॼ||ज़||झ||ञ|
|c||cʰ||ɟ||ʄ||z||ɟʱ||ɲ|
|ट||ठ||ड||ॾ||ड़||ढ||ढ़||ण|
|ʈ||ʈʰ||ɖ||ɗ||ɽ||ɖʱ||ɽʱ||ɳ|
|त||थ||द||ध||न|
|t||tʰ||d||dʱ||n|
|प||फ||फ़||ब||ॿ||भ||म|
|p||pʰ||f||b||ɓ||bʱ||m|
|य||र||ल||व|
|j||r||l||ʋ|
|श||ष||स||ह|
|ʂ||ʂ||s||h|
In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.
- Sindhi language was made the official language of Sindh according to Language Bill .
- All Educational institutes in Sindh are mandated to teach Sindhi as per the bill.
By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri [ failed verification ] had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi speakers around the world. [66] In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi language. [67] [68] later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google translate . [69] [70]
In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode , However as of now the script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.
- ^ Ghazi, Zain (2023-01-18). "Google Translate Sindhi Offline" . Pakistani Journal . Retrieved 2023-03-23 .
- Nihalani, Paroo (1974). "Lingual Articulation of Stops in Sindhi". Phonetica . 30 (4): 197–212. doi : 10.1159/000259489 . ISSN 1423-0321 . PMID 4424983 . S2CID 3325314 .
- Addleton and Brown (2010). Sindhi: An Introductory Course for English Speakers . South Hadley: Doorlight Publications. Archived from the original on 2010-08-28 . Retrieved 2010-03-18 .
- Bughio, M. Qasim (January–June 2006). Maniscalco, Fabio Maniscalco (ed.). "The Diachronic Sociolinguistic Situation in Sindh" . Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony . 1 .
- Cole, Jennifer S (2001). "Sindhi". In Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl (eds.). Facts About the World's Languages . H W Wilson. pp. 647–653. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2 .
- International Phonetic Association . 1999. ISBN 0-521-63751-1 .
- Khubchandani, Lachman M (2003). "Sindhi" . In Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages . Routledge. pp. 622–658. ISBN 978-0-415-77294-5 .
- Shackle, Christopher (2007). "Pakistan". In Simpson, Andrew (ed.). Language and national identity in Asia . Oxford linguistics Y. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922648-1 .
- Trumpp, Ernest (1872). Grammar of the Sindhi Language . London: Trübner and Co. ISBN 81-206-0100-9 .
- Chopra, R. M (2013). "Persian in Sindh". The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House. OCLC 909254259 .
Sindhi edition of Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Sindhi phrasebook .
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sindhi language .
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Sindhi language . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language | 47 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Sindhi language | Sindhi language , Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 23 million people in Pakistan , mostly living in the southeastern province of Sindh , where it has official status, and in the adjacent Las Bela district of Balochistan . In India , where Sindhi is one of the languages recognized by the constitution, there are some 2.5 million speakers, including both speakers of the Kachchhi dialect living in Kachchh, on the Pakistan frontier, and communities descended from Sindhi-speaking immigrants who had left Pakistan in 1947–48 and who are mostly settled in Gujarat and Maharashtra states. There are also smaller overseas groups in North America , the United Kingdom , the Middle East , and Southeast Asia .
As a result of the historically isolated situation of Sindh in the lower Indus valley, Sindhi is distinguished within Indo-Aryan by many linguistic features of its own. Its closest relative is Siraiki , with which it shares the four distinctive implosive consonants /b/, /d/, /g/, and /j/, which are pronounced with indrawn breath and contrast phonemically with the usual /b/, /d/, /g/, and /j/. Sindhi also preserves the old short final vowels lost in most other Indo-Aryan languages—e.g., gharu ‘house,’ ghara ‘houses,’ versus Siraiki (and Urdu ) ghar ‘house, houses.’ Sindhi is further distinguished by numerous items of vocabulary and by many complexities in its grammatical system, such as a large number of irregular past participles—e.g., ditho ‘saw’ from disanu ‘to see,’ muo ‘died’ from maranu ‘to die’—and the use of suffixed pronouns, as in atha-mi ‘is mine,’ atha-si ‘is his.’
Various indigenous scripts were formerly used by Hindu business communities to write Sindhi, but those are all now obsolete. The Muslim majority always favoured the use of the Arabic script with some necessary adaptations to record Sindhi sounds. Finally standardized in 1853 by the British colonial authorities, that Sindhi-Arabic script has since been in general use. Distinctively written in the printed naskhī form as opposed to the cursive nastaʿlīq used for Urdu , the Sindhi script has 52 letters (as against 35 in the Urdu script). They include not only letters with special combinations of dots to write the implosive consonants and the distinctive set of nasal sounds but also numerous other dotted letters to write most of the aspirated consonants, such as bh , dh , th , and so on, that appear in Urdu as combinations of the simple consonants with - h .
The distinctive appearance of the Sindhi-Arabic script is a matter of great cultural pride to most Sindhi speakers, whose cultural solidarity is reinforced by the universal appeal of the great symbolic figure of classical Sindhi literature , the Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif of Bhit (1690–1752). Although attempts were made in India to encourage the writing of Sindhi in the national Devanagari script used for Hindi , the Sindhi-Arabic script continues to be generally current in both India and Pakistan.
The cultural homogeneity of Sindh that embraced both Hindu and Muslim speakers of Sindhi in the colonial period was severely disrupted by the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947. Most Hindu Sindhi speakers migrated to India, where they form a minority scattered among speakers of other languages. Their leading position in the urban society of Sindh in Pakistan was assumed by the immigrants known as muhajir s, the Urdu-speaking Muslims who came from the towns of North India to settle in large numbers in Karachi and other cities. The subsequent history of Sindh has been marked by a continuing tension between the indigenous Sindhi speakers, who have often felt marginalized , and the numerically superior muhajir s, whose overwhelming urban presence has allowed them to maintain a separate linguistic identity. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sindhi-language | 47 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Sindhi Language - Structure, Writing & Alphabet - MustGo | Bhali Kare Aaya Welcome
Sindhi belongs to Northwestern group of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family . There are different estimates of the number of speakers of Sindhi. Ethnologue estimate, based on 2001 census, puts the number of speakers at 21.3 million, whereas Wikipedia puts the number at some 42 million. Of these 35 million live in the Sindh province of Pakistan, and 5 million in the states of Gujarat, Rajastan, and Maharashtra in India. The rest represent a diaspora in United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Canada, with smaller numbers in other countries.
The earliest written reference to Sindhi dates back to the 2nd century AD. The language is thought to have evolved from an ancient Prakrit brought to Sindh by early settlers from Northeast and Northwest India. Sindh was conquered by Dravidian -speaking invaders around 4,000 BC. As a result, Sindhi shows many signs of Dravidian influence. Around 1500 BC, Sindh was conquered by Indo-Aryan invaders who established the Vedic civilization that laid the foundation of Hinduism and the Indian culture of today.
The earliest ever translation of the Qur’an was into Sindhi in the 12th century. In the 14-18th centuries Sindhi was one of the most popular literary languages in the eastern world due to its rich vocabulary.
Sindhi is an official language of two countries.
- Pakistan
Sindhi is an official regional language of Pakistan, along with English and Urdu . It is used in all spheres of official and everyday communication by members of different religious sects.
- India
Sindi is an official language of India, along with English and 22 other languages. It is spoken, often as a second or third language. It is used as a medium of instruction or taught as a subject in schools, especially in the state of Maharashtra .
The phonological system of Sindhi is similar to that of other Indo-Aryan languages , for instance, Sindhi has a large inventory of phonemes, i.e., sounds that make a difference in word meaning. Most Sindhi syllables end in a vowel or semi-vowel. Very few syllables end in a consonant, and consonant clusters are infrequent.
Sindhi has a large inventory of vowels. All vowels have short and long counterparts. Length is represented by a macron in the table below. In addition, all vowels have nasalized counterparts. Nasalization is represented by a tilde in the table below.
|High|
i – ī – ĩ
u – ū – ũ
|Mid|
e – ē – ẽ
o – ō – õ
|Low|
a – ā – ã
ẽ
Sindhi has a full series of consonants, more than most other Indo-Aryan languages. Consonants in parentheses are infrequent and mostly occur in loanwords.
- There is a contrast between aspirated vs. unaspirated stops , affricates ,and nasals , for instance between p—pʰ, t—tʰ, k—kʰ, b—bʰ, d—dʰ, g—gʰ, tʃ – tʃʰ, /m/—/mʰ/,/ /n/—/nʰ/, /ɳ/—/ɳʰ/. Aspirated consonants are produced with a strong puff of air.
- There is a contrast between and apical vs. retroflex consonants, e.g., /t/ – /ʈ/, /d/ – /ɖ/, /n/ – /ɳ/, /r/ – /ɽ/. Apical consonants are produced with the tip of the tongue touching the roof of the mouth, whereas retroflex consonants are produced with the tongue curled, so that its underside comes in contact with the roof of the mouth.
- Sindhi has an unusually large number of implosive consonants /ɓ, ɗ, ʄ, ɠ/ produced by pulling air downward with the glottis , rather than pushing it out. These sounds do not occur in other Indo-Aryan languages.
|Stops||unaspirated voiceless|
t
ʈ
|aspirated voiceless|
pʰ
tʰ
ʈʰ
kʰ
|unaspirated voiced|
ɖ
|aspirated voiced|
bʰ
dʰ
ɖʰ
gʰ
|implosive voiced|
ɓ
ɗ
ʄ
ɠ
|Fricatives||voiceless|
(ʃ)
(x)
|voiced|
(z)
(ɣ)
|Affricates||unaspirated voiceless|
tʃ
|aspirated voiceless|
tʃʰ
|Nasals|
m (mʰ)
n (nʰ)
ɳ (ɳʰ)
ɲ
(ŋ)
|Laterals|
………..
l (lʰ)
|Flap or trill|
ɽ (ɽʰ)
|Approximant|
ʋ
- /ʃ/ = sh in shop
- /tʃ/ = ch in chop
- /x/, /ɣ/ have no equivalents in English
- /ɲ/ = first n in canyon
- /ŋ/ = ng in song
- /mʰ/, /nʰ/, /ɳʰ/ have no equivalents in English
- /ʋ/ is realized as /w/ or /v/.
- /j/ = y in yet
Stress does not distinguish the meaning of otherwise identical Sindhi words. It typically falls on the heaviest syllable of the word. Consonant + vowel (CV) syllables are heavier than syllables consisting of a single vowel (V) and Consonant + Vowel + Vowel + Vowel (CVV) syllables are heavier than Consonant + vowel (CV) syllables.
Sindhi has retained many features of ancient Prakrit and shares major grammatical features with other Indo-Aryan languages, such as the use of postpositions which follow the noun, rather than prepositions that precede it.
Sindhi nouns feature a complex system of noun stem modifications as well as post-positions.
- Gender (masculine and feminine) determines the noun’s declension.
- There are two numbers: singular and plural.
- There are eight cases: nominative , accusative , dative , genitive , ablative , locative , instrumental , and vocative . Cases are marked by changes in the noun stem and by postpositions.
- Adjectives are declined exactly like nouns and agree with them in gender, number and case.
- Pronouns are inflected for number and case.
Sindhi verbs consist of three basic components (adverbial participle, basic verb and auxiliary verb) which appear in various combinations, depending on tense, aspect and mood. Verbs agree with their subjects in person, gender, and number. Pronoun subjects are often omitted if the context is clear. Verbs display the following categories:
- three tenses : present, past and future;
- two voice s: active and passive;
- four mood s: indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and counterfactual
The normal word in Sindhi is Subject-Object-Verb. However, these components can be rearranged to mark emphasis or focus. Adjectives and relative clauses precede the nouns they modify. Indirect objects precede direct objects. Negative/interrogative elements precede the verb. Adverbs typically follow the subject and precede the object(s) of the verb.
Most Sindhi words are derived from Sanskrit , but the language also has a large number of Persian and Arabic loanwords due to centuries of Muslim influence. In more recent times, Sindhi has come into close contact with Urdu, the dominant language of Pakistan. As a result, Sindhi has borrowed many Urdu words.
Below are Sindhi numerals 0-10 in romanization.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
buŗi
hiku
ba
ţī
cāre
pañja
chaha
sata
aţha
nava
daha
Sindhi is written in three different scripts: a modified Arabic script used in both Pakistan and India, and the Devanagari script used by a number of Sindhi speakers in India.
- Modified Arabic script
Since Sindhi has many more consonants and vowels than Arabic, extra letters have been created through the use of diacritic dots that modify the basic letter shapes. The orthography consists of 52 consonant and 10 vowel symbols, plus a number of diacritics. The Sindhi script is written from right to left, and short vowels are omitted, except at the beginning of words.
- Devanagari script
In 1948, the Indian government implemented the Devanagari script for writing Sindhi, but it did not gain mass acceptance. As a result, the language is written in both the modified Arabic and Devanagari scripts in India.
- Roman alphabet
Sindhi can also be written with the Roman alphabet which is increasingly used in electronic communications. | https://www.mustgo.com/worldlanguages/sindhi/ | 47 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Sindhi | The Sindhi language is classified as a member of the Indo-Aryan linguistic group, part of the Indo-European family of languages. Languages of the Indo-Aryan family can be classified in three major stages of development: Old Indo-Aryan, or Sanskrit; Middle Indo-Aryan, consisting of Prakrit and Apabhramsha stages; and New Indo-Aryan, which dates from circa the 10th century CE.
The roots of the Sindhi language can be traced back to the Old Indo-Aryan dialect known as primary Prakrit, which is believed to have been spoken in the region of modern-day Sindh around 1500 to 1200 BC – or even earlier.
Sindhi is believed to have developed specifically from the Virachada dialect of the Prakrit language. Hints of this dialect can be spied in certain passages of hymns found in the Rigveda.
The first evidence of written Sindhi can be traced back to circa the 8th century CE in a Sindhi language version of the Mahabharata. The Sindhi language is written primarily in two scripts: Arabic-Sindhi and Devanagari-Sindhi. Although the Arabic-Sindhi and Devanagari-Sindhi are the most popular, other scripts also can be used to write the Sindhi language, including Brahmi, the Gurmukhi alphabet, and an indigenous script simply known as Sindhi.
The Arabic-Sindhi script was developed by the British government in 1852 and consists of a modified Arabic alphabet. The Devanagari-Sindhi script uses an adapted Devanagari script with four extra letters to accommodate certain Sindhi language sounds. This second script has proved immensely valuable in efforts to preserve the Sindhi literary and cultural heritage.
Under British colonial rule in India, the area then known as “British India” was significantly larger than the India we know today, comprising of areas of modern-day India and Pakistan. With the partition of British India in 1947, many Sindhi language speakers in Pakistan fled to India.
The effects of this migration are still evident, as the Sindhi language in India is found primarily in the Kachchh district of Gujarat, an area bordering the modern Pakistani Sindh province where many Pakistani Sindhi language speakers fled after the partition. Today the Sindhi language is officially recognized by the constitution of India.
With the partition of British India in 1947, Pakistan became an independent nation, and the country’s Sindh province was formally established. Prior to the partition, the majority of educated Sindhi in the area practiced Hinduism. Consequently, when partition occurred, many Sindhi language speakers fled Pakistan and migrated to India. This loss of Sindhi population in Pakistan was complemented by the entrance of a great number of Urdu-speaking refugees in the young Sindh province. As a result, Sindhi language, culture and identity in Pakistan suffered significantly and the Sindhi language population of Sindh began to fear that their language and culture would be drowned out by Urdu influences.
Problems in the province soon arose due to the fact that Sindhi efforts to promote and preserve Sindhi literary and cultural traditions were often seen as anti-Urdu actions. The escalating tensions peaked in the language riots of 1972, which resulted in the Pakistani government’s granting special status to the Sindhi language. Although Urdu and English are still the official national languages of Pakistan, Sindhi is the official regional language of the country’s Sindh province.
Although the first evidence of written Sindhi dates as far back as the 8th century, it was not until around the 15th century that a literary Sindhi language emerged. The Medieval period of Sindhi devotional literature, dating from circa 1500 to 1843, produced a great deal of lyrical Sufi poetry still popular today. After 1843, modern Sindhi language literature exploded, covering an increased range of topics and themes.
After the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, Sindhi language literature of the two countries began to diverge significantly; Sindhi authors from Pakistan turned to Persian and Arabic sources for inspiration while Indian Sindhi language writers were more heavily influenced by Hindi literatures.
Today Sindhi has developed to become one of the most important literary languages from the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, although its level of global prominence has been eclipsed by that of Urdu in recent years.
The Sindhi language is especially noted for its extremely rich body of folk literature, which dates as far back as the language itself.
In 1955, the Sindhi Adabi Board was established in the interest of promoting and preserving the Sindhi language. The organization undertook the immense project of collecting old Sindhi literary traditions – many of them oral traditions that were later transcribed – and publishing them in a series of 40 volumes.
Today the Sindhi language is spoken by an estimated 25 million people around the world, most of them found in the countries of Pakistan and India. Additional communities of Sindhi language speakers can be found in the US, UK, Oman, Singapore, and the Philippines. | https://www.baystateinterpreters.com/ContentDetail.aspx?MenuID=204 | 47 |
sindhi is the official language of which state in india | Punjabi language | Written by Christopher Shackle
Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Punjabi language , Punjabi also spelled Panjabi , one of the most widely spoken Indo-Aryan languages . The old British spelling “Punjabi” remains in more common general usage than the academically precise “Panjabi.” In the early 21st century there were about 30 million speakers of Punjabi in India . It is the official language of the Indian state of Punjab and is one of the languages recognized by the Indian constitution. In Pakistan Punjabi is spoken by some 70 million speakers, mostly in Punjab province , but official status at both the national and the provincial level is reserved for Urdu . There are also important overseas communities of Punjabi speakers, particularly in Canada and the United Kingdom —where in the early 21st century they respectively constituted the third and fourth largest linguistic groups in the national populations—as well as in several parts of the United States .
In India, Punjabi is written in the distinctive Gurmukhi script, which is particularly associated with the Sikhs . That script is a member of the Indic family of scripts , written from left to right, but in its organization it differs significantly from the Devanagari used to write Hindi . The Urdu script, written from right to left, is used for writing Punjabi in Pakistan, where it is nowadays often given the imitative name Shahmukhi. Punjabi is thus today one of the very few languages in the world to be written in two quite different and mutually unintelligible scripts.
In spite of Punjabi’s very large numbers of speakers and rich traditions of popular poetry, the standardization of the language was historically inhibited by lack of official recognition as well as by the different cultural preferences of the three main local religious communities of Muslims , Hindus , and Sikhs. Other languages were cultivated for most kinds of writing, including Persian under the Mughal Empire , then Urdu during the British period and, in Pakistan, continuing to the present day. In most other Indo-Aryan-speaking areas of South Asia , the modern period saw overlapping local dialects being grouped into strictly defined provincial languages, but this process has taken much longer to happen in Punjab.
The partition of the subcontinent in 1947 along religious lines was marked by particular violence in Punjab, where ethnic cleansing and exchange of populations resulted in the expulsion of most Punjabi-speaking Muslims from India and of Sikhs and Hindus from Pakistan. Whereas the Muslims had strongly identified with Urdu and the Hindus with Hindi, it was the Sikhs who had particularly identified with the Punjabi cause. The Gurmukhi script was first used to record the Sikh scriptures, the Adi Granth , in 1604. Furthermore, Sikh writers were mainly responsible for developing Punjabi as a modern standard language, and the Sikh political leadership in 1966 finally achieved the goal of an albeit truncated state with Punjabi as its official language.
This officially recognized Indian Punjabi is generally taken as standard in descriptions of the language. There is a significant degree of mutual intelligibility with Hindi and Urdu, although the three languages are sharply differentiated by their scripts, and Punjabi is historically distinguished by its retention of Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) doubled consonants following a short vowel , so that Sanskrit akshi ‘eye’ becomes MIA akkhi and Punjabi akkh , versus Hindi-Urdu aankh . Phonetically, the most prominent distinctive feature of standard Punjabi is the realization of historical voiced aspiration as tones , so that, for example, Hindi-Urdu ghora ‘horse’ appears in Punjabi as k’òra (with glottal constriction and low-rising tone) and Hindi-Urdu rah ‘way’ as Punjabi rá (with high-falling tone).
In Pakistan the general maintenance of the historical preference for Urdu has stood in the way of those who looked to achieve an increased status for Punjabi, albeit in a form more obviously influenced in its script and vocabulary by Urdu and so itself somewhat different from standard Indian Punjabi. Since Pakistan’s Punjab is much larger and less homogeneous than its Indian counterpart, its internal linguistic variety has also encouraged opposition to the Punjabi activists based in the provincial capital of Lahore by rival groups based in the less prosperous outlying areas of the province, notably by the proponents of Siraiki in the southwestern districts, whose claims to separate linguistic status are vigorously disputed by adherents to the Punjabi cause. There are the usual conflicting claims to the great writers of the past, but all devotees of the Punjabi literary tradition , in both India and Pakistan, find the supreme expression of their shared cultural identity in the rich expression of the Muslim poet Waris (or Varis) Shah’s great romance Hir (1766; also spelled Heer ). | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Punjabi-language | 47 |
what part of the brain controls self image | How Our Brain Preserves Our Sense of Self | We are all time travelers. Every day we experience new things as we travel forward through time. As we do, the countless connections between the nerve cells in our brain recalibrate to accommodate these experiences. It's as if we reassemble ourselves daily, maintaining a mental construct of ourselves in physical time, and the glue that holds together our core identity is memory.
Our travels are not limited to physical time. We also experience mental time travel. We visit the past through our memories and then journey into the future by imagining what tomorrow or next year might bring. When we do so, we think of ourselves as we are now, remember who we once were and imagine how we will be.
A study, published in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience ( SCAN ), explores how one particular brain region helps to knit together memories of the present and future self . When people sustain an injury to that area, it leads to an impaired sense of identity. The region—called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)—may produce a fundamental model of oneself and place it in mental time. When the region does so, this study suggests, it may be the source of our sense of self.
Psychologists have long noticed that a person's mind handles information about oneself differently from other details. Memories that reference the self are easier to recall than other forms of memory. They benefit from what researchers have called a self-reference effect (SRE), in which information related to oneself is privileged and more salient in our thoughts. Self-related memories are distinct from both episodic memory, the category of recollections that pertains to specific events and experiences, and semantic memory, which connects to more general knowledge, such as the color of grass and the characteristics of the seasons.
SREs, then, are a way to investigate how our sense of self emerges from the workings of the brain—something that multiple research groups have studied intensely. For example, previous research employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a method that uses blood flow and oxygen consumption in specific brain areas as a measure of neural activity, to identify regions that were activated by self-reference . These studies identified the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) as a brain region related to self-thought.
This area, the mPFC, can be further divided into upper and lower regions (called dorsal and ventral, respectively), and it turns out that each one makes different contributions to self-related thought. The dorsal section plays a role in distinguishing self from other and appears to be task-related, whereas the ventral section, the vmPFC, contributes more to emotional processing.
In the SCAN study, the researchers used the self-reference effect to assess memories of present and future selves among people who had brain lesions to the vmPFC. The scientists worked with seven people who had lesions to this area and then compared them with a control group made up of eight people with injuries to other parts of the brain, as well as 23 healthy individuals without brain injuries. By comparing these groups, the scientists could investigate whether brain lesions in general or those to the vmPFC specifically might affect SREs. All people in the study underwent a thorough neuropsychological evaluation, which confirmed that they were within normal ranges for a variety of cognitive assessments, including measures of verbal fluency and spatial short-term memory. The researchers then asked the participants to list adjectives to describe themselves and a well-known celebrity, both in the present and 10 years in the future. Later, the participants had to recall these same traits.
The researchers discovered that people in their control group could recall more adjectives linked to themselves in the present and future than adjectives linked to the celebrity. In other words, scientists found that the self-reference effect extends to both the future and the present self. Although there was some variation in the group—people with brain injuries to areas other than the vmPFC were somewhat less able to recall details about their future self when compared with healthy participants—the self-reference effect still held true.
Results were distinctly different, however, for the participants with injuries to the vmPFC. People with lesions in this area had little or no ability to recall references to the self, regardless of the context of time. Their identification of adjectives for celebrities in the present or future was also significantly impaired when compared with the rest of the participants' responses. In addition, people with vmPFC lesions had less confidence about an individual's ability to possess traits than other people in the study. All of this evidence points to a central role for the vmPFC in the formation and maintenance of identity.
The new findings are intriguing for several reasons. Brain lesions can help us understand the normal function of the region involved. Lesions of the vmPFC are associated with altered personality, blunted emotions, and a number of changes in emotional and executive function. Injury to this area is most often associated with confabulations : false memories that people recite to listeners with great confidence . Although it may be tempting for someone to view confabulations as deliberate or creative falsehoods, people who tell them actually are unaware that their stories are false. Instead it is possible their confusion could stem from misfunctioning memory retrieval and monitoring mechanisms.
More broadly, the study helps us understand how self- related memories—recollections key to maintaining our core sense of identity—depend on the function of the vmPFC. But what about our past selves? Curiously, in previous studies that asked people to consider their past selves, there was no more activation of the mPFC than when considering someone else. Our past selves seem foreign to us, as if they were individuals apart from us.
One idea that scientists have put forward to understand this distinction is that perhaps we are not very kind in our judgments of our past selves. Instead we may be rather critical and harshly judgmental of our previous behavior, emotions and personal traits. In these situations, we may use our past primarily to construct a more positive self-image in the present . Put another way, because we may recognize flaws in our past self's behavior, we tend to distance ourselves from the person we once were.
Bringing the present and future into the spotlight, then, is central to understanding the way our brain and thoughts build our current identities. In many ways, it makes sense that the mPFC is important in this process of recalling present details and imagining future ones that build on our recollections. The prefrontal cortex, including the mPFC and its subdivisions, forms a network in the brain that is involved in future planning. That network also includes the hippocampus, a brain structure that is central to episodic memory formation and that can track moments as sequential events in time . In past work, researchers have found that manipulating the activity of the hippocampus alters creative and future imaginings, which suggests an important role for brain structures supporting memory in imagining the future . In fact, although we often think of memory as the brain's accurate and dispassionate recording device, some scholars have characterized it as a form of imagination .
Future thought is a vital component of being human. Its importance in our culture is embodied in the mythological figure and pre-Olympian god Prometheus (whose name means “fore-thinker”), patron of the arts and sciences. According to Greek legend, he shaped humans out of clay and bestowed them with fire and the skills of craftsmanship. These are acts that illustrate the power of imagining a novel future. Although there is debate as to whether thinking about the future is an exclusively human feature —birds such as Western Scrub-Jays, for example, appear to anticipate and plan for future food needs—it is clear that future thought has played a significant role in human evolution . This ability may have contributed to the development of language , and it has a key part in human interactions , where the vmPFC is central to evaluating and taking advantage of social context.
Now, thanks to this new research, we have a better idea than ever about the way a small region within our brains is able to build and hold this core ability to maintain our identity. | https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-our-brain-preserves-our-sense-of-self/ | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | This Is Where Self-Esteem Lives In The Brain | Researchers at Dartmouth College have identified a region of the human brain that seems to predict a person's self-esteem levels.
It's called the frontostriatal pathway, and the stronger and more active it is in the brain, the more self-esteem someone has. The findings, published online in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, could help change the way we understand self-esteem: not as a panacea for all problems, but as a physical indicator of risk for psychological disorders.
"People think raising self-esteem will raise IQs and test scores, and that hasn't really panned out," said lead author Robert Chavez, a Ph.D. student at Dartmouth. "We should be looking at it more as a measure of how susceptible you are to psychopathologies like depression and anxiety."
Chavez found that self-esteem lies in the frontostriatal pathway, highlighted in the illustration below:
A depiction of the anatomical connections between the ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex. The strength of these connections correlated with subjects' self-esteem scores in the study. (Courtesy of Robert Chavez)
It connects the medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which deals with feelings of motivation and reward. Chavez used two different kinds of magnetic resonance imaging to measure both the physical boundaries of the pathway -- what he called the "road" -- and activity levels on that pathway -- or the "traffic" on that road.
If a person had a very strong "road," he or she was more likely to have higher long-term self-esteem. The "traffic" levels on that road, however, predicted higher momentary self-esteem.
Sometimes a person's frontostriatal pathway would be both anatomically strong and very active, but one quality didn't necessarily lead to the other.
For the study, Chavez and Todd Heatherton, Ph.D., a Dartmouth professor, teamed up to scan 48 people's brains using both diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). While the scans were taking place, participants answered questions about how they saw themselves in the moment and long-term by rating themselves on qualities like "hard-working," "happy," "depressed" and "pessimistic." The terms were equally split between positive and negative descriptions.
Then Chavez analyzed participants' brain scans and matched them up to the times they rated themselves based on certain traits. He saw that when participants answered about self-esteem in the short term, the scan showed a lot of activity on the pathway. Meanwhile, the stronger the pathway was anatomically, the more likely participants were to have long-term self-esteem. Interestingly, Chavez only saw brain activity on the scans when people rated themselves with positive terms, not negative ones.
"Being down on yourself doesn't drive these effects," explained Chavez. "It's more driven by the positive aspects of your sense of self."
Given past studies about how repeated behaviors (say, meditation ) can actually alter brain traits, Chavez is hopeful that researchers can figure out a way to change or strengthen the frontostriatal pathway with therapy -- and use MRIs to monitor a patient's progress. | https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/16/self-esteem-brain_n_5500501.html | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | This Is Where Self-Esteem Lives In The Brain | Researchers at Dartmouth College have identified a region of the human brain that seems to predict a person's self-esteem levels.
It's called the frontostriatal pathway, and the stronger and more active it is in the brain, the more self-esteem someone has. The findings, published online in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, could help change the way we understand self-esteem: not as a panacea for all problems, but as a physical indicator of risk for psychological disorders.
"People think raising self-esteem will raise IQs and test scores, and that hasn't really panned out," said lead author Robert Chavez, a Ph.D. student at Dartmouth. "We should be looking at it more as a measure of how susceptible you are to psychopathologies like depression and anxiety."
Chavez found that self-esteem lies in the frontostriatal pathway, highlighted in the illustration below:
A depiction of the anatomical connections between the ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex. The strength of these connections correlated with subjects' self-esteem scores in the study. (Courtesy of Robert Chavez)
It connects the medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which deals with feelings of motivation and reward. Chavez used two different kinds of magnetic resonance imaging to measure both the physical boundaries of the pathway -- what he called the "road" -- and activity levels on that pathway -- or the "traffic" on that road.
If a person had a very strong "road," he or she was more likely to have higher long-term self-esteem. The "traffic" levels on that road, however, predicted higher momentary self-esteem.
Sometimes a person's frontostriatal pathway would be both anatomically strong and very active, but one quality didn't necessarily lead to the other.
For the study, Chavez and Todd Heatherton, Ph.D., a Dartmouth professor, teamed up to scan 48 people's brains using both diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). While the scans were taking place, participants answered questions about how they saw themselves in the moment and long-term by rating themselves on qualities like "hard-working," "happy," "depressed" and "pessimistic." The terms were equally split between positive and negative descriptions.
Then Chavez analyzed participants' brain scans and matched them up to the times they rated themselves based on certain traits. He saw that when participants answered about self-esteem in the short term, the scan showed a lot of activity on the pathway. Meanwhile, the stronger the pathway was anatomically, the more likely participants were to have long-term self-esteem. Interestingly, Chavez only saw brain activity on the scans when people rated themselves with positive terms, not negative ones.
"Being down on yourself doesn't drive these effects," explained Chavez. "It's more driven by the positive aspects of your sense of self."
Given past studies about how repeated behaviors (say, meditation ) can actually alter brain traits, Chavez is hopeful that researchers can figure out a way to change or strengthen the frontostriatal pathway with therapy -- and use MRIs to monitor a patient's progress. | https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/16/self-esteem-brain_n_5500501.html#:~:text=A%20depiction%20of%20the%20anatomical%20connections%20between%20the,which%20deals%20with%20feelings%20of%20motivation%20and%20reward. | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | This Is Where Self-Esteem Lives In The Brain | Researchers at Dartmouth College have identified a region of the human brain that seems to predict a person's self-esteem levels.
It's called the frontostriatal pathway, and the stronger and more active it is in the brain, the more self-esteem someone has. The findings, published online in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, could help change the way we understand self-esteem: not as a panacea for all problems, but as a physical indicator of risk for psychological disorders.
"People think raising self-esteem will raise IQs and test scores, and that hasn't really panned out," said lead author Robert Chavez, a Ph.D. student at Dartmouth. "We should be looking at it more as a measure of how susceptible you are to psychopathologies like depression and anxiety."
Chavez found that self-esteem lies in the frontostriatal pathway, highlighted in the illustration below:
A depiction of the anatomical connections between the ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex. The strength of these connections correlated with subjects' self-esteem scores in the study. (Courtesy of Robert Chavez)
It connects the medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which deals with feelings of motivation and reward. Chavez used two different kinds of magnetic resonance imaging to measure both the physical boundaries of the pathway -- what he called the "road" -- and activity levels on that pathway -- or the "traffic" on that road.
If a person had a very strong "road," he or she was more likely to have higher long-term self-esteem. The "traffic" levels on that road, however, predicted higher momentary self-esteem.
Sometimes a person's frontostriatal pathway would be both anatomically strong and very active, but one quality didn't necessarily lead to the other.
For the study, Chavez and Todd Heatherton, Ph.D., a Dartmouth professor, teamed up to scan 48 people's brains using both diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). While the scans were taking place, participants answered questions about how they saw themselves in the moment and long-term by rating themselves on qualities like "hard-working," "happy," "depressed" and "pessimistic." The terms were equally split between positive and negative descriptions.
Then Chavez analyzed participants' brain scans and matched them up to the times they rated themselves based on certain traits. He saw that when participants answered about self-esteem in the short term, the scan showed a lot of activity on the pathway. Meanwhile, the stronger the pathway was anatomically, the more likely participants were to have long-term self-esteem. Interestingly, Chavez only saw brain activity on the scans when people rated themselves with positive terms, not negative ones.
"Being down on yourself doesn't drive these effects," explained Chavez. "It's more driven by the positive aspects of your sense of self."
Given past studies about how repeated behaviors (say, meditation ) can actually alter brain traits, Chavez is hopeful that researchers can figure out a way to change or strengthen the frontostriatal pathway with therapy -- and use MRIs to monitor a patient's progress. | https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/16/self-esteem-brain_n_5500501.html#:~:text=A%20depiction%20of%20the%20anatomical%20connections%20between%20the,which%20deals%20with%20feelings%20of%20motivation%20and%20reward. | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | This Is Where Self-Esteem Lives In The Brain | Researchers at Dartmouth College have identified a region of the human brain that seems to predict a person's self-esteem levels.
It's called the frontostriatal pathway, and the stronger and more active it is in the brain, the more self-esteem someone has. The findings, published online in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, could help change the way we understand self-esteem: not as a panacea for all problems, but as a physical indicator of risk for psychological disorders.
"People think raising self-esteem will raise IQs and test scores, and that hasn't really panned out," said lead author Robert Chavez, a Ph.D. student at Dartmouth. "We should be looking at it more as a measure of how susceptible you are to psychopathologies like depression and anxiety."
Chavez found that self-esteem lies in the frontostriatal pathway, highlighted in the illustration below:
A depiction of the anatomical connections between the ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex. The strength of these connections correlated with subjects' self-esteem scores in the study. (Courtesy of Robert Chavez)
It connects the medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which deals with feelings of motivation and reward. Chavez used two different kinds of magnetic resonance imaging to measure both the physical boundaries of the pathway -- what he called the "road" -- and activity levels on that pathway -- or the "traffic" on that road.
If a person had a very strong "road," he or she was more likely to have higher long-term self-esteem. The "traffic" levels on that road, however, predicted higher momentary self-esteem.
Sometimes a person's frontostriatal pathway would be both anatomically strong and very active, but one quality didn't necessarily lead to the other.
For the study, Chavez and Todd Heatherton, Ph.D., a Dartmouth professor, teamed up to scan 48 people's brains using both diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). While the scans were taking place, participants answered questions about how they saw themselves in the moment and long-term by rating themselves on qualities like "hard-working," "happy," "depressed" and "pessimistic." The terms were equally split between positive and negative descriptions.
Then Chavez analyzed participants' brain scans and matched them up to the times they rated themselves based on certain traits. He saw that when participants answered about self-esteem in the short term, the scan showed a lot of activity on the pathway. Meanwhile, the stronger the pathway was anatomically, the more likely participants were to have long-term self-esteem. Interestingly, Chavez only saw brain activity on the scans when people rated themselves with positive terms, not negative ones.
"Being down on yourself doesn't drive these effects," explained Chavez. "It's more driven by the positive aspects of your sense of self."
Given past studies about how repeated behaviors (say, meditation ) can actually alter brain traits, Chavez is hopeful that researchers can figure out a way to change or strengthen the frontostriatal pathway with therapy -- and use MRIs to monitor a patient's progress. | https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/16/self-esteem-brain_n_5500501.html#:~:text=A%20depiction%20of%20the%20anatomical%20connections%20between%20the,which%20deals%20with%20feelings%20of%20motivation%20and%20reward. | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | This Is Where Self-Esteem Lives In The Brain | Researchers at Dartmouth College have identified a region of the human brain that seems to predict a person's self-esteem levels.
It's called the frontostriatal pathway, and the stronger and more active it is in the brain, the more self-esteem someone has. The findings, published online in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, could help change the way we understand self-esteem: not as a panacea for all problems, but as a physical indicator of risk for psychological disorders.
"People think raising self-esteem will raise IQs and test scores, and that hasn't really panned out," said lead author Robert Chavez, a Ph.D. student at Dartmouth. "We should be looking at it more as a measure of how susceptible you are to psychopathologies like depression and anxiety."
Chavez found that self-esteem lies in the frontostriatal pathway, highlighted in the illustration below:
A depiction of the anatomical connections between the ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex. The strength of these connections correlated with subjects' self-esteem scores in the study. (Courtesy of Robert Chavez)
It connects the medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which deals with feelings of motivation and reward. Chavez used two different kinds of magnetic resonance imaging to measure both the physical boundaries of the pathway -- what he called the "road" -- and activity levels on that pathway -- or the "traffic" on that road.
If a person had a very strong "road," he or she was more likely to have higher long-term self-esteem. The "traffic" levels on that road, however, predicted higher momentary self-esteem.
Sometimes a person's frontostriatal pathway would be both anatomically strong and very active, but one quality didn't necessarily lead to the other.
For the study, Chavez and Todd Heatherton, Ph.D., a Dartmouth professor, teamed up to scan 48 people's brains using both diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). While the scans were taking place, participants answered questions about how they saw themselves in the moment and long-term by rating themselves on qualities like "hard-working," "happy," "depressed" and "pessimistic." The terms were equally split between positive and negative descriptions.
Then Chavez analyzed participants' brain scans and matched them up to the times they rated themselves based on certain traits. He saw that when participants answered about self-esteem in the short term, the scan showed a lot of activity on the pathway. Meanwhile, the stronger the pathway was anatomically, the more likely participants were to have long-term self-esteem. Interestingly, Chavez only saw brain activity on the scans when people rated themselves with positive terms, not negative ones.
"Being down on yourself doesn't drive these effects," explained Chavez. "It's more driven by the positive aspects of your sense of self."
Given past studies about how repeated behaviors (say, meditation ) can actually alter brain traits, Chavez is hopeful that researchers can figure out a way to change or strengthen the frontostriatal pathway with therapy -- and use MRIs to monitor a patient's progress. | https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/16/self-esteem-brain_n_5500501.html#:~:text=A%20depiction%20of%20the%20anatomical%20connections%20between%20the,which%20deals%20with%20feelings%20of%20motivation%20and%20reward. | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | Examining Brain Morphometry Associated with Self-Esteem in Young Adults Using Multilevel-ROI-Features-Based Classification Method | Purpose: This study is to exam self-esteem related brain morphometry on brain magnetic resonance (MR) images using multilevel-features-based classification method.
Method: The multilevel region of interest (ROI) features consist of two types of features: (i) ROI features, which include gray matter volume, white matter volume, cerebrospinal fluid volume, cortical thickness, and cortical surface area, and (ii) similarity features, which are based on similarity calculation of cortical thickness between ROIs. For each feature type, a hybrid feature selection method, comprising of filter-based and wrapper-based algorithms, is used to select the most discriminating features. ROI features and similarity features are integrated by using multi-kernel support vector machines (SVMs) with appropriate weighting factor.
Results: The classification performance is improved by using multilevel ROI features with an accuracy of 96.66%, a specificity of 96.62%, and a sensitivity of 95.67%. The most discriminating ROI features that are related to self-esteem spread over occipital lobe, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, limbic lobe, temporal lobe, and central region, mainly involving white matter and cortical thickness. The most discriminating similarity features are distributed in both the right and left hemisphere, including frontal lobe, occipital lobe, limbic lobe, parietal lobe, and central region, which conveys information of structural connections between different brain regions.
Conclusion: By using ROI features and similarity features to exam self-esteem related brain morphometry, this paper provides a pilot evidence that self-esteem is linked to specific ROIs and structural connections between different brain regions.
Keywords: self-esteem, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), multilevel ROI features, brain connections, multi-kernel support vector machine
Self-esteem is defined as the degree that people evaluate and accept themselves (Wang and Ollendick, 2001 ), which has effects on human health, average lifetime, and life satisfaction (Baumeister et al., 2003 ). Self-esteem is concerned with a diverse array of emotions (Brown and Marshall, 2001 ). Low self-esteem leads to negative outcomes, such as delinquency, substance abuse, depression, and poor health condition (Baumeister et al., 2000 ; Marsh and Craven, 2006 ). Conversely, high self-esteem is associated with positive attitudes and behaviors, such as happiness, interpersonal success, ability to overcome difficulties, and healthy lifestyle (Baumeister et al., 2003 ). These results reveal that positive self-regard plays an important role in good emotion management and strong coping skills (Mauss et al., 2007 ; MacCann et al., 2011 ).
In recent years, self-esteem has been thoroughly researched on behavioral science. However, neuroimaging-based brain structural studies related to self-esteem are not sufficient (Heimpel et al., 2006 ). Among various neuroimaging techniques, magnetic resonance (MR) imaging is a secure and reliable manner to image brain structure, especially for soft tissues in the brain (Ashburner and Friston, 2000 ). Based on brain MR images, most researchers use volumetric or cortical analysis method to study self-esteem related brain morphometry (Agroskin et al., 2014 ). Pruessner et al. ( 2005 ) use volumetric analysis method to study medial temporal lobe in both young and elderly subjects, which reveals the relationship between self-esteem and hippocampal volume. Onoda et al. ( 2010 ) find out that differences in brain connections are existed between low self-esteem group and high self-esteem group. Except for these volumetric studies, cortical measurement is also used for self-esteem (Somerville et al., 2010 ). Beer et al. ( 2010 ) demonstrate that medial prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex are related to self-evaluation. In addition, researchers find out that self-esteem can be traced back to specific cerebral regions that involve emotional coping strategies, such as threaten, stress, anxiety, and fear. (Martyn-Nemeth et al., 2009 ; Cavallo et al., 2012 ). Detecting self-esteem related brain regions is of high value for both clinical and academic research. To our knowledge, few studies use automatic classification method to extract self-esteem related brain regions. More studies are required to further explain the relationship between self-esteem and brain morphometry.
In this paper, we examine the self-esteem related brain morphometry in regions of interest (ROIs) using multilevel-ROI-features-based classification method. Multilevel ROI features consist of ROI features and similarity features, which are extracted from T1-weighted structural brain MR images. These two types of features are complementary to each other in revealing neuroanatomical information about self-esteem. In order to reduce the dimension of features and select the most discriminating regions related to self-esteem, a mixed feature selection pattern is adopted in this study. A machine-learning-based multi-kernel support vector machine (SVM) is constructed to train the optimal classifier.
Characteristics of all subjects are shown in Table 1 . Sixty-eight undergraduate students from Soochow University, aged from 21 to 26 years old, are included in our study. T1-weighted structural brain MR images are acquired from all subjects using a 3-T Siemens Medical Systems equipment with a standard head coil. The scanning parameters are as follows: repetition time (TR) = 2,300 ms, echo time (TE) = 2.98 ms, flip angle (FA) = 9°, field of view (FoV) = 256 mm, slice thickness = 1 mm, voxel size = 1 × 1 × 1 mm 3 . Each participant receives a structured clinical interview by a psychiatrist to rule out any psychiatric or neurological diagnoses. None of them has received stimulant or hypnagogic medication previously. All subjects have normal or corrected to normal vision and are right-handed. After the assignment, all participants are rewarded by giving small gifts or financial payments. The study is approved by the Ethics Committee of the Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University. Written informed consents are obtained from all subjects.
Subject characteristics .
|High self-esteem group||Low self-esteem group||Total||Statistics||p -value *|
|VARIABLES|
|No. of subjects (n)||34||34||68|
|Gender (M/F)||19/15||16/18||35/33||chi-sq = 0.05||0.83|
|Age (years)||21.90 ± 1.16||22.53 ± 1.42||22.21 ± 1.35|
|Age range (years)||21–26||21–26||21–26||t = −1.6||0.15|
|SCALE SCORE|
|Rosenberg Scale||25.35 ± 0.81||17.86 ± 3.35||21.61 ± 3.90||t = 6.32||<0.001|
* p < 0.05 .
All participants have performed the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES) test (Leary and Baumeister, 2000 ; Robins et al., 2001 ; Martin-Albo et al., 2007 ) with 10 items. This neuropsychological scale is widely used to measure self-esteem level. The RSES scores of all subjects are ranked from the highest to the lowest. Then, they are divided into two groups: high self-esteem group and low self-esteem group. The high self-esteem group consists of the top 50 percent of all subjects ( N = 34), while the low self-esteem group consists of the low 50 percent ( N = 34) of all subjects.
All brain MR images are processed and analyzed using BrainLab software (Peng et al., 2015 ). First, the original images are reoriented and resampled to a standard format. N3 bias correction (Sled et al., 1998 ) is performed to eliminate the intensity inhomogeneity. Next, skull, scalp, and dura are removed from the preprocessed images using brain extraction tool (BET) (Smith, 2002 ) and brain surface extractor (BSE) (Shattuck et al., 2001 ). After brain extraction, a level-sets-based tissue segmentation algorithm (Wang et al., 2013 ) is used to separate gray matter (GM), white matter (WM), and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Then, the tissue segmented images are registered to brain atlas using an automatic method (Thirion, 1998 ; Wu et al., 2014 ). The brain atlas is based on the Automated Anatomical Labeling (AAL) template with 45 labeled ROIs for each hemisphere (Tzourio-Mazoyer et al., 2002 ). Finally, cortical surface is reconstructed using a deformable surface method (Li et al., 2012 ). Because subcortical regions are not researched, only 78 cortical ROIs (ignoring 12 subcortical regions) (Wang et al., 2014 ) are used in our study. It is worth noting that the brain atlas defines the outline of the anatomical region of each ROI. The anatomical region include GM, WM, and CSF. Because the tissue segmentation algorithm in our method can separate the GM, WM, and CSF, thus, we can compute the GM volume, WM volume, and CSF volume for each ROI. Cortical thickness and cortical surface area are also measured for each ROI.
The framework of the classification method used in our study is shown in Figure 1 , including feature extraction, feature selection, and classifier construction. Two types of features are extracted from the brain MR images: ROI features and similarity features. Filter-based and wrapper-based feature selection method is applied to select the most discriminating features for each feature type, respectively. Individual kernel matrix is constructed for each feature type. Then, the individual kernel matrixes are integrated into a multi-kernel matrix. The multi-kernel matrix is used to train the optimal SVM model. Details of the method for each step will be introduced below.
Framework of the classification method using multilevel ROI features on T1-weighted brain MR images .
The multilevel ROI features consist of ROI features and similarity features. The ROI features are automatically extracted from the brain MR images using BrainLab software, including GM volume, WM volume, CSF volume, cortical thickness, and cortical surface area. In order to decrease individual differences, the GM volume, WM volume, and CSF volume of each ROI are normalized according to the total intracranial volume of each subject (Whitwell et al., 2001 ), and the cortical thickness and cortical surface area of each ROI are normalized according to the standard deviation and the total cortical surface area of each subject, respectively.
Similarity features are computed based on the similarity calculation of cortical thickness between ROIs. The similarity features describe interregional information between ROIs instead of morphological information in isolated ROI, which convey high order information of brain connectivity. The integration of similarity features with ROI features will provide complementary information of the brain structure, which will improve the classification performance. In this study, a 78 × 78 similarity map was obtained for each subject. Each element in the similarity map represents the similarity value of cortical thicknesses between ROIs. Specifically, the similarity between the i -th and j -th ROIs is defined as.
(1)
where t ( i ) and t ( j ) represent the cortical thickness values for the i -th and j -th ROIs. σ is defined as
with σ i and σ j representing the standard deviation of cortical thickness for the i -th and j -th ROIs. Owing to the symmetrical property of the similarity map, only the upper triangular elements of the matrix are adopted to construct the feature vector. For each subject, 3003 elements in the upper triangular part are concatenated to compose a long feature vector.
The classification is performed using different feature types, including GM volume, WM volume, CSF volume, union of the above three volumes, cortical thickness, cortical surface area, similarity features, and the multilevel ROI features. The union of GM volume, WM volume, and CSF volume are constructed by a junction of the three volumes into a long vector.
In order to reduce feature dimension and select the most discriminating features, filter-based and wrapper-based feature selection method is adopted. Specifically, two kinds of filter-based methods are used, followed by a wrapper-based method. First, statistical t -test is used to select the features that their p -values are smaller than the threshold ( p < 0.05). Then, the dimension of the retained features is further reduced by the minimum redundancy and maximum relevance (mRMR) method (Ding and Peng, 2005 ; Peng et al., 2005 ). After filter-based feature selection, SVM-Recursive Feature Elimination (SVM-RFE) method (Guyon et al., 2004 ; Duan et al., 2005 ) is used to reduce the feature dimensionality. After the whole feature selection steps, we obtain the optimal feature subset for each feature type, respectively.
A multi-kernel machine learning framework is adopted to integrate two types of features into a single classifier. Specifically, we first construct a kernel matrix for each feature type, respectively using a Gaussian radial basic function (RBF) kernel function. We compare the classification performance using linear kernel function and RBF function (nonlinear), which shows that the RBF kernel can significantly improve the classification performance. Thus, we choose RBF kernel function to construct the kernel matrix for each feature type. Second, these two kernel matrixes are integrated into a multi-kernel matrix with appropriate weighting factor (Wee et al., 2013 ). The constructed multi-kernel matrix is employed to train the optimal SVM model.
A nested crossvalidation method is applied in our study (Galar et al., 2011 ; Wee et al., 2012a , b ). In the inner crossvalidation loop, a 2-fold crossvalidation is performed to determine the parameters of the classifier using the training set. In the outer crossvalidation loop, the generalizability of the classifier is evaluated using the testing set, which repeats 100 times. In the beginning of the experiment, the whole dataset is distributed into two parts randomly with similar number of subjects for each class in each part, one for training and the other for testing. It is worth noting that the same training and testing procedures are repeated by exchanging the training and testing sets. Paired t -test is used to evaluate the mean classification accuracy using multilevel ROI features compared with using other feature types.
The classification performance using different feature types between high self-esteem group and low self-esteem group is listed in Table 2 , including classification accuracy (ACC), sensitivity (SEN), specificity (SPE), area under receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), F-score (F), Youden's index (Y), balanced accuracy (BAC), and paired t -test results on classification accuracy. The boxplot of the classification accuracy for all feature types are showed in Figure 2 . In the comparison of different feature types, the cortical surface area performs the worst in all feature types. It is found that the WM volume performs observably better than any other volumetric features (i.e., GM volume and CSF volume) with a comparatively higher classification accuracy of 86.31%. The performance of the similarity features is significantly improved comparing with using the cortical thickness. The multilevel ROI features perform the best with a classification accuracy of 96.66%, which indicates that the multilevel features possess superiority in characterizing brain morphometry between high self-esteem group and low self-esteem group. The AUC value of the multilevel ROI features is also larger than that of other feature types. Furthermore, the multilevel ROI features exhibit much better recognition ability between high self-esteem group and low self-esteem group with relatively higher specificity and sensitivity.
Mean value and standard deviation of the classification performance using different feature types .
|GM||WM||CSF||GM + WM + CSF||Thickness||Area||Similarity||Multilevel|
|ACC||83.5882 (4.9001)||86.3088 (4.1182)||69.5882 (6.0336)||88.6912 (4.4496)||68.2500 (4.1176)||76.4118 (7.8679)||95.2353 (2.7921)||96.6618 (2.3262)|
|AUC||0.9193 (0.0455)||0.9427 (0.0359)||0.7665 (0.0630)||0.9663 (0.0301)||0.7457 (0.0382)||0.8241 (0.9334)||0.9893 (0.0019)||0.9977 (0.0027)|
|SEN||0.8151 (0.0490)||0.8532 (0.0412)||0.6853 (0.0603)||0.8772 (0.0445)||0.6726 (0.0412)||0.7542 (0.0787)||0.9424 (0.0279)||0.9567 (0.0233)|
|SPE||0.8391 (0.0781)||0.8429 (0.0619)||0.6594 (0.1266)||0.9065 (0.0884)||0.6665 (0.0890)||0.7041 (0.0996)||0.9641 (0.0391)||0.9662 (0.0356)|
|Y||0.8327 (0.0681)||0.8832 (0.0693)||0.7324 (0.0940)||0.8674 (0.0629)||0.6985 (0.0692)||0.8241 (0.1307)||0.9506 (0.0469)||0.9671 (0.0340)|
|F||0.6718 (0.0980)||0.7262 (0.0824)||0.3918 (0.1207)||0.7738 (0.0890)||0.3650 (0.0824)||0.5282 (0.1574)||0.9247 (0.0558)||0.9332 (0.0465)|
|BAC||0.8349 (0.0524)||0.8574 (0.0459)||0.6777 (0.0823)||0.8877 (0.0562)||0.6670 (0.0528)||0.7464 (0.0765)||0.9529 (0.0281)||0.9665 (0.0237)|
|p -value||<0.001||<0.001||<0.001||<0.001||<0.001||<0.001||<0.001||–|
GM, gray matter volume; WM, white matter volume; CSF, cerebrospinal volume; GM+WM+CSF, union of gray matter volume, white matter volume, and cerebrospinal volume; Thickness, cortical thickness; Area, cortical surface area; Similarity, similarity feature of cortical thickness; Multilevel, integration of gray matter volume, white matter volume, cerebrospinal volume, cortical thickness, cortical surface area, and similarity feature; ACC, accuracy; AUC, area under receiver operating characteristic curve; SEN, sensitivity; SPE, specificity; Y, Youden's index; F, F-score; BAC, Balanced accuracy .
The weighting factor determines the proportion of ROI features and similarity features in the classification method. A larger weighting factor indicates that the weight of ROI features is high, which means that ROI features contribute more to the classification than the similarity features. In experiment on weighting factor, we intend to seek for an appropriate value for the weighting factor that makes the classification performance the best.
The classification performance with different weighting factors is shown in Figure 3 . The classification performance with multilevel features using different weighting factors is performed using the whole classification method, including both training and testing. The weighting factor has significant influences on the performance of the classification. Stable and good classification performance is achieved in the range from 0.35 to 0.65, which reflects the robustness of our method. The best results were obtained at 0.65, which indicates that the ROI features and the similarity features contribute almost the same in the classification method. The wide range of the weighting factor reduces the difficulty to decide the proportion of the two feature types.
The most discriminating features are selected for ROI features and similarity features, respectively. The top 15 of the discriminating ROI features and similarity feature are listed in Table 3 . The discriminating ROI features include GM volume, WM volume, CSF volume, cortical thickness, and cortical surface area. The discriminating ROI features are mainly distributed in occipital lobe (left cuneus, right superior occipital gyrus, left middle occipital gyrus, right middle occipital gyrus), frontal lobe (left middle frontal gyrus, right middle frontal gyrus, and right supplementary motor area), parietal lobe (right angular gyrus, left precuneus, right precuneus), limbic lobe (left posterior cingulate gyrus), temporal lobe (left middle temporal gyrus), and central region (right precentral gyrus). The most selected ROI features are WM volume and cortical thickness, which means that the high self-esteem group and the low self-esteem group have more brain structural differences in WM and cortical thickness than in other regions of the brain. Figure 4 shows the results of projecting the most discriminating ROI features onto the cortical surface.
Top 15 most discriminating ROI features and similarity features that were selected using the proposed classification framework .
|No .||ROI features||Frequency||Similarity features||Frequency|
|1||Middle frontal gyrus_R_W||185||Anterior cingulate gyrus_L-Middle occipital gyrus_L||95|
|2||Superior occipital gyrus_R_G||144||Middle frontal gyrus_R-Inferior frontal gyrus (triangular)_R||93|
|3||Precentral gyrus_R_T||141||Middle frontal gyrus_L-Middle occipital gyrus_L||92|
|4||Middle occipital gyrus_L_G||102||Middle occipital gyrus_L-Fusiform gyrus_L||85|
|5||Supplementary motor area_R_W||86||Middle frontal gyrus_R-Superior occipital gyrus_R||83|
|6||Posterior cingulate gyrus_L_C||75||Orbitofrontal cortex (superior)_L-Superior frontal gyrus (medial)_L||74|
|7||Middle frontal gyrus_L_W||73||Precentral gyrus_L-Inferior frontal gyrus (opercular)_L||73|
|8||Posterior cingulate gyrus_L_T||70||Superior frontal gyrus (dorsal)_R-Middle frontal gyrus_R||68|
|9||Middle occipital gyrus_R_T||68||Cuneus_L-Middle occipital gyrus_L||61|
|10||Angular gyrus_R_W||64||Precentral gyrus_R-Inferior frontal gyrus (opercular)_L||54|
|11||Precuneus_R_T||58||Middle frontal gyrus_R-Temporal pole (superior)_R||53|
|12||Cuneus_L_W||58||Middle frontal gyrus_R-Angular gyrus_L||48|
|13||Middle temporal gyrus_L_A||54||Middle frontal gyrus_L-Orbitofrontal cortex (inferior)_L||48|
|14||Precuneus_L_T||53||Middle frontal gyrus_R-Rectus gyrus_R||46|
|15||Middle occipital gyrus_L_T||53||Anterior cingulate gyrus_R-Angular gyrus_L||42|
L, left hemisphere; R, right hemisphere; G, gray matter volume; W, white matter volume; C, cerebrospinal volume; T, cortical thickness; A, cortical surface area; Frequency, selected frequency over 100 repetitions of two-fold crossvalidation .
The most discriminating ROI features projected onto the cortical surface .
A connection graph of the most discriminating similarity features is shown in Figure 5 , generated by Circos software (Krzywinski et al., 2009 ). The abbreviations of the regions can be referred to Table 4 . Thicker line in the connection graph indicates stronger connection between ROIs, while thinner line implies weaker connection. The red lines represent brain connections in the same hemisphere, while the gray lines represent brain connections in different hemispheres of the brain. The most discriminating similarity features are not distributed within the same hemisphere or brain lobes, but across both the right and left side of the brain and almost across all brain regions, including frontal lobe, occipital lobe, limbic lobe, parietal lobe, and central region. Moreover, regions in the bilateral frontal lobes show closely internal relation.
Connection graph of the most discriminating similarity features . Red color lines indicate relation in the same hemisphere, and gray color lines indicate relation in the two sides of the brain. Thickness of each line reflects its selection frequency, e.g., a thicker line indicates a higher selection frequency. The abbreviations of the regions can be referred to Table 4 .
Regions of interest (ROIs) defined in the automated anatomical labeling (AAL) template .
|Index||Region||Abbreviations||Index||Region||Abbreviations|
|1, 2||Precentral gyrus||PreCG||41, 42||Cuneus||CUN|
|3, 4||Superior frontal gyrus (dorsal)||SFGdor||43, 44||Lingual gyrus||LING|
|5, 6||Orbitofrontal cortex (superior)||ORBsup||45, 46||Superior occipital gyrus||SOG|
|7, 8||Middle frontal gyrus||MFG||47, 48||Middle occipital gyrus||MOG|
|9, 10||Orbitofrontal cortex (middle)||ORBmid||49, 50||Inferior occipital gyrus||IOG|
|11, 12||Inferior frontal gyrus (opercular)||IFGoperc||51, 52||Fusiform gyrus||FFG|
|13, 14||Inferior frontal gyrus (triangular)||IFGtriang||53, 54||Postcentral gyrus||PoCG|
|15, 16||Orbitofrontal cortex (inferior)||ORBinf||55, 56||Superior parietal gyrus||SPG|
|17, 18||Rolandic operculum||ROL||57, 58||Inferior parietal lobule||IPL|
|19, 20||Supplementary motor area||SMA||59, 60||Supramarginal gyrus||SMG|
|21, 22||Olfactory||OLF||61, 62||Angular gyrus||ANG|
|23, 24||Superior frontal gyrus (medial)||SFGmed||63, 64||Precuneus||PCUN|
|25, 26||Orbitofrontal cortex (medial)||ORBmed||65, 66||Paracentral lobule||PCL|
|27, 28||Rectus gyrus||REC||67, 68||Heschl gyrus||HES|
|29, 30||Insula||INS||69, 70||Superior temporal gyrus||STG|
|31, 32||Anterior cingulate gyrus||ACG||71, 72||Temporal pole (superior)||TPOsup|
|33, 34||Middle cingulate gyrus||MCG||73, 74||Middle temporal gyrus||MTG|
|35, 36||Posterior cingulate gyrus||PCG||75, 76||Temporal pole (middle)||TPOmid|
|37, 38||ParaHippocampal gyrus||PHG||77, 78||Inferior temporal gyrus||ITG|
|39, 40||Calcarine cortex||CAL|
Recent neuroimaging studies based on brain MR images are mainly reported on single-level morphometric measurements, such as brain volume or cortical thickness. Multilevel ROI features achieve promising classification results: accuracy = 96.66%, specificity = 99.77%, and sensitivity = 95.67%. The relatively high classification accuracy achieved in our study demonstrates that the multilevel ROI features have advantages on characterizing self-esteem related brain morphometry. In order to eliminate other factors that can interfere the experiment results, gender distribution of each group is kept balanced in our study.
The promising classification performance and the discriminating features, as reported in our study, are important for the clinical perspective, as self-esteem is a kind of complicated cognition psychology (Eisenberger et al., 2011 ), lacking neurological mechanism bases. Current neuroimaging studies are tried to locate specific brain regions that deal with self-cognition information. However, there are some shortcomings of these studies. Although these cognitive neuroscience studies give preliminary interpretation of relationship between information processing of self-esteem and the corresponding brain regions (Fuchs and Flugge, 2003 ; Gyurak et al., 2012 ; Zimmerman et al., 2016 ), network activities of specific brain areas are not taken into account in these studies. Our method can not only repair the deficiency of these existing methods but also provide information of both isolated ROI and brain connectivity between ROIs, which helps understand the development of self-evaluation and the change pattern under different self-esteem levels.
Brain regions that are related to self-esteem have been reported in previous morphometric studies. Mitchell et al. ( 2005 ) use functional MRI (fMRI) and neuropsychological test to reveal that the medial prefrontal cortex that is associated with self-reflective processing can be used to infer the mental states of other people. Morita et al. ( 2008 ) find that the right precentral gyrus plays a crucial role in self-face recognition using fMRI, which is regarded as the prerequisite for self-evaluation. Lieberman ( 2010 ) demonstrates that self-esteem correlates positively with several precuneus regions that participate in mental activity, self-referential thought, and reward. Oikawa et al. ( 2012 ) conduct an fMRI study about contrast effect in differential self-face evaluation, which shows that the posterior cingulate cortex is positively correlated with self-esteem. Frewen et al. ( 2013 ) use Visual-Verbal Self-Other Referential Processing Task and fMRI to study individual differences in neural bases, which implicates that the medial prefrontal cortex, cingulate, and precuneus are associated with self-esteem related social cognitive and affective neuroscience. Van der Meer et al. ( 2012 ) perform a self-reflection task and find that impaired insight is related to activation of angular gyrus during fMRI scanning. Middle temporal gyrus is associated with mentalizing about beliefs, desires, perceptions, or emotions of oneself and others (Gallagher and Frith, 2003 ; Northoff et al., 2006 ). Because few studies about the automatic classification of self-esteem are reported, we just compare the discriminating brain regions in our findings with existing self-esteem related morphometric studies. Consistent with these previous morphometric researches, middle frontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, posterior cingulate, angular, precuneus, cuneus, and middle temporal gyrus have also been examined in our results, which suggests the effectiveness of our classification method in revealing self-esteem related brain regions. At the same time, superior occipital, middle occipital, and supplementary motor that have not been reported in previous self-esteem related studies have been detected in our study. Further researches are needed to exclude the false positive in our results.
The most discriminating similarity features that are selected in our study are distributed in both the right and left hemisphere. Fossati et al. ( 2004 ) find that the right hemisphere has significant effects on encoding negative words under self-perception evaluation, involving right premotor cortex, right medial prefrontal cortex (dorsal), and right extra-striate cortex, which indicates that negative-evaluation is associated with right hemisphere. McKay et al. ( 2010 ) conduct an in-depth research on neural representation process of positive self-evaluation using dichotic listening method, which verifies that left hemisphere plays a dominant role in positive self-statements. These findings show that the right and left hemispheres have different self-evaluation neural representations. Positive self-statement is mainly affected by the left hemisphere, and negative self-statement is influenced by the right hemisphere. Our results of the most discriminating similarity features show the structural connections between different brain regions, which helps further study the structural connectivity characteristics related to self-esteem.
Several ROIs in the frontal lobe have been selected in our method. The human frontal lobe is primarily responsible for planning, sequencing and organizing behavior for attention, moral judgment, and self-control. After conducting thorough analysis of existing studies about self-esteem related neuropsychological mechanism, we find that prefrontal regions are the important components of self-esteem neural basis, including medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate. Medial prefrontal cortex, located at the front of brain, is responsible for emotion regulation. Craik et al. ( 1999 ) use positron emission tomography (PET) to find that specific areas in middle region and right front of the brain are active when people conduct evaluation on themselves or on others. Taylor and Brown ( 1988 ) show that dorsolateral prefrontal areas are strongly active when people evaluate themselves. A self-esteem related fMRI study suggests that medial prefrontal cortex has obviously been activated when people conduct self-assessment (Heatherton et al., 2006 ). Anterior cingulate, located at the internal surface of the frontal lobe, is an important component associated with behavior, cognition, and emotion. Moran et al. ( 2006 ) find that anterior cingulate plays a key role in processing positive information related to self-esteem. These studies indicate that there is a crucial relationship between frontal lobe and self-esteem related cognitive characteristics.
Although the classification performance is well, there are still some limitations in our study. First, despite the fact that our data amount is relatively small, as a pilot study, we still find the self-esteem related brain regions using machine learning method. Second, the image processing algorithms may affect the brain segmentation results and thus affect the measurements of the features. In this study, the segmentation algorithms are verified in published articles (Sled et al., 1998 ), which makes our results credible. Third, using the whole classification method to conduct experiment on weighting factor may lead to the overfitting problem on the training set, which may overestimate the performance of the classifier. In addition, we put forward some suggestions for further study of self-esteem related cognitive neuroscience. First, considering the complexity of self-esteem in psychological process, many factors, including psychological level, individual level, and social level, should be taken into account for accurate and reliable research. Second, the relationship between self-esteem and mental diseases needs strengthen research to predict and diagnose self-esteem related diseases, such as anxiety neurosis, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder, which is meaningful for resolving clinical problems. Third, self-esteem related studies about different races and different genders are required to explore the effects of different thinking patterns, value concepts, and world outlooks of different population groups.
In this study, we use the multilevel-ROI-features-based classification method to exam self-esteem related brain morphometry. T1-weighted brain MR image are used in our study. Multilevel ROI features consist of ROI features and similarity features, which is useful to locate the specific brain regions that are processing self-cognition information. Mixed feature selection methods are applied to select the most discriminating features related to self-esteem. The discriminating features that are selected in our study are consistent with existing structural studies. Moreover, our study provides an important step in revealing self-esteem related brain structure and brain connectivity, which offers a potential research direction to further study the mechanism basis of the cognitive neuroscience of self-esteem.
This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the Ethics Committee of the Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University with written informed consent from all subjects. All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University.
Writing the article: BP; Revision of the article: BP, JL, AS, ZZ, TZ, SW, and YD; Data analysis and statistical expertise: BP and SW; Data collection: JL, AS, and SW; Obtaining funding: JL, SW, and YD.
This study is supported partly by the National 863 Program of China (2015AA020514), NSFC grants (61501452), SSTP program (ZXY201426), Jiangsu Key Research and Development programs (BE2016613, BE2016010, BE2016010-3, BE2016010-4), postdoctoral research funding of Jiangsu province (1501089C), BKLN program, Suzhou Scientific and Technologic programs (ZXY201426, SYG201606, SZS201609), and SND Medical Plan Project (2016Z010).
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
- Agroskin D., Klackl J., Jonas E. (2014). The self-liking brain: a VBM study on the structural substrate of self-esteem . PLoS ONE 9 :e86430. 10.1371/journal.pone.0086430 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Ashburner J., Friston K. J. (2000). Voxel-based morphometry-the methods . Neuroimage 11 , 805–821. 10.1006/nimg.2000.0582 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Baumeister R. F., Bushman B. J., Campbell W. K. (2000). Self-esteem, narcissism, and aggression does violence result from low self-esteem or from threatened egotism? Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 9 , 26–29. 10.1111/1467-8721.00053 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Baumeister R. F., Campbell J. D., Krueger J. I., Vohs K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 4 , 1–44. 10.1111/1529-1006.01431 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Beer J. S., Lombardo M. V., Bhanji J. P. (2010). Roles of medial prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex in self-evaluation . J. Cogn. Neurosci. 22 , 2108–2119. 10.1162/jocn.2009.21359 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Brown J. D., Marshall M. A. (2001). Self-esteem and emotion: some thoughts about feelings . Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 27 , 575–584. 10.1177/0146167201275006 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Cavallo J. V., Holmes J. G., Fitzsimons G. M., Murray S. L., Wood J. V. (2012). Managing motivational conflict: how self-esteem and executive resources influence self-regulatory responses to risk . J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 103 :430. 10.1037/a0028821 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Craik F. I., Moroz T. M., Moscovitch M., Stuss D. T., Winocur G., Tulving E., et al. (1999). In search of the self: a positron emission tomography study . Psychol. Sci. 10 , 26–34. 10.1111/1467-9280.00102 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Ding C., Peng H. (2005). Minimum redundancy feature selection from microarray gene expression data . J. Bioinform. Comput. Biol. 3 , 185–205. 10.1142/S0219720005001004 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Duan K. B., Rajapakse J. C., Wang H., Azuaje F. (2005). Multiple SVM-RFE for gene selection in cancer classification with expression data . IEEE Trans. Nanobiosci. 4 , 228–234. 10.1109/TNB.2005.853657 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Eisenberger N. I., Inagaki T. K., Muscatell K. A., Haltom K. E. B., Leary M. R. (2011). The neural sociometer: brain mechanisms underlying state self-esteem . J. Cogn. Neurosci. 23 , 3448–3455. 10.1162/jocn_a_00027 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Fossati P., Hevenor S. J., Lepage M., Graham S. J., Grady C., Keightley M. L., et al.. (2004). Distributed self in episodic memory: neural correlates of successful retrieval of self-encoded positive and negative personality traits . Neuroimage 22 , 1596–1604. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.03.034 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Frewen P. A., Lundberg E., Brimson-Théberge M., Théberge J. (2013). Neuroimaging self-esteem: a fMRI study of individual differences in women . Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 8 , 546–555. 10.1093/scan/nss032 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Fuchs E., Flugge G. (2003). Chronic social stress: effects on limbic brain structures . Physiol. Behav. 79 , 417–427. 10.1016/S0031-9384(03)00161-6 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Galar M., Fernández A., Barrenechea E., Bustince H., Herrera F. (2011). An overview of ensemble methods for binary classifiers in multi-class problems: experimental study on one-vs-one and one-vs-all schemes . Pattern Recognit. 44 , 1761–1776. 10.1016/j.patcog.2011.01.017 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Gallagher H. L., Frith C. D. (2003). Functional imaging of 'theory of mind' . Trends Cogn. Sci. 7 , 77–83. 10.1016/S1364-6613(02)00025-6 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Guyon I., Weston J., Barnhill S., Vapnik V. (2004). Gene selection for cancer classification using support vector machines . Mach. Learn. 46 , 389–422. 10.1023/A:1012487302797 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Gyurak A., Hooker C. I., Miyakawa A., Verosky S., Luerssen A., Ayduk Ö. N. (2012). Individual differences in neural responses to social rejection: the joint effect of self-esteem and attentional control . Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 7 , 322–331. 10.1093/scan/nsr014 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Heatherton T. F., Wyland C. L., Macrae C. N., Demos K. E., Denny B. T., Kelley W. M. (2006). Medial prefrontal activity differentiates self from close others . Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 1 , 18–25. 10.1093/scan/nsl001 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Heimpel S. A., Elliot A. J., Wood J. V. (2006). Basic personality dispositions, self-esteem, and personal goals: an approach-avoidance analysis . J. Pers. 74 , 1293–1320. 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00410.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Krzywinski M., Schein J., Birol I., Connors J., Gascoyne R., Horsman D., et al.. (2009). Circos: an information aesthetic for comparative genomics . Genome Res. 19 , 1639–1645. 10.1101/gr.092759.109 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Leary M. R., Baumeister R. F. (2000). The nature and function of self-esteem: sociometer theory . Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 32 , 1–62. 10.1016/S0065-2601(00)80003-9 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Li G., Nie J., Wu G., Wang Y., Shen D. (2012). Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Consistent reconstruction of cortical surfaces from longitudinal brain MR images . Neuroimage 59 , 3805–3820. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.012 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Lieberman M. D. (2010). Social cognitive neuroscience , in Handbook of Social Psychology, 5th Edn. , (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), 143–193. 10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001005 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- MacCann C., Fogarty G. J., Zeidner M., Roberts R. D. (2011). Coping mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and academic achievement . Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 36 , 60–70. 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.11.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Marsh H. W., Craven R. G. (2006). Reciprocal effects of self-concept and performance from a multidimensional perspective: beyond seductive pleasure and unidimensional perspectives . Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 1 , 133–163. 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00010.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Martin-Albo J., Núñez J. L., Navarro J. G., Grijalvo F. (2007). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: translation and validation in university students . Span. J. Psychol. 10 :458. 10.1017/S1138741600006727 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Martyn-Nemeth P., Penckofer S., Gulanick M., Velsor-Friedrich B., Bryant F. B. (2009). The relationships among self-esteem, stress, coping, eating behavior, and depressive mood in adolescents . Res. Nurs. Health 32 , 96–109. 10.1002/nur.20304 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Mauss I. B., Bunge S. A., Gross J. J. (2007). Automatic emotion regulation . Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 1 , 146–167. 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00005.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- McKay R., Arciuli J., Atkinson A., Bennett E., Pheils E. (2010). Lateralisation of self-esteem: an investigation using a dichotically presented auditory adaptation of the Implicit Association Test . Cortex 46 , 367–373. 10.1016/j.cortex.2009.05.004 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Mitchell J. P., Banaji M. R., Macrae C. N. (2005). The link between social cognition and self-referential thought in the medial prefrontal cortex . J. Cogn. Neurosci. 17 , 1306–1315. 10.1162/0898929055002418 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Moran J. M., Macrae C. N., Heatherton T. F., Wyland C. L., Kelley W. M. (2006). Neuroanatomical evidence for distinct cognitive and affective components of self . J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18 , 1586–1594. 10.1162/jocn.2006.18.9.1586 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Morita T., Itakura S., Saito D. N., Nakashita S., Harada T., Kochiyama T., et al.. (2008). The role of the right prefrontal cortex in self-evaluation of the face: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study . J. Cogn. Neurosci. 20 , 342–355. 10.1162/jocn.2008.20024 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Northoff G., Heinzel A., De Greck M., Bermpohl F., Dobrowolny H., Panksepp J. (2006). Self-referential processing in our brain—a meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self . Neuroimage 31 , 440–457. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.12.002 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Oikawa H., Sugiura M., Sekiguchi A., Tsukiura T., Miyauchi C. M., Hashimoto T., et al.. (2012). Self-face evaluation and self-esteem in young females: an fMRI study using contrast effect . Neuroimage 59 , 3668–3676. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.098 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Onoda K., Okamoto Y., Nakashima K. I., Nittono H., Yoshimura S., Yamawaki S., et al.. (2010). Does low self-esteem enhance social pain? The relationship between trait self-esteem and anterior cingulate cortex activation induced by ostracism . Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 5 , 385–391. 10.1093/scan/nsq002 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Peng B., Chen Z., Ma L., Dai Y. (2015). Cerebral alterations of type 2 diabetes mellitus on MRI: a pilot study . Neurosci. Lett. 606 , 100–105. 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.08.030 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Peng H., Long F., Ding C. (2005). Feature selection based on mutual information criteria of max-dependency, max-relevance, and min-redundancy . IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 27 , 1226–1238. 10.1109/TPAMI.2005.159 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Pruessner J. C., Baldwin M. W., Dedovic K., Renwick R., Mahani N. K., Lord C., et al.. (2005). Self-esteem, locus of control, hippocampal volume, and cortisol regulation in young and old adulthood . Neuroimage 28 , 815–826. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.06.014 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Robins R. W., Hendin H. M., Trzesniewski K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale . Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 27 , 151–161. 10.1177/0146167201272002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Shattuck D. W., Sandor-Leahy S. R., Schaper K. A., Rottenberg D. A., Leahy R. M. (2001). Magnetic resonance image tissue classification using a partial volume model . Neuroimage 13 , 856–876. 10.1006/nimg.2000.0730 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Sled J. G., Zijdenbos A. P., Evans A. C. (1998). A nonparametric method for automatic correction of intensity nonuniformity in MRI data . IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 17 , 87–97. 10.1109/42.668698 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Smith S. M. (2002). Fast robust automated brain extraction . Hum. Brain Mapp. 17 , 143–155. 10.1002/hbm.10062 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Somerville L. H., Kelley W. M., Heatherton T. F. (2010). Self-esteem modulates medial prefrontal cortical responses to evaluative social feedback . Cereb. Cortex 20 , 3005–3013. 10.1093/cercor/bhq049 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Taylor S. E., Brown J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: a social psychological perspective on mental health . Psychol. Bull. 103 , 193. 10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Thirion J. P. (1998). Image matching as a diffusion process: an analogy with Maxwell's demons . Med. Image Anal. 2 , 243–260. 10.1016/S1361-8415(98)80022-4 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Tzourio-Mazoyer N., Landeau B., Papathanassiou D., Crivello F., Etard O., Delcroix N., et al.. (2002). Automated anatomical labeling of activations in SPM using a macroscopic anatomical parcellation of the MNI MRI single-subject brain . Neuroimage 15 , 273–289. 10.1006/nimg.2001.0978 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Van der Meer L., de Vos A. E., Stiekema A. P., Pijnenborg G. H., van Tol M. J., Nolen W. A., et al.. (2012). Insight in schizophrenia: involvement of self-reflection networks? Schizophr. Bull. 39 , 1288–1295. 10.1093/schbul/sbs122 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Wang L., Shi F., Li G., Shen D. (2013). 4D segmentation of brain MR images with constrained cortical thickness variation . PLoS ONE 8 :e64207. 10.1371/journal.pone.0064207 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Wang Y., Nie J., Yap P. T., Li G., Shi F., Geng X., et al.. (2014). Knowledge-guided robust MRI brain extraction for diverse large-scale neuroimaging studies on humans and non-human primates . PLoS ONE 9 :e77810. 10.1371/journal.pone.0077810 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Wang Y., Ollendick T. H. (2001). A cross-cultural and developmental analysis of self-esteem in Chinese and Western children . Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 4 , 253–271. 10.1023/A:1017551215413 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Wee C. Y., Yap P. T., Denny K., Browndyke J. N., Potter G. G., Welsh-Bohmer K. A., et al.. (2012a). Resting-state multi-spectrum functional connectivity networks for identification of MCI patients . PLoS ONE 7 :e37828. 10.1371/journal.pone.0037828 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Wee C. Y., Yap P. T., Shen D. (2013). Prediction of Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment using cortical morphological patterns . Hum. Brain Mapp. 34 , 3411–3425. 10.1002/hbm.22156 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Wee C. Y., Yap P. T., Zhang D., Denny K., Browndyke J. N., Potter G. G., et al.. (2012b). Identification of MCI individuals using structural and functional connectivity networks . Neuroimage 59 , 2045–2056. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.015 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Whitwell J. L., Crum W. R., Watt H. C., Fox N. C. (2001). Normalization of cerebral volumes by use of intracranial volume: implications for longitudinal quantitative MR imaging . Am. J. Neuroradiol. 22 , 1483–1489. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Wu G., Kim M., Wang Q., Shen D. (2014). S-HAMMER: hierarchical attribute-guided, symmetric diffeomorphic registration for MR brain images . Hum. Brain Mapp. 35 , 1044–1060. 10.1002/hbm.22233 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
- Zimmerman M. E., Ezzati A., Katz M. J., Lipton M. L., Brickman A. M., Sliwinski M. J., et al.. (2016). Perceived stress is differentially related to hippocampal subfield volumes among older adults . PLoS ONE 11 :e0154530. 10.1371/journal.pone.0154530 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
Articles from Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience are provided here courtesy of Frontiers Media SA | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5438414/ | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | How Our Brain Preserves Our Sense of Self | We are all time travelers. Every day we experience new things as we travel forward through time. As we do, the countless connections between the nerve cells in our brain recalibrate to accommodate these experiences. It's as if we reassemble ourselves daily, maintaining a mental construct of ourselves in physical time, and the glue that holds together our core identity is memory.
Our travels are not limited to physical time. We also experience mental time travel. We visit the past through our memories and then journey into the future by imagining what tomorrow or next year might bring. When we do so, we think of ourselves as we are now, remember who we once were and imagine how we will be.
A study, published in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience ( SCAN ), explores how one particular brain region helps to knit together memories of the present and future self . When people sustain an injury to that area, it leads to an impaired sense of identity. The region—called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)—may produce a fundamental model of oneself and place it in mental time. When the region does so, this study suggests, it may be the source of our sense of self.
Psychologists have long noticed that a person's mind handles information about oneself differently from other details. Memories that reference the self are easier to recall than other forms of memory. They benefit from what researchers have called a self-reference effect (SRE), in which information related to oneself is privileged and more salient in our thoughts. Self-related memories are distinct from both episodic memory, the category of recollections that pertains to specific events and experiences, and semantic memory, which connects to more general knowledge, such as the color of grass and the characteristics of the seasons.
SREs, then, are a way to investigate how our sense of self emerges from the workings of the brain—something that multiple research groups have studied intensely. For example, previous research employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a method that uses blood flow and oxygen consumption in specific brain areas as a measure of neural activity, to identify regions that were activated by self-reference . These studies identified the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) as a brain region related to self-thought.
This area, the mPFC, can be further divided into upper and lower regions (called dorsal and ventral, respectively), and it turns out that each one makes different contributions to self-related thought. The dorsal section plays a role in distinguishing self from other and appears to be task-related, whereas the ventral section, the vmPFC, contributes more to emotional processing.
In the SCAN study, the researchers used the self-reference effect to assess memories of present and future selves among people who had brain lesions to the vmPFC. The scientists worked with seven people who had lesions to this area and then compared them with a control group made up of eight people with injuries to other parts of the brain, as well as 23 healthy individuals without brain injuries. By comparing these groups, the scientists could investigate whether brain lesions in general or those to the vmPFC specifically might affect SREs. All people in the study underwent a thorough neuropsychological evaluation, which confirmed that they were within normal ranges for a variety of cognitive assessments, including measures of verbal fluency and spatial short-term memory. The researchers then asked the participants to list adjectives to describe themselves and a well-known celebrity, both in the present and 10 years in the future. Later, the participants had to recall these same traits.
The researchers discovered that people in their control group could recall more adjectives linked to themselves in the present and future than adjectives linked to the celebrity. In other words, scientists found that the self-reference effect extends to both the future and the present self. Although there was some variation in the group—people with brain injuries to areas other than the vmPFC were somewhat less able to recall details about their future self when compared with healthy participants—the self-reference effect still held true.
Results were distinctly different, however, for the participants with injuries to the vmPFC. People with lesions in this area had little or no ability to recall references to the self, regardless of the context of time. Their identification of adjectives for celebrities in the present or future was also significantly impaired when compared with the rest of the participants' responses. In addition, people with vmPFC lesions had less confidence about an individual's ability to possess traits than other people in the study. All of this evidence points to a central role for the vmPFC in the formation and maintenance of identity.
The new findings are intriguing for several reasons. Brain lesions can help us understand the normal function of the region involved. Lesions of the vmPFC are associated with altered personality, blunted emotions, and a number of changes in emotional and executive function. Injury to this area is most often associated with confabulations : false memories that people recite to listeners with great confidence . Although it may be tempting for someone to view confabulations as deliberate or creative falsehoods, people who tell them actually are unaware that their stories are false. Instead it is possible their confusion could stem from misfunctioning memory retrieval and monitoring mechanisms.
More broadly, the study helps us understand how self- related memories—recollections key to maintaining our core sense of identity—depend on the function of the vmPFC. But what about our past selves? Curiously, in previous studies that asked people to consider their past selves, there was no more activation of the mPFC than when considering someone else. Our past selves seem foreign to us, as if they were individuals apart from us.
One idea that scientists have put forward to understand this distinction is that perhaps we are not very kind in our judgments of our past selves. Instead we may be rather critical and harshly judgmental of our previous behavior, emotions and personal traits. In these situations, we may use our past primarily to construct a more positive self-image in the present . Put another way, because we may recognize flaws in our past self's behavior, we tend to distance ourselves from the person we once were.
Bringing the present and future into the spotlight, then, is central to understanding the way our brain and thoughts build our current identities. In many ways, it makes sense that the mPFC is important in this process of recalling present details and imagining future ones that build on our recollections. The prefrontal cortex, including the mPFC and its subdivisions, forms a network in the brain that is involved in future planning. That network also includes the hippocampus, a brain structure that is central to episodic memory formation and that can track moments as sequential events in time . In past work, researchers have found that manipulating the activity of the hippocampus alters creative and future imaginings, which suggests an important role for brain structures supporting memory in imagining the future . In fact, although we often think of memory as the brain's accurate and dispassionate recording device, some scholars have characterized it as a form of imagination .
Future thought is a vital component of being human. Its importance in our culture is embodied in the mythological figure and pre-Olympian god Prometheus (whose name means “fore-thinker”), patron of the arts and sciences. According to Greek legend, he shaped humans out of clay and bestowed them with fire and the skills of craftsmanship. These are acts that illustrate the power of imagining a novel future. Although there is debate as to whether thinking about the future is an exclusively human feature —birds such as Western Scrub-Jays, for example, appear to anticipate and plan for future food needs—it is clear that future thought has played a significant role in human evolution . This ability may have contributed to the development of language , and it has a key part in human interactions , where the vmPFC is central to evaluating and taking advantage of social context.
Now, thanks to this new research, we have a better idea than ever about the way a small region within our brains is able to build and hold this core ability to maintain our identity. | https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-our-brain-preserves-our-sense-of-self/ | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | This Is Where Self-Esteem Lives In The Brain | Researchers at Dartmouth College have identified a region of the human brain that seems to predict a person's self-esteem levels.
It's called the frontostriatal pathway, and the stronger and more active it is in the brain, the more self-esteem someone has. The findings, published online in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, could help change the way we understand self-esteem: not as a panacea for all problems, but as a physical indicator of risk for psychological disorders.
"People think raising self-esteem will raise IQs and test scores, and that hasn't really panned out," said lead author Robert Chavez, a Ph.D. student at Dartmouth. "We should be looking at it more as a measure of how susceptible you are to psychopathologies like depression and anxiety."
Chavez found that self-esteem lies in the frontostriatal pathway, highlighted in the illustration below:
A depiction of the anatomical connections between the ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex. The strength of these connections correlated with subjects' self-esteem scores in the study. (Courtesy of Robert Chavez)
It connects the medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to the ventral striatum, which deals with feelings of motivation and reward. Chavez used two different kinds of magnetic resonance imaging to measure both the physical boundaries of the pathway -- what he called the "road" -- and activity levels on that pathway -- or the "traffic" on that road.
If a person had a very strong "road," he or she was more likely to have higher long-term self-esteem. The "traffic" levels on that road, however, predicted higher momentary self-esteem.
Sometimes a person's frontostriatal pathway would be both anatomically strong and very active, but one quality didn't necessarily lead to the other.
For the study, Chavez and Todd Heatherton, Ph.D., a Dartmouth professor, teamed up to scan 48 people's brains using both diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). While the scans were taking place, participants answered questions about how they saw themselves in the moment and long-term by rating themselves on qualities like "hard-working," "happy," "depressed" and "pessimistic." The terms were equally split between positive and negative descriptions.
Then Chavez analyzed participants' brain scans and matched them up to the times they rated themselves based on certain traits. He saw that when participants answered about self-esteem in the short term, the scan showed a lot of activity on the pathway. Meanwhile, the stronger the pathway was anatomically, the more likely participants were to have long-term self-esteem. Interestingly, Chavez only saw brain activity on the scans when people rated themselves with positive terms, not negative ones.
"Being down on yourself doesn't drive these effects," explained Chavez. "It's more driven by the positive aspects of your sense of self."
Given past studies about how repeated behaviors (say, meditation ) can actually alter brain traits, Chavez is hopeful that researchers can figure out a way to change or strengthen the frontostriatal pathway with therapy -- and use MRIs to monitor a patient's progress. | https://www.huffpost.com/entry/self-esteem-brain_n_5500501 | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | The roots of human self-awareness | New study points to a complex, diffuse patchwork of brain pathways
University of Iowa researchers studied the brain of a patient with damage to three regions long considered integral to self-awareness—left to right, the insular cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex. The scans indicate that self-awareness is a product of a diffuse patchwork of brain pathways. Image credit: UI Department of Neurology.
By: John Riehl | 2012.08.22 | 04:02 pm
Ancient Greek philosophers considered the ability to “know thyself” as the pinnacle of humanity. Now, thousands of years later, neuroscientists are trying to decipher precisely how the human brain constructs our sense of self.
Self-awareness is defined as being aware of oneself, including one’s traits, feelings, and behaviors. Neuroscientists have believed that three brain regions are critical for self-awareness: the insular cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the medial prefrontal cortex.
However, a research team led by the University of Iowa has challenged this theory by showing that self-awareness is more a product of a diffuse patchwork of pathways in the brain—including other regions—rather than confined to specific areas.
The conclusions came from a rare opportunity to study a person with extensive brain damage to the three regions believed critical for self-awareness. The person, a 57-year-old, college-educated man known as “Patient R,” passed all standard tests of self-awareness. He also displayed repeated self-recognition, both when looking in the mirror and when identifying himself in unaltered photographs taken during all periods of his life.
“What this research clearly shows is that self-awareness corresponds to a brain process that cannot be localized to a single region of the brain,” says David Rudrauf, co-corresponding author of the paper, published online Aug. 22 in the journal PLoS One . “In all likelihood, self-awareness emerges from much more distributed interactions among networks of brain regions.”
The authors believe the brainstem, thalamus, and posteromedial cortices play roles in self-awareness, as has been theorized.
The researchers observed that Patient R’s behaviors and communication often reflected depth and self-insight. First author Carissa Philippi, who earned her doctorate in neuroscience at the UI in 2011, conducted a detailed self-awareness interview with Patient R and found he had a deep capacity for introspection, one of humans’ most evolved features of self-awareness.
“Most people who meet Patient R for the first time have no idea that anything is wrong with him. They see a normal-looking middle-aged man who walks, talks, listens, and acts no differently than the average person.”
— David Rudrauf
— David Rudrauf
“During the interview, I asked him how he would describe himself to somebody,” says Philippi, now a postdoctoral research scholar at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. “He said, ‘I am just a normal person with a bad memory.’”
Patient R also demonstrated self-agency, meaning the ability to perceive that an action is the consequence of one’s own intention. When rating himself on personality measures collected over the course of a year, Patient R showed a stable ability to think about and perceive himself. However, his brain damage also affected his temporal lobes, causing severe amnesia that has disrupted his ability to update new memories into his “autobiographical self.” Beyond this disruption, all other features of R’s self-awareness remained fundamentally intact.
“Most people who meet R for the first time have no idea that anything is wrong with him,” notes Rudrauf, a former assistant professor of neurology at the UI and now a research scientist at the INSERM Laboratory of Functional Imaging in France. “They see a normal-looking middle-aged man who walks, talks, listens, and acts no differently than the average person.
“According to previous research, this man should be a zombie,” he adds. “But as we have shown, he is certainly not one. Once you’ve had the chance to meet him, you immediately recognize that he is self-aware.”
Patient R is a member of the UI’s world-renowned Iowa Neurological Patient Registry, which was established in 1982 and has more than 500 active members with various forms of damage to one or more regions in the brain.
The researchers had begun questioning the insular cortex’s role in self-awareness in a 2009 study that showed that Patient R was able to feel his own heartbeat, a process termed “interoceptive awareness.”
The UI researchers estimate that Patient R has ten percent of tissue remaining in his insula and one percent of tissue remaining in his anterior cingulate cortex. Some had seized upon the presence of tissue to question whether those regions were in fact being used for self-awareness. But neuroimaging results presented in the current study reveal that Patient R’s remaining tissue is highly abnormal and largely disconnected from the rest of the brain.
“Here, we have a patient who is missing all the areas in the brain that are typically thought to be needed for self-awareness yet he remains self-aware,” says co-corresponding author Justin Feinstein, who earned his doctorate at the UI in February. “Clearly, neuroscience is only beginning to understand how the human brain can generate a phenomenon as complex as self-awareness.”
The research team included Daniel Tranel, UI professor of neurology and psychology and director of the Neuroscience Graduate Program; Gregory Landini, UI professor of philosophy; Antonio Damasio, professor of neuroscience at the University of Southern California; Sahib Khalsa, co-chief resident of psychiatry at the University of California Los Angeles; and Kenneth Williford, associate professor of philosophy and humanities at the University of Texas at Arlington.
The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the Mathers Foundation, and the UI Carver College of Medicine funded the research.
Contacts: | https://now.uiowa.edu/2012/08/roots-human-self-awareness | 48 |
what part of the brain controls self image | How Our Brain Preserves Our Sense of Self | We are all time travelers. Every day we experience new things as we travel forward through time. As we do, the countless connections between the nerve cells in our brain recalibrate to accommodate these experiences. It's as if we reassemble ourselves daily, maintaining a mental construct of ourselves in physical time, and the glue that holds together our core identity is memory.
Our travels are not limited to physical time. We also experience mental time travel. We visit the past through our memories and then journey into the future by imagining what tomorrow or next year might bring. When we do so, we think of ourselves as we are now, remember who we once were and imagine how we will be.
A study, published in the journal Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience ( SCAN ), explores how one particular brain region helps to knit together memories of the present and future self . When people sustain an injury to that area, it leads to an impaired sense of identity. The region—called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)—may produce a fundamental model of oneself and place it in mental time. When the region does so, this study suggests, it may be the source of our sense of self.
Psychologists have long noticed that a person's mind handles information about oneself differently from other details. Memories that reference the self are easier to recall than other forms of memory. They benefit from what researchers have called a self-reference effect (SRE), in which information related to oneself is privileged and more salient in our thoughts. Self-related memories are distinct from both episodic memory, the category of recollections that pertains to specific events and experiences, and semantic memory, which connects to more general knowledge, such as the color of grass and the characteristics of the seasons.
SREs, then, are a way to investigate how our sense of self emerges from the workings of the brain—something that multiple research groups have studied intensely. For example, previous research employed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a method that uses blood flow and oxygen consumption in specific brain areas as a measure of neural activity, to identify regions that were activated by self-reference . These studies identified the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) as a brain region related to self-thought.
This area, the mPFC, can be further divided into upper and lower regions (called dorsal and ventral, respectively), and it turns out that each one makes different contributions to self-related thought. The dorsal section plays a role in distinguishing self from other and appears to be task-related, whereas the ventral section, the vmPFC, contributes more to emotional processing.
In the SCAN study, the researchers used the self-reference effect to assess memories of present and future selves among people who had brain lesions to the vmPFC. The scientists worked with seven people who had lesions to this area and then compared them with a control group made up of eight people with injuries to other parts of the brain, as well as 23 healthy individuals without brain injuries. By comparing these groups, the scientists could investigate whether brain lesions in general or those to the vmPFC specifically might affect SREs. All people in the study underwent a thorough neuropsychological evaluation, which confirmed that they were within normal ranges for a variety of cognitive assessments, including measures of verbal fluency and spatial short-term memory. The researchers then asked the participants to list adjectives to describe themselves and a well-known celebrity, both in the present and 10 years in the future. Later, the participants had to recall these same traits.
The researchers discovered that people in their control group could recall more adjectives linked to themselves in the present and future than adjectives linked to the celebrity. In other words, scientists found that the self-reference effect extends to both the future and the present self. Although there was some variation in the group—people with brain injuries to areas other than the vmPFC were somewhat less able to recall details about their future self when compared with healthy participants—the self-reference effect still held true.
Results were distinctly different, however, for the participants with injuries to the vmPFC. People with lesions in this area had little or no ability to recall references to the self, regardless of the context of time. Their identification of adjectives for celebrities in the present or future was also significantly impaired when compared with the rest of the participants' responses. In addition, people with vmPFC lesions had less confidence about an individual's ability to possess traits than other people in the study. All of this evidence points to a central role for the vmPFC in the formation and maintenance of identity.
The new findings are intriguing for several reasons. Brain lesions can help us understand the normal function of the region involved. Lesions of the vmPFC are associated with altered personality, blunted emotions, and a number of changes in emotional and executive function. Injury to this area is most often associated with confabulations : false memories that people recite to listeners with great confidence . Although it may be tempting for someone to view confabulations as deliberate or creative falsehoods, people who tell them actually are unaware that their stories are false. Instead it is possible their confusion could stem from misfunctioning memory retrieval and monitoring mechanisms.
More broadly, the study helps us understand how self- related memories—recollections key to maintaining our core sense of identity—depend on the function of the vmPFC. But what about our past selves? Curiously, in previous studies that asked people to consider their past selves, there was no more activation of the mPFC than when considering someone else. Our past selves seem foreign to us, as if they were individuals apart from us.
One idea that scientists have put forward to understand this distinction is that perhaps we are not very kind in our judgments of our past selves. Instead we may be rather critical and harshly judgmental of our previous behavior, emotions and personal traits. In these situations, we may use our past primarily to construct a more positive self-image in the present . Put another way, because we may recognize flaws in our past self's behavior, we tend to distance ourselves from the person we once were.
Bringing the present and future into the spotlight, then, is central to understanding the way our brain and thoughts build our current identities. In many ways, it makes sense that the mPFC is important in this process of recalling present details and imagining future ones that build on our recollections. The prefrontal cortex, including the mPFC and its subdivisions, forms a network in the brain that is involved in future planning. That network also includes the hippocampus, a brain structure that is central to episodic memory formation and that can track moments as sequential events in time . In past work, researchers have found that manipulating the activity of the hippocampus alters creative and future imaginings, which suggests an important role for brain structures supporting memory in imagining the future . In fact, although we often think of memory as the brain's accurate and dispassionate recording device, some scholars have characterized it as a form of imagination .
Future thought is a vital component of being human. Its importance in our culture is embodied in the mythological figure and pre-Olympian god Prometheus (whose name means “fore-thinker”), patron of the arts and sciences. According to Greek legend, he shaped humans out of clay and bestowed them with fire and the skills of craftsmanship. These are acts that illustrate the power of imagining a novel future. Although there is debate as to whether thinking about the future is an exclusively human feature —birds such as Western Scrub-Jays, for example, appear to anticipate and plan for future food needs—it is clear that future thought has played a significant role in human evolution . This ability may have contributed to the development of language , and it has a key part in human interactions , where the vmPFC is central to evaluating and taking advantage of social context.
Now, thanks to this new research, we have a better idea than ever about the way a small region within our brains is able to build and hold this core ability to maintain our identity. | https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-our-brain-preserves-our-sense-of-self/ | 48 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | St. Croix | US Virgin Islands | Your must-see for history
A must-see for history buffs, St. Croix has flown the flags of Spain, The Netherlands, England, France, the Knights of Malta and Denmark. On the island’s northern shore, Christiansted—once capital of the Danish West Indies—features 18th-century butter-colored, red-roofed buildings and quaint stone streets. Frederiksted, its twin city to the west, boasts a fort that once protected the island from pirates and rival nations. Between them, the ruins of hundreds of sugar and cattle estates dot the landscape, one of which today houses a botanical garden and restored buildings. At the island’s tip stands Point Udall and its signature sundial monument, marking the easternmost point in the United States. But St. Croix is not only about history. We’re also known for our gorgeous beaches, world-class recreational activities, fine dining, resorts, casinos and golf courses. Plus, you’ll discover our unique take on arts, crafts, music, festivals and cultural events.
St. Croix
Trip
Ideas | https://www.visitusvi.com/st-croix | 49 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | Saint Croix - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the island of Saint Croix in the Virgin Islands. For other uses, see St. Croix (disambiguation) .
St. Croix is the largest of the islands in the territory, while the capital Charlotte Amalie is located on St. Thomas . As of the 2020 United States Census, St. Croix’s population was 41,004. [2] The island's highest point is Mount Eagle , at 355 meters (1,165 ft). St. Croix's nickname is "Twin City", for its two towns, Frederiksted on the western end and Christiansted on the northeast part of the island.
The island's indigenous Taino name is Ay Ay ("the river"). [3] Its indigenous Carib name is Cibuquiera ("the stony land"). [3] Its modern name, Saint Croix , is derived from the French Sainte-Croix , itself a translation of the Spanish name Isla de la Santa Cruz (meaning "island of the Holy Cross "), given by Columbus in 1493. [4] The French name was partially retained under Danish rule as Sankt Croix , and the island was finally given its current spelling following the US takeover in 1917. The associated demonym for the island is Crucian, derived from the original Spanish name. [4]
Igneri pottery indicates that people's presence on the island from 1 to 700, followed by the Taíno from 700 to 1425, before the encroachment by the Caribs in 1425. However, the island was devoid of habitation by 1590. [5]
The island was inhabited by various indigenous groups during its prehistory. Christopher Columbus landed on Santa Cruz (Holy Cross), as he called it, on 14 November 1493, and immediately was attacked by the Kalinago , who lived at Salt River on the north shore. This is the first recorded fight between the Spanish and a New World native population, and Columbus gave the battle site the name Cabo de la Flecha (Cape of the Arrow). [6] The Spanish never colonized the Islands, but most or all of the native population was eventually dispersed or killed. By the end of the 16th century, the islands were said to be uninhabited. [7]
Dutch and English settlers landed at Saint Croix in 1625, [8] joined by some French refugees from Saint Kitts . However, the English expelled the Dutch and French settlers, before they themselves were evicted by a Spanish invasion from Puerto Rico in August 1650. [9] The Spanish occupation was short-lived, since a French force of 166 men attacked, and in the following year 1651 had established a colony of 300 on the island. [8] From 1651 until 1664, the Knights of Malta (at the time a vassal state of the Kingdom of Sicily ), ruled the island in the name of Louis XIV . [9] The island then passed to the French West India Company . [8] The colony was evacuated to San Domingo in 1695, when France battled the English and Dutch in the War of the Grand Alliance . The island then lay uninhabited and abandoned for another 38 years. [10]
In 1725, St. Thomas Governor Frederik Moth encouraged the Danish West Indies Company's directors to consider purchasing Santa Cruz (Saint Croix). On 15 June 1733, France and Denmark-Norway concluded a treaty by which the Danish West India Company bought Saint Croix for 750,000 livres . [9] Louis XV ratified the treaty on 28 June, and received half the payment in French coins, with the remaining half paid in 18 months. On 16 November 1733, Moth was named the first Danish governor of Saint Croix. The 1742 census lists 120 sugar plantations, 122 cotton plantations, and 1906 slaves, compared to 360 whites on the island. By 1754, the number of slaves had grown to 7,566. That year, King Frederick took direct control of Saint Croix from the company. [11] [10]
For nearly 200 years, Saint Croix, St. Thomas and St. John were known as the Danish West Indies . By the mid to late 18th century, "at the peak of the plantation economy, the enslaved population of Saint Croix numbered between 18,000 and 20,000, the white population ranging between 1,500 and 2,000". [12]
Future Founding Father Alexander Hamilton and his brother lived with their mother Rachel Faucette on Saint Croix, after she returned to the island in 1765. Their residence was in the upper floor of a house at 34 Company Street, while Rachel used the lower floor as a shop selling food items. Within two years, however, Hamilton lost his father, James Hamilton, by abandonment, and his mother to death. Official documents from the island, a 1768 probate court testimony from his uncle, established Alexander's age at 13. By 1769, Hamilton's cousin, aunt, uncle, and grandmother had also died. His brother James became an apprentice carpenter, and Alexander Hamilton became the ward of Thomas Stevens, a merchant on King Street. Hamilton was soon clerking in the export-import business of Beekman and Cruger, at the intersection of King and King's Cross Streets. In 1772, local businessmen funded Hamilton's further education in New York. [13]
The slave trade was abolished in the Danish colonies in 1792, although the prohibition did not go into effect until the end of 1802. Existing enslaved people were freed in 1848, after the 1848 St. Croix Slave Revolt led by General " Buddhoe " Gottlieb. [14] [15]
The British occupation of the Danish West Indies took place at the end of March 1801, with the arrival of a British fleet at St Thomas. Denmark-Norway accepted the Articles of Capitulation and the British occupied the islands without a shot being fired. Their occupation lasted only until April 1802, when Britain returned the islands to Denmark-Norway.
A second British invasion of the Danish West Indies took place in December 1807, when a British fleet captured St Thomas on 22 December, and Saint Croix on 25 December. Denmark-Norway did not resist and the invasion again was bloodless. This occupation lasted until 20 November 1815. Both invasions were due to Denmark's alliance with France during the Napoleonic Wars . On the conclusion of a peace with France, the islands were returned to Denmark.
The island was shaken by the 1878 St. Croix labor riot .
In 1916, Denmark sold Saint Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John to the United States, formalizing the transfer in the Treaty of the Danish West Indies , in exchange for a sum of US$25 million in gold. In a national referendum on the issue, 64.2% of Danish voters approved the sale. An unofficial referendum held in the islands resulted in 99.83% vote in favor of the purchase. Formal transfer of the islands to the U.S. took place on 1 April 1917.
The island's inhabitants were granted United States citizenship in 1927. Industrialization of the island and its move away from an agrarian society took place in the 1960s. The 1972 Fountain Valley massacre , a mass shooting during a robbery at a golf club, led to a devastating reduction in tourism that lasted many years. The 2012 shutdown of the Hovensa refinery resulted in the loss of many jobs. Agriculture has seen a slow resurgence, due to an increase in demand for local produce and agricultural products.
In 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the island with Category 4 winds. The United States Army , the Federal Bureau of Investigation , and the United States Marshals Service were ordered in to restore order. [16] [17]
Category 5 Hurricane Maria 's weaker outer eyewall crossed St. Croix in September 2017; sustained winds reached over 150 mph and gusted up to 250 mph in some places on the western end of the island. Maria damaged or destroyed 70% of the buildings on St. Croix, including schools and the island's only hospital. [ citation needed ]
Saint Croix lies at
17°45′N 64°45′W . The easternmost point in the United States of America in the western hemisphere is Saint Croix's Point Udall . The island has an area of 214.66 km 2 (82.88 sq mi). The terrain is rugged, though not extremely so. The highest point on the island, Mount Eagle , is 1,165 feet (355 m) high. Most of the east end is quite hilly and steep, as is the north side from Christiansted west. From the north-side hills, a fairly even plain slopes down to the south coast; this was cultivated as the prime sugar land on the island.
The trade wind blows more or less along the length of the island. The hills of the western part of the island receive a good deal more rain than the east end; annual rainfall is on the whole extremely variable, averaging perhaps 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year. The east end of the island is a dry desert range with a substantial amount of cactus, while the west end has lush vegetation and palm trees. The island has multiple ecosystems in a small geographic area. Fairly severe and extended drought has always been a problem, particularly considering the lack of fresh ground water and lack of freshwater streams or rivers on the island. The island has a desalination plant, but most residential homes and businesses have built-in cisterns used to collect rainwater.
Inhabitants are called Crucians / ˈ k r uː ʒ ən / [18] (frequently written as "Cruzans").
Due to Saint Croix's history of immigration, there is much debate as to what constitutes a native Crucian. The consensus in Crucian society is that if one is bahn ya ("born here" in Crucian dialect) on Saint Croix, they can claim to be Crucian, but not necessarily a native Crucian . Those considered to be the native Crucians (or by the more politically correct term: ancestral native Crucian ) of Saint Croix are persons who can trace their ancestry to the era prior to U.S. Virgin Islands acquisition of American citizenship in 1927. Ancestral native Crucians (approximately one-fourth to one-third of Saint Croix's population) largely consist of the descendants of enslaved Africans brought to the island by Europeans during the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as the descendants of paid laborers recruited by the Danes from the British and Dutch West Indies after the Danish emancipation law in 1848. As on other Caribbean islands, many ancestral natives are also descended from European settlers and planters that migrated to the West Indies during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Due to a low number of European females in the colonial West Indies, many European males in colonial Saint Croix produced offspring with the majority African population, whose mixed-heritage descendants bear the surnames of their European ancestors. In addition, there are also a handful of ancestral families on the island (traditionally known as bukra ) of full European ancestry .
Due to historical economic and political differences, as well as the remnants of a 19th-century caste system based on skin complexion, socioeconomic class differences among ancestral native Crucians can vary widely, even within the same family. Most ancestral native Crucians today are employed by the Government of the Virgin Islands, although there are others who are involved in the tourism industry, as well as the legal and medical professions.
Puerto Rican migration was prevalent in the 1930s, '40s and '50s, when many Puerto Ricans relocated to Saint Croix for work after the collapse of the sugar industry. However, the total population actually declined by 50% in the century preceding 1945. [19]
The United States Navy purchase of two-thirds of the nearby Puerto Rican island of Vieques during World War II resulted in the displacement of thousands of Viequenses , many of whom relocated to Saint Croix because of its similar size and geography. The local holiday, Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands Friendship Day, has been celebrated since the 1960s on the second Monday of October, which is also the same date as Columbus Day . Puerto Ricans in Saint Croix, most of whom have lived on the island for more than a generation, have kept their culture alive while integrating it into the native Crucian culture and society. For example, in informal situations, many Puerto Ricans in Saint Croix speak a unique Spanglish -like combination of Puerto Rican Spanish and the local Crucian Creole English .
Migration from "down-island" (a local colloquial term for islands in the Lesser Antilles located to the east and southeast), occurred mainly throughout the 1960s and 70s. In that period, agriculture declined as the major industry in Saint Croix and was replaced by tourism, alumina production, and oil refining. Jobs were plentiful in these industries and down-islanders came to Saint Croix by the thousands. The demand for imported labor in Saint Croix was exacerbated by the fact that many ancestral native Crucians, having acquired American citizenship several decades earlier, migrated to the mainland United States to pursue educational and career opportunities. Many down-islanders made Saint Croix their permanent home, while others eventually relocated to the mainland United States or returned to their native countries. Most down-islanders came from St. Kitts and Nevis , Antigua , St. Lucia and Dominica , although people from every Anglophone Caribbean nation can be easily found on St. Croix. Down islanders and their Saint Croix-born offspring form the majority of Saint Croix's middle class, which has dwindled in size since the 2008 global recession.
Although down-island migration to Saint Croix is most commonly thought of as a mid-20th century phenomenon brought upon by American immigration policy, it is important to note that persons of both European and African descent from the nearby islands of Anguilla , St. Martin , Sint Eustatius , Saba , St. Kitts , Nevis , Antigua , and Montserrat have been migrating to Saint Croix since the 1600s. In addition, many ancestral native Crucians also share family ties with Barbados , as Bajans were heavily recruited to Saint Croix to work on sugar plantations throughout the late 19th century.
Continental Americans, although small in number in comparison with Caribbean immigrants, have also been part of the Saint Croix community. Most reside on the East End of Saint Croix and tend to work in the tourism industry, real estate, and legal professions. Many are temporary residents or retirees, as well.
Arab Palestinians have been an influential part of the local economy since the 1960s, when they first started to migrate to St. Croix to set up shops, supermarkets and gas stations.
In the 21st century, recent waves of migration to Saint Croix have included people from the Dominican Republic , Haiti , Jamaica , the Philippines , and various South American nations.
Saint Croix's history of migration has sometimes caused tensions between immigrants and Crucians whose ancestry on the island dates back for generations. Tensions have subsided to some extent in recent years, mainly due to intermarriage among Crucians and other Caribbean peoples. In the late 1990s, many people supported legislation to define as a "native U.S. Virgin Islander" anyone who could trace their ancestry on the island to 1927, the year in which U.S. Virgin Islanders were granted United States citizenship. This effort by a select group of nationalist senators eventually failed after much public outcry and controversy. It was learned that most native-born U.S. Virgin Islanders would not qualify as "native" under the proposed legislation, as their immigrant ancestors had arrived later than 1927, but thousands of Danish citizens would have qualified.
In 2009, the proposed U.S. Virgin Islands Constitution voted by the Fifth Constitutional Convention established three definitions of U.S. Virgin Islanders: "Ancestral Native Virgin Islander" – those with ancestral ties (and their descendants); "Native Virgin Islander" – those born on the island (and their descendants); and "Virgin Islander" – any United States citizen who has resided in the territory for five years. The proposed constitution was rejected by the United States Congress in 2010 for violating the principle of equal rights for all citizens of the territory, "native" or not, and was sent back to the convention for further consideration.
The total population of the island as per the 2020 U.S. Census is 41,004. [20]
Saint Croix is divided into the following subdistricts (with population as per the 2020 U.S. Census): [20]
English has been the dominant language on St. Croix since the 1700s and has been the official language since 1917, when the Danish West Indies were purchased by the United States. Previously, the official language was Danish , although it was not widely spoken. Other languages spoken throughout St. Croix's colonial history have included Irish, Scots, Spanish, and French, as well as a now-extinct Dutch Creole spoken by St. Thomas and St. John-born people living in St. Croix, as well as the local creole English, which still exists today. [21]
Known on the island as Crucian , Virgin Islands Creole English is spoken by the majority of the population in informal situations. [22] Spanish is spoken by migrants from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and their St. Croix-born offspring, and various French creoles are spoken by St. Lucian , Dominican (Dominica), and Haitian immigrants. Arabic is common among the large Palestinian community on St. Croix. Immigrants from the Anglophone Caribbean that migrated to St. Croix after their formative years tend to speak the English creoles of their respective islands in informal situations, which are, for the most part, mutually intelligible with Virgin Islands Creole English .
Christianity is the predominant religion; the island has been called the "Land of Churches" [23] for the approximately 150 churches that serve its 50,000 residents.
Protestant denominations are the most prevalent, but there is also a significant Roman Catholic presence due to Saint Croix's large Hispanic population, as well as Irish influence during the Danish colonial period. Anglican , Methodist , Moravian , Presbyterian , Pentecostal and Seventh-day Adventists are among the Protestant denominations prevalent on the island. There are also followers of the Jehovah's Witness faith, as well as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints .
As in most of the Caribbean, various forms of Rastafari are practiced on the island. Islam is prevalent among the small local Arab population, and there is a small Jewish presence as well. Hinduism and Islam is also practiced by the Indian population.
Saint Croix was once an agricultural powerhouse in the Caribbean, but this period ended with the rapid industrialization of the island's economy in the 1960s. Like many other Caribbean islands today, Saint Croix has tourism as one of its main sources of revenue. A number of other industries on the island contribute to the economy.
Saint Croix was home to HOVENSA , one of the world's largest oil refineries . HOVENSA is a limited liability company owned and operated by Hess Oil Virgin Islands Corp. (HOVIC), a division of U.S.-based Hess Corporation , and Petroleos de Venezuela, SA (PDVSA), the national oil company of Venezuela . Gas prices on the island were slightly higher than average when compared to gas prices in the continental United States.
On January 18, 2012, the company announced that the HOVENSA refinery would be permanently shut down. This had a major adverse effect on the economy of Saint Croix and the entire U.S. Virgin Islands, as the refinery employed 1,200 residents and 950 contractors. [24] The refinery has since reopened under new ownership.
Saint Croix is also home to the Cruzan Rum Distillery , [25] makers of Cruzan Rum , a brand of Beam Suntory, Inc. The Cruzan Rum Distillery was founded in 1760 as Estate Diamond , and for many years used locally grown sugar cane to produce a single "dark"-style rum . The distillery now imports sugar cane molasses from other countries in the region, primarily from the Dominican Republic and South America. In recent years, Cruzan Rum, along with Bacardi from Puerto Rico and Gosling's from Bermuda , has contributed to the resurgence of "single barrel," super-premium rum. The quality and smoothness of the Cruzan Estate Rums has won more than 30 Spirit Awards. [26] Cruzan Estate Diamond Rum (aged five years in American oak barrels) and Cruzan Single Barrel Estate Rum (aged 12 years in American oak barrels) are two examples.
Diageo has completed construction of a new distillery on a 26-acre industrial site next to the Hovensa Refinery. The new distillery produces Captain Morgan Rum. [27] Diageo's entrance into the U.S. Virgin Islands rum industry has been controversial. The cash-strapped U.S. Virgin Islands government secured $250 million in bonds for the plant, about which the Puerto Rican government has bitterly complained.
Cars drive on the left hand side of the road , but nearly all the automobiles on the island have left side steering columns. This has proven difficult for new residents and visitors from right-hand traffic locales such as the mainland United States, the French and Dutch West Indies , the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Roads are with numerous potholes.
There is a public bus service called Virgin Islands Transit, also known as VITRAN, operated by the Virgin Islands Department of Public Works.
In addition to taxis and buses, St. Croix has shared taxis , locally known as "taxi buses" (also found on the other U.S. Virgin Islands). Taxi buses are full-sized vans running a route from Frederiksted to Christiansted. Taxi buses are privately owned and operated; they do not follow a regular schedule, and there are no pre-specified stops. People simply wait by the side of the road until a taxi bus approaches, then flag the driver down by waving. Passengers can get out anywhere along the taxi route. Taxi buses are not metered and are required by law to charge a flat rate of $2.50, regardless of where a rider gets on and off. Taxis to specific locations are much more expensive and are typically used by tourists.
Ferry service to St. Thomas was restarted in April 2017. The QE IV Ferry makes one trip per day departing from Gallows Bay, Christiansted to Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. The journey takes 2.5 hours and costs $50. The QE IV Ferry does not operate during hazardous weather conditions. Some Ferry companies based in St. Thomas and St. John sometimes operate St. Croix-to-St. Thomas service for special occasions, such as the St. Croix Agricultural Fair in February, Virgin Islands Carnival, Crucian Christmas Carnival, as well as horse races.
The Henry E. Rohlsen International Airport serves St. Croix with regular flights from the U.S. mainland, Puerto Rico, and the Eastern Caribbean . Seaplanes, operated by Seaborne Airlines , make the trip from St. Croix to St. Thomas, departing and arriving in Christiansted Harbor.
Although St. Croix is a U.S. territory, the U.S. Virgin Islands are maintained as a free port in a separate customs zone. Therefore, travelers to and from the contiguous United States and Puerto Rico must clear U.S. customs but do not need to present a passport, and only need proof of U.S. citizenship or nationality. The immigration status of non-U.S. citizens may be verified during this process.
The St. Croix School District operates a number of public schools in St. Croix. [28] There also exist multiple private schools, including St. Croix Montessori, Star Apple Montessori School, The Good Hope Country Day School , AZ Academy, St. Mary's Catholic School, Free Will Baptist, St. Croix SDA School, and The Manor School. The only colleges on the island are the University of the Virgin Islands , St. Croix campus and Barry University , which operates a physician assistant training program.
The island's largest festival, termed "Crucian Christmas Carnival," is celebrated on St. Croix throughout late December and early January. Another significant festival is the Agricultural and Food Fair held in mid-February.
Several times a year, there is a nighttime festival in Christiansted called "Jump-Up" and a monthly event called "Sunset Jazz" in Frederiksted , where local jazz musicians play on Frederiksted Beach. Every year on the Saturday before Mardi Gras, there is a local Mardi Croix parade and a dog parade through the North Shore.
The St. Croix Half Ironman Triathlon is held in the first week of May. [29] The Triathlon includes a 1.2-mile (1.9 km) swim, a 56-mile (90 km) bike ride, and a 13.1-mile (21.1 km) run. Because the bicycle route includes a ride up an extremely steep hill known as "The Beast", this triathlon is often nicknamed "Beauty and the Beast".
A costumed carnival dancer
Parade of costumed carnival dancers
A costumed carnival dancer
A costumed carnival dancer
Frederiksted maintains its Victorian era architecture and original seven street by seven street city design and is host to several historic structures. Among them are St. Patrick's Catholic Church built in the 1840s and its primary school, the Customs House, the 19th Century Apothecary, and many other buildings; some of which due to hurricanes past have fallen into very scenic ruins. Frederiksted operates at a more relaxed pace than most of the island, and is more lively during Carnival in January and whenever visiting cruise ships are in port.
Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve contains the only known site where members of a Columbus expedition set foot on what is now United States territory. It also preserves upland watersheds, mangrove forests, and estuarine and marine environments that support threatened and endangered species. The site is marked by Fort Salé, a remaining earthworks fortification from the French period of occupation, about 1617. The park also preserves prehistoric and colonial-era archeological sites including the only existent example of a ball court in the Caribbean. This is one of two sites on the island for bioluminescent bays (the other being Altona Lagoon).
Fort Christiansværn built in 1749 and other buildings are maintained by the National Park Service as the Christiansted National Historic Site .
Buck Island Reef National Monument preserves a 176 acres (71 ha) island just north of St. Croix and the surrounding reefs. This is a popular destination for snorkelers. Buck Island maintains a U.S. Coast Guard weather station and is also home to a student monitored lemon shark breeding ground. Green Cay (pronounced green key) is a small island located southwest of Buck Island; it is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It hosts a nearby reef popular among scuba divers and snorkelists—Tamarind Reef.
The farmer's market (1 Estate, Kingshill, 00850, St. Croix) offers local fruit and vegetables, as well as plants, local food, and delicious juices. The outdoor vendors open every Saturday from 6 a.m. to 12 p.m., sometimes longer. You can visit the farmer's market all-year round to taste the fresh fruit and vegetables and enjoy a typical Cruzan breakfast.
The St. Croix National Heritage Area was established in the National Heritage Area Act in 2022. [30] The National Heritage Area will help preserve and promote historic and cultural sites across the island. [31] [32]
The waters surrounding St. Croix are warm year-round, with temperatures ranging from 25 °C (77 °F) – 30 °C (86 °F), making it a popular destination for watersports including scuba diving, snorkeling, kayaking, paddleboarding, surfing, kite surfing, parasailing, jet skiing, fishing, and sailing. Two of the island's most popular underwater sites for scuba divers are the Frederiksted Pier and the drop-off into deep water at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve .
Frederiksted is known for reef diving and access to wreck diving. The western side of the island has calm waters that allow snorkeling with access from the beach. Paddleboarding is popular near Frederiksted for the same reason. The Frederiksted Pier attracts scuba divers and snorkelers, as well as those who simply jump off it. [33] [34] The shallow water and sandy bottom around the pier are ideal for recreational diving by novice scuba divers in PADI Discover Scuba Diving programs (also called resort diving), for extended shore diving, night diving , and for underwater photography , [35] especially of its abundant seahorse population. [36] [37]
A few hundred meters off the northern coast of the island, from Salt River to Cane Bay, the bottom drops suddenly into a deep trench, where coral reefs, abundant tropical fish, and migrant sea turtles may be observed. Kayaking is popular in the Salt River area as well.
The town of Christiansted , a short distance from Buck Island and Green Cay, is a former capital of the Danish West Indies. It lies just east of the northern underwater drop-off and is protected by a reef.
There are two bioluminescent bays or bio bays on St. Croix. The most widely known and visited is located at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve . A second bio bay can be found at Altona Lagoon. Bio bays are extremely rare with "only seven-year-round lagoons known to exist in the Caribbean". [38]
A combination of factors creates the necessary conditions for bioluminescence: red mangrove trees surround the water (the organisms have been related to mangrove forest, [39] although mangrove is not necessarily associated with this species). [40] A study at the bio bay located at Salt River is being conducted as of 2013 by faculty and students from the University of South Carolina, the University of North Carolina-Wilmington and the University of the Virgin Islands. Their research is focused on analyzing quality and nutrient composition of the water, the distribution of a micro-organism , the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense , which glows whenever the water is disturbed, and the abundance of "cysts", dormant dinoflagellates embedded in the sea floor.
A concurrent complementary study is being undertaken by the St. Croix Environmental Association in conjunction with Scripps Institution of Oceanography which focuses on counting the photon density of the phenomenon over time and through various conditions of weather and other impacts. Water quality and taxonomic analysis from both studies will be shared and correlated to create one of the most thorough investigations of year-round bioluminescent bays to date.
The two bio bays on St Croix have very different characteristics. The one at Altona Lagoon is large in size but is very shallow allowing one to see the various marine life swimming and agitating the water, lighting it up. The bio bay at Salt River is smaller in size but is deeper than Altona Lagoon. Because of its depth this bay is also home to a second form of bioluminescence called Ctenophora or comb-jellies, which are not found at Altona Lagoon.
A third bioluminescent organism is also found in Salt River. A species of marine Odontosyllis fireworm performs its brilliant green mating ritual within 57 hours after the full moon, females rising to the surface and leaving a luminescent green puddle for the males to race through, fertilizing the eggs.
- Buck Island Reef National Monument , managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Christiansted National Historic Site , managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge , managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
- Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve , co-managed by the Territory of the Virgin Islands and the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge , managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
- St. Croix East End Marine Park : managed by the Government of the Virgin Islands through the Department of Planning and Natural Resources' Division of Coastal Zone Management
Christiansted, looking north.
Downtown Christiansted and harbor
Old Danish Customs House, Christiansted
East End
East End
Teague Bay Beach
Canegarden Bay Beach
St. George Village Botanical Gardens
Scuba diver and sponges, Cane Bay wall
Scuba diver and sponges, Cane Bay wall
- Hans Jonatan (1784–1827), possibly the first person of color to live in Iceland
- ^ This is the figure reported by the government of the U.S. Virgin Islands on the St. Croix page of usvi.net. Other reliable sources report different figures. The article at the on-line edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica reports the area as 84 square miles. The Virgin Islands (United States) page at the United Nations Environment Programme 's Island Directory gives the area as 214.4 square kilometers, equivalent to 82.8 square miles. And although the U.S. Census Bureau does not report the areas of geographic entities, it does report their population densities (equal to the total population divided by the area). In the 2010 census, the population was reported as 50,601 (Table P1, "Total Population") and the population density was reported as 607.3 per square mile (Table P40, "Population Density"). Together, these figures imply an area of 83.3 square miles.
- ^ Spanish: Santa Cruz ; Dutch : Sint-Kruis ; French: Sainte-Croix ; Danish and Norwegian : Sankt Croix , Taino : Ay Ay
- ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses: U.S. Virgin Islands" . US Census Bureau . Retrieved December 1, 2022 .
- ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses: U.S. Virgin Islands" . US Census Bureau . Retrieved December 1, 2022 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Croix | 49 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | Where is St. Croix? - Villa Margarita St Croix USVI | St. Croix is located in the eastern Caribbean sea, 120 miles southeast of Puerto Rico and 1130 miles from Miami, Florida. Geographic coordinates place St Croix’s location on a map at 17.7246° N, 64.8348° W.
You can see on the map above its location relative to other islands in the Caribbean. The blow-up section of the map details the outline shape of St. Croix, as well as provides useful scale to grasp how the island’s size compares to other islands in the Caribbean.
St. Croix’s location in the Caribbean provides it with perfect year-round weather, typical of all Caribbean islands. St. Croix is part of the chain of islands that stretch from Bahamas in the north, down to Trinidad and Tobago just off the coast of South America.
St Croix nearby neighbors include the BVI ( British Virgin Islands ), and about 120 miles to the west of St. Croix you’ll find Anguilla and St. Kitts and Nevis .
The picture below gives you a good idea of where is Saint Croix located in the Caribbean Sea:
There are three islands which make up the US Virgin Islands. In the map below, you can see where is Saint Croix located in relation to its USVI sister islands of St. Thomas and St. John. Saint Croix is the largest of the 3 US Virgin Islands, and about a 40-mile distance from St. Thomas. This makes day trips between the islands convenient, the islands are serves by both air and St. Croix ferry services.
St. Croix’s location places the island right in the middle of Hurricane Alley of ocean storms, which typically originate off the west coast of Africa and make their way across the Atlantic. This part of the Caribbean has its rainy season in late summer and the fall.
Copernix (satellite) A unique map service combining free text search with a map. Connects geographical searched with Wikipedia in a unique way.
Yes, St Croix is a US territory. All four US Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John and Water Island ) are US territories.
Yes, St. Croix is part of the United States.
Yes, St. Croix is one of four US Virgin Islands. The other three are St. Thomas, St. John and Water Island.
St. Croix island is 28 miles long and 7 miles across. St. Croix is 84 square miles in total.
At 84 square miles, St. Croix is the largest US Virgin Islands. It is 3 times the size of St. Thomas.
Yes, St. Croix is located in the Caribbean Sea , 120 miles SW of Puerto Rico.
The name Saint Croix means “Holy Cross”.
Christopher Columbus named the island “Santa Cruz” after he visited the island in 1493. The island’s name was later changed to Saint Croix.
Ok, we’re biased. But St. Croix’s size, diversity of nature and fauna, plus just a more laid-back vibe than St. Thomas makes St. Croix the best Virgin Island to visit.
Very. You’ll find everything you need to had a great holiday here: great weather, beaches, friendly people, landscape variety, lost of interesting tasty food, and great sunsets!
Price on the island are a bit higher than on mainland US, mainly reflecting the additional cost of shipping everything in. Paradise has a price. But St Croix prices are not expensive compared to many other Caribbean islands when factoring in the protection and safety of being under a US flag and laws.
There are 2 different sets of islands called “Virgin Islands”. St. Croix is located in the US Virgin Islands, and about 70 miles away from the British Virgin Islands (BVI).
St. Croix is safe and good for families. There is a slightly higher crime rate than in many US states, but violent crime rarely involves visitors, and certainly is lower than many surrounding islands in the Caribbean. Just be sensible and don’t leave valuables lying around.
St. Croix is good for families because it has a relaxed environment with lots to do. Plus there are many beaches that are kid-friendly with easy waves.
St. Thomas is more popular with cruise ships, if that’s what you’re looking for. It’s the busiest and most commercialized of the three islands, and is more upscale, with more high-end dining and golf. So it really comes down to what you want: more crowds, noisy bars and cruise ship tourists, or a more relaxed and less over-developed Caribbean island experience. Here’s the St. Croix cruise ship schedule .
Here are some videos showing where Saint Croix is located in the Caribbean. It’s always nice to see a video to complement the maps.
OK, now you know where is St. Croix , you might be asking: So what? What’s so special about Saint Croix?
The answer is that St. Croix is a must-see for anyone who is interested in history. St. Croix has flown the flags of Spain , The Netherlands , England, France , the Knights of Malta and Denmark. How cool is that?
And oh, the diversity: for example, you have Christiansted , which was once the capital of the Danish West Indies . Its features beautiful 18th-century red-roofed buildings and quaint stone streets. Then you have Frederiksted , its twin city to the west, which sports a fort that once protected the island from pirates and rival nations. And in between them you’ll find the ruins of hundreds of St Croix sugar estates and cattle estates which dot the landscape. It’s a literal trip back into time.
There are botanical gardens , majestic historical restored buildings, and actually it’s simply impossible to not feel history living and breathing as you walk or drive in St. Croix. At one end of the island is Point Udall and its signature sundial monument, marking the easternmost point in the United States. Standing here at sunrise guarantees that you’ll be the first on American soil to see the sun !
But St. Croix is not just about history. It’s also famous for its incredible beaches, recreational activities, great dining, beach resorts, a casino plus a number of super Caribbean golf course s. As well as a wealth of arts , crafts, music, festivals and cultural events.
St. Croix charms people looking for a laid-back Caribbean experience. It’s an island deeply steeped in history and culture, with historic landmarks , places of worship and festivals that run all year long. Start your day relaxing on the beach. Then try a horseback ride near an 18th century sugar mill. Later, you can visit a colonial church in the afternoon and finish off the day with a wonderful St. Croix romantic dinner .
It’s hard to miss the unique Crucian culture in Christiansted and Frederiksted, with their historical buildings, arts and crafts. Later you can walk around the white sand beaches and turquoise waters; St. Croix has over 30 beaches to enjoy!
There are lots of water activities as well in St. Croix. Take a trip to Buck Island Reef National Monument , one of only three underwater national monuments in the USA. Snorkelers and scuba divers can explore an underwater trail and discover an assortment of sea life, from the protected coral reef to native flora and fauna, the hawksbill turtle and brown pelican .
Relax, and learn why the locals call St. Croix “so nice!”
You might be asking where on St. Croix you can find important organizations, so we’ve provided a list here below:
SERVICES & ORGANIZATIONS
|Alcoholics Anonymous (for meeting schedule)||340-776-5283|
|Al-Anon/ACOA||340-773-0372|
|American Red Cross||340-778-5104|
|National Park Service St Croix USVI||340-773-1460|
|St. Croix Environmental Assoc||340-773-1989|
|Tourist Information – Frederiksted||340-772-0357|
|Tourist Information – Christiansted||340-773-1404|
|Toll Free, not from mainland||800-372-USVI|
|U.S. Customs – St Croix USVI||340-773-5650|
|Cruise Ship Arrival Information||340-772-0357|
LIBRARIES | https://villamargarita.com/where-is-st-croix/ | 49 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | Saint Croix | island, United States Virgin Islands | Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: • Article History
Saint Croix , largest island of the U.S. Virgin Islands , in the eastern Caribbean Sea . It lies some 65 miles (105 km) southeast of Puerto Rico and 40 miles (65 km) south of St. Thomas . In the west some hills run parallel to the coast, culminating in Mount Eagle (1,088 feet [332 metres]) and Blue Mountain (1,096 feet [334 metres]). It is the only island of the group with an extensive plain, most of which is cultivated . A meagre growth of secondary scrub has replaced former seasonal forests, which were sacrificed for sugarcane plantations. The town of Christiansted , on the northern coast, is the capital, but Frederiksted , on the western coast, is commercially more significant.
Visited by Christopher Columbus , who named it Santa Cruz, St. Croix (both names mean Holy Cross) was colonized by both the English and the Dutch in 1643, though the latter were driven out after quarrels. As sugar production became more profitable, St. Croix increased in attraction, and in 1650 the English themselves were expelled by the Spanish, who in turn succumbed to French conquest. In 1651 the Knights of Malta acquired St. Croix but resold it to the French West India Company in 1665. It became a French colony in 1674 but during 1696–1733 was uninhabited. In 1733 the king of Denmark bought it; subsequently it shared the general history of the Virgin Islands .
On September 17–18, 1989, St. Croix was devastated by a hurricane that destroyed or damaged 90 percent of the island’s buildings and left about 22,000 people homeless. The island recovered with the help of copious aid from the U.S. government.
Tourism is the keystone of the economy. The island’s supply of potable water from wells is supplemented by distilled seawater. The surrounding marine waters are beginning to be exploited for game and commercial fishing and as a resource for oceanographic laboratory studies. Rum—all that remains of a once-extensive sugar industry—is distilled and exported along with other foodstuffs. Area 84 square miles (218 square km). Pop. (2000) 53,254; (2010) 50,601.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Lorraine Murray . | https://www.britannica.com/place/Saint-Croix | 49 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | Saint Croix - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the island of Saint Croix in the Virgin Islands. For other uses, see St. Croix (disambiguation) .
St. Croix is the largest of the islands in the territory, while the capital Charlotte Amalie is located on St. Thomas . As of the 2020 United States Census, St. Croix’s population was 41,004. [2] The island's highest point is Mount Eagle , at 355 meters (1,165 ft). St. Croix's nickname is "Twin City", for its two towns, Frederiksted on the western end and Christiansted on the northeast part of the island.
The island's indigenous Taino name is Ay Ay ("the river"). [3] Its indigenous Carib name is Cibuquiera ("the stony land"). [3] Its modern name, Saint Croix , is derived from the French Sainte-Croix , itself a translation of the Spanish name Isla de la Santa Cruz (meaning "island of the Holy Cross "), given by Columbus in 1493. [4] The French name was partially retained under Danish rule as Sankt Croix , and the island was finally given its current spelling following the US takeover in 1917. The associated demonym for the island is Crucian, derived from the original Spanish name. [4]
Igneri pottery indicates that people's presence on the island from 1 to 700, followed by the Taíno from 700 to 1425, before the encroachment by the Caribs in 1425. However, the island was devoid of habitation by 1590. [5]
The island was inhabited by various indigenous groups during its prehistory. Christopher Columbus landed on Santa Cruz (Holy Cross), as he called it, on 14 November 1493, and immediately was attacked by the Kalinago , who lived at Salt River on the north shore. This is the first recorded fight between the Spanish and a New World native population, and Columbus gave the battle site the name Cabo de la Flecha (Cape of the Arrow). [6] The Spanish never colonized the Islands, but most or all of the native population was eventually dispersed or killed. By the end of the 16th century, the islands were said to be uninhabited. [7]
Dutch and English settlers landed at Saint Croix in 1625, [8] joined by some French refugees from Saint Kitts . However, the English expelled the Dutch and French settlers, before they themselves were evicted by a Spanish invasion from Puerto Rico in August 1650. [9] The Spanish occupation was short-lived, since a French force of 166 men attacked, and in the following year 1651 had established a colony of 300 on the island. [8] From 1651 until 1664, the Knights of Malta (at the time a vassal state of the Kingdom of Sicily ), ruled the island in the name of Louis XIV . [9] The island then passed to the French West India Company . [8] The colony was evacuated to San Domingo in 1695, when France battled the English and Dutch in the War of the Grand Alliance . The island then lay uninhabited and abandoned for another 38 years. [10]
In 1725, St. Thomas Governor Frederik Moth encouraged the Danish West Indies Company's directors to consider purchasing Santa Cruz (Saint Croix). On 15 June 1733, France and Denmark-Norway concluded a treaty by which the Danish West India Company bought Saint Croix for 750,000 livres . [9] Louis XV ratified the treaty on 28 June, and received half the payment in French coins, with the remaining half paid in 18 months. On 16 November 1733, Moth was named the first Danish governor of Saint Croix. The 1742 census lists 120 sugar plantations, 122 cotton plantations, and 1906 slaves, compared to 360 whites on the island. By 1754, the number of slaves had grown to 7,566. That year, King Frederick took direct control of Saint Croix from the company. [11] [10]
For nearly 200 years, Saint Croix, St. Thomas and St. John were known as the Danish West Indies . By the mid to late 18th century, "at the peak of the plantation economy, the enslaved population of Saint Croix numbered between 18,000 and 20,000, the white population ranging between 1,500 and 2,000". [12]
Future Founding Father Alexander Hamilton and his brother lived with their mother Rachel Faucette on Saint Croix, after she returned to the island in 1765. Their residence was in the upper floor of a house at 34 Company Street, while Rachel used the lower floor as a shop selling food items. Within two years, however, Hamilton lost his father, James Hamilton, by abandonment, and his mother to death. Official documents from the island, a 1768 probate court testimony from his uncle, established Alexander's age at 13. By 1769, Hamilton's cousin, aunt, uncle, and grandmother had also died. His brother James became an apprentice carpenter, and Alexander Hamilton became the ward of Thomas Stevens, a merchant on King Street. Hamilton was soon clerking in the export-import business of Beekman and Cruger, at the intersection of King and King's Cross Streets. In 1772, local businessmen funded Hamilton's further education in New York. [13]
The slave trade was abolished in the Danish colonies in 1792, although the prohibition did not go into effect until the end of 1802. Existing enslaved people were freed in 1848, after the 1848 St. Croix Slave Revolt led by General " Buddhoe " Gottlieb. [14] [15]
The British occupation of the Danish West Indies took place at the end of March 1801, with the arrival of a British fleet at St Thomas. Denmark-Norway accepted the Articles of Capitulation and the British occupied the islands without a shot being fired. Their occupation lasted only until April 1802, when Britain returned the islands to Denmark-Norway.
A second British invasion of the Danish West Indies took place in December 1807, when a British fleet captured St Thomas on 22 December, and Saint Croix on 25 December. Denmark-Norway did not resist and the invasion again was bloodless. This occupation lasted until 20 November 1815. Both invasions were due to Denmark's alliance with France during the Napoleonic Wars . On the conclusion of a peace with France, the islands were returned to Denmark.
The island was shaken by the 1878 St. Croix labor riot .
In 1916, Denmark sold Saint Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John to the United States, formalizing the transfer in the Treaty of the Danish West Indies , in exchange for a sum of US$25 million in gold. In a national referendum on the issue, 64.2% of Danish voters approved the sale. An unofficial referendum held in the islands resulted in 99.83% vote in favor of the purchase. Formal transfer of the islands to the U.S. took place on 1 April 1917.
The island's inhabitants were granted United States citizenship in 1927. Industrialization of the island and its move away from an agrarian society took place in the 1960s. The 1972 Fountain Valley massacre , a mass shooting during a robbery at a golf club, led to a devastating reduction in tourism that lasted many years. The 2012 shutdown of the Hovensa refinery resulted in the loss of many jobs. Agriculture has seen a slow resurgence, due to an increase in demand for local produce and agricultural products.
In 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the island with Category 4 winds. The United States Army , the Federal Bureau of Investigation , and the United States Marshals Service were ordered in to restore order. [16] [17]
Category 5 Hurricane Maria 's weaker outer eyewall crossed St. Croix in September 2017; sustained winds reached over 150 mph and gusted up to 250 mph in some places on the western end of the island. Maria damaged or destroyed 70% of the buildings on St. Croix, including schools and the island's only hospital. [ citation needed ]
Saint Croix lies at
17°45′N 64°45′W . The easternmost point in the United States of America in the western hemisphere is Saint Croix's Point Udall . The island has an area of 214.66 km 2 (82.88 sq mi). The terrain is rugged, though not extremely so. The highest point on the island, Mount Eagle , is 1,165 feet (355 m) high. Most of the east end is quite hilly and steep, as is the north side from Christiansted west. From the north-side hills, a fairly even plain slopes down to the south coast; this was cultivated as the prime sugar land on the island.
The trade wind blows more or less along the length of the island. The hills of the western part of the island receive a good deal more rain than the east end; annual rainfall is on the whole extremely variable, averaging perhaps 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year. The east end of the island is a dry desert range with a substantial amount of cactus, while the west end has lush vegetation and palm trees. The island has multiple ecosystems in a small geographic area. Fairly severe and extended drought has always been a problem, particularly considering the lack of fresh ground water and lack of freshwater streams or rivers on the island. The island has a desalination plant, but most residential homes and businesses have built-in cisterns used to collect rainwater.
Inhabitants are called Crucians / ˈ k r uː ʒ ən / [18] (frequently written as "Cruzans").
Due to Saint Croix's history of immigration, there is much debate as to what constitutes a native Crucian. The consensus in Crucian society is that if one is bahn ya ("born here" in Crucian dialect) on Saint Croix, they can claim to be Crucian, but not necessarily a native Crucian . Those considered to be the native Crucians (or by the more politically correct term: ancestral native Crucian ) of Saint Croix are persons who can trace their ancestry to the era prior to U.S. Virgin Islands acquisition of American citizenship in 1927. Ancestral native Crucians (approximately one-fourth to one-third of Saint Croix's population) largely consist of the descendants of enslaved Africans brought to the island by Europeans during the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as the descendants of paid laborers recruited by the Danes from the British and Dutch West Indies after the Danish emancipation law in 1848. As on other Caribbean islands, many ancestral natives are also descended from European settlers and planters that migrated to the West Indies during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Due to a low number of European females in the colonial West Indies, many European males in colonial Saint Croix produced offspring with the majority African population, whose mixed-heritage descendants bear the surnames of their European ancestors. In addition, there are also a handful of ancestral families on the island (traditionally known as bukra ) of full European ancestry .
Due to historical economic and political differences, as well as the remnants of a 19th-century caste system based on skin complexion, socioeconomic class differences among ancestral native Crucians can vary widely, even within the same family. Most ancestral native Crucians today are employed by the Government of the Virgin Islands, although there are others who are involved in the tourism industry, as well as the legal and medical professions.
Puerto Rican migration was prevalent in the 1930s, '40s and '50s, when many Puerto Ricans relocated to Saint Croix for work after the collapse of the sugar industry. However, the total population actually declined by 50% in the century preceding 1945. [19]
The United States Navy purchase of two-thirds of the nearby Puerto Rican island of Vieques during World War II resulted in the displacement of thousands of Viequenses , many of whom relocated to Saint Croix because of its similar size and geography. The local holiday, Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands Friendship Day, has been celebrated since the 1960s on the second Monday of October, which is also the same date as Columbus Day . Puerto Ricans in Saint Croix, most of whom have lived on the island for more than a generation, have kept their culture alive while integrating it into the native Crucian culture and society. For example, in informal situations, many Puerto Ricans in Saint Croix speak a unique Spanglish -like combination of Puerto Rican Spanish and the local Crucian Creole English .
Migration from "down-island" (a local colloquial term for islands in the Lesser Antilles located to the east and southeast), occurred mainly throughout the 1960s and 70s. In that period, agriculture declined as the major industry in Saint Croix and was replaced by tourism, alumina production, and oil refining. Jobs were plentiful in these industries and down-islanders came to Saint Croix by the thousands. The demand for imported labor in Saint Croix was exacerbated by the fact that many ancestral native Crucians, having acquired American citizenship several decades earlier, migrated to the mainland United States to pursue educational and career opportunities. Many down-islanders made Saint Croix their permanent home, while others eventually relocated to the mainland United States or returned to their native countries. Most down-islanders came from St. Kitts and Nevis , Antigua , St. Lucia and Dominica , although people from every Anglophone Caribbean nation can be easily found on St. Croix. Down islanders and their Saint Croix-born offspring form the majority of Saint Croix's middle class, which has dwindled in size since the 2008 global recession.
Although down-island migration to Saint Croix is most commonly thought of as a mid-20th century phenomenon brought upon by American immigration policy, it is important to note that persons of both European and African descent from the nearby islands of Anguilla , St. Martin , Sint Eustatius , Saba , St. Kitts , Nevis , Antigua , and Montserrat have been migrating to Saint Croix since the 1600s. In addition, many ancestral native Crucians also share family ties with Barbados , as Bajans were heavily recruited to Saint Croix to work on sugar plantations throughout the late 19th century.
Continental Americans, although small in number in comparison with Caribbean immigrants, have also been part of the Saint Croix community. Most reside on the East End of Saint Croix and tend to work in the tourism industry, real estate, and legal professions. Many are temporary residents or retirees, as well.
Arab Palestinians have been an influential part of the local economy since the 1960s, when they first started to migrate to St. Croix to set up shops, supermarkets and gas stations.
In the 21st century, recent waves of migration to Saint Croix have included people from the Dominican Republic , Haiti , Jamaica , the Philippines , and various South American nations.
Saint Croix's history of migration has sometimes caused tensions between immigrants and Crucians whose ancestry on the island dates back for generations. Tensions have subsided to some extent in recent years, mainly due to intermarriage among Crucians and other Caribbean peoples. In the late 1990s, many people supported legislation to define as a "native U.S. Virgin Islander" anyone who could trace their ancestry on the island to 1927, the year in which U.S. Virgin Islanders were granted United States citizenship. This effort by a select group of nationalist senators eventually failed after much public outcry and controversy. It was learned that most native-born U.S. Virgin Islanders would not qualify as "native" under the proposed legislation, as their immigrant ancestors had arrived later than 1927, but thousands of Danish citizens would have qualified.
In 2009, the proposed U.S. Virgin Islands Constitution voted by the Fifth Constitutional Convention established three definitions of U.S. Virgin Islanders: "Ancestral Native Virgin Islander" – those with ancestral ties (and their descendants); "Native Virgin Islander" – those born on the island (and their descendants); and "Virgin Islander" – any United States citizen who has resided in the territory for five years. The proposed constitution was rejected by the United States Congress in 2010 for violating the principle of equal rights for all citizens of the territory, "native" or not, and was sent back to the convention for further consideration.
The total population of the island as per the 2020 U.S. Census is 41,004. [20]
Saint Croix is divided into the following subdistricts (with population as per the 2020 U.S. Census): [20]
English has been the dominant language on St. Croix since the 1700s and has been the official language since 1917, when the Danish West Indies were purchased by the United States. Previously, the official language was Danish , although it was not widely spoken. Other languages spoken throughout St. Croix's colonial history have included Irish, Scots, Spanish, and French, as well as a now-extinct Dutch Creole spoken by St. Thomas and St. John-born people living in St. Croix, as well as the local creole English, which still exists today. [21]
Known on the island as Crucian , Virgin Islands Creole English is spoken by the majority of the population in informal situations. [22] Spanish is spoken by migrants from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and their St. Croix-born offspring, and various French creoles are spoken by St. Lucian , Dominican (Dominica), and Haitian immigrants. Arabic is common among the large Palestinian community on St. Croix. Immigrants from the Anglophone Caribbean that migrated to St. Croix after their formative years tend to speak the English creoles of their respective islands in informal situations, which are, for the most part, mutually intelligible with Virgin Islands Creole English .
Christianity is the predominant religion; the island has been called the "Land of Churches" [23] for the approximately 150 churches that serve its 50,000 residents.
Protestant denominations are the most prevalent, but there is also a significant Roman Catholic presence due to Saint Croix's large Hispanic population, as well as Irish influence during the Danish colonial period. Anglican , Methodist , Moravian , Presbyterian , Pentecostal and Seventh-day Adventists are among the Protestant denominations prevalent on the island. There are also followers of the Jehovah's Witness faith, as well as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints .
As in most of the Caribbean, various forms of Rastafari are practiced on the island. Islam is prevalent among the small local Arab population, and there is a small Jewish presence as well. Hinduism and Islam is also practiced by the Indian population.
Saint Croix was once an agricultural powerhouse in the Caribbean, but this period ended with the rapid industrialization of the island's economy in the 1960s. Like many other Caribbean islands today, Saint Croix has tourism as one of its main sources of revenue. A number of other industries on the island contribute to the economy.
Saint Croix was home to HOVENSA , one of the world's largest oil refineries . HOVENSA is a limited liability company owned and operated by Hess Oil Virgin Islands Corp. (HOVIC), a division of U.S.-based Hess Corporation , and Petroleos de Venezuela, SA (PDVSA), the national oil company of Venezuela . Gas prices on the island were slightly higher than average when compared to gas prices in the continental United States.
On January 18, 2012, the company announced that the HOVENSA refinery would be permanently shut down. This had a major adverse effect on the economy of Saint Croix and the entire U.S. Virgin Islands, as the refinery employed 1,200 residents and 950 contractors. [24] The refinery has since reopened under new ownership.
Saint Croix is also home to the Cruzan Rum Distillery , [25] makers of Cruzan Rum , a brand of Beam Suntory, Inc. The Cruzan Rum Distillery was founded in 1760 as Estate Diamond , and for many years used locally grown sugar cane to produce a single "dark"-style rum . The distillery now imports sugar cane molasses from other countries in the region, primarily from the Dominican Republic and South America. In recent years, Cruzan Rum, along with Bacardi from Puerto Rico and Gosling's from Bermuda , has contributed to the resurgence of "single barrel," super-premium rum. The quality and smoothness of the Cruzan Estate Rums has won more than 30 Spirit Awards. [26] Cruzan Estate Diamond Rum (aged five years in American oak barrels) and Cruzan Single Barrel Estate Rum (aged 12 years in American oak barrels) are two examples.
Diageo has completed construction of a new distillery on a 26-acre industrial site next to the Hovensa Refinery. The new distillery produces Captain Morgan Rum. [27] Diageo's entrance into the U.S. Virgin Islands rum industry has been controversial. The cash-strapped U.S. Virgin Islands government secured $250 million in bonds for the plant, about which the Puerto Rican government has bitterly complained.
Cars drive on the left hand side of the road , but nearly all the automobiles on the island have left side steering columns. This has proven difficult for new residents and visitors from right-hand traffic locales such as the mainland United States, the French and Dutch West Indies , the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Roads are with numerous potholes.
There is a public bus service called Virgin Islands Transit, also known as VITRAN, operated by the Virgin Islands Department of Public Works.
In addition to taxis and buses, St. Croix has shared taxis , locally known as "taxi buses" (also found on the other U.S. Virgin Islands). Taxi buses are full-sized vans running a route from Frederiksted to Christiansted. Taxi buses are privately owned and operated; they do not follow a regular schedule, and there are no pre-specified stops. People simply wait by the side of the road until a taxi bus approaches, then flag the driver down by waving. Passengers can get out anywhere along the taxi route. Taxi buses are not metered and are required by law to charge a flat rate of $2.50, regardless of where a rider gets on and off. Taxis to specific locations are much more expensive and are typically used by tourists.
Ferry service to St. Thomas was restarted in April 2017. The QE IV Ferry makes one trip per day departing from Gallows Bay, Christiansted to Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. The journey takes 2.5 hours and costs $50. The QE IV Ferry does not operate during hazardous weather conditions. Some Ferry companies based in St. Thomas and St. John sometimes operate St. Croix-to-St. Thomas service for special occasions, such as the St. Croix Agricultural Fair in February, Virgin Islands Carnival, Crucian Christmas Carnival, as well as horse races.
The Henry E. Rohlsen International Airport serves St. Croix with regular flights from the U.S. mainland, Puerto Rico, and the Eastern Caribbean . Seaplanes, operated by Seaborne Airlines , make the trip from St. Croix to St. Thomas, departing and arriving in Christiansted Harbor.
Although St. Croix is a U.S. territory, the U.S. Virgin Islands are maintained as a free port in a separate customs zone. Therefore, travelers to and from the contiguous United States and Puerto Rico must clear U.S. customs but do not need to present a passport, and only need proof of U.S. citizenship or nationality. The immigration status of non-U.S. citizens may be verified during this process.
The St. Croix School District operates a number of public schools in St. Croix. [28] There also exist multiple private schools, including St. Croix Montessori, Star Apple Montessori School, The Good Hope Country Day School , AZ Academy, St. Mary's Catholic School, Free Will Baptist, St. Croix SDA School, and The Manor School. The only colleges on the island are the University of the Virgin Islands , St. Croix campus and Barry University , which operates a physician assistant training program.
The island's largest festival, termed "Crucian Christmas Carnival," is celebrated on St. Croix throughout late December and early January. Another significant festival is the Agricultural and Food Fair held in mid-February.
Several times a year, there is a nighttime festival in Christiansted called "Jump-Up" and a monthly event called "Sunset Jazz" in Frederiksted , where local jazz musicians play on Frederiksted Beach. Every year on the Saturday before Mardi Gras, there is a local Mardi Croix parade and a dog parade through the North Shore.
The St. Croix Half Ironman Triathlon is held in the first week of May. [29] The Triathlon includes a 1.2-mile (1.9 km) swim, a 56-mile (90 km) bike ride, and a 13.1-mile (21.1 km) run. Because the bicycle route includes a ride up an extremely steep hill known as "The Beast", this triathlon is often nicknamed "Beauty and the Beast".
A costumed carnival dancer
Parade of costumed carnival dancers
A costumed carnival dancer
A costumed carnival dancer
Frederiksted maintains its Victorian era architecture and original seven street by seven street city design and is host to several historic structures. Among them are St. Patrick's Catholic Church built in the 1840s and its primary school, the Customs House, the 19th Century Apothecary, and many other buildings; some of which due to hurricanes past have fallen into very scenic ruins. Frederiksted operates at a more relaxed pace than most of the island, and is more lively during Carnival in January and whenever visiting cruise ships are in port.
Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve contains the only known site where members of a Columbus expedition set foot on what is now United States territory. It also preserves upland watersheds, mangrove forests, and estuarine and marine environments that support threatened and endangered species. The site is marked by Fort Salé, a remaining earthworks fortification from the French period of occupation, about 1617. The park also preserves prehistoric and colonial-era archeological sites including the only existent example of a ball court in the Caribbean. This is one of two sites on the island for bioluminescent bays (the other being Altona Lagoon).
Fort Christiansværn built in 1749 and other buildings are maintained by the National Park Service as the Christiansted National Historic Site .
Buck Island Reef National Monument preserves a 176 acres (71 ha) island just north of St. Croix and the surrounding reefs. This is a popular destination for snorkelers. Buck Island maintains a U.S. Coast Guard weather station and is also home to a student monitored lemon shark breeding ground. Green Cay (pronounced green key) is a small island located southwest of Buck Island; it is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It hosts a nearby reef popular among scuba divers and snorkelists—Tamarind Reef.
The farmer's market (1 Estate, Kingshill, 00850, St. Croix) offers local fruit and vegetables, as well as plants, local food, and delicious juices. The outdoor vendors open every Saturday from 6 a.m. to 12 p.m., sometimes longer. You can visit the farmer's market all-year round to taste the fresh fruit and vegetables and enjoy a typical Cruzan breakfast.
The St. Croix National Heritage Area was established in the National Heritage Area Act in 2022. [30] The National Heritage Area will help preserve and promote historic and cultural sites across the island. [31] [32]
The waters surrounding St. Croix are warm year-round, with temperatures ranging from 25 °C (77 °F) – 30 °C (86 °F), making it a popular destination for watersports including scuba diving, snorkeling, kayaking, paddleboarding, surfing, kite surfing, parasailing, jet skiing, fishing, and sailing. Two of the island's most popular underwater sites for scuba divers are the Frederiksted Pier and the drop-off into deep water at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve .
Frederiksted is known for reef diving and access to wreck diving. The western side of the island has calm waters that allow snorkeling with access from the beach. Paddleboarding is popular near Frederiksted for the same reason. The Frederiksted Pier attracts scuba divers and snorkelers, as well as those who simply jump off it. [33] [34] The shallow water and sandy bottom around the pier are ideal for recreational diving by novice scuba divers in PADI Discover Scuba Diving programs (also called resort diving), for extended shore diving, night diving , and for underwater photography , [35] especially of its abundant seahorse population. [36] [37]
A few hundred meters off the northern coast of the island, from Salt River to Cane Bay, the bottom drops suddenly into a deep trench, where coral reefs, abundant tropical fish, and migrant sea turtles may be observed. Kayaking is popular in the Salt River area as well.
The town of Christiansted , a short distance from Buck Island and Green Cay, is a former capital of the Danish West Indies. It lies just east of the northern underwater drop-off and is protected by a reef.
There are two bioluminescent bays or bio bays on St. Croix. The most widely known and visited is located at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve . A second bio bay can be found at Altona Lagoon. Bio bays are extremely rare with "only seven-year-round lagoons known to exist in the Caribbean". [38]
A combination of factors creates the necessary conditions for bioluminescence: red mangrove trees surround the water (the organisms have been related to mangrove forest, [39] although mangrove is not necessarily associated with this species). [40] A study at the bio bay located at Salt River is being conducted as of 2013 by faculty and students from the University of South Carolina, the University of North Carolina-Wilmington and the University of the Virgin Islands. Their research is focused on analyzing quality and nutrient composition of the water, the distribution of a micro-organism , the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense , which glows whenever the water is disturbed, and the abundance of "cysts", dormant dinoflagellates embedded in the sea floor.
A concurrent complementary study is being undertaken by the St. Croix Environmental Association in conjunction with Scripps Institution of Oceanography which focuses on counting the photon density of the phenomenon over time and through various conditions of weather and other impacts. Water quality and taxonomic analysis from both studies will be shared and correlated to create one of the most thorough investigations of year-round bioluminescent bays to date.
The two bio bays on St Croix have very different characteristics. The one at Altona Lagoon is large in size but is very shallow allowing one to see the various marine life swimming and agitating the water, lighting it up. The bio bay at Salt River is smaller in size but is deeper than Altona Lagoon. Because of its depth this bay is also home to a second form of bioluminescence called Ctenophora or comb-jellies, which are not found at Altona Lagoon.
A third bioluminescent organism is also found in Salt River. A species of marine Odontosyllis fireworm performs its brilliant green mating ritual within 57 hours after the full moon, females rising to the surface and leaving a luminescent green puddle for the males to race through, fertilizing the eggs.
- Buck Island Reef National Monument , managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Christiansted National Historic Site , managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge , managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
- Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve , co-managed by the Territory of the Virgin Islands and the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge , managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
- St. Croix East End Marine Park : managed by the Government of the Virgin Islands through the Department of Planning and Natural Resources' Division of Coastal Zone Management
Christiansted, looking north.
Downtown Christiansted and harbor
Old Danish Customs House, Christiansted
East End
East End
Teague Bay Beach
Canegarden Bay Beach
St. George Village Botanical Gardens
Scuba diver and sponges, Cane Bay wall
Scuba diver and sponges, Cane Bay wall
- Hans Jonatan (1784–1827), possibly the first person of color to live in Iceland
- ^ This is the figure reported by the government of the U.S. Virgin Islands on the St. Croix page of usvi.net. Other reliable sources report different figures. The article at the on-line edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica reports the area as 84 square miles. The Virgin Islands (United States) page at the United Nations Environment Programme 's Island Directory gives the area as 214.4 square kilometers, equivalent to 82.8 square miles. And although the U.S. Census Bureau does not report the areas of geographic entities, it does report their population densities (equal to the total population divided by the area). In the 2010 census, the population was reported as 50,601 (Table P1, "Total Population") and the population density was reported as 607.3 per square mile (Table P40, "Population Density"). Together, these figures imply an area of 83.3 square miles.
- ^ Spanish: Santa Cruz ; Dutch : Sint-Kruis ; French: Sainte-Croix ; Danish and Norwegian : Sankt Croix , Taino : Ay Ay
- ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses: U.S. Virgin Islands" . US Census Bureau . Retrieved December 1, 2022 .
- ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses: U.S. Virgin Islands" . US Census Bureau . Retrieved December 1, 2022 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Croix | 49 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | Saint Croix - Wikipedia | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the island of Saint Croix in the Virgin Islands. For other uses, see St. Croix (disambiguation) .
St. Croix is the largest of the islands in the territory, while the capital Charlotte Amalie is located on St. Thomas . As of the 2020 United States Census, St. Croix’s population was 41,004. [2] The island's highest point is Mount Eagle , at 355 meters (1,165 ft). St. Croix's nickname is "Twin City", for its two towns, Frederiksted on the western end and Christiansted on the northeast part of the island.
The island's indigenous Taino name is Ay Ay ("the river"). [3] Its indigenous Carib name is Cibuquiera ("the stony land"). [3] Its modern name, Saint Croix , is derived from the French Sainte-Croix , itself a translation of the Spanish name Isla de la Santa Cruz (meaning "island of the Holy Cross "), given by Columbus in 1493. [4] The French name was partially retained under Danish rule as Sankt Croix , and the island was finally given its current spelling following the US takeover in 1917. The associated demonym for the island is Crucian, derived from the original Spanish name. [4]
Igneri pottery indicates that people's presence on the island from 1 to 700, followed by the Taíno from 700 to 1425, before the encroachment by the Caribs in 1425. However, the island was devoid of habitation by 1590. [5]
The island was inhabited by various indigenous groups during its prehistory. Christopher Columbus landed on Santa Cruz (Holy Cross), as he called it, on 14 November 1493, and immediately was attacked by the Kalinago , who lived at Salt River on the north shore. This is the first recorded fight between the Spanish and a New World native population, and Columbus gave the battle site the name Cabo de la Flecha (Cape of the Arrow). [6] The Spanish never colonized the Islands, but most or all of the native population was eventually dispersed or killed. By the end of the 16th century, the islands were said to be uninhabited. [7]
Dutch and English settlers landed at Saint Croix in 1625, [8] joined by some French refugees from Saint Kitts . However, the English expelled the Dutch and French settlers, before they themselves were evicted by a Spanish invasion from Puerto Rico in August 1650. [9] The Spanish occupation was short-lived, since a French force of 166 men attacked, and in the following year 1651 had established a colony of 300 on the island. [8] From 1651 until 1664, the Knights of Malta (at the time a vassal state of the Kingdom of Sicily ), ruled the island in the name of Louis XIV . [9] The island then passed to the French West India Company . [8] The colony was evacuated to San Domingo in 1695, when France battled the English and Dutch in the War of the Grand Alliance . The island then lay uninhabited and abandoned for another 38 years. [10]
In 1725, St. Thomas Governor Frederik Moth encouraged the Danish West Indies Company's directors to consider purchasing Santa Cruz (Saint Croix). On 15 June 1733, France and Denmark-Norway concluded a treaty by which the Danish West India Company bought Saint Croix for 750,000 livres . [9] Louis XV ratified the treaty on 28 June, and received half the payment in French coins, with the remaining half paid in 18 months. On 16 November 1733, Moth was named the first Danish governor of Saint Croix. The 1742 census lists 120 sugar plantations, 122 cotton plantations, and 1906 slaves, compared to 360 whites on the island. By 1754, the number of slaves had grown to 7,566. That year, King Frederick took direct control of Saint Croix from the company. [11] [10]
For nearly 200 years, Saint Croix, St. Thomas and St. John were known as the Danish West Indies . By the mid to late 18th century, "at the peak of the plantation economy, the enslaved population of Saint Croix numbered between 18,000 and 20,000, the white population ranging between 1,500 and 2,000". [12]
Future Founding Father Alexander Hamilton and his brother lived with their mother Rachel Faucette on Saint Croix, after she returned to the island in 1765. Their residence was in the upper floor of a house at 34 Company Street, while Rachel used the lower floor as a shop selling food items. Within two years, however, Hamilton lost his father, James Hamilton, by abandonment, and his mother to death. Official documents from the island, a 1768 probate court testimony from his uncle, established Alexander's age at 13. By 1769, Hamilton's cousin, aunt, uncle, and grandmother had also died. His brother James became an apprentice carpenter, and Alexander Hamilton became the ward of Thomas Stevens, a merchant on King Street. Hamilton was soon clerking in the export-import business of Beekman and Cruger, at the intersection of King and King's Cross Streets. In 1772, local businessmen funded Hamilton's further education in New York. [13]
The slave trade was abolished in the Danish colonies in 1792, although the prohibition did not go into effect until the end of 1802. Existing enslaved people were freed in 1848, after the 1848 St. Croix Slave Revolt led by General " Buddhoe " Gottlieb. [14] [15]
The British occupation of the Danish West Indies took place at the end of March 1801, with the arrival of a British fleet at St Thomas. Denmark-Norway accepted the Articles of Capitulation and the British occupied the islands without a shot being fired. Their occupation lasted only until April 1802, when Britain returned the islands to Denmark-Norway.
A second British invasion of the Danish West Indies took place in December 1807, when a British fleet captured St Thomas on 22 December, and Saint Croix on 25 December. Denmark-Norway did not resist and the invasion again was bloodless. This occupation lasted until 20 November 1815. Both invasions were due to Denmark's alliance with France during the Napoleonic Wars . On the conclusion of a peace with France, the islands were returned to Denmark.
The island was shaken by the 1878 St. Croix labor riot .
In 1916, Denmark sold Saint Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John to the United States, formalizing the transfer in the Treaty of the Danish West Indies , in exchange for a sum of US$25 million in gold. In a national referendum on the issue, 64.2% of Danish voters approved the sale. An unofficial referendum held in the islands resulted in 99.83% vote in favor of the purchase. Formal transfer of the islands to the U.S. took place on 1 April 1917.
The island's inhabitants were granted United States citizenship in 1927. Industrialization of the island and its move away from an agrarian society took place in the 1960s. The 1972 Fountain Valley massacre , a mass shooting during a robbery at a golf club, led to a devastating reduction in tourism that lasted many years. The 2012 shutdown of the Hovensa refinery resulted in the loss of many jobs. Agriculture has seen a slow resurgence, due to an increase in demand for local produce and agricultural products.
In 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck the island with Category 4 winds. The United States Army , the Federal Bureau of Investigation , and the United States Marshals Service were ordered in to restore order. [16] [17]
Category 5 Hurricane Maria 's weaker outer eyewall crossed St. Croix in September 2017; sustained winds reached over 150 mph and gusted up to 250 mph in some places on the western end of the island. Maria damaged or destroyed 70% of the buildings on St. Croix, including schools and the island's only hospital. [ citation needed ]
Saint Croix lies at
17°45′N 64°45′W . The easternmost point in the United States of America in the western hemisphere is Saint Croix's Point Udall . The island has an area of 214.66 km 2 (82.88 sq mi). The terrain is rugged, though not extremely so. The highest point on the island, Mount Eagle , is 1,165 feet (355 m) high. Most of the east end is quite hilly and steep, as is the north side from Christiansted west. From the north-side hills, a fairly even plain slopes down to the south coast; this was cultivated as the prime sugar land on the island.
The trade wind blows more or less along the length of the island. The hills of the western part of the island receive a good deal more rain than the east end; annual rainfall is on the whole extremely variable, averaging perhaps 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year. The east end of the island is a dry desert range with a substantial amount of cactus, while the west end has lush vegetation and palm trees. The island has multiple ecosystems in a small geographic area. Fairly severe and extended drought has always been a problem, particularly considering the lack of fresh ground water and lack of freshwater streams or rivers on the island. The island has a desalination plant, but most residential homes and businesses have built-in cisterns used to collect rainwater.
Inhabitants are called Crucians / ˈ k r uː ʒ ən / [18] (frequently written as "Cruzans").
Due to Saint Croix's history of immigration, there is much debate as to what constitutes a native Crucian. The consensus in Crucian society is that if one is bahn ya ("born here" in Crucian dialect) on Saint Croix, they can claim to be Crucian, but not necessarily a native Crucian . Those considered to be the native Crucians (or by the more politically correct term: ancestral native Crucian ) of Saint Croix are persons who can trace their ancestry to the era prior to U.S. Virgin Islands acquisition of American citizenship in 1927. Ancestral native Crucians (approximately one-fourth to one-third of Saint Croix's population) largely consist of the descendants of enslaved Africans brought to the island by Europeans during the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as the descendants of paid laborers recruited by the Danes from the British and Dutch West Indies after the Danish emancipation law in 1848. As on other Caribbean islands, many ancestral natives are also descended from European settlers and planters that migrated to the West Indies during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Due to a low number of European females in the colonial West Indies, many European males in colonial Saint Croix produced offspring with the majority African population, whose mixed-heritage descendants bear the surnames of their European ancestors. In addition, there are also a handful of ancestral families on the island (traditionally known as bukra ) of full European ancestry .
Due to historical economic and political differences, as well as the remnants of a 19th-century caste system based on skin complexion, socioeconomic class differences among ancestral native Crucians can vary widely, even within the same family. Most ancestral native Crucians today are employed by the Government of the Virgin Islands, although there are others who are involved in the tourism industry, as well as the legal and medical professions.
Puerto Rican migration was prevalent in the 1930s, '40s and '50s, when many Puerto Ricans relocated to Saint Croix for work after the collapse of the sugar industry. However, the total population actually declined by 50% in the century preceding 1945. [19]
The United States Navy purchase of two-thirds of the nearby Puerto Rican island of Vieques during World War II resulted in the displacement of thousands of Viequenses , many of whom relocated to Saint Croix because of its similar size and geography. The local holiday, Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands Friendship Day, has been celebrated since the 1960s on the second Monday of October, which is also the same date as Columbus Day . Puerto Ricans in Saint Croix, most of whom have lived on the island for more than a generation, have kept their culture alive while integrating it into the native Crucian culture and society. For example, in informal situations, many Puerto Ricans in Saint Croix speak a unique Spanglish -like combination of Puerto Rican Spanish and the local Crucian Creole English .
Migration from "down-island" (a local colloquial term for islands in the Lesser Antilles located to the east and southeast), occurred mainly throughout the 1960s and 70s. In that period, agriculture declined as the major industry in Saint Croix and was replaced by tourism, alumina production, and oil refining. Jobs were plentiful in these industries and down-islanders came to Saint Croix by the thousands. The demand for imported labor in Saint Croix was exacerbated by the fact that many ancestral native Crucians, having acquired American citizenship several decades earlier, migrated to the mainland United States to pursue educational and career opportunities. Many down-islanders made Saint Croix their permanent home, while others eventually relocated to the mainland United States or returned to their native countries. Most down-islanders came from St. Kitts and Nevis , Antigua , St. Lucia and Dominica , although people from every Anglophone Caribbean nation can be easily found on St. Croix. Down islanders and their Saint Croix-born offspring form the majority of Saint Croix's middle class, which has dwindled in size since the 2008 global recession.
Although down-island migration to Saint Croix is most commonly thought of as a mid-20th century phenomenon brought upon by American immigration policy, it is important to note that persons of both European and African descent from the nearby islands of Anguilla , St. Martin , Sint Eustatius , Saba , St. Kitts , Nevis , Antigua , and Montserrat have been migrating to Saint Croix since the 1600s. In addition, many ancestral native Crucians also share family ties with Barbados , as Bajans were heavily recruited to Saint Croix to work on sugar plantations throughout the late 19th century.
Continental Americans, although small in number in comparison with Caribbean immigrants, have also been part of the Saint Croix community. Most reside on the East End of Saint Croix and tend to work in the tourism industry, real estate, and legal professions. Many are temporary residents or retirees, as well.
Arab Palestinians have been an influential part of the local economy since the 1960s, when they first started to migrate to St. Croix to set up shops, supermarkets and gas stations.
In the 21st century, recent waves of migration to Saint Croix have included people from the Dominican Republic , Haiti , Jamaica , the Philippines , and various South American nations.
Saint Croix's history of migration has sometimes caused tensions between immigrants and Crucians whose ancestry on the island dates back for generations. Tensions have subsided to some extent in recent years, mainly due to intermarriage among Crucians and other Caribbean peoples. In the late 1990s, many people supported legislation to define as a "native U.S. Virgin Islander" anyone who could trace their ancestry on the island to 1927, the year in which U.S. Virgin Islanders were granted United States citizenship. This effort by a select group of nationalist senators eventually failed after much public outcry and controversy. It was learned that most native-born U.S. Virgin Islanders would not qualify as "native" under the proposed legislation, as their immigrant ancestors had arrived later than 1927, but thousands of Danish citizens would have qualified.
In 2009, the proposed U.S. Virgin Islands Constitution voted by the Fifth Constitutional Convention established three definitions of U.S. Virgin Islanders: "Ancestral Native Virgin Islander" – those with ancestral ties (and their descendants); "Native Virgin Islander" – those born on the island (and their descendants); and "Virgin Islander" – any United States citizen who has resided in the territory for five years. The proposed constitution was rejected by the United States Congress in 2010 for violating the principle of equal rights for all citizens of the territory, "native" or not, and was sent back to the convention for further consideration.
The total population of the island as per the 2020 U.S. Census is 41,004. [20]
Saint Croix is divided into the following subdistricts (with population as per the 2020 U.S. Census): [20]
English has been the dominant language on St. Croix since the 1700s and has been the official language since 1917, when the Danish West Indies were purchased by the United States. Previously, the official language was Danish , although it was not widely spoken. Other languages spoken throughout St. Croix's colonial history have included Irish, Scots, Spanish, and French, as well as a now-extinct Dutch Creole spoken by St. Thomas and St. John-born people living in St. Croix, as well as the local creole English, which still exists today. [21]
Known on the island as Crucian , Virgin Islands Creole English is spoken by the majority of the population in informal situations. [22] Spanish is spoken by migrants from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and their St. Croix-born offspring, and various French creoles are spoken by St. Lucian , Dominican (Dominica), and Haitian immigrants. Arabic is common among the large Palestinian community on St. Croix. Immigrants from the Anglophone Caribbean that migrated to St. Croix after their formative years tend to speak the English creoles of their respective islands in informal situations, which are, for the most part, mutually intelligible with Virgin Islands Creole English .
Christianity is the predominant religion; the island has been called the "Land of Churches" [23] for the approximately 150 churches that serve its 50,000 residents.
Protestant denominations are the most prevalent, but there is also a significant Roman Catholic presence due to Saint Croix's large Hispanic population, as well as Irish influence during the Danish colonial period. Anglican , Methodist , Moravian , Presbyterian , Pentecostal and Seventh-day Adventists are among the Protestant denominations prevalent on the island. There are also followers of the Jehovah's Witness faith, as well as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints .
As in most of the Caribbean, various forms of Rastafari are practiced on the island. Islam is prevalent among the small local Arab population, and there is a small Jewish presence as well. Hinduism and Islam is also practiced by the Indian population.
Saint Croix was once an agricultural powerhouse in the Caribbean, but this period ended with the rapid industrialization of the island's economy in the 1960s. Like many other Caribbean islands today, Saint Croix has tourism as one of its main sources of revenue. A number of other industries on the island contribute to the economy.
Saint Croix was home to HOVENSA , one of the world's largest oil refineries . HOVENSA is a limited liability company owned and operated by Hess Oil Virgin Islands Corp. (HOVIC), a division of U.S.-based Hess Corporation , and Petroleos de Venezuela, SA (PDVSA), the national oil company of Venezuela . Gas prices on the island were slightly higher than average when compared to gas prices in the continental United States.
On January 18, 2012, the company announced that the HOVENSA refinery would be permanently shut down. This had a major adverse effect on the economy of Saint Croix and the entire U.S. Virgin Islands, as the refinery employed 1,200 residents and 950 contractors. [24] The refinery has since reopened under new ownership.
Saint Croix is also home to the Cruzan Rum Distillery , [25] makers of Cruzan Rum , a brand of Beam Suntory, Inc. The Cruzan Rum Distillery was founded in 1760 as Estate Diamond , and for many years used locally grown sugar cane to produce a single "dark"-style rum . The distillery now imports sugar cane molasses from other countries in the region, primarily from the Dominican Republic and South America. In recent years, Cruzan Rum, along with Bacardi from Puerto Rico and Gosling's from Bermuda , has contributed to the resurgence of "single barrel," super-premium rum. The quality and smoothness of the Cruzan Estate Rums has won more than 30 Spirit Awards. [26] Cruzan Estate Diamond Rum (aged five years in American oak barrels) and Cruzan Single Barrel Estate Rum (aged 12 years in American oak barrels) are two examples.
Diageo has completed construction of a new distillery on a 26-acre industrial site next to the Hovensa Refinery. The new distillery produces Captain Morgan Rum. [27] Diageo's entrance into the U.S. Virgin Islands rum industry has been controversial. The cash-strapped U.S. Virgin Islands government secured $250 million in bonds for the plant, about which the Puerto Rican government has bitterly complained.
Cars drive on the left hand side of the road , but nearly all the automobiles on the island have left side steering columns. This has proven difficult for new residents and visitors from right-hand traffic locales such as the mainland United States, the French and Dutch West Indies , the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Roads are with numerous potholes.
There is a public bus service called Virgin Islands Transit, also known as VITRAN, operated by the Virgin Islands Department of Public Works.
In addition to taxis and buses, St. Croix has shared taxis , locally known as "taxi buses" (also found on the other U.S. Virgin Islands). Taxi buses are full-sized vans running a route from Frederiksted to Christiansted. Taxi buses are privately owned and operated; they do not follow a regular schedule, and there are no pre-specified stops. People simply wait by the side of the road until a taxi bus approaches, then flag the driver down by waving. Passengers can get out anywhere along the taxi route. Taxi buses are not metered and are required by law to charge a flat rate of $2.50, regardless of where a rider gets on and off. Taxis to specific locations are much more expensive and are typically used by tourists.
Ferry service to St. Thomas was restarted in April 2017. The QE IV Ferry makes one trip per day departing from Gallows Bay, Christiansted to Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. The journey takes 2.5 hours and costs $50. The QE IV Ferry does not operate during hazardous weather conditions. Some Ferry companies based in St. Thomas and St. John sometimes operate St. Croix-to-St. Thomas service for special occasions, such as the St. Croix Agricultural Fair in February, Virgin Islands Carnival, Crucian Christmas Carnival, as well as horse races.
The Henry E. Rohlsen International Airport serves St. Croix with regular flights from the U.S. mainland, Puerto Rico, and the Eastern Caribbean . Seaplanes, operated by Seaborne Airlines , make the trip from St. Croix to St. Thomas, departing and arriving in Christiansted Harbor.
Although St. Croix is a U.S. territory, the U.S. Virgin Islands are maintained as a free port in a separate customs zone. Therefore, travelers to and from the contiguous United States and Puerto Rico must clear U.S. customs but do not need to present a passport, and only need proof of U.S. citizenship or nationality. The immigration status of non-U.S. citizens may be verified during this process.
The St. Croix School District operates a number of public schools in St. Croix. [28] There also exist multiple private schools, including St. Croix Montessori, Star Apple Montessori School, The Good Hope Country Day School , AZ Academy, St. Mary's Catholic School, Free Will Baptist, St. Croix SDA School, and The Manor School. The only colleges on the island are the University of the Virgin Islands , St. Croix campus and Barry University , which operates a physician assistant training program.
The island's largest festival, termed "Crucian Christmas Carnival," is celebrated on St. Croix throughout late December and early January. Another significant festival is the Agricultural and Food Fair held in mid-February.
Several times a year, there is a nighttime festival in Christiansted called "Jump-Up" and a monthly event called "Sunset Jazz" in Frederiksted , where local jazz musicians play on Frederiksted Beach. Every year on the Saturday before Mardi Gras, there is a local Mardi Croix parade and a dog parade through the North Shore.
The St. Croix Half Ironman Triathlon is held in the first week of May. [29] The Triathlon includes a 1.2-mile (1.9 km) swim, a 56-mile (90 km) bike ride, and a 13.1-mile (21.1 km) run. Because the bicycle route includes a ride up an extremely steep hill known as "The Beast", this triathlon is often nicknamed "Beauty and the Beast".
A costumed carnival dancer
Parade of costumed carnival dancers
A costumed carnival dancer
A costumed carnival dancer
Frederiksted maintains its Victorian era architecture and original seven street by seven street city design and is host to several historic structures. Among them are St. Patrick's Catholic Church built in the 1840s and its primary school, the Customs House, the 19th Century Apothecary, and many other buildings; some of which due to hurricanes past have fallen into very scenic ruins. Frederiksted operates at a more relaxed pace than most of the island, and is more lively during Carnival in January and whenever visiting cruise ships are in port.
Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve contains the only known site where members of a Columbus expedition set foot on what is now United States territory. It also preserves upland watersheds, mangrove forests, and estuarine and marine environments that support threatened and endangered species. The site is marked by Fort Salé, a remaining earthworks fortification from the French period of occupation, about 1617. The park also preserves prehistoric and colonial-era archeological sites including the only existent example of a ball court in the Caribbean. This is one of two sites on the island for bioluminescent bays (the other being Altona Lagoon).
Fort Christiansværn built in 1749 and other buildings are maintained by the National Park Service as the Christiansted National Historic Site .
Buck Island Reef National Monument preserves a 176 acres (71 ha) island just north of St. Croix and the surrounding reefs. This is a popular destination for snorkelers. Buck Island maintains a U.S. Coast Guard weather station and is also home to a student monitored lemon shark breeding ground. Green Cay (pronounced green key) is a small island located southwest of Buck Island; it is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It hosts a nearby reef popular among scuba divers and snorkelists—Tamarind Reef.
The farmer's market (1 Estate, Kingshill, 00850, St. Croix) offers local fruit and vegetables, as well as plants, local food, and delicious juices. The outdoor vendors open every Saturday from 6 a.m. to 12 p.m., sometimes longer. You can visit the farmer's market all-year round to taste the fresh fruit and vegetables and enjoy a typical Cruzan breakfast.
The St. Croix National Heritage Area was established in the National Heritage Area Act in 2022. [30] The National Heritage Area will help preserve and promote historic and cultural sites across the island. [31] [32]
The waters surrounding St. Croix are warm year-round, with temperatures ranging from 25 °C (77 °F) – 30 °C (86 °F), making it a popular destination for watersports including scuba diving, snorkeling, kayaking, paddleboarding, surfing, kite surfing, parasailing, jet skiing, fishing, and sailing. Two of the island's most popular underwater sites for scuba divers are the Frederiksted Pier and the drop-off into deep water at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve .
Frederiksted is known for reef diving and access to wreck diving. The western side of the island has calm waters that allow snorkeling with access from the beach. Paddleboarding is popular near Frederiksted for the same reason. The Frederiksted Pier attracts scuba divers and snorkelers, as well as those who simply jump off it. [33] [34] The shallow water and sandy bottom around the pier are ideal for recreational diving by novice scuba divers in PADI Discover Scuba Diving programs (also called resort diving), for extended shore diving, night diving , and for underwater photography , [35] especially of its abundant seahorse population. [36] [37]
A few hundred meters off the northern coast of the island, from Salt River to Cane Bay, the bottom drops suddenly into a deep trench, where coral reefs, abundant tropical fish, and migrant sea turtles may be observed. Kayaking is popular in the Salt River area as well.
The town of Christiansted , a short distance from Buck Island and Green Cay, is a former capital of the Danish West Indies. It lies just east of the northern underwater drop-off and is protected by a reef.
There are two bioluminescent bays or bio bays on St. Croix. The most widely known and visited is located at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve . A second bio bay can be found at Altona Lagoon. Bio bays are extremely rare with "only seven-year-round lagoons known to exist in the Caribbean". [38]
A combination of factors creates the necessary conditions for bioluminescence: red mangrove trees surround the water (the organisms have been related to mangrove forest, [39] although mangrove is not necessarily associated with this species). [40] A study at the bio bay located at Salt River is being conducted as of 2013 by faculty and students from the University of South Carolina, the University of North Carolina-Wilmington and the University of the Virgin Islands. Their research is focused on analyzing quality and nutrient composition of the water, the distribution of a micro-organism , the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense , which glows whenever the water is disturbed, and the abundance of "cysts", dormant dinoflagellates embedded in the sea floor.
A concurrent complementary study is being undertaken by the St. Croix Environmental Association in conjunction with Scripps Institution of Oceanography which focuses on counting the photon density of the phenomenon over time and through various conditions of weather and other impacts. Water quality and taxonomic analysis from both studies will be shared and correlated to create one of the most thorough investigations of year-round bioluminescent bays to date.
The two bio bays on St Croix have very different characteristics. The one at Altona Lagoon is large in size but is very shallow allowing one to see the various marine life swimming and agitating the water, lighting it up. The bio bay at Salt River is smaller in size but is deeper than Altona Lagoon. Because of its depth this bay is also home to a second form of bioluminescence called Ctenophora or comb-jellies, which are not found at Altona Lagoon.
A third bioluminescent organism is also found in Salt River. A species of marine Odontosyllis fireworm performs its brilliant green mating ritual within 57 hours after the full moon, females rising to the surface and leaving a luminescent green puddle for the males to race through, fertilizing the eggs.
- Buck Island Reef National Monument , managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Christiansted National Historic Site , managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge , managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
- Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve , co-managed by the Territory of the Virgin Islands and the National Park Service (a federal agency)
- Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge , managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
- St. Croix East End Marine Park : managed by the Government of the Virgin Islands through the Department of Planning and Natural Resources' Division of Coastal Zone Management
Christiansted, looking north.
Downtown Christiansted and harbor
Old Danish Customs House, Christiansted
East End
East End
Teague Bay Beach
Canegarden Bay Beach
St. George Village Botanical Gardens
Scuba diver and sponges, Cane Bay wall
Scuba diver and sponges, Cane Bay wall
- Hans Jonatan (1784–1827), possibly the first person of color to live in Iceland
- ^ This is the figure reported by the government of the U.S. Virgin Islands on the St. Croix page of usvi.net. Other reliable sources report different figures. The article at the on-line edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica reports the area as 84 square miles. The Virgin Islands (United States) page at the United Nations Environment Programme 's Island Directory gives the area as 214.4 square kilometers, equivalent to 82.8 square miles. And although the U.S. Census Bureau does not report the areas of geographic entities, it does report their population densities (equal to the total population divided by the area). In the 2010 census, the population was reported as 50,601 (Table P1, "Total Population") and the population density was reported as 607.3 per square mile (Table P40, "Population Density"). Together, these figures imply an area of 83.3 square miles.
- ^ Spanish: Santa Cruz ; Dutch : Sint-Kruis ; French: Sainte-Croix ; Danish and Norwegian : Sankt Croix , Taino : Ay Ay
- ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses: U.S. Virgin Islands" . US Census Bureau . Retrieved December 1, 2022 .
- ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses: U.S. Virgin Islands" . US Census Bureau . Retrieved December 1, 2022 .
- ^ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Croix | 49 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | Where is St. Croix? - Villa Margarita St Croix USVI | St. Croix is located in the eastern Caribbean sea, 120 miles southeast of Puerto Rico and 1130 miles from Miami, Florida. Geographic coordinates place St Croix’s location on a map at 17.7246° N, 64.8348° W.
You can see on the map above its location relative to other islands in the Caribbean. The blow-up section of the map details the outline shape of St. Croix, as well as provides useful scale to grasp how the island’s size compares to other islands in the Caribbean.
St. Croix’s location in the Caribbean provides it with perfect year-round weather, typical of all Caribbean islands. St. Croix is part of the chain of islands that stretch from Bahamas in the north, down to Trinidad and Tobago just off the coast of South America.
St Croix nearby neighbors include the BVI ( British Virgin Islands ), and about 120 miles to the west of St. Croix you’ll find Anguilla and St. Kitts and Nevis .
The picture below gives you a good idea of where is Saint Croix located in the Caribbean Sea:
There are three islands which make up the US Virgin Islands. In the map below, you can see where is Saint Croix located in relation to its USVI sister islands of St. Thomas and St. John. Saint Croix is the largest of the 3 US Virgin Islands, and about a 40-mile distance from St. Thomas. This makes day trips between the islands convenient, the islands are serves by both air and St. Croix ferry services.
St. Croix’s location places the island right in the middle of Hurricane Alley of ocean storms, which typically originate off the west coast of Africa and make their way across the Atlantic. This part of the Caribbean has its rainy season in late summer and the fall.
Copernix (satellite) A unique map service combining free text search with a map. Connects geographical searched with Wikipedia in a unique way.
Yes, St Croix is a US territory. All four US Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John and Water Island ) are US territories.
Yes, St. Croix is part of the United States.
Yes, St. Croix is one of four US Virgin Islands. The other three are St. Thomas, St. John and Water Island.
St. Croix island is 28 miles long and 7 miles across. St. Croix is 84 square miles in total.
At 84 square miles, St. Croix is the largest US Virgin Islands. It is 3 times the size of St. Thomas.
Yes, St. Croix is located in the Caribbean Sea , 120 miles SW of Puerto Rico.
The name Saint Croix means “Holy Cross”.
Christopher Columbus named the island “Santa Cruz” after he visited the island in 1493. The island’s name was later changed to Saint Croix.
Ok, we’re biased. But St. Croix’s size, diversity of nature and fauna, plus just a more laid-back vibe than St. Thomas makes St. Croix the best Virgin Island to visit.
Very. You’ll find everything you need to had a great holiday here: great weather, beaches, friendly people, landscape variety, lost of interesting tasty food, and great sunsets!
Price on the island are a bit higher than on mainland US, mainly reflecting the additional cost of shipping everything in. Paradise has a price. But St Croix prices are not expensive compared to many other Caribbean islands when factoring in the protection and safety of being under a US flag and laws.
There are 2 different sets of islands called “Virgin Islands”. St. Croix is located in the US Virgin Islands, and about 70 miles away from the British Virgin Islands (BVI).
St. Croix is safe and good for families. There is a slightly higher crime rate than in many US states, but violent crime rarely involves visitors, and certainly is lower than many surrounding islands in the Caribbean. Just be sensible and don’t leave valuables lying around.
St. Croix is good for families because it has a relaxed environment with lots to do. Plus there are many beaches that are kid-friendly with easy waves.
St. Thomas is more popular with cruise ships, if that’s what you’re looking for. It’s the busiest and most commercialized of the three islands, and is more upscale, with more high-end dining and golf. So it really comes down to what you want: more crowds, noisy bars and cruise ship tourists, or a more relaxed and less over-developed Caribbean island experience. Here’s the St. Croix cruise ship schedule .
Here are some videos showing where Saint Croix is located in the Caribbean. It’s always nice to see a video to complement the maps.
OK, now you know where is St. Croix , you might be asking: So what? What’s so special about Saint Croix?
The answer is that St. Croix is a must-see for anyone who is interested in history. St. Croix has flown the flags of Spain , The Netherlands , England, France , the Knights of Malta and Denmark. How cool is that?
And oh, the diversity: for example, you have Christiansted , which was once the capital of the Danish West Indies . Its features beautiful 18th-century red-roofed buildings and quaint stone streets. Then you have Frederiksted , its twin city to the west, which sports a fort that once protected the island from pirates and rival nations. And in between them you’ll find the ruins of hundreds of St Croix sugar estates and cattle estates which dot the landscape. It’s a literal trip back into time.
There are botanical gardens , majestic historical restored buildings, and actually it’s simply impossible to not feel history living and breathing as you walk or drive in St. Croix. At one end of the island is Point Udall and its signature sundial monument, marking the easternmost point in the United States. Standing here at sunrise guarantees that you’ll be the first on American soil to see the sun !
But St. Croix is not just about history. It’s also famous for its incredible beaches, recreational activities, great dining, beach resorts, a casino plus a number of super Caribbean golf course s. As well as a wealth of arts , crafts, music, festivals and cultural events.
St. Croix charms people looking for a laid-back Caribbean experience. It’s an island deeply steeped in history and culture, with historic landmarks , places of worship and festivals that run all year long. Start your day relaxing on the beach. Then try a horseback ride near an 18th century sugar mill. Later, you can visit a colonial church in the afternoon and finish off the day with a wonderful St. Croix romantic dinner .
It’s hard to miss the unique Crucian culture in Christiansted and Frederiksted, with their historical buildings, arts and crafts. Later you can walk around the white sand beaches and turquoise waters; St. Croix has over 30 beaches to enjoy!
There are lots of water activities as well in St. Croix. Take a trip to Buck Island Reef National Monument , one of only three underwater national monuments in the USA. Snorkelers and scuba divers can explore an underwater trail and discover an assortment of sea life, from the protected coral reef to native flora and fauna, the hawksbill turtle and brown pelican .
Relax, and learn why the locals call St. Croix “so nice!”
You might be asking where on St. Croix you can find important organizations, so we’ve provided a list here below:
SERVICES & ORGANIZATIONS
|Alcoholics Anonymous (for meeting schedule)||340-776-5283|
|Al-Anon/ACOA||340-773-0372|
|American Red Cross||340-778-5104|
|National Park Service St Croix USVI||340-773-1460|
|St. Croix Environmental Assoc||340-773-1989|
|Tourist Information – Frederiksted||340-772-0357|
|Tourist Information – Christiansted||340-773-1404|
|Toll Free, not from mainland||800-372-USVI|
|U.S. Customs – St Croix USVI||340-773-5650|
|Cruise Ship Arrival Information||340-772-0357|
LIBRARIES | https://villamargarita.com/where-is-st-croix/ | 49 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | Where is St. Croix? - Villa Margarita St Croix USVI | St. Croix is located in the eastern Caribbean sea, 120 miles southeast of Puerto Rico and 1130 miles from Miami, Florida. Geographic coordinates place St Croix’s location on a map at 17.7246° N, 64.8348° W.
You can see on the map above its location relative to other islands in the Caribbean. The blow-up section of the map details the outline shape of St. Croix, as well as provides useful scale to grasp how the island’s size compares to other islands in the Caribbean.
St. Croix’s location in the Caribbean provides it with perfect year-round weather, typical of all Caribbean islands. St. Croix is part of the chain of islands that stretch from Bahamas in the north, down to Trinidad and Tobago just off the coast of South America.
St Croix nearby neighbors include the BVI ( British Virgin Islands ), and about 120 miles to the west of St. Croix you’ll find Anguilla and St. Kitts and Nevis .
The picture below gives you a good idea of where is Saint Croix located in the Caribbean Sea:
There are three islands which make up the US Virgin Islands. In the map below, you can see where is Saint Croix located in relation to its USVI sister islands of St. Thomas and St. John. Saint Croix is the largest of the 3 US Virgin Islands, and about a 40-mile distance from St. Thomas. This makes day trips between the islands convenient, the islands are serves by both air and St. Croix ferry services.
St. Croix’s location places the island right in the middle of Hurricane Alley of ocean storms, which typically originate off the west coast of Africa and make their way across the Atlantic. This part of the Caribbean has its rainy season in late summer and the fall.
Copernix (satellite) A unique map service combining free text search with a map. Connects geographical searched with Wikipedia in a unique way.
Yes, St Croix is a US territory. All four US Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John and Water Island ) are US territories.
Yes, St. Croix is part of the United States.
Yes, St. Croix is one of four US Virgin Islands. The other three are St. Thomas, St. John and Water Island.
St. Croix island is 28 miles long and 7 miles across. St. Croix is 84 square miles in total.
At 84 square miles, St. Croix is the largest US Virgin Islands. It is 3 times the size of St. Thomas.
Yes, St. Croix is located in the Caribbean Sea , 120 miles SW of Puerto Rico.
The name Saint Croix means “Holy Cross”.
Christopher Columbus named the island “Santa Cruz” after he visited the island in 1493. The island’s name was later changed to Saint Croix.
Ok, we’re biased. But St. Croix’s size, diversity of nature and fauna, plus just a more laid-back vibe than St. Thomas makes St. Croix the best Virgin Island to visit.
Very. You’ll find everything you need to had a great holiday here: great weather, beaches, friendly people, landscape variety, lost of interesting tasty food, and great sunsets!
Price on the island are a bit higher than on mainland US, mainly reflecting the additional cost of shipping everything in. Paradise has a price. But St Croix prices are not expensive compared to many other Caribbean islands when factoring in the protection and safety of being under a US flag and laws.
There are 2 different sets of islands called “Virgin Islands”. St. Croix is located in the US Virgin Islands, and about 70 miles away from the British Virgin Islands (BVI).
St. Croix is safe and good for families. There is a slightly higher crime rate than in many US states, but violent crime rarely involves visitors, and certainly is lower than many surrounding islands in the Caribbean. Just be sensible and don’t leave valuables lying around.
St. Croix is good for families because it has a relaxed environment with lots to do. Plus there are many beaches that are kid-friendly with easy waves.
St. Thomas is more popular with cruise ships, if that’s what you’re looking for. It’s the busiest and most commercialized of the three islands, and is more upscale, with more high-end dining and golf. So it really comes down to what you want: more crowds, noisy bars and cruise ship tourists, or a more relaxed and less over-developed Caribbean island experience. Here’s the St. Croix cruise ship schedule .
Here are some videos showing where Saint Croix is located in the Caribbean. It’s always nice to see a video to complement the maps.
OK, now you know where is St. Croix , you might be asking: So what? What’s so special about Saint Croix?
The answer is that St. Croix is a must-see for anyone who is interested in history. St. Croix has flown the flags of Spain , The Netherlands , England, France , the Knights of Malta and Denmark. How cool is that?
And oh, the diversity: for example, you have Christiansted , which was once the capital of the Danish West Indies . Its features beautiful 18th-century red-roofed buildings and quaint stone streets. Then you have Frederiksted , its twin city to the west, which sports a fort that once protected the island from pirates and rival nations. And in between them you’ll find the ruins of hundreds of St Croix sugar estates and cattle estates which dot the landscape. It’s a literal trip back into time.
There are botanical gardens , majestic historical restored buildings, and actually it’s simply impossible to not feel history living and breathing as you walk or drive in St. Croix. At one end of the island is Point Udall and its signature sundial monument, marking the easternmost point in the United States. Standing here at sunrise guarantees that you’ll be the first on American soil to see the sun !
But St. Croix is not just about history. It’s also famous for its incredible beaches, recreational activities, great dining, beach resorts, a casino plus a number of super Caribbean golf course s. As well as a wealth of arts , crafts, music, festivals and cultural events.
St. Croix charms people looking for a laid-back Caribbean experience. It’s an island deeply steeped in history and culture, with historic landmarks , places of worship and festivals that run all year long. Start your day relaxing on the beach. Then try a horseback ride near an 18th century sugar mill. Later, you can visit a colonial church in the afternoon and finish off the day with a wonderful St. Croix romantic dinner .
It’s hard to miss the unique Crucian culture in Christiansted and Frederiksted, with their historical buildings, arts and crafts. Later you can walk around the white sand beaches and turquoise waters; St. Croix has over 30 beaches to enjoy!
There are lots of water activities as well in St. Croix. Take a trip to Buck Island Reef National Monument , one of only three underwater national monuments in the USA. Snorkelers and scuba divers can explore an underwater trail and discover an assortment of sea life, from the protected coral reef to native flora and fauna, the hawksbill turtle and brown pelican .
Relax, and learn why the locals call St. Croix “so nice!”
You might be asking where on St. Croix you can find important organizations, so we’ve provided a list here below:
SERVICES & ORGANIZATIONS
|Alcoholics Anonymous (for meeting schedule)||340-776-5283|
|Al-Anon/ACOA||340-773-0372|
|American Red Cross||340-778-5104|
|National Park Service St Croix USVI||340-773-1460|
|St. Croix Environmental Assoc||340-773-1989|
|Tourist Information – Frederiksted||340-772-0357|
|Tourist Information – Christiansted||340-773-1404|
|Toll Free, not from mainland||800-372-USVI|
|U.S. Customs – St Croix USVI||340-773-5650|
|Cruise Ship Arrival Information||340-772-0357|
LIBRARIES | https://villamargarita.com/where-is-st-croix/ | 49 |
where is st croix located in the caribbean | This Caribbean Island Has Beautiful Beaches, Charming Hotels, and Incredible Scuba Diving | The perfect combination of cosmopolitan and rugged, St. Croix appeals to a broad range of adventurous and culturally curious travelers.
Published on May 12, 2022
- Share
- Tweet
- Pin
At just 84 square miles, you'd think St. Croix would fly right under the radar. But in the U.S. Virgin Islands , those miles stack up to make it the largest island in the archipelago. And every square inch is brimming with something special for visitors. So, bookmark this page for your next trip to St. Croix to remember everything you should see, do, and explore on the island paradise.
St. Croix is relatively accessible to U.S.-based travelers. Several leading air carriers (American, JetBlue, Spirit, and Delta) operate nonstop flights from major gateways like Miami, Fort Lauderdale, Charlotte, and Atlanta. Perhaps most convenient for this set of travelers is the fact Americans do not need a passport to enter, as the island is an unincorporated U.S. territory.
However, Americans will notice one major difference upon landing: The local population drives on the left. But the transition is easy, thanks to "Keep Left" road signs and stickers prominently displayed in rental cars and road signs providing helpful reminders along the way.
While on the island, visitors may catch a glimpse of several different flags swaying in the breeze, including the Dannebrog, the national flag of Denmark. This is a holdover from the island's colonial-era past, prior to the purchase by the U.S. and its transition of power in 1917.
The culture on the island is a deep combination of African, European, Caribbean, native Carib and Taino, and American heritages. It's a place where storytelling and music can be found on every corner and town square, and it's a good idea to stop, learn, and appreciate what makes this destination and its locals so special.
St. Croix appeals to a broad range of adventurous and culturally curious travelers. The island's twin towns, Christiansted in the east and Frederiksted in the west, offer a wealth of shopping, fine dining, art, and historical attractions.
Fort Frederik in Frederiksted is historically significant from an Afro-conscious perspective. It was here, in 1848, that the proclamation freeing all enslaved Africans throughout the Danish West Indies was made. A bust commemorating General Buddhoe , a formerly enslaved person who led the insurrection that proved pivotal in earning emancipation, sits just outside the fort's weathered red walls. Additional historical attractions in Frederiksted include the Estate Whim Great House and Museum (the only sugar plantation museum in the Virgin Islands) and the Lawaetz Museum.
Christiansted is also home to several centuries-old attractions. Fort Christiansvaern forms the centerpiece of the Christiansted National Historic Site , a collection of carefully restored Danish colonial structures dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries.
Arguably, the bigger draws in Christiansted, however, are the shopping and dining venues. Here, exciting foodie adventures and one-of-a-kind buys await in cafes, restaurants, and boutiques housed in distinctive structures pulled right from the past.
Top restaurants in the neighborhood include Savant , Café Christine , Galangal , and Rum and Wine Bar Restaurant . Meanwhile, savvy shoppers keen on collecting unique mementos won't want to miss Sonya's , home of the original St. Croix hook bracelet. Crucian Gold and ib Designs are also big on producing fine, handmade jewelry born and bred on the island.
Away from the twin towns, St. Croix's beaches, hiking, championship golf courses, snorkeling, and scuba diving options fill days with thrills that keep travelers coming back for more.
For a stunning view, put in the work with a hike up Goat Hill , where you'll enjoy the full expanse of the island extending westward and the easternmost point of the U.S., Point Udall, to the east.
The Jack and Isaac Bay Preserve below Goat Hill allows travelers to combine hiking and beachcombing in one rewarding adventure. Low-impact trails lead to the remote, unspoiled beaches lined with sugar-white sand, lush trees, and blessedly nothing else.
Additional hiking trails are also available at Buck Island, a small, uninhabited island just off St. Croix's northeast shore. Buck Island and its surrounding reef and waters lie within the Buck Island Reef National Monument , a protected natural environment managed by the U.S. National Park Service. Hiking adventures here are a boon for bird-watchers or anyone seeking to commune with nature in peace and tranquility. An undersea snorkeling trail along the Buck Island Reef makes it easy for visitors to familiarize themselves with the coral and sea creatures that call these protected waters home.
Several tour operators offer half-and full-day excursions to Buck Island. Chief among them is Captain Carl of Buck Island Charters . The family-owned charter company provides a nonmotorized full-sail Buck Island experience aboard trimaran sailing vessels.
For scuba divers, nothing beats the fun at The Wall at Cane Bay . One of the world's renowned dive sites, The Wall drops to depths in excess of 13,000 feet. The deep waters here teem with out-of-this-world wildlife and coral formations.
The leading hotels and resorts in St. Croix are a bit different than those found on other Caribbean islands . In place of large, all-inclusive properties and familiar international brand names, St. Croix hotels are generally smaller and more intimate. Often, they echo the island's rich history. And many of the newest hotels are actually updated and reimagined versions of older, historic properties.
The Buccaneer Beach and Golf Resort truly has it all: a stunning 18-hole championship golf course, modern tennis facilities, a full-service spa, multiple dining options, three beaches, and an array of water sports equipment. The estate was originally founded in 1653, when the Knights of Malta controlled St. Croix. Historic remnants of the old plantation, like the sugar mill that sits astride the main entrance to the hotel lobby, remain on the grounds. The property was converted into a hotel in 1947, earning The Buccaneer the distinction of being the oldest family-owned and operated property in the Caribbean.
Nestled in the heart of downtown Christiansted, the historic Company House Hotel is a cozy and freshly remodeled oasis of refinement built on simplicity. A somewhat secret grotto pool and an elegant mahogany bar in the lobby serve as the two main gathering points. There's no restaurant, though this encourages guests to seek out the many fantastic restaurants that have recently elevated Christiansted into a culinary hot spot in the area.
The most stylish hotel to open in St. Croix in a generation, The Fred sits right on the waterfront of its namesake town, Frederiksted, on the west coast of the island. Formerly a private residence, the property's structure dates back to the 18th century. The swanky pool, elevated sundeck, party-sized Jacuzzi, half-moon bar, and boardwalk above the beach are all new additions to the building.
What's old is new again (and much improved) at the Feather Leaf Inn . Formerly known as Estate Butler's Bay, the property is an 18th-century Danish sugar plantation. Rather than glorifying its dark, colonial past, Feather Leaf builds on its agrarian roots, emphasizing healthy, plant-based food and sustainable tourism. Much of the grounds are devoted to developing a seaside botanical forest filled with tropical fruits and herbs. As for the accommodations, nine guest rooms are spread among three separate buildings, and each is 100% solar-powered, distinctively styled, and features jaw-dropping sunset views over a calm, secluded bay.
Was this page helpful? | https://www.travelandleisure.com/travel-guide/st-croix-travel-us-virgin-islands | 49 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Explaining Chinook And Foehn Winds And How They Are Formed | Most of us are unfamiliar with Chinook (or Föehn) winds, but they are all just variations of a common meteorological phenomenon known as the orographic effect. We examine what they are and how they form.
Chinook winds are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Ocean rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
If you live in an area surrounding the region that commonly experiences these winds , you may be familiar with the names. But what exactly are Chinook winds, and how do they develop in the first place?
Chinook winds got their name from the Chinook Native American people who lived in coastal areas near the Columbia River (in the States of Washington and Oregon), where these winds occur on a regular basis.
Föehn winds originate from the German word "Föhn," which literally means hot, dry wind. It is in this region of the Alps in Central Europe where this occurrence was first studied.
Although these winds have different names, depending on the region where they occur, they are exactly the same weather phenomena, no matter where they form in the world.
As just stated, the first thing to know about Chinook and Föehn winds is that they are essentially the same type of wind. You may not be aware of it, but the area you live in or one nearby may regularly experience these air movements on a seasonal basis.
By providing a quick summary of what Chinook winds are, and then giving a more detailed description of the Föehn winds they are based upon, one will be able to get a clear understanding of what these type of winds are an how they are created.
Chinook winds (also known as Föehn or Föhn winds) are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Oceans rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
As already mentioned in the introduction, Föhn (Föehn) winds were first identified and studied in Central Europe's Alps.
The name "Chinook" simply refers to the Native Americans who lived in the region where this phenomenon frequently occurs but are essentially nothing more than Föehn winds.
The process through which a Föehn wind develops follows the same steps, no matter where they are found throughout the world:
As moist, warm air blows and reaches the windward side of a mountain, it starts to ascend against the mountain slopes. As it gains altitude , the air also starts to cool down.
Once the air reaches a height where the air has cooled down enough for condensation to take place, precipitation in the form of rain and snow follows. In the process, the air loses most of its moisture, while the condensation also allows for the release of latent heat.
(As contradictory as it may sound, condensation is known as a warming process, and evaporation as a cooling process. To make more sense of these seemingly opposing statements, you can find detailed a more detailed explanation in this article .)
As the air reaches the mountain top, it is now both dry as a result of the precipitation and slightly warmer due to the release of latent heat during the condensation process.
It now starts it descend down the leeward side of the mountain. As the air continues to move downward, the effects of gravity force it to speeds up and become warmer as it continues to accelerate down the slopes towards the bottom of the mountain.
The mass of descending air also has a significant effect on the heating process. As the large volume of air descends, it causes the air to compress. The descending mass of air causes so much pressure that it results in the air heating up, a process called adiabatic heating.
All these steps and processes combined result in a warm, dry wind of considerable strength, known as Chinooks, Föhns.
Regions situated on the leeward side of a mountain experiencing this phenomenon usually experience warmer and more pleasant weather conditions in a cloudless sky.
This process is also commonly known as the orographic effect (or orographic lifting) . Find out more detail about this process and how it works in this article .
The warm and pleasant weather experienced by areas in Central Europe parts of Northwest America as a result of these winds is not the only effect they have on the environment.
The warm and dry nature of these winds resulted in the name "ice-eaters," due to their ability to melt and even evaporate ice before it can melt. A strong Föehn wind is able to make a layer of 30 centimeters (12 inches) of snow "vanish" within a day.
The intensity of some Chinook wind occurrences can lead to exposed losing a large percentage of its moisture. It has been reported that wind gusts from a Chinook wind can exceed speeds of 120 km/h (75 mph). This can have a widespread negative effect.
Ingeniousness vegetation naturally will suffer as a result, but it has an even larger impact on the agricultural sector, where crop losses can impact the local economy.
Several debates are ongoing around the real health effects of Chinook/Föehn winds. It seems the most significant discussion revolves around the issue of whether these winds have a real health impact or are just perceived as such by people who are "affected."
However, there seems to be consensus over the general health effects of this phenomenon. This applies to both the positive and negative impacts of Föehn winds.
On the positive side, the people whose lives are severely inhibited by freezing conditions find their lives easier to manage, as their daily activities are made simpler. Their bodies can cope much better under warmer conditions.
A general feeling of well-being has also been documented, but it's unclear whether it is a result of the relief mentioned in the previous paragraph or if the warmer weather and clear skies directly trigger these emotions.
(The clear skies allow sunlight through, which helps to generate vitamin D in the body, which is responsible for the release of endorphins.)
On the negative side, Föehn winds are connected to the migraines many people are experiencing during the occurrence of this phenomenon. So much so that these migraines are often referred to as Chinook headaches.
Less serious and related effects have also been documented, but many of these have not been substantiated or enough research is done.
After reading this article, the "shroud of mystery" should have been lifted over the foreign-sounding Chinook and Föehn winds.
These winds also have many other names, mostly related to the region where they occur. In South Africa, they are commonly known as a Bergwind, in California the Santa Ana, in Argentina the Zonda winds, and in Slovenia the Fen.
The examples mentioned in the previous paragraph are just a few examples of a number of local names used for the same phenomenon.
So rest assured, the Chinook or Föehn winds you experienced first hand or just heard about are just local names given to a normal phenomenon experienced throughout the world.
Never miss out again when another interesting and helpful article is released and stay updated, while also receiving helpful tips & information by simply clicking on this link .
Until next time, keep your eye on the weather! | https://ownyourweather.com/chinook-and-foehn-winds/ | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Explaining Chinook And Foehn Winds And How They Are Formed | Most of us are unfamiliar with Chinook (or Föehn) winds, but they are all just variations of a common meteorological phenomenon known as the orographic effect. We examine what they are and how they form.
Chinook winds are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Ocean rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
If you live in an area surrounding the region that commonly experiences these winds , you may be familiar with the names. But what exactly are Chinook winds, and how do they develop in the first place?
Chinook winds got their name from the Chinook Native American people who lived in coastal areas near the Columbia River (in the States of Washington and Oregon), where these winds occur on a regular basis.
Föehn winds originate from the German word "Föhn," which literally means hot, dry wind. It is in this region of the Alps in Central Europe where this occurrence was first studied.
Although these winds have different names, depending on the region where they occur, they are exactly the same weather phenomena, no matter where they form in the world.
As just stated, the first thing to know about Chinook and Föehn winds is that they are essentially the same type of wind. You may not be aware of it, but the area you live in or one nearby may regularly experience these air movements on a seasonal basis.
By providing a quick summary of what Chinook winds are, and then giving a more detailed description of the Föehn winds they are based upon, one will be able to get a clear understanding of what these type of winds are an how they are created.
Chinook winds (also known as Föehn or Föhn winds) are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Oceans rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
As already mentioned in the introduction, Föhn (Föehn) winds were first identified and studied in Central Europe's Alps.
The name "Chinook" simply refers to the Native Americans who lived in the region where this phenomenon frequently occurs but are essentially nothing more than Föehn winds.
The process through which a Föehn wind develops follows the same steps, no matter where they are found throughout the world:
As moist, warm air blows and reaches the windward side of a mountain, it starts to ascend against the mountain slopes. As it gains altitude , the air also starts to cool down.
Once the air reaches a height where the air has cooled down enough for condensation to take place, precipitation in the form of rain and snow follows. In the process, the air loses most of its moisture, while the condensation also allows for the release of latent heat.
(As contradictory as it may sound, condensation is known as a warming process, and evaporation as a cooling process. To make more sense of these seemingly opposing statements, you can find detailed a more detailed explanation in this article .)
As the air reaches the mountain top, it is now both dry as a result of the precipitation and slightly warmer due to the release of latent heat during the condensation process.
It now starts it descend down the leeward side of the mountain. As the air continues to move downward, the effects of gravity force it to speeds up and become warmer as it continues to accelerate down the slopes towards the bottom of the mountain.
The mass of descending air also has a significant effect on the heating process. As the large volume of air descends, it causes the air to compress. The descending mass of air causes so much pressure that it results in the air heating up, a process called adiabatic heating.
All these steps and processes combined result in a warm, dry wind of considerable strength, known as Chinooks, Föhns.
Regions situated on the leeward side of a mountain experiencing this phenomenon usually experience warmer and more pleasant weather conditions in a cloudless sky.
This process is also commonly known as the orographic effect (or orographic lifting) . Find out more detail about this process and how it works in this article .
The warm and pleasant weather experienced by areas in Central Europe parts of Northwest America as a result of these winds is not the only effect they have on the environment.
The warm and dry nature of these winds resulted in the name "ice-eaters," due to their ability to melt and even evaporate ice before it can melt. A strong Föehn wind is able to make a layer of 30 centimeters (12 inches) of snow "vanish" within a day.
The intensity of some Chinook wind occurrences can lead to exposed losing a large percentage of its moisture. It has been reported that wind gusts from a Chinook wind can exceed speeds of 120 km/h (75 mph). This can have a widespread negative effect.
Ingeniousness vegetation naturally will suffer as a result, but it has an even larger impact on the agricultural sector, where crop losses can impact the local economy.
Several debates are ongoing around the real health effects of Chinook/Föehn winds. It seems the most significant discussion revolves around the issue of whether these winds have a real health impact or are just perceived as such by people who are "affected."
However, there seems to be consensus over the general health effects of this phenomenon. This applies to both the positive and negative impacts of Föehn winds.
On the positive side, the people whose lives are severely inhibited by freezing conditions find their lives easier to manage, as their daily activities are made simpler. Their bodies can cope much better under warmer conditions.
A general feeling of well-being has also been documented, but it's unclear whether it is a result of the relief mentioned in the previous paragraph or if the warmer weather and clear skies directly trigger these emotions.
(The clear skies allow sunlight through, which helps to generate vitamin D in the body, which is responsible for the release of endorphins.)
On the negative side, Föehn winds are connected to the migraines many people are experiencing during the occurrence of this phenomenon. So much so that these migraines are often referred to as Chinook headaches.
Less serious and related effects have also been documented, but many of these have not been substantiated or enough research is done.
After reading this article, the "shroud of mystery" should have been lifted over the foreign-sounding Chinook and Föehn winds.
These winds also have many other names, mostly related to the region where they occur. In South Africa, they are commonly known as a Bergwind, in California the Santa Ana, in Argentina the Zonda winds, and in Slovenia the Fen.
The examples mentioned in the previous paragraph are just a few examples of a number of local names used for the same phenomenon.
So rest assured, the Chinook or Föehn winds you experienced first hand or just heard about are just local names given to a normal phenomenon experienced throughout the world.
Never miss out again when another interesting and helpful article is released and stay updated, while also receiving helpful tips & information by simply clicking on this link .
Until next time, keep your eye on the weather! | https://ownyourweather.com/chinook-and-foehn-winds/ | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Explaining Chinook And Foehn Winds And How They Are Formed | Most of us are unfamiliar with Chinook (or Föehn) winds, but they are all just variations of a common meteorological phenomenon known as the orographic effect. We examine what they are and how they form.
Chinook winds are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Ocean rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
If you live in an area surrounding the region that commonly experiences these winds , you may be familiar with the names. But what exactly are Chinook winds, and how do they develop in the first place?
Chinook winds got their name from the Chinook Native American people who lived in coastal areas near the Columbia River (in the States of Washington and Oregon), where these winds occur on a regular basis.
Föehn winds originate from the German word "Föhn," which literally means hot, dry wind. It is in this region of the Alps in Central Europe where this occurrence was first studied.
Although these winds have different names, depending on the region where they occur, they are exactly the same weather phenomena, no matter where they form in the world.
As just stated, the first thing to know about Chinook and Föehn winds is that they are essentially the same type of wind. You may not be aware of it, but the area you live in or one nearby may regularly experience these air movements on a seasonal basis.
By providing a quick summary of what Chinook winds are, and then giving a more detailed description of the Föehn winds they are based upon, one will be able to get a clear understanding of what these type of winds are an how they are created.
Chinook winds (also known as Föehn or Föhn winds) are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Oceans rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
As already mentioned in the introduction, Föhn (Föehn) winds were first identified and studied in Central Europe's Alps.
The name "Chinook" simply refers to the Native Americans who lived in the region where this phenomenon frequently occurs but are essentially nothing more than Föehn winds.
The process through which a Föehn wind develops follows the same steps, no matter where they are found throughout the world:
As moist, warm air blows and reaches the windward side of a mountain, it starts to ascend against the mountain slopes. As it gains altitude , the air also starts to cool down.
Once the air reaches a height where the air has cooled down enough for condensation to take place, precipitation in the form of rain and snow follows. In the process, the air loses most of its moisture, while the condensation also allows for the release of latent heat.
(As contradictory as it may sound, condensation is known as a warming process, and evaporation as a cooling process. To make more sense of these seemingly opposing statements, you can find detailed a more detailed explanation in this article .)
As the air reaches the mountain top, it is now both dry as a result of the precipitation and slightly warmer due to the release of latent heat during the condensation process.
It now starts it descend down the leeward side of the mountain. As the air continues to move downward, the effects of gravity force it to speeds up and become warmer as it continues to accelerate down the slopes towards the bottom of the mountain.
The mass of descending air also has a significant effect on the heating process. As the large volume of air descends, it causes the air to compress. The descending mass of air causes so much pressure that it results in the air heating up, a process called adiabatic heating.
All these steps and processes combined result in a warm, dry wind of considerable strength, known as Chinooks, Föhns.
Regions situated on the leeward side of a mountain experiencing this phenomenon usually experience warmer and more pleasant weather conditions in a cloudless sky.
This process is also commonly known as the orographic effect (or orographic lifting) . Find out more detail about this process and how it works in this article .
The warm and pleasant weather experienced by areas in Central Europe parts of Northwest America as a result of these winds is not the only effect they have on the environment.
The warm and dry nature of these winds resulted in the name "ice-eaters," due to their ability to melt and even evaporate ice before it can melt. A strong Föehn wind is able to make a layer of 30 centimeters (12 inches) of snow "vanish" within a day.
The intensity of some Chinook wind occurrences can lead to exposed losing a large percentage of its moisture. It has been reported that wind gusts from a Chinook wind can exceed speeds of 120 km/h (75 mph). This can have a widespread negative effect.
Ingeniousness vegetation naturally will suffer as a result, but it has an even larger impact on the agricultural sector, where crop losses can impact the local economy.
Several debates are ongoing around the real health effects of Chinook/Föehn winds. It seems the most significant discussion revolves around the issue of whether these winds have a real health impact or are just perceived as such by people who are "affected."
However, there seems to be consensus over the general health effects of this phenomenon. This applies to both the positive and negative impacts of Föehn winds.
On the positive side, the people whose lives are severely inhibited by freezing conditions find their lives easier to manage, as their daily activities are made simpler. Their bodies can cope much better under warmer conditions.
A general feeling of well-being has also been documented, but it's unclear whether it is a result of the relief mentioned in the previous paragraph or if the warmer weather and clear skies directly trigger these emotions.
(The clear skies allow sunlight through, which helps to generate vitamin D in the body, which is responsible for the release of endorphins.)
On the negative side, Föehn winds are connected to the migraines many people are experiencing during the occurrence of this phenomenon. So much so that these migraines are often referred to as Chinook headaches.
Less serious and related effects have also been documented, but many of these have not been substantiated or enough research is done.
After reading this article, the "shroud of mystery" should have been lifted over the foreign-sounding Chinook and Föehn winds.
These winds also have many other names, mostly related to the region where they occur. In South Africa, they are commonly known as a Bergwind, in California the Santa Ana, in Argentina the Zonda winds, and in Slovenia the Fen.
The examples mentioned in the previous paragraph are just a few examples of a number of local names used for the same phenomenon.
So rest assured, the Chinook or Föehn winds you experienced first hand or just heard about are just local names given to a normal phenomenon experienced throughout the world.
Never miss out again when another interesting and helpful article is released and stay updated, while also receiving helpful tips & information by simply clicking on this link .
Until next time, keep your eye on the weather! | https://ownyourweather.com/chinook-and-foehn-winds/ | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Explaining Chinook And Foehn Winds And How They Are Formed | Most of us are unfamiliar with Chinook (or Föehn) winds, but they are all just variations of a common meteorological phenomenon known as the orographic effect. We examine what they are and how they form.
Chinook winds are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Ocean rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
If you live in an area surrounding the region that commonly experiences these winds , you may be familiar with the names. But what exactly are Chinook winds, and how do they develop in the first place?
Chinook winds got their name from the Chinook Native American people who lived in coastal areas near the Columbia River (in the States of Washington and Oregon), where these winds occur on a regular basis.
Föehn winds originate from the German word "Föhn," which literally means hot, dry wind. It is in this region of the Alps in Central Europe where this occurrence was first studied.
Although these winds have different names, depending on the region where they occur, they are exactly the same weather phenomena, no matter where they form in the world.
As just stated, the first thing to know about Chinook and Föehn winds is that they are essentially the same type of wind. You may not be aware of it, but the area you live in or one nearby may regularly experience these air movements on a seasonal basis.
By providing a quick summary of what Chinook winds are, and then giving a more detailed description of the Föehn winds they are based upon, one will be able to get a clear understanding of what these type of winds are an how they are created.
Chinook winds (also known as Föehn or Föhn winds) are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Oceans rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
As already mentioned in the introduction, Föhn (Föehn) winds were first identified and studied in Central Europe's Alps.
The name "Chinook" simply refers to the Native Americans who lived in the region where this phenomenon frequently occurs but are essentially nothing more than Föehn winds.
The process through which a Föehn wind develops follows the same steps, no matter where they are found throughout the world:
As moist, warm air blows and reaches the windward side of a mountain, it starts to ascend against the mountain slopes. As it gains altitude , the air also starts to cool down.
Once the air reaches a height where the air has cooled down enough for condensation to take place, precipitation in the form of rain and snow follows. In the process, the air loses most of its moisture, while the condensation also allows for the release of latent heat.
(As contradictory as it may sound, condensation is known as a warming process, and evaporation as a cooling process. To make more sense of these seemingly opposing statements, you can find detailed a more detailed explanation in this article .)
As the air reaches the mountain top, it is now both dry as a result of the precipitation and slightly warmer due to the release of latent heat during the condensation process.
It now starts it descend down the leeward side of the mountain. As the air continues to move downward, the effects of gravity force it to speeds up and become warmer as it continues to accelerate down the slopes towards the bottom of the mountain.
The mass of descending air also has a significant effect on the heating process. As the large volume of air descends, it causes the air to compress. The descending mass of air causes so much pressure that it results in the air heating up, a process called adiabatic heating.
All these steps and processes combined result in a warm, dry wind of considerable strength, known as Chinooks, Föhns.
Regions situated on the leeward side of a mountain experiencing this phenomenon usually experience warmer and more pleasant weather conditions in a cloudless sky.
This process is also commonly known as the orographic effect (or orographic lifting) . Find out more detail about this process and how it works in this article .
The warm and pleasant weather experienced by areas in Central Europe parts of Northwest America as a result of these winds is not the only effect they have on the environment.
The warm and dry nature of these winds resulted in the name "ice-eaters," due to their ability to melt and even evaporate ice before it can melt. A strong Föehn wind is able to make a layer of 30 centimeters (12 inches) of snow "vanish" within a day.
The intensity of some Chinook wind occurrences can lead to exposed losing a large percentage of its moisture. It has been reported that wind gusts from a Chinook wind can exceed speeds of 120 km/h (75 mph). This can have a widespread negative effect.
Ingeniousness vegetation naturally will suffer as a result, but it has an even larger impact on the agricultural sector, where crop losses can impact the local economy.
Several debates are ongoing around the real health effects of Chinook/Föehn winds. It seems the most significant discussion revolves around the issue of whether these winds have a real health impact or are just perceived as such by people who are "affected."
However, there seems to be consensus over the general health effects of this phenomenon. This applies to both the positive and negative impacts of Föehn winds.
On the positive side, the people whose lives are severely inhibited by freezing conditions find their lives easier to manage, as their daily activities are made simpler. Their bodies can cope much better under warmer conditions.
A general feeling of well-being has also been documented, but it's unclear whether it is a result of the relief mentioned in the previous paragraph or if the warmer weather and clear skies directly trigger these emotions.
(The clear skies allow sunlight through, which helps to generate vitamin D in the body, which is responsible for the release of endorphins.)
On the negative side, Föehn winds are connected to the migraines many people are experiencing during the occurrence of this phenomenon. So much so that these migraines are often referred to as Chinook headaches.
Less serious and related effects have also been documented, but many of these have not been substantiated or enough research is done.
After reading this article, the "shroud of mystery" should have been lifted over the foreign-sounding Chinook and Föehn winds.
These winds also have many other names, mostly related to the region where they occur. In South Africa, they are commonly known as a Bergwind, in California the Santa Ana, in Argentina the Zonda winds, and in Slovenia the Fen.
The examples mentioned in the previous paragraph are just a few examples of a number of local names used for the same phenomenon.
So rest assured, the Chinook or Föehn winds you experienced first hand or just heard about are just local names given to a normal phenomenon experienced throughout the world.
Never miss out again when another interesting and helpful article is released and stay updated, while also receiving helpful tips & information by simply clicking on this link .
Until next time, keep your eye on the weather! | https://ownyourweather.com/chinook-and-foehn-winds/#:~:text=Most%20of%20us%20are%20unfamiliar%20with%20Chinook%20%28or,Mountains%20through%20a%20process%20called%20the%20orographic%20effect. | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Foehn effect | The foehn effect causes warming and drying of air on the lee side of cross mountain wind.
In simple terms, this is a change from wet and cold conditions one side of a mountain, to warmer and drier conditions on the other (leeward) side.
Foehn winds (sometimes written "Föhn") are common in mountainous regions, regularly impacting the lives of their residents and influencing weather conditions for hundreds of kilometres downwind. Their notoriety has led to recognition by a multitude of names including: the Chinook or "snow eater" of the North American Rocky Mountains; the Zonda of the South American Andes; and the Helm wind of the English Pennines.
On 14 - 15 January 1972 in Montana, USA, a foehn chinook event was responsible for the greatest temperature change over a 24 hour period ever recorded in the United States: according to the US National Weather Service the temperature rose a staggering 57 °C; from -48 to 9 °C.
In the UK, the most notable foehn events tend to occur across the Scottish Highlands where the moist prevailing westerly winds encounter high ground along Scotland's west coast. This results in a marked contrast in weather conditions across the country with the west being subjected to wet weather, whilst the lower lying east enjoys the warmth and sunshine of the foehn effect.
Regions under the influence of foehn experience warmer, drier climates and a longer crop growing season than they otherwise would. However, it is the foehn's adverse effects that grab the headlines. The warmth it brings can increase the risk of avalanches in ski resorts, cause glacial melt and downstream flooding, and contribute to the disintegration of ice shelves in the polar regions. Foehn windstorms regularly cause damage to property and infrastructure, and are a serious hazard to climbers - most notoriously so on the Eiger's north face. The combination of warm, dry air and high wind speeds promote the ignition and rapid spread of wildfires. In California, Santa Ana winds are responsible for the majority of major wildfires, including 12 fires in October 2003 which burnt an area of over 300,000 hectares, causing more than $1 billion in damage to property.
The effect of foehn on mental well-being is the subject of folk law in Alpine regions: the phenomenon has been linked to depression, suicide, madness, headaches, sleeplessness and crime waves. 'Foehnkrankenheit' (literally Foehn sickness ), as it is known in the Alps, has largely only anecdotal evidence, though recent studies correlating migraine occurrence with Chinook winds suggest there may be some truth in it.
Foehn events are often accompanied by dramatic cloud formations above the mountains, such as towering lenticular clouds and lower-level rotor clouds. This is seen in the photo below revealing overturning and turbulence during a foehn event over the Antarctic Peninsula.
Explanations of the foehn effect in popular literature or on the web often single out just one causal mechanism (#1 in the below), but there are in fact four known causes. These mechanisms often act together, with their contributions varying depending on the size and shape of the mountain barrier and on the meteorological conditions, for example, the upstream wind speed, temperature and humidity.
There are four mechanisms which combine to create the foehn effect:
When air is forced upwards over elevated terrain, it expands and cools due to the decrease in pressure with height. Since colder air can hold less water vapour, moisture condenses to form clouds and precipitates as rain or snow above the mountain's upwind slopes. The change of state from vapour to liquid water is accompanied by heating, and the subsequent removal of moisture as precipitation renders this heat gain irreversible, leading to the warm, dry foehn conditions in the mountain's lee. This mechanism has become a popular textbook example of atmospheric thermodynamics and it lends itself to attractive diagrams. However, the common occurrence of 'dry' foehn events, where there is no precipitation, implies there must be other mechanisms.
When the approaching winds are insufficiently strong to propel the low-level air up and over the mountain barrier, the air is said to be 'blocked' by the mountain and only air higher up near mountain-top level is able to pass over and down the lee slopes as foehn winds. These higher source regions provide foehn air that becomes warmer and drier on the leeside after it is compressed with descent due to the increase in pressure towards the surface.
When river water passes over rocks, turbulence is generated in the form of rapids, and white water reveals the turbulent mixing of the water with the air above. Similarly, as air passes over mountains, turbulence occurs and the atmosphere is mixed in the vertical. This mixing generally leads to a downward warming and upward moistening of the cross-mountain airflow, and consequently to warmer, drier foehn winds in the valleys downwind.
Dry foehn conditions are responsible for the occurrence of rain shadows in the lee of mountains, where clear, sunny conditions prevail. This often leads to greater daytime radiative (solar) warming under foehn conditions. This type of warming is particularly important in cold regions where snow or ice melt is a concern and/or avalanches are a risk. | https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/wind/foehn-effect | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Foehn vs Chinook - What's the difference? | As nouns the difference between foehn and chinook
is that foehn
is a warm dry wind blowing down the north sides of the Alps, especially in Switzerland while chinook
is the descending, warm, dry wind on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. The chinook generally blows from the southwest, but its direction may be modified by topography. When it sets in after a spell of intense cold, the temperature may rise by 20–40°F in 15 minutes due to replacement of a cold air mass with a much warmer air mass in minutes.
As a proper noun Chinook is
a Native American language of the Penutian family of Oregon and Washington.
foehn
English
Alternative forms * , fohn
Noun
( en noun
) A warm dry wind blowing down the north sides of the Alps, especially in Switzerland. * 1971 , WW Kibler, translating Gian Fontana, ‘The Mayor of Valdei’, in Bezzola (ed.), The Curly-Horned Cow , Peter Owen 1971, p. 71:
(meteorology) A similar katabatic wind developing on the lee side of a mountain.
- The foehn and the sun must have awakened the spirits of spring way up in the heights.
See also * chinook ----
chinook
English ( chinook wind )
Noun
( en noun
) (Canada, physics, meteorology) The descending, warm, dry wind on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. The chinook generally blows from the southwest, but its direction may be modified by topography. When it sets in after a spell of intense cold, the temperature may rise by 20–40°F in 15 minutes due to replacement of a cold air mass with a much warmer air mass in minutes. The chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ).
See also * foehn
References Source: FM 3-6 Field Behavior of NBC Agents. | https://wikidiff.com/foehn/chinook | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Foehn vs Chinook - What's the difference? | As nouns the difference between foehn and chinook
is that foehn
is a warm dry wind blowing down the north sides of the Alps, especially in Switzerland while chinook
is the descending, warm, dry wind on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. The chinook generally blows from the southwest, but its direction may be modified by topography. When it sets in after a spell of intense cold, the temperature may rise by 20–40°F in 15 minutes due to replacement of a cold air mass with a much warmer air mass in minutes.
As a proper noun Chinook is
a Native American language of the Penutian family of Oregon and Washington.
foehn
English
Alternative forms * , fohn
Noun
( en noun
) A warm dry wind blowing down the north sides of the Alps, especially in Switzerland. * 1971 , WW Kibler, translating Gian Fontana, ‘The Mayor of Valdei’, in Bezzola (ed.), The Curly-Horned Cow , Peter Owen 1971, p. 71:
(meteorology) A similar katabatic wind developing on the lee side of a mountain.
- The foehn and the sun must have awakened the spirits of spring way up in the heights.
See also * chinook ----
chinook
English ( chinook wind )
Noun
( en noun
) (Canada, physics, meteorology) The descending, warm, dry wind on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. The chinook generally blows from the southwest, but its direction may be modified by topography. When it sets in after a spell of intense cold, the temperature may rise by 20–40°F in 15 minutes due to replacement of a cold air mass with a much warmer air mass in minutes. The chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ).
See also * foehn
References Source: FM 3-6 Field Behavior of NBC Agents. | https://wikidiff.com/foehn/chinook | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Explaining Chinook And Foehn Winds And How They Are Formed | Most of us are unfamiliar with Chinook (or Föehn) winds, but they are all just variations of a common meteorological phenomenon known as the orographic effect. We examine what they are and how they form.
Chinook winds are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Ocean rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
If you live in an area surrounding the region that commonly experiences these winds , you may be familiar with the names. But what exactly are Chinook winds, and how do they develop in the first place?
Chinook winds got their name from the Chinook Native American people who lived in coastal areas near the Columbia River (in the States of Washington and Oregon), where these winds occur on a regular basis.
Föehn winds originate from the German word "Föhn," which literally means hot, dry wind. It is in this region of the Alps in Central Europe where this occurrence was first studied.
Although these winds have different names, depending on the region where they occur, they are exactly the same weather phenomena, no matter where they form in the world.
As just stated, the first thing to know about Chinook and Föehn winds is that they are essentially the same type of wind. You may not be aware of it, but the area you live in or one nearby may regularly experience these air movements on a seasonal basis.
By providing a quick summary of what Chinook winds are, and then giving a more detailed description of the Föehn winds they are based upon, one will be able to get a clear understanding of what these type of winds are an how they are created.
Chinook winds (also known as Föehn or Föhn winds) are warm, dry winds that blow down the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains through a process called the orographic effect. As moist air from the Pacific Oceans rises against the western slopes, it cools & causes precipitation. The dry air warms as it descends down the eastern slopes.
As already mentioned in the introduction, Föhn (Föehn) winds were first identified and studied in Central Europe's Alps.
The name "Chinook" simply refers to the Native Americans who lived in the region where this phenomenon frequently occurs but are essentially nothing more than Föehn winds.
The process through which a Föehn wind develops follows the same steps, no matter where they are found throughout the world:
As moist, warm air blows and reaches the windward side of a mountain, it starts to ascend against the mountain slopes. As it gains altitude , the air also starts to cool down.
Once the air reaches a height where the air has cooled down enough for condensation to take place, precipitation in the form of rain and snow follows. In the process, the air loses most of its moisture, while the condensation also allows for the release of latent heat.
(As contradictory as it may sound, condensation is known as a warming process, and evaporation as a cooling process. To make more sense of these seemingly opposing statements, you can find detailed a more detailed explanation in this article .)
As the air reaches the mountain top, it is now both dry as a result of the precipitation and slightly warmer due to the release of latent heat during the condensation process.
It now starts it descend down the leeward side of the mountain. As the air continues to move downward, the effects of gravity force it to speeds up and become warmer as it continues to accelerate down the slopes towards the bottom of the mountain.
The mass of descending air also has a significant effect on the heating process. As the large volume of air descends, it causes the air to compress. The descending mass of air causes so much pressure that it results in the air heating up, a process called adiabatic heating.
All these steps and processes combined result in a warm, dry wind of considerable strength, known as Chinooks, Föhns.
Regions situated on the leeward side of a mountain experiencing this phenomenon usually experience warmer and more pleasant weather conditions in a cloudless sky.
This process is also commonly known as the orographic effect (or orographic lifting) . Find out more detail about this process and how it works in this article .
The warm and pleasant weather experienced by areas in Central Europe parts of Northwest America as a result of these winds is not the only effect they have on the environment.
The warm and dry nature of these winds resulted in the name "ice-eaters," due to their ability to melt and even evaporate ice before it can melt. A strong Föehn wind is able to make a layer of 30 centimeters (12 inches) of snow "vanish" within a day.
The intensity of some Chinook wind occurrences can lead to exposed losing a large percentage of its moisture. It has been reported that wind gusts from a Chinook wind can exceed speeds of 120 km/h (75 mph). This can have a widespread negative effect.
Ingeniousness vegetation naturally will suffer as a result, but it has an even larger impact on the agricultural sector, where crop losses can impact the local economy.
Several debates are ongoing around the real health effects of Chinook/Föehn winds. It seems the most significant discussion revolves around the issue of whether these winds have a real health impact or are just perceived as such by people who are "affected."
However, there seems to be consensus over the general health effects of this phenomenon. This applies to both the positive and negative impacts of Föehn winds.
On the positive side, the people whose lives are severely inhibited by freezing conditions find their lives easier to manage, as their daily activities are made simpler. Their bodies can cope much better under warmer conditions.
A general feeling of well-being has also been documented, but it's unclear whether it is a result of the relief mentioned in the previous paragraph or if the warmer weather and clear skies directly trigger these emotions.
(The clear skies allow sunlight through, which helps to generate vitamin D in the body, which is responsible for the release of endorphins.)
On the negative side, Föehn winds are connected to the migraines many people are experiencing during the occurrence of this phenomenon. So much so that these migraines are often referred to as Chinook headaches.
Less serious and related effects have also been documented, but many of these have not been substantiated or enough research is done.
After reading this article, the "shroud of mystery" should have been lifted over the foreign-sounding Chinook and Föehn winds.
These winds also have many other names, mostly related to the region where they occur. In South Africa, they are commonly known as a Bergwind, in California the Santa Ana, in Argentina the Zonda winds, and in Slovenia the Fen.
The examples mentioned in the previous paragraph are just a few examples of a number of local names used for the same phenomenon.
So rest assured, the Chinook or Föehn winds you experienced first hand or just heard about are just local names given to a normal phenomenon experienced throughout the world.
Never miss out again when another interesting and helpful article is released and stay updated, while also receiving helpful tips & information by simply clicking on this link .
Until next time, keep your eye on the weather! | https://ownyourweather.com/chinook-and-foehn-winds/ | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | Type of Wind: Chinook or Foehn | There are several different types of wind . One type is the foehn wind. This type of wind is a characteristic of mountainous areas such as the Rocky Mountains and the Alps. The wind off of the Rocky Mountains in North America is a foehn wind that is called a Chinook wind. The wind is a warm, dry wind that blows down the eastern slope of most mountains.
A warm wind like this can bring relief from cold winter weather. Foehn winds are formed from warmer and drier air that flows from aloft or above. This wind has the same force of some hurricane winds. Foehn winds can melt and evaporate a foot (0.3 meters) of snow in less than a day! A rapid change in temperature can occur as a result of foehn winds. Temperatures in Granville, ND increased by 83º F (28ºC), from -33ºF (-36ºC) in the morning to 50ºF (10ºC) in the afternoon of February 21, 1918 because of a Chinook wind coming from the Rocky Mountains!
In addition to causing warmer temperatures, foehn winds have other impacts in the areas where they occur. They can cause snow to melt, which may lead to avalanches and flash flooding. Foehn winds can also create fire hazards. The Santa Ana winds in Southern California are an example of foehn winds that have caused large forest fires because the wind causes the fires to burn out of control. Another bad affect of this warm wind depends on the time of year that it occurs. Finally, if the warm foehn winds occur after spring planting, the seeds might not survive because the wind has parched the soil.
Since this wind is found in mountainous areas, foehn winds can be found all over the world. In Poland, a foehn wind is called halnywiatr . In Romania, this wind is named austru and in Switzerland it is called favogn . Finally, in the Andes the foehn wind, called a puelche , comes off the western side of the mountains.
Last modified June 26, 2008 by Vanessa Pearce . | https://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/wind_foehn.html | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | NOAA's National Weather Service - Glossary | Chinook This is a region-specific term used for Foehn Winds in the lee of the Rocky Mountains in the United States; Foehn Winds are warm, dry winds that occur in the lee of high mountain ranges. It is a fairly common wintertime phenomena in the mountainous west and in parts of Alaska. These winds develop in well-defined areas and can be quite strong. Chinook Arch A foehn cloud formation appearing as a bank of altostratus clouds east of the Rocky Mountains, heralding the approach of a chinook. It forms in the rising portion of standing waves on the lee side of the mountains. An observer underneath or east of the cloud sees an arch of clear air between the cloud's leading edge and the mountains below. The cloud appears to converge with the mountains to the north and south due to a perspective effect.
You can either type in the word you are looking for in the box below or browse by letter.
Search:
Browse by letter: | https://forecast.weather.gov/glossary.php?word=CHINOOK | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | The Chinook And Other Foehn Winds | Following on from the general Introduction To Winds , Foehn, or Fohn Winds (the name comes from a German local wind) are among the most interesting. They occur when a warm moist wind encounters a mountain range, cools as it rises above it, and warms as itdescends the other side.
Sounds simple? Well there's a little more to a Foehn it than that.
<
As it rises it cools and the water vapor it carries begins to condense, resulting in heavy rain or snow on the windward slopes. When this happens, some heat is added to the system, called latent heat of condensation.
(This is a term usually important only to meteorologists, some physicists and senior high school students until they have completed their science exams. It is easiest to understand bycomparing it to its opposite number, latent heat of vaporisation.If we want water to boil, when liquid is converted to vapor, wehave to add heat. It only seems fair that when water vapor returnsto a liquid state, that heat should be returned to the system - and it is, as latent heat of condensation. The numbers that go with this tell us that moist rising air cools at around 0.5-0.65°Cper 100 metres in elevation (2.7-3.5°F/1000 ft), but dry air warms by 1°C per 100 m (5.4°F/1000 ft) as it descends.And that's the end of the physics section).
In the classic Foehn wind scenario, the rising wind has lost mostof its moisture content by the time it crosses the crest of the range.
Now it starts to descend, and as the air pressure increases with decreasing height it begins to warm up. In the normal course of events, dry air will lose heat as it rises, and gain it all back as it descends, provided the starting and finishing heights arethe same. But because of the addition of heat to the moist wind as rain and snow condense out - due to our complex friend latent heat of condensation, its temperature as it starts to descend ishigher than we might expect.
So by the time it reaches the lowlands on the far side of the range, it is warmer than when it started out, and because Foehn winds are most common in winter, the effect of a strong warm wind is immediately noticeable, often spectacularly so.
Foehn winds occur anywhere warm moist winds rise above a mountain barrier. The name itself comes from the European Alps, but other examples are the Zonda of Argentina, Puelche of Chile, the Helm in England, and the Canterbury Northwester in New Zealand.
But the most best known and most spectacular Foehn type winds occur in North America, and include the Santa Ana , Diablo , Mono or Sundowner of California, with their sometimes disastrous effects during the wildfire season.
But the grand daddy of them all is the Chinook .
Best developed in Canada and the northern Great Plains of the USA, the Chinook is a strong, warm wind which can change the local temperature virtually in seconds. Temperature rises of 50 to 60°F (27-33°C) are often recorded over less than a day, with the often quoted record being a rise of 49°F , or 27°C in two minutes at Spearfish, South Dakota.
What this means is a spectacular change in temperatures from well below zero (both scales) to relatively comfortable. Snow and ice disappear, both through melting and through direct evaporation, until eventually the wind cools off, leaving towns further to the east unaffected.
Other features of the Chinook and its relatives elsewhere are strong winds, which can reach the lower end of the hurricane scale near gaps in the range where wind speeds are at a maximum, and some spectacular cloud formations.
Most noticeable of these is the Foehn Wall or Chinook Arch, an elongated cloud which forms over the range crest where the wind has reached its maximum elevation and lowest temperature, and the last of its available water vapor has condensed. As it starts to descend condensation stops, leaving a sharply defined cloud boundary.
Cloud may also rest on the crest of the range, looking like an approaching storm, but actually remaining stationary.
Sometimes the wind will develop waves, particularly if it is passing over foothill ranges. In the right conditions, stationery clouds will develop at the crest of the waves, where limited condensation occurs,with clear air over the troughs. The clouds which form here are smoothly sculptured by the wind, and look somewhat like flying saucers. They are called lenticular clouds, and it is a little eery to be standing in strong Foehn winds, watching strangely shaped clouds which don't seem to move.
The overall Chinook wind system is very easy to follow as it begins on the Pacific coast and crosses the ranges - so much so that in the Vancouver area the Chinook is known as a moist wind that may bring heavy rain and snow to the hills and ranges behind the city. Same wind, different results.
For a general discussion of local winds, check out the Introduction To Winds pages. Other local winds are described on the Outflow Winds and Pre-frontal Winds pages.
This link will take you back to the Top , or, when you're ready, here's how to return to the Home page.
But just before you move on...
You may be interested to know that you can find out more about weather and home weather stations by receiving our newsletter , "Watching Weather" . It's published more or less weekly, and apart from tips on how to use your weather station and understand what it's telling you about the weather around you, it also covers many other weather related topics.
If this sounds interesting, just add your name and email address to the form below. When you join, you'll also receive, totally free , a 20 page guide to setting up and trouble shooting problems in home weather stations.
And I promise that you won't get spammed, and that your sign up details will remain totally confidential.
Your details will only ever be used to send
you the latest issue of " Watching Weather "
We respect your email privacy
Sign up now and receive your first issue almost immediately.
ADD TO YOUR SOCIAL BOOKMARKS:
Blink
Del.icio.us
Digg
Furl
Simpy
Spurl
Y! MyWeb
.
Last update 05/24/2011 | https://www.home-weather-stations-guide.com/chinook-and-foehn-winds.html | 50 |
what is common between foehn and chinook winds | NOAA's National Weather Service - Glossary | Chinook This is a region-specific term used for Foehn Winds in the lee of the Rocky Mountains in the United States; Foehn Winds are warm, dry winds that occur in the lee of high mountain ranges. It is a fairly common wintertime phenomena in the mountainous west and in parts of Alaska. These winds develop in well-defined areas and can be quite strong. Chinook Arch A foehn cloud formation appearing as a bank of altostratus clouds east of the Rocky Mountains, heralding the approach of a chinook. It forms in the rising portion of standing waves on the lee side of the mountains. An observer underneath or east of the cloud sees an arch of clear air between the cloud's leading edge and the mountains below. The cloud appears to converge with the mountains to the north and south due to a perspective effect.
You can either type in the word you are looking for in the box below or browse by letter.
Search:
Browse by letter: | https://forecast.weather.gov/glossary.php?word=CHINOOK | 50 |
when did super storm sandy hit new york | Photos: Remembering Superstorm Sandy, 10 years on | CNN | In pictures: Remembering Superstorm Sandy, 10 years on
Waves break in front of a destroyed amusement park in Seaside Heights, New Jersey, on October 31, 2012, days after Superstorm Sandy devastated the region.
Mario Tama/Getty Images
Updated 4:41 PM EDT, Fri October 28, 2022
Superstorm Sandy made landfall over New Jersey on October 29, 2012.
The storm surge destroyed homes, ripped apart piers on the Jersey Shore and inundated subway and highway tunnels in New York. Nearly 8 million people lost power across 15 states and Washington, DC.
Sandy was responsible for at least 72 deaths in the United States and caused an estimated $81.9 billion in damages. It was the fourth-costliest US storm behind Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and hurricanes Harvey and Maria in 2017, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
In New York, the Queens neighborhood of Breezy Point lost scores of homes to a fire that erupted at the height of the storm as other houses within a few blocks were washed away.
"In all honesty, it looks like a war zone," Breezy Point resident Mike Long said . "It looks like during the night that fighter planes or bombers came through and just bombed the entire area. It just looks terrible."
After being removed from a flooded home in Seaside Heights, old photographs are laid out on the hood of a car to dry on November 25, 2012. Mark Wilson/Getty Images
Theresa Goddard is overwhelmed while discussing her living conditions in Brooklyn, New York, on November 8, 2012. She and many other residents of the Red Hook public housing projects remained without electricity, heat and running water. John Moore/Getty Images
The remains of a destroyed home are seen in Union Beach, New Jersey, on November 8, 2012. Ken Cedeno/Corbis/Getty Images
Eight-year-old Michael Fischkelta lays on a cot with his mother, Jenifer Wilson, at a Red Cross evacuation shelter that was set up in a high school gymnasium in Toms River, New Jersey, on November 5, 2012. Andrew Burton/Getty Images
Chris Santos looks through a hole in the partially collapsed basement wall of an oceanfront home in Belmar, New Jersey, on November 4, 2012. Mel Evans/AP
A woman carrying groceries passes a group of National Guardsmen as they march down a street in Manhattan on November 3, 2012. John Minchillo/AP
Eddie Liu uses a broom to clean up mud and water from a flooded laundromat in the Coney Island neighborhood of New York on November 2, 2012. Lucas Jackson/Reuters
An American flag flies above burned-out homes in the Breezy Point neighborhood of Queens, New York, on November 1, 2012. More than 100 homes were destroyed by a fire during Superstorm Sandy. David Handschuh/New York Daily News/Getty Images
The Army National Guard unloads water at a distribution center in New York on November 1, 2012. Allison Joyce/Getty Images
High winds and water caused the devastating fire that burned down homes in Breezy Point, a beach community in the Rockaways. Orjan F. Ellingvag/Corbis/Getty Images
An aerial view of Manhattan reveals a widespread power outage on November 1, 2012. Iwan Baan/Getty Images
A man surveys damage in Queens on October 31, 2012. Spencer Platt/Getty Images
President Barack Obama and New Jersey Gov. Chris Christie comfort victims while visiting a neighborhood in Brigantine, New Jersey, on October 31, 2012. Jewel Samad/AFP/Getty Images
People walk near the remains of burned homes in Breezy Point on October 31, 2012. Mario Tama/Getty Images
Taxis sit in a flooded lot in Hoboken, New Jersey, on October 30, 2012, the day after Sandy made landfall. Michael Bocchieri/Getty Images
Kim Johnson inspects damage around her apartment building in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on October 30, 2012. Mario Tama/Getty Images
Virgen Perez and her husband, Nelson Rodriguez, look around their flooded home in Atlantic City on October 30, 2012. They stayed on the second floor of their home during the storm. Seth Wenig/AP
A Coast Guard helicopter flies over New York's Central Park on October 30, 2012. Michael Heiman/Getty Images
Robert Connolly embraces his wife, Laura, as they look out at the remains of the home owned by Laura's parents in Breezy Point on October 30, 2012. Mark Lennihan/AP
Floodwaters rush into an underground parking garage in New York on October 29, 2012. Andrew Burton/Getty Images
Dark clouds are seen over the Manhattan skyline on October 29, 2012. Spencer Platt/Getty Images | https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/28/us/gallery/superstorm-sandy/index.html | 51 |
when did super storm sandy hit new york | Photos: Remembering Superstorm Sandy, 10 years on | CNN | In pictures: Remembering Superstorm Sandy, 10 years on
Waves break in front of a destroyed amusement park in Seaside Heights, New Jersey, on October 31, 2012, days after Superstorm Sandy devastated the region.
Mario Tama/Getty Images
Updated 4:41 PM EDT, Fri October 28, 2022
Superstorm Sandy made landfall over New Jersey on October 29, 2012.
The storm surge destroyed homes, ripped apart piers on the Jersey Shore and inundated subway and highway tunnels in New York. Nearly 8 million people lost power across 15 states and Washington, DC.
Sandy was responsible for at least 72 deaths in the United States and caused an estimated $81.9 billion in damages. It was the fourth-costliest US storm behind Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and hurricanes Harvey and Maria in 2017, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
In New York, the Queens neighborhood of Breezy Point lost scores of homes to a fire that erupted at the height of the storm as other houses within a few blocks were washed away.
"In all honesty, it looks like a war zone," Breezy Point resident Mike Long said . "It looks like during the night that fighter planes or bombers came through and just bombed the entire area. It just looks terrible."
After being removed from a flooded home in Seaside Heights, old photographs are laid out on the hood of a car to dry on November 25, 2012. Mark Wilson/Getty Images
Theresa Goddard is overwhelmed while discussing her living conditions in Brooklyn, New York, on November 8, 2012. She and many other residents of the Red Hook public housing projects remained without electricity, heat and running water. John Moore/Getty Images
The remains of a destroyed home are seen in Union Beach, New Jersey, on November 8, 2012. Ken Cedeno/Corbis/Getty Images
Eight-year-old Michael Fischkelta lays on a cot with his mother, Jenifer Wilson, at a Red Cross evacuation shelter that was set up in a high school gymnasium in Toms River, New Jersey, on November 5, 2012. Andrew Burton/Getty Images
Chris Santos looks through a hole in the partially collapsed basement wall of an oceanfront home in Belmar, New Jersey, on November 4, 2012. Mel Evans/AP
A woman carrying groceries passes a group of National Guardsmen as they march down a street in Manhattan on November 3, 2012. John Minchillo/AP
Eddie Liu uses a broom to clean up mud and water from a flooded laundromat in the Coney Island neighborhood of New York on November 2, 2012. Lucas Jackson/Reuters
An American flag flies above burned-out homes in the Breezy Point neighborhood of Queens, New York, on November 1, 2012. More than 100 homes were destroyed by a fire during Superstorm Sandy. David Handschuh/New York Daily News/Getty Images
The Army National Guard unloads water at a distribution center in New York on November 1, 2012. Allison Joyce/Getty Images
High winds and water caused the devastating fire that burned down homes in Breezy Point, a beach community in the Rockaways. Orjan F. Ellingvag/Corbis/Getty Images
An aerial view of Manhattan reveals a widespread power outage on November 1, 2012. Iwan Baan/Getty Images
A man surveys damage in Queens on October 31, 2012. Spencer Platt/Getty Images
President Barack Obama and New Jersey Gov. Chris Christie comfort victims while visiting a neighborhood in Brigantine, New Jersey, on October 31, 2012. Jewel Samad/AFP/Getty Images
People walk near the remains of burned homes in Breezy Point on October 31, 2012. Mario Tama/Getty Images
Taxis sit in a flooded lot in Hoboken, New Jersey, on October 30, 2012, the day after Sandy made landfall. Michael Bocchieri/Getty Images
Kim Johnson inspects damage around her apartment building in Atlantic City, New Jersey, on October 30, 2012. Mario Tama/Getty Images
Virgen Perez and her husband, Nelson Rodriguez, look around their flooded home in Atlantic City on October 30, 2012. They stayed on the second floor of their home during the storm. Seth Wenig/AP
A Coast Guard helicopter flies over New York's Central Park on October 30, 2012. Michael Heiman/Getty Images
Robert Connolly embraces his wife, Laura, as they look out at the remains of the home owned by Laura's parents in Breezy Point on October 30, 2012. Mark Lennihan/AP
Floodwaters rush into an underground parking garage in New York on October 29, 2012. Andrew Burton/Getty Images
Dark clouds are seen over the Manhattan skyline on October 29, 2012. Spencer Platt/Getty Images | https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/28/us/gallery/superstorm-sandy/index.html | 51 |
when did super storm sandy hit new york | Sandy: New York devastation mapped | - Published
Super-storm Sandy has devastated parts of the US east coast, leading President Barack Obama to declare a "major disaster" in New York state.
New York, the country's most populous city, is among the worst-hit, with floodwaters swamping the subway system, flooding low-lying streets and wiping out power. Explore the map of New York below to see some of the worst of the damage.
CLICKABLE
Much of Manhattan was plunged into darkness overnight following power cuts caused by the super-storm. The Empire State Building in Midtown Manhattan was one of the few to remain lit up.
Fire fighters attended an apartment building where the storm ripped off the front wall. Part of the facade of a four-storey building in the West Village collapsed, leaving rooms exposed. No-one was injured.
Neighbourhoods along the East and Hudson rivers in Manhattan were underwater. Low-lying streets in Battery Park and the construction site at Ground Zero, where the World Trade Center once stood, were particularly badly hit.
Battery Tunnel, which links Manhattan with Long Island, was inundated. 'Lower Manhattan is being covered by seawater,' Howard Glaser, director for the New York state government, told the BBC.
As strong winds from Sandy hit New York, a damaged crane was filmed dangling dangerously above the streets of the city, not far from Central Park.
The city's Consolidated Edison utility provider said an explosion at a sub-station, probably caused by flooding or flying debris, blacked out much of Lower Manhattan. The company said about 500,000 homes in Manhattan were without power.
An uprooted tree blocked 7th Street near Avenue D in the East Village as a result of high winds from Sandy. Many of the deaths as a result of the storm were caused by falling trees.
New York's financial district was badly affected, closing stock exchanges and curbing government bond trading. The New York Stock Exchange and the Nasdaq closed on Monday and remained shut on Tuesday. One underground car park was inundated with seawater.
Parts of New York City are designated hurricane evacuation zones - low-lying areas most at risk from flooding.
The most vulnerable areas are marked in blue on the map below. Most of the flooding from super-storm Sandy appears to be in these locations.
See a selection of views below of parts of Manhattan and New York before and after the storm.
The storm waters reached 33rd St in a largely deserted Manhattan late on Monday night. An unprecedented 13 ft (3.9m) surge of seawater - 3 ft (90 cm) above the previous record - submerged parts of lower Manhattan.
Flood water surged up 14th Street on Manhattan's east side as the storm hit New York. The storm has left the city's public transport crippled and 600,000 people in the New York area without power.
Heavy flooding in Battery Park on the tip of Manhattan led to water gushing into the Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel. In advance of the storm New York Governor Andrew Cuomo closed all New York City bus, subway and commuter rail services.
Residents photograph a boat resting on Broadway Avenue as they inspect damage from Hurricane Sandy in Point Pleasant Beach, New Jersey
Pedestrians walk past a submerged taxi in Brooklyn which was badly affected by the widespread flooding caused by Storm Sandy.
More than 100 homes were burnt to the ground in the borough of Queens. "We expected a flood and we got a fire," said Bill Valentine, a member of the Rockaway Point Fire Department. | https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-20131303 | 51 |
Subsets and Splits